Earth exists in the nails, skin, and hair, as well as in the elements 
that hold the body together: bones, cartilage, muscles, and tendons. The five elements manifest in the functioning of the five senses, and  
they are closely related to our ability to perceive and interact with the 
environment in which we live. In Ayurveda, ether, air, fire, water and earth 
correspond to hearing, touch, vision, taste, and smell respectively. The Doshas & Health
The five elements combine to form three basic forces, known as the 
tridoshas , which exist in everything in the universe, and influence all mental 
and physical processes. From ether and air, the air principle vata is created; 
fire and water yield the fire principle pitta; and earth and water produce 
the water principle kapha . The principles correspond closely to the three 
humors of Tibetan medicine and somewhat resemble Galen’s theory of 
the four humors ( see p. 32). According to Ayurveda, we are all born with a particular balance of 
doshas . The proportions are largely determined by the balance of doshas  
in our parents at the time of our conception. Our body type, The chakras  are represented in this figure. India’s medical 
system, Ayurveda, identifies seven energy centers, chakras, 
sited along the spinal column from the head to the base of  
the spine. If they are blocked, illness results. US_036-039_India.indd   37 26/02/16   4:42 pm
38The developmenT  of herbal medicine
temperament, and susceptibility to illnesses are largely governed by the 
predominant dosha. In this way we inherit our basic constitution, called  
the prakruti, which remains unaltered throughout our lives. The first requirement for health in Ayurveda is a proper balance of the doshas. If the balance is upset, illness, ryadhi, results. The disruption may  be manifested in physical discomfort and pain, or in mental and emotional suffering, including jealousy, anger, fear, and sorrow. While our balance of doshas influences vulnerability to certain kinds of illness, the principles do not work in a vacuum. The effect our lifestyle has on our prakruti— vakruti—has a strong effect 
on overall health, and it may easily disrupt dosha balance. Illness may also result if the flow of energy, prana, around the body  
is interrupted. The flow is relayed via the seven chakras (psychic energy centers), which are situated at various points along the spinal column, from the crown of the head to the tailbone. If the energy flowing between these centers is blocked, the likelihood of ill health increases. Visiting an Ayurvedic Practitioner
An Ayurvedic practitioner first carefully assesses prakruti and vakruti—
constitution and lifestyle. This involves taking a detailed case history and carefully examining the body, paying attention to the build, the lines  
in the face and hands, and skin and hair type—all of which point to  
more profound aspects of the patient’s condition. However, the main foundations on which diagnosis rests are the appearance of the tongue, and the pulse rate. In these respects, Ayurveda has much in common with Chinese and Tibetan medicine, in which these two indicators are also  
of the greatest importance. A very complex technique for taking the patient’s pulse has been developed by Ayurvedic practitioners, requiring many years’ experience. When a dosha imbalance has been diagnosed, medical treatment and lifestyle advice are provided. The first step is eliminating toxins, and the main cleansing and rejuvenation program, known as panchakarma, includes therapeutic vomiting, purging, enemas, nasal administration of medication, and purification of the blood. Attributes of Remedies
Subsequent treatments fall into three main categories: medicines  
from natural sources, dietary regimens, and behavioral modifications. Medicines, foods, and lifestyle activities are all classified according to their effect on the three doshas. For instance, a health problem associated with an excess of kapha, the water principle, is characterized by congestion, excess weight, fluid retention, and lethargy. The practitioner would prescribe the consumption of warm, dry, light foods, because the quality of kapha is cool and damp. Avoidance of cold damp foods (such as wheat, sugar, and milk products), which increase kapha, would also be advised. Herbal remedies would include warming spices such as ginger (Zingiber officinale, p. 155) and cayenne (Capsicum frutescens, p. 74), as 
well as bitters such as turmeric ( Curcuma longa, p. 90). The specific choice of herbal remedy depends on its “quality” or 
“energy,” which Ayurveda determines according to twenty attributes 
(vimshati guna) such as hot, cold, wet, dry, heavy, or light. Ayurveda  
also classifies remedies according to six tastes—sweet, sour, salty, bitter, pungent, and astringent. Sweet, sour, and salty substances increase water Asafoetida (Ferula 
assa-foetida, p. 210) helps to strengthen the gastrointestinal tract. It is often taken to treat indigestion. Lemon (Citrus limon, 
p. 82). Lemon helps stave off colds by improving resistance to infection. It is thought to be  native to India. Cardamom (Elettaria 
cardamomum, p. 93) has been used in India for thousands  of years as a  digestive remedy. Cinnamon (Cinnamomum spp.,  p. 81) is a tonic herb  taken to stimulate circulation. Ashwagandha (Withania somnifera,  p. 152) has been called “Indian ginseng,” and,  
much like ginseng,  it is used to restore vitality and treat nervous exhaustion. Jequirity (Abrus 
precatorius, p. 158). The seeds have  been used in Asia  as a contraceptive  and abortifacient. Soy (Glycine max,  
p. 217) is a highly nutritious bean that has become a staple crop around the world. The beans benefit the circulatory system. Soybeans
Soybean podsCardamom seed
Cinnamon sticks
Cinnamon powderFresh cardamom 
leavesDried lemon
US_036-039_India.indd   38 26/02/16   4:42 pm39Ind Ia and the m Iddle east
(kapha ) and decrease air ( vata); bitter, pungent, and astringent remedies 
increase air and decrease water; and sour, salty, and pungent herbs increase 
fire ( pitta). Preparations & Treatments
In addition to plant extracts, Ayurvedic medicines include honey and dairy 
produce, and sometimes minute doses of minerals such as salt are added. Remedies take the form of pills, powders, balms, and infusions, and most 
contain several different ingredients, all carefully balanced to individual 
needs. Treatment might include washes and enemas or the application of 
poultices as well as massage with warm herbal oil, burning incense, the use 
of precious stones and metals, and ritual purification for imbalanced mind 
and emotions. The chanting of mantras (incantations based on sacred 
texts), breathing, and meditation exercises may be advised, due to the 
power of sound and the effect of vibration and meditation on the body, 
mind, and spirit. Herbal Medicine in India Today
In the 19th century, the British dismissed Ayurveda as mere superstition, 
and in 1833 they closed all Ayurvedic schools and banned the practice. Great centers of Indian learning thus fell apart, and Ayurvedic knowledge 
retreated into villages and temples. At the turn of the century, however, 
some Indian physicians and enlightened Englishmen began to reevaluate 
Ayurveda, and by the time of India’s independence in 1947 it had regained 
its reputation as a valid medical system. Today, Ayurveda flourishes side by 
side with Unani Tibb and Western conventional medicine and is actively 
encouraged by the Indian government as an inexpensive alternative to 
Western drugs. In recent years, Ayurveda has attracted increasing attention 
from medical scientists in the West and in Japan, and the World Health 
Organization has resolved to promote its practice in developing countries. Ayurveda’s value lies in the fact that it is not a medical science dealing 
solely with treatment of disease. Instead, it offers practical guidelines that 
apply to every facet of daily existence. It also seeks to reconcile health and 
lifestyle with universal aspects of existence, and to enhance well-being  
and promote longevity.Ayurvedic market doctor. Practitioners prescribe herbal remedies on the basis of their attributes – “warm” and 
“cool” are but two of them. The Ayurvedic practitioner’s aim is to balance the patient’s doshas , the principles that 
regulate sickness and health.Sweet flag  (Acorus 
calamus,  p. 57). The  
rhizome is taken  
as a tonic and as  
an aphrodisiac. Chiretta  (Swertia 
chirata , p. 273) is  
a strongly bitter  
herb used to treat 
excess pitta (fire), 
marked by fever and 
liver problems. Pomegranate  (Punica 
granatum , p. 259) is 
used to make a 
traditional Ayurvedic 
remedy for dysentery. Tea (Camellia  
sinensis , p. 181) is 
astringent and tonic. Ginger  (Zingiber  
officinale , p. 155)  
is known as the 
“universal medicine”  
in Ayurveda. It is  
particularly helpful  
for relieving nausea  
and indigestion.Fresh sweet flag
Pomegranate flower
Pomegranate fruit
Ginger root
Ginger powderDried sweet flag
US_036-039_India.indd   39 26/02/16   4:42 pm
40The developmenT  of herbal medicine
40Baical skullcap
(Scutellaria baicalensis,  
p. 134) is given  
for diarrhea. Fu ling (Poria cocos) is  
a fungus that is dried, compressed, and cut  into cubes. It increases energy levels.Magnolia (Magnolia 
officinalis, p. 232) relieves cramps and indigestion. Chou wu tong 
(Clerodendrum trichotomum, p. 191) is  a valuable herb for the treatment of eczema. Ginseng (Panax ginseng, p. 118) helps the body cope with stress and fatigue. Schisandra 
(Schisandra chinensis, 
p. 133). The berries are eaten for 100 days as a tonic. Sang ye ( Morus alba, 
p. 237) alleviates the 
symptoms of flu. Codonopsis 
(Codonopsis pilosula,  p. 83) restores the appetite. In China, it is often added to soups and vegetable dishes.Ginseng rootGinseng decoctionTraditional Chinese medicine (TCM) and the herbal tradition that is part 
of it developed separately from Chinese folk medicine. It arose from ideas recorded between 200 bce and 100 ce in the Yellow Emperor’s Classic of Internal Medicine (Huang Di Nei Jing). This text is based on detailed observations of nature and a deep understanding of the way that all life is subject to natural laws. It contains concepts that are fundamental to TCM, including yin and yang ; the five elements (wu xing); and the theory of the 
effect of nature upon health. In TCM, living in harmony with these principles is the key to good health 
and longevity. According to the Yellow Emperor’s Classic, members of previous generations lived for a hundred years, and had constitutions so strong that illness was cured by incantations alone. Only later, as human vitality, or qi, declined and people became “overactive…going against the joy of life,” did herbal medicine, acupuncture, and other branches of TCM become necessary. Key Theories
Unlike other herbal traditions that have a unified theory for making sense of illness and disease (for example, the European theory of the four humors), TCM has two quite different systems—the yin and yang  theory 
and the five elements. They developed quite separately in China, and the five elements system was only accepted and fully incorporated into Chinese China, Japan, and 
Southeast Asia
China’s ancient herbal tradition has survived intact into the  
21st century, and in China it is now accorded equal status with 
Western conventional medicine. Today, many Chinese universities teach and research herbal medicine, a factor of crucial importance  
in the reemergence of herbalism worldwide. On the streets of Hong Kong herbal pharmacists are a familiar sight. Prescriptions are formulated during a 
consultation with an herbalist, and the patient then obtains the appropriate herbs.Jing jie 
(Schizonepeta 
tenuifolia, p. 268)  
is prescribed for  
fevers and measles. US_040-043_China.indd   40 26/02/16   4:42 pm41China, Japan, and southeast asia
Fo ti 
 (Polygonum multiflorum , 
p. 124), the oldest 
Chinese tonic herb, is 
used to prevent aging. Dong quai  
(Angelica sinensis ,  
p. 63) is taken by  
millions of Chinese 
women as a nourishing 
blood tonic. Galangal (Alpinia 
officinarum, p. 61) is a 
warming herb used for 
abdominal pain. Cinnamon (Cinnamomum 
cassia , p. 81) is a  
warming herb that  
helps the circulation. Notopterygium root  
(Notopterygium incisium ,  
p. 240) is used in China 
for colds, especially those 
accompanied by aching 
muscles and joints. Ginkgo  (Ginkgo biloba ,  
p. 100) improves  
the memory and the 
circulation. T ablets,  
made from the leaves,  
are a bestselling herbal 
remedy in Europe. Su xian hua 
 (Jasminum officinale , 
see J. grandiflorum ,  
p. 224) is an aromatic 
herb used to treat 
depression.medicine during the Song dynasty (960–1279 ce). To this day, differences 
between these theories are reflected in practitioners’ approaches to 
diagnosis and treatment. In Chinese thought, everything in the universe is composed of yin and 
yang—words that were first used to denote the dark and light side of a 
valley. Everything has yin and yang aspects, or complementary opposites—
such as day and night, up and down, wet and dry. Every yin or yang category 
can itself also be subdivided—so that while the front of the body is yin 
relative to the back, which is yang, the abdomen is yin relative to the chest, 
which is yang. The five elements theory associates constituents of the natural 
world—wood, fire, earth, metal, and water—with other fundamentals 
such as seasons, emotions, and parts of the body. Each element gives rise to 
the next in a perpetual fashion ( see diagram above). For this reason, the 
system might be more accurately described as the five phases, 
representing the process of continual movement in life. The five elements 
have a central role in Chinese herbal medicine, especially in the grouping of 
tastes of herbs and parts of the body. Diagnosis & Treatment
Instead of looking for causes of illness, Chinese practitioners seek patterns 
of disharmony, which are expressions of imbalance between yin and yang. Particular attention is given to reading the pulse and tongue, both of which 
are very important for an accurate diagnosis. Ill health results from a 
deficiency or excess of either yin or yang. A cold, for example, is not just 
the result of a virus (though this clearly is a cause), but a sign that the body 
is not adapting to external factors such as “wind-heat,” “wind-cold,” or 
“summer-heat.” A high temperature denotes too much yang and shivering The ancient five elements theory  is used by the Chinese when writing prescriptions. It associates herbs 
with the natural world, including elements, seasons, and parts of the body. In the circular movement, 
each element gives rise to the next (for example, winter gives rise to spring). The five-angled movement 
is a controlling one, in which each element restrains another.MEtal
Season  Autumn Climate  Dry  
Emotion  Grief taste  Pungent Herb  
Ginger actions  Stimulant, Warming  
Parts of the body  Lungs, Large 
intestine, Nose, SkinWOOD
Season  Spring Climate  Windy Emotion  Anger
taste  Sour Herb  Schisandra action  Astringent 
 Parts of the body  Liver, Gallbladder, Eyes, Tendons
EaRtH
Season Late summer Climate  Damp 
Emotion  Reflection taste  Sweet
Herb  Jujube actions  Tonic, Restorative 
Parts of the body  Spleen, Stomach, 
Mouth, FleshFIRE
Season Summer
Climate  Hot
Emotion  Joy 
taste  Bitter
Herb  Chinese rhubarb 
action  Cooling
Parts of the body   
Heart, Small intestine,  
Tongue, Blood vesselsWatER
Season Winter
Climate  Cold
Emotion  Fear
taste  Salty 
Herb  Chinese figwort
action  Drains fluids
Parts of the body
Kidneys, Bladder, 
Bones, Ears, Hair
Ginkgo 
tablets
Ginkgo 
seeds
Ginkgo 
leaves
US_040-043_China.indd   41 26/02/16   4:42 pm
42The developmenT  of herbal medicine
42Goji berry (Lycium 
chinense, p. 111) is used in China as a blood tonic. Hong hua (Carthamus 
tinctorius, p. 184). Known as safflower in the West, hong hua is used in China to induce menstruation and to help heal wounds. White peony
(Paeonia lactiflora,  p. 117) helps menstrual complaints. In China, women who take the root regularly are thought to become as beautiful as the flower itself. Huo xiang (Agastache 
rugosa, p. 161) stimulates and warms the digestive tract. Ephedra (Ephedra 
sinica, p. 95) contains ephedrine, used in Western medicine  to treat asthma. Chinese rhubarb  
(Rheum palmatum, p. 126) is laxative in large doses  and constipating in  small ones.is the result of an excess of yin. The art of the Chinese herbal practitioner 
is to restore harmony between yin and yang  both within the patient’s body 
and between the patient and the world at large. Chinese Herbs
Over the centuries, the number of medicinal herbs has grown, and the 1977 Encyclopedia of Traditional Chinese Medicinal Substances has 5,757 
entries, the majority of which are herbs. The Communist Revolution in 1949 helped swell the number of plants used in TCM, because herbs that had previously only been employed in folk medicine were incorporated into the tradition. As the herbal tradition developed within TCM, the taste and other 
characteristics of herbs became closely linked with their therapeutic uses. The Divine Husbandman’s Classic (Shen’nong Bencaojing, 1st century ce) lists 252 herbal medicines specifying their tastes and “temperatures,” and today, Chinese herbalists still relate the taste and temperature of an herb directly  
to its therapeutic use. Sweet-tasting herbs such as ginseng (Panax ginseng, p. 118) are prescribed to tone, harmonize, and moisten, while bitter- tasting herbs such as dan shen ( Salvia 
miltiorrhiza, p. 130) are employed  to drain and dry excess “dampness.” Hot-tasting herbs are used for treating “cold” conditions and vice versa. Together, an herb’s taste and temperature link it to specific types of illness. For example, Baical skullcap (Scutellaria baicalensis, p. 134), which 
is bitter-tasting and “cold,” is a drying, cooling herb for conditions such as fever and irritability, brought on by patterns of excess heat. Taking Medicines
The Chinese tradition relies heavily on formulas, which are set mixtures 
of herbs that have proven effectiveness as tonics or remedies for specific illnesses. Many are available over the counter and are used by millions of people every day in China and around the world. Chinese herbalists often take a formula as a starting point and then add other herbs to the mixture. There are hundreds of formulas, one of the most famous being “Four Things Soup,” a tonic given to regulate the menstrual cycle and tone the reproductive system. It consists of dong quai ( Angelica sinensis,  
p. 63), rehmannia (Rehmannia glutinosa, p. 125), chuang xiong ( Ligusticum 
wallachii), and white peony (Paeonia lactiflora, p. 117). Chinese herbal medicine uses tinctures or alcoholic extracts of herbs, but only infrequently. Generally, patients are given mixtures of roots and bark to take as decoctions two or three times a day. The Chinese Influence in Japan & Korea
Japan and Korea have been strongly influenced by Chinese medical  
ideas and practices. Kampoh, traditional Japanese medicine, traces its 
origins back to the 5th century ce, when Buddhist monks from Korea introduced their healing arts, largely derived from Chinese medicine, into Japan. In the following century, the Empress Suiko (592–628 ce) Goji berries
Goji berry plant bark
Ephedra tincture
Dried EphedraMany herbal preparations are available to Chinese 
practitioners. US_040-043_China.indd   42 26/02/16   4:42 pm43China, Japan, and southeast asia
sent envoys to China to study that country’s culture 
and medicine. Direct Chinese influence on Japanese 
medicine, which was practiced for the most 
part by the monks, continued for 1,000 
years. In the 16th century, Japan started 
to assert its cultural identity, and kampoh  
developed its own characteristic traits, 
emphasizing the Japanese ideals of 
simplicity and naturalness. However, 
certain Chinese concepts, such as 
yin and yang and ki (qi), continued  
to have a central role. In 1868, the Japanese embraced 
Western conventional medicine. Formal training in kampoh  officially 
ceased in 1885, but a few committed 
practitioners passed their knowledge 
on to younger generations, keeping 
the tradition alive. In the last 40 years 
the number of medical practitioners who use kampoh  within their 
practice has greatly increased. Many Japanese medical schools now 
include training in kampoh  as part of the curriculum. Korean herbal medicine is very similar to mainstream Chinese herbal 
medicine, and almost all the Chinese herbs are used in Korea. Ginseng 
(Panax  ginseng , p. 118) has been cultivated in Korea for home use and 
export since 1300. Importance of Chinese Herbal Medicine
Since 1949 when the Communists gained control, the herbal tradition  
has flourished in China ( see p. 29) and today it is recognized as a valid 
medical system, available to the Chinese on an equal footing with 
conventional Western medicine. As is often the case elsewhere, herbs 
seem to be used mainly for chronic conditions, while Western medicine  
is more frequently employed for serious acute illness. Chinese herbal medicine, however, is not just of significance in China 
and the surrounding regions, but is practiced by trained practitioners in 
every continent and, in some countries, now has official government 
recognition. For example, there has been a traditional Chinese medicine 
hospital in Paris since 1996, and in 2013 the French government agreed  
to open three new traditional Chinese medicine hospital centers. Herbal 
medicine is now taught in 34 Chinese universities. This development (and 
the massive input of resources involved) has helped revitalize herbal 
medicine around the world over the past 30 to 40 years. The impact of these developments has not been confined solely  
to those taking herbal medicines—whether in China or elsewhere. In 2015 Dr. Tu Y ouyou, a researcher trained in traditional Chinese 
medicine and conventional medicine, was awarded the Nobel Prize  
for medicine for her lifelong study of sweet Annie ( Artemisia  annua ,  
p. 67) and its key active constituent artemisinin. From her base at the 
Academy of Traditional Chinese Medicine in Beijing, she proved that  
the herb (and its active constituent) had unusually potent antimalarial 
activity. Artemisinin has now become the standard treatment for  
acute malaria.The tai chi symbol (in the center of the silk material) 
illustrates the harmony of yin and yang. An imbalance 
of these principles leads to illness. Corydalis rhizome
Corydalis tincture
Lycium aerial partsJu hua  
(Chrysanthemum  x 
morifolium , p. 78) is 
popular as a relaxing 
infusion. It also 
improves vision. Corydalis  
(Corydalis yanhusuo ,  
p. 86) has a potent 
painkilling action. Zhe bei mu  (Fritillaria 
thunbergii ) is taken  
in eastern China for 
coughs and bronchitis. Coptis (Coptis 
chinensis , p. 195)  
has been shown to 
improve tuberculosis  
in a clinical trial. Fo ti  
(Polygonum multiflorum ,  
p. 124) is thought  
to concentrate qi  
(vital spirit) in its  
root, and is taken to 
improve longevity. Shan yao  
(Dioscorea opposita )  
is used in the “Pill of  
Eight Ingredients,” a 
traditional Chinese 
remedy for diabetes. Suan zhoa ren   
(Ziziphus spinosa ,  
see Z. jujuba , p. 283)  
is used in Chinese 
medicine to “nourish  
the heart and  
cleanse the spirit.”
US_040-043_China.indd   43 26/02/16   4:42 pm
44The developmenT  of herbal medicine
44Calumba (Jateorhiza 
palmata, p. 224) is a bitter herb that is used as a digestive remedy and as a means to improve the appetite. Buchu (Barosma betulina, 
p. 71) has a diuretic and tonic effect within the urinary tract. It is infused in oil to make perfume. Coffee (Coffea arabica,  
p. 192). According to legend, an Islamic mullah discovered the stimulating effect of coffee by observing the frisky behavior of goats who had grazed on the beans. Coffee is used medicinally to treat headaches. Visnaga (Ammi visnaga, 
p. 62) is mentioned in  an Egyptian medical  text of c. 1500 bce  
as an herb that relieves  kidney stones. Visnaga  seeds were used to  clean the teeth. Myrrh (Commiphora 
molmol, p. 85) exudes an astringent resin that is used to treat sore throats.The therapeutic use of medicinal plants in Africa dates back to the  
earliest times. Ancient Egyptian writings confirm that herbal medicines  
have been valued in North Africa for millennia. The Ebers papyrus  (c. 1500 bce), one of the oldest surviving medical texts, includes over  870 prescriptions and formulas, 700 medicinal herbs—including gentian (Gentiana lutea, p. 99), aloe (Aloe vera, p. 60), and opium poppy  (Papaver somniferum, p. 244)—and covers conditions ranging from  chest complaints to crocodile bite. The medicinal arts put forward  in this and other Egyptian texts formed the intellectual foundation  of classical medical practice in Greece, Rome, and the Arabic world. Trade & the Arabian Influence
Herbal medicines have been traded between the Middle East, India,  
and northeastern Africa for at least 3,000 years. Herbs widely used  
in the Middle East, such as myrrh (Commiphora molmol, p. 85), originally  
came from Somalia and the Horn of Africa. From the 5th century ce  to the 13th century, Arab physicians were at the forefront of medical advancement, and in the 8th century, the spread of Arabic culture across northern Africa had an influence on North African medicine that lasts  to this day. In the mid-13th century, the botanist Ibn El Beitar published  a Materia Medica that considerably increased the range of North African plant medicines in common use. Ancient Beliefs & Indigenous Herbs
In the more remote areas of Africa, nomadic peoples, such as the Berber 
of Morocco and the Topnaar of Namibia, have herbal traditions that remain largely unaffected by changes in medicine in the world at large. For these peoples, healing is linked to a magical world in which spirits influence illness and death. In Berber culture, possession by a djinn (spirit)  
is a major cause of sickness, and herbs with “magical” properties are given to restore health. If the patient fails to recover, their condition is likely to be attributed to a curse or to the “evil eye.” The Topnaar formerly depended completely on their environment for 
medicines, using the few medicinal plants that grow in such harsh and arid conditions. Although they are now heavily influenced by the Western way  
of life and have lost much of their plant lore, they continue to employ many indigenous plants medicinally. The stem of the seaweed Ecklonia maxima,  for example, is roasted, mixed with petroleum jelly, and rubbed into wounds and burns, while Hoodia currori, a low-lying cactus, is stripped of its thorns and outer skin and eaten raw to treat coughs and colds. Throughout Africa, thousands of different wild and locally grown 
medicinal plants are sold in the markets. Some are prescribed as medicines for home use. Others, such as kanna (Membryanthemum spp.) and iboga Africa
In Africa there is a greater variety of herbal traditions 
than on any other continent. During the colonial period, native herbal practices were largely suppressed, but today, in a marked turnaround, practitioners of conventional medicine often work closely with traditional healers. Devil’s claw  
(Harpagophytum 
procumbens, p. 103)  
is anti-inflammatory, 
and is now widely  
used in the West.Visnaga seeds
Visnaga leaves
Devil’s claw 
rhizome
Devil’s claw chopped rhizome
US_044-045_Africa.indd   44 26/02/16   4:42 pm45Afric A
Kola nut powder
Senna decoction
Senna podsKola nut (Cola 
acuminata , p. 192) is 
taken in western and 
central Africa to 
relieve headaches. Grains of paradise 
(Aframomum melegueta ) 
are used as a condiment 
in Africa and are taken 
medicinally as a warming 
remedy for nausea. Pellitory (Anacyclus 
pyrethrum , p. 166)  
has an acrid, irritant  
root that stimulates  
the circulation when  
applied to the skin. Senna (Cassia senna , p. 75) 
contains anthraquinones—
constituents that cause  
the bowel to contract—
hence the plant’s laxative 
effect. The plant’s first 
recorded medicinal use was 
in Arabia in the 9th century. Aloe vera (Aloe vera , 
p. 60) contains two 
medicinal substances,  
each with a markedly 
different use. The clear  
gel from the center of  
the leaf speeds the  
healing of wounds. Juice 
from the base of the leaf, 
known as “bitter aloes,”  
has laxative properties. (Tabernanthe iboga ), are chewed to combat fatigue, and are taken as 
intoxicants in religious ceremonies. According to local accounts in the 
Congo and Gabon, iboga’s stimulant effect was discovered when observers 
saw wild boars and gorillas dig up and eat the roots, and subsequently 
become frenzied. Traditional & Conventional Care
Conventional Western medicine is well established 
throughout Africa, but in rural areas, far from 
medical and hospital services, traditional medicine 
remains the only form of health care available. Even in urban areas conventional health care 
services can be limited, and in this situation 
traditional providers of care such as spiritualists, 
herbalists, and midwives are the main 
source of treatment available for 
the majority of the population. The World Health Organization 
aims to achieve a level of health 
care that will permit all people 
to lead socially and economically 
productive lives. In an attempt to 
meet this, African countries have 
pioneered the training of traditional 
medicine practitioners in simple 
medical techniques and basic 
hygiene procedures. In one center  
in Mampong, Ghana, conventionally 
trained medical staff work hand  
in hand with traditional herbal 
practitioners, encouraging the  
safer use of herbal medicines and 
researching them in detail. In nearby Kumasi, the university now offers a 
BS degree in herbal medicine. This represents a remarkable change in 
attitude. In the 19th and much of the 20th centuries, colonial governments 
and Christian missionaries viewed traditional herbalists as witch doctors, 
whose practices were best suppressed. The Discovery of New Herbal Cures
Along with encouraging the safer use of herbal medicines, medical centers 
are researching their use in detail. The benefits of pygeum ( Pygeum africanum , 
p. 260) have been conclusively established. This tree is traditionally used in 
central and southern Africa to treat urinary problems. Today, it is regularly 
prescribed in conventional French and Italian medicine for prostate problems. Of the plants under investigation in Africa, Kigelia ( Kigelia pinnata , p. 
225)—a sub-Saharan tree, and Sutherlandia ( Sutherlandia frutescens )—a 
small South African shrub, are of particular interest. Kigelia has a marked 
ability to prevent and heal skin lesions, including psoriasis, while 
Sutherlandia is an adaptogen with anticancer activity. The reevaluation of traditional herbal medicine in Africa may result in 
the acceptance of additional plant-based medicines. Today, the opportunity 
exists to combine the best of traditional practice with conventional medical 
knowledge, for mutual gain.This Nigerian divination bowl was used by traditional 
healers in the diagnosis of illness via the interpretation 
of magical signs. US_044-045_Africa.indd   45 26/02/16   4:42 pm
46THE DEVELOPMENT OF HERBAL MEDICINE
Opium  
poppy seeds
Kava rootOpium poppy (Papaver somniferum, p. 244) is cultivated commercially in Australia. It is used extensively in both conventional and herbal medicine  as a sedative and  is a very potent painkiller. Australian wattle  (Acacia decurrens, see  A. nilotica, p. 159) is  
a strongly antiseptic  
herb used to treat conditions where  
the skin or mucous membranes need tightening or protecting. Vervain (Verbena 
officinalis, p. 149) was brought to Australia by early British settlers. It is a tonic and restorative  for the nerves  and digestion.The cradle of the oldest continuous culture on earth, Australia is also  
the home of an ancient herbal tradition. The Aborigines, believed to  
have settled in Australia over 60,000 years ago, developed a sophisticated 
empirical understanding of indigenous plants, many of which, such as eucalyptus (Eucalpytus globulus, p. 96), are unique to Australia. While much of this knowledge has vanished with its keepers, there is currently  a high level of interest in native herbal traditions. Aboriginal Herbal Medicine
The Aborigines probably had a more robust health than the early European 
settlers who displaced them. They had very different ideas of health, disease, and illness, in which the influence of the spirit world played a major role. In common with other hunter-gatherer societies, the Aborigines devoted much time to ritual, which reinforced the sense of place and purpose in the lives of each individual. They used healing plants and the laying on of hands  
in a complex weave of culture and medicine. The influx of Europeans in the 18th century was disastrous for  the Aborigines. They were exploited and driven off the land, and their population was decimated by killings and infectious Western diseases. Not only did the Europeans fail to discern any value in native customs,  but much of the orally based herbal tradition was lost through death  of the elders and the dispersal of tribal groupings. Nevertheless, a little is known of Aboriginal medicine. Aromatic herbs, such as eucalpytus, were crushed and inhaled to treat many common illnesses, including respiratory diseases such as flu. Without metal technology, water could not be boiled, but decoctions were made by heating water with hot stones. These were drunk or applied externally. Skin eruptions, such as boils and scabies, were common and were treated with acacia (Acacia spp., p. 158), while acute diarrhea was treated with eucalyptus or 
kino (Pterocarpus marsupium, p. 258). In Queensland, fever bark (Alstonia  
spp., p. 165) was used to treat fevers. Indigenous & Foreign Herbs
Over the past 200 years, many native Australian plants have become 
popular around the world. Research into fever bark resulted in the discovery of the alkaloid reserpine, which markedly lowers blood pressure. The substance is now prescribed by herbalists and conventional practi-tioners alike. Eucalyptus and tea tree ( Melaleuca alternifolia, p. 112) yield 
essential oils that are employed worldwide as antiseptics. Other native Australian plants are now used in Australian herbalism because of their Australia and  
New Zealand
Regrettably, much of the herbal knowledge of the Australian 
Aborigines was lost after the arrival of the Europeans. The predominant strains of Australian herbalism today derive from  the West, China, and, increasingly, from other countries on the Pacific Rim. Kava (Piper 
methysticum, p. 122) forms an important part of ceremonial activities among the peoples of Melanesia and Polynesia. It is taken for herbal calming and urinary infections, and is used as a wash to treat rheumatic pain. US_046-047_Australia_and_New_zealand.indd   46 26/02/16   4:42 pm47Austr AliA  A nd new Ze A l A nd
Dried, crushed 
eucalyptus leavesDried eucalyptus leavesGotu kola powderDried gotu kolaGotu kola (Centella 
asiatica , p. 76) is a 
cleansing tonic for the 
skin and digestion. It 
also strengthens the 
nervous system and 
improves the memory. Eucalyptus (Eucalyptus 
globulus , p. 96) leaves 
were traditionally used 
by Aborigines to treat 
fevers and infections. Eucalyptus is a warming 
and stimulant herb. As 
well as being strongly 
antiseptic, it is effective 
in relieving colds, 
coughs, and sore 
throats.Fresh gotu  
kola leaves
medicinal use elsewhere, for example gotu kola ( Centella asiatica , p. 76) and 
visnaga ( Ammi visnaga , p. 62), which have a long history of medicinal use in 
India and the Middle East. Early British settlers imported European medicinal 
plants, such as vervain ( Verbena officinalis , p. 149), hawthorn ( Crataegus 
oxycantha,  p. 87), mullein ( Verbascum thapsus , p. 281), and dandelion 
(Taraxacum officinale , p. 141), which have now all become naturalized. Native 
American plants have also found their way to Australia, including prickly 
pear ( Opuntia ficus-indica , p. 242) and Canadian fleabane ( Conyza 
canadensis , p. 194). As Australian herbalists generally follow the Anglo-
American herbal tradition, these plants are often employed in local practice. Chinese Influence
Traditional Chinese medicine has substantially influenced herbalism in 
Australia. Following the arrival of Chinese immigrants in the 19th century, 
herbal formulas gained a reputation for effectiveness, and Chinese medicine 
maintained a small but loyal following in all the major cities. During the 1980s, 
a renaissance in all branches of herbal medicine began, and today Australia 
has three colleges of traditional Chinese medicine. In 2012, traditional 
Chinese medicine became a nationally regulated form of medicine, with  
practitioners required to register with the Chinese Medicine Board of 
Australia. Naturopathy and Western herbal medicine are yet to achieve 
this status. The Future
With the passing of enlightened legislation—the Therapeutic Goods 
Act—in 1989, herbal medicine became a dynamic growth industry in 
Australia. This process is likely to continue as Australia and New Zealand 
are due to harmonize their medicines legislation. Quality standards for 
over-the-counter herbal medicines have been raised and many new herbal 
products developed. There is increased commercial cultivation of medicinal 
plants, notably tea tree ( Melaleuca alternifolia , p. 112), and university training 
and herbal research has been expanded. In this environment, Australians are 
becoming increasingly sophisticated in their use of natural medicines. With its ancient culture, ties to Western herbalism, and location on the 
Pacific Rim, Australia is host to many herbal traditions. The next 20 years 
will doubtless see further exciting developments.Red river gum ( Eucalyptus camaldulensis ) has aromatic, astringent leaves. When it is taken internally, 
generally to treat diarrhea, it turns the saliva red. US_046-047_Australia_and_New_zealand.indd   47 26/02/16   4:42 pm
48the development of herbal medicine
48Prickly ash berriesPrickly ash barkSaw palmetto 
dried fruitSaw palmetto tincture
Prickly ash leaves Cornsilk (Zea mays,  p. 154) is a remedy  for problems affecting the urinary system. Prickly ash  (Zanthoxylum americanum, p. 153)  is a warming remedy  that is used to treat  poor circulation.Gravel root  
(Eupatorium  purpureum, p. 209)  is a traditional  Native American  remedy for urinary  tract problems.Slippery elm (Ulmus rubra, p. 145), soothes  the mucous membranes. Saw palmetto  (Serenoa repens,  p. 136) has an  antiseptic effect  within the  urinary tract. Stretching from the Arctic wilds of Canada and Alaska to the  
tropical regions of Panama, North and Central America cover diverse 
geographical regions and harbor an immense variety of medicinal plants. Most of them are indigenous, but others—such as nutmeg, ginger, and tamarind—were introduced from the Old World from the 16th century onward. Likewise, native American medicinal plants—such as corn, cocoa, cayenne, and sunflower—were introduced to Europe, Asia, and Africa. This trade of species was an important part of the interplay between the Old and New Worlds’ herbal traditions. Herbal Traditions in Central America
Herbal medicine is commonly practiced in rural areas of Central America, 
especially in Guatemala and Mexico. In the Mexican tradition, loss of “balance” between hot and cold elements within the body is thought to be the underlying cause of illness, and the healer’s art is to restore balance and vitality. Mexican herbal medicine is not a static tradition, but has evolved 
from a shifting blend of Aztec, Mayan, and Spanish influences. Long before Hernando Cortez and his conquistadors came ashore in 1519, the Mayan and Aztec cultures had a well-developed understanding of plant medicines. The Badianus Manuscript, the first American herbal (written by an Aztec, Martin de la Cruz, in 1552), lists the medicinal uses of 251 Mexican species. They include damiana (Turnera diffusa,  p. 144), taken by the Maya as an aphrodisiac, and mesquite (Prosopis juliflora), used by the Aztecs as an eye lotion. Both species are still used medicinally, alongside European herbs such as pennyroyal (Mentha pulegium, p. 235) and thyme (Thymus vulgaris, p. 143). It is thought that approximately 65 percent of the plants used today by traditional Mexican herbalists originated in Europe. In other Central American countries efforts are being made to 
encourage people to use herbal medicine as the first line of treatment for illness. Projects in the Dominican Republic and Nicaragua, for example, are teaching women how to use local herbs within their communities, while in Cuba doctors routinely prescribe medicinal herbs to make up for the scarcity of conventional medicines. Caribbean Herbal Medicine
Throughout the Caribbean, domestic herbal medicine remains popular. Some of the widely used herbs include fever grass or lemon grass (Cymbopogon citratus, p. 198), which, as its name suggests, is used to treat fevers, and kerala (Momordica charantia, p. 236), a creeping vine that is prized as a “cure-all” on many of the islands. Kerala has been shown to have an ability to lower blood-sugar levels and may help to slow down the North America
Many ancient herbal traditions in North and Central 
America not only withstood the influx of European settlers but helped to reinvigorate Western herbalism. In parts  of Central America herbal medicine is widely practiced, and in the U.S. and Canada it is again enormously popular. US_048-051_North_America.indd   48 26/02/16   4:43 pm49NORTH AMERICA
Wild yam chopped rhizomeWild yam  (Dioscorea villosa ,  
p. 91) contains steroidal 
saponins that have  
a hormonal effect. It was  
used to produce early  
versions of the birth-  
control pill. Lobelia  tablets
(Lobelia inflata , p. 110) 
help relax the small 
muscles of the bronchial
tubes, easing asthma. Goldenseal (Hydrastis 
canadensis , p. 105)  
was prized as a cure-all 
in the 19th century. Pokeweed  
(Phytolacca americana , 
p. 247) was used in  
the 19th century 
to induce vomiting. Skullcap  (Scutellaria 
lateriflora , p. 135) is an 
effective relaxant. Cramp bark   
(Viburnum opulus , p. 150) 
is a sedative and muscle 
relaxant, hence its 
common name. Pleurisy root   
(Asclepias tuberosa ,  
p. 173) was a popular 
Native American 
remedy for fever.Wild yam rhizomeonset of diabetes, a relatively 
common illness among Afro-
Caribbeans. The medical 
and religious customs on 
each Caribbean island vary, 
but on many they reflect 
the African traditions of 
transported slaves, especially 
of the Y oruba people 
shipped from West Africa, 
who carried on the practices 
of their homelands. In some 
of these traditions, herbs 
are valued for their magical 
power as well as for their 
medicinal properties. Tobacco ( Nicotiana tabacum , 
p. 240) for example, is  
used for divination in many 
American cultures, including 
in Santeria and Voodoo religious rituals, as are other herbs, including garlic 
(Allium sativum , p. 59) and cayenne ( Capsicum frutescens , p. 74). Shamanism
Moving north, Native American herbal medicine in what is now the 
United States was and is primarily shamanistic in nature, involving herbal 
lore, ritual, and magic. Shamanistic societies from Siberia to the Amazon 
believe that, in serious illness, the soul of the sick person has been taken 
over by malign forces. The shaman’s role is to heal both the physical and 
the spiritual dimension of the illness. The patient cannot be truly cured 
until his or her soul has been freed from evil spirits. Shamanistic ceremonies 
and rites to heal the sick person’s spirit include dancing, chanting, drumming, 
playing games, and the stirring of ashes or sprinkling of water. By taking 
hallucinogens such as peyote ( Lophophora williamsii , p. 230), the shaman is 
able to reach out to the spirit world and heal both the individual and the 
community as a whole. Power of Herbs
In all Native American cultures from Canada to Chile, herbs are thought 
to have spiritual energy, and many of them are invested with great magical 
power. The Iroquois believe that cardinal lobelia ( Lobelia cardinalis , see  
L. inflata , p. 110) and morning glory ( Ipomoea pandurata ) have the ability 
to heal or harm, and should be picked, stored, and used with great care. Morning glory is considered so powerful that even touching it could cause 
harm. The Iroquois use the plant as a remedy for coughs, tuberculosis, and 
other ailments, and also take it as a decoction with sunflower seeds 
(Helianthus annuus ) as a sacrament in spring and autumn rituals. Tobacco, now considered an addictive drug, was a sacred shamanistic 
herb for most Native American peoples. It was smoked in pipes and 
“thrown into fires as an offering, cast into the wind and water to abate 
storms, scattered about a fish weir to improve the catch, and offered to 
the air in thanksgiving for escape from danger,” according to Virgil Vogel’s 
American Indian Medicine  (1970).A Native American medicine man performing a healing ritual 
intended to drive out evil spirits, as depicted by the 19th-century 
artist George Catlin. US_048-051_North_America.indd   49 26/02/16   4:43 pm
50the development of herbal medicine
50Witch hazel leaf
Witch hazel bark
Avocado leaf
Avocado fruitWitch hazel 
(Hamamelis  virginiana, p. 102)  is excellent for  skin conditions. California poppy  (Eschscholzia californica, p. 207) is a gentle,  effective sedative  that is often used  to encourage sleep.Slippery elm  
(Ulmus rubra, p. 145)  is a Native American  remedy for boilsand wounds.Avocado (Persea 
americana, p. 121)  is an important medicinal plant  in Guatemala,  where all the parts  are used as remedies. Blue cohosh 
(Caulophyllum thalictroides,  p. 185) stimulates the uterus.European Settlers
The first European settlers in North America, arriving in the early 17th 
century, tended to dismiss Native American medical practices as nothing more than primitive savagery. The settlers relied largely on imported herbal medicines, or on European plants hardy enough to grow in eastern North America. As time went by, however, the settlers’ increased contact with indigenous 
peoples in the frontier regions fostered a healthy respect for their healing skills. Sometimes settlers adopted not just the plants but the harvesting and therapeutic methods as well. Joseph Doddridge, in Notes on the Settlement and Indian Wars (1876), relates that butternut bark (Juglans cinerea, p. 224) was peeled downward if it was to be used as a purgative (acting “downward” by purging the bowels), and upward for use as an emetic (acting “upward” by provoking vomiting). The types of healing regimens practiced by Native Americans eventually gained widespread popularity. Toward the end of the 18th century, Samuel Thomson (1769–1843) developed a simple therapeutic regimen based on Native American herbal practice. Thomson never acknowledged the debt, but it is clearly evident—from the use of emetics, purgatives, and stimulants, to the central role of sweating and vapor baths (based in part on Native American sweat lodges), to the deep knowledge of American medicinal plants. Thomson considered that “all disease is caused by cold” and his system worked well for those with a robust health struck down by infection or injury. The two main herbs in his system—cayenne, a stimulating herb, and lobelia, an emetic, relaxant, and stimulant—act to raise body temperature and dilate the blood vessels. T aking these plants helps to increase resistance to infection and speeds the healing of wounds. Eclecticism & Its Influence
The fertile marriage between Native American and Western herbal medicine led to the establishment of more sophisticated herbal systems, such as Eclecticism, founded by Dr. Wooster Beech (1794–1868) in the 1830s. Beech studied both herbal and conventional medicine and tried  
to combine the new scientific knowledge of 
physiology and pathology with the best of the 
herbal tradition. Beech rejected Thomson’s theories as being overly simplistic, and aimed  
to use the lowest dosages possible to achieve 
good results. His approach was so successful 
that at Eclecticism’s height in 1909, over 
8,000 members were in practice, all  
with recognized medical qualifications. Another significant medical movement, 
inspired by Thomson’s regimen and 
influenced by the Eclectics, was 
Physiomedicalism. Using many  
herbs, these practitioners sought  
Samuel Thomson, who inspired  
the 19th-century Physiomedicalists,  advocated Native American remedies.Avocado bark
US_048-051_North_America.indd   50 26/02/16   4:43 pm51Cayenne (Capsicum 
frutescens , p. 74) is  
a potent warming  
herb that stimulates  
circulation  
and digestion.Damiana (Turnera  
diffusa , p. 144)  
eases depression. Evening primrose 
(Oenothera biennis ,  
p. 241) yields a  
seed oil containing 
essential fatty acids  
that help maintain 
healthy tissues. Black cohosh 
(Cimicifuga racemosa ,  
p. 79) was used by 
Native Americans to 
treat rheumatism. Helonias  
(Chamaelirium luteum ,  
p. 186) was chewed by 
Native American women 
to prevent miscarriage.to harmonize “the organic 
tissues with the vital force,” with 
the aim of restoring equilibrium 
within the body. Believing the 
stomach was the source of 
disease, Physiomedicalists used 
herbs that induced vomiting, 
such as pokeweed ( Phytolacca 
americana,  p. 247), to cleanse  
the organ. Other herbs, such  
as echinacea ( Echinacea  spp.,  
p. 92), now recognized as an 
effective immune modulator,  
and goldenseal ( Hydrastis canadensis , p. 105), a tonic and anti-inflammatory, 
were then prescribed to aid recovery. The second half of the 19th century was an extraordinary time for 
American natural medicine. In addition to engendering osteopathy and 
chiropractic at the turn of the century, it also reinvigorated herbal 
medicine in Britain to such a degree that Physiomedicalism became an 
Anglo-American herbal tradition. To this day, British herbalists still use  
a far wider variety of North American medicinal herbs than do their 
European counterparts. North American Herbal Medicine Today
In the U.S., herbal medicine went into steep decline after 1907 because  
of the government’s decision to limit financial support for herbal medical 
training at conventional medical schools. Since that time, herbal medicine  
in both the U.S. and Canada has existed mostly on the fringes of 
conventional health care. In some U.S. states, it is illegal to practice herbal 
medicine without medical qualifications, but courses in herbalism are not 
offered at medical schools. With the passing of liberal legislation in 1994, use of herbal medicine 
in the U.S. exploded and sales of St. John’s wort ( Hypericum perforatum ,  
p. 106)—the most extreme example—are thought to have increased  
by 3,900 percent between 1995 and 1997. Such growth could not be 
sustained, and led to lower-quality herbal products being sold over the 
counter. The American Botanical Council has been at the forefront of the 
campaign to raise quality standards of herbal medicines, and many bona 
fide herbal manufacturers have signed up to their Botanical Adulterants 
program. At the same time, greater resources are being put into 
researching herbal medicines, for example through the U.S. National Center 
for Complementary and Integrative Health, which 
has so far funded over 15 clinical trials into herbs 
such as garlic ( Allium sativum , p. 59) and saw 
palmetto ( Serenoa repens , p. 136). Over the past 20 years, North Americans have 
become increasingly savvy about herbal medicines 
and their role in maintaining well-being and 
treating ill health. Best-selling herbs include 
turmeric ( Curcuma longa , p. 90) and 
elderberry ( Sambucus nigra , p. 132), and 
their use fits well with the American 
tradition of self-reliance.Wild yam  is found growing in Mexico. Its rhizome relaxes 
smooth muscle and it is used as an antispasmodic.NORTH AMERICA
Turmeric
US_048-051_North_America.indd   51 26/02/16   4:43 pm
THE DEVELOPMENT OF HERBAL MEDICINE
Arrowroot 
(Maranta arundinacea,  p. 233) is used to treat diarrhea and skin conditions, and to heal wounds.Nasturtium 
(Tropaeolum majus,p. 278) is a traditional Andean remedy for wounds and chest infections. It is strongly antibiotic.Cinchona (Cinchona 
spp., p. 80) contains quinine, which  is a powerful  antimalarial. Herbal medicine in South America conjures up images of shamanistic 
rituals and a collection of thousands of as yet unclassified plants under  
the thick canopy of the rainforest. But these are only two facets of the 
continent’s herbal tradition—those of the Amazon and Orinoco regions. Distinctly different plants and practices are found in other areas, for example on the Bolivian Andes plateau, on the humid plains of Paraguay, and in cities such as Rio de Janeiro. Wealth of Native Plants
Ever since the Spanish conquest in the early 16th century, European 
writers have remarked on the huge variety of plant medicines used by native peoples. The most important of these was cinchona (Cinchona   
spp., p. 80), a traditional Andean fever remedy, which the Spaniards first discovered around 1630. Quinine, produced from this plant, became the most effective treatment for malaria for nearly 300 years and is still widely used as a tonic, bitter, and muscle relaxant. Other important plants originating in South America include the potato (Solanum tuberosum,  p. 271), which was cultivated in over 60 different varieties by the Inca. Its uses are wide-ranging, but it is particularly effective as a poultice for skin conditions. Ipecac (Cephaelis ipecacuanha, p. 186)—now commonly found in over-the-counter cough preparations—was taken by Brazilian native peoples to treat amebic dysentery. Maté (Ilex paraguariensis, p. 222), which grows in southern regions of the continent, makes a stimulating beverage that is prepared and drunk like tea. Maté has become so popular it is now cultivated in Spain and Portugal as well as in South America. Since the 1950s, specialist ethnobotanists have lived within native 
communities, particularly in the Amazon region, where most tribes have  a highly developed herbal lore. Their work has resulted in a wealth of knowledge about Amazonian species. Pareira (Chondrodendron tomentosum, p. 189), a climbing vine of the rainforest, for example, yields the poison 
curare used in hunting, and is taken medicinally to treat water 
retention, bruising, and insanity. Sadly, however, the herbal 
medicine of many indigenous groups is now under threat as the 
rainforests, and their culture, disappear. Mind-altering Remedies
Notorious in the West as the source of cocaine, 
coca (Erythroxylum coca, p. 206) is an important 
medicine in South America for nausea and 
vomiting, toothache, and asthma. It is also 
completely interwoven into the culture of 
indigenous Amazonian and Andean peoples  
and serves as a precise example of the unique South America 
Herbal medicine is a part of the struggle for survival 
for the indigenous peoples of South America, as they seek to protect their culture and natural habitats. As the great rainforests disappear we are losing thousands of plant species, some of which may have had great medicinal value. Dried 
boldo leavesDried lemon verbena leaves
Boldo (Peumus boldo, p. 246) is a liver tonic.Fresh lemon verbena leaves
Fresh boldo leavesLemon verbena (Lippia citriodora,  p. 228) has sedative qualities and is taken as a calming infusion. US_052_053_South_America.indd   52 26/02/16   4:43 pm53South Americ A
relationship that traditional peoples have with the plant world. Many 
different myths confirm coca’s sacred and ancient origins in South America, 
and great ritual and significance is attached to the leaves, which, when mixed 
with lime and chewed, reduce appetite and increase endurance. Many hallucinogenic plants are used within South American shamanistic 
societies, notably ayahuasca ( Banisteriopsis caapi , p. 176). This powerful 
“medicine” enables the shaman (priest) to communicate with the spirit 
world and cure the patient’s ill health. The European Influence
In more westernized areas of South America, herbal medicine is often  
a blend of both Spanish and local traditions (as is also the case in Central 
America, see p. 48). Large herb markets exist in some cities, such as La 
Paz and Quito, which provide an astonishing variety of indigenous and 
European herbs. In Ecuadorian markets, for example, anise ( Pimpinella 
anisum , p. 248), a digestive remedy for colic and cramps that originally came 
from the Mediterranean, is sold alongside unusual native medicines such as 
arquitecta ( Culcitium reflexum ), a diuretic and detoxifying herb traditionally 
used to treat toxicity and infections, including syphilis. Research & New Hopes
Research into native herbs has led to the use of certain plants in 
conventional medicine. Brazilian investigation into pau d’arco ( Tabebuia 
impetiginosa , p. 139) indicates significant therapeutic potential for fungal 
infections, inflammation of the cervix, HIV, and cancer. While pau d’arco’s 
effectiveness in treating cancer is controversial, it is currently prescribed 
both by local doctors and in hospitals. Research into herbal medicine is expanding, with hospital-based 
studies taking place in centers such as Belem in northeastern Brazil  
and Bogotá in Colombia. Such studies are important for the world as  
a whole. The locally based researchers, unlike most multinational drug 
companies, are willing to develop medicines based on simple extracts, 
which may ultimately prove more effective than the isolated constituents 
often used in conventional drugs.Coca harvest in Bolivia. The leaves are picked when they begin to curl. They have been used as a stimulant for 
centuries by the indigenous peoples of the Andes. Pau d’arco tincture
Pineapple (Ananas 
comosus , p. 167) is  
rich in vitamin C, and 
contains an enzyme 
that aids digestion. The 
juice is employed as  
a digestive tonic  
and a diuretic.Soap bark (Quillaja 
saponaria , p. 260)  
is a traditional 
expectorant in 
Peru and Chile.Guarana (Paullinia 
cupana , p. 245) 
contains a natural 
stimulant with 
properties similar  
to caffeine. Roasted 
and ground guarana 
seeds are now widely 
used in the health 
food industry. Pau d’arco (Tabebuia 
spp., p. 139) is used as 
an anticancer remedy. It has long been  
used by indigenous 
Peruvian peoples  
to lower fever and  
reduce inflammation. US_052_053_South_America.indd   53 26/02/16   4:43 pm
US_054-055_Key_Medicinal_Plants.indd   54 26/02/16   4:43 pmOf the estimated 500,000 plants on our planet, it is thought that around 10,000 are used 
regularly for medicinal purposes. The index of Key Medicinal Plants features 100 of the 
best-known medicinal plants in Latin name order. Many are commonly available and widely 
used in different herbal traditions around the world, for example German chamomile 
(Chamomilla recutita , p. 77) and ginger ( Zingiber officinale , p. 155). Others, such as neem 
(Azadirachta indica , p. 70), from Asia, are key herbs within their native region. A significant 
proportion of these herbs have been well researched and most are excellent for home use. Plant names
The Latin name given is the one by which the plant is most 
generally known in medical herbalism. If the plant has a  
Latin synonym, this is provided. The first part of the Latin 
name designates the plant’s genus (sub-family). The second 
part specifies the species name. In brackets after the Latin 
name(s) comes the plant’s family name, the broader class 
to which the genus belongs. The plant’s common name(s) 
are beneath the family name. If more than one common 
name is in popular use, they are listed in order of 
importance. Where appropriate, the origins of common 
names are given in brackets. Habitat & Cultivation
Gives information on where the plant is indigenous, its 
current distribution, how it is cultivated and harvested, 
and any preferred growing conditions. Related sPeCies
Provides cross-references and information on related 
species that are used medicinally or are well known. Key Constituents & Key aCtions
Lists the key active constituents and the key medicinal 
actions of the plant on the body in order of importance. Note For more information on plant constituents and 
their actions, see pp. 10–16. Resea RCH
Provides details of scientific research conducted into  
the plant, its constituents, and its extracts, including  
results of any clinical trials. If appropriate, includes herbal 
practitioners’ observations of the plant’s known actions 
and potential new medicinal uses for the herb. tRaditional & CuRRent uses
Reveals how the plant was used medicinally in the past  
and how it is used today in different herbal traditions. Examines differences between traditional and current uses, and shows how scientific research is sometimes 
confirming the validity of the traditional use and 
sometimes uncovering completely new applications for  
the herb. Note See Glossary  p. 321 for unfamiliar terms. PaRts used
Illustrates the parts of the plant used medicinally. Key PRePaRations &  tHeiR uses
Features key preparations with details of how they are 
taken or applied. Gives cautions about using the herb as a 
medicine and about the plant in general. States if the plant, 
its constituents, or its extracts are legally restricted. Note:  A self-help use is provided for many preparations. Before attempting any self-help use, it is essential to read 
the cautions and the information on pp. 290 & 298–299. Cautions
Gives cautions about using the herb medicinally and about 
the plant in general. States if the plant, its constituents, or 
its extracts are legally restricted. QConsidered safe as a medicine but potentially harmful  
if used inappropriately. Particular safety issues are listed. Where a plant is listed as “Take only under professional 
supervision,” it is not suitable for home use. RKnown to be toxic or unsafe as a medicine. Do not self- 
medicate with these plants. Some plants with this symbol 
may be safely prescribed by experienced healthcare 
practitioners within a very narrow dosage range. At a  
higher dose, such plants will be poisonous. self-HelP uses
Cross-refers to self-help treatments in Remedies for 
Common Ailments . Note:  Always read the cautions in Key 
Preparations & Their Uses  and the information on pp. 290 
& 298–299 before using any herb.key medicinal 
plants
US_054-055_Key_Medicinal_Plants.indd   55 17/03/16   4:00 pm
56AchilleA  millefoliumkey medicinal plantsAchillea millefolium (Asteraceae)
Y arrow, MilfoilYarrow
A creeping perennial, growing to 3 ft (1 m), with white flower heads and finely divided leaves. Habitat & Cultivation
Native to Europe and western Asia, 
yarrow can be found growing wild  
in temperate regions throughout the world, in meadows and along roadsides. The herb spreads via its roots, and the aerial parts are picked in summer when in flower. Key Constituents
■ Volatile oil with variable  
 content (linalool, camphor,   sabinene, azulene)
■ Sesquiterpene lactones
■ Flavonoids
■ Alkaloids (achilleine)
■ Triterpenes
■ Phytosterols
■ Tannins 
Key Actions
■ Antispasmodic
■ Astringent
■ Bitter tonic
■ Increases sweating
■ Lowers blood pressure
■ Reduces fever
■ Mild diuretic and urinary antiseptic■ Stops internal bleeding
■ Promotes menstruation
■ Anti-inflammatory
Research
Despite its many uses and similarity to German chamomile (Chamomilla recutita, p. 77), yarrow has been poorly researched. The herb and its volatile oil have been shown to be anti-inflammatory; the azulenes are also antiallergenic. The sesquiterpene lactones are bitter and have antitumor activity. Achilleine and the flavonoids help arrest internal and external bleeding; the flavonoids  
may be responsible for yarrow’s antispasmodic action. Laboratory studies indicate that yarrow dilates blood vessels, thereby lowering  
blood pressure. It works, in part,  like conventional medicines known as ACE inhibitors, which are commonly prescribed for high blood pressure. Traditional &  
Current Uses
■ Healing wounds Achilles 
reputedly used yarrow to heal wounds, 
hence its botanical name. It has been used for this purpose for centuries, and in Scotland a traditional wound ointment was made from yarrow. ■ Gynecological herb Y arrow 
helps regulate the menstrual cycle, reduces heavy menstrual bleeding, and eases period pain. ■ Other uses Combined with 
other herbs, yarrow helps colds and flu. Its bitter tonic properties make it useful for weak digestion and colic. It also helps hay fever, lowers high blood pressure, improves venous circulation, and tones varicose veins.Parts Used
Key Preparations & Their UsesY arrow is a native European plant, with a long history  
as a wound healer. In classical times, it was known as  herba militaris, being used to staunch war wounds.
Encyclopedia_Of_Herbal_Medicine.txt
Summarize the following text section accurately and concisely. Maintain specific details and numerical information, and use anti-repetition mechanisms:

        Earth exists in the nails, skin, and hair, as well as in the elements 
that hold the body together: bones, cartilage, muscles, and tendons. The five elements manifest in the functioning of the five senses, and  
they are closely related to our ability to perceive and interact with the 
environment in which we live. In Ayurveda, ether, air, fire, water and earth 
correspond to hearing, touch, vision, taste, and smell respectively. The Doshas & Health
The five elements combine to form three basic forces, known as the 
tridoshas, which exist in everything in the universe, and influence all mental 
and physical processes. From ether and air, the air principle vata is created; 
fire and water yield the fire principle pitta; and earth and water produce 
the water principle kapha. The principles correspond closely to the three 
humors of Tibetan medicine and somewhat resemble Galen’s theory of 
the four humors ( see p. 32). According to Ayurveda, we are all born with a particular balance of 
doshas. The proportions are largely determined by the balance of doshas  
in our parents at the time of our conception. Our body type, The chakras  are represented in this figure. India’s medical 
system, Ayurveda, identifies seven energy centers, chakras, 
sited along the spinal column from the head to the base of  
the spine. If they are blocked, illness results. US_036-039_India. indd   37 26/02/16   4:42 pm
38The developmenT  of herbal medicine
temperament, and susceptibility to illnesses are largely governed by the 
predominant dosha. In this way we inherit our basic constitution, called  
the prakruti, which remains unaltered throughout our lives. The first requirement for health in Ayurveda is a proper balance of the doshas. If the balance is upset, illness, ryadhi, results. The disruption may  be manifested in physical discomfort and pain, or in mental and emotional suffering, including jealousy, anger, fear, and sorrow. While our balance of doshas influences vulnerability to certain kinds of illness, the principles do not work in a vacuum. The effect our lifestyle has on our prakruti— vakruti—has a strong effect 
on overall health, and it may easily disrupt dosha balance. Illness may also result if the flow of energy, prana, around the body  
is interrupted. The flow is relayed via the seven chakras (psychic energy centers), which are situated at various points along the spinal column, from the crown of the head to the tailbone. If the energy flowing between these centers is blocked, the likelihood of ill health increases. Visiting an Ayurvedic Practitioner
An Ayurvedic practitioner first carefully assesses prakruti and vakruti—
constitution and lifestyle. This involves taking a detailed case history and carefully examining the body, paying attention to the build, the lines  
in the face and hands, and skin and hair type—all of which point to  
more profound aspects of the patient’s condition. However, the main foundations on which diagnosis rests are the appearance of the tongue, and the pulse rate. In these respects, Ayurveda has much in common with Chinese and Tibetan medicine, in which these two indicators are also  
of the greatest importance. A very complex technique for taking the patient’s pulse has been developed by Ayurvedic practitioners, requiring many years’ experience. When a dosha imbalance has been diagnosed, medical treatment and lifestyle advice are provided. The first step is eliminating toxins, and the main cleansing and rejuvenation program, known as panchakarma, includes therapeutic vomiting, purging, enemas, nasal administration of medication, and purification of the blood. Attributes of Remedies
Subsequent treatments fall into three main categories: medicines  
from natural sources, dietary regimens, and behavioral modifications. Medicines, foods, and lifestyle activities are all classified according to their effect on the three doshas. For instance, a health problem associated with an excess of kapha, the water principle, is characterized by congestion, excess weight, fluid retention, and lethargy. The practitioner would prescribe the consumption of warm, dry, light foods, because the quality of kapha is cool and damp. Avoidance of cold damp foods (such as wheat, sugar, and milk products), which increase kapha, would also be advised. Herbal remedies would include warming spices such as ginger (Zingiber officinale, p. 155) and cayenne (Capsicum frutescens, p. 74), as 
well as bitters such as turmeric ( Curcuma longa, p. 90). The specific choice of herbal remedy depends on its “quality” or 
“energy,” which Ayurveda determines according to twenty attributes 
(vimshati guna) such as hot, cold, wet, dry, heavy, or light. Ayurveda  
also classifies remedies according to six tastes—sweet, sour, salty, bitter, pungent, and astringent. Sweet, sour, and salty substances increase water Asafoetida (Ferula 
assa-foetida, p. 210) helps to strengthen the gastrointestinal tract. It is often taken to treat indigestion. Lemon (Citrus limon, 
p. 82). Lemon helps stave off colds by improving resistance to infection. It is thought to be  native to India. Cardamom (Elettaria 
cardamomum, p. 93) has been used in India for thousands  of years as a  digestive remedy. Cinnamon (Cinnamomum spp. ,  p. 81) is a tonic herb  taken to stimulate circulation. Ashwagandha (Withania somnifera,  p. 152) has been called “Indian ginseng,” and,  
much like ginseng,  it is used to restore vitality and treat nervous exhaustion. Jequirity (Abrus 
precatorius, p. 158). The seeds have  been used in Asia  as a contraceptive  and abortifacient. Soy (Glycine max,  
p. 217) is a highly nutritious bean that has become a staple crop around the world. The beans benefit the circulatory system. Soybeans
Soybean podsCardamom seed
Cinnamon sticks
Cinnamon powderFresh cardamom 
leavesDried lemon
US_036-039_India. indd   38 26/02/16   4:42 pm39Ind Ia and the m Iddle east
(kapha ) and decrease air ( vata); bitter, pungent, and astringent remedies 
increase air and decrease water; and sour, salty, and pungent herbs increase 
fire ( pitta). Preparations & Treatments
In addition to plant extracts, Ayurvedic medicines include honey and dairy 
produce, and sometimes minute doses of minerals such as salt are added. Remedies take the form of pills, powders, balms, and infusions, and most 
contain several different ingredients, all carefully balanced to individual 
needs. Treatment might include washes and enemas or the application of 
poultices as well as massage with warm herbal oil, burning incense, the use 
of precious stones and metals, and ritual purification for imbalanced mind 
and emotions. The chanting of mantras (incantations based on sacred 
texts), breathing, and meditation exercises may be advised, due to the 
power of sound and the effect of vibration and meditation on the body, 
mind, and spirit. Herbal Medicine in India Today
In the 19th century, the British dismissed Ayurveda as mere superstition, 
and in 1833 they closed all Ayurvedic schools and banned the practice. Great centers of Indian learning thus fell apart, and Ayurvedic knowledge 
retreated into villages and temples. At the turn of the century, however, 
some Indian physicians and enlightened Englishmen began to reevaluate 
Ayurveda, and by the time of India’s independence in 1947 it had regained 
its reputation as a valid medical system. Today, Ayurveda flourishes side by 
side with Unani Tibb and Western conventional medicine and is actively 
encouraged by the Indian government as an inexpensive alternative to 
Western drugs. In recent years, Ayurveda has attracted increasing attention 
from medical scientists in the West and in Japan, and the World Health 
Organization has resolved to promote its practice in developing countries. Ayurveda’s value lies in the fact that it is not a medical science dealing 
solely with treatment of disease. Instead, it offers practical guidelines that 
apply to every facet of daily existence. It also seeks to reconcile health and 
lifestyle with universal aspects of existence, and to enhance well-being  
and promote longevity. Ayurvedic market doctor. Practitioners prescribe herbal remedies on the basis of their attributes – “warm” and 
“cool” are but two of them. The Ayurvedic practitioner’s aim is to balance the patient’s doshas, the principles that 
regulate sickness and health. Sweet flag  (Acorus 
calamus,  p. 57). The  
rhizome is taken  
as a tonic and as  
an aphrodisiac. Chiretta  (Swertia 
chirata, p. 273) is  
a strongly bitter  
herb used to treat 
excess pitta (fire), 
marked by fever and 
liver problems. Pomegranate  (Punica 
granatum, p. 259) is 
used to make a 
traditional Ayurvedic 
remedy for dysentery. Tea (Camellia  
sinensis, p. 181) is 
astringent and tonic. Ginger  (Zingiber  
officinale, p. 155)  
is known as the 
“universal medicine”  
in Ayurveda. It is  
particularly helpful  
for relieving nausea  
and indigestion. Fresh sweet flag
Pomegranate flower
Pomegranate fruit
Ginger root
Ginger powderDried sweet flag
US_036-039_India. indd   39 26/02/16   4:42 pm
40The developmenT  of herbal medicine
40Baical skullcap
(Scutellaria baicalensis,  
p. 134) is given  
for diarrhea. Fu ling (Poria cocos) is  
a fungus that is dried, compressed, and cut  into cubes. It increases energy levels. Magnolia (Magnolia 
officinalis, p. 232) relieves cramps and indigestion. Chou wu tong 
(Clerodendrum trichotomum, p. 191) is  a valuable herb for the treatment of eczema. Ginseng (Panax ginseng, p. 118) helps the body cope with stress and fatigue. Schisandra 
(Schisandra chinensis, 
p. 133). The berries are eaten for 100 days as a tonic. Sang ye ( Morus alba, 
p. 237) alleviates the 
symptoms of flu. Codonopsis 
(Codonopsis pilosula,  p. 83) restores the appetite. In China, it is often added to soups and vegetable dishes. Ginseng rootGinseng decoctionTraditional Chinese medicine (TCM) and the herbal tradition that is part 
of it developed separately from Chinese folk medicine. It arose from ideas recorded between 200 bce and 100 ce in the Yellow Emperor’s Classic of Internal Medicine (Huang Di Nei Jing). This text is based on detailed observations of nature and a deep understanding of the way that all life is subject to natural laws. It contains concepts that are fundamental to TCM, including yin and yang ; the five elements (wu xing); and the theory of the 
effect of nature upon health. In TCM, living in harmony with these principles is the key to good health 
and longevity. According to the Yellow Emperor’s Classic, members of previous generations lived for a hundred years, and had constitutions so strong that illness was cured by incantations alone. Only later, as human vitality, or qi, declined and people became “overactive…going against the joy of life,” did herbal medicine, acupuncture, and other branches of TCM become necessary. Key Theories
Unlike other herbal traditions that have a unified theory for making sense of illness and disease (for example, the European theory of the four humors), TCM has two quite different systems—the yin and yang  theory 
and the five elements. They developed quite separately in China, and the five elements system was only accepted and fully incorporated into Chinese China, Japan, and 
Southeast Asia
China’s ancient herbal tradition has survived intact into the  
21st century, and in China it is now accorded equal status with 
Western conventional medicine. Today, many Chinese universities teach and research herbal medicine, a factor of crucial importance  
in the reemergence of herbalism worldwide. On the streets of Hong Kong herbal pharmacists are a familiar sight. Prescriptions are formulated during a 
consultation with an herbalist, and the patient then obtains the appropriate herbs. Jing jie 
(Schizonepeta 
tenuifolia, p. 268)  
is prescribed for  
fevers and measles. US_040-043_China. indd   40 26/02/16   4:42 pm41China, Japan, and southeast asia
Fo ti 
 (Polygonum multiflorum, 
p. 124), the oldest 
Chinese tonic herb, is 
used to prevent aging. Dong quai  
(Angelica sinensis,  
p. 63) is taken by  
millions of Chinese 
women as a nourishing 
blood tonic. Galangal (Alpinia 
officinarum, p. 61) is a 
warming herb used for 
abdominal pain. Cinnamon (Cinnamomum 
cassia, p. 81) is a  
warming herb that  
helps the circulation. Notopterygium root  
(Notopterygium incisium,  
p. 240) is used in China 
for colds, especially those 
accompanied by aching 
muscles and joints. Ginkgo  (Ginkgo biloba,  
p. 100) improves  
the memory and the 
circulation. T ablets,  
made from the leaves,  
are a bestselling herbal 
remedy in Europe. Su xian hua 
 (Jasminum officinale, 
see J. grandiflorum,  
p. 224) is an aromatic 
herb used to treat 
depression. medicine during the Song dynasty (960–1279 ce). To this day, differences 
between these theories are reflected in practitioners’ approaches to 
diagnosis and treatment. In Chinese thought, everything in the universe is composed of yin and 
yang—words that were first used to denote the dark and light side of a 
valley. Everything has yin and yang aspects, or complementary opposites—
such as day and night, up and down, wet and dry. Every yin or yang category 
can itself also be subdivided—so that while the front of the body is yin 
relative to the back, which is yang, the abdomen is yin relative to the chest, 
which is yang. The five elements theory associates constituents of the natural 
world—wood, fire, earth, metal, and water—with other fundamentals 
such as seasons, emotions, and parts of the body. Each element gives rise to 
the next in a perpetual fashion ( see diagram above). For this reason, the 
system might be more accurately described as the five phases, 
representing the process of continual movement in life. The five elements 
have a central role in Chinese herbal medicine, especially in the grouping of 
tastes of herbs and parts of the body. Diagnosis & Treatment
Instead of looking for causes of illness, Chinese practitioners seek patterns 
of disharmony, which are expressions of imbalance between yin and yang. Particular attention is given to reading the pulse and tongue, both of which 
are very important for an accurate diagnosis. Ill health results from a 
deficiency or excess of either yin or yang. A cold, for example, is not just 
the result of a virus (though this clearly is a cause), but a sign that the body 
is not adapting to external factors such as “wind-heat,” “wind-cold,” or 
“summer-heat. ” A high temperature denotes too much yang and shivering The ancient five elements theory  is used by the Chinese when writing prescriptions. It associates herbs 
with the natural world, including elements, seasons, and parts of the body. In the circular movement, 
each element gives rise to the next (for example, winter gives rise to spring). The five-angled movement 
is a controlling one, in which each element restrains another. MEtal
Season  Autumn Climate  Dry  
Emotion  Grief taste  Pungent Herb  
Ginger actions  Stimulant, Warming  
Parts of the body  Lungs, Large 
intestine, Nose, SkinWOOD
Season  Spring Climate  Windy Emotion  Anger
taste  Sour Herb  Schisandra action  Astringent 
 Parts of the body  Liver, Gallbladder, Eyes, Tendons
EaRtH
Season Late summer Climate  Damp 
Emotion  Reflection taste  Sweet
Herb  Jujube actions  Tonic, Restorative 
Parts of the body  Spleen, Stomach, 
Mouth, FleshFIRE
Season Summer
Climate  Hot
Emotion  Joy 
taste  Bitter
Herb  Chinese rhubarb 
action  Cooling
Parts of the body   
Heart, Small intestine,  
Tongue, Blood vesselsWatER
Season Winter
Climate  Cold
Emotion  Fear
taste  Salty 
Herb  Chinese figwort
action  Drains fluids
Parts of the body
Kidneys, Bladder, 
Bones, Ears, Hair
Ginkgo 
tablets
Ginkgo 
seeds
Ginkgo 
leaves
US_040-043_China. indd   41 26/02/16   4:42 pm
42The developmenT  of herbal medicine
42Goji berry (Lycium 
chinense, p. 111) is used in China as a blood tonic. Hong hua (Carthamus 
tinctorius, p. 184). Known as safflower in the West, hong hua is used in China to induce menstruation and to help heal wounds. White peony
(Paeonia lactiflora,  p. 117) helps menstrual complaints. In China, women who take the root regularly are thought to become as beautiful as the flower itself. Huo xiang (Agastache 
rugosa, p. 161) stimulates and warms the digestive tract. Ephedra (Ephedra 
sinica, p. 95) contains ephedrine, used in Western medicine  to treat asthma. Chinese rhubarb  
(Rheum palmatum, p. 126) is laxative in large doses  and constipating in  small ones. is the result of an excess of yin. The art of the Chinese herbal practitioner 
is to restore harmony between yin and yang  both within the patient’s body 
and between the patient and the world at large. Chinese Herbs
Over the centuries, the number of medicinal herbs has grown, and the 1977 Encyclopedia of Traditional Chinese Medicinal Substances has 5,757 
entries, the majority of which are herbs. The Communist Revolution in 1949 helped swell the number of plants used in TCM, because herbs that had previously only been employed in folk medicine were incorporated into the tradition. As the herbal tradition developed within TCM, the taste and other 
characteristics of herbs became closely linked with their therapeutic uses. The Divine Husbandman’s Classic (Shen’nong Bencaojing, 1st century ce) lists 252 herbal medicines specifying their tastes and “temperatures,” and today, Chinese herbalists still relate the taste and temperature of an herb directly  
to its therapeutic use. Sweet-tasting herbs such as ginseng (Panax ginseng, p. 118) are prescribed to tone, harmonize, and moisten, while bitter- tasting herbs such as dan shen ( Salvia 
miltiorrhiza, p. 130) are employed  to drain and dry excess “dampness. ” Hot-tasting herbs are used for treating “cold” conditions and vice versa. Together, an herb’s taste and temperature link it to specific types of illness. For example, Baical skullcap (Scutellaria baicalensis, p. 134), which 
is bitter-tasting and “cold,” is a drying, cooling herb for conditions such as fever and irritability, brought on by patterns of excess heat. Taking Medicines
The Chinese tradition relies heavily on formulas, which are set mixtures 
of herbs that have proven effectiveness as tonics or remedies for specific illnesses. Many are available over the counter and are used by millions of people every day in China and around the world. Chinese herbalists often take a formula as a starting point and then add other herbs to the mixture. There are hundreds of formulas, one of the most famous being “Four Things Soup,” a tonic given to regulate the menstrual cycle and tone the reproductive system. It consists of dong quai ( Angelica sinensis,  
p. 63), rehmannia (Rehmannia glutinosa, p. 125), chuang xiong ( Ligusticum 
wallachii), and white peony (Paeonia lactiflora, p. 117). Chinese herbal medicine uses tinctures or alcoholic extracts of herbs, but only infrequently. Generally, patients are given mixtures of roots and bark to take as decoctions two or three times a day. The Chinese Influence in Japan & Korea
Japan and Korea have been strongly influenced by Chinese medical  
ideas and practices. Kampoh, traditional Japanese medicine, traces its 
origins back to the 5th century ce, when Buddhist monks from Korea introduced their healing arts, largely derived from Chinese medicine, into Japan. In the following century, the Empress Suiko (592–628 ce) Goji berries
Goji berry plant bark
Ephedra tincture
Dried EphedraMany herbal preparations are available to Chinese 
practitioners.
The main focus of Ayurveda is on maintaining a balance of the three doshas, and it differs from Western medicine in its holistic approach to health, emphasizing the connection between the body, mind, and spirit.
What is the main focus of Ayurveda, and how does it differ from Western medicine?
The five elements in Ayurveda are not explicitly mentioned in the provided text. However, it can be inferred that the elements are not the same as the five elements theory in Chinese medicine, as Ayurveda is mentioned separately.
What are the five elements in Ayurveda, and how do they relate to the senses and the environment?
An Ayurvedic practitioner first assesses the patient's constitution (prakruti) and lifestyle (vakruti) by taking a detailed case history, examining the body, and analyzing the tongue and pulse. They then provide medical treatment and lifestyle advice to restore balance to the doshas and prevent illness.
What is the role of an Ayurvedic practitioner, and how do they diagnose and treat patients?
The five elements in Chinese herbal medicine are not explicitly mentioned in the provided text. However, it can be inferred that the elements are not the same as those in Ayurveda, as Chinese herbal medicine is mentioned separately.
What is the significance of the five elements in Chinese herbal medicine, and how do they relate to the five senses and the environment?
The main focus of Ayurveda is on maintaining a balance of the three doshas, which is different from other medical systems, as it emphasizes the connection between the body, mind, and spirit.
What is the main focus of Ayurveda, and how does it differ from other medical systems?