History & Folklore  The origins of the familiar 
garden carrot are a mystery—it was cultivated as a 
nutritious and cleansing food at least as long ago as 
ancient Greece and Rome. In the 1st century ce, the 
physician Dioscorides recommended the seeds to 
stimulate menstruation, to relieve urinary 
retention, and to “wake up the genital virtue.”  
The cultivated variety did not reach Britain until the 
16th century, when women used its beautiful, 
finely divided leaves to adorn their hair. Medicinal Actions & Uses  This common 
vegetable is also a wonderfully cleansing medicine. It supports the liver, and stimulates urine flow and 
the removal of waste by the kidneys. The juice of 
organically grown carrots is a delicious drink and  
a valuable detoxifier. Carrots are rich in carotene, 
which is converted to vitamin A by the liver. The 
raw root, grated or mashed, is a safe treatment for 
threadworms, especially in children. Wild carrot 
leaves are a good diuretic. They have been used to 
counter cystitis and kidney stone formation, and  
to diminish stones that have already formed. The 
seeds are also diuretic. They stimulate menstruation 
and have been used in folk medicine as a treatment 
for hangovers. Both leaves and seeds relieve 
flatulence and settle the digestion. Research  In a study published in 1995, a carrot 
extract was shown to protect the liver from toxicity. Cautions  Do not take carrot seeds during 
pregancy. Use only organic carrot juice since  
the root concentrates artificial fertilizers  
and insecticides. Medicinal Actions & Uses  Desmodium is 
chiefly a remedy for asthma and has been used as 
an antiasthmatic in Ghanaian hospitals. In France, 
the herb is taken for liver disorders including viral 
hepatitis—both A and B—apparently having most 
effect during the early stages. Desmodium may 
also be used to relieve headache, backache, and 
muscle and joint pain—a decoction being taken 
internally or applied as a lotion. Research  Ghanaian research has shown the herb 
to have antispasmodic and antiasthmatic activity. It 
also appears to increase the resistance of liver cells 
to inflammation, whether resulting from infection 
or toxicity. When taken in the early stages of 
illness, it normalizes liver function. Caution  In rare cases, desmodium can cause 
nausea or diarrhea.Thornapple  seeds and 
leaves ease asthma, but are 
hallucinogenic in large doses. Seeds
Daucus carota  (Apiaceae)
Carrot
Description  Annual (cultivated varieties) or 
biennial (wild). Has erect stem, which grows to a 
height of 3 ft (1 m), with feathery leaves, small 
white flowers, and flat green seeds. Cultivated 
subspecies have fleshy orange taproots. Habitat & Cultivation  Wild carrot is native 
to Europe, although cultivated subspecies are now 
grown around the world. The root is harvested in 
late summer, and the seeds are gathered in late 
summer or early autumn.Desmodium adscendens  (Fabaceae)
Desmodium
Description  Perennial, much-branched herb, 
growing to 20 in (50 cm). Desmodium has light 
purple flowers, and the leaves each have three 
small oval leaflets. Habitat & Cultivation  A native of West 
Africa, including Sierra Leone, northern Liberia and 
Ghana. The aerial parts are harvested as required 
or after flowering. Parts Used  Leaves and stems. Constituents  Contains indole alkaloids. History & Folklore  Desmodium has long 
been used in West African herbal medicine as a 
treatment for asthma, and also for jaundice.Dianthus superbus  
(Caryophyllacaea)
Fringed Pink,
Qu Mai (Chinese)
Description  Upright perennial herb growing to 
32 in (80 cm) or more. Has narrow, lance-shaped 
leaves and large, delicate, fragrant pink or lilac flowers. Habitat & Cultivation  Fringed pink is native 
to Europe and northern Asia (including China  
and Japan) growing at altitudes of up to 7,900 ft  
(2,400 m). It grows in clumps on hillsides and 
crevices, and is cultivated from seed in eastern 
China. It is only harvested when in flower. Parts Used  Aerial parts. Constituents  Fringed pink contains saponins, 
dianthins, tannins and flavonoids. History & Folklore  Fringed pink is first 
mentioned in the Chinese herbal known as the 
Divine Husbandman’s Classic (Shen’nong Bencaojing) , 
which was written in the 1st century ce. Medicinal Actions & Uses  Although fringed 
pink is common in Europe, there is little indication 
that people there have used it as anything other 
than a vegetable (the young leaves are best boiled 
or steamed). In Mongolia, it is used to promote 
contractions and childbirth, and is considered a 
diuretic, hemostatic, and anti-inflammatory. In 
Chinese medicine it is widely used for “damp-heat” 
conditions, and prescribed for kidney stones and 
urinary tract infections. Research  Research, mostly conducted in  
Korea and China, indicates that fringed pink has 
marked anti-inflammatory activity and possible 
cancer-fighting properties. Related Species  The gillyflower ( D. caryophyllus ), 
of Mediterranean origin, has similar constituents 
and is traditionally prescribed in European herbal 
medicine for coronary and nervous disorders. US_180-201_Brassica_dictamnus.indd   201 26/02/16   12:47 pm
202
OTHER MEDICINAL p LANT sDictamnus albus
Dictamnus albus (Rutaceae)
Dittany, 
Burning Bush
Description  Strongly aromatic, bushy, and hairy 
perennial growing to 32 in (80 cm). Has compound 
leaves and spikes of 5-petaled white or pink flowers streaked with purple. Habitat & Cultivation This herb grows in 
southern and central Europe and northern Asia, preferring warm, wooded areas. The flowering tops are gathered in late summer, the root generally in autumn. Parts Used  Root, flowering tops.rapidly strengthens the heartbeat, but is excreted very slowly. Digoxin is therefore preferred as a long-term medication. History & Folklore In medical history, foxglove 
is best known as the discovery of William Withering, an 18th-century English country doctor. Curious about the formula of a local herbalist, he explored the plant’s potential medical uses. His work led to the production of a life-saving medicine. Medicinal Actions & Uses Foxglove has a 
profound tonic effect on a diseased heart. Heart disease worsens when the heart’s ability to maintain normal circulation decreases. Foxglove’s cardiac glycosides enable the heart to beat more strongly, slowly, and regularly, without requiring more oxygen. At the same time, it stimulates urine production, which lowers the volume of blood, and thus lessens the load on the heart. Related Species Woolly foxglove (D. lanata)  
is today the main source of cardiac glycosides. RQ Cautions  
Potentially fatal in  overdose. Use only  under professional  
supervision. This  
plant is subject to  
legal restrictions. Common foxglove 
enables the heart 
to beat more 
evenly and is an 
invaluable remedy 
for heart disease.Digitalis lutea (Scrophulariaceae)
Y ellow Foxglove
Description Erect perennial growing to 3 ft  
(1 m). Has narrow, lance-shaped leaves, and long spikes of yellow, bell-shaped flowers. Habitat & Cultivation Native to western 
and central Europe, this herb grows in woodland areas, on roadsides, and in mountainous regions. It is cultivated for medicinal use in Russia. The leaves are harvested in the second summer of growth. Parts Used Leaves. Constituents Y ellow foxglove contains  
cardiac glycosides (including the cardenolides  alpha-acetyldigitoxin, acetyldigitoxin, and  
lanatoside). All act to strengthen the beating  of a weakened heart. History & Folklore Unlike the closely  
related common foxglove (D. purpurea,  following entry), yellow foxglove does not  appear to have played a significant role in  European herbal medicine. Medicinal Actions & Uses Y ellow foxglove  
is little employed in herbal medicine, but in fact  
it is a less toxic alternative to purple foxglove and woolly foxglove (D. lanata). It has similar medicinal actions but its alkaloids are more readily metabolized and flushed out by the body. Like other foxgloves, this plant supports a weakened or failing heart, increasing the strength of contraction, slowing  and steadying the heart rate, and lowering blood pressure by strongly stimulating the production  of urine, which reduces overall blood volume. Related Species Common foxglove  
(following entry). RQ Cautions Excessive doses of yellow 
foxglove can prove fatal. Use only under professional supervision. This plant is subject  
to legal restrictions in some countries.Dittany flowers were formerly used to make a preparation 
that was sniffed up the nose as a treatment for head colds. Constituents  Dittany’s potent volatile oil 
contains estragol and anethole, and a toxic  
alkaloid, dictamnin. History & Folklore  Dittany exudes such large 
amounts of volatile oil that in hot, dry conditions, a match held close will cause the whole plant to burst into flames. The plant has been used to flavor liqueurs and has been brewed as a tea in parts  of Siberia. In European folk medicine, dittany was considered an antidote to poison, pestilence, and  the bites of all types of venomous animals. Medicinal Actions & Uses  Very rarely used 
by herbalists today, dittany has an action similar  
to that of rue (Ruta graveolens, p. 265), in that  
it strongly stimulates the muscles of the uterus, inducing menstruation and sometimes causing abortion. By contrast, its effect on the gastrointestinal tract is antispasmodic. Dittany relaxes the gut and acts as a mild tonic for the stomach. The plant has also been used as a treatment for nervous conditions. RQ Cautions  This herb is toxic. T ake only  
under professional supervision. Do not take  during pregnancy.Digitalis purpurea 
(Scrophulariaceae)
Common Foxglove,
Purple Foxglove
Description  Perennial growing to 5 ft (1.5 m). Has a single erect stem, broad lance-shaped leaves, 
and bell-shaped, purple-pink or white flowers in long spikes. Habitat & Cultivation This herb is native to 
western Europe. Though it is also cultivated, the wild plant is considered superior. The leaves are picked in summer. Parts Used Leaves. Constituents Foxglove contains cardiac glycosides 
(including digoxin, digitoxin, and lanatosides), anthraquinones, flavonoids, and saponins. Digitoxin 
US_202-223_Digitalis_lutea_Iris_versicolor.indd   202 26/02/16   12:47 pm203 OTHER MEDICINAL p LANT sEchium vulgar E
Dipsacus fullonum  (Dipsacaceae)
Teasel
Description Perennial with a spiny ridged stem 
growing to 61⁄2 ft (2 m), lance-shaped leaves, and 
lilac-colored flowers blooming from hooked heads. Habitat & Cultivation Common throughout 
Europe and western Asia, teasel thrives on open 
areas, roadsides, and banks. It is cultivated only on a 
small scale. The root is unearthed in late summer. Part Used Root. Constituents Teasel contains inulin, bitter 
substances, and a scabioside. History & Folklore Traditionally, the root  
was used to treat conditions such as warts, fistulas 
(abnormal passages opening through the skin), and 
cancerous sores. The water that collects in the leaf 
was called “Venus’s bath” by early herbalists, and was 
thought to be very beneficial for the eyes. Medicinal Actions & Uses Teasel root is 
little used medicinally today, and its therapeutic 
applications are disputed. It is thought to have 
diuretic, sweat-inducing, and stomach-soothing 
properties, cleansing the system and improving 
digestion. Due to its apparent astringency, teasel is 
considered helpful in diarrhea. It is also thought to 
increase appetite, to tone the stomach, and to act on 
the liver, helping with jaundice and gallbladder 
problems. A new application of teasel, so far 
unsubstantiated, is in the treatment of Lyme disease.Sundew was once considered a refreshing herb because 
it maintained its “dew” even in full sun. Dorema ammoniacum (Apiaceae)
Ammoniacum
Description Very large perennial herb growing 
to a height of 10 ft (3 m), with a stout stem, 
compound leaves, and umbels of white flowers. Habitat & Cultivation Ammoniacum is native 
to central Asia, Iran, and northern Russia. When 
pierced, the stem exudes a milky gum, which is 
pressed into blocks and then ground into a powder. Part Used Oleo-gum-resin.Constituents Ammoniacum contains a resin 
(60–70%), gum, volatile oil (including ferulene and 
linalyl acetate), free salicylic acid, and coumarins. History & Folklore Ammoniacum’s medicinal 
value has been appreciated since ancient times, and 
is mentioned by Hippocrates (460–377 bce). The 
herb’s common name reputedly derives from  
the Temple of Jupiter Ammon in Libya, in an area 
where it was commonly collected. Medicinal Actions & Uses Used in both 
Western and Indian medicine, ammoniacum is still 
listed in the British Pharmacopoeia  as an antispasmodic 
and as an expectorant that stimulates the coughing 
up of thick mucus. It is a specific treatment for 
chronic bronchitis, asthma, and persistent coughs. Ammoniacum is also occasionally used to induce 
sweating or menstruation. Other Species Ammoniacum is medicinally 
similar to asafoetida ( Ferula assa-foetida , p. 210)  
and galbanum ( Ferula gummosa , p. 211).Habitat & Cultivation Sundew grows in 
Europe, Asia, and North America, and is found  
in marshy ground at altitudes up to 5,900 ft 
(1,800 m). Formerly it was picked while in flower  
in summer. As it is now rare, it should not be 
gathered from the wild. Parts Used Aerial parts. Constituents Sundew contains naphthaquinones, 
enzymes, flavonoids, and volatile oil. The 
naphthaquinones are antimicrobial, antispasmodic, 
and also cough-suppressing. History & Folklore In the 16th and 17th 
centuries, sundew was thought to be a remedy  
for melancholy. In his Irish Herbal  (1735), K’Eogh 
advised using sundew to “eat away rotten sores.”
Medicinal Actions & Uses Sundew is of 
greatest value in the treatment of spasmodic chest 
conditions such as whooping cough, bronchial 
asthma, and asthma. In relaxing the muscles of the 
respiratory tract, the plant eases breathing, relieves 
wheezing, and lessens the spasms of whooping 
cough. Commonly mixed with thyme in a syrup, 
sundew is a helpful remedy for coughs in children. The herb is also prescribed for gastric problems. Teasel  was traditionally used to treat warts and fistulas. Drosera rotundifolia 
(Droseraceae)
Sundew
Description Evergreen, insectivorous perennial 
growing to 6 in (15 cm). Has small white flowers. The hinged, spoon-shaped leaves edged with spines 
secrete a sticky fluid (“sundew”), which traps 
insects. They are digested when the leaf closes. Echium vulgare (Boraginaceae)
Viper’s Bugloss
Description Abundantly hairy perennial growing 
up to 3 ft (1 m). Has narrow prickly leaves and pink 
to violet clusters of flowers in dense spikes. Habitat & Cultivation Native to Europe, 
viper’s bugloss is commonly found on uncultivated 
land, by roadsides, and in low-lying and coastal 
regions. The flowering tops are gathered in  
late summer. Parts Used Flowering tops. Constituents Viper’s bugloss contains 
pyrrolizidine alkaloids, allantoin, alkannins, and 
mucilage. In isolation, pyrrolizidine alkaloids are 
toxic to the liver. The alkannins are antimicrobial 
and allantoin helps wounds to heal.Dorstenia contrajerva (Urticaceae)
Contrayerva
Description Stemless perennial herb growing  
to 1 ft (30 cm). Has palm-shaped leaves and long-
stalked greenish flowers. Habitat & Cultivation Native to Central  
and South America and the Caribbean islands, 
contrayerva is generally gathered from the wild. Part Used Rhizome. History & Folklore Contrayerva means 
“antidote” in Spanish, indicating its traditional use  
in the treatment of poisoning and venomous bites. The herb was employed in Mayan and Aztec 
medicine for a variety of purposes, including as  
a poultice to draw pus. Medicinal Actions & Uses Contrayerva 
rhizome is considered aromatic, stimulant, and 
sweat-inducing. Occasionally used in the early 
stages of serious fevers such as typhoid, it is also 
given for gastrointestinal problems such as 
diarrhea and dysentery. There is no scientific 
substantiation of its reputation as an antidote. Related Species D. convexa , native to Zaire, is 
used as a wound healer; D. klainei  is used in tropical 
Africa as a gargle. US_202-223_Digitalis_lutea_Iris_versicolor.indd   203 26/02/16   12:47 pm
204
other medicinal plantsEclipta prostrata
History & Folklore As its name suggests, 
viper’s bugloss was once considered a preventative 
and remedy for viper bite. In his 1656 The Art of Simpling, herbalist William Coles described the plant: “its stalks all to be speckled like a snake or viper, and is a most singular remedy against poison and the sting of scorpions.” Four years earlier, the English herbalist Nicholas Culpeper had praised its action against “the biting of vipers.”
Medicinal Actions & Uses In many respects, 
viper’s bugloss is similar to borage (Borago officinalis, p. 179), in that both herbs have a sweat-inducing and diuretic effect if taken internally. Viper’s bugloss has also been taken to treat chest conditions, as its mucilage soothes dry coughs and encourages expectoration. The significant mucilage content in viper’s bugloss has also proved helpful in treating skin conditions. Prepared in a poultice or plaster,  it is an effective balm for boils and carbuncles. In recent times, this herb has fallen out of use, due partly to lack of interest in its medicinal potential, and partly to its pyrrolizidine alkaloids, which in isolation are toxic. Viper’s bugloss may be safely used externally on unbroken skin. RCaution Do not take internally.Embelia ribes (Myrsinaceae)
Embelia
Description Climber with short, elliptical leaves, 
white or white-green flowers, and round red or black fruits. Habitat & Cultivation Native to India and 
Southeast Asia, embelia grows in hilly regions. The fruit is harvested when ripe. Part Used Fruit. Constituents Embelia contains naphthaquinones, 
including embelin. Embelin stimulates the production of estrogen and progesterone, and it may have a contraceptive effect. Medicinal Actions & Uses Embelia has  
been used in Asia as a home remedy for expelling worms. The herb is also diuretic and relieves flatulence, and is used for indigestion, colic, constipation, and debility. QCautions Use only under professional 
supervision. Do not take during pregnancy. Trailing eclipta is taken in India and China to stop premature 
graying of the hair.Eclipta prostrata syn . E. alba 
(Asteraceae)
Trailing Eclipta
Description Multi-branched annual growing  
to 2 ft (60 cm). Has lance-shaped leaves and  
white flowers. Habitat & Cultivation Trailing eclipta is 
native to Africa, Asia, and Australia. It is now found 
throughout the tropics, being particularly common in India, China, and Queensland and New South Wales in Australia. It is harvested in early autumn. Parts Used  Aerial parts. Constituents Trailing eclipta contains 
triterpenoid saponins, including ecliptine and  alpha-terthienylmethanol, isoflavonoids,  and phytosterols. Viper’s bugloss makes a 
soothing poultice for treating boils and carbuncles. Emblica officinalis 
(Euphorbiaceae)
Indian Gooseberry
Description Deciduous tree with feathery 
leaves, pale green flowers, and round pale green  
or yellow fruit. Also known as amla. Habitat & Cultivation Indian gooseberry 
grows in China, India, and Southeast Asia and is widely cultivated for its fruit. Part Used Fruit. Constituents Indian gooseberry contains 
tannins, polyphenols, flavonoids, a fixed oil, and  a volatile oil. History & Folklore The Indian gooseberry 
features in a 7th-century Ayurvedic medical text. The sage Muni Chyawan reputedly restored his vitality with this fruit. Medicinal Actions & Uses The astringent 
Indian gooseberry is given to allay the effects of aging and to restore the organs. In Ayurvedic medicine, the fruit juice is given to strengthen  
the pancreas of diabetics. It is one of the three herbs in the classic Ayurvedic herbal formula known as “Triphala.”
Research Recent research suggests that Indian 
gooseberry might have a remarkably wide range of potential medicinal benefits. A study in Kerala, India, showed that it may have protective activity against liver cancer. Other studies indicate potential anti-inflammatory and fever-inhibiting effects, and a cholesterol-lowering action. A study undertaken in Bombay concluded that  
the fruit might prove useful in the treatment of acute pancreatitis. History & Folklore Trailing eclipta is first 
mentioned in herbal literature in the Chinese  
Tang Materia Medica of 659 ce. The herb contains a black pigment that has been used to color the hair in India, and mothers wash babies’ heads in a decoction of the leaves to encourage hair growth. It is also used as an ink for tattooing. The leaves  
are also eaten as a vegetable. Medicinal Actions & Uses Trailing eclipta has 
remarkably similar uses in Ayurvedic and Chinese herbal medicine. In both of these traditions, a decoction is used to invigorate the liver, to prevent premature graying of the hair, and to staunch bleeding, especially from the uterus. In the Chinese tradition, the herb is considered a yin tonic;  
in Ayurvedic medicine it is thought to prevent aging. In the Caribbean, the juice is sometimes taken for asthma and bronchitis. Trailing eclipta  
is also used there as a treatment for enlarged glands, as well as for dizziness, vertigo, and  
blurred vision. Research Several laboratory experiments  
have shown that eclipta regulates enzyme levels within the liver and exerts a protective activity  
on it. US_202-223_Digitalis_lutea_Iris_versicolor.indd   204 26/02/16   12:47 pm205 other medicinal plantsErvatamia coronaria
Entada phaseoloides (Fabaceae)
Matchbox Bean
Description Woody vine with compound  
leaves and clusters of pea-type flowers. Huge,  
flat brown seed pods, containing black glossy 
seeds, grow to 5 ft (1.5 m) in length, making  
them the largest-growing legumes in the world. Habitat & Cultivation Matchbox bean is 
native to Australia and tropical regions of Asia  
and Africa. The seeds are collected when the  
pods are ripe. Parts Used Seeds. Constituents Matchbox bean contains 
significant amounts of saponins. History & Folklore The young leaves and 
roasted bean are eaten as vegetables, whereas 
fiber from the stems is made into nets, ropes, and 
sails. Due to the plant’s high saponin content, it is 
used as a shampoo. Medicinal Actions & Uses Australian 
Aborigines use the seeds to treat female  
sterility and indigestion, and as a painkiller. In the Philippines, juice made from the bark  
is used to treat conjunctivitis.tied to the tails of livestock to help them ward off 
flies. It was long considered a wound-healing herb. The English herbalist John Gerard, writing in 1597, 
recounted: “Dioscorides saith, that the horse-taile 
being stamped and laid to, doth perfectly cure 
wounds, yea although the sinues be cut in sunder, as 
Galen addeth.”
Medicinal Actions & Uses As its traditional 
usage indicates, horsetail is an excellent clotting 
agent. It staunches wounds, stops nosebleeds, and 
reduces the coughing up of blood. In addition, 
horsetail has an astringent effect on the 
genitourinary system, proving especially valuable 
where there is bleeding within the urinary tract, 
and in cases of cystitis, urethritis, and prostate 
disease. Horsetail helps to speed the repair of 
damaged connective tissue, improving its strength 
and elasticity. The herb is also prescribed to treat 
problems related to rheumatic and arthritic 
problems, for chest ailments (such as emphysema), 
for chronic swelling of the legs, and for various 
other conditions. A decoction of the herb’s aerial 
parts added to a bath benefits slow-healing sprains 
and fractures, as well as 
certain irritable skin 
conditions such  
as eczema.Cautions Horsetail breaks down vitamin B1 
(thiamine) and should generally be taken long  
term only in tandem with a B vitamin supplement. Eriodictyon californicum 
(Hydrophyllaceae)
Y erba Santa
Description Sticky evergreen shrub growing  
to 8 ft (2.5 m). Its narrow lance-shaped leaves are 
shiny green on the upper side and hairy white 
underneath. Trumpet-shaped white or blue 
flowers grow in clusters. Habitat & Cultivation Native to California 
and Oregon in the U.S., and northern Mexico,  
yerba santa flourishes on dry mountain slopes. It grows at altitudes of up to 3,900 ft (1,200 m). Parts Used Leaves. Constituents Y erba santa contains a volatile  
oil, flavonoids (including eriodictyol), and resin. History & Folklore The name yerba santa  
(holy weed) was given to this plant by Spanish 
colonists who learned of its medicinal virtues  
from Native Americans. Traditionally, the leaves 
were infused and taken for coughs, colds, sore 
throats, mucus, and asthma. The infusion was  
also used as a wash to ease fever, and the mashed 
leaves were applied as a poultice to treat sores. Medicinal Actions & Uses An aromatic  
herb with a pleasant sweet taste, yerba santa is  
a valuable expectorant that can be used to treat 
tracheitis, bronchitis, and asthma, and similar 
respiratory tract ailments. Dried aerial parts 
Horsetail staunches bleeding, 
and is astringent and diuretic.Equisetum arvense (Equisetaceae)
Horsetail,
Bottlebrush
Description Perennial plant with a yellowish 
fruiting stem growing to 14 in (35 cm), followed  
by a sterile segmented and toothed stem growing 
to 2 ft (60 cm). The latter has whorls of needle-
shaped leaves. Habitat & Cultivation Native to 
Europe, North Africa, northern Asia, and the 
Americas, horsetail is a common plant, preferring 
damp soil. The sterile stems are harvested in 
summer and carefully dried, all discolored parts 
being discarded. Parts Used Aerial parts. Constituents Horsetail contains large amounts 
of silicic acid and silicates (about 15%), flavonoids, 
phenolic acids, alkaloids (including nicotine), and 
sterols. Much of the therapeutic effectiveness of 
this herb is due to its high silica content, a large 
proportion of which is soluble and can be 
absorbed. Silica supports the regeneration  
of connective tissue. History & Folklore Horsetail is a primitive 
plant that is descended from huge trees that 
lived during the Palaeozoic era (600–375 million 
years ago). The herb’s high silica content makes it 
abrasive, and in the past it was used to polish metal 
and wood. Its common name, bottlebrush, 
indicates another of its uses. Horsetail was also Ervatamia coronaria (Apocynaceae)
Grape Jasmine,
East Indian Rosebay
Description Perennial shrub growing to 61⁄2 ft 
(2 m). Has dark green, elliptical leaves and 
strongly perfumed white flowers. Habitat & Cultivation Grape jasmine is 
grown in India, Malaysia, and Indonesia. Parts Used Root, leaves, latex. Constituents Grape jasmine contains alkaloids 
and resins. Medicinal Actions & Uses In Ayurvedic 
medicine, the root and the latex are used to  
expel worms. The root is also chewed to relieve 
toothache. The latex is used to treat cataracts 
(especially in the early stages), eye inflammations, 
and poor eyesight. The leaf juice makes a soothing 
treatment for skin irritations and wounds. QCaution Use grape jasmine only under 
professional supervision. US_202-223_Digitalis_lutea_Iris_versicolor.indd   205 26/02/16   12:47 pm
206
other medicinal plantsEryngium maritimum
Eryngium maritimum (Apiaceae)
Sea Holly,
Eryngo
Description Evergreen perennial growing  
to 2 ft (60 cm). Has spiny silver leaves, and tiny 
flowers in summer. Habitat Sea holly is found in coastal areas  
of Europe, preferring sandy soils. The root is unearthed in autumn. Part Used Root. Constituents Sea holly contains saponins, 
coumarins, flavonoids, and plant acids.Erythronium americanum 
(Liliaceae)
Trout Lily
Description Perennial growing to 10 in (25 cm) 
from a small, bulblike corm. Has two oblong leaves 
mottled with purple and a large, bright yellow  
lily flower. Habitat & Cultivation Native to North 
America, trout lily is found mainly in the east,  from New Brunswick to Florida. It prefers damp woodland and open ground. The leaves are gathered in summer. Parts Used Leaves. Constituents Very little is known about  
the constituents of this plant. It contains alpha-methylenebutyrolactone. History & Folklore Trout lily was little used  
by Native Americans. European settlers considered its medicinal properties to be similar to those of meadow saffron (Colchicum autumnale, p. 193). Trout lily was listed in the Pharmacopoeia of the United States from 1820 to 1863 as a treatment  
for gout. Medicinal Actions & Uses An infusion of 
the leaves is taken for skin problems such as ulcers and tumors, and for enlarged glands. The leaves  (or the whole plant) may also be applied as a poultice for skin conditions. The fresh leaves are strongly emetic. QCaution T ake trout lily only under 
professional supervision.Erythraea centaurium 
(Gentianaceae)
Centaury
Description Biennial herb growing to 91⁄2 in  
(24 cm) with a basal rosette of leaves and 
5-petaled pink flowers in clusters. Habitat & Cultivation Native to Europe  
and southwestern Asia, centaury is now found in temperate regions throughout the world. The plant is harvested in summer when just about to flower. Parts used Aerial parts. Constituents Centaury contains many bitter 
constituents, including secoiridoids, also found in gentian (Gentiana lutea, p. 99). History & Folklore In classical myth, the 
centaur Chiron used this herb to treat a poisoned arrow wound. Medicinal Actions & Uses One of the most 
useful bitter herbs, centaury has a relatively mild bitter action, stimulating appetite as well as digestive 
secretions from the salivary glands, stomach, 
intestines, and gallbladder. With increased 
digestive juices, food is processed and 
broken down more effectively, leading 
to better absorption of nutrients. For best results, centaury should be taken 
over several weeks. The preparation should be slowly sipped so that the 
components (detectable at a dilution of 
up to 1:3,500) can stimulate reflex activity 
throughout the upper digestive tract. Self-help Uses Weak digestion, p. 306; Gas & 
bloating, p. 306. Sea holly has distinctive silver  
leaves and is often seen in  coastal areas of Europe. History & Folklore In 17th-century England, 
sea holly root was candied and eaten as a 
sweetmeat. It was also consumed as a means of preventing scurvy. In his Irish Herbal (1735), K’Eogh states that the herb “provokes urination and menstruation, encourages flatulence, and removes obstructions of the liver, kidneys, and bladder.” In K’Eogh’s time, sea holly was a popular medicinal herb, and was considered helpful in the treatment of a wide array of neurological conditions, including paralysis and convulsions. Medicinal Actions & Uses In contemporary 
European herbal medicine, sea holly is used as a diuretic. It is prescribed as a treatment for cystitis and urethritis, and taken as a means to alleviate kidney stones. It is unlikely that the herb actually dissolves established stones, but it probably helps retard their formation. Sea holly is also used  
to treat enlargement or inflammation of the prostate gland, and may be of benefit in treating chest problems.Erythrina variegata (Fabaceae)
Indian Coral Tree,
Dadap (Hindi)
Description Deciduous tree growing to 59 ft 
(18 m). Has prickly stems, leaves with triangular leaflets, and pea-like red flowers. Habitat & Cultivation Indian coral tree 
grows in deciduous forests throughout much  of the Indian subcontinent. Parts Used Bark, leaves. Constituents Indian coral tree contains 
alkaloids, isoflavonoids, triterpenoids, and lectins. The alkaloids are anti-inflammatory and analgesic, and the isoflavonoids display antibacterial activity. Medicinal Actions & Uses In Ayurvedic 
medicine, Indian coral tree is used to treat inflammatory conditions, period pain, and problems related to eating and digestion, including anorexia, flatulence, colic, and worms. The bark is used to treat skin problems and fever. A paste made from the leaves is applied to heal wounds.Erythroxylum coca 
(Erythroxylaceae)
Coca
Description Evergreen shrub growing to  
10 ft (3 m). Has alternate oval leaves, small white 
flowers, and small red berries that each contain  a single seed. Habitat & Cultivation Native to Peru and 
Bolivia, coca grows in high-rainfall areas of the eastern Andes to altitudes of 4,900 ft (1,500 m). It is mostly cultivated for the illegal market. The leaves are picked when they begin to curl. Parts Used Leaves. Constituents Coca contains cocaine and 
various other alkaloids, a volatile oil, flavonoids, vitamins A and B
2, and minerals. The plant’s 
stimulant and anesthetic action is due largely  to cocaine. History & Folklore The indigenous peoples  
of the Andes carry pouches containing coca leaves and lime, which they chew throughout the day. Early European travelers noted that individuals chewing coca never had tooth or gum problems, other medicinal plants
US_202-223_Digitalis_lutea_Iris_versicolor.indd   206 26/02/16   12:47 pm207 other medicinal plantsEucommia ulmoid E s
and local folk medicine traditionally considered the 
plant a treatment for toothache. Coca leaf extract 
is still used as a flavoring for cola drinks—but 
cocaine has long been banned from the formulas. Medicinal Actions & Uses In Bolivia and 
Peru, coca leaves play an important part in the 
culture and herbal medicine of the indigenous 
Aymara and Quechua peoples. High altitudes,  
cold, and an impoverished diet place great physical 
demands on the population. Coca leaves, chewed 
with lime or ashes, release small amounts of the 
active constituents, which act as a tonic and help 
block the effects of cold, exhaustion, and poor 
nutrition. Coca leaves are also used in South 
American herbal medicine to treat nausea,  
vomiting, and asthma, and have been used to  
speed convalescence. Cocaine extracted from  
coca leaves is used legally in conventional medicine 
as a local anesthetic. It is also taken illegally as a 
narcotic, stimulant drug. As an isolated chemical, 
cocaine is extremely addictive. QCautions T ake only under professional 
supervision. Coca is subject to legal restrictions  
in most countries. History & Folklore Native American  
peoples were known to use the sap of California 
poppy for its pain-killing properties, particularly  
for toothache. The leaves were also eaten as a 
vegetable. Early settlers used California poppy  
for sleep problems, especially in children, and for 
whooping cough. It is California’s state flower. Medicinal Actions & Uses Though the 
California poppy is a close relation of the opium 
poppy ( Papaver somniferum , p. 244), it has a 
significantly different effect on the central  
nervous system. California poppy is not a  
narcotic. In fact, rather than disorienting the user, 
it actually tends to normalize psychological 
function. California poppy’s gently antispasmodic, 
sedative, and analgesic effects make it a valuable 
herbal medicine for treating physical and 
psychological problems in children. The herb  
may prove beneficial in attempts to overcome 
nervous tension and anxiety, bedwetting, and 
difficulty in sleeping.Research A French study confirmed the 
traditional usage of California poppy by showing 
that extracts were sedative, reduced anxiety levels, 
and were non-toxic. Eucalyptus smithii (Myrtaceae)
Gully Gum
Description Aromatic evergreen tree growing 
to 165 ft (50 m). Habitat & Cultivation Native to Australia, 
eucalyptus now grows in temperate and subtropical 
zones across the globe. It prefers moist soil, and so 
is found in swamps, gullies, and at the foot of slopes. Part Used Essential oil. Constituents The volatile oil contains about 
70% eucalyptol (1, 8-cineole), as well as pinene, 
limonene, alpha-terpineol, and linalool. While it is 
similar to the oils of related species, this oil appears 
to be better tolerated by the skin. Medicinal Actions & Uses Eucalpytus smithii 
oil is an antiseptic and decongestant, and is used  
for inhalations as well as aromatherapy massages. See eucalyptus ( Eucalyptus globulus , p. 96) for 
further details. Cautions Though less toxic than the oils of other 
eucalyptus species, E. smithii  essential oil should be 
used with care. Follow the label instructions, or take 
on professional advice. Coca is cultivated in the Andes and chewed as a tonic to help 
counter the effects of cold.California poppy contains a 
latex that has sedative, pain-
killing, and antispasmodic 
properties. It is a gentle 
remedy, suitable for children. Eschscholzia californica 
(Papaveraceae)
California Poppy
Description Annual or perennial growing to  
2 ft (60 cm). California poppy has finely cut leaves 
and bright orange, yellow, pink, or red flowers. Habitat & Cultivation California poppy  
is native to western North America. Widely 
cultivated as a garden plant, it prefers sandy soils. Parts Used Aerial parts. Constituents California poppy contains iso -
quinoline alkaloids (including protopine, crypto -
pine, and chelidonine) and flavone glycosides.Eucommia ulmoides 
(Eucommiaceae)
Eucommia Bark,
Du Zhong (Chinese)
Description Deciduous tree growing to 65 ft 
(20 m). Has elliptical leaves, with male flowers in 
loose clusters and solitary female flowers in the 
leaf axils. Habitat & Cultivation Eucommia bark grows 
in temperate zones in China. It is cultivated, but 
only in small amounts. Part Used Bark. Constituents Eucommia bark contains gutta-
percha, alkaloids, flavonoids, iridoids and other 
glycosides, and phenolic compounds. History & Folklore The herb is mentioned  
in the Chinese herbal, the Divine Husbandman’s 
Classic  (Shen’nong Bencaojing ), which was written  
in the 1st century ce. Medicinal Actions & Uses Eucommia bark  
is considered an excellent tonic for the liver and 
kidneys. Eucommia bark is said to “tonify the yang,” 
to improve the circulation, and also to prevent 
miscarriage in women who are weak or suffering 
from back pain. US_202-223_Digitalis_lutea_Iris_versicolor.indd   207 26/02/16   12:47 pm
208
other medicinal plantsEuonymus atropurpurE us
Research Much interest has been aroused  
by eucommia bark’s ability to reduce high blood 
pressure, which it is thought to do by increasing nitrous oxide levels within the arteries. In a clinical trial in China involving 119 people, 46% of those treated with the herb showed a significant blood pressure reduction. However, eucommia bark appears to have little effect in cases of severe hypertension. Recent studies indicate that eucommia bark is an antioxidant and may help to prevent the onset of type 2 diabetes. A small clinical trial in Japan published in 1996 concluded that an infusion of eucommia bark reduced the body’s exposure to mutagen-forming compounds naturally present within the diet. Euonymus atropurpureus 
(Celastraceae)
Wahoo Bark
Description Deciduous tree growing to  
26 ft (8 m). Has smooth branches, serrated 
elliptical leaves, clusters of purple flowers,  
and 4-lobed scarlet fruit. Habitat & Cultivation Native to eastern 
North America, wahoo bark thrives in damp woods and close to water. The bark is gathered in autumn. Parts Used Stem bark, root bark. Constituents Wahoo bark contains 
cardenolides (cardiac glycosides) similar  
to digitoxin, asparagine, sterols, and tannins. History & Folklore The Sioux, Cree, and 
other Native American peoples used wahoo  bark in various ways, for example as an eye lotion, as a poultice for facial sores, and  for gynecological conditions. Native Americans introduced the plant to early European settlers, and it became very popular in North America as well as in  Britain in the 19th century. Medicinal Actions & Uses Wahoo 
bark is considered a gallbladder remedy with laxative and diuretic properties. It is prescribed for biliousness and liver problems, as well as for skin conditions such as eczema (which may result from poor liver and gallbladder function) and for constipation. In the past, it was often used in combination with herbs such as gentian (Gentiana lutea, p. 99) as a fever remedy, especially if the liver was under stress. Following the discovery that it contains cardiac glycosides, wahoo bark  
has been given for heart conditions. QCautions Wahoo bark is toxic. Use only 
under professional supervision. Do not take during pregnancy or while breastfeeding.Medicinal Actions & Uses Hemp agrimony 
has been employed chiefly as a detoxifying herb  for fever, colds, flu, and other acute viral conditions. The root is laxative and diuretic, and the whole herb is considered to be tonic. Recently, hemp agrimony has found use as an immunostimulant, helping to maintain resistance to acute viral and other infections. Related Species See also boneset  
(E. perfoliatum, following entry) and gravel root  
(E. purpureum, subsequent entry). QCaution In view of hemp agrimony’s 
pyrrolizidine alkaloid content, take only under professional supervision. Hemp agrimony was 
formerly taken as a spring tonic in Holland.Eupatorium cannabinum 
(Asteraceae)
Hemp Agrimony
Description Perennial growing to a height of  
5 ft (1.5 m). Has a red stem, downy leaves, and 
dense bunches of pink to mauve florets. Habitat & Cultivation Native to Europe, 
hemp agrimony is now also found in western Asia and North Africa. It grows in damp woods, ditches, marshes, and in open areas, and is gathered when in flower in summer. Parts Used Aerial parts, root. Constituents Hemp agrimony contains a volatile 
oil (with alpha-terpinene, p-cymene, thymol and  
an azulene), sesquiterpene lactones (especially eupatoriopicrin), flavonoids, pyrrolizidine alkaloids, and polysaccharides. P-cymene is antiviral, while eupatoriopicrin has anti-cancer properties and inhibits cellular growth. The polysaccharides stimulate the immune system. In isolation, the pyrrolizidine alkaloids are toxic to the liver. History & Folklore Hemp agrimony was 
known to Avicenna (980–1037 ce) and other practitioners of Arabian medicine in the early Middle Ages. Eupatorium perfoliatum 
(Asteraceae)
Boneset
Description Erect perennial growing to  
5 ft (1.5 m). Has tapering lance-shaped leaves  
and many white or purple florets. Habitat & Cultivation Native to eastern 
North America, boneset is found in meadows  and marshland. It is gathered when in flower  in summer. Parts Used Aerial parts. Constituents Boneset contains sesquiterpene 
lactones (including eupafolin), polysaccharides, flavonoids, diterpenes, sterols, and volatile oil. The sesquiterpene lactones and polysaccharides are significant immunostimulants. History & Folklore Native American people 
used boneset to make an infusion for treating  colds, fever, and arthritic and rheumatic pain. European settlers learned of the plant’s benefits, and by the 18th and 19th centuries it was regarded as a virtual cure-all. Boneset’s common name derives from its ability to treat “break-bone fever.” Commonly used to treat malaria, constituents within boneset are now known to have antiprotozoal activity. Medicinal Actions & Uses A hot infusion  
of boneset will bring relief to symptoms of the common cold. The plant stimulates resistance to viral and bacterial infections, and reduces fever by encouraging sweating. Boneset also loosens phlegm and promotes its removal through coughing, and it has a tonic and laxative effect. It has been taken for rheumatic illness, skin conditions, and worms. Related Species Wild horehound (E. 
teucrifolium) was used as a substitute for bone set. E. occidentale was used by the Zuni of the south -
western U.S. to treat rheumatism. See also  hemp agrimony (E. cannabinum, preceding entry) and gravel root (E. purpureum, following entry). Self-help Uses  Allergic rhinitis with mucus,  
p. 300; Colds, flu & fevers, p. 311; High fever, p. 311. US_202-223_Digitalis_lutea_Iris_versicolor.indd   208 26/02/16   12:47 pm209 other medicinal plantsEuphrasia spp . Euphorbia hirta syn. E. pilulifera  
(Euphorbiaceae)
Pill-bearing Spurge,
Asthma Plant
Description Erect annual or perennial plant 
growing to 20 in (50 cm), with pointed oval leaves 
and clusters of small flowers. Habitat & Cultivation Native to India and 
Australia, pill-bearing spurge is now widespread 
throughout the tropics. The aerial parts of the 
plant are gathered when it is in flower. Parts Used Aerial parts.Euphorbia pekinensis 
(Euphorbiaceae)
Da Ji
Description Erect annual or perennial  
plant with oblong leaves and dense clusters  
of small flowers. Habitat & Cultivation Native to China,  
da ji is cultivated mainly in the eastern and  
central provinces. The root is unearthed in  
early spring. Part Used Root. Constituents Da ji contains euphorbon. Medicinal Actions & Uses Da ji is classified 
as a toxic herb in Chinese herbal medicine, and 
therefore it is prescribed only for relatively serious 
illnesses. It is taken as a cathartic to purge excess 
fluid in conditions such as pleurisy and ascites 
(excess fluid in the abdomen), and for the 
treatment of kidney problems, especially nephritis. Da ji is applied externally to inflamed sores to 
reduce swelling. Research Research in China indicates that da ji  
is therapeutically useful in the treatment of ascites 
and nephritis; however, it produces significant  
side effects. Related Species E. kansui  is similar to da ji  
but has a stronger cathartic action. In Chinese 
herbal medicine it is only given to people with 
strong constitutions. QCaution Da ji is a toxic plant. T ake only under 
professional supervision.Pill-bearing spurge is recommended as a treatment  
for asthma.Eupatorium purpureum 
(Asteraceae)
Gravel Root, 
Joe Pye Weed
Description Erect perennial growing to 5 ft  
(1.5 m). Has whorls of pointed oblong leaves and 
clusters of purple-pink florets. Habitat & Cultivation Gravel root is native 
to eastern North America. The root is unearthed 
in autumn. Part Used Root. Constituents Gravel root contains a volatile oil, 
flavonoids, and resin. History & Folklore The plant’s alternative 
name, Joe Pye weed, is in honor of the Native 
American said to have used it to cure New 
Englanders of typhus. Native Americans used  
the herb as a diuretic and as a  
remedy for genitourinary  
conditions. The root was  
listed in the Pharmacopoeia  
of the United States  from  
1820 to 1842. Medicinal Actions & Uses As its common 
name indicates, gravel root is a valuable herb for 
urinary tract problems. It helps to prevent the 
formation of kidney and bladder stones and may 
diminish existing stones. Gravel root is also useful 
for cystitis, urethritis, prostate enlargement (and 
other forms of obstruction), and for rheumatism 
and gout. The root is thought to help the latter 
two conditions by increasing the removal of waste 
by the kidneys. Related Species E. maculatum , native to 
eastern North America, is used to treat kidney and 
urinary problems. See also E. cannabinum , p. 208, 
and E. perfoliatum, preceding entry .Gravel root is  
especially helpful for  
urinary tract problems.Constituents Pill-bearing spurge contains 
flavonoids, terpenoids, alkanes, phenolic acids, 
shikimic acid, and choline. The latter two 
constituents may be partly responsible for  
the antispasmodic action of this plant. History & Folklore As its name suggests, this 
plant was traditionally used in Asia to treat asthma. Medicinal Actions & Uses A specific 
treatment for bronchial asthma, pill-bearing spurge 
relaxes the bronchial tubes and eases breathing. Mildly sedative and expectorant, it is also taken for 
bronchitis and other respiratory tract conditions. It is 
most often used along with other anti-asthmatic 
herbs, notably gumplant ( Grindelia camporum ,  
p. 218) and lobelia ( Lobelia inflata , p. 110). In the 
Anglo-American tradition, pill-bearing spurge is 
taken to treat intestinal amebiasis. Related Species The Cherokee used E. maculata  
to treat sore nipples and skin disorders. Many 
other North American Euphorbia  species were 
used for constipation. A decoction of E. lancifolia , 
native to the West Indies, is used to stimulate 
breast-milk production. E. atoto  is used in Malaysia 
and Indochina to induce a delayed period and as  
an abortifacient. Many species of Euphorbia  are 
used as arrow poisons. QCaution T ake pill-bearing spurge only under 
professional supervision.Euphrasia spp. (scrophulariaceae)
Eyebright
Description Creeping semi-parasitic annual 
growing to 20 in (50 cm). Has tiny oval leaves and 
small scallop-edged white flowers with yellow spots 
and a black center, somewhat resembling an eye. Habitat & Cultivation Common in Europe, 
eyebright thrives in meadows and open grassland. It is gathered in summer when in flower. Parts Used Aerial parts. Constituents Eyebright contains iridoid 
glycosides (including aucubin), flavonoids, tannins, 
lignans, and phenolic acids. Aucubin has antibac -
terial, anti-inflammatory, and antispasmodic activity. History & Folklore Eyebright’s use for eye 
problems was due in part to the Doctrine of 
Signatures, an ancient belief that the way that a 
plant looks—its “sign”—indicates the ailments  
for which it should be used as a medicine. Medicinal Actions & Uses Eyebright relieves 
inflammation and tightens mucous membranes  
and finds specific use in the treatment of 
conjunctivitis and blepharitis. Its ability to counter 
mucus means that it is often used for infectious 
US_202-223_Digitalis_lutea_Iris_versicolor.indd   209 17/03/16   4:01 pm
210
other medicinal plantsEut ErpE  olE rac E a
and allergic conditions affecting the eyes, middle 
ear, sinuses, and nasal passages. Eyebright counters liquid mucus, but it should be used guardedly for dry and stuffy congestion, which tends to be made worse by the plant’s astringency. Self-help Uses Allergic rhinitis with mucus,  
p. 300; Conjunctivitis, p. 310; Prevention of nosebleeds, p. 310. Medicinal Actions & Uses Less a medicine 
than a nourishing addition to the diet, acai supports vitality and a healthy heart and circulation. Acai  juice has much in common with blueberry and pomegranate (Punica granatum, p. 259) juices— all helping to sustain good health. The Acai palm is the main source of palm hearts, which are eaten worldwide as a vegetable. Evodia rutaecarpa (Rutaceae)
Evodia, 
Wu Zhu Yu (Chinese)
Description Deciduous tree growing to 33 ft 
(10 m). Has compound leaves, clusters of white flowers, and greenish-red fruit. Habitat & Cultivation Native to China,  
Tibet, and the eastern Himalayas, evodia is cultivated in China. The partially ripe fruit  
is gathered in late summer. Part Used Fruit. Constituents Evodia contains the alkaloids 
evodine, evodiamine, and rutaecarpine. History & Folklore Evodia is listed in the 
Divine Husbandman’s Classic (Shen’nong Bencaojing) of the 1st century ce. Medicinal Actions & Uses Evodia has a 
marked warming effect on the body, helping to relieve headaches and a wide range of digestive problems. In Chinese herbal medicine, evodia is used mainly for abdominal pains, vomiting, diarrhea, headaches, and a weak pulse. Research Chinese studies indicate that  
evodia is analgesic and reduces blood pressure. QCaution Use evodia only under  
professional supervision.during the Crusades (11th and 12th centuries),  or it was brought to Spain by the Arabs several centuries earlier. Medicinal Actions & Uses Used for a wide 
range of circulatory problems, buckwheat is best taken as a tea or tablet, accompanied by vitamin C or lemon juice (Citrus limon, p. 85) to aid absorption. Buckwheat is used particularly to treat fragile capillaries (seen as small bruises with no apparent cause), but also helps strengthen varicose veins and heal chilblains. Often combined with linden flowers (Tilia spp., p. 276), buckwheat is a specific treatment 
for hemorrhage into the retina. Buckwheat is also commonly taken in combination with other herbs for high blood pressure. Related Species Recent research has shown 
that the Chinese F. dibotrys and F. cymosum are immunostimulant. They are prescribed for  
chronic bronchitis, inflamed gallbladder, and pulmonary abscesses. Cautions  Interacts with blood-thinning 
medication. Do not take as a medicine if taking prescribed anticoagulants. Self-help Uses High blood pressure & 
arteriosclerosis, p. 301; Poor circulation & high blood pressure, p. 319. Feronia limonia (Rutaceae)
Wood Apple
Description A spiny tree growing to 30 ft  
(9 m), it has feathery leaves, red flowers, and round whitish fruit the size of oranges. Habitat & Cultivation Native to southern 
India, wood apple is cultivated in tropical Asia. Parts Used Fruit, leaves. Constituents The fruit contains fruit acids, 
vitamins, and minerals. The leaves contain tannins and a volatile oil. Medicinal Actions & Uses Wood apple  
fruit is used mainly to stimulate the digestive system. In India, the fruit forms part of a paste applied to tone the breasts. The astringent leaves are used to treat indigestion, flatulence, diarrhea, dysentery (particularly in children), and hemorrhoids. It is traditionally thought to act  as a male contraceptive, although there is limited research to support this.Eyebright, as its  
name suggests,  
helps eye problems. Euterpe oleracea (Arecaceae)
Acai
Description A rainforest palm reaching 80 ft 
(25 m), with 4–8 slender trunks and pinnate leaves up to 10 ft (3 m) long. The berries (about the size of a grape) hang down in large bunches. Habitat & Cultivation Found throughout 
much of Central America and northern South America, the acai palm is widely grown for its berries and palm hearts. Parts Used Drupe (the “berries”), seed, root, 
palm heart. Constituents The berries contain high  
levels of polyphenols, especially anthocyanins  
and proanthocyanidins (as found in other dark purple berries, such as blueberry). They are  
strong antioxidants and anti-inflammatories. History & Folklore Acai berries and their juice 
are a nutritious part of many Brazilians’ diet. In Brazil and Peru, the crushed seeds (which make up 80% of the berry) are used to treat fever. Traditionally, the essence of the root is extracted to treat conditions such as hepatitis and enlarged prostate.Ferula assa-foetida (Apiaceae)
Asafoetida,
Devil’s Dung
Description Perennial plant growing to about 
61⁄2 ft (2 m). Has a fleshy taproot, hollow stem, 
compound leaves, and many white flowers in umbels.Fagopyrum esculentum 
(Polygonaceae)
Buckwheat
Description Annual growing to about 20 in  
(50 cm). Has arrow-shaped leaves and clusters of  
white or pink 5-petaled flowers. Habitat & Cultivation Buckwheat is native  
to central and northern Asia, and is cultivated extensively in temperate regions, especially the  U.S. It is harvested in summer. Parts Used Leaves, flowers. Constituents Buckwheat contains bioflavonoids, 
especially rutin, which is strongly antioxidant. Rutin strengthens the inner lining of blood vessels. History & Folklore Buckwheat’s French name, 
blé Sarrasin, alludes to its ancient Middle Eastern origins. The grain was either introduced to Europe 
US_202-223_Digitalis_lutea_Iris_versicolor.indd   210 17/03/16   4:01 pm211 other medicinal plantsFicus carica
Habitat & Cultivation Native to Iran, 
Afghanistan, and Pakistan, asafoetida produces a 
gum obtained in summer from 4-year-old plants. The stems are cut off and successive slices are 
made through the roots. The gum wells up and  
is collected after it has hardened. Part Used Oleo-gum-resin. Constituents Asafoetida exudate contains 
6–17% volatile oil, as well as resin and gum. The 
volatile oil contains disulphides (about 58%),  
which have an expectorant action. The oil also  
settles the digestion. Asafoetida resin contains 
sesquiterpenoid coumarins, including foetidin. History & Folklore In the 4th century  
bce, Charaka Samhita , a Hindu medical treatise, 
proclaimed asafoetida the best remedy for  
clearing gas and bloating. The name devil’s  
dung notwithstanding, the plant is thought to  
have been the most popular spice in ancient 
Rome. Asafoetida is as persistent in aroma as 
garlic ( Allium sativum , p. 59), and is still used  
as a flavoring. Medicinal Actions & Uses In Middle Eastern 
and Indian herbal medicine, asafoetida is used for 
simple digestive problems such as gas, bloating, 
indigestion, and constipation. Asafoetida’s volatile  
oil, like that of garlic, has components that leave  
the body via the respiratory system and aid the 
coughing up of congested mucus. Asafoetida  
is taken (usually in tablet form) for bronchitis, 
bronchial asthma, whooping cough, and other 
chest problems. Asafoetida also lowers blood 
pressure and thins the blood. The herb has a 
reputation for helping in neurotic states. Related Species F. silphion  was used in ancient 
Rome as a contraceptive. It was overharvested and 
died out in about 300 ce. F. persica  is used in the 
Middle East for rheumatic problems and backache. The central Asian F. sumbul  is used as a nerve tonic. F. jaeschkeana  has recently been investigated as a 
potential contraceptive. See also F. gummosa 
(following entry) . Caution While safe in adults, asafoetida may be 
harmful to young babies.Constituents Galbanum exudate contains  
a volatile oil, resins, gums, as well as a  
coumarin (umbelliferone). History & Folklore Galbanum has been used 
medicinally for centuries. Medicinal Actions & Uses Galbanum is a 
digestive stimulant and antispasmodic, reducing 
flatulence, cramps, and colic. It is also 
expectorant. Applied as an ointment, the gum  
may help heal wounds. Related Species See asafoetida ( F. assa-foetida, 
preceding entry) . Self-help Use Acidity & indigestion , p. 307. Ficus benghalensis (Moraceae)
Banyan Tree
Description Tree growing to 65 ft (20 m) with 
oval leaves, fig-type fruit, and roots that grow into 
the ground from branches. Habitat & Cultivation Growing wild in India 
and Pakistan, the banyan tree is also cultivated 
across the Indian subcontinent. Parts Used Fruit, bark, leaves, latex,  
aerial roots. Constituents Banyan tree contains 
ketones, sterols, ficusin, and bergaptin. History & Folklore The banyan tree is 
sacred to Hindus and is frequently found in 
the proximity of Hindu temples. The god Shiva 
is often shown sitting peacefully in the shade of  
a banyan tree. The banyan tree is the national  
tree of India. Medicinal Actions & Uses The astringent 
leaves and bark of the tree are employed to relieve 
diarrhea and dysentery and to reduce bleeding. As 
with other Ficus species, the latex is applied to hemorrhoids, warts, and aching joints. The fruit is 
laxative and the roots are chewed to prevent gum 
disease. The bark is used in Ayurvedic medicine  
for diabetes. Research In laboratory studies an extract of the 
leaves was shown to counter diarrhea. Glycosides 
in banyan have been shown to have an antidiabetic 
activity, lowering blood-sugar levels. Related Species See fig ( F. carica, following entry) . Caution The latex is toxic and should not be 
taken internally. Ficus carica (Moraceae)
Fig
Description  Deciduous tree growing to 13 ft  
(4 m). Has large leaves and fleshy receptacles that 
ripen into purple-brown, pear-shaped fruit. Banyan tree leaves are astringent and are used to tighten 
mucous membranes.Ferula gummosa syn. F. galbaniflua 
(Apiaceae)
Galbanum
Description Perennial with a smooth, hollow 
stem, finely toothed compound leaves, and umbels 
of small white flowers. Habitat & Cultivation Native to central  
Asia, galbanum produces a gum that is obtained 
when stems are cut off and successive slices are 
made through the roots. Gum wells to the surface 
and is collected after it has hardened. Part Used Oleo-gum-resin.Fig’s pulpy flesh is 
emollient and soothing  
to inflamed skin. Habitat & Cultivation Native to western 
Asia, fig now grows wild and is cultivated in many 
temperate and subtropical regions. Fruit is 
harvested in summer. Parts Used Fruit, latex. Constituents Figs contain around 50% fruit 
sugars (mainly glucose), flavonoids, vitamins,  
and enzymes. History & Folklore The fig leaf was used  
by Adam and Eve to hide their nakedness in the 
Garden of Eden. There are many other references 
to the plant in the Old Testament, mainly to the 
sweetness of the fruit and to its use as a medicine. Spartan athletes in Ancient Greece were said to 
eat figs in order to improve their performance. Medicinal Actions & Uses The fruit sugars 
within the fig (especially the dried fruit) have a 
pronounced but gentle laxative effect; syrup of figs 
is still a remedy for mild constipation. The fruit’s 
US_202-223_Digitalis_lutea_Iris_versicolor.indd   211 26/02/16   12:47 pm
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other medicinal plantsFicus religiosa
emollient pulp helps relieve pain and inflammation, 
and it has been used to treat tumors, swellings, and gum abscesses—the fruit often being roasted before application. Figs are also mildly expectorant and, when used with herbs such as elecampane (Inula helenium, p. 107), are helpful in treating dry and irritable coughs and bronchitis. The milky latex from leaves and stems is reputed to be analgesic, and has long been used to treat warts, insect bites, and stings. Related Species Research published in 1999 
showed that an extract of leaves of F. racemosa,  a native of northern India, had a marked protective activity on the liver in rats. The juice  and powdered bark of the Central American  F. cotinifolia are applied to wounds and bruises. F. indica is used in Ayurvedic medicine as a tonic, diuretic, and treatment for gonorrhea. F. lacor  is used in Chinese herbal medicine to induce sweating, while F. retusa, which is native to China, Indonesia, and Australia, is used in the Chinese tradition to treat toothache and tooth decay. See also banyan tree (F. benghalensis, preceding entry) and peepal (F. religiosa, following entry). Cautions The latex is toxic and should not be 
used internally. Applied to the skin, it may cause  an allergic reaction to sunlight.Foeniculum vulgare (Apiaceae)
Fennel
Description Aromatic perennial growing to 
about 5 ft (1.5 m). Has dark green, feathery leaves, umbels of yellow flowers, and small, ridged, oval-shaped seeds. Habitat & Cultivation Native to the 
Mediterranean region, fennel is now cultivated in temperate regions around the world. The seeds are gathered in autumn. Parts Used Seeds, essential oil. Constituents “Sweet” fennel seeds contain 
about 8% volatile oil (about 80% anethole, plus fenchone and methylchavicol), flavonoids, coumarins (including bergapten), and sterols. The volatile oil relieves gas and is antispasmodic. “Bitter” fennel seeds contain significantly higher levels of fenchone. History & Folklore Dioscorides, in the 1st 
century ce, states that “the juice, when put into the eye, aids vision, and into the ear, kills the worms (i.e. bacteria) that develop there.”eyewash for sore eyes and conjunctivitis. The  seeds have a longstanding reputation as an  aid to weight loss and to longevity. Essential oil from the sweet variety is used for its digestive  and relaxing properties. It also has estrogenic activity and may prove helpful in relieving menopausal symptoms. Cautions Fennel seeds are potentially toxic; do 
not exceed the recommended dose. Do not take the essential oil internally. Self-help Uses Acidity & indigestion, p. 307; 
Morning sickness & nausea, p. 317; Stomach spasm, p. 305; Gas & bloating, p. 306. Forsythia suspensa (Oleaceae)
Weeping Forsythia,
Lian Qiao (Chinese)
Description Deciduous shrub growing to  
16 ft (5 m). Has toothed leaves, bright yellow flowers, and woody fruit. Habitat & Cultivation Native to China  
and Japan, weeping forsythia is grown for its bright yellow blossoms in temperate gardens all over the world. The fruit is harvested in autumn, just before it is fully ripe. Part Used Fruit. Constituents The fruit contains flavonoids, 
including rutin, lignans, glycosides, and forsythin. Research suggests that forsythin is antimicrobial, anti-emetic, and anti-inflammatory. History & Folklore Weeping forsythia was 
first listed in the Divine Husbandman’s Classic (Shen’nong Bencaojing), written in the 1st century ce. Weeping forsythia features in a remedy for infections devised in the 18th century. Medicinal Actions & Uses A bitter-tasting, 
pungent herb with antiseptic and antiviral activity, weeping forsythia is used to treat infections such as colds, flu, sore throats, and tonsillitis. In traditional Chinese medicine, it is used to treat  
a range of other conditions (including boils, swollen glands, and skin infections). The American herbal scientist James A. Duke recommends it be taken as a warm tea, combined with honeysuckle (Lonicera spp., p. 229) and lemon balm (Melissa 
officinalis, p. 113), at the onset of colds and similar viral infections. Caution Not advisable in pregnancy.Fennel has a long history of use as a remedy for ailments  
of the digestive tract. Medicinal Actions & Uses The primary use 
of fennel seeds is to relieve bloating, but they also 
settle stomach pain, stimulate the appetite, and  
are diuretic and anti-inflammatory. Like anise (Pimpinella anisum, p. 248) and caraway (Carum carvi, p. 184), the seeds make an excellent infusion for settling digestion and reducing abdominal distension.
Encyclopedia_Of_Herbal_Medicine.txt
Summarize the following text section accurately and concisely. Maintain specific details and numerical information, and use anti-repetition mechanisms:

        History & Folklore  The origins of the familiar 
garden carrot are a mystery—it was cultivated as a 
nutritious and cleansing food at least as long ago as 
ancient Greece and Rome. In the 1st century ce, the 
physician Dioscorides recommended the seeds to 
stimulate menstruation, to relieve urinary 
retention, and to “wake up the genital virtue. ”  
The cultivated variety did not reach Britain until the 
16th century, when women used its beautiful, 
finely divided leaves to adorn their hair. Medicinal Actions & Uses  This common 
vegetable is also a wonderfully cleansing medicine. It supports the liver, and stimulates urine flow and 
the removal of waste by the kidneys. The juice of 
organically grown carrots is a delicious drink and  
a valuable detoxifier. Carrots are rich in carotene, 
which is converted to vitamin A by the liver. The 
raw root, grated or mashed, is a safe treatment for 
threadworms, especially in children. Wild carrot 
leaves are a good diuretic. They have been used to 
counter cystitis and kidney stone formation, and  
to diminish stones that have already formed. The 
seeds are also diuretic. They stimulate menstruation 
and have been used in folk medicine as a treatment 
for hangovers. Both leaves and seeds relieve 
flatulence and settle the digestion. Research  In a study published in 1995, a carrot 
extract was shown to protect the liver from toxicity. Cautions  Do not take carrot seeds during 
pregancy. Use only organic carrot juice since  
the root concentrates artificial fertilizers  
and insecticides. Medicinal Actions & Uses  Desmodium is 
chiefly a remedy for asthma and has been used as 
an antiasthmatic in Ghanaian hospitals. In France, 
the herb is taken for liver disorders including viral 
hepatitis—both A and B—apparently having most 
effect during the early stages. Desmodium may 
also be used to relieve headache, backache, and 
muscle and joint pain—a decoction being taken 
internally or applied as a lotion. Research  Ghanaian research has shown the herb 
to have antispasmodic and antiasthmatic activity. It 
also appears to increase the resistance of liver cells 
to inflammation, whether resulting from infection 
or toxicity. When taken in the early stages of 
illness, it normalizes liver function. Caution  In rare cases, desmodium can cause 
nausea or diarrhea. Thornapple  seeds and 
leaves ease asthma, but are 
hallucinogenic in large doses. Seeds
Daucus carota  (Apiaceae)
Carrot
Description  Annual (cultivated varieties) or 
biennial (wild). Has erect stem, which grows to a 
height of 3 ft (1 m), with feathery leaves, small 
white flowers, and flat green seeds. Cultivated 
subspecies have fleshy orange taproots. Habitat & Cultivation  Wild carrot is native 
to Europe, although cultivated subspecies are now 
grown around the world. The root is harvested in 
late summer, and the seeds are gathered in late 
summer or early autumn. Desmodium adscendens  (Fabaceae)
Desmodium
Description  Perennial, much-branched herb, 
growing to 20 in (50 cm). Desmodium has light 
purple flowers, and the leaves each have three 
small oval leaflets. Habitat & Cultivation  A native of West 
Africa, including Sierra Leone, northern Liberia and 
Ghana. The aerial parts are harvested as required 
or after flowering. Parts Used  Leaves and stems. Constituents  Contains indole alkaloids. History & Folklore  Desmodium has long 
been used in West African herbal medicine as a 
treatment for asthma, and also for jaundice. Dianthus superbus  
(Caryophyllacaea)
Fringed Pink,
Qu Mai (Chinese)
Description  Upright perennial herb growing to 
32 in (80 cm) or more. Has narrow, lance-shaped 
leaves and large, delicate, fragrant pink or lilac flowers. Habitat & Cultivation  Fringed pink is native 
to Europe and northern Asia (including China  
and Japan) growing at altitudes of up to 7,900 ft  
(2,400 m). It grows in clumps on hillsides and 
crevices, and is cultivated from seed in eastern 
China. It is only harvested when in flower. Parts Used  Aerial parts. Constituents  Fringed pink contains saponins, 
dianthins, tannins and flavonoids. History & Folklore  Fringed pink is first 
mentioned in the Chinese herbal known as the 
Divine Husbandman’s Classic (Shen’nong Bencaojing), 
which was written in the 1st century ce. Medicinal Actions & Uses  Although fringed 
pink is common in Europe, there is little indication 
that people there have used it as anything other 
than a vegetable (the young leaves are best boiled 
or steamed). In Mongolia, it is used to promote 
contractions and childbirth, and is considered a 
diuretic, hemostatic, and anti-inflammatory. In 
Chinese medicine it is widely used for “damp-heat” 
conditions, and prescribed for kidney stones and 
urinary tract infections. Research  Research, mostly conducted in  
Korea and China, indicates that fringed pink has 
marked anti-inflammatory activity and possible 
cancer-fighting properties. Related Species  The gillyflower ( D. caryophyllus ), 
of Mediterranean origin, has similar constituents 
and is traditionally prescribed in European herbal 
medicine for coronary and nervous disorders. US_180-201_Brassica_dictamnus. indd   201 26/02/16   12:47 pm
202
OTHER MEDICINAL p LANT sDictamnus albus
Dictamnus albus (Rutaceae)
Dittany, 
Burning Bush
Description  Strongly aromatic, bushy, and hairy 
perennial growing to 32 in (80 cm). Has compound 
leaves and spikes of 5-petaled white or pink flowers streaked with purple. Habitat & Cultivation This herb grows in 
southern and central Europe and northern Asia, preferring warm, wooded areas. The flowering tops are gathered in late summer, the root generally in autumn. Parts Used  Root, flowering tops. rapidly strengthens the heartbeat, but is excreted very slowly. Digoxin is therefore preferred as a long-term medication. History & Folklore In medical history, foxglove 
is best known as the discovery of William Withering, an 18th-century English country doctor. Curious about the formula of a local herbalist, he explored the plant’s potential medical uses. His work led to the production of a life-saving medicine. Medicinal Actions & Uses Foxglove has a 
profound tonic effect on a diseased heart. Heart disease worsens when the heart’s ability to maintain normal circulation decreases. Foxglove’s cardiac glycosides enable the heart to beat more strongly, slowly, and regularly, without requiring more oxygen. At the same time, it stimulates urine production, which lowers the volume of blood, and thus lessens the load on the heart. Related Species Woolly foxglove (D. lanata)  
is today the main source of cardiac glycosides. RQ Cautions  
Potentially fatal in  overdose. Use only  under professional  
supervision. This  
plant is subject to  
legal restrictions. Common foxglove 
enables the heart 
to beat more 
evenly and is an 
invaluable remedy 
for heart disease. Digitalis lutea (Scrophulariaceae)
Y ellow Foxglove
Description Erect perennial growing to 3 ft  
(1 m). Has narrow, lance-shaped leaves, and long spikes of yellow, bell-shaped flowers. Habitat & Cultivation Native to western 
and central Europe, this herb grows in woodland areas, on roadsides, and in mountainous regions. It is cultivated for medicinal use in Russia. The leaves are harvested in the second summer of growth. Parts Used Leaves. Constituents Y ellow foxglove contains  
cardiac glycosides (including the cardenolides  alpha-acetyldigitoxin, acetyldigitoxin, and  
lanatoside). All act to strengthen the beating  of a weakened heart. History & Folklore Unlike the closely  
related common foxglove (D. purpurea,  following entry), yellow foxglove does not  appear to have played a significant role in  European herbal medicine. Medicinal Actions & Uses Y ellow foxglove  
is little employed in herbal medicine, but in fact  
it is a less toxic alternative to purple foxglove and woolly foxglove (D. lanata). It has similar medicinal actions but its alkaloids are more readily metabolized and flushed out by the body. Like other foxgloves, this plant supports a weakened or failing heart, increasing the strength of contraction, slowing  and steadying the heart rate, and lowering blood pressure by strongly stimulating the production  of urine, which reduces overall blood volume. Related Species Common foxglove  
(following entry). RQ Cautions Excessive doses of yellow 
foxglove can prove fatal. Use only under professional supervision. This plant is subject  
to legal restrictions in some countries. Dittany flowers were formerly used to make a preparation 
that was sniffed up the nose as a treatment for head colds. Constituents  Dittany’s potent volatile oil 
contains estragol and anethole, and a toxic  
alkaloid, dictamnin. History & Folklore  Dittany exudes such large 
amounts of volatile oil that in hot, dry conditions, a match held close will cause the whole plant to burst into flames. The plant has been used to flavor liqueurs and has been brewed as a tea in parts  of Siberia. In European folk medicine, dittany was considered an antidote to poison, pestilence, and  the bites of all types of venomous animals. Medicinal Actions & Uses  Very rarely used 
by herbalists today, dittany has an action similar  
to that of rue (Ruta graveolens, p. 265), in that  
it strongly stimulates the muscles of the uterus, inducing menstruation and sometimes causing abortion. By contrast, its effect on the gastrointestinal tract is antispasmodic. Dittany relaxes the gut and acts as a mild tonic for the stomach. The plant has also been used as a treatment for nervous conditions. RQ Cautions  This herb is toxic. T ake only  
under professional supervision. Do not take  during pregnancy. Digitalis purpurea 
(Scrophulariaceae)
Common Foxglove,
Purple Foxglove
Description  Perennial growing to 5 ft (1. 5 m). Has a single erect stem, broad lance-shaped leaves, 
and bell-shaped, purple-pink or white flowers in long spikes. Habitat & Cultivation This herb is native to 
western Europe. Though it is also cultivated, the wild plant is considered superior. The leaves are picked in summer.
The origin of the carrot plant is a mystery, and it has been cultivated as a nutritious and cleansing food at least as long ago as ancient Greece and Rome.
What is the origin of the carrot plant?
The Indian coral tree is used in Ayurvedic medicine to treat inflammatory conditions, and its bark is used to treat kidney stones, urinary tract infections, and other conditions.
What are the medicinal actions of the Indian coral tree?
The name "grape jasmine" suggests that it has been used to treat asthma, and it is used in the treatment of liver disorders, including viral hepatitis.
What is the history of the use of grape jasmine?
The wood apple is used to treat urinary tract problems, including kidney stones and cystitis, and is also used to relieve flatulence and settle the digestion.
What is the medicinal action of the wood apple?
Buckwheat is not used as a medicine, but it is a valuable source of fiber and antioxidants, and its antioxidant properties have been shown to help prevent the onset of type 2 diabetes.
What is the history of the use of buckwheat?