Mohawk: the Iroquoian language spoken by the Mohawk


Seneca: the Iroquoian language spoken by the Seneca


Oneida: the Iroquoian language spoken by the Oneida


Onondaga: the Iroquoian language spoken by the Onondaga


Tuscarora: the Iroquoian language spoken by the Tuscarora


Iroquoian: a family of North American Indian languages spoken by the Iroquois


Iroquois: a family of North American Indian languages spoken by the Iroquois


Iroquoian language: a family of North American Indian languages spoken by the Iroquois


Quechua: the language of the Quechua which was spoken by the Incas


Quechuan: the language of the Quechua which was spoken by the Incas


Quechuan language: the language of the Quechua which was spoken by the Incas


Kechua: the language of the Quechua which was spoken by the Incas


Kechuan: the language of the Quechua which was spoken by the Incas


Guarani: the language spoken by the Guarani of Paraguay and Bolivia


Maraco: the language spoken by the Maraco


Maracan language: the language spoken by the Maraco


Tupi: the language spoken by the Tupi of Brazil and Paraguay


Tupi-Guarani: a family of South American Indian languages


Tupi-Guarani language: a family of South American Indian languages


Arawak: a family of South American Indian languages spoken in northeastern South America


Arawakan: a family of South American Indian languages spoken in northeastern South America


Carib: the family of languages spoken by the Carib


Caribbean language: the family of languages spoken by the Carib


Eskimo-Aleut: the family of languages that includes Eskimo and Aleut


Eskimo-Aleut language: the family of languages that includes Eskimo and Aleut


Eskimo: the language spoken by the Eskimo


Esquimau: the language spoken by the Eskimo


Aleut: the language spoken by the Aleut


Uto-Aztecan: a family of American Indian languages


Uto-Aztecan language: a family of American Indian languages


Pima: the Uto-Aztecan language spoken by the Pima


Aztecan: the Uto-Aztecan language spoken by the Aztec


Nahuatl: the Uto-Aztecan language spoken by the Nahuatl


Cahita: the Uto-Aztecan language of the Cahita


Tatahumara: the Uto-Aztecan language of the Tatahumara


Zapotec: the language of the Zapotec


Zapotecan: the language of the Zapotec


Maya: a family of American Indian languages spoken by Maya


Mayan: a family of American Indian languages spoken by Maya


Mayan language: a family of American Indian languages spoken by Maya


Apache: the language of the Apache


Chiricahua Apache: an Apache language


San Carlos Apache: an Apache language


Navaho: the Athapaskan language spoken by the Navaho


Navajo: the Athapaskan language spoken by the Navaho


Hupa: the Athapaskan language spoken by the Hupa


Mattole: the Athapaskan language spoken by the Mattole


Chipewyan: the language spoken by the Chipewyan


Chippewyan: the language spoken by the Chipewyan


Chippewaian: the language spoken by the Chipewyan


Siouan: a family of North American Indian languages spoken by the Sioux


Siouan language: a family of North American Indian languages spoken by the Sioux


Tanoan: a family of North American Indian language spoken in southwestern United States


Tanoan language: a family of North American Indian language spoken in southwestern United States


Kiowa: the Tanoan language spoken by the Kiowa


Hokan: a family of Amerindian languages spoken in California


Hoka: a family of Amerindian languages spoken in California


Chimariko: the Hokan language spoken by the Chimariko


Esselen: the Hokan language spoken by the Esselen


Kulanapan: a group of languages of the Hokan family


Pomo: the Kulanapan language spoken by the Pomo


Quoratean: a group of languages of the Hokan family


Karok: the Quoratean language of the Karok


Shastan: a group of languages of the Hokan family in California


Achomawi: the Shastan language spoken by the Achomawi


Atsugewi: the Shastan language spoken by the Atsugewi


Shasta: the Shastan language spoken by the Shasta


Yuman: a group of language of the Hokan family in Arizona and California and Mexico


Akwa'ala: the Yuman language spoken by the Akwa'ala


Cochimi: the Yuman language spoken by the Cochimi


Cocopa: the Yuman language spoken by the Cocopa


Cocopah: the Yuman language spoken by the Cocopa


Diegueno: the Yuman language spoken by the Diegueno


Havasupai: the Yuman language spoken by the Havasupai


Kamia: the Yuman language spoken by the Kamia


Kiliwa: the Yuman language spoken by the Kiliwa


Kiliwi: the Yuman language spoken by the Kiliwa


Maricopa: the Yuman language spoken by the Maricopa and the Halchidhoma


Mohave: the Yuman language spoken by the Mohave


Mojave: the Yuman language spoken by the Mohave


Walapai: the Yuman language spoken by the Walapai


Hualapai: the Yuman language spoken by the Walapai


Hualpai: the Yuman language spoken by the Walapai


Yavapai: the Yuman language spoken by the Yavapai


Yuma: the Yuman language spoken by the Yuma


Yanan: a language group of the Hokan family


Yahi: the Yanan language spoken by the Yahi


Yana: the Yanan language spoken by the Yana


Penutian: a family of Amerindian language spoken in the great interior valley of California


Copehan: a group of Penutian languages spoken to the west of the Sacramento river


Patwin: a Copehan language spoken by the Patwin


Wintun: a Copehan language spoken by the Wintun


Costanoan: a Penutian language spoken by the Costanoan


Mariposan: a Penutian language spoken by the Yokuts in the San Joaquin Valley


Yokuts: a Penutian language spoken by the Yokuts in the San Joaquin Valley


Moquelumnan: a Penutian language spoken by the Miwok


Miwok: a Penutian language spoken by the Miwok


Pujunan: a Penutian language spoken by the Maidu


Maidu: a Penutian language spoken by the Maidu


Chinookan: a Penutian language spoken by the Chinook


Chinook: a Penutian language spoken by the Chinook


Kalapooian: a Penutian language spoken by the Kalapuya


Kalapuyan: a Penutian language spoken by the Kalapuya


Kusan: a Penutian language spoken by the Kusan


Shahaptian: a Penutian language spoken by the Shahaptian


Sahaptin: a Penutian language spoken by the Shahaptian


Nez Perce: the Shahaptian language spoken by the Nez Perce


Takilman: a Penutian language spoken by the Takelma


Takelma: a Penutian language spoken by the Takelma


Tsimshian: a Penutian language spoken by the Tsimshian


Kekchi: a Mayan language spoken by the Kekchi


Mam: a Mayan language spoken by the Mam


Yucatec: a Mayan language spoken by the Yucatec


Yucateco: a Mayan language spoken by the Yucatec


Quiche: the Mayan language spoken by the Quiche


Cakchiquel: the Mayan language spoken by the Cakchiquel


Altaic: a group of related languages spoken in Asia and southeastern Europe


Altaic language: a group of related languages spoken in Asia and southeastern Europe


Turki: a subfamily of Altaic languages


Turkic: a subfamily of Altaic languages


Turko-Tatar: a subfamily of Altaic languages


Turkic language: a subfamily of Altaic languages


Turkish: a Turkic language spoken by the Turks


Turkmen: the Turkic language spoken by the Turkoman


Turkoman: the Turkic language spoken by the Turkoman


Turcoman: the Turkic language spoken by the Turkoman


Azerbaijani: the Turkic language spoken by the Azerbaijani


Kazak: the Turkic language spoken by the Kazak


Kazakh: the Turkic language spoken by the Kazak


Tatar: the Turkic language spoken by the Tatar living from the Volga to the Ural Mountains


Uzbek: the Turkic language spoken by the Uzbek


Uzbeg: the Turkic language spoken by the Uzbek


Uzbak: the Turkic language spoken by the Uzbek


Usbek: the Turkic language spoken by the Uzbek


Usbeg: the Turkic language spoken by the Uzbek


Uighur: the Turkic language spoken by approximately 7,000,000 Uighur in extreme northwestern China


Uigur: the Turkic language spoken by approximately 7,000,000 Uighur in extreme northwestern China


Uygur: the Turkic language spoken by approximately 7,000,000 Uighur in extreme northwestern China


Yakut: the Turkic language spoken by the Yakut


Kirghiz: the Turkic language spoken by the Kirghiz


Kirgiz: the Turkic language spoken by the Kirghiz


Khirghiz: the Turkic language spoken by the Kirghiz


Karakalpak: the Turkic language spoken by the Karakalpak


Chuvash: the Turkic language spoken by the Chuvash


Chagatai: a Turkic literary language of medieval central Asia (named for one of the sons of Genghis Khan)


Jagatai: a Turkic literary language of medieval central Asia (named for one of the sons of Genghis Khan)


Jaghatai: a Turkic literary language of medieval central Asia (named for one of the sons of Genghis Khan)


Eastern Turki: a Turkic literary language of medieval central Asia (named for one of the sons of Genghis Khan)


Chukchi: an indigenous and isolated language of unknown origin spoken by the Chukchi that is pronounced differently by men and women


Chukchi language: an indigenous and isolated language of unknown origin spoken by the Chukchi that is pronounced differently by men and women


Tungusic: a family of Altaic languages spoken in Mongolia and neighboring areas


Tungusic language: a family of Altaic languages spoken in Mongolia and neighboring areas


Tungus: the Tungusic language of the Evenki in eastern Siberia


Tunguz: the Tungusic language of the Evenki in eastern Siberia


Evenki: the Tungusic language of the Evenki in eastern Siberia


Ewenki: the Tungusic language of the Evenki in eastern Siberia


Manchu: the Tungusic language spoken by the Manchu


Mongolian: a family of Altaic language spoken in Mongolia


Mongolic: a family of Altaic language spoken in Mongolia


Mongolic language: a family of Altaic language spoken in Mongolia


Khalkha: the language of the Khalkha that is the official language of the Mongolian People's Republic


Khalka: the language of the Khalkha that is the official language of the Mongolian People's Republic


Kalka: the language of the Khalkha that is the official language of the Mongolian People's Republic


Korean: the Altaic language spoken by Koreans


Japanese: the language (usually considered to be Altaic) spoken by the Japanese


Ryukyuan: the language (related to Japanese) that is spoken by the people of the Ryukyu Islands


Sinitic: a group of Sino-Tibetan languages


Sinitic language: a group of Sino-Tibetan languages


Chinese: any of the Sino-Tibetan languages spoken in China; regarded as dialects of a single language (even though they are mutually unintelligible) because they share an ideographic writing system


Mandarin: the dialect of Chinese spoken in Beijing and adopted as the official language for all of China


Mandarin Chinese: the dialect of Chinese spoken in Beijing and adopted as the official language for all of China


Mandarin dialect: the dialect of Chinese spoken in Beijing and adopted as the official language for all of China


Beijing dialect: the dialect of Chinese spoken in Beijing and adopted as the official language for all of China


Wu: a dialect of Chinese spoken in the Yangtze delta


Wu dialect: a dialect of Chinese spoken in the Yangtze delta


Shanghai dialect: a dialect of Chinese spoken in the Yangtze delta


Yue: the dialect of Chinese spoken in Canton and neighboring provinces and in Hong Kong and elsewhere outside China


Yue dialect: the dialect of Chinese spoken in Canton and neighboring provinces and in Hong Kong and elsewhere outside China


Cantonese: the dialect of Chinese spoken in Canton and neighboring provinces and in Hong Kong and elsewhere outside China


Cantonese dialect: the dialect of Chinese spoken in Canton and neighboring provinces and in Hong Kong and elsewhere outside China


Min: any of the forms of Chinese spoken in Fukien province


Min dialect: any of the forms of Chinese spoken in Fukien province


Fukien: any of the forms of Chinese spoken in Fukien province


Fukkianese: any of the forms of Chinese spoken in Fukien province


Hokkianese: any of the forms of Chinese spoken in Fukien province


Amoy: any of the forms of Chinese spoken in Fukien province


Taiwanese: any of the forms of Chinese spoken in Fukien province


Hakka: a dialect of Chinese spoken in southeastern China by the Hakka


Hakka dialect: a dialect of Chinese spoken in southeastern China by the Hakka


Sino-Tibetan: the family of tonal languages spoken in eastern Asia


Sino-Tibetan language: the family of tonal languages spoken in eastern Asia


Tibeto-Burman: a branch of the Sino-Tibetan family of languages spoken from Tibet to the Malay Peninsula


Tibeto-Burman language: a branch of the Sino-Tibetan family of languages spoken from Tibet to the Malay Peninsula


Qiang: the Tibeto-Burman language spoken in Sichuan


Qiangic: the Tibeto-Burman language spoken in Sichuan


Bai: the Tibeto-Burman language spoken in the Dali region of Yunnan


Baic: the Tibeto-Burman language spoken in the Dali region of Yunnan


Himalayish: the Tibeto-Burman language spoken in Tibet and Nepal and Bhutan and Sikkim


Kamarupan: the Tibeto-Burman language spoken in northeastern India and adjacent regions of western Burma


Karen: the Tibeto-Burman language spoken in the Thailand and Burmese borderlands


Karenic: the Tibeto-Burman language spoken in the Thailand and Burmese borderlands


Lolo-Burmese: the Tibeto-Burman language spoken in northern Burma and Yunnan


Burmese-Yi: the Tibeto-Burman language spoken in northern Burma and Yunnan


Burmese: the official language of Burma


Loloish: languages spoken by hill tribes in northern Burma and neighboring areas


Lisu: a Loloish language


Hani: a Loloish language


Akha: a Loloish language


Lahu: a Loloish language


Lolo: a Loloish language


Yi: a Loloish language


Kachin: Tibeto-Burman languages spoken in northernmost Burma and adjacent China and India


Kachinic: Tibeto-Burman languages spoken in northernmost Burma and adjacent China and India


Jinghpo: a Kachinic language


Jinghpaw: a Kachinic language


Chingpo: a Kachinic language


Kuki: Kamarupan languages spoken in western Burma and Bangladesh and easternmost India


Chin: Kamarupan languages spoken in western Burma and Bangladesh and easternmost India


Kuki-Chin: Kamarupan languages spoken in western Burma and Bangladesh and easternmost India


Naga: Kamarupan languages spoken in northeastern India and western Burma


Mikir-Meithei: Kamarupan languages spoken in the states of Manipur and Assam in northeastern India


Bodo-Garo: Kamarupan languages spoken in the state of Assam in northeastern India


Barish: Kamarupan languages spoken in the state of Assam in northeastern India


Miri: little known Kamarupan languages


Mirish: little known Kamarupan languages


Abor: little known Kamarupan languages


Dafla: little known Kamarupan languages


Tibetan: Himalayish language spoken in Tibet


Newari: Himalayish language spoken in the Kathmandu valley of Nepal


Kadai: a family of Sino-Tibetan languages spoken in southeastern Asia


Kam-Tai: a family of Sino-Tibetan languages spoken in southeastern Asia


Kadai language: a family of Sino-Tibetan languages spoken in southeastern Asia


Kam-Sui: a group of Kadai languages


Tai: the most widespread and best known of the Kadai family of languages


White Tai: a branch of the Tai languages


Red Tai: a branch of the Tai languages


Tai Dam: a branch of the Tai languages


Black Tai: a branch of the Tai languages


Tai Nuea: a branch of the Tai languages


Chinese Shan: a branch of the Tai languages


Dehong Dai: a branch of the Tai languages


Tai Long: a branch of the Tai languages


Shan: a branch of the Tai languages


Tai Lue: a branch of the Tai languages


Xishuangbanna Dai: a branch of the Tai languages


Tai Yuan: a branch of the Tai languages


Kam Muang: a branch of the Tai languages


Khuen: a branch of the Tai languages


Lao: the Tai language of a Buddhist people living in the area of the Mekong River in Thailand and Laos


Khamti: a branch of the Tai languages


Southern Tai: a branch of the Tai languages


Tay: a branch of the Tai languages


Nung: a branch of the Tai languages


Tho: a branch of the Tai languages


Thai: a branch of the Tai languages


Siamese: a branch of the Tai languages


Central Thai: a branch of the Tai languages


Bouyei: a branch of the Tai languages


Buyi: a branch of the Tai languages


Zhuang: a branch of the Tai languages


Yay: a branch of the Tai languages


Saek: a branch of the Tai languages


Austro-Asiatic: a family of languages spoken in southern and southeastern Asia


Austro-Asiatic language: a family of languages spoken in southern and southeastern Asia


Munda-Mon-Khmer: a family of languages spoken in southern and southeastern Asia


Munda: a family of languages spoken by people scattered throughout central India


Mon-Khmer: a branch of the Austro-Asiatic languages


Hmong: a language of uncertain affiliation spoken by the Hmong


Hmong language: a language of uncertain affiliation spoken by the Hmong


Miao: a language of uncertain affiliation spoken by the Hmong


Vietnamese: the Mon-Khmer language spoken in Vietnam


Annamese: the Mon-Khmer language spoken in Vietnam


Annamite: the Mon-Khmer language spoken in Vietnam


Khmer: the Mon-Khmer language spoken in Cambodia


Mon: the Mon-Khmer language spoken by the Mon


Austronesian: the family of languages spoken in Australia and Formosa and Malaysia and Polynesia


Austronesian language: the family of languages spoken in Australia and Formosa and Malaysia and Polynesia


Malayo-Polynesian: the branch of the Austronesian languages spoken from Madagascar to the central Pacific


Polynesian: the branch of the Austronesian languages spoken from Madagascar to the central Pacific


Oceanic: an eastern subfamily of Malayo-Polynesian languages


Eastern Malayo-Polynesian: an eastern subfamily of Malayo-Polynesian languages


Tongan: the Polynesian language spoken by the Tongan people


Tahitian: the Oceanic language spoken on Tahiti


Maori: the Oceanic language spoken by the Maori in New Zealand


Hawaiian: the Oceanic languages spoken on Hawaii


Fijian: the Oceanic language spoken on Fiji


Western Malayo-Polynesian: a western subfamily of Malayo-Polynesian languages


Malay: a western subfamily of Western Malayo-Polynesian languages


Malaysian: the Malay language spoken in Malaysia


Bahasa Malaysia: the Malay language spoken in Malaysia


Bahasa Melayu: the Malay language spoken in Malaysia


Bahasa Kebangsaan: the Malay language spoken in Malaysia


Indonesian: the dialect of Malay used as the national language of the Republic of Indonesia or of Malaysia


Bahasa Indonesia: the dialect of Malay used as the national language of the Republic of Indonesia or of Malaysia


Bahasa: the dialect of Malay used as the national language of the Republic of Indonesia or of Malaysia


Javanese: the Indonesian language spoken on Java


Sundanese: the Indonesian language spoken in the Lesser Sunda Islands


Balinese: the Indonesian language of the people of Bali


Philippine: official language of the Philippines; based on Tagalog; draws its lexicon from other Philippine languages


Filipino: official language of the Philippines; based on Tagalog; draws its lexicon from other Philippine languages


Tagalog: the language of the Tagalog on which Filipino is based


Cebuan: language of the people of Cebu in the Philippines; its lexicon contributes to the official language of the Philippines


Cebuano: language of the people of Cebu in the Philippines; its lexicon contributes to the official language of the Philippines


Australian: the Austronesian languages spoken by Australian aborigines


Aboriginal Australian: the Austronesian languages spoken by Australian aborigines


Dyirbal: a language of Australian aborigines


Jirrbal: a language of Australian aborigines


Walbiri: a language of Australian aborigines


Warlpiri: a language of Australian aborigines


Formosan: the Austronesian languages spoken on Formosa


Tayalic: a language spoken by a Malaysian people on Formosa


Atayalic: a language spoken by a Malaysian people on Formosa


Tsouic: a Formosan language


Paiwanic: a Formosan language


Papuan: any of the indigenous languages spoken in Papua New Guinea or New Britain or the Solomon Islands that are not Malayo-Polynesian languages


Papuan language: any of the indigenous languages spoken in Papua New Guinea or New Britain or the Solomon Islands that are not Malayo-Polynesian languages


Khoisan: a family of languages spoken in southern Africa


Khoisan language: a family of languages spoken in southern Africa


Khoikhoin: any of the Khoisan languages spoken by the pastoral people of Namibia and South Africa


Khoikhoi: any of the Khoisan languages spoken by the pastoral people of Namibia and South Africa


Hottentot: any of the Khoisan languages spoken by the pastoral people of Namibia and South Africa


Indo-European: the family of languages that by 1000 BC were spoken throughout Europe and in parts of southwestern and southern Asia


Indo-European language: the family of languages that by 1000 BC were spoken throughout Europe and in parts of southwestern and southern Asia


Indo-Hittite: the family of languages that by 1000 BC were spoken throughout Europe and in parts of southwestern and southern Asia


Proto-Indo European: a prehistoric unrecorded language that was the ancestor of all Indo-European languages


PIE: a prehistoric unrecorded language that was the ancestor of all Indo-European languages


Albanian: the Indo-European language spoken by the people of Albania


Gheg: the dialect of Albanian spoken in northern Albania and Yugoslavia


Gheg dialect: the dialect of Albanian spoken in northern Albania and Yugoslavia


Tosk: the dialect of Albanian spoken in southern Albania and in areas of Greece and Italy


Tosk dialect: the dialect of Albanian spoken in southern Albania and in areas of Greece and Italy


Armenian: the Indo-European language spoken predominantly in Armenia, but also in Azerbaijan


Armenian language: the Indo-European language spoken predominantly in Armenia, but also in Azerbaijan


Illyrian: a minor and almost extinct branch of the Indo-European languages; spoken along the Dalmatian coast


Thraco-Phrygian: an extinct branch of the Indo-European language family thought by some to be related to Armenian


Thracian: a Thraco-Phrygian language spoken by the ancient people of Thrace but extinct by the early Middle Ages


Phrygian: a Thraco-Phrygian language spoken by the ancient inhabitants of Phrygia and now extinct--preserved only in a few inscriptions


Balto-Slavic: a family of Indo-European languages including the Slavic and Baltic languages


Balto-Slavic language: a family of Indo-European languages including the Slavic and Baltic languages


Balto-Slavonic: a family of Indo-European languages including the Slavic and Baltic languages


Slavic: a branch of the Indo-European family of languages


Slavic language: a branch of the Indo-European family of languages


Slavonic: a branch of the Indo-European family of languages


Slavonic language: a branch of the Indo-European family of languages


Old Church Slavonic: the Slavic language into which the Bible was translated in the 9th century


Old Church Slavic: the Slavic language into which the Bible was translated in the 9th century


Church Slavic: the Slavic language into which the Bible was translated in the 9th century


Old Bulgarian: the Slavic language into which the Bible was translated in the 9th century


Russian: the Slavic language that is the official language of Russia


Belarusian: the Slavic language spoken in Belarus


Byelorussian: the Slavic language spoken in Belarus


White Russian: the Slavic language spoken in Belarus


Ukrainian: the Slavic language spoken in the Ukraine


Polish: the Slavic language of Poland


Slovak: the Slavic language spoken in Slovakia


Czech: the Slavic language of Czechs


Slovene: the Slavic language of Slovenes


Serbo-Croat: the Slavic language of the Serbs and Croats; the Serbian dialect is usually written in the Cyrillic alphabet and the Croatian dialect is usually written in the Roman alphabet


Serbo-Croatian: the Slavic language of the Serbs and Croats; the Serbian dialect is usually written in the Cyrillic alphabet and the Croatian dialect is usually written in the Roman alphabet


Sorbian: a Slavonic language spoken in rural area of southeastern Germany


Lusatian: a Slavonic language spoken in rural area of southeastern Germany


Macedonian: the Slavic language of modern Macedonia


Bulgarian: a Slavic language spoken in Bulgaria


Baltic: a branch of the Indo-European family of languages related to the Slavonic languages; Baltic languages have preserved many archaic features that are believed to have existed in Proto-Indo European


Baltic language: a branch of the Indo-European family of languages related to the Slavonic languages; Baltic languages have preserved many archaic features that are believed to have existed in Proto-Indo European


Old Prussian: a dead language of the (non-German) Prussians (extinct after 1700); thought to belong to the Baltic branch of Indo-European


Lithuanian: the official language of Lithuania; belongs to the Baltic branch of Indo-European


Latvian: the official language of Latvia; belongs to the Baltic branch of Indo-European


Lettish: the official language of Latvia; belongs to the Baltic branch of Indo-European


Germanic: a branch of the Indo-European family of languages; members that are spoken currently fall into two major groups: Scandinavian and West Germanic


Germanic language: a branch of the Indo-European family of languages; members that are spoken currently fall into two major groups: Scandinavian and West Germanic


West Germanic: a branch of the Germanic languages


West Germanic language: a branch of the Germanic languages


English: an Indo-European language belonging to the West Germanic branch; the official language of Britain and the United States and most of the commonwealth countries


English language: an Indo-European language belonging to the West Germanic branch; the official language of Britain and the United States and most of the commonwealth countries


American English: the English language as used in the United States


American language: the English language as used in the United States


American: the English language as used in the United States


African American Vernacular English: a nonstandard form of American English characteristically spoken by African Americans in the United States


AAVE: a nonstandard form of American English characteristically spoken by African Americans in the United States


African American English: a nonstandard form of American English characteristically spoken by African Americans in the United States


Black English: a nonstandard form of American English characteristically spoken by African Americans in the United States


Black English Vernacular: a nonstandard form of American English characteristically spoken by African Americans in the United States


Black Vernacular: a nonstandard form of American English characteristically spoken by African Americans in the United States


Black Vernacular English: a nonstandard form of American English characteristically spoken by African Americans in the United States


Ebonics: a nonstandard form of American English characteristically spoken by African Americans in the United States


cockney: the nonstandard dialect of natives of the east end of London


geordie: the nonstandard dialect of natives of Newcastle-upon-Tyne


King's English: English as spoken by educated persons in southern England


Queen's English: English as spoken by educated persons in southern England


Received Pronunciation: the approved pronunciation of British English; originally based on the King's English as spoken at public schools and at Oxford and Cambridge Universities (and widely accepted elsewhere in Britain); until recently it was the pronunciation of English used in British broadcasting


Middle English: English from about 1100 to 1450


East Midland: the dialect of Middle English that replaced West Saxon as the literary language and which developed into Modern English


West Midland: a dialect of Middle English


Northern: a dialect of Middle English that developed into Scottish Lallans


Kentish: a dialect of Middle English


Southwestern: a dialect of Middle English


West Saxon: a dialect of Middle English


Modern English: English since about 1450


Old English: English prior to about 1100


Anglo-Saxon: English prior to about 1100


West Saxon: a literary dialect of Old English


Anglian: one of the major dialects of Old English


Kentish: one of the major dialects of Old English


Jutish: one of the major dialects of Old English


Oxford English: the dialect of English spoken at Oxford University and regarded by many as affected and pretentious


Scottish: the dialect of English used in Scotland


Scots: the dialect of English used in Scotland


Scots English: the dialect of English used in Scotland


Lallans: a dialect of English spoken in the Lowlands of Scotland


Scottish Lallans: a dialect of English spoken in the Lowlands of Scotland


German: the standard German language; developed historically from West Germanic


High German: the standard German language; developed historically from West Germanic


German language: the standard German language; developed historically from West Germanic


Old High German: High German prior to 1200


Middle High German: High German from 1100 to 1500


Yiddish: a dialect of High German including some Hebrew and other words; spoken in Europe as a vernacular by many Jews; written in the Hebrew script


Pennsylvania Dutch: a dialect of High German spoken in parts of Pennsylvania and Maryland


Low German: a German dialect spoken in northern Germany


Plattdeutsch: a German dialect spoken in northern Germany


Old Saxon: Low German prior to 1200


Middle Low German: Low German from 1100 to 1500


Dutch: the West Germanic language of the Netherlands


Flemish: one of two official languages of Belgium; closely related to Dutch


Flemish dialect: one of two official languages of Belgium; closely related to Dutch


Afrikaans: an official language of the Republic of South Africa; closely related to Dutch and Flemish


Taal: an official language of the Republic of South Africa; closely related to Dutch and Flemish


South African Dutch: an official language of the Republic of South Africa; closely related to Dutch and Flemish


Proto-Norse: the Germanic language of Scandinavia up until about 700


Old Norse: the extinct Germanic language of medieval Scandinavia and Iceland from about to 700 to 1350


Old Icelandic: the extinct dialect of Old Norse that was spoken in Iceland up until about 1600


Edda: either of two distinct works in Old Icelandic dating from the late 13th century and consisting of 34 mythological and heroic ballads composed between 800 and 1200; the primary source for Scandinavian mythology


Scandinavian: the northern family of Germanic languages that are spoken in Scandinavia and Iceland


Scandinavian language: the northern family of Germanic languages that are spoken in Scandinavia and Iceland


Nordic: the northern family of Germanic languages that are spoken in Scandinavia and Iceland


Norse: the northern family of Germanic languages that are spoken in Scandinavia and Iceland


North Germanic: the northern family of Germanic languages that are spoken in Scandinavia and Iceland


North Germanic language: the northern family of Germanic languages that are spoken in Scandinavia and Iceland


Danish: a Scandinavian language that is the official language of Denmark


Icelandic: a Scandinavian language that is the official language of Iceland


Norwegian: a Scandinavian language that is spoken in Norway


Bokmal: book language; one of two official languages of Norway; closely related to Danish


Bokmaal: book language; one of two official languages of Norway; closely related to Danish


Dano-Norwegian: book language; one of two official languages of Norway; closely related to Danish


Riksmal: in 1929 this dialect of Norwegian was officially renamed Bokmal


Riksmaal: in 1929 this dialect of Norwegian was officially renamed Bokmal


Nynorsk: one of two official languages of Norway; based on rural dialects


New Norwegian: one of two official languages of Norway; based on rural dialects


Landsmal: one of two official languages of Norway; based on rural dialects


Landsmaal: one of two official languages of Norway; based on rural dialects


Swedish: a Scandinavian language that is the official language of Sweden and one of two official languages of Finland


Faroese: a Scandinavian language (closely related to Icelandic) that is spoken on the Faroe Islands


Faeroese: a Scandinavian language (closely related to Icelandic) that is spoken on the Faroe Islands


Frisian: a West Germanic language spoken in Friesland in the northwestern Netherlands; a near relative of English


Old Frisian: the Frisian language until the 16th century; the Germanic language of ancient Frisia


East Germanic: an extinct branch of the Germanic languages


East Germanic language: an extinct branch of the Germanic languages


Gothic: extinct East Germanic language of the ancient Goths; the only surviving record being fragments of a 4th-century translation of the Bible by Bishop Ulfilas


Ural-Altaic: a (postulated) group of languages including many of the indigenous languages of Russia (but not Russian)


Uralic: a family of Ural-Altaic languages


Uralic language: a family of Ural-Altaic languages


Finno-Ugric: a family of Uralic languages indigenous to Scandinavia and Hungary and Russia and western Siberia (prior to the Slavic expansion into those regions)


Finno-Ugrian: a family of Uralic languages indigenous to Scandinavia and Hungary and Russia and western Siberia (prior to the Slavic expansion into those regions)


Fennic: one of two branches of the Finno-Ugric languages; a family of languages including Finnish and Estonian (but not Hungarian)


Finnic: one of two branches of the Finno-Ugric languages; a family of languages including Finnish and Estonian (but not Hungarian)


Non-Ugric: one of two branches of the Finno-Ugric languages; a family of languages including Finnish and Estonian (but not Hungarian)


Udmurt: the Finnic language spoken by the Votyak


Votyak: the Finnic language spoken by the Votyak


Permic: a group of Finnic languages spoken in the northwest Urals


Komi: the Finnic language spoken by the Komi


Zyrian: the Finnic language spoken by the Komi


Volgaic: a group of Finnic languages spoken around the Volga river


Cheremis: the Finnic language spoken by the Cheremis


Cheremiss: the Finnic language spoken by the Cheremis


Mari: the Finnic language spoken by the Cheremis


Mordva: the Finnic language spoken by the Mordvinians


Mordvin: the Finnic language spoken by the Mordvinians


Mordvinian: the Finnic language spoken by the Mordvinians


Baltic-Finnic: a group of Finnic languages including Finnish and Estonian


Livonian: the Finnic language spoken by the people of Livonia in Estonia and Latvia


Estonian: the official language of Estonia; belongs to the Baltic-Finnic family of languages


Esthonian: the official language of Estonia; belongs to the Baltic-Finnic family of languages


Karelian: a Finnic language spoken by the people of Karelia


Carelian: a Finnic language spoken by the people of Karelia


Ludian: a Baltic-Finnic language


Finnish: the official language of Finland; belongs to the Baltic Finnic family of languages


Suomi: the official language of Finland; belongs to the Baltic Finnic family of languages


Veps: a Finnic language spoken by the Veps


Vepse: a Finnic language spoken by the Veps


Vepsian: a Finnic language spoken by the Veps


Ingrian: a Finnic language spoken by the Ingrian


Ugric: one of the two branches of the Finno-Ugric family of languages; spoken in Hungary and northwestern Siberia


Ugrian: one of the two branches of the Finno-Ugric family of languages; spoken in Hungary and northwestern Siberia


Hungarian: the official language of Hungary (also spoken in Rumania); belongs to the Ugric family of languages


Magyar: the official language of Hungary (also spoken in Rumania); belongs to the Ugric family of languages


Khanty: a Ugric language (related to Hungarian) spoken by the Ostyak


Ostyak: a Ugric language (related to Hungarian) spoken by the Ostyak


Mansi: the Ugric language (related to Hungarian) spoken by the Vogul


Vogul: the Ugric language (related to Hungarian) spoken by the Vogul


Lappic: any of the languages spoken by the Lapps and generally assumed to be Uralic languages


Lappish: any of the languages spoken by the Lapps and generally assumed to be Uralic languages


Lapp: the language of nomadic Lapps in northern Scandinavia and the Kola Peninsula


Sami: the language of nomadic Lapps in northern Scandinavia and the Kola Peninsula


Saami: the language of nomadic Lapps in northern Scandinavia and the Kola Peninsula


Same: the language of nomadic Lapps in northern Scandinavia and the Kola Peninsula


Saame: the language of nomadic Lapps in northern Scandinavia and the Kola Peninsula


Samoyedic: the Uralic languages spoken by the Samoyed in northwestern Siberia


Samoyed: the Uralic languages spoken by the Samoyed in northwestern Siberia


Nenets: a Uralic language spoken by a Samoyed of northern Siberia


Nentsi: a Uralic language spoken by a Samoyed of northern Siberia


Nentsy: a Uralic language spoken by a Samoyed of northern Siberia


Yurak-Samoyed: a Uralic language spoken by a Samoyed of northern Siberia


Enets: the Uralic language spoken by the Yeniseian


Entsi: the Uralic language spoken by the Yeniseian


Entsy: the Uralic language spoken by the Yeniseian


Yenisei: the Uralic language spoken by the Yeniseian


Yenisei-Samoyed: the Uralic language spoken by the Yeniseian


Yeniseian: the Uralic language spoken by the Yeniseian


Nganasan: the Uralic language spoken by the Nganasan


Selkup: the Uralic language spoken by the Ostyak-Samoyed


Ostyak-Samoyed: the Uralic language spoken by the Ostyak-Samoyed


Celtic: a branch of the Indo-European languages that (judging from inscriptions and place names) was spread widely over Europe in the pre-Christian era


Celtic language: a branch of the Indo-European languages that (judging from inscriptions and place names) was spread widely over Europe in the pre-Christian era


Gaelic: any of several related languages of the Celts in Ireland and Scotland


Goidelic: any of several related languages of the Celts in Ireland and Scotland


Erse: any of several related languages of the Celts in Ireland and Scotland


Irish: the Celtic language of Ireland


Irish Gaelic: the Celtic language of Ireland


Old Irish: Irish Gaelic up to about 1100


Middle Irish: Irish Gaelic from 1100 to 1500


Scottish Gaelic: the Gaelic of Scotland


Scots Gaelic: the Gaelic of Scotland


Manx: the ancient Gaelic formerly spoken on the Isle of Man; the language is sometimes used on ceremonial occasions


Brythonic: a southern group of Celtic languages


Brittanic: a southern group of Celtic languages


Welsh: a Celtic language of Wales


Cymric: a Celtic language of Wales


Cornish: a Celtic language spoken in Cornwall


Breton: a Celtic language of Brittany


Italic: a branch of the Indo-European languages of which Latin is the chief representative


Italic language: a branch of the Indo-European languages of which Latin is the chief representative


Osco-Umbrian: a group of dead languages of ancient Italy; they were displace by Latin


Umbrian: an extinct Italic language of ancient southern Italy


Oscan: an extinct Italic language of ancient southern Italy


Sabellian: an extinct Osco-Umbrian language of ancient Italy that survives only in a few inscriptions


Latin: any dialect of the language of ancient Rome


Old Latin: the oldest recorded Latin (dating back at early as the 6th century B.C.)


classical Latin: the language of educated people in ancient Rome


Low Latin: any dialect of Latin other than the classical


Vulgar Latin: nonclassical Latin dialects spoken in the Roman Empire; source of Romance languages


Late Latin: the form of Latin written between the 3rd and 8th centuries


Biblical Latin: the form of Latin written between the 3rd and 8th centuries


Medieval Latin: Latin used for liturgical purposes during the Middle Ages


Neo-Latin: Latin since the Renaissance; used for scientific nomenclature


New Latin: Latin since the Renaissance; used for scientific nomenclature


Romance: the group of languages derived from Latin


Romance language: the group of languages derived from Latin


Latinian language: the group of languages derived from Latin


Italian: the Romance language spoken in Italy


Old Italian: the Italian language up to the middle of the 16th century


Sardinian: the Italian dialect spoken in Sardinia; sometimes considered a separate language with many loan words from Spanish


Tuscan: a dialect of Italian spoken in Tuscany (especially Florence)


French: the Romance language spoken in France and in countries colonized by France


Langue d'oil: medieval provincial dialects of French spoken in central and northern France


Langue d'oil French: medieval provincial dialects of French spoken in central and northern France


Langue d'oc: medieval provincial dialects of French formerly spoken in the south of France


Langue d'oc French: medieval provincial dialects of French formerly spoken in the south of France


Old French: the earliest form of the French language; 9th to 15th century


Norman-French: the medieval Norman dialect of Old French


Norman French: the medieval Norman dialect of Old French


Old North French: the medieval Norman dialect of Old French


Anglo-French: the French (Norman) language used in medieval England


Anglo-Norman: the French (Norman) language used in medieval England


Canadian French: the French language as spoken in Quebec, Canada


Walloon: a dialect of French spoken in Belgium and adjacent parts of France


Provencal: the medieval dialects of Langue d'oc (southern France)


Occitan: the medieval dialects of Langue d'oc (southern France)


Portuguese: the Romance language spoken in Portugal and Brazil


Galician: a language spoken in Galicia in northwestern Spain; it is between Portuguese and Spanish but closer to Portuguese; sometimes considered a Portuguese or Spanish dialect


Basque: the language of the Basque people; of no known relation to any other language


Spanish: the Romance language spoken in most of Spain and the countries colonized by Spain


Castilian: the Spanish language as spoken in Castile


Judeo-Spanish: the Spanish dialect spoken by Sephardic Jews but written in the Hebrew script


Ladino: the Spanish dialect spoken by Sephardic Jews but written in the Hebrew script


Mexican Spanish: the dialect of Spanish spoken in Mexico


Catalan: the Romance language spoken in Catalonia in eastern Spain (related to Spanish and Occitan)


Rhaeto-Romance: Romance dialects spoken in parts of southeastern Switzerland and northern Italy and the Tyrol


Rhaeto-Romanic: Romance dialects spoken in parts of southeastern Switzerland and northern Italy and the Tyrol


Friulian: a Rhaeto-Romance dialect spoken in northeastern Italy


Friuli: a Rhaeto-Romance dialect spoken in northeastern Italy


Ladin: a Rhaeto-Romance dialect of Romansh spoken in southeastern Switzerland


Romansh: the Rhaeto-Romance language spoken in southeastern Switzerland; it is an official language of Switzerland


Rumansh: the Rhaeto-Romance language spoken in southeastern Switzerland; it is an official language of Switzerland


Romanian: an eastern Romance language spoken in Romania


Rumanian: an eastern Romance language spoken in Romania


Elamitic: an extinct ancient language of unknown affinities; spoken by the Elamites


Elamite: an extinct ancient language of unknown affinities; spoken by the Elamites


Susian: an extinct ancient language of unknown affinities; spoken by the Elamites


Kassite: an ancient language spoken by the Kassites


Cassite: an ancient language spoken by the Kassites


Tocharian: a branch of the Indo-European language family that originated in central Asia during the first millennium A.D.


Turfan: a dialect of Tocharian


East Tocharian: a dialect of Tocharian


Turfan dialect: a dialect of Tocharian


Kuchean: a dialect of Tocharian


West Tocharian: a dialect of Tocharian


Kuchean dialect: a dialect of Tocharian


Sanskrit: (Hinduism) an ancient language of India (the language of the Vedas and of Hinduism); an official language of India although it is now used only for religious purposes


Sanskritic language: (Hinduism) an ancient language of India (the language of the Vedas and of Hinduism); an official language of India although it is now used only for religious purposes


Sindhi: the Indic language of Sind which is spoken also in western India


Romany: the Indic language of the Gypsies


Gypsy: the Indic language of the Gypsies


Urdu: the official literary language of Pakistan, closely related to Hindi; widely used in India (mostly by Moslems); written in Arabic script


Hindi: the most widely spoken of modern Indic vernaculars; spoken mostly in the north of India; along with English it is the official language of India; usually written in Devanagari script


Hindustani: a form of Hindi spoken around Delhi


Hindoostani: a form of Hindi spoken around Delhi


Hindostani: a form of Hindi spoken around Delhi


Bihari: the Indic language spoken in Bihar (and by some people in Pakistan and Bangladesh)


Magadhan: a subfamily of Indic languages


Assamese: the Magadhan language spoken by the Assamese people; closely related to Bengali


Asamiya: the Magadhan language spoken by the Assamese people; closely related to Bengali


Bengali: a Magadhan language spoken by the Bengali people; the official language of Bangladesh and Bengal


Bangla: a Magadhan language spoken by the Bengali people; the official language of Bangladesh and Bengal


Oriya: a Magadhan language that is spoken by the Oriya and is the official language of the Indian state of Orissa


Marathi: an Indic language; the state language of Maharashtra in west central India; written in the Devanagari script


Mahratti: an Indic language; the state language of Maharashtra in west central India; written in the Devanagari script


Gujarati: the Indic language spoken by the people of India who live in Gujarat in western India


Gujerati: the Indic language spoken by the people of India who live in Gujarat in western India


Punjabi: the Indic language spoken by most people in Punjab in northwestern India


Panjabi: the Indic language spoken by most people in Punjab in northwestern India


Sinhalese: the Indic language spoken by the people of Sri Lanka


Singhalese: the Indic language spoken by the people of Sri Lanka


Sinhala: the Indic language spoken by the people of Sri Lanka


Indo-Iranian: the branch of the Indo-European family of languages including the Indic and Iranian language groups


Indo-Iranian language: the branch of the Indo-European family of languages including the Indic and Iranian language groups


Indic: a branch of the Indo-Iranian family of languages


Indo-Aryan: a branch of the Indo-Iranian family of languages


Dard: any of a group of Indic languages spoken in Kashmir and eastern Afghanistan and northern Pakistan


Dardic: any of a group of Indic languages spoken in Kashmir and eastern Afghanistan and northern Pakistan


Dardic language: any of a group of Indic languages spoken in Kashmir and eastern Afghanistan and northern Pakistan


Shina: a Dardic language spoken in northern Kashmir


Khowar: a Dardic language spoken in northwestern Pakistan


Kafiri: a Dardic language spoken by the Kafir in northeastern Afghanistan


Kashmiri: the official state language of Kashmir


Nepali: the official state language of Nepal


Prakrit: any of the vernacular Indic languages of north and central India (as distinguished from Sanskrit) recorded from the 3rd century BC to the 4th century AD


Pali: an ancient Prakrit language (derived from Sanskrit) that is the scriptural and liturgical language of Theravada Buddhism


Prakrit: any of the modern Indic languages


Iranian: the modern Persian language spoken in Iran


Iranian language: the modern Persian language spoken in Iran


Avestan: an ancient Iranian language


Zend: an ancient Iranian language


Gathic: an ancient Iranian language


Persian: the language of Persia (Iran) in any of its ancient forms


Farsi: the language of Persia (Iran) in any of its ancient forms


Dari: an Iranian language spoken in Afghanistan


Dari Persian: an Iranian language spoken in Afghanistan


Tajiki: the Iranian language of the Tajik that is closely related to Farsi; spoken in Iran and Tajikistan


Tajik: the Iranian language of the Tajik that is closely related to Farsi; spoken in Iran and Tajikistan


Tadzhik: the Iranian language of the Tajik that is closely related to Farsi; spoken in Iran and Tajikistan


Kurdish: an Iranian language spoken in Turkey and Iran and Iraq and Syria and Russia


Balochi: an Iranian language spoken in Pakistan and Iran and Afghanistan and Russia and the Persian gulf


Baluchi: an Iranian language spoken in Pakistan and Iran and Afghanistan and Russia and the Persian gulf


Pahlavi: the Iranian language of the Zoroastrian literature of the 3rd to 10th centuries


Pehlevi: the Iranian language of the Zoroastrian literature of the 3rd to 10th centuries


Parthian: the Iranian language spoken in the Parthian kingdom (250 BC to AD 226)


Pashto: an Iranian language spoken in Afghanistan and Pakistan; the official language of Afghanistan


Pashtu: an Iranian language spoken in Afghanistan and Pakistan; the official language of Afghanistan


Paxto: an Iranian language spoken in Afghanistan and Pakistan; the official language of Afghanistan


Afghani: an Iranian language spoken in Afghanistan and Pakistan; the official language of Afghanistan


Afghan: an Iranian language spoken in Afghanistan and Pakistan; the official language of Afghanistan


Ossete: a northeastern Iranian language spoken in Russia


Scythian: the Iranian language spoken by the ancient Scythians


Anatolian: an extinct branch of the Indo-European family of languages known from inscriptions and important in the reconstruction of Proto-Indo European


Anatolian language: an extinct branch of the Indo-European family of languages known from inscriptions and important in the reconstruction of Proto-Indo European


Hittite: the language of the Hittites and the principal language of the Anatolian group of languages; deciphered from cuneiform inscriptions


Lycian: an Anatolian language


Luwian: an Anatolian language


Luvian: an Anatolian language


Lydian: an Anatolian language


Palaic: an Anatolian language


Greek: the Hellenic branch of the Indo-European family of languages


Hellenic: the Hellenic branch of the Indo-European family of languages


Hellenic language: the Hellenic branch of the Indo-European family of languages


Modern Greek: the Greek language as spoken and written today


New Greek: the Greek language as spoken and written today


Romaic: the modern Greek vernacular


Demotic: the modern Greek vernacular


Katharevusa: literary style of Modern Greek containing features borrowed from Koine


Late Greek: the Greek language in the 3rd to 8th centuries


Medieval Greek: the Greek language from about 600 to 1200 AD


Middle Greek: the Greek language from about 600 to 1200 AD


Byzantine Greek: the Greek language from about 600 to 1200 AD


Koine: a Greek dialect that flourished under the Roman Empire


Ancient Greek: the Greek language prior to the Roman Empire


Attic: the dialect of Ancient Greek spoken and written in Attica and Athens and Ionia


Ionic: the dialect of Ancient Greek spoken and written in Attica and Athens and Ionia


Ionic dialect: the dialect of Ancient Greek spoken and written in Attica and Athens and Ionia


Classical Greek: the dialect of Ancient Greek spoken and written in Attica and Athens and Ionia


Aeolic: the dialect of Ancient Greek spoken in Thessaly and Boeotia and Aeolis


Aeolic dialect: the dialect of Ancient Greek spoken in Thessaly and Boeotia and Aeolis


Eolic: the dialect of Ancient Greek spoken in Thessaly and Boeotia and Aeolis


Arcadic: the dialect of Ancient Greek spoken by Arcadians


Arcadic dialect: the dialect of Ancient Greek spoken by Arcadians


Doric: the dialect of Ancient Greek spoken in Doris


Doric dialect: the dialect of Ancient Greek spoken in Doris


Caucasian: a number of languages spoken in the Caucasus that are unrelated to languages spoken elsewhere


Caucasian language: a number of languages spoken in the Caucasus that are unrelated to languages spoken elsewhere


Chechen: a northern Caucasian language spoken by the Chechen


Circassian: a northern Caucasian language spoken by the Circassian


Abkhazian: a Circassian language spoken by the Abkhaz


Abkhasian: a Circassian language spoken by the Abkhaz


Georgian: a southern Caucasian language with 3 million speakers and a long literary tradition


Ubykh: an extinct Caucasian language spoken exclusively in Turkey


Dravidian: a large family of languages spoken in south and central India and Sri Lanka


Dravidic: a large family of languages spoken in south and central India and Sri Lanka


Dravidian language: a large family of languages spoken in south and central India and Sri Lanka


South Dravidian: a Dravidian language spoken primarily in southern India


Irula: a Dravidian language closely related to Tamil that is spoken in a hilly section of southwestern India


Kota: a Dravidian language spoken by the Kota


Kotar: a Dravidian language spoken by the Kota


Toda: the Dravidian language spoken by the Toda in southern India


Badaga: the dialect of Kannada that is spoken by the Badaga


Kannada: a Dravidian language spoken in southern India


Kanarese: a Dravidian language spoken in southern India


Tulu: a Dravidian language spoken by the Tulu


Malayalam: a Dravidian language (closely related to Tamil) that is spoken in southwestern India


Tamil: the Dravidian language spoken since prehistoric times by the Tamil in southern India and Sri Lanka


South-Central Dravidian: a Dravidian language spoken primarily in south central India


Telugu: a Dravidian language spoken by the Telugu in southeastern India


Savara: a Dravidian language spoken by the Savara in southeastern India (north of Madras)


Gondi: a Dravidian language spoken by the Gond in south central India


Pengo: a Dravidian language spoken in south central India


Manda: a Dravidian language spoken in south central India


Kui: the Dravidian language spoken by the Kui in southeastern India


Kuvi: a Dravidian language spoken in southeast India


Central Dravidian: a Dravidian language spoken primarily in central India


Kolami: the Dravidian language spoken by the Kolam in central India


Naiki: a Dravidian language spoken in south central India


Parji: a Dravidian language spoken in south central India


Ollari: a Dravidian language spoken in south central India


Gadaba: the Dravidian language spoken by the Gadaba


North Dravidian: a Dravidian language spoken primarily in eastern India


Kurux: a Dravidian language spoken in eastern India


Malto: the Dravidian language spoken by the Malto


Brahui: an isolated Dravidian language spoken by the Brahui in Pakistan


Hausa: the chief member of the Chadic family of Afroasiatic languages; widely used as a trading language


Haussa: the chief member of the Chadic family of Afroasiatic languages; widely used as a trading language


Bole: a Chadic language spoken in northern Nigeria and closely related to Hausa


Bolanci: a Chadic language spoken in northern Nigeria and closely related to Hausa


Angas: a Chadic language spoken in northern Nigeria and closely related to Hausa


Ron: a Chadic language spoken in northern Nigeria


Bokkos: a Chadic language spoken in northern Nigeria


Daffo: a Chadic language spoken in northern Nigeria


Bade: a Chadic language spoken in northern Nigeria


Warji: a Chadic language spoken in northern Nigeria


Zaar: a Chadic language spoken in northern Nigeria


Sayanci: a Chadic language spoken in northern Nigeria


West Chadic: a group of Chadic languages spoken in northern Nigeria; Hausa in the most important member


Tera: a three-tone Chadic language


Pidlimdi: a three-tone Chadic language


Yamaltu: a three-tone Chadic language


Bura: a Chadic language spoken south of Lake Chad


Pabir: a Chadic language spoken south of Lake Chad


Higi: a Chadic language spoken south of Lake Chad


Kapsiki: a Chadic language spoken south of Lake Chad


Mandara: a Chadic language spoken in the Mandara mountains in Cameroon; has only two vowels


Wandala: a Chadic language spoken in the Mandara mountains in Cameroon; has only two vowels


Matakam: a Chadic language spoken south of Lake Chad


Mafa: a Chadic language spoken south of Lake Chad


Sukur: a Chadic language spoken south of Lake Chad


Daba: a Chadic language spoken south of Lake Chad


Kola: a Chadic language spoken south of Lake Chad


Musgoi: a Chadic language spoken south of Lake Chad


Bata: a Chadic language spoken south of Lake Chad


Kotoko: a Chadic language spoken south of Lake Chad


Musgu: a Chadic language spoken south of Lake Chad


Munjuk: a Chadic language spoken south of Lake Chad


Mulwi: a Chadic language spoken south of Lake Chad


Gidar: a Chadic language spoken south of Lake Chad


Biu-Mandara: a group of Chadic languages spoken in the border area between Cameroon and Nigeria south of Lake Chad


Somrai: a Chadic language spoken in Chad


Sibine: a Chadic language spoken in Chad


Nancere: a Chadic language spoken in Chad


Kera: a Chadic language spoken in Chad


Dangla: a Chadic language spoken in Chad; uses seven vowels plus differences in vowel length


Dangaleat: a Chadic language spoken in Chad; uses seven vowels plus differences in vowel length


Mokulu: a Chadic language spoken in Chad


Sokoro: a Chadic language spoken in Chad


East Chadic: a group of Chadic languages spoken in Chad


Masa: an independent group of closely related Chadic languages spoken in the area between the Biu-Mandara and East Chadic languages


Chad: a family of Afroasiatic tonal languages (mostly two tones) spoken in the regions west and south of Lake Chad in north central Africa


Chadic: a family of Afroasiatic tonal languages (mostly two tones) spoken in the regions west and south of Lake Chad in north central Africa


Chadic language: a family of Afroasiatic tonal languages (mostly two tones) spoken in the regions west and south of Lake Chad in north central Africa


Afroasiatic: a large family of related languages spoken both in Asia and Africa


Afro-Asiatic: a large family of related languages spoken both in Asia and Africa


Afroasiatic language: a large family of related languages spoken both in Asia and Africa


Afrasian: a large family of related languages spoken both in Asia and Africa


Afrasian language: a large family of related languages spoken both in Asia and Africa


Hamito-Semitic: a large family of related languages spoken both in Asia and Africa


Semitic: a major branch of the Afro-Asiatic language family


Hebrew: the ancient Canaanitic language of the Hebrews that has been revived as the official language of Israel


Modern Hebrew: Hebrew used in Israel today; revived from ancient Hebrew


Akkadian: an ancient branch of the Semitic languages


Assyrian Akkadian: an extinct language of the Assyrians in ancient Mesopotamia


Assyrian: an extinct language of the Assyrians in ancient Mesopotamia


Amharic: the dominant and official language of Ethiopia; a Semitic language much influenced by the Cushitic language with which Amhara have been in close contact


Ethiopian language: the dominant and official language of Ethiopia; a Semitic language much influenced by the Cushitic language with which Amhara have been in close contact


Arabic: the Semitic language of the Arabs; spoken in a variety of dialects


Arabic language: the Semitic language of the Arabs; spoken in a variety of dialects


Aramaic: a Semitic language originally of the ancient Arameans but still spoken by other people in southwestern Asia


Biblical Aramaic: the form of Aramaic that was spoken in Palestine in the time of the New Testament


Assyrian Neo-Aramaic: the language of modern Iraq


Assyrian: the language of modern Iraq


Mandaean: the form of Aramaic used by the Mandeans


Mandean: the form of Aramaic used by the Mandeans


Maltese: the national language of the Republic of Malta; a Semitic language derived from Arabic but with many loan words from Italian, Spanish, and Norman-French


Maltese language: the national language of the Republic of Malta; a Semitic language derived from Arabic but with many loan words from Italian, Spanish, and Norman-French


Malti: the national language of the Republic of Malta; a Semitic language derived from Arabic but with many loan words from Italian, Spanish, and Norman-French


Canaanitic: a group of Semitic languages


Canaanitic language: a group of Semitic languages


Canaanite: the extinct language of the Semitic people who occupied Canaan before the Israelite conquest


Phoenician: the extinct language of an ancient Semitic people who dominated trade in the ancient world


Punic: the Phoenician dialect of ancient Carthage


Ugaritic: an extinct Semitic language of northern Syria


Hamitic: a group of languages in northern Africa related to Semitic


Hamitic language: a group of languages in northern Africa related to Semitic


Egyptian: the ancient and now extinct language of Egypt under the Pharaohs; written records date back to 3000 BC


Demotic: a simplified cursive form of the ancient hieratic script


Demotic script: a simplified cursive form of the ancient hieratic script


Coptic: the liturgical language of the Coptic Church used in Egypt and Ethiopia; written in the Greek alphabet


Berber: a cluster of related dialects that were once the major language of northern Africa west of Egypt; now spoken mostly in Morocco


Tuareg: the dialect of Berber spoken by the Tuareg


Cushitic: a group of languages spoken in Ethiopia and Somalia and northwestern Kenya and adjacent regions


Somali: the Cushitic language spoken by the Somali


Omotic: a group of related languages spoken in a valley of southern Ethiopia; closely related to Cushitic languages


Niger-Kordofanian: the family of languages that includes most of the languages spoken in Africa south of the Sahara; the majority of them are tonal languages but there are important exceptions (e.g., Swahili or Fula)


Niger-Kordofanian language: the family of languages that includes most of the languages spoken in Africa south of the Sahara; the majority of them are tonal languages but there are important exceptions (e.g., Swahili or Fula)


Kordofanian: a group of languages spoken in the relatively small Kordofan area of the south Sudan


Niger-Congo: a family of African language spoken in west Africa


Bantu: a family of languages widely spoken in the southern half of the African continent


Bantoid language: a family of languages widely spoken in the southern half of the African continent


Chichewa: the Bantu language of the Chewa of east central Africa


ChiMwini: a Bantu language spoken in southern Somalia


Chishona: a Bantu language that is one of the two major languages of Zimbabwe


Fang: a Bantu language spoken in Cameroon


Gikuyu: a Bantu language spoken in western Kenya


Giriama: a Bantu language spoken in the coastal regions of eastern Kenya


Herero: a Banto language spoken by the Herero in Namibia, Botswana, and Angola


Kamba: a Bantu language spoken by the Kamba in Kenya


Kichaga: a Bantu language spoken by the Chaga in northern Tanzania


Chaga: a Bantu language spoken by the Chaga in northern Tanzania


Chagga: a Bantu language spoken by the Chaga in northern Tanzania


Kinyarwanda: a Bantu language


Kiswahili: a Bantu language


Kongo: the Bantu language spoken by the Kongo living in the tropical forests of Zaire and Congo and Angola


Luba: a Bantu language spoken in southeastern Congo


Tshiluba: a Bantu language spoken in southeastern Congo


LuGanda: the Bantu language of the Buganda people; spoken in Uganda


Luyia: a Bantu language


Mashi: a Bantu language


Mwera: a Bantu language spoken in southern coastal Tanzania


Nguni: a group of southern Bantu languages


Ndebele: a Bantu language sometimes considered a dialect of Zulu


Matabele: a Bantu language sometimes considered a dialect of Zulu


Swazi: a Bantu language closely related to Zulu


Xhosa: a Bantu language closely related to Zulu


Zulu: a Bantu language of considerable literary importance in southeastern Africa


Nyamwezi: a Bantu language spoken in central Tanzania


Pokomo: a Bantu language spoken in the Kenyan coastal areas of East Africa


Shona: a Bantu language spoken in Zimbabwe


Sotho: any of the mutually intelligible southern Bantu languages of the Sotho in Botswana and South Africa and Lesotho


Umbundu: a Bantu language spoken in Angola


Sesotho: the dialect of Sotho spoken by the Basotho; an official language of Lesotho


Basuto: the dialect of Sotho spoken by the Basotho; an official language of Lesotho


Tswana: the dialect of Sotho spoken by the Tswana in Botswana


Setswana: the dialect of Sotho spoken by the Tswana in Botswana


Sechuana: the dialect of Sotho spoken by the Tswana in Botswana


Swahili: the most widely spoken Bantu languages; the official language of Kenya and Tanzania and widely used as a lingua franca in east and central Africa


Tonga: the language of the Tongan people of south central Africa (Zambia and Rhodesia)


Gur: a group of Niger-Congo languages spoken primarily in southeastern Mali and northern Ghana


Voltaic: a group of Niger-Congo languages spoken primarily in southeastern Mali and northern Ghana


West African: a group of languages spoken in the extreme western part of West Africa


Fula: a family of languages of the Fulani of West Africa and used as a lingua franca in the sub-Saharan regions from Senegal to Chad; the best known of the West African languages


Ful: a family of languages of the Fulani of West Africa and used as a lingua franca in the sub-Saharan regions from Senegal to Chad; the best known of the West African languages


Fulani: a family of languages of the Fulani of West Africa and used as a lingua franca in the sub-Saharan regions from Senegal to Chad; the best known of the West African languages


Peul: a family of languages of the Fulani of West Africa and used as a lingua franca in the sub-Saharan regions from Senegal to Chad; the best known of the West African languages


Serer: a West African language closely related to Fula; spoken primarily in Senegal and Gambia


Wolof: the West African language of the Wolof in Senegal; related to Fula


Mande: a group of African languages in the Niger-Congo group spoken from Senegal east as far as the Ivory Coast


Kwa: a group of African language in the Niger-Congo group spoken from the Ivory Coast east to Nigeria


Yoruba: a Kwa language spoken by the Yoruba in southwestern Nigeria


Aku: a Kwa language spoken by the Yoruba in southwestern Nigeria


Akan: a Kwa language spoken in Ghana and the Ivory Coast


Ewe: a Kwa language spoken by the Ewe in Ghana and Togo and Benin


Nilo-Saharan: a family of East African languages spoken by Nilotic peoples from the Sahara south to Kenya and Tanzania


Nilo-Saharan language: a family of East African languages spoken by Nilotic peoples from the Sahara south to Kenya and Tanzania


Chari-Nile: a group of Nilo-Saharan language spoken in parts of the Sudan and Zaire and Uganda and Tanzania


Nilotic: a group of languages of East Africa belonging to the Chari-Nile group


Nilotic language: a group of languages of East Africa belonging to the Chari-Nile group


Dinka: a Nilotic language


Luo: a Nilotic language


Masai: a Nilotic language


Saharan: a Nilo-Saharan language spoken in parts of Chad


Songhai: a Nilo-Saharan language spoken by the Songhai in Mali and Niger


artwork: photographs or other visual representations in a printed publication


art: photographs or other visual representations in a printed publication


graphics: photographs or other visual representations in a printed publication


nontextual matter: photographs or other visual representations in a printed publication


graphic design: visual communication by a skillful combination of text and pictures in advertisements, magazines, books, etc.


illustration: artwork that helps make something clear or attractive


picture: illustrations used to decorate or explain a text


pictorial matter: illustrations used to decorate or explain a text


figure: a diagram or picture illustrating textual material


fig: a diagram or picture illustrating textual material


chart: a visual display of information


plot: a chart or map showing the movements or progress of an object


graph: a visual representation of the relations between certain quantities plotted with reference to a set of axes


graphical record: a visual representation of the relations between certain quantities plotted with reference to a set of axes


frequency-response curve: (electronics) a graph of frequency response with signal amplitude or gain plotted against frequency


frequency-response characteristic: (electronics) a graph of frequency response with signal amplitude or gain plotted against frequency


curve: a line on a graph representing data


characteristic curve: (electronics) graph showing how a particular characteristic of a device varies with other parameters


characterisic function: (electronics) graph showing how a particular characteristic of a device varies with other parameters


organization chart: a chart showing the lines of responsibility between departments of a large organization


color chart: a chart displaying colors


color circle: a chart in which complementary colors (or their names) are arranged on opposite sides of a circle


color wheel: a chart in which complementary colors (or their names) are arranged on opposite sides of a circle


bar chart: a chart with bars whose lengths are proportional to quantities


bar graph: a chart with bars whose lengths are proportional to quantities


histogram: a bar chart representing a frequency distribution; heights of the bars represent observed frequencies


eye chart: a chart that is read from a fixed distance; used as a test of vision


flip chart: a chart with several sheets hinged at the top; sheets can be flipped over to present information sequentially


pie chart: a circular chart divided into triangular areas proportional to the percentages of the whole


star chart: a chart showing the relative positions of the stars in a particular part of the sky


profile: an analysis (often in graphical form) representing the extent to which something exhibits various characteristics


population profile: a chart showing the number of people as a function of their ages


tabulation: information set out in tabular form


tabular matter: information set out in tabular form


drawing: an illustration that is drawn by hand and published in a book, magazine, or newspaper


comic strip: a sequence of drawings telling a story in a newspaper or comic book


cartoon strip: a sequence of drawings telling a story in a newspaper or comic book


strip: a sequence of drawings telling a story in a newspaper or comic book


funnies: a sequence of drawings telling a story in a newspaper or comic book


frame: a single drawing in a comic_strip


ballistocardiogram: a graphical recording made by a ballistocardiograph


echoencephalogram: a graphical image of the brain produced by an echoencephalograph


echocardiogram: a graphical image of the heart produced by an echocardiograph


electrocardiogram: a graphical recording of the cardiac cycle produced by an electrocardiograph


cardiogram: a graphical recording of the cardiac cycle produced by an electrocardiograph


EKG: a graphical recording of the cardiac cycle produced by an electrocardiograph


ECG: a graphical recording of the cardiac cycle produced by an electrocardiograph


electroencephalogram: a graphical record of electrical activity of the brain; produced by an electroencephalograph


encephalogram: a graphical record of electrical activity of the brain; produced by an electroencephalograph


EEG: a graphical record of electrical activity of the brain; produced by an electroencephalograph


electromyogram: a graphical record of electric currents associated with muscle contractions


EMG: a graphical record of electric currents associated with muscle contractions


electroretinogram: a graphical recording of the electrical activity of the retina that results when light is flashed into the eye


Laffer curve: a graph purporting to show the relation between tax rates and government income; income increases as tax rates increase up to an optimum beyond which income declines


learning curve: a graph showing the rate of learning (especially a graph showing the amount recalled as a function of the number of attempts to recall)


myogram: a graphical recording of muscle activity


radiation pattern: graphical representation (in polar or Cartesian coordinates) of the spatial distribution of radiation from an antenna as a function of angle


radiation diagram: graphical representation (in polar or Cartesian coordinates) of the spatial distribution of radiation from an antenna as a function of angle


pattern: graphical representation (in polar or Cartesian coordinates) of the spatial distribution of radiation from an antenna as a function of angle


lobe: the enhanced response of an antenna in a given direction as indicated by a loop in its radiation pattern


major lobe: the maximum lobe in the radiation pattern which is intended to be along the forward axis and which gives the effect of a beam


tachogram: a graphical record of speed and distance produced by a tachograph


thermogram: a graphical record produced by a thermograph


dramaturgy: the art of writing and producing plays


dramatic art: the art of writing and producing plays


dramatics: the art of writing and producing plays


theater: the art of writing and producing plays


theatre: the art of writing and producing plays


stage: the theater as a profession (usually `the stage')


production: a presentation for the stage or screen or radio or television


theatrical production: the production of a drama on the stage


staging: the production of a drama on the stage


coup de theatre: a highly successful theatrical production


coup de theatre: a sensational bit of stagecraft


summer stock: theatrical productions performed by a stock company during the summer


dramatic composition: a play for performance on the stage or television or in a movie etc.


dramatic work: a play for performance on the stage or television or in a movie etc.


play: a dramatic work intended for performance by actors on a stage


drama: a dramatic work intended for performance by actors on a stage


dramatic play: a dramatic work intended for performance by actors on a stage


afterpiece: a brief dramatic piece (usually comic) presented after a play


fragment: an incomplete piece


Grand Guignol: a play of a macabre or horrific nature


hiatus: a missing piece (as a gap in a manuscript)


snatch: a small fragment


bit: a small fragment


theater of the absurd: plays stressing the irrational or illogical aspects of life, usually to show that modern life is pointless


prologue: an introduction to a play


playlet: a short play


act: a subdivision of a play or opera or ballet


scene: a subdivision of an act of a play


script: a written version of a play or other dramatic composition; used in preparing for a performance


book: a written version of a play or other dramatic composition; used in preparing for a performance


playscript: a written version of a play or other dramatic composition; used in preparing for a performance


promptbook: the copy of the playscript used by the prompter


prompt copy: the copy of the playscript used by the prompter


continuity: a detailed script used in making a film in order to avoid discontinuities from shot to shot


dialogue: the lines spoken by characters in drama or fiction


dialog: the lines spoken by characters in drama or fiction


duologue: a part of the script in which the speaking roles are limited to two actors


actor's line: words making up the dialogue of a play


speech: words making up the dialogue of a play


words: words making up the dialogue of a play


aside: a line spoken by an actor to the audience but not intended for others on the stage


cue: an actor's line that immediately precedes and serves as a reminder for some action or speech


monologue: a (usually long) dramatic speech by a single actor


soliloquy: a (usually long) dramatic speech intended to give the illusion of unspoken reflections


throwaway: words spoken in a casual way with conscious under-emphasis


prompt: a cue given to a performer (usually the beginning of the next line to be spoken)


prompting: a cue given to a performer (usually the beginning of the next line to be spoken)


libretto: the words of an opera or musical play


scenario: an outline or synopsis of a play (or, by extension, of a literary work)


screenplay: a script for a film including dialogue and descriptions of characters and sets


shooting script: the final detailed script for making a movie or TV program


line: text consisting of a row of words written across a page or computer screen


line: persuasive but insincere talk that is usually intended to deceive or impress


orphan: the first line of a paragraph that is set as the last line of a page or column


spiel: plausible glib talk (especially useful to a salesperson)


patter: plausible glib talk (especially useful to a salesperson)


line of gab: plausible glib talk (especially useful to a salesperson)


string: a linear sequence of symbols (characters or words or phrases)


string of words: a linear sequence of words as spoken or written


word string: a linear sequence of words as spoken or written


linguistic string: a linear sequence of words as spoken or written


substring: a string that is part of a longer string


act: a manifestation of insincerity


lipogram: a text that excludes a particular letter or particular letters of the alphabet


effusion: an unrestrained expression of emotion


gush: an unrestrained expression of emotion


outburst: an unrestrained expression of emotion


blowup: an unrestrained expression of emotion


ebullition: an unrestrained expression of emotion


acting out: a (usually irritating) impulsive and uncontrollable outburst by a problem child or a neurotic adult


cry: a fit of weeping


explosion: a sudden outburst


flare: a sudden outburst of emotion


collocation: a grouping of words in a sentence


high-five: a gesture of greeting or elation; one person's upraised palm slaps the upraised palm of another person


closet drama: drama more suitable for reading that for performing


comedy: light and humorous drama with a happy ending


black comedy: comedy that uses black humor


commedia dell'arte: Italian comedy of the 16th to 18th centuries improvised from standardized situations and stock characters


dark comedy: a comedy characterized by grim or satiric humor; a comedy having gloomy or disturbing elements


farce: a comedy characterized by broad satire and improbable situations


farce comedy: a comedy characterized by broad satire and improbable situations


travesty: a comedy characterized by broad satire and improbable situations


high comedy: a sophisticated comedy; often satirizing genteel society


low comedy: a comedy characterized by slapstick and burlesque


melodrama: an extravagant comedy in which action is more salient than characterization


seriocomedy: a comedy with serious elements or overtones


tragicomedy: a comedy with serious elements or overtones


tragedy: drama in which the protagonist is overcome by some superior force or circumstance; excites terror or pity


tragicomedy: a dramatic composition involving elements of both tragedy and comedy usually with the tragic predominating


situation comedy: a humorous television program based on situations that could arise in everyday life


sitcom: a humorous television program based on situations that could arise in everyday life


special: a television production that features a particular person or work or topic


situation comedy: a humorous drama based on situations that might arise in day-to-day life


sitcom: a humorous drama based on situations that might arise in day-to-day life


slapstick: a boisterous comedy with chases and collisions and practical jokes


burlesque: a theatrical entertainment of broad and earthy humor; consists of comic skits and short turns (and sometimes striptease)


exode: a farcical afterpiece in the ancient Roman theater


miracle play: a medieval play representing episodes from the life of a saint or martyr


morality play: an allegorical play popular in the 15th and 16th centuries; characters personified virtues and vices


mystery play: a medieval play representing episodes from the life of Christ


Passion play: a play representing the Passion of Christ


satyr play: an ancient Greek burlesque with a chorus of satyrs


play: a theatrical performance of a drama


musical: a play or film whose action and dialogue is interspersed with singing and dancing


musical comedy: a play or film whose action and dialogue is interspersed with singing and dancing


musical theater: a play or film whose action and dialogue is interspersed with singing and dancing


curtain raiser: a short play presented before the main play


galanty show: a drama executed by throwing shadows on a wall


shadow show: a drama executed by throwing shadows on a wall


shadow play: a drama executed by throwing shadows on a wall


puppet show: a show in which the actors are puppets


puppet play: a show in which the actors are puppets


minstrel show: a variety show in which the performers are made up in blackface


revue: a variety show with topical sketches and songs and dancing and comedians


review: a variety show with topical sketches and songs and dancing and comedians


follies: a revue with elaborate costuming


Ziegfeld Follies: a series of extravagant revues produced by Flo Ziegfeld


variety show: a show consisting of a series of short unrelated performances


variety: a show consisting of a series of short unrelated performances


vaudeville: a variety show with songs and comic acts etc.


music hall: a variety show with songs and comic acts etc.


dance: an artistic form of nonverbal communication


choreography: the representation of dancing by symbols as music is represented by notes


music: an artistic form of auditory communication incorporating instrumental or vocal tones in a structured and continuous manner


pizzicato: a note or passage that is played pizzicato


monophony: music consisting of a single vocal part (usually with accompaniment)


monophonic music: music consisting of a single vocal part (usually with accompaniment)


monody: music consisting of a single vocal part (usually with accompaniment)


polyphony: music arranged in parts for several voices or instruments


polyphonic music: music arranged in parts for several voices or instruments


concerted music: music arranged in parts for several voices or instruments


polytonality: music that uses two or more different keys at the same time


polytonalism: music that uses two or more different keys at the same time


popularism: music adapted to the understanding and taste of the majority


counterpoint: a musical form involving the simultaneous sound of two or more melodies


black music: music created by African-American musicians; early forms were songs that had a melodic line and a strong rhythmic beat with repeated choruses


African-American music: music created by African-American musicians; early forms were songs that had a melodic line and a strong rhythmic beat with repeated choruses


classical music: traditional genre of music conforming to an established form and appealing to critical interest and developed musical taste


classical: traditional genre of music conforming to an established form and appealing to critical interest and developed musical taste


serious music: traditional genre of music conforming to an established form and appealing to critical interest and developed musical taste


chamber music: serious music performed by a small group of musicians


opera: a drama set to music; consists of singing with orchestral accompaniment and an orchestral overture and interludes


comic opera: opera with a happy ending and in which some of the text is spoken


opera bouffe: opera with a happy ending and in which some of the text is spoken


bouffe: opera with a happy ending and in which some of the text is spoken


opera comique: opera with a happy ending and in which some of the text is spoken


grand opera: opera in which all the text is sung


musical drama: opera in which the musical and dramatic elements are equally important; the music is appropriate to the action


operetta: a short amusing opera


light opera: a short amusing opera


harmony: the structure of music with respect to the composition and progression of chords


musical harmony: the structure of music with respect to the composition and progression of chords


harmonization: a piece of harmonized music


harmonisation: a piece of harmonized music


reharmonization: a piece of music whose original harmony has been revised


reharmonisation: a piece of music whose original harmony has been revised


four-part harmony: harmony in which each chord has four notes that create four melodic lines


preparation: (music) a note that produces a dissonant chord is first heard in a consonant chord


resolution: (music) a dissonant chord is followed by a consonant chord


tune: a succession of notes forming a distinctive sequence


melody: a succession of notes forming a distinctive sequence


air: a succession of notes forming a distinctive sequence


strain: a succession of notes forming a distinctive sequence


melodic line: a succession of notes forming a distinctive sequence


line: a succession of notes forming a distinctive sequence


melodic phrase: a succession of notes forming a distinctive sequence


leitmotiv: a melodic phrase that accompanies the reappearance of a person or situation (as in Wagner's operas)


leitmotif: a melodic phrase that accompanies the reappearance of a person or situation (as in Wagner's operas)


theme song: a melody that recurs and comes to represent a musical play or movie


signature: a melody used to identify a performer or a dance band or radio/tv program


signature tune: a melody used to identify a performer or a dance band or radio/tv program


theme song: a melody used to identify a performer or a dance band or radio/tv program


theme: (music) melodic subject of a musical composition


melodic theme: (music) melodic subject of a musical composition


musical theme: (music) melodic subject of a musical composition


idea: (music) melodic subject of a musical composition


obbligato: a persistent but subordinate motif


obligato: a persistent but subordinate motif


motif: a theme that is repeated or elaborated in a piece of music


motive: a theme that is repeated or elaborated in a piece of music


statement: (music) the presentation of a musical theme


variation: a repetition of a musical theme in which it is modified or embellished


inversion: (counterpoint) a variation of a melody or part in which ascending intervals are replaced by descending intervals and vice versa


augmentation: the statement of a theme in notes of greater duration (usually twice the length of the original)


diminution: the statement of a theme in notes of lesser duration (usually half the length of the original)


part: the melody carried by a particular voice or instrument in polyphonic music


voice: the melody carried by a particular voice or instrument in polyphonic music


part music: vocal music for several voices in independent parts (usually performed without accompaniment)


homophony: part music with one dominant voice (in a homophonic style)


primo: the principal part of a duet (especially a piano duet)


secondo: the second or lower part of a duet (especially a piano duet)


voice part: a part written for a singer


canto: the highest part (usually the melody) in a piece of choral music


accompaniment: a musical part (vocal or instrumental) that supports or provides background for other musical parts


musical accompaniment: a musical part (vocal or instrumental) that supports or provides background for other musical parts


backup: a musical part (vocal or instrumental) that supports or provides background for other musical parts


support: a musical part (vocal or instrumental) that supports or provides background for other musical parts


descant: a decorative musical accompaniment (often improvised) added above a basic melody


discant: a decorative musical accompaniment (often improvised) added above a basic melody


vamp: an improvised musical accompaniment


bass: the lowest part in polyphonic music


bass part: the lowest part in polyphonic music


ground bass: a short melody in the bass that is constantly repeated


figured bass: a bass part written out in full and accompanied by numbers to indicate the chords to be played


basso continuo: a bass part written out in full and accompanied by numbers to indicate the chords to be played


continuo: a bass part written out in full and accompanied by numbers to indicate the chords to be played


thorough bass: a bass part written out in full and accompanied by numbers to indicate the chords to be played


crossover: the appropriation of a new style (especially in popular music) by combining elements of different genres in order to appeal to a wider audience


religious music: genre of music composed for performance as part of religious ceremonies


church music: genre of music composed for performance as part of religious ceremonies


antiphon: a verse or song to be chanted or sung in response


antiphony: a verse or song to be chanted or sung in response


gradual: (Roman Catholic Church) an antiphon (usually from the Book of Psalms) immediately after the epistle at Mass


Mass: a sequence of prayers constituting the Christian Eucharistic rite


Mass: a musical setting for a Mass


Requiem: a musical setting for a Mass celebrating the dead


Shema: a liturgical prayer (considered to be the essence of Jewish religion) that is recited at least twice daily by adult Jewish males to declare their faith


processional: religious music used in a procession


prosodion: religious music used in a procession


antiphonary: bound collection of antiphons


antiphonal: bound collection of antiphons


chant: a repetitive song in which as many syllables as necessary are assigned to a single tone


Hallel: (Judaism) a chant of praise (Psalms 113 through 118) used at Passover and Shabuoth and Sukkoth and Hanukkah and Rosh Hodesh


Hare Krishna: a chant to the Hindu god Krishna


plainsong: a liturgical chant of the Roman Catholic Church


plainchant: a liturgical chant of the Roman Catholic Church


Gregorian chant: a liturgical chant of the Roman Catholic Church


cantus firmus: a melody used as the basis for a polyphonic composition


religious song: religious music for singing


spiritual: a kind of religious song originated by Blacks in the southern United States


Negro spiritual: a kind of religious song originated by Blacks in the southern United States


carol: joyful religious song celebrating the birth of Christ


Christmas carol: joyful religious song celebrating the birth of Christ


hymn: a song of praise (to God or to a saint or to a nation)


anthem: a song of praise (to God or to a saint or to a nation)


doxology: a hymn or verse in Christian liturgy glorifying God


chorale: a stately Protestant (especially Lutheran) hymn tune


choral: a stately Protestant (especially Lutheran) hymn tune


canticle: a hymn derived from the Bible


Dies Irae: the first words of a medieval Latin hymn describing the Last Judgment (literally `day of wrath')


hymeneal: a wedding hymn


Internationale: a revolutionary socialist anthem


paean: (ancient Greece) a hymn of praise (especially one sung in ancient Greece to invoke or thank a deity)


pean: (ancient Greece) a hymn of praise (especially one sung in ancient Greece to invoke or thank a deity)


Magnificat: (Luke) the canticle of the Virgin Mary (from Luke 1:46 beginning `Magnificat anima mea Dominum')


recessional: a hymn that is sung at the end of a service as the clergy and choir withdraw


Te Deum: an ancient liturgical hymn


musical composition: a musical work that has been created


opus: a musical work that has been created


composition: a musical work that has been created


piece: a musical work that has been created


piece of music: a musical work that has been created


musical arrangement: a piece of music that has been adapted for performance by a particular set of voices or instruments


arrangement: a piece of music that has been adapted for performance by a particular set of voices or instruments


orchestration: an arrangement of a piece of music for performance by an orchestra or band


instrumental music: music intended to be performed by a musical instrument or group of instruments


instrumentation: the instruments called for in a musical score or arrangement for a band or orchestra


realization: a musical composition that has been completed or enriched by someone other than the composer


realisation: a musical composition that has been completed or enriched by someone other than the composer


recapitulation: (music) the section of a composition or movement (especially in sonata form) in which musical themes that were introduced earlier are repeated


finale: the closing section of a musical composition


coda: the closing section of a musical composition


intermezzo: a short piece of instrumental music composed for performance between acts of a drama or opera


allegro: a musical composition or musical passage to be performed quickly in a brisk lively manner


allegretto: a musical composition or musical passage to be performed at a somewhat quicker tempo than andante but not as fast as allegro


andante: a musical composition or musical passage to be performed moderately slow


intermezzo: a short movement coming between the major sections of a symphony


introit: a composition of vocal music that is appropriate for opening church services


prelude: music that precedes a fugue or introduces an act in an opera


chorale prelude: a composition for organ using a chorale as a basis for variations


overture: orchestral music played at the beginning of an opera or oratorio


solo: a musical composition for one voice or instrument (with or without accompaniment)


voluntary: composition (often improvised) for a solo instrument (especially solo organ) and not a regular part of a religious service or musical performance


postlude: a voluntary played at the end of a religious service


duet: a musical composition for two performers


duette: a musical composition for two performers


duo: a musical composition for two performers


trio: a musical composition for three performers


quartet: a musical composition for four performers


quartette: a musical composition for four performers


quintet: a musical composition for five performers


quintette: a musical composition for five performers


sextet: a musical composition written for six performers


sextette: a musical composition written for six performers


sestet: a musical composition written for six performers


septet: a musical composition written for seven performers


septette: a musical composition written for seven performers


octet: a musical composition written for eight performers


octette: a musical composition written for eight performers


cantata: a musical composition for voices and orchestra based on a religious text


oratorio: a musical composition for voices and orchestra based on a religious text


Messiah: an oratorio composed by Handel in 1742


bagatelle: a light piece of music for piano


divertimento: a musical composition in several movements; has no fixed form


serenade: a musical composition in several movements; has no fixed form


keen: a funeral lament sung with loud wailing


canon: a contrapuntal piece of music in which a melody in one part is imitated exactly in other parts


enigma canon: a canon in which the entrances of successive parts were indicated by cryptic symbols and devices (popular in the 15th and 16th centuries)


enigmatic canon: a canon in which the entrances of successive parts were indicated by cryptic symbols and devices (popular in the 15th and 16th centuries)


enigmatical canon: a canon in which the entrances of successive parts were indicated by cryptic symbols and devices (popular in the 15th and 16th centuries)


riddle canon: a canon in which the entrances of successive parts were indicated by cryptic symbols and devices (popular in the 15th and 16th centuries)


concerto: a composition for orchestra and a soloist


concerto grosso: a baroque composition for orchestra and a group of solo instruments


etude: a short composition for a solo instrument; intended as an exercise or to demonstrate technical virtuosity


fugue: a musical form consisting of a theme repeated a fifth above or a fourth below its first statement


pastorale: a musical composition that evokes rural life


pastoral: a musical composition that evokes rural life


idyll: a musical composition that evokes rural life


idyl: a musical composition that evokes rural life


rondo: a musical form that is often the last movement of a sonata


rondeau: a musical form that is often the last movement of a sonata


sonata: a musical composition of 3 or 4 movements of contrasting forms


piano sonata: a sonata for piano


toccata: a baroque musical composition (usually for a keyboard instrument) with full chords and rapid elaborate runs in a rhythmically free style


fantasia: a musical composition of a free form usually incorporating several familiar themes


sonatina: a short and simple sonata


symphony: a long and complex sonata for symphony orchestra


symphonic music: a long and complex sonata for symphony orchestra


passage: a short section of a musical composition


musical passage: a short section of a musical composition


intro: a brief introductory passage to a piece of popular music


phrase: a short musical passage


musical phrase: a short musical passage


ligature: (music) a group of notes connected by a slur


ostinato: a musical phrase repeated over and over during a composition


riff: a jazz ostinato; usually provides a background for a solo improvisation


cadence: the close of a musical section