History & Folklore  
Winter savory was classified  
as “heating and drying” by the 
classical physicians Dioscorides  
and Galen, and was thought to have 
therapeutic benefits similar to those 
of thyme ( Thymus vulgaris , p. 143). Medicinal Actions & Uses  
Winter savory is most often used in 
cooking, but it also has marked medicinal benefits. It settles gas and stimulates digestion, helping to 
alleviate flatulence and colic. It is warming and has 
been taken for chest infections and bronchitis. The essential oil is strongly antibacterial and  
may be used to treat candidiasis and other  
fungal conditions. Related Species  Summer savory ( S. hortensis ) 
is a similar herb that has a milder essential oil. Calamint ( Calamintha ascendens , p. 181) is another 
close relative. Cautions  Do not take the essential oil internally 
without professional supervision. Do not take 
winter savory during pregnancy. Saussurea lappa
syn. S. costus  (Asteraceae)  
Kuth
Description  Upright perennial herb growing  
to 10 ft (3 m). Has heart-shaped leaves and  
blue-black flowerheads. Habitat & Cultivation Native to the Indian 
subcontinent, kuth is most commonly found in 
mountainous areas of Kashmir. The root is 
gathered in autumn. Parts Used  Root, essential oil. Constituents  Kuth contains a volatile oil 
(consisting of terpenes, sesquiterpenes, and 
aplotaxene), an alkaloid (saussarine), and a resin. Saussarine depresses the parasympathetic  
nervous system.Saponaria officinalis  
(Caryophyllaceae)
Soapwort
Description  Perennial growing to a height of  
3 ft (1 m). Soapwort has lance-shaped leaves and 
clusters of delicate pink 5-petaled tubular flowers. Habitat & Cultivation  Native to temperate 
regions of Europe, Asia, and North America, 
soapwort thrives in open woodland areas and  
on railroad embankments. It has been widely 
cultivated as a garden plant. The herb is gathered 
while in flower in summer; the root is unearthed  
in autumn. Parts Used  Root, aerial parts. Constituents  All parts of soapwort contain 
saponins (around 5%), resin, and a small quantity  
of volatile oil. History & Folklore  Soapwort has mostly  
been used as a substitute for soap, especially in 
washing clothes. Boerhaave (1668–1738), a Dutch 
physician, recommended soapwort as a treatment 
for jaundice. Medicinal Actions & Uses Soapwort’s  
main internal use is as an expectorant. Its strongly 
irritant action within the gut is thought to stimulate 
the cough reflex and increase the production of a 
more fluid mucus within the respiratory passages. Consequently, the plant is prescribed for bronchitis, 
coughs, and some cases of asthma. Soapwort may  
be taken for other problems, including rheumatic Soapwort  is an expectorant 
plant used to relieve 
bronchitis and coughs.Winter savory  helps 
to alleviate flatulence, 
indigestion, and colic. Satureja montana  (Lamiaceae)  
Winter Savory
Description  Semi-evergreen aromatic herb 
growing to 16 in (40 cm). Has lance-shaped leaves 
and white-pink flowers appearing in clusters. Habitat & Cultivation  Native to southern 
Europe, winter savory thrives in sunny, well-drained 
sites. It is commonly cultivated as a garden herb. The flowering tops are collected in summer. Parts Used  Flowering tops, essential oil. US_266-283_Sanguinaria_Ziziphus_jujuba.indd   267 26/02/16   12:48 pm
268
other medicinal plantsSchizonepeta tenuifolia
History & Folklore  Kuth root has been used 
in Indian medicine for at least 2,500 years. It has 
also been exported to China and the Middle East. The fragrant root is often used in perfumery. In India, it is valued as an aphrodisiac and for its reputed ability to prevent gray hair. Medicinal Actions & Uses  Kuth is used in 
the Ayurvedic and Unani Tibb traditions in India  for its tonic, stimulant, and antiseptic properties. The root is commonly taken, in combination with other herbs, for respiratory system problems such as bronchitis, asthma, and coughs. It is also used to treat cholera. Related species S. amara is used in Mongolian 
herbal medicine to treat bacterial infections and gallbladder disease. Caution  Do not take kuth essential oil internally.nodes of the neck, infected with tuberculosis, swell to form hard protruding lumps beneath the skin. Figwort root resembles these swollen glands and therefore, according to the Doctrine of Signatures (which holds that a plant’s appearance indicates  the ailments it treats), the herb was considered  to be an appropriate remedy for treating scrofula. Indeed, in the 16th and 17th centuries, figwort was esteemed as the best medicinal plant to help relieve all manner of swellings and tumors. Medicinal Actions & Uses  Figwort is an  
herb that supports detoxification of the body  and may be used as a treatment for various types of skin conditions. T aken internally as an infusion  or applied externally, figwort is of value in treating chronic skin diseases such as eczema and psoriasis. Applied externally, it will also help speed the healing of burns, wounds, hemorrhoids, and ulcers. The traditional use of figwort as a treatment for swellings and tumors continues in Europe to this day. The herb is also mildly diuretic, and it is reputed to be effective when used to expel worms. Related Species Water figwort (S. aquatica), 
another plant that is native to Europe, has similar properties, as does the American S. marylandica. In China, S. ningopoensis is used to treat infections  and to clear toxicity. Caution  Do not take figwort if suffering from  
a heart condition.Hartstongue is found growing in shady woodland sites across 
the northern hemisphere. Constituents Hartstongue contains tannins, 
mucilage, and flavonoids (including leucodelphidin). History & Folklore  Hartstongue has been 
prescribed as a treatment for diarrhea and 
dysentery for at least 2,000 years. In Wales and  the Scottish Highlands, it was traditionally used as  a poultice for wounds, scalds, and burns, and as an ointment for hemorrhoids. In Japan, the fronds were smoked by the Ainu people. Medicinal Actions & Uses  Hartstongue was 
valued in the past for its ability to heal wounds, but today it is employed chiefly as a mild astringent. It  is sometimes used in the treatment of diarrhea  and IBS, and it may be of benefit to the liver and spleen. Hartstongue appears to have expectorant properties, and it is also mildly diuretic. Scrophularia nodosa 
(Scrophulariaceae)
Figwort
Description  Upright perennial herb growing  
to 3 ft (1 m). Has a square stem, oval leaves, small 
round brown flowers in clusters, and green  seed capsules. Habitat & Cultivation  Native to Europe, 
Central Asia, and North America, figwort thrives  in wet or damp places, in open woodland, on riverbanks, and alongside ditches. The herb is gathered in the summer while in flower. Parts Used  Aerial parts. Constituents  Figwort contains iridoids  
(including aucubin, harpagoside, and acetyl  harpagide), flavonoids, cardioactive glycosides,  and phenolic acids. Harpagoside and harpagide  are thought to account for its antiarthritic activity. History & Folklore  Figwort’s genus name, 
Scrophularia, alludes to the plant’s age-old use as a treatment for scrofula. In this condition, the lymph Schizonepeta tenuifolia 
(Lamiaceae)
Jing Jie
Description  Perennial plant growing to 26 ft  
(8 m) with upright square stems, lance-shaped 
leaves, and whorls of small flowers. Habitat & Cultivation  Native to the Far East, 
jing jie is widely cultivated in eastern China. The aerial parts of the plant are gathered in autumn. Parts Used  Aerial parts. Constituents  Jing jie contains a volatile oil,  
the main constituents of which are menthone  and limonene. Medicinal Actions & Uses  In the Chinese 
tradition, jing jie is valued as an aromatic and warming herb. It is taken to alleviate skin conditions such as boils and itchiness. Jing jie also induces sweating and is used to treat fever and chills, and  as a remedy for measles. It is often combined with bo he (Mentha haplocalyx, p. 234). Research  Chinese studies have confirmed jing jie’s  
ability to increase blood flow in the vessels just beneath the skin. Scolopendrium vulgare 
(Polypodiaceae)
Hartstongue
Description  Evergreen fern growing to 2 ft  
(60 cm). Has long, tongue-shaped fronds with twin 
rows of spores on the underside. Habitat & Cultivation  Hartstongue is found 
throughout much of Europe, North Africa, East Asia, and North America. It prefers shaded sites  in woodlands and on banks and walls. The fronds are gathered throughout the summer. Parts Used  Fronds.Selenicereus grandiflorus 
(Cactaceae)
Night-blooming 
Cereus
Description  Climbing multibranched perennial 
cactus with upright cylindrical stems and aerial 
roots. Produces large flowerbuds opening into night-blooming white flowers that grow to 8 in  (20 cm) across, and red oval fruit. Habitat & Cultivation  Native to Mexico  
and Central America, night-blooming cereus is now rarely found in the wild. It is cultivated both as an ornamental and a medicinal plant. The flowers and young stems are gathered in summer. Parts Used  Flowers, young stems. Constituents  Night-blooming cereus contains 
alkaloids (including cactine), flavonoids (isorhamnetin), and a pigment. Cactine’s cardiotonic effect is considered similar to that of cardiac glycosides (see  
foxglove, Digitalis species, p. 202). Medicinal Actions & Uses As it is in short 
supply, night-blooming cereus is little used at present, but it is a valuable remedy for the heart. It stimulates the action of the heart, increasing the strength of contractions while slowing heart rate. It is prescribed as a treatment for various conditions, 
US_266-283_Sanguinaria_Ziziphus_jujuba.indd   268 26/02/16   12:48 pm269 other medicinal plantsSeSamum indicum
Habitat & Cultivation  The herb is native  
to central and southern Europe and now grows 
wild in northern Europe, North Africa, and 
western Asia, preferring sandy dry soil. Houseleek 
is widely cultivated as a garden plant. The leaves 
are picked in summer. Parts Used  Leaves, leaf juice. Constituents  Houseleek contains polyphenols, 
including procyanidins and mucilage. History & Folklore  The Frankish King 
Charlemagne (742–814 ce) told his subjects  
to plant houseleek on their roofs, as the plant 
reputedly warded off lightning and fire. Medicinal Actions & Uses  Houseleek  
leaves and their juice are used for their cooling  
and astringent effect, being applied externally  
to soothe many skin conditions, including burns, 
wounds, boils, and corns. As with many other 
remedies that are both astringent and soothing, 
houseleek simultaneously tightens and softens  
the skin. Traditionally, the leaves have been  
chewed to relieve toothache, and the juice  
has been sniffed to stop nosebleeds. Houseleek  
is still used externally, but internal use of this  
herb is not advised because in large doses it  
will induce vomiting. Caution  Do not take houseleek internally.Night-blooming cereus  has spectacular flowers that open  
at dusk and close at dawn. Houseleek’s  succulent leaves contain tannins and mucilage, 
both soothing to the skin.including angina and low blood pressure, and is 
often given as a tonic during recovery from a heart 
attack. In the Caribbean, the juice of the whole 
plant is used to expel worms, and the stems and 
flowers are used in the treatment of rheumatism. QCautions  T ake only under professional 
supervision. Excessive doses may cause stomach 
upset and hallucinations.Related Species  Ragwort ( S. jacobaea )  
has traditionally been used as a poultice or  
lotion to relieve rheumatic aches and pains. Cautions  Do not take life root internally. The plant is subject to legal restrictions in  
some countries. Sesamum indicum (Pedaliaceae ) 
Sesame,
Hei Zhi Ma
Description  Erect annual growing to 61⁄2 ft  
(2 m). Has lance-shaped to oval leaves, white, pink, 
or mauve flowers, and oblong seed capsules 
bearing many small gray seeds. Habitat & Cultivation  Native to Africa, 
sesame is cultivated in tropical and subtropical 
areas around the world. The root is unearthed in 
summer; the seeds are collected after the seed 
capsules have turned brown-black. Sesame seeds  are a rich source of unsaturated fatty acids 
and calcium.Sempervivum tectorum 
(Crassulaceae)
Houseleek
Description  Succulent perennial growing to  
4 in (10 cm). Has round rosettes of leaves, and 
flowering stems bearing clusters of bell-shaped  
red flowers.Senecio aureus  syn. Packera aurea
Life Root, 
Squaw Weed
Description  Upright perennial growing to  
3 ft (1 m). Has lance-shaped leaves and clusters  
of yellow daisy-type flowers. Habitat & Cultivation  Native to eastern 
North America, life root is found in marshes, and 
on damp ground and riverbanks. The aerial parts 
are gathered in summer. Parts Used  Aerial parts. Constituents  Life root contains a volatile  
oil, pyrrolizidine alkaloids (including senecine, 
senecionine, and otosenine), tannins, and resin. In isolation, the pyrrolizidine alkaloids are highly 
toxic to the liver. History & Folklore  The North American 
Catawba people used life root to treat 
gynecological problems in general, and  
to relieve labor pains in particular. Medicinal Actions & Uses  Until  
recently, life root was employed in Anglo- 
American herbalism much as it was in earlier  
times—as a means to induce menstrual periods  
and to bring relief to menopausal complaints. Today, the plant is recommended only for  
external use, as a douche for excessive  
vaginal discharge.Parts Used  Seeds, seed oil, root. Constituents  The seeds are highly nutritious 
and contain about 55% oil (mainly polyunsaturated 
fats), about 20% protein, lignans (notably sesamin 
and sesamolin), vitamins B3 and E, and minerals. The lignans are thought to lower blood cholesterol 
levels and blood pressure. History & Folklore  Sesame was one of  
the plants found in the tomb of Tutankhamun 
US_266-283_Sanguinaria_Ziziphus_jujuba.indd   269 26/02/16   12:48 pm
270
other medicinal plants
Solanum melongena (Solanaceae)
Eggplant, 
Aubergine
Description  An erect, herbaceous perennial 
growing to 28 in (70 cm). Has slightly woolly leaves, 
violet flowers, and large purple fruit. Habitat & Cultivation  Native to India and 
Southeast Asia, the eggplant is now cultivated in many tropical areas and also grown under glass  in cooler climates. The fruit is gathered when ripe  in summer or autumn. Parts Used  Fruit, fruit juice, leaves. Constituents  Eggplant contains proteins, 
carbohydrates, and vitamins A, B1, B2, 
and C.
History & Folklore  Eggplant has been 
cultivated as a food in southern and eastern Asia since ancient times. Medicinal Actions & Uses  Eggplant fruit 
helps to lower blood cholesterol levels and is suitable as part of a diet to help regulate high blood pressure. The fruit can be applied fresh  as a poultice for hemorrhoids, but it is more commonly used in the form of an oil or ointment. The fruit and its juice are effective diuretics. A soothing, emollient poultice for the treatment of burns, abscesses, cold sores, and similar conditions Smilax spp. (Liliaceae) 
Sarsaparilla
Description  Perennial woody climber growing 
to 16 ft (5 m). Has broadly ovate leaves, tendrils, and small greenish flowers. Habitat & Cultivation Sarsaparilla species 
are found in tropical rainforests and in temperate regions in Asia and Australia. The root is gathered throughout the year. Part Used  Root. Constituents  Sarsaparilla  
contains 1–3% steroidal saponins, phytosterols (including beta- and e-sitosterol), about 50% starch, resin, sarsapic acid, and minerals. Despite the herb’s reputation for being testosterogenic, the steroidal saponins and sterols are estrogenic and anti-inflammatory. The saponins also have antibiotic activity. History & Folklore  Brought from 
the New World to Spain in 1563, sarsaparilla was heralded as a cure  
for syphilis, reportedly having been used in the Caribbean with some success. The claims, however, were grossly inflated and the herb’s popularity  
soon waned. In Mexico, sarsaparilla has traditionally been used to treat a variety of skin problems. Before it was replaced by artificial agents, sarsaparilla root was the original flavoring for root beer.Smilax Spp. (1370–1352 bce). In ancient Egypt, the nutritionally valuable seeds were eaten and also pressed to yield oil, which was burned in lamps and used to make ointments. Sesame has long been considered to have magical powers, and the phrase “Open sesame!”, from the Arabian Nights, remains a well-known magical 
command. The Middle Eastern confection halvah is made from crushed and sweetened sesame seeds. Medicinal Actions & Uses  Sesame is 
principally used as a food and flavoring agent in China, but it is also taken to redress “states of deficiency,” especially those affecting the liver and kidneys. The seeds are prescribed for problems such as dizziness, tinnitus (ringing in the ears), and blurred vision (when due to anemia). Owing to their lubricating effect within the digestive tract, the seeds are also considered a remedy for “dry” constipation. The seeds have a marked ability to stimulate the production of breast milk. Sesame seed oil benefits the skin and is used as a base for cosmetics. It can be used to treat fungal skin problems such as athlete’s foot. Research  Research suggests that sesame  
seeds have antibacterial and antifungal activity. They also lower cholesterol and support levels  of “good cholesterol” (HDL).Medicinal Actions & Uses  Sarsaparilla is 
anti-inflammatory and cleansing, and the herb  can bring relief to skin problems such as eczema, psoriasis, and general itchiness, and help treat rheumatism, rheumatoid arthritis, and gout. Its estrogenic action makes it beneficial in premenstrual problems, and menopausal conditions such as debility and depression. Native Amazonian peoples take sarsaparilla to improve virility and to treat menopausal problems. In Mexico, the root is still frequently consumed for its reputed tonic and aphrodisiac properties. Research  Some of the steroidal saponins have 
been shown to bind to toxins within the gut, reducing their absorption into the bloodstream. This may account for sarsaparilla’s usefulness in autoimmune conditions such as psoriasis, rheumatoid arthritis, and ulcerative colitis, which can be associated with this sort of toxicity. Clinical research in China suggests that sarsaparilla might hold potential in the treatment of leptospirosis,  a rare disease transmitted to humans by rats, and the acute stage of syphilis. Solanum dulcamara (Solanaceae) 
Common Nightshade
Description  Slender-stemmed, woody climber 
growing to 13 ft (4 m). Has deeply lobed oval leaves, dark purple flowers with yellow anthers,  and scarlet oval berries.Habitat & Cultivation  Native to Europe, 
North Africa, and northern Asia, this herb has been naturalized in North America. A common wayside plant, it flourishes in open areas. The twigs are collected in spring or autumn, and the root bark in autumn. Parts Used Twigs, root bark. Constituents  Common nightshade contains  
steroidal alkaloids (including solasodine and soldulcamaridine), steroidal saponins, and about 10% tannins. History & Folklore  The Swedish botanist 
Carolus Linnaeus (1707–1778) considered the herb to be a valuable remedy for fever and inflammatory disorders. The herb is also called bittersweet, perhaps referring to the initial bitter taste of the berries, followed by a sweet aftertaste. Medicinal Actions & Uses  This plant has 
stimulant, expectorant, diuretic, detoxifying, and antirheumatic properties. It appears to be most effective taken internally to treat skin problems such as eczema, itchiness, psoriasis, and warts. A decoction of the twigs, applied as a wash,  
may also help to lessen the severity of these conditions. The herb may also be taken to relieve asthma, chronic bronchitis, and rheumatic conditions, including gout. QCaution  Common nightshade is toxic in 
excess. T ake only under professional supervision. Common nightshade  
treats skin problems  
and bronchitis. US_266-283_Sanguinaria_Ziziphus_jujuba.indd   270 26/02/16   12:48 pm271 other medicinal plantsSorbu S aucuparia
can be made from eggplant leaves. The mashed 
fruit can also be applied to sunburn. Research  German research (published in 1975) 
indicates that eggplant helps to prevent the 
accumulation of fatty deposits within arteries. Caution  Eggplant leaves are toxic and should 
only be used externally. Solanum tuberosum (Solanaceae)
Potato
Description  Perennial growing to 3 ft (1 m). Has branching stems with compound leaves,  
white or purple flowers, green berries, and swollen 
tubers (potatoes). Habitat & Cultivation  Native to Chile, 
Bolivia, and Peru, the potato plant with its many 
varieties is cultivated around the world. The tuber 
is normally unearthed from autumn to early spring. Part Used  Tuber. Constituents  Potato contains starch, large 
amounts of vitamins A, B1, B2, C, and K, minerals 
(especially potassium), and very small quantities of 
atropine alkaloids. One property of these alkaloids 
is the reduction of digestive secretions, including 
acids produced in the stomach. History & Folklore  Many different potato 
species and varieties were cultivated by the 
Quechua and Aymara peoples of the central 
Andes. In the early 16th century, the potato  
was introduced into Europe by Spanish voyagers 
returning from the New World. It was not until  
the 18th century that the potato became a staple 
ingredient in the European diet. Medicinal Actions & Uses  Taken in 
moderation, potato juice can be helpful in the 
treatment of peptic ulcers, bringing relief from  Constituents  Goldenrod contains saponins, 
diterpenes, phenolic glucosides, acetylenes, 
cinnamates, flavonoids, tannins, hydroxybenzoates, 
and inulin. The saponins are antifungal. History & Folklore  The herbalist John Gerard 
commented wryly in 1597 that “goldenrod has in 
times past been had in greater estimation and regard 
than in these days: for within my remembrance,  
I have known the dry herb which came from 
beyond the seas, sold … for half a crown an  
ounce. But since it was found in Hampstead  
wood [London] … no man will give half a  
crown for an hundredweight of it: which plainly 
setteth forth our inconstancy and sudden 
mutability, esteeming no longer of any thing  
(how precious soever it may be) than whilst  
it is strange and rare.” Four hundred years on,  
one can only agree. Medicinal Actions & Uses  Antioxidant, 
diuretic, and astringent, goldenrod is a valuable 
remedy for urinary tract disorders. It is used both 
for serious ailments such as nephritis, and for more 
common problems like cystitis. The herb also has  
a reputation for helping to flush out kidney and 
bladder stones. Goldenrod’s saponins act 
specifically against the Candida  fungus, the cause  
of vaginal yeast infection and oral thrush. The herb 
can also be taken for conditions such as sore 
throats, chronic nasal congestion, and diarrhea. Due to its mild action, goldenrod is used to treat 
gastroenteritis in children. Externally, it may be 
used as a mouthwash or douche for thrush. Related Species  Various Solidago  species are 
used medicinally in North America. Several species, 
including Canadian goldenrod ( S. canadensis ), have 
been taken to relieve colds, fevers, and chest pain. Sweet-scented goldenrod ( S. odora ) was listed  
as a stimulant, carminative, and diaphoretic  
(sweat-inducer) in the U.S. Pharmacopoeia   
from 1820 to 1882. Self-help Uses  Allergic rhinitis with 
congestion , p. 300; Urinary infections , p. 314. Sorbus aucuparia (Rosaceae)
Eastern Mountain Ash
Description  Deciduous tree growing to  
12 m (39 ft). Has reddish bark, compound leaves, 
clusters of small white flowers, and clusters of round 
red-orange fruit (berries). Also known as Rowan. Habitat & Cultivation  Mountain ash grows in 
woodlands throughout the Northern Hemisphere. It is also cultivated as an ornamental tree. Part Used  Fruit. Constituents  The fruit contains tannins, 
sorbitol, malic and sorbic acids, sugars, and  
vitamin C. The seeds contain cyanogenic  
glycosides, which, in a reaction upon  Goldenrod is a 
valuable remedy for 
urethritis, nephritis, 
cystitis, and other 
ailments of the 
urinary tract.Potato  can be helpful in relieving the painful symptoms of  
a gastric ulcer.pain and acidity. The juice or the mashed pulp  
may be used externally to soothe painful joints, 
headache, backache, skin rashes, and hemorrhoids. Potato skins are used in India to treat swollen gums 
and to heal burns. Related Species The root of the Brazilian  
S. insidiosum  is used as a diuretic and stomach-
supporting remedy. Cautions  All parts of the plant except the tuber 
are poisonous. Excessive doses of potato juice are 
toxic. Do not drink the juice of more than one 
large potato per day. Solidago virgaurea (Asteraceae)
Goldenrod
Description  Perennial plant growing to 28 in 
(70 cm). Has toothed leaves and branched spikes 
of golden-yellow flowers. Habitat & Cultivation  Native to Europe and 
Asia and naturalized in North America, goldenrod 
prefers open areas and hillsides. It is gathered in 
summer while in flower. Parts Used  Aerial parts. US_266-283_Sanguinaria_Ziziphus_jujuba.indd   271 26/02/16   12:48 pm
272
other medicinal plantsSpigelia marilandica
contact with water, produce  
the extremely poisonous 
prussic acid. History & Folklore  In 
the Scottish Highlands, this 
tree was believed to be a 
reliable antidote to 
witchcraft. Highlanders planted it near their houses, 
and cowherds believed that by using an ash switch to drive their cattle they could protect them from evil influences. The fruit has long been used to make preserves and alcoholic drinks. Medicinal Actions & Uses  The astringent 
mountain ash is most often taken as a jam or an infusion to treat diarrhea and hemorrhoids. In addition, infusions may be used as a gargle for sore throats and as a wash to treat hemorrhoids and excessive vaginal discharge. Caution  Remove the toxic seeds prior to using 
the fruit as a medicine or a food.Stachys officinalis  
syn. S. betonica (Lamiaceae)
Betony
Description  Mat-forming perennial growing  
to a height of 2 ft (60 cm). Has toothed elliptical 
leaves and spikes of pink or white flowers. Habitat & Cultivation  Betony grows 
throughout most of Europe, and occurs in Asia  as far east as the Caucasus, where it is found in meadows, heathland, and hilly areas. The aerial parts are collected when the plant is in flower during early summer.alone or with yarrow (Achillea millefolium, p. 56)  to help staunch nosebleeds. Betony is also mildly bitter. It stimulates the digestive system and the liver, and has an overall tonic effect on the body. Caution  Do not take betony if you are pregnant. Stellaria media (Caryophyllaceae)
Chickweed
Description  Sprawling perennial growing to 
about 6 in (15 cm). Has hairy stems, oval leaves,  and starlike white flowers. Habitat & Cultivation  Native to Europe  
and Asia, chickweed is now found in most regions  of the world. It grows easily in wasteground, and is generally regarded as a troublesome weed. The plant is harvested in summer. Parts Used  Aerial parts. Constituents  Chickweed contains triterpenoid 
saponins, coumarins, flavonoids, carboxylic acids, and vitamin C. The saponins may account for the herb’s ability to help reduce itchiness. History & Folklore  Dioscorides, a Greek 
physician writing in the 1st century ce, described chickweed’s applications as follows: “it [chickweed] may usefully be applied with corn meal for inflammation of the eyes. The juice may also  
Betony is an age-old headache remedy. Its name may 
derive from the Celtic for “good head.”
Chickweed can help to soothe 
eczema and other skin conditions.Parts Used  Aerial parts. Constituents  Betony contains alkaloids 
(including stachydrine and betonicine), as well as 
phenolic compounds, betaine, choline, and tannins. History & Folklore  Betony has been regarded 
as a panacea since classical times, even attributed with the ability to ward off evil spirits. Antonius Musa, physician to Emperor Augustus (63 bce–14 ce), claimed that betony would cure 47 different illnesses. The herb has always been particularly valued as a remedy for headaches. Medicinal Actions & Uses  No longer 
regarded as a panacea, betony nevertheless has real value as a remedy for headaches and facial pain. The plant is also mildly sedative, relieving nervous stress and tension. In British herbal medicine, betony is thought to improve nervous function and to counter overactivity. It is taken to treat “frayed nerves,” premenstrual complaints, poor memory, and tension. The plant has astringent properties, and in combination with other herbs, such as comfrey (Symphytum officinale, p. 138) and linden flowers  (Tilia species, p. 277), it is effective against sinus headaches and congestion. Betony may be taken Ash berries
Spigelia marilandica (Loganiaceae)
Pinkroot
Description  Perennial plant with oval to  
lance-shaped leaves, spikes of brilliant red-pink flowers, and a double seed capsule. Habitat & Cultivation  Native to the 
southern regions of the U.S., pinkroot flourishes  in dry rich soil in clearings and along woodland borders. The root is unearthed in autumn. Part Used  Root. Constituents  Pinkroot contains alkaloids 
(mainly spigeleine), a volatile oil, tannin, and resin. Spigeleine is emetic and irritant to the stomach. History & Folklore  Pinkroot was used 
extensively by Native Americans as a worm-expelling herb. It was gathered for trade with white settlers by the Creek and Cherokee peoples. From the late 18th century onward, pinkroot became one of the chief deworming herbs used in North America and Europe. Medicinal Actions & Uses  Pinkroot is used 
today solely to expel intestinal worms—particularly tapeworms and roundworms. It is prescribed with other herbs such as senna (Cassia senna, p. 75) and fennel (Foeniculum vulgare, p. 212) to ensure the elimination of both the worms and the root itself, which is potentially toxic if it is absorbed through the gut. Related Species Several Spigelia species act as 
worm-expelling herbs, for example S. flemmingania, native to Brazil, and S. anthelmia, native to the Caribbean, Venezuela, and Colombia. S. anthelmia also contains isoquinoline alkaloids and is used  in the treatment of heart disease. QCaution Only use pinkroot with the 
supervision of a professional practitioner. US_266-283_Sanguinaria_Ziziphus_jujuba.indd   272 26/02/16   12:48 pm273 other medicinal plantsSwertia chirata
be introduced into the ear in earache.” Apart from  
its medicinal uses, chickweed is a tasty and 
nutritious vegetable. Medicinal Actions & Uses  Chickweed is 
chiefly used to treat irritated skin, being applied  
as juice, poultice, ointment, or cream. In certain 
cases, chickweed may soothe severe itchiness 
where all other remedies have failed. It is often 
used to relieve eczema, varicose ulcers, and nettle 
rash (hives). An infusion of the fresh or dried 
plant may be added to a bath, where the herb’s 
emollient properties will help to reduce 
inflammation—in rheumatic joints, for example—
and encourage tissue repair. Chickweed may also 
be taken internally to treat chest ailments. There  
is some suggestion that chickweed has an 
antiobesity action. Cautions  If taken in excessive doses, chickweed 
may cause diarrhea and vomiting. Do not take 
during pregnancy. Self-help Uses  Eczema , p. 300; Diaper rash  
& inflamed skin rashes , p. 318; Nettle rash , p. 303.Strychnos nux-vomica 
(Loganiaceae)
Nux Vomica
Description  Evergreen tree growing to  
49 ft (15 m). Has glossy oval leaves, tubular  
white flowers, and yellow fruit containing 5–8  
disk-shaped seeds. Habitat & Cultivation  Nux vomica is native 
to Southeast Asia. It grows wild and is cultivated 
commercially. The seeds are gathered when mature. Parts Used  Seeds. Constituents  Nux vomica contains 3% indole 
alkaloids (predominantly strychnine, with many 
others), loganin, chlorgenic acid, and fixed oil. Strychnine is a lethal poison, producing intense 
muscle spasms. History & Folklore  Nux vomica seeds  
were first brought to Europe in the 15th century, 
probably as a poison for game and rodents. In 
1640, the seeds were first used in European 
medicine, as a stimulant. Medicinal Actions & Uses  Though rarely 
used internally due to its toxicity, nux vomica  
can be an effective nervous system stimulant, 
particularly in the elderly. In Chinese herbal 
medicine the seeds are used externally to relieve 
pain, to treat various types of tumors, and to 
relieve paralysis, including Bell’s palsy (facial 
paralysis). Nux vomica is a common 
homeopathic remedy prescribed 
mainly for digestive problems, 
sensitivity to cold, irritability, 
and melancholia.Research  In a Chinese clinical trial, a paste  
made from nux vomica seeds was applied to 
15,000 patients with Bell’s palsy. The treatment  
was reported to have been effective in more  
than 80% of the cases. Related Species  Many Strychnos  species are 
equally potent and have been used as arrow poisons. RCautions  T ake nux vomica only in 
homeopathic preparations. This herb and strychnine 
are subject to legal restrictions in most countries. Styrax benzoin (Styraceae)
Benzoin Gum
Description  Shrubby deciduous tree growing to 
30 ft (9 m). Has pointed oval leaves and clusters of 
white, fragrant, bell-shaped flowers. Habitat & Cultivation  Native to Southeast 
Asia, benzoin grows in tropical rainforests. It is  
also cultivated for its gum, which exudes from 
incisions made in the bark of trees that are at  
least 7 years old. Part Used  Gum. Constituents  Benzoin gum contains variable 
quantities of cinnamic, benzoic, and sumaresinolic 
acid esters, free acids (such as benzoic acid), 
benzaldehyde, and vanillin. Medicinal Actions & Uses  Benzoin gum is 
strongly antiseptic and astringent. It may be used 
externally on wounds and ulcers to tighten and 
disinfect the affected tissue. When taken internally, 
benzoin gum acts to settle cramping, to stimulate 
coughing, and to disinfect the urinary tract. Benzoin 
gum is an ingredient of Friar’s Balsam, an antiseptic 
and expectorant steam inhalation for sore throats, 
head and chest colds, asthma, and bronchitis. Nux vomica  is used in 
homeopathic preparations.Seeds
Swertia chirata  (Gentianiaceae)
Chiretta,
Chirayata (Hindi)
Description  Annual, growing to about 3 ft  
(1 m), with a much-branched stem, smooth, 
pointed, lance-shaped leaves, and numerous 
purple-tinged, pale green flowers. Habitat & Cultivation  Chiretta grows at  
high altitudes in northern India and Nepal. The 
whole herb is harvested while in flower. Parts Used  Whole herb. Constituents  Chiretta contains xanthones, 
bitter iridoids (including amarogentin), alkaloids,  
and flavones. History & Folklore  Chiretta was a  
common treatment for malaria, until Peruvian  
bark ( Cinchona  spp., p. 83) became readily  
available in Europe and Asia. Stillingia sylvatica (Euphorbiaceae)
Queen’s Delight
Description  Perennial growing to 1.2 m (4 ft). Has leathery leaves, yellow flowers without petals, 
and 3-lobed fruit. Habitat & Cultivation  Queen’s delight is 
native to the southeastern U.S., where it prefers 
sandy soils. The root is unearthed in autumn. Part Used  Root. Constituents  Queen’s delight contains 
diterpenes, fixed oil, volatile oil, resin, and 
tannins. The fresh root is considered to  
be most active. History & Folklore  Queen’s delight  
was used by Native Americans as a  
purgative, a treatment for skin eruptions,  
and a remedy for venereal disease. Creek women who had just  
given birth took a decoction  
of the root or were bathed with  
an infusion. Queen’s delight was  
included in the Pharmacopoeia of  
the United States  from 1831 to 1926. Medicinal Actions & Uses  Queen’s  
delight appears to promote general detoxification. It is taken internally to help clear constipation,  
boils, weeping eczema, and scrofula (tubercular 
infection of the lymph glands of the neck). The 
root is also taken to treat bronchitis and throat 
infection. Externally, it is applied as a lotion to 
hemorrhoids, eczema, and psoriasis. QCautions  Use only under professional 
supervision. Queen’s delight is emetic and 
purgative in large doses. US_266-283_Sanguinaria_Ziziphus_jujuba.indd   273 26/02/16   12:48 pm
274
other medicinal plantsSymplocarpuS  foetiduS 
and bronchitis. The root was also employed as  
a poultice to draw splinters and thorns, to heal wounds, and to relieve headaches. It was much used in America in the 19th century. Medicinal Actions & Uses  Skunk cabbage 
continues to be used primarily as an expectorant, treating cases of asthma, bronchitis, and whooping cough. It is also taken for upper respiratory problems such as nasal congestion and hayfever. Less commonly, skunk cabbage is used as a treatment for epilepsy, headaches, vertigo, and rheumatic problems, and to stop bleeding. Cautions  Handling fresh skunk cabbage may 
cause the skin to blister. Excessive doses can bring on nausea and vomiting, headaches, and dizziness. Syzygium cumini (Myrtaceae)
Jambul
Description  Evergreen tree growing to 33 ft  
(10 m). Has lance-shaped leaves and green-yellow flowers. Habitat & Cultivation A native of southern 
Asia and Australia, jambul is now also found in tropical regions of Africa. The tree is cultivated commercially for its fruit and is propagated from seed or semiripe cuttings in summer. It requires well-drained soil and plenty of sun. The fruit is harvested when ripe. Parts Used Fresh and dried fruit, seeds. Constituents  Jambul contains triterpenes, 
anthocyanins, flavonoids, and volatile oil. History & Folklore  Jambul is a typical  
example of a medicinal plant that is both food  and medicine. The fruit when ripe has the scent and taste of a ripe apricot and is eaten as a preserve. While both fruit and seed have a  tonic and astringent effect on the digestion,  the seeds have long traditional use in Ayurveda  as a preventative and treatment for diabetes. Medicinal Actions & Uses  Following 
traditional use, jambul continues to be employed for a wide variety of health problems. The powdered seed is commonly taken to treat diabetes and the frequent urination that accompanies it, as well as a remedy for mouth ulcers, stomachache, diarrhea, dysentery, and worms. Case reports over the last 100 years and more recent pharmacological research supports the use of jambul for diabetes and poor blood glucose control. It is thought to lower blood-sugar levels by about 30%. Related Species  Many other closely related 
species have notable therapeutic activity. Cloves  (Eugenia caryophyllata, p. 97) are taken for digestive problems and to treat infection. Syzygium gerrardii from South Africa and Luma chequen from Chile are used to treat coughs and congestion.Medicinal Actions & Uses  A strongly bitter 
herb, chiretta is powerful medicine for a weak stomach, especially when linked to nausea, indigestion, and bloating. It is taken in small, frequent doses to improve appetite and digestive function. For hiccups, small, frequent doses are taken with honey. Like most bitters it reduces fever, cooling the body and increasing blood flow to the liver. In Ayurvedic medicine the herb is used for pitta (fire) conditions, and is best known as the major herb in mahasudarshana churna—a standard mixture of more than 50 herbs prescribed for fevers such as malaria, liver problems, gallstones, and indigestion. Recently it has been used with other herbs to treat allergies. Research  The xanthones are thought to be  
antituberculous and antimalarial. Amarogentin  has a protective action on the liver. Caution  Avoid in digestive hyperacidity. Symplocarpus foetidus (Araceae)
Skunk Cabbage
Description  Unpleasant-smelling perennial  
plant growing to 30 in (75 cm). Has a thick tuberous rootstock, cabbage-like leaves, and  small purple flowers on a hooded spike.tamarindus indica (Fabaceae)
T amarind
Description  Evergreen tree growing to 80 ft 
(25 m). Has fine compound leaves, clusters of orange-yellow flowers, and brittle gray-brown  seed pods (fruit) containing up to 12 round seeds. Habitat & Cultivation  While native to 
Madagascar, the tamarind is now cultivated in  many of the world’s tropical regions, including  the Caribbean, India, Southeast Asia, and China. Parts Used Fruit, leaves, seeds. Constituents  T amarind contains 
16–18% plant acids (including nicotinic acid—vitamin B
3), a volatile  
oil (with geranial, geraniol, and limonene), sugars, pectin, 0.8% potassium, and fats. Vitamin C  was formerly believed to be among  the constituents of tamarind, but  this is now being disputed. History & Folklore  Sailors  
ate tamarind fruit as a nourishing complement to their otherwise starchy diet, in the belief that eating the fruit would prevent scurvy. However, it appears that tamarind does  not in fact contain vitamin C. T amarind is a major ingredient in many chutneys and condiments, notably Worcestershire sauce. Medicinal Actions & Uses  T amarind is  
a wholesome and cleansing fruit that improves digestion, relieves gas, soothes sore throats,  and acts as a mild laxative. However, mixed with cumin and sugar, tamarind is also prescribed as a treatment for dysentery. It is given for loss of appetite and nausea, and as a stomach tonic and mild laxative. It may help with nausea and vomiting in pregnancy. In southern India, tamarind soup is taken to treat colds and other ailments that produce excessive phlegm. In Chinese medicine,  it is considered a cooling herb, appropriate for treating “summer heat.” The fruit is also given  for loss of appetite, for nausea and vomiting in pregnancy, and for constipation. The seeds’ traditional use as an antivenin in snake bite has been partly confirmed in laboratory research. Self-help Use  Sore throats, p. 311Skunk cabbage is a foul-smelling plant with a powerful  
expectorant action. Habitat & Cultivation Native to northern 
North America, skunk cabbage thrives in meadows, 
swamps, and marshes. The root and rhizome are collected in autumn or early spring. Parts Used  Root, rhizome. Constituents  Skunk cabbage contains a volatile 
oil, serotonin (5HT), and resins. History & Folklore  The Winnebago and 
Dakota peoples used the expectorant and antispasmodic skunk cabbage root to treat asthma Fruit
tanacetum vulgare (Asteraceae)
T ansy
Description  Strongly aromatic perennial 
growing to 3 ft (1 m). Has an erect stem, feathery compound leaves, and clusters of yellow disk-shaped flowerheads. Habitat & Cultivation  Found throughout 
temperate zones in the northern hemisphere, 
US_266-283_Sanguinaria_Ziziphus_jujuba.indd   274 26/02/16   12:48 pm275 other medicinal plantsTerminalia chebula
T. baccata  also contain the substance. Studies  
have been conducted since the 1980s in search  
of potential cancer treatments. RCaution  Y ew is extremely toxic. Do not take 
under any circumstances. Terminalia belerica 
(Combretaceae)
Beleric Myrobalan
Description  Evergreen tree with clusters of 
oval leaves, spikes of small greenish unpleasant-
smelling flowers, and hairy brown fruit. Habitat & Cultivation  Beleric myrobalan  
is native to India, Malaysia, and the Philippines. It is 
found in forests and is cultivated for its astringent 
fruit, which is gathered both immature and ripe. Part Used  Fruit. Constituents  The fruit contains tannins  
and anthraquinones. Medicinal Actions & Uses  Beleric myrobalan 
fruit is astringent, tonic, and laxative. It is principally 
employed as a treatment for digestive and 
respiratory problems. In Indian herbal medicine,  
the ripe fruit is taken for diarrhea and indigestion, 
and the unripe fruit is used as a laxative for chronic 
constipation. It forms part of the classic Ayurvedic 
Triphala formula, chiefly used as a bowel tonic. Beleric myrobalan is also often used to treat upper 
respiratory tract infections that cause symptoms  
of sore throats, hoarseness, and coughs. Related Species  Many Terminalia  species are 
used to make astringent remedies, and also for 
their timber. See chebulic myrobalan ( T. chebula , 
following entry ). Caution Do not take during pregnancy. Tansy  is a strong 
deworming remedy  
for use only under 
professional guidance.Yew, no longer used  
in herbal medicine,  
is currently under  
research as a potential 
anticancer drug.Taxus baccata (Taxaceae)
Ye w
Description  Slow-growing evergreen tree 
reaching 80 ft (25 m) in height. Has rust-red bark 
and flattened, dark green needle-like leaves. The 
female trees produce fleshy red cup-like fruit.tansy grows in open areas, alongside roads, and 
close to water. The flowering tops are collected as 
the flowers open in summer. Parts Used Flowering tops. Constituents  T ansy contains a volatile oil, which 
includes significant levels of thujone and camphor, 
sesquiterpene lactones, flavonoids, and resin. The 
volatile oil strongly induces menstruation. History & Folklore  While it is not 
mentioned in surviving classical texts, tansy  
was described by medieval herbalists, notably  
St. Hildegard of Bingen (12th century). Ever since 
that time, tansy has been used most commonly as 
a worm-expelling plant. In England, tansy puddings 
were consumed during Lent. Medicinal Actions & Uses  T ansy is little  
used today because of its potential toxicity. When 
the plant is taken, it is chiefly in order to expel 
intestinal worms, and, to a lesser degree, to help 
stimulate menstrual bleeding. T ansy may be used 
externally to kill scabies, fleas, and lice, but even 
external application of tansy preparations carries 
the risk of toxicity. QCautions  Use only under professional 
supervision. T ansy is possibly unsafe for internal 
and external use, and should never be taken 
during pregnancy. The plant, and especially its 
essential oil, are subject to legal restrictions in 
some countries. Terminalia chebula 
(Combretaceae)
Chebulic Myrobalan
Description  Evergreen tree growing to 65 ft 
(20 m). Has egg-shaped leaves, white flowers in 
terminal spikes, and small, 5-ribbed fruit. Habitat & Cultivation  Native to Central 
Asia and India, chebulic myrobalan is found 
throughout Iran, Pakistan, and India. The fruit  
is collected when ripe. Part Used  Fruit. Constituents  Chebulic myrobalan contains 
triterpenes, polyphenols, a coumarin (chebulic 
acid), resin, and fixed oil. History & Folklore  Chebulic myrobalan has 
been used in Indian medicine for several thousand 
years, and the fruit has long been considered a 
prime remedy for all manner of digestive problems.Habitat & Cultivation Y ew grows throughout 
northern temperate zones. More often found in 
cultivation than in the wild, it prefers lime-rich soil. The leaves are gathered in spring. Parts Used  Leaves. Constituents  Y ew contains a mixture of alkaloids 
known as taxine, and also diterpenes (including 
taxol in some varieties), lignans, tannin, and resin. History & Folklore  The yew tree was sacred 
to the Druids, who are believed to have considered 
it an emblem of immortality. The Druids planted 
yews in holy sites, a practice that continued with the 
coming of Christianity. Many medieval churchyards 
contain ancient yews, some thought to be over 
2,000 years old. In the Middle Ages, the best 
longbows were made from yew wood, as were 
magic wands. Medicinal Actions & Uses  Though yew has 
been used in small doses to treat rheumatic and 
urinary problems, its extreme toxicity makes it an 
unsafe medicinal plant. Research  T axol inhibits cell division, and has thus 
been extensively researched for its use as an anti-
cancer drug. T axol is most commonly found in the 
Pacific yew ( T. brevifolia ), though some varieties of  
US_266-283_Sanguinaria_Ziziphus_jujuba.indd   275 26/02/16   12:48 pm
276
other medicinal plantsTheobroma cacao   
Medicinal Actions & Uses  Laxative and 
astringent, the fruit gently improves bowel regularity 
without excessively irritating the colon. It forms part of the classic Ayurvedic Triphala formula, used chiefly as a bowel tonic. Like Chinese rhubarb (Rheum palmatum, p. 126), chebulic myrobalan may be used as a treatment for diarrhea and dysentery. The fruit’s tannins protect the gut wall from irritation and infection, and tend to reduce intestinal secretions. Likewise, the fruit helps to counter acidic indigestion and heartburn. A decoction of chebulic myrobalan may be used as a gargle and mouthwash, as a lotion for sore and inflamed eyes, and as a douche for vaginitis and excessive vaginal discharge.The fruit has been also shown to have liver-protective and antidiabetic properties. Caution  Do not take chebulic myrobalan  
during pregnancy. Theobroma cacao (Sterculiaceae)
Cacao, 
Cocoa
Description  Evergreen tree growing to 26 ft  
(8 m). Has pale brown bark, glossy oval leaves, clusters of small yellow flowers, and large, pear-shaped, red-yellow seed pods.Constituents  Arborvitae contains a volatile  
oil (up to 60% thujone), coumarins, flavonoids (including procyanidin), tannins, and polysaccharides. History & Folklore  Many Native American 
peoples prized arbor-vitae as a medicine for fever, headaches, coughs, swollen hands, and rheumatic problems. The herb was burned as a smudge (smoky fire) for its scent and to ward off evil spirits. The 19th-century Eclectic herbalists  
used arbor-vitae as a remedy for bronchitis, rheumatism, and uterine cancer. Arborvitae has also been used to treat the side-effects of the smallpox vaccination. Medicinal Actions & Uses  Arborvitae has 
an established antiviral activity. It is most often used to treat warts and polyps, being prescribed both internally and externally for these conditions. It is also used as part of a regime for treating cancer—especially cancer of the uterus. Arborvitae makes an effective expectorant and anti-congestion remedy, and may be used to treat acute bronchitis and other respiratory infections. It induces menstruation and can be taken to bring on delayed periods, though this use is inadvisable if menstrual pain is severe. Arborvitae is diuretic and is used to treat acute cystitis and bed-wetting in children. Extracts of the herb may be painted on painful joints or muscles as a counterirritant, improving local blood supply and easing pain and stiffness. QCautions  T ake only under professional 
supervision. Do not take arborvitae during pregnancy or while breastfeeding. Self-help Use Warts, p. 304. Thymus serpyllum (Lamiaceae)
Wild Thyme
Description  Tuft-forming evergreen herb 
growing to a height of 3 in (7 cm). Has square stems, small aromatic oval leaves, and spikes of bright mauve flowers. Habitat & Cultivation  Native to Europe, 
thyme prefers heaths, moorland, and barren places. The herb is collected when in flower in summer. Parts Used  Flowering tops. Constituents Wild thyme contains a volatile oil 
(with thymol, carvacrol and linalool), flavonoids, caffeic acid, tannins, and resin. The volatile oil’s properties are similar to, but less potent than, those of thyme oil (from Thymus vulgaris, p. 143). History & Folklore  The 17th-century 
herbalist Nicholas Culpeper advised taking wild thyme to treat internal bleeding, coughing, and Cacao is cultivated in tropical regions around the world. The seed pulp is the source of cocoa.Arborvitae twig
Habitat & Cultivation  Native to Mexico  
and Central America, cacao is now a major crop 
throughout the tropics. The seed pods are harvested several times a year and are cut directly from the trunk of the tree (where they grow). One pod contains up to 50 beans, with roughly 900 weighing 2
1⁄4 lb (1 kg). According to the World Cocoa 
Foundation, world production of cacao in 2012 was more than 3.8 million tons. Parts Used  Seeds. Constituents  The unprocessed seed pulp 
contains high levels of polyphenols (mostly proantocyanidins and catechins), xanthines (including caffeine), a fixed oil, and many constituents responsible for chocolate’s flavor. Due to fermentation and the processing involved, chocolate has significantly reduced levels of polyphenols. Minute quantities of endorphins (powerful painkillers that occur naturally within  the body) are also present in cacao. History & Folklore  The word “chocolate” 
derives from chócolatl, the name given to this  tree by the Aztecs. In 1720, Cotton Mather, an American preacher and natural historian, praised cacao, writing that the plant “supplies the Indian with bread, water, wine, vinegar, brandy, milk, oil, honey, sugar, needles, thread, linen, clothes, caps, spoons, besoms, baskets, paper, and nails; timber, coverings for their houses; masts, sails, cordage for their vessels; and medicine for their diseases; and what can be desired more?”
Medicinal Actions & Uses  Though cacao is 
most often used as a food, it also has therapeutic value as a nervous system stimulant. In Central America and the Caribbean, the seeds are taken  as a heart and kidney tonic. The plant may be used to treat angina, and as a diuretic. Cacao butter (the fixed oil) makes a good lip salve and is often used as a base for suppositories and pessaries. Research  The potent mix of polyphenols in the 
unprocessed seed pulp has been the main focus of research into cacao. These have a protective activity on the heart and blood vessels, particularly supporting the capillaries or microcirculation. Cacao consumption is linked with lower blood pressure and cholesterol levels, as well as a reduced risk of coronary heart disease and stroke. It also appears to have an antidiabetic activity, stimulating the pancreas to regulate blood sugar levels more effectively. Other potential uses of cacao that have been investigated include the prevention of tooth decay, as an aid to weight loss, as a cancer-preventative food within the diet, and as a treatment for chronic fatigue. Thuja occidentalis (Cupressaceae)
Arborvitae
Description  Evergreen tree growing to 33 ft 
(10 m). Has scale-like leaves, male and female flowers, and small, egg-shaped cones. Habitat & Cultivation  Native to the 
northeastern U.S. and also known as white cedar, arborvitae flourishes in wet, marshy ground and along riverbanks. It has become a popular ornamental tree in Europe. The leaves are gathered in summer. Parts Used  Leaves. US_266-283_Sanguinaria_Ziziphus_jujuba.indd   276 26/02/16   12:48 pm277 other medicinal plantsTrigonella foenum-graecum
vomiting. He noted that “it comforts and 
strengthens the head, stomach, reins [ureters] and 
womb, expels wind and breaks the stone.” Carolus 
Linnaeus, the 18th-century Swedish naturalist, used 
the plant to treat headaches and hangovers. Medicinal Actions & Uses  Like its close 
relative thyme ( Thymus vulgaris , p. 143), wild thyme 
is antiseptic and antifungal. It may be taken as an 
infusion or syrup to treat flu and colds, sore 
throats, coughs, whooping cough, chest infections, 
and bronchitis. Wild thyme has anticongestion 
properties and helps clear a stuffy nose, sinusitis, 
ear congestion, and related complaints. It has been 
used to expel threadworms and roundworms in 
children, and is used to settle gas and colic. Wild 
thyme’s antispasmodic action makes it useful in 
relieving period pain. Externally, it may be applied 
as a poultice to treat mastitis (inflammation of the 
breast), and an infusion may be used as a wash to 
help heal wounds and ulcers. Wild thyme is also 
used in herbal baths and pillows. Related Species  See thyme ( T. vulgaris , p. 143). Caution  For worms in children, use only under 
professional supervision. Tilia spp. (Tiliaceae)
Linden,
Lime
Description  Deciduous trees growing to a 
height of 100 ft (30 m), with smooth gray bark, 
heart-shaped leaves, and clusters of pale yellow 
flowers with winglike bracts. Habitat & Cultivation Native to Europe, 
linden is found in the wild, but is also much planted  
in gardens and along roads. The flowers are 
collected in summer. Parts Used  Flowers 
and bracts. Constituents  Linden 
contains flavonoids 
(especially quercetin and 
kaempferol), caffeic and 
other acids, mucilage 
(about 3%), tannins, volatile 
oil (0.02%-0.1%), and traces 
of benzodiazepine-like 
compounds. The flavonoids 
improve circulation. History & Folklore  
Greek myth recounts how 
Philyra, a nymph, was 
raped by the god Cronus  
in the guise of a horse, 
and eventually gave birth 
to the famed centaur, 
Chiron. Philyra was so 
devastated that she Linden  flowers from 
several species, 
including Tilia 
europaea , are used 
in herbal medicine.Red clover is a common wayside plant, but it is also 
cultivated as a fodder crop.falling estrogen levels, but also to exert a protective 
effect on the heart and circulation in menopausal 
women with low estrogen levels. Early-stage 
research points to the isoflavones countering bone 
loss, making them potentially of use in 
osteoporosis. Due to the isoflavones’ ability to 
“compete” with the body’s own estrogen, it is now 
thought that red clover may be helpful in both 
preventing and treating breast cancer.begged the gods not to leave her amongst mortals. The gods granted her wish by transforming her 
into a linden tree. Medicinal Actions & Uses  Linden is an 
antispasmodic, sweat-inducing, and sedative 
remedy. It relieves tension and sinus headaches, 
helping to calm the mind and allow easy sleep. Linden is an excellent remedy for stress and panic, 
and is used specifically to treat nervous palpitations. The flowers bring relief to colds and flu by 
reducing nasal congestion and soothing fever. Linden flowers are commonly taken to lower high 
blood pressure, particularly when there are 
emotional factors involved. The flowers are used 
over the long term to treat high systolic blood 
pressure associated with arteriosclerosis. Because 
of their emollient quality, linden flowers are used in 
France to make a lotion for itchy skin. Trifolium pratense (Fabaceae)
Red Clover
Description  Perennial herb growing to 16 in  
(40 cm). Has a hairy upright stem, leaves with 3 (or, 
rarely, 4) oval leaflets with a white crescent marking, 
and pink to purple egg-shaped flowerheads. Habitat & Cultivation  Native to Europe  
and Asia, and naturalized in North America and 
Australia, red clover is widely cultivated for hay  
and as a nitrogen-fixing crop. The flowerheads  
are collected when newly opened in summer. Parts Used  Flowerheads. Constituents  Red clover contains volatile  
oil, including benzyl alcohol and methyl salicylate, 
isoflavones, coumarins, and cyanogenic glycosides. The isoflavones occur at relatively high levels and 
are phytoestrogenic. The isolated isoflavones are 
marketed as a treatment for menopausal problems. History & Folklore  This herb has traditionally 
been used to treat breast cancer. A concentrated 
decoction was applied to the site of the tumor in 
order to encourage it to grow outward and clear 
the body. Medicinal Actions & Uses  Red clover is 
used to treat skin conditions, normally in 
combination with other purifying herbs such as 
burdock ( Arctium lappa,  p. 65) and yellow dock 
(Rumex crispus , p. 264). It is also expectorant and 
may be used for spasmodic coughs. Red clover’s 
significant phytoestrogenic activity has led to 
increasing use of the herb to relieve menopausal 
symptoms. In most cases it will be preferable to 
use extracts of red clover flowers rather than the 
isoflavones on their own. Research The isoflavones have an established 
phytoestrogenic activity. Red clover isoflavones 
have been shown to have not only therapeutic use 
during menopause, helping to reduce the impact of Trigonella foenum-graecum  
(Fabaceae)
Fenugreek
Description  Strongly aromatic annual  
growing to about 32 in (80 cm). Has trifoliate 
leaves, yellowish-white pealike flowers, and  
sickle-shaped pods. Habitat & Cultivation  Native to North Africa 
and countries bordering the eastern Mediterranean, 
fenugreek grows in open areas and is widely 
cultivated, notably in India. The seeds are collected 
during the autumn months. Parts Used  Seeds. Constituents  Fenugreek contains a volatile oil, 
alkaloids (including trigonelline), saponins (based  
on diosgenin), flavonoids, mucilage (about 27%), 
protein (about 25%), fixed oil (approximately 8%), 
vitamins A, B1 and C, and minerals. History & Folklore  The Egyptian Ebers 
papyrus, which dates from c. 1500 bce, records a 
prescription for burns that includes fenugreek. The 
seeds were also used in ancient Egypt to induce 
childbirth. In the 5th century bce the Greek 
physician Hippocrates considered fenugreek to be  
a valuable soothing herb. Dioscorides, writing in the 
1st century ce, recommended fenugreek as a 
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other medicinal plantsTrillium erecT um
remedy for all manner of gynecological problems, 
including infection of the uterus and inflammation of the vagina and vulva. Medicinal Actions & Uses  Fenugreek is much 
used in herbal medicine in North Africa, the Middle East, and India, being esteemed as a remedy for  
a wide variety of conditions. The nourishing  
seeds are given during convalescence and to encourage weight gain, especially in anorexia. They are also helpful in lowering fever, with some authorities comparing their ability to that of quinine. The seeds’ soothing effect makes them of value  in treating gastritis and gastric ulcers. They are used to induce childbirth and to increase breast-milk production. Fenugreek is also thought to be antidiabetic and to lower blood cholesterol levels. Externally, the seeds may be applied as a paste to treat abscesses, boils, ulcers, and burns, or used as  a douche for excessive vaginal discharge. Research  Research indicates that fenugreek seed 
(preferably powdered) can prove effective in controlling insulin resistance and late-onset diabetes. The seeds help to stabilize blood-sugar levels, though the recommended dosage of seed required is unclear. The seeds also lower blood cholesterol levels. Other potential uses for the seeds include cramping period pains, polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS), and Parkinson’s disease. An Iranian clinical trial in 2014 found that 
1⁄10 oz (2–3 g) of powdered 
seed helped to reduce menstrual cramps. Caution Do not take during pregnancy. Trillium erectum (Liliaceae)
Bethroot
Description  Attractive perennial with an erect 
stem growing to 16 in (40 cm). Has 3 wavy leaves and an unpleasant-smelling, 3-petaled, red to yellow flower. Habitat & Cultivation  Native to North 
America, bethroot grows in shady areas in woodlands. The rhizome is usually unearthed  after the leaves have fallen in autumn. Part Used  Rhizome. Constituents  Bethroot contains steroidal 
saponins (such as trillin), tannin, resin, fixed oil,  and a trace of volatile oil. History & Folklore  Various Trillium species 
were used by Native Americans to aid childbirth, to treat irregular menstrual periods, period pain and excessive vaginal discharge, and, as a poultice, to soothe sore nipples. Medicinal Actions & Uses  Bethroot is a 
valuable remedy for heavy menstrual or intermenstrual bleeding, helping to reduce blood flow. It is also used to treat bleeding associated with uterine fibroids. Bethroot may also be taken for bleeding within the urinary tubules and, less commonly, for the coughing up of blood. It remains a valuable herb in facilitating childbirth. A douche of bethroot is useful for excessive vaginal discharge and yeast infections. Caution  Do not take during pregnancy except 
under professional supervision. Tropaeolum majus 
(Tropaeolaceae)
Nasturtium
Description  Climbing annual growing to 10 ft 
(3m). Has straggling stems, rounded leaves, and 
orange to yellow trumpet-shaped flowers with a long spur. Habitat & Cultivation  Native to Peru, 
nasturtiums flourish in sunny sites. They are grown as an ornamental and as a salad herb. All parts of the plant are harvested in summer. Parts Used  Flowers, leaves, seeds. Constituents Nasturtiums contain 
glucosinolates, sulphur glycosides, glucotropaeolin, flavonoids, spilantolic acid, and iodide. Glucotropaeolin is converted into mustard oils by gut bacteria and acts as an antibiotic within the urinary and respiratory systems. History & Folklore  The nasturtium has long 
been used in Andean herbal medicine as a disinfectant and wound-healing herb, and as an expectorant to relieve chest conditions.Medicinal Actions & Uses  All parts of  
the nasturtium appear to have antibiotic activity. An infusion of the leaves may be used to increase resistance to bacterial infections and to clear nasal and bronchial congestion—apparently the remedy both reduces congestion formation and stimulates the clearing and coughing up of phlegm. It can also prove useful in bacterial cystitis and it makes an effective antiseptic wash for external application.The juice of the plant has been taken internally for the treatment of scrofula (tubercular infection of the lymph nodes). The piquant-tasting leaves and flowers (and juice) of nasturtium are high in vitamin C, and make a good salad vegetable, while the ground seeds have purgative properties.
Encyclopedia_Of_Herbal_Medicine.txt
Summarize the following text section accurately and concisely. Maintain specific details and numerical information, and use anti-repetition mechanisms:

        History & Folklore  
Winter savory was classified  
as “heating and drying” by the 
classical physicians Dioscorides  
and Galen, and was thought to have 
therapeutic benefits similar to those 
of thyme ( Thymus vulgaris, p. 143). Medicinal Actions & Uses  
Winter savory is most often used in 
cooking, but it also has marked medicinal benefits. It settles gas and stimulates digestion, helping to 
alleviate flatulence and colic. It is warming and has 
been taken for chest infections and bronchitis. The essential oil is strongly antibacterial and  
may be used to treat candidiasis and other  
fungal conditions. Related Species  Summer savory ( S. hortensis ) 
is a similar herb that has a milder essential oil. Calamint ( Calamintha ascendens, p. 181) is another 
close relative. Cautions  Do not take the essential oil internally 
without professional supervision. Do not take 
winter savory during pregnancy. Saussurea lappa
syn. S. costus  (Asteraceae)  
Kuth
Description  Upright perennial herb growing  
to 10 ft (3 m). Has heart-shaped leaves and  
blue-black flowerheads. Habitat & Cultivation Native to the Indian 
subcontinent, kuth is most commonly found in 
mountainous areas of Kashmir. The root is 
gathered in autumn. Parts Used  Root, essential oil. Constituents  Kuth contains a volatile oil 
(consisting of terpenes, sesquiterpenes, and 
aplotaxene), an alkaloid (saussarine), and a resin. Saussarine depresses the parasympathetic  
nervous system. Saponaria officinalis  
(Caryophyllaceae)
Soapwort
Description  Perennial growing to a height of  
3 ft (1 m). Soapwort has lance-shaped leaves and 
clusters of delicate pink 5-petaled tubular flowers. Habitat & Cultivation  Native to temperate 
regions of Europe, Asia, and North America, 
soapwort thrives in open woodland areas and  
on railroad embankments. It has been widely 
cultivated as a garden plant. The herb is gathered 
while in flower in summer; the root is unearthed  
in autumn. Parts Used  Root, aerial parts. Constituents  All parts of soapwort contain 
saponins (around 5%), resin, and a small quantity  
of volatile oil. History & Folklore  Soapwort has mostly  
been used as a substitute for soap, especially in 
washing clothes. Boerhaave (1668–1738), a Dutch 
physician, recommended soapwort as a treatment 
for jaundice. Medicinal Actions & Uses Soapwort’s  
main internal use is as an expectorant. Its strongly 
irritant action within the gut is thought to stimulate 
the cough reflex and increase the production of a 
more fluid mucus within the respiratory passages. Consequently, the plant is prescribed for bronchitis, 
coughs, and some cases of asthma. Soapwort may  
be taken for other problems, including rheumatic Soapwort  is an expectorant 
plant used to relieve 
bronchitis and coughs. Winter savory  helps 
to alleviate flatulence, 
indigestion, and colic. Satureja montana  (Lamiaceae)  
Winter Savory
Description  Semi-evergreen aromatic herb 
growing to 16 in (40 cm). Has lance-shaped leaves 
and white-pink flowers appearing in clusters. Habitat & Cultivation  Native to southern 
Europe, winter savory thrives in sunny, well-drained 
sites. It is commonly cultivated as a garden herb. The flowering tops are collected in summer. Parts Used  Flowering tops, essential oil. US_266-283_Sanguinaria_Ziziphus_jujuba. indd   267 26/02/16   12:48 pm
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other medicinal plantsSchizonepeta tenuifolia
History & Folklore  Kuth root has been used 
in Indian medicine for at least 2,500 years. It has 
also been exported to China and the Middle East. The fragrant root is often used in perfumery. In India, it is valued as an aphrodisiac and for its reputed ability to prevent gray hair. Medicinal Actions & Uses  Kuth is used in 
the Ayurvedic and Unani Tibb traditions in India  for its tonic, stimulant, and antiseptic properties. The root is commonly taken, in combination with other herbs, for respiratory system problems such as bronchitis, asthma, and coughs. It is also used to treat cholera. Related species S. amara is used in Mongolian 
herbal medicine to treat bacterial infections and gallbladder disease. Caution  Do not take kuth essential oil internally. nodes of the neck, infected with tuberculosis, swell to form hard protruding lumps beneath the skin. Figwort root resembles these swollen glands and therefore, according to the Doctrine of Signatures (which holds that a plant’s appearance indicates  the ailments it treats), the herb was considered  to be an appropriate remedy for treating scrofula. Indeed, in the 16th and 17th centuries, figwort was esteemed as the best medicinal plant to help relieve all manner of swellings and tumors. Medicinal Actions & Uses  Figwort is an  
herb that supports detoxification of the body  and may be used as a treatment for various types of skin conditions. T aken internally as an infusion  or applied externally, figwort is of value in treating chronic skin diseases such as eczema and psoriasis. Applied externally, it will also help speed the healing of burns, wounds, hemorrhoids, and ulcers. The traditional use of figwort as a treatment for swellings and tumors continues in Europe to this day. The herb is also mildly diuretic, and it is reputed to be effective when used to expel worms. Related Species Water figwort (S. aquatica), 
another plant that is native to Europe, has similar properties, as does the American S. marylandica. In China, S. ningopoensis is used to treat infections  and to clear toxicity. Caution  Do not take figwort if suffering from  
a heart condition. Hartstongue is found growing in shady woodland sites across 
the northern hemisphere. Constituents Hartstongue contains tannins, 
mucilage, and flavonoids (including leucodelphidin). History & Folklore  Hartstongue has been 
prescribed as a treatment for diarrhea and 
dysentery for at least 2,000 years. In Wales and  the Scottish Highlands, it was traditionally used as  a poultice for wounds, scalds, and burns, and as an ointment for hemorrhoids. In Japan, the fronds were smoked by the Ainu people. Medicinal Actions & Uses  Hartstongue was 
valued in the past for its ability to heal wounds, but today it is employed chiefly as a mild astringent. It  is sometimes used in the treatment of diarrhea  and IBS, and it may be of benefit to the liver and spleen. Hartstongue appears to have expectorant properties, and it is also mildly diuretic. Scrophularia nodosa 
(Scrophulariaceae)
Figwort
Description  Upright perennial herb growing  
to 3 ft (1 m). Has a square stem, oval leaves, small 
round brown flowers in clusters, and green  seed capsules. Habitat & Cultivation  Native to Europe, 
Central Asia, and North America, figwort thrives  in wet or damp places, in open woodland, on riverbanks, and alongside ditches. The herb is gathered in the summer while in flower. Parts Used  Aerial parts. Constituents  Figwort contains iridoids  
(including aucubin, harpagoside, and acetyl  harpagide), flavonoids, cardioactive glycosides,  and phenolic acids. Harpagoside and harpagide  are thought to account for its antiarthritic activity. History & Folklore  Figwort’s genus name, 
Scrophularia, alludes to the plant’s age-old use as a treatment for scrofula. In this condition, the lymph Schizonepeta tenuifolia 
(Lamiaceae)
Jing Jie
Description  Perennial plant growing to 26 ft  
(8 m) with upright square stems, lance-shaped 
leaves, and whorls of small flowers. Habitat & Cultivation  Native to the Far East, 
jing jie is widely cultivated in eastern China. The aerial parts of the plant are gathered in autumn.
It is most often used in cooking, but it also has marked medicinal benefits, including settling gas and stimulating digestion, and is used to alleviate flatulence and colic.
What is the primary use of Winter Savory?
It is used to treat various skin conditions, such as eczema and psoriasis, and to stimulate the cough reflex and increase the production of mucus in the respiratory passages.
What is the primary use of Soapwort?
It is valued as an aromatic and warming herb, and is taken to alleviate skin conditions such as boils and itchiness, and is used to treat fever and chills, and as a remedy for measles.
What is the primary use of Jing Jie?
It is used in homeopathic preparations, and is used to treat various health issues, including bronchitis, coughs, and asthma.
What is the primary use of Strychnos nux-vomica?
There is no mention of Sanguinaria in the provided text, so it is not possible to provide an answer.
What is the primary use of Sanguinaria?