It is cultivated in Iran, which 
grows roughly 90% of world 
production. The stigma are collected 
in the autumn when the plant is in 
flower. The flowers are first cut, the 
stigma then being plucked from 
within. The corms (bulbs) naturally 
reproduce themselves—one corm 
producing five after 3 years. Related Species
Saffron should not be confused  
with meadow saffron ( Colchicum 
autumnale , p. 193), an important  
(but toxic) medicinal plant that is  
only distantly related to saffron. Key Constituents
■ Crocins (carotenoid glucosides)
■ Volatile oil (including safranal)
■ Bitter substances
Key Actions
■ Neuroprotective
■ Antidepressant
■ Antispasmodic■ Aphrodisiac
■ Stomach tonic
Research
■ Depression  Several clinical  
trials have found saffron to be 
beneficial in depression. In 2005, 
Iranian researchers found that  
saffron was as effective as  
fluoxetine (Prozac) for mild  
to moderate depression. In a  
different clinical trial, saffron was 
shown to help relieve the symptoms 
of sexual dysfunction (in both men  
and women) that can sometimes 
present themselves as a side effect 
of taking fluoxetine. ■ Eye health  Research from a 
combined Italian-Australian study 
suggests that saffron has a useful  
role to play in helping to support  
eye health in the early stages of 
macular degeneration. The study 
found that retinal function  
improved in those taking saffron. Other research suggests that  
saffron might prove useful in 
treating glaucoma. ■ Cognitive function   
Saffron appears to have marked 
neuroprotective activity ( see 
Depression  and Eye health ). Iranian 
clinical research has examined 
saffron’s therapeutic potential in 
people with moderate Alzheimer’s 
disease. Though still at a very early 
stage, two small studies indicate  
that saffron, and particularly the 
crocins within it, acts on the brain  
to improve memory and cognitive 
function, including in those  
with dementia. ■ Adulteration Due to its high 
cost, saffron is frequently adulterated. Saffron
A perennial growing  
to 1 ft (30 cm), saffron 
has slender leaves and 
multiple lilac to mauve 
flowers. For medicinal purposes, good-quality 
material is essential. Traditional &  
Current Uses
■ Traditional uses  Avicenna,  
a 10th-century physician famous for 
his Canon of Medicine , described 
saffron in detail, noting that it was  
an “exhilarant and cardiac tonic” that 
“strengthens eyesight,” “reduces 
appetite,” and is “a stimulant of sexual 
desire.” A rereading of the Canon  
paved the way for much of the 
Iranian research over recent years. The herbalist Christopher Catton, 
following the English view of saffron Saffron’s  golden-red threads may help  
to support eyesight and prevent  
macular degeneration.Parts Used
Key Preparations 
& Their UsesStigma  are the three deep 
orange-red threads at the 
center of the flower. as a “cordial” or heart tonic, wrote in 
1862 that “Saffron hath power to 
quicken the spirits, and the virtue 
thereof pierceth by and by to the 
heart, provoking laughter and 
merriness.” It is said that rubbed into 
the palm, saffron has an immediate 
action on the heart. ■ Chinese herbal medicine 
In Chinese medicine, saffron is used 
for depression and shock. It also has 
long use as a remedy for menstrual 
difficulties such as period cramps  
and pre-menstrual syndrome (PMS). Saffron is also used to treat skin 
disorders, stomach weakness, and  
to reduce appetite.StigmaFlower head
 QCautions  Do not take as a medicine during pregnancy. Excessive doses can be toxic. Capsules  (to make, p. 292). For menstrual cramps, take a 300 mg capsule up to 
five times a day. US_088-089_Crateva_Crocus.indd   89 26/02/16   3:59 pm
90Cur Cuma longakey medicinal plantsCurcuma longa syn. C. domestica (Zingiberaceae)
Turmeric, Haldi (Hindi), Jiang Huang (Chinese)T urmeric
A perennial reaching 3 ft (90 cm), with a short stem, lance-shaped leaves, and  
a knobbly rhizome. Turmeric is a valuable remedy for  
arthritic and skin conditions. Habitat & Cultivation
Turmeric is native to India and 
southern Asia and is now cultivated throughout the tropics. It is propagated by cuttings from the root, and needs well-drained soil and a humid climate. The rhizome is unearthed in winter.Key Constituents
■ Curcumin
■ Volatile oil (3–5%), including 
 zingiberen and turmerone
■ Bitter principles
■ Resin
Key Actions
■ Anti-inflammatory
■ Lowers cholesterol levels
■ Antimicrobial
■ Anti-platelet (blood-thinning)
Research
■ New interest in turmeric 
Despite its long-standing use in India and China, the therapeutic actions of turmeric were not researched until recent decades when there was an upsurge of interest in foods and medicines that lower cholesterol levels or have antioxidant properties 
Parts Used Key Preparations & Their Uses(neutralize harmful free radicals). Research from the 1970s onward, mostly in India, has tended to confirm traditional uses of the root. ■ Anti-inflammatory Research 
has established that turmeric, and curcumin in particular, blocks several different inflammatory pathways, countering inflammation throughout the body. Turmeric is largely taken as  a supplement to prevent or treat cancer, dementia, and many auto-immune diseases. Black pepper  is traditionally taken with turmeric  to augment its efficacy. This effect  is now supported by research. ■ Curcumin When applied to the 
skin and exposed to sunlight, turmeric is strongly antibacterial. Curcumin is the constituent responsible for this action. Curcumin is also more strongly antioxidant than vitamin E.
■ Cholesterol Chinese clinical trials 
in 1987 indicate that turmeric lowers cholesterol levels. ■ Cancer Turmeric may be a 
valuable preventative remedy for those at risk of developing cancer, but more research is needed. ■ Other actions Research has 
shown that turmeric has an anti-coagulant action, keeping the blood thin. It also increases bile production and flow, and has a protective action on the stomach and liver. Traditional &  
Current Uses
■ Traditional remedy Turmeric 
improves the action of the liver and  
is a traditional remedy for jaundice in both Ayurvedic and Chinese herbal medicine. It is also an ancient herb for digestive problems such as gastritis and acidity, helping to increase mucus production and protect the stomach. The herb also alleviates nausea. ■ Arthritis & allergies Even though 
turmeric does not relieve pain, its anti-inflammatory action makes it useful for arthritis and other inflammatory conditions such as asthma and eczema. ■ Circulatory disorders Due to 
its anti-inflammatory, blood-thinning, and cholesterol-lowering properties, turmeric is now used to reduce the risk of strokes and heart attacks. ■ Skin conditions Applied to the 
skin, turmeric is useful in treating  
a number of conditions, including psoriasis, and fungal infections such  as athlete’s foot. Self-help Uses
■ Athlete’s foot, p. 304. ■ Nausea & motion sickness,  p. 306.Although best known for its bright yellow color  
and spicy taste in Indian food, turmeric is increasingly recognized as a medicinal food with almost unparalleled health benefits. Its powerful anti-inflammatory action makes turmeric a key remedy in many chronic health problems, including allergies, arthritis, diabetes, and psoriasis, where long-term inflammation is usually  
a major underlying factor. QCautions If taking blood-thinning medication, or if gallstones are present,  
take only on professional advice. Turmeric occasionally causes skin rashes.Rhizome is carefully 
unearthed and broken  
into sections. It is boiled  or steamed before drying. Poultice using a paste made 
with powder. For psoriasis,  
mix 1 tsp with a little water  
and apply 3 times a day. Powder  is the most common preparation 
in Ayurvedic medicine. For gastritis, take  1 tsp with water 3 times a day.Decoction (to make, 
p. 291). For gastritis, take 1/3 cup (75 ml)  
3 times a day. Fresh rhizome Dried rhizome
Fresh rhizome is 
bright orange insideTincture (to make, p. 292). For eczema, take 1 tsp diluted with  
1/2 cup (100 ml) of water 3 times a day. US_090-091_Curcuma_Dioscorea.indd   90 26/02/16   3:59 pm91Dioscorea villosakey medicinal plants
Fresh root 
and tuber
Chopped dried 
root and tuberDried root 
and tuber
Tincture  (to make, p. 292). For arthritis, take 1⁄2 tsp with 
water twice a day.Decoction  (to make, p. 291). For irritable bowel syndrome,  
take 1/3 cup (75 ml) twice a day.Rhizome has muscle- 
relaxant propertiesDioscorea villosa  (Dioscoreaceae)
Wild Y am, Colic Root
Wild yam is the plant source of a steroid-like substance, 
diosgenin, which was the starting point in the creation  
of the first contraceptive pill. There is no suggestion  
that the plant was used as a contraceptive in the past, 
though it has traditionally been taken in Central America 
to relieve menstrual, ovarian, and labor pains. The herb  
is also valuable for digestive problems, arthritis, and 
muscle cramps. Habitat & Cultivation
Wild yam is native to North and 
Central America, and has now 
become naturalized in tropical,  
semitropical, and temperate climates 
around the world. The plant is 
propagated from seed in spring, or 
from sections of tubers or by root 
division in spring or autumn. It thrives 
in sunny conditions and rich soil. The 
root and tuber of wild yam are 
harvested in autumn. Related Species
Many yam species have a hormonal 
action. Shan yao (Dioscorea opposita)  
is an important tonic for the stomach 
and digestion in traditional Chinese 
medicine, and is taken for appetite  
loss and wheezing. Key Constituents
■ Steroidal saponins  
 (mainly dioscin)
■ Phytosterols  
 (beta-sitosterol)
■ Alkaloids
■ Tannins
■ StarchKey Actions
■ Antispasmodic
■ Anti-inflammatory
■ Antirheumatic
■ Increases sweating
■ Diuretic
Research
■ Synthesis of hormones  
Diosgenin, a breakdown product of 
dioscin, was first identified by Japanese 
scientists in 1936. This discovery 
paved the way for the synthesis of 
progesterone (one of the main female 
sex hormones) and of corticosteroid 
hormones such as cortisone. Wild 
yam does not contain estrogen or 
progesterone, and wild yam “natural 
progesterone” products are derived 
from chemically processed diosgenin, 
and have little or no relationship with 
naturally occurring wild yam. ■ Anti-cholesterol activity  
Research indicates that diosgenin 
reduces the absorption of cholesterol 
from the gut and increases its 
elimination from the body. Traditional &  
Current Uses
■ Traditional uses  Both the Maya 
and the Aztec peoples used wild yam 
medicinally—possibly to relieve pain. The plant is also known as colic root 
and rheumatism root in North 
America, indicating its use by European 
settlers for these conditions. ■ Gynecological problems   
A traditional remedy for painful 
periods and ovarian pain, wild yam 
has estrogen-modulating activity and 
is used to treat menopausal symptoms. ■ Arthritis & rheumatism   
The herb’s combination of anti-Wild yam
A deciduous perennial 
vine, climbing to 20 ft 
(6 m) with heart-
shaped leaves and  
tiny green flowers. inflammatory and antispasmodic 
actions makes it extremely useful  
in treatments for arthritis and 
rheumatism. It reduces inflammation 
and pain, and relaxes stiff muscles  
in the affected area. ■ Muscle spasms & pain  Wild 
yam helps relieve cramps, muscle 
tension, and colic.Wild yam  can be found growing wild in 
damp woodlands in North America. Parts Used
Key Preparations & Their Uses
■ Digestive problems   
The herb can be used as an  
effective treatment for digestive 
problems, including gallbladder 
inflammation, irritable bowel 
syndrome, and diverticulitis. Self-help Use
■ Period pain , p. 315.Caution  Do not take during pregnancy.Root and tuber have valuable 
antispasmodic properties. They  
are used to treat colic and  
menstrual cramps. US_090-091_Curcuma_Dioscorea.indd   91 07/04/16   4:37 pm
92EchinacE a spp .key medicinal plants
The best-quality 
root leaves a tingling sensation on the tongueEchinacea spp. (Asteraceae)
Echinacea, Purple ConeflowerEchinacea
A perennial growing  to 4 ft (1.2 m) with upright stems and  pink to purple  
daisy-like flowers. Echinacea is a name derived from the Greek 
word for hedgehog and was inspired by the appearance of the flower’s central cone. Habitat & Cultivation
Native to central parts of the U.S.,  
three species of echinacea are used medicinally: E. angustifolia, E. purpurea, 
and E. pallida. All are threatened in the wild and only commercially grown plants should be used. E. purpurea is cultivated widely in the U.S. and Europe. Grown from seed in spring or by root division in winter, it thrives in rich, sandy soil. The leaves and flowers are gathered during flowering; the roots of 4-year-old plants are lifted in autumn. Key Constituents
(E. purpurea)
■ Alkylamides  
 (mostly isobutylamides)
■ Caffeic acid esters (mainly  
 echinacoside and cynarin)
■ polysaccharides
Key Actions
■ Immune modulator
■ Antimicrobial
■ Anti-inflammatory
■ Detoxifying■ Heals wounds
■ stimulates saliva
Research
■ Immune system Clinical research 
into echinacea has confirmed that it increases the number of white blood cells and their strength of action, although its precise mode of  
action on immune function is not well understood. The polysaccharides inhibit the ability of viruses to take over cells, while the alkylamides are antibacterial and antifungal. Research supports the use of echinacea to prevent colds and respiratory infections resulting from air travel. Not all clinical trials have found positive effects, possibly because in some cases too low a dose of echinacea was used. Traditional &  
Current uses
■ Native American medicine The 
Comanche used echinacea as  
a remedy for toothache and sore 
throats and the Sioux took it for rabies, snake bite, and septic conditions. ■ Western uses Echinacea is a key 
remedy in Western herbal medicine, and is used to treat many health problems, notably viral and fungal infections, and skin infections such as acne and boils. It makes an excellent gargle for throat infections, and is typically prescribed by herbalists wherever the immune system  is underperforming. ■ Allergies The herb is a helpful 
remedy for treating allergies such  as asthma. Self-help Uses
■ Acne & boils, p. 305.■ Bites & stings, p. 303. ■ Chilblains, p. 302. ■ Cold sores, p. 304. ■ Coughs & bronchitis, p. 310.Parts Used
Key Preparations & Their UsesRoots of all three 
species have valuable immune-stimulating properties. ■ Earache, p. 312. ■ Flu, sore throats & tonsillitis,  p. 311. ■ Canker sores, p. 306. ■ Urinary & fungal infections,  p. 314. Fresh E. purpurea rootA key medicinal herb, echinacea has a tonic action on  
the body’s immune system. Known by 19th-century Americans as Indian Snakeroot (due to its ability to treat snake bites), the herb has a potent ability to counter infection, especially viral and bacterial, and to aid the clearance of toxins from the body. It is commonly taken  
as a preventative and treatment for upper respiratory infections such as colds, flu, and coughs. QCaution Can cause allergic reactions in rare cases.Dried rootFlower of E. purpurea 
is occasionally used  for infections. Tincture of root (to make,  
p. 292). For chronic infections, 
take 1⁄2 tsp in water 3 times a day. Capsules of powdered root  
(to make, p. 292). For colds, take  a 500 mg capsule 3 times a day.Decoction of root (to make,  
p. 291). To treat throat infections, gargle with 2
1⁄2 tbsp 3 times a day. Tablets T ake as an immunostimulant for infections. US_092-093_Echinacea_Elettaria.indd   92 26/02/16   3:59 pm93ElEttaria cardamomumkey medicinal plants
Infusion  (to make, p. 291)  
is a pleasant drink. For  
indigestion, drink 3⁄4 cup 
(150 ml) after meals.Tincture  (to make, p. 292) 
improves the appetite. For 
poor appetite, combine  
5 drops with 15 drops 
gentian tincture and take  
3 times a day. Crush cardamom  seeds 
using a mortar and pestle 
just before you are about 
to use them.Fresh seed pods  
on stem
Essential oil For 
digestive pain, dilute 
10 drops with 4 tsp 
carrier oil ( see  
p. 297). Gently rub 
into the abdomen.Elettaria cardamomum  (Zingiberaceae)
Cardamom, Elaci (Hindi) 
Cardamom is one of the oldest spices in the world  
and was used extensively in ancient Egypt to make 
perfumes. Its medicinal uses, however, are less well 
known. Cardamom has been employed in Ayurvedic 
medicine for thousands of years, and is an excellent 
remedy for many digestive problems, helping to soothe 
indigestion and gas. It has an aromatic and pungent taste 
and combines well with other herbs. Habitat & Cultivation
Cardamom is native to southern 
India and Sri Lanka, where it grows 
profusely in forests at 2,600–4,900 ft 
(800–1,500 m) above sea level. It is 
also widely cultivated in India, southern 
Asia, Indonesia, and Guatemala. Cardamom is propagated from  
seed in autumn or by root division  
in spring and summer, and needs a 
shady position and rich and moist, but 
well-drained soil. The seed pods are 
harvested just before they start to open 
in dry weather during the autumn 
and are dried whole in the sun. Key Constituents
■ Volatile oil
■ Alkaloids
■ Flavonoids
■ Saponins
■ Sterols
Key Actions
■ Digestive tonic
■ Protects liver
■ Mild stimulant
■ AntispasmodicResearch
■ Antispasmodic  A 2009 Indian 
clinical study found that cardamom 
successfully lowered blood pressure 
in 20 adults over a 3-month period. Those taking part in the trial had “a 
feeling of well-being without any 
side-effects.” The herb has a long-
established antispasmodic action. Traditional & 
Current Uses
■ Ancient herb  Cardamom has 
been highly valued both as a spice and 
a medicine and was known in Greece 
in the 4th century bce. ■ Digestive problems  Throughout 
history, cardamom has been used  
for the relief of digestive problems, 
especially indigestion, gas, cramping, 
and irritable bowel syndrome. The 
seed’s pleasant taste means that 
cardamom is often added to digestive 
remedies to improve their flavor. ■ Current Indian uses  Cardamom 
is used in India for many conditions, 
including asthma, bronchitis, kidney 
stones, anorexia, debility, and 
weakened vata (see p. 37). ■ Chinese remedy  In China, the 
herb is taken for urinary incontinence 
and as a tonic. ■ Bad breath  Cardamom is an 
effective treatment for bad breath, 
and when taken with garlic helps to 
reduce its smell. ■ Aphrodisiac  The herb contains 
androgenic compounds and has a 
long-standing reputation as a tonic and 
aphrodisiac. A traditional Arabian 
recipe blends cardamom with coffee. Self-help Use
■ Gas & bloating , p. 306.Cardamom  
A perennial growing  
to 16 ft (5 m), with 
mauve marked, white 
flowers and very long, 
lance-shaped leaves. Cardamom seed pods are harvested by 
hand. Each pod contains up to 20 aromatic, 
dark red-brown seeds.Parts Used
Key Preparations & Their UsesSeeds are crushed for use in infusions 
or have their volatile oil extracted. Seed pods
 QCaution  Do not take the essential oil internally. Green seed pods  
indicate that the  
seeds are good quality
Opened seed pods
Crushed seeds  
and seed pods
US_092-093_Echinacea_Elettaria.indd   93 17/03/16   4:00 pm
94ElE uthE rococcus sE nticosuskey medicinal plants
Root has tonic 
propertiesEleutherococcus senticosus (Araliaceae)
Siberian Ginseng, Eleuthero
Siberian ginseng can help those exposed  
to toxic chemicals and radiation and was given to people following the nuclear  disaster at Chernobyl in 1986.Habitat & Cultivation
Siberian ginseng is native to eastern 
Russia, China, Korea, and Japan. It  
can be grown from seed, but it is a difficult plant to germinate. The root is lifted in autumn and dried. Related Species
Wu jia pi (Acanthopanacis gracilistylus) is a very close relative of Siberian ginseng, used in Chinese herbal medicine to treat “cold, damp” conditions. Key Constituents
■ Eleutherosides, 0.6–0.9%
■ Polysaccharides■ Triterpenoid saponins
■ Glycans
Key Actions
■ Adaptogenic
■ Tonic
■ Protects the immune system
Research
■ Russian studies There has been 
much research into Siberian ginseng in Russia since the 1950s, although the exact method by which it stimulates stamina and resistance to stress is not yet understood. ■ T onic herb Siberian ginseng 
appears to have a general tonic  
effect on the body, in particular  
on the adrenal glands, helping  
the body to withstand heat, cold, infection, other physical stresses,  and radiation. It has even been given to astronauts to counter the effects of weightlessness. ■ Stamina Athletes have 
experienced as much as a 9% improvement in stamina when  taking Siberian ginseng. Root is unearthed in autumn, dried whole, and 
then chopped up for use in medicinal preparations.Traditional &  
Current Uses
■ Enhancing resilience Siberian 
ginseng is taken to improve mental 
resilience, such as in preparation for tests, and to reduce the impact  of physical training and stress on  the body. ■ Exhaustion Siberian ginseng  
can be highly beneficial in relieving exhaustion and debilitated states resulting from overwork or long-term stress. It can also prove  helpful in treating chronic fatigue, although in some cases it may be overly stimulating. ■ Cancer treatment A valuable 
remedy during conventional cancer treatment, Siberian ginseng supports vitality and healthy function when taking chemotherapy, and may reduce side effects. Russian studies suggest that it helps to reduce the harmful effects of radiation. Self-help Uses
■ Convalescence, p. 319. ■ Stress, p. 308. Siberian ginseng is a powerful tonic herb with an impressive 
range of health benefits. Unlike many plant medicines, Siberian ginseng is generally more useful in maintaining good health than in treating ill health. Research shows that extracts aid the body in coping with both physical and mental stress, including overwork and extreme cold or heat, and the herb is taken to support performance during periods of ongoing pressure or stress. Decoction (to make, p. 291). T ake 2 tbsp twice a day as  
a general tonic.Tincture (to make, p. 292). During busy periods, take 1⁄2 tsp 
with water 3 times a day. Capsules Make with powder 
(see p. 292) and for long-term stress take 1 g of capsules daily.Parts Used Key Preparations & Their Uses
Whole dried root
Chopped dried rootFresh root QCautions Healthy young adults should not take for more than 6 weeks. Can be taken long term on professional advice. Avoid caffeine when taking 
Siberian ginseng. Side effects are rare, but more likely if the standard dose is exceeded.Siberian ginsengA deciduous, hardy shrub, growing  
to 10 ft (3 m). It has  3 –7 toothed leaflets on each stem. Tablets are a convenient way of taking Siberian ginseng. Use before tests or other stressful events. US_094-095_Eleutherococcu_Ephedra.indd   94 17/03/16   4:00 pm95Eph Edra sinicakey medicinal plants
Decoction  is prescribed 
by herbalists for asthma. Powder  is used  
by the Chinese  
to treat kidney 
energy deficiency.Tincture  is used in 
treatments to alleviate  
the aches and pains  
of rheumatism.Habitat & Cultivation
Native to northern China and Inner 
Mongolia, ephedra often grows in 
desert areas. It is propagated from 
seed in autumn or by root division  
in autumn or spring and needs  
well-drained soil. The stems  
are gathered throughout the year  
and dried. Related Species
Other Ephedra  species with similar 
medicinal properties to ephedra  
grow throughout the northern 
hemisphere. In North America, 
related species were used to treat 
fevers and relieve kidney pain,  
while in India, Ephedra  species  
were taken for asthma, hay fever, 
and rheumatism. Key Constituents
■ Protoalkaloids (ephedrine,  
 pseudoephedrine)
■ Tannins
■ Saponin
■ Flavone
■ Volatile oilKey Actions
■ Increases sweating
■ Dilates the bronchioles  
 (small airways in the lungs)
■ Dries mucous membranes
■ Diuretic
■ Stimulant
■ Raises blood pressure
Research
■ Active constituents  Most  
of the active constituents mimic  
the effect of adrenaline within the 
body, increasing alertness. Ephedrine, 
extracted originally from ephedra, 
was first synthesized in 1927 and  
is used as a decongestant and  
antiasthmatic. ■ Whole herb  When used at  
the correct dosage, the whole herb 
has significant therapeutic effects—
including dilating the bronchial  
airways—and a very low incidence  
of side effects. ■ Ephedra abuse  ephedra  
has been banned in the U.S. due  
to frequent abuse of the herb, as  
an amphetamine-type “high” and,  
at excessive dosage, in weight-loss 
regimens. At therapeutic dosage, and 
with professional guidance, ephedra 
rarely gives rise to side effects. Traditional & 
Current Uses
■ Historical uses  Traditionally, Zen 
monks used ephedra to promote 
calm concentration during meditation. ■ Chinese herb  In China, ephedra  
is popular for chills and fevers, coughs 
and wheezing, and in combination 
with rehmannia ( Rehmannia glutinosa, 
p. 125) it is given to treat kidney yin 
deficiency ( see pp. 40 –41).Ephedra
An evergreen shrub 
growing to 20 in  
(50 cm), with long, 
narrow sprawling 
stems and tiny leaves. ■ Current Western uses   
Ephedra is used principally in  
current Western herbal medicine as 
a treatment for asthma and hay fever, Ma Huang  was found in a Middle Eastern 
neolithic grave, indicating that it may have 
been used as a medicine 60,000 years ago.Parts Used
Key Preparations & Their UsesStems are collected 
throughout the year. Ma Huang  is best 
known in medicine 
for the ephedrine 
that it contains. Fresh stems
and for the acute onset of colds  
and flu. It also helps to raise blood 
pressure, cool fevers, and to 
alleviate rheumatism.Ephedra sinica  (Ephedraceae)
Ephedra, Ma Huang (Chinese)
Ephedra is a strongly stimulant, acrid-tasting herb that  
has a central place in Chinese and other herbal traditions. According to legend, the bodyguards of Genghis Khan, 
threatened with beheading if they fell asleep on sentry 
duty, used to take a tea containing ephedra to stay  
alert. Today, ephedra is used in the West and in China  
for problems ranging from chills and fevers to asthma  
and hay fever. RCautions  T ake only under professional supervision. Do not take if suffering from 
angina, glaucoma, high blood pressure, enlarged prostate gland, or overactive  
thyroid gland. Ephedra occasionally causes side effects, including headaches, tremors, 
and insomnia. Restricted herb in some countries.Dried stems
US_094-095_Eleutherococcu_Ephedra.indd   95 26/02/16   3:59 pm
96Eucalyptus globuluskey medicinal plants
Fresh leaves  
are distilled  
to produce the 
essential oilEucalyptus globulus (Myrtaceae)
Eucalyptus, Blue GumEucalyptus
An evergreen tree growing to 195 ft  (60 m), with a  blue-grey trunk  and green leaves. Eucalyptus was first introduced to the 
West from Australia in the 19th century. Habitat & Cultivation
Native to Australia, eucalyptus is 
cultivated in plantations in tropical, subtropical, and temperate areas  
of the world. Planting can cause ecological problems because the trees absorb huge quantities of  
water and prevent the growth of native plants. This can be beneficial, however, drying up marshy areas and so reducing the risk of malaria. The leaves are harvested as required and are either dried or distilled for oil. Related Species
Many other Eucalyptus species contain valuable essential oils, including E. smithii (p. 207). Key Constituents
■ Volatile oil (cineole, up to 80%)
■ Flavonoids
■ Tannins
■ Resin
Key Actions
■ Antiseptic
■ Analgesic
■ Expectorant■ Stimulates local blood flow
■ Insect repellent
Research
■ Essential oil Extensive research 
into eucalyptus essential oil during the last 50 years has shown it to have a marked antiseptic action and the ability to dilate the bronchioles (small airways) of the lungs. The action of the essential oil as a whole is stronger than that of its main constituent, cineole. Traditional &  
Current Uses
■ Infections Eucalyptus is a traditional 
Aboriginal remedy for infections and 
fevers. It is now used throughout the world for these ailments. ■ Antiseptic The herb is an 
antiseptic and is very helpful for  
colds, flu, and sore throats. ■ Expectorant Eucalyptus is a 
strong expectorant, suitable for  
chest infections, including bronchitis and pneumonia. ■ Warming The diluted essential 
oil, applied to the skin as a chest or sinus rub, has a warming and slightly anesthetic effect, helping to relieve respiratory infections. The same effect occurs when the infusion  
or tincture is used as a gargle. ■ Pain relief Diluted essential 
oil applied to the affected area  
can help relieve rheumatic joints characterized by aching pains and stiffness, as well as neuralgia and some bacterial skin infections. Self-help Uses
■ Congestion, sinus problems, 
 & earache, p. 312. ■ Coughs & bronchitis, p. 310.Parts Used
Key Preparations & Their UsesLeaves, which contain  
antiseptic chemicals, are either dried or used  for essential oil. Lozenges, containing eucalyptus. T ake for sore throats. Capsules, (to make, p. 292). For bronchitis,  
take a 200 mg capsule 3 times a day.Dried leaves
Fresh leaves
Inhalation For colds, add  
10 drops essential oil to 
boiling water (p. 297).Eucalyptus, a traditional Aboriginal remedy, is a powerful 
antiseptic used all over the world for relieving coughs  and colds, sore throats, and other infections. It is warming and stimulating, and for many people its scent conjures  up days spent in bed during childhood with eucalyptus  and other oils smothered on the chest. Eucalpytus  is a common ingredient in many over-the-counter  cold remedies. QCaution Do not take essential oil internally except under professional 
supervision. Do not give to small children or infants. Essential oil (to use, p. 297). Use 5 drops diluted with 2 tsp carrier oil  
as a chest or sinus rub. Infusion (to make, p. 291). Drink 1 cup (150 ml) 3 times a day for bronchitis. Tincture (to make, p. 292). For chest coughs, add 1⁄2 tsp tincture to  
1/2 cup (100 ml) water and take twice a day. US_096-097_Eucalyptus.indd   96 26/02/16   3:59 pm97Eug Enia caryophyllatakey medicinal plants
Tincture  (to make, p. 292). For flatulence, take 20 drops 
with water 3 times a day. Essential oil  For toothache, dab 1–2 drops of oil  
onto cotton wool and rub over the affected tooth.Infusion  For colic, infuse 2 cloves 
in 1 cup (150 ml) of water ( see  
p. 291). T ake 3 times daily.Leaves and 
stems are 
occasionally 
used for oil 
extractionEugenia caryophyllata syn. Syzgium aromaticum  (Myrtaceae)
Clove
Habitat & Cultivation
Originally from the Molucca Islands 
(Indonesia) and the southern 
Philippines, cloves are now grown 
extensively in T anzania and 
Madagascar, and to a lesser extent  
in the West Indies and Brazil. The 
tree is grown from seed in spring or 
from semi-ripe cuttings in summer. Twice a year, the unopened flower 
buds are picked as they develop,  
and then sun-dried. Key Constituents
■ Volatile oil containing eugenol  
 (up to 85%), acetyl eugenol,  
 methyl salicylate, pinene, vanillin
■ Gum
■ Tannins
Key Actions
■ Antiseptic
■ Carminative
■ Stimulant
■ Analgesic
■ Prevents vomiting
■ Antispasmodic
■ Eliminates parasitesResearch
■ Volatile oil  Argentinian research 
in 1994 showed clove’s volatile oil  
to be strongly antibacterial. Eugenol  
(a phenol) is the largest and most 
important component of the volatile 
oil. It is strongly anesthetic and 
antiseptic, and therefore useful in 
pain relief for toothache, and as  
an antiseptic for many conditions. ■ Acetyl eugenol Acetyl eugenol, 
another component of the volatile 
oil, has been shown to be strongly 
antispasmodic. Traditional &  
Current Uses
■ Ancient all-purpose remedy  
Cloves have been used in Southeast 
Asia for thousands of years and were 
regarded as a panacea for almost all ills. ■ Antiseptic  The antiseptic property 
of cloves makes them useful for 
treating certain viral conditions. In 
tropical Asia, they have often been 
given to treat infections such as 
malaria, cholera, and tuberculosis,  
and parasites such as scabies. ■ Antispasmodic  Digestive 
discomfort, such as gas, colic,  
and abdominal bloating, can be 
relieved with cloves. Their anti-
spasmodic property also eases 
coughs and, applied topically,  
relieves muscle spasms. ■ Mind & body stimulant  Cloves 
are a stimulant, both to the mind 
(improving memory) and to the  
body as a whole, and have been  
used as an aphrodisiac in India and  
in the West. The herb has also  
been used to prepare for childbirth. It helps stimulate and strengthen 
uterine muscle contractions in labor.Clove tree
An evergreen, 
pyramid-shaped tree 
growing to 49 ft 
(15 m). The tree is 
strongly aromatic. ■ Additional uses  Besides all their 
other uses, cloves can be used to 
treat acne, skin ulcers, sores, and 
styes. They also make a potent 
mosquito and clothes moth repellent. Oranges that had been studded with 
cloves were used in the Moluccas as 
insect repellents. ■ Western herbalism  Despite the 
bewildering variety of their therapeutic 
uses, cloves are underrated in the Cloves  are pink when unripe, but later 
turn brown when they are dried outside 
in the sun.Parts Used
Key Preparations & Their UsesFlower buds  are 
picked unopened 
and dried for use in 
infusions or powders 
and for oil extraction. Dried flower 
buds (cloves)Fresh flower 
buds
West. They are used regularly only  
in mouthwashes, and for their local 
anesthetic effect, for example in 
relieving toothache. Self-help Uses
■ Acne & boils , p. 305. ■ Fever , p. 311. ■ Fungal skin infections , p. 304. ■ Neuralgia , p. 308. ■ Toothache , p. 308.Cloves, the dried flower buds of the clove tree, are  
best known as a spice, but are also highly valued as an  
herbal medicine, particularly in India and Southeast  
Asia. Native to the Molucca Islands, cloves were one  
of the earliest spices to be traded and were imported  
into Alexandria in 176 ce. The cloves contain the best 
essential oil, but the stems and leaves of the tree can  
also be distilled for their oil. QCautions  External use can cause dermatitis. Do not take essential oil internally 
except under professional supervision. US_096-097_Eucalyptus.indd   97 26/02/16   3:59 pm
98Filipendula ulmariaKey medicinal plants
Creamy white 
flowers smell  
of almondsFilipendula ulmaria (Rosaceae)
Meadowsweet, Queen of the MeadowMeadowsweet
A perennial reaching  5 ft (1.5 m), with toothed leaves and clusters of creamy, scented flowers. Meadowsweet was called “meadwort” 
in the Middle Ages, as it was used to flavor mead. Habitat & Cultivation
Native to Europe, meadowsweet 
grows easily in damp places, preferring ditches and the banks of streams and rivers. It seeds itself freely, but can  
also be propagated by root division  in autumn or spring. Leaves and flowering tops are harvested in summer when the flowers open. Key Constituents
■ Flavonol glycosides  
 (approximately 1%), mainly   glycosides of quercetin
■ Phenolic glycosides (salicylates)
■ Volatile oil (salicylaldehyde)
■ Polyphenols (tannins)
Key Actions
■ Anti-inflammatory
■ Antirheumatic
■ Astringent
■ Diuretic
■ Stimulates sweating
Research
■ Salicylates The salicylates are 
aspirin-type substances that help to reduce inflammation and  
relieve pain, for example in arthritic conditions. However, they do not have the blood-thinning properties  of aspirin. ■ Protective combination  
Unlike aspirin, which at high doses causes gastric ulceration, the combination of salicylates, tannins, and other constituents acts to protect the lining of the stomach  and intestines, while providing the anti-inflammatory benefit of the salicylates. Meadowsweet clearly illustrates the fact that herbal medicines cannot be understood  by considering their constituents  in isolation. Traditional &  
Current Uses
■ Acid indigestion The herb  
is a key remedy for acid indigestion 
and gastroesophageal reflux,  
and can quickly help to improve troubled digestions. Its mode of action is not well understood,  
though its anti-inflammatory action  
is clearly important. ■ Arthritis Meadowsweet is 
commonly taken as a remedy for rheumatic and arthritic problems such as osteoarthritis, gout,  
lumbago, and sciatica. It is a mild diuretic and is thought to help the kidneys to clear acid residues from the body, thereby relieving joint inflammation, which is often associated with acidity. ■ Digestive remedy 
Meadowsweet is a safe remedy for diarrhea, even in children, and is  used with other herbs for irritable bowel syndrome.■ Other uses Meadowsweet has 
traditionally been taken in much the same way as aspirin—to ease the pain and discomfort of headache, colds and flu, and toothache.Parts Used
Key Preparations 
& Their UsesFlowering tops and leaves 
contain salicylates that reduce inflammation. They are harvested in summer. Fresh flowering 
tops and leaves
Infusion Make by adding freshly boiled water 
to the herb (see p. 291). For indigestion, take 1/2 cup (100 ml) every 2 hours.Tincture (to make, p. 292). For painful joints, soak a pad in 5 tsp 
(25 ml) tincture and apply to the area. Self-help Uses
■ Acidity with gastritis, p. 307. ■ Arthritis associated with acid  
 indigestion or a peptic ulcer, p. 313. ■ Heartburn, p. 317.Tablets T ake for 
rheumatic aches.In medieval times, meadowsweet was a favorite  
strewing herb—Gerard wrote in his Herball (1597) that “the smell thereof makes the heart merry and joyful and delighteth the senses.” Salicylic acid isolated from the plant was first synthesized in  1860 and later used to develop aspirin. Nowadays, meadowsweet is taken for gastric problems and inflammatory conditions, such as arthritis. QCaution Do not take if allergic to aspirin.Dried flowering tops 
and leaves
Decoction (to make, p. 291). For diarrhea, take 3⁄4 cup (150 ml) 2–3 times a day. Powder  For acidity, take 1⁄2 tsp mixed with a little water 3 times a day. US_098-099_Meadowsweet.indd   98 07/04/16   4:37 pm99Gentiana luteaKey medicinal plants
Decoction  (to make, p. 291). For anemia and weakened digestion, 
take 5 tsp 3–5 times a day.Tincture  (to make, p. 292). For 
poor appetite, take 2–5 drops  
with water before meals.Root contains  
bitter principlesGentiana lutea  (Gentianaceae)
Gentian
Gentian is a powerful bitter, and the herb is an essential 
ingredient of traditional aperitifs and bitters such as 
Angostura bitters. The customary aperitif about half  
an hour before a meal is more than a social nicety—  
the bitter constituents stimulate gastric juices and  
prime the stomach, enabling it to cope effectively with  
a heavy meal. Medicinally, gentian strengthens a weak  
or underactive digestive system. Habitat & Cultivation
This largest member of the diverse 
gentian family is native to the Alps and 
other mountainous regions of central 
and southern Europe from Spain to 
the Balkans, flourishing at altitudes  
of 2,300–7,900 ft (700–2,400 m). The large root crowns can be split or 
the plant grown from seed. Due to 
overharvesting from the wild, this is 
now a threatened species, so buy only 
cultivated root. It needs a loamy soil 
and a sheltered site. The root is dug 
up in early autumn and dried. Related Species
Many gentian species are bitter-tasting 
plants and a number are used in herbal 
medicine as a result, for example 
Japanese gentian ( G. scabra ) and the 
Chinese qin jiao  (G. macrophylla ). Key Constituents
■ Bitter principles  
 (gentiopicroside, amarogentin)
■ Gentianose
■ Inulin
■ Phenolic acidsKey Actions
■ Bitter
■ Digestive stimulant
■ Eases stomach pain
Research
■ Amarogentin  Although present 
in much smaller quantities than 
gentiopicroside, amarogentin is the 
constituent largely responsible for 
the bitterness of gentian. It is 3,000 
times more bitter than gentiopicroside, 
and, tasted at dilutions of 1:50,000, it 
is possibly the most bitter substance 
on the planet. Traditional &  
Current Uses
■ Origin of the name  Gentius, 
king of Illyria in the 2nd century bce, 
reputedly discovered the virtues of 
the plant. The name gentian attests  
to its use in classical times. ■ Action of bitter principles  
There are 4 main taste receptors  
on the tongue: sweet, sour, salty,  
and bitter. It has been shown that  
the bitter principles in gentian 
stimulate the bitter taste receptors  
on the tongue, causing an increase  
in the production of saliva and 
gastric secretions. This in turn 
stimulates the appetite and improves 
the action of the digestive system  
in general. ■ Digestive stimulant  By 
stimulating the action of the stomach, 
many symptoms associated with  
weak digestion, such as gas, 
indigestion, and poor appetite,  
are relieved. Stomach and other 
secretions are improved, which in 
turn helps increase the absorption  
of nutrients. The herb also acts as a Gentian
An erect perennial 
growing to 4 ft (1.2 m), 
with star-shaped 
yellow flowers and  
oval leaves. stimulant on the gallbladder and liver, 
encouraging them to function more 
efficiently. Gentian is therefore useful 
in almost any condition where the 
digestive system needs to be toned 
up. It is often taken as a digestive tonic 
in old age. ■ Nutrient absorption   
By improving digestive function, 
gentian increases the absorption of 
nutrients across the gut wall. It aids 
the absorption of a wide range of Gentian  is a tall, attractive plant and has 
been cultivated in gardens at least since the 
time of the 16th-century herbalist Gerard.Parts Used
Key Preparations & Their UsesRoot is harvested  
in autumn for  
use in remedies  
to improve  
digestion. Fresh root
Dried chopped root
nutrients, including iron and vitamin 
B12, and is therefore useful for iron-
deficiency anemia (usually resulting 
from blood loss). It is often added to 
prescriptions for women with heavy 
menstrual bleeding. Self-help Uses
■ Anemia , p. 301. ■ Fever , p. 311. ■ Weakened digestion , p. 319. ■ Gas & bloating , p. 306. QCaution  Do not take if suffering from acid indigestion or a peptic ulcer. US_098-099_Meadowsweet.indd   99 26/02/16   3:59 pm
100Gink Go bilobaKey medicinal plants
The husk of the 
ginkgo seed is  removed before useGinkgo biloba (Ginkgoaceae)
Ginkgo, Maidenhair Tree, Bai Guo (Chinese)Ginkgo
A deciduous tree with one or several main trunks and spreading branches. It grows to 100 ft (30 m). Ginkgo trees are widely cultivated for  
their leaves, which are an excellent herbal remedy for poor circulation and asthma. Habitat & Cultivation
Native to China, ginkgo trees are 
grown in large-scale plantations in China, France, and in South Carolina  
in the U.S. They produce green  
to yellow fan-shaped leaves with radiating veins, and round fruits about 3 cm (1 in) across. Leaves  and fruit are harvested in autumn. Key Constituents
■ Flavonoids
■ Ginkgolides
■ Bilobalides
Key Actions
■ Circulatory tonic
■ Anti-inflammatory
■ Anti-asthmatic
■ Anti-allergenic
■ Antispasmodic
Research
■ Clinical trials Extensive research 
since the 1960s has established the importance of ginkgo in improving poor cerebral circulation and aiding memory and concentration. Several clinical trials have found that gingko proved useful as a treatment for dementia, including Alzheimer’s disease, although some studies have found no positive benefit. Other research indicates possible use in conditions as varied as depression, glaucoma, and poor peripheral arterial blood flow. ■ Anti-inflammatory action 
Ginkgo’s ability to reduce inflammation makes it valuable  in conditions where nerve tissue  is damaged by inflammation, for example multiple sclerosis. ■ Platelet activating factor 
(PAF) Ginkgo inhibits PAF , a substance released by a range  of blood cells that causes the  blood to become stickier and  more likely to produce clots. Traditional &  
Current Uses
■ Chinese herbal medicine 
Ginkgo seeds are used to  
relieve wheezing and to lessen 
phlegm. They are also given to  
treat vaginal discharge, a weak bladder, and incontinence. The leaves are traditionally used for treating asthma. ■ Western herbal medicine 
Western interest in ginkgo has concentrated on the remarkable ability of the leaves to improve  the circulation, especially poor circulation to the brain, and the herb’s antiallergenic and anti-inflammatory actions, which make  it a particularly useful herbal remedy for the treatment of asthma. Ginkgo is a bestselling herbal medicine in France and Germany, where it is taken daily by millions of people from middle age onward to maintain and improve cerebral circulation and the memory, and to reduce the possibility of a stroke. It is also a valuable medicine to take after a stroke, where it is thought to support  Parts Used
Key Preparations & Their UsesLeaves improve the circulation. They are used to make tinctures, tablets, and fluid extract. Seeds are prescribed by the 
Chinese for urinary problems and wheezing.Dried leavesFresh leaf
Seeds
Tincture of leaves (to make,  
p. 292). For poor circulation, take 
1 tsp 2–3 times a day with water. nerve tissue and strengthen  
the circulation. Self-help Uses
■ Failing memory, p. 319. ■ High blood pressure &  
 arteriosclerosis, p. 301.Tablets T ake for poor 
circulation and memory loss.Ginkgo is thought to be the oldest tree on the planet,  
first growing about 190 million years ago. Though long  used as a medicine in its native China, its therapeutic actions have only recently been researched. The leaves  (and their extract) are used to treat poor circulation and to maintain a plentiful blood flow to the central nervous system. Ginkgo is also valuable for asthma and other allergic problems. QCautions Do not exceed the dose. May cause toxic reactions if taken to excess. T ake on professional advice if using blood-thinning medication. Restricted herb in 
some countries. Decoction of the seeds is used by herbalists to treat wheezing. Fluid extract made from the fresh leaves is prescribed by medical herbalists  
for asthma. US_100-101_Ginkgo.indd   100 26/02/16   3:59 pm101Glycyrrhiza GlabraKey medicinal plants
Dried juice stick  
Chew for indigestion.Powder   
Gently rub onto 
canker sores.Tincture  (to make, p. 292). For gastritis, add 1⁄2 tsp to 1/2 cup 
(100 ml) water and take twice a day.An extensive system  
of taproot, branch roots, 
and runners can spread 
to 3 ft (1 m)Glycyrrhiza glabra  (Fabaceae)
Licorice
With a constituent—glycyrrhizic acid—that is 50 times 
sweeter than sugar, it is not surprising that licorice is mainly 
thought of as a candy. Y et it is also one of the most 
valuable of all herbal medicines, a powerful anti-
inflammatory that is effective in conditions as varied  
as arthritis and canker sores. It is among the most  
used herbs in European medicine, and has been  
taken medicinally for several thousand years. Habitat & Cultivation
Licorice grows wild in southeastern 
Europe and southwestern Asia, but it 
is now extensively cultivated. It is 
propagated by dividing the roots in 
autumn or spring. The root of 
3–4-year-old plants is unearthed in 
late autumn. Related Species
Various Glycyrrhiza  species are  
used medicinally in a similar way  
to licorice, for example the  
Chinese gan cao  (G. uralensis ). Key Constituents
■ Triterpene saponins  
 (glycyrrhizin, up to 6%)
■ Isoflavones (liquiritin,  
 isoliquiritin, formononetin) 
■ Polysaccharides
■ Phytosterols
Key Actions
■ Anti-inflammatory
■ Expectorant
■ Demulcent
■ Adrenal agent
■ Mild laxativeResearch
■ Adrenal agent  Research  
shows that on being broken down  
in the gut, glycyrrhizin has an anti-
inflammatory and antiarthritic  
action similar to hydrocortisone and 
other corticosteroid hormones. It 
stimulates production of hormones 
by the adrenal glands and reduces  
the breakdown of steroids by the 
liver and kidneys. ■ Glycyrrhizin  Research in Japan  
in 1985 showed that glycyrrhizin was 
effective in the treatment of chronic 
hepatitis and liver cirrhosis. ■ Protective mucus  Licorice as  
a whole reduces stomach secretions 
but produces a thick protective 
mucus for the lining of the stomach, 
making it a useful remedy in 
inflammatory stomach conditions. ■ Isoflavones  The isoflavones are 
known to be estrogenic. Licorice  
is often used to treat menopausal 
symptoms, including hot flashes. Traditional &  
Current Uses
■ Traditional uses  Licorice has 
long been valued for its medicinal 
uses. It was taken in ancient Greece 
for asthma, chest problems, and 
canker sores. ■ Soothing herb  Inflammatory 
conditions of the digestive system 
such as canker sores, gastritis,  
peptic ulceration, and excessive  
acid problems benefit from licorice’s 
demulcent and anti-inflammatory 
properties, as do many chest 
complaints, arthritis, inflamed  
joints, and some skin problems. Licorice is also soothing for  
inflamed eyes.Licorice
A woody-stemmed 
perennial growing to
61⁄2 ft (2 m), with dark 
leaves and cream to 
mauve flowers. ■ Adrenal stimulation   
Licorice stimulates the adrenal glands, 
helping in Addison’s disease, where 
the adrenal glands cease to function 
normally. ■ Constipation  Licorice is useful as 
a gentle laxative.Licorice  has pealike flowers in summer. It is cultivated commercially for its roots.Parts Used
Key Preparations & Their UsesRoot is harvested in 
autumn. It has valuable 
anti-inflammatory 
properties. Fresh root
Dried root
Self-help Uses
■ Constipation , p. 307. ■ Coughs & bronchitis , p. 310. ■ Loss of appetite  
 & vomiting , p. 306. ■ Canker sores , p. 306. ■ Oral thrush , p. 314. QCautions  Excessive doses can cause serious side effects, including high blood 
pressure. Do not take large doses with high blood pressure. During pregnancy, or for 
long-term use, take on professional advice. Decoction  For constipation, make a decoction ( see p. 291) with
1 part licorice and 3 parts dandelion root. Drink 3⁄4 cup (150 ml) twice a day. Fluid extract  is prescribed for peptic ulcers. US_100-101_Ginkgo.indd   101 26/02/16   3:59 pm
102Hamamelis virginianakey medicinal plantsThe leaves are odorless 
but have a bitter, aromatic taste
Bark is used  
in tinctures  and ointmentsHamamelis virginiana (Hamamelidaceae)
Witch HazelWitch hazel
 A small deciduoustree growing to16 ft  (5 m), with coarsely toothed, broadly  oval leaves. Witch hazel produces distinctive flowers in 
winter followed by brown fruit capsules that, when ripe, eject 2 seeds up to 13 ft (4 m) away from the tree. Habitat & Cultivation
Witch hazel is a woodland tree, 
indigenous to Canada and eastern parts of the U.S. Today it is commonly cultivated in Europe. The trees are grown from hardwood cuttings or from seed, both of which are planted in autumn. The leaves are gathered  
in summer and dried. The bark  
is harvested during the autumn  
and dried as quickly as possible in the shade. Related Species
European hazel (Corylus avellana) is  a similar herb. It is used occasionally in European herbal medicine as an astringent to treat diarrhea. The oil is nutritious and can be used to treat threadworms in children. Key Constituents
■ Tannins (8–10%)
■ Flavonoids
■ Bitter principle
■ Volatile oil (leaves only)Key Actions
■ Astringent
■ Anti-inflammatory
■ Stops external and  
 internal bleeding
Traditional &  
Current Uses
■ Established properties Witch 
hazel contains large quantities of 
tannins. These have a drying, astringent effect, causing the tightening up of proteins in the skin and across the surface of abrasions. This creates a protective covering that increases resistance to inflammation and promotes healing of broken skin. Witch hazel also appears to help damaged blood vessels beneath the skin. It is thought that this effect may be due to the flavonoids as well as to the tannins. When witch hazel is distilled it retains its astringency, suggesting that astringent agents other than tannins are present. ■ Skin problems Witch hazel  
is a very useful herb for inflamed  and tender skin conditions, such as eczema. It is mainly used where the skin has not been significantly broken and helps to protect the affected area and prevent infection. ■ Damaged veins Witch hazel  
is valuable for damaged facial veins, varicose veins, and hemorrhoids,  
and is an effective remedy for bruises. Due to its astringent properties, it helps to tighten distended veins and restore their normal structure. ■ Other uses A lotion can be 
applied to the skin for under lying problems such as cysts or tumors. Witch hazel also makes an effective eyewash for inflammation of the eyes. Less commonly, it is taken internally to alleviate diarrhea,  helping to tighten up the mucous membranes of the intestines, and  for bleeding of any kind.Parts Used
Key Preparations & Their UsesLeaves and young twigs 
are distilled to make “witch hazel.”
Dried leaves
Fresh leaves
Fresh bark Dried bark
Infusion of the leaves (to make, p. 291). Use as a lotion (see p. 296) for broken 
veins and cysts.Tincture of bark (to make, p. 292). Dilute 1 tbsp in 1/2 cup (100 ml) cold 
water and sponge onto varicose veins.Ointment of bark (to make,  p. 295). Apply to hemorrhoids twice a day. Self-help Uses
■ Bruises, p. 304. ■ Cleansing wounds, p. 304. ■ Eczema, p. 300. ■ Hemorrhoids, p. 302. ■ Skin rashes, p. 303. ■ Varicose veins, p. 302.Distilled witch hazel Dab onto insect 
stings, sore skin, and broken veins.Witch hazel was a traditional remedy of many Native 
North American peoples. They used poultices soaked  in a decoction of bark to treat tumors and inflammations, especially of the eye, and took the herb internally for hemorrhaging and heavy menstrual bleeding. European settlers in the 18th century soon came to value witch  hazel for its astringency, and its use spread to Europe  and beyond. QCaution If using internally, take only under professional supervision. US_102-103_Witch_Hazel.indd   102 26/02/16   3:59 pm103Harpagop Hytum procumbenskey medicinal plants
Tincture  (to make, p. 292). For arthritis associated with  
poor digestion, take 30 drops 
with water twice daily. Tablets  T ake for arthritis  
and rheumatism.Decoction  (to make, p. 291). For rheumatism, simmer 1 tsp root  
in 3⁄4 cup (150 ml) water for 15 minutes. T ake in small doses over 1  –2 days.Harpagophytum procumbens  (Pedaliaceae)
Devil’s Claw
The colorful name of this African plant is derived  
from the appearance of its tough, barbed fruit. The 
medicinal properties of devil’s claw were first discovered  
by various southern African peoples, who used a 
decoction of the tuber to treat digestive problems  
and arthritis. The herb is now widely available in 
pharmacies and health food stores in the West as  
a remedy for arthritis and rheumatism. Habitat & Cultivation
Devil’s claw is native to Namibia, 
Botswana, and South Africa, where  
it is a protected species due to over-
harvesting of wild plants. It thrives  
in clay or sandy soils, preferring 
roadsides and open areas, especially 
places where natural vegetation  
has been cleared. Propagated from  
seed in spring, the young tubers  
are unearthed in autumn and cut  
into pieces about 3⁄4 in (2 cm) long. Care is taken not to mix the tubers, 
which contain the active constituents, 
with the roots, as this can render  
the herb ineffective. Related Species
Two related species, both growing  
in Africa, are used medicinally in  
a more or less similar way to  
devil’s claw. Key Constituents
■ Iridoid glycosides  
 (harpagoside)
■ Sugars (stachyose)
■ Phytosterols
■ FlavonoidsKey Actions
■ Anti-inflammatory
■ Analgesic
■ Digestive stimulant
■ Antiarthritic
Research
■ Anti-inflammatory  French 
research (1992) indicated that  
devil’s claw is anti-inflammatory,  
but opinion is divided on its 
effectiveness in practice. ■ Pain relief There is some 
evidence to confirm devil’s claw’s  
use as an analgesic as it seems to  
be effective in easing the symptoms  
of joint pain. ■ Bitter  The strongly bitter action 
of devil’s claw stimulates and tones 
the digestive system. Many arthritic 
conditions are associated with poor 
digestion and absorption of food,  
and the stimulant effect of this  
herb on the stomach and gallbladder 
contributes to its overall therapeutic 
value as an antiarthritic remedy. Traditional &  
Current Uses
■ African traditional remedy  
Devil’s claw is used by various peoples 
in southern Africa, including the 
Khoisan and the Bantu. Traditionally  
it has been used as a tonic, especially 
for digestive problems; for arthritis 
and rheumatism; to reduce fevers;  
and as an ointment for sores,  
ulcers, and boils. ■ Western uses  Current Western 
use of devil’s claw is broadly in line 
with its traditional application. It is 
commonly available over the counter 
in tablet form for arthritic and 
rheumatic conditions and can bring Devil’s claw
A trailing perennial, 
reaching 5 ft (1.5 m)  
in length, with fleshy 
lobed leaves and 
barbed, woody fruit. relief from pain arising from a range 
of joint and muscular problems, 
including gout, back pain, fibrositis, 
and rheumatoid arthritis.Devil’s claw , found growing in the Transvaal, 
has bright purple flowers in spring.Parts Used
Key Preparations & Their UsesTuber  is harvested in autumn 
and used in a variety of  
antiarthritic preparations. Chopped dried tuber
Self-help Uses
■ Arthritis & inflamed joints , p. 313. ■ Back pain due to joint  
 inflammation , p. 313.Sliced dried  
tuber
 QCautions  Do not take if suffering from gallstones or peptic ulcer. Do not take 
during pregnancy. May interact with anticoagulants. US_102-103_Witch_Hazel.indd   103 26/02/16   3:59 pm
104Humulus lupuluskey medicinal plantsHumulus lupulus (Cannabaceae)
HopsHops
A tall, climbing perennial, growing  to 23 ft (7 m). Hop plants are either male or female. Hops have been cultivated for brewing 
beer since at least the 11th century. The bines (stems) are trained up raised wire runners.Habitat & Cultivation
Indigenous to Europe and Asia,  
hops flourish along roadsides and in open areas. They are grown commercially throughout northern Europe and northern states of  the U.S. Flowers of the female plant (strobiles) are picked in early autumn and dried at a low temperature. Related Species
Hops are related to marijuana (Cannabis sativa, p. 181). Key Constituents
■ Bitter principles (lupulin containing  
 humulon, lupulon and valerianic acid)■ Volatile oil (1% ), humulene
■ Flavonoids
■ Polyphenolic tannins
■ Estrogenic substances 
Key Actions
■ Sedative
■ Soporific
■ Antispasmodic
■ Aromatic bitter
Research
■ Bitter principles  
The bitter principles as a whole strongly stimulate the digestive system, increasing the rate of  gastric and other secretions. A number of constituents, such as lupulin, are sedative, though it is not yet entirely understood how they  work. Lupulon and humulon  are antiseptic. ■ Other research The herb 
relaxes smooth muscle and has  
been shown to have an estrogenic effect. Some isolated constituents  
are thought to depress central  
nervous activity. Parts Used Key Preparations & Their Uses
Strobiles (female flowers) are leafy conelike  
catkins. Ripe strobiles may be used fresh but are more commonly dried for their sedative and bitter action. Infusion (to make , p. 291). For insomnia, drink 3⁄4 cup  
(150 ml) at night. Sachet Make a sachet with 
100 g dried herb. Put inside 
a pillow to aid sleep. Tablets usually contain other herbs. T ake for stress or sleeplessness. Tincture (to make, p. 292). For excessive 
anxiety, take 20 drops diluted in a glass of water 3 times a day. For digestive headaches, take 10 drops with water up to 6 times a day.Traditional &  
Current Uses
■ Historical uses Hops feature  
only occasionally in early herbals,  
and the health benefits ascribed  to them are similar to our understanding today. ■ Sedative The herb is used mostly 
for its sedative effect. A sachet placed inside a bed pillow releases an aroma that calms the mind. Hops help to reduce irritability and restlessness  
and promote a sound night’s sleep. ■ T ension Blended with other 
herbs, hops are good for stress, anxiety, tension, and headaches, though they should not be used  if depression is a factor. Their antispasmodic action makes hops useful for certain types of asthma and for period pain. ■ Aid to digestion Hops are 
beneficial for the digestion, increasing stomach secretions and relaxing spasms and colic. Self-help Uses
■ Insomnia, p. 309.The bitter taste of hops, which is well known to beer 
drinkers, largely accounts for this herb’s ability to strengthen and stimulate the digestion. Hops are also sedative and make a valuable remedy for sleeplessness and excitability. When the plant was first used to brew beer in England in the 16th century, it aroused great opposition: a petition  to Parliament described it as “a wicked weed” that would “endanger the people.”
 QCaution Do not take if suffering from depression. Capsules (to make, p. 292). To stimulate the appetite, take a  
300 mg capsule 2 times a day before meals.The strobiles develop 
at the end of bines that 
grow up to 13 ft (4 m)
Fresh strobiles Dried strobiles
US_104-105_Hops.indd   104 17/03/16   4:00 pm105Hydrastis canadensiskey medicinal plants
Tincture  (to make, p. 292). For excess mucus, take 20 drops  
with water 3 times a day. Powder  is used to make capsules ( see p. 292).Capsules  For gastritis, 
take a 300 mg capsule  
3 times a day.Rhizome has a 
characteristic golden 
yellow colorHydrastis canadensis  (Ranunculaceae)
Goldenseal
Goldenseal is a North American remedy, prized during  
the 19th century as a cure-all. The Cherokee and other 
Native Americans used it, mixed with bear fat, as an insect 
repellent, and they also made it into a lotion for wounds, 
ulcers, and sore, inflamed eyes. It was given internally for 
stomach and liver problems. Today it is employed as an 
astringent, antibacterial remedy for the mucous 
membranes of the body. Habitat & Cultivation
Goldenseal grows wild in moist 
mountainous woodland areas of 
North America and prefers soil  
that is well covered with dead  
leaves. Due to excessive harvesting  
in the wild, instances of goldenseal 
in its natural habitat have become 
very rare. In 1997 it was listed as an 
endangered species, and so only 
cultivated produce should be used. Goldenseal is propagated by root 
division. Rhizomes from 3-year-old 
plants are dug up in the autumn and 
dried in the open air on cloth. Key Constituents
■ Isoquinoline alkaloids  
 (hydrastine, berberine,  
 canadine)
■ Volatile oil
■ Resin
Key Actions
■ Bitter tonic
■ Anti-inflammatory
■ Antibacterial
■ Uterine stimulant
■ Stops internal bleedingResearch
■ Alkaloids  For an herb with  
such a high medicinal reputation, 
there has been very little research 
into its pharmacology, but it is  
known that goldenseal’s medicinal 
actions are due largely to the  
isoquinoline alkaloids. ■ Hydrastine Research in  
Canada in the late 1960s showed  
that hydrastine constricts the blood 
vessels and stimulates the autonomic 
nervous system. ■ Antibacterial  Although this 
herb’s mode of action and degree  
of effectiveness is not fully known,  
it has been found that the herb’s 
constituents collectively have a 
stronger antibacterial activity than 
berberine alone. ■ Berberine  Berberine is bitter, 
antibacterial, and amebicidal. Recent research has established 
that it can be used to lower harmful 
blood-fat levels and stabilize blood 
glucose levels. ■ Canadine  Research shows that 
this alkaloid stimulates the muscles  
of the uterus. Traditional &  
Current Uses
■ Mucous membranes  Most 
authorities agree that goldenseal  
is a potent remedy for disorders 
affecting mucous membranes of  
the body, notably of the eye, ear, 
nose, and throat, the stomach and 
intestines, and the vagina. ■ Countering infection  As  
a dilute infusion, goldenseal can  
be used as an eyewash, as a 
mouthwash for infected gums,  
and as an extremely effective  Goldenseal
A small herbaceous 
perennial, with a thick 
yellow root and an 
erect stem growing  
to 1 ft (30 cm). wash or douche for vaginal yeast  
and vaginal infections generally. The infusion is also valued as a 
remedy for psoriasis. ■ Digestive problems  T aken 
internally, goldenseal increases 
digestive secretions, astringes the 
mucous membranes that line the gut, 
and checks inflammation. It should 
not be taken for extended periods  
of time as it reduces the gut’s capacity Goldenseal  is an unusual looking plant with  
a single, red inedible fruit.Parts Used
Key Preparations & Their UsesRhizome contains alkaloids that 
help to soothe and astringe the 
mucous membranes. Dried rhizome
Fresh rhizome
to absorb certain nutrients, notably  
B vitamins. ■ Gynecological uses   
Goldenseal helps to reduce heavy 
menstrual bleeding and is used by 
herbal practitioners and midwives  
to help stop bleeding following 
childbirth (postpartum hemorrhage). Goldenseal stimulates the uterus and 
should not, therefore, be taken 
during pregnancy. QCautions  Toxic if taken to excess. Do not take if suffering from high blood pressure. Do not take during pregnancy or while breastfeeding. Not suitable for children. Decoction  (to make, p. 291). For sore throats, gargle 21⁄2 tbsp 3–4 times a day. Infusion  of powder (to make, p. 291). For yeast infections, apply 3⁄4  cup (150 ml).
Encyclopedia_Of_Herbal_Medicine.txt
Summarize the following text section accurately and concisely. Maintain specific details and numerical information, and use anti-repetition mechanisms:

        It is cultivated in Iran, which 
grows roughly 90% of world 
production. The stigma are collected 
in the autumn when the plant is in 
flower. The flowers are first cut, the 
stigma then being plucked from 
within. The corms (bulbs) naturally 
reproduce themselves—one corm 
producing five after 3 years. Related Species
Saffron should not be confused  
with meadow saffron ( Colchicum 
autumnale, p. 193), an important  
(but toxic) medicinal plant that is  
only distantly related to saffron. Key Constituents
■ Crocins (carotenoid glucosides)
■ Volatile oil (including safranal)
■ Bitter substances
Key Actions
■ Neuroprotective
■ Antidepressant
■ Antispasmodic■ Aphrodisiac
■ Stomach tonic
Research
■ Depression  Several clinical  
trials have found saffron to be 
beneficial in depression. In 2005, 
Iranian researchers found that  
saffron was as effective as  
fluoxetine (Prozac) for mild  
to moderate depression. In a  
different clinical trial, saffron was 
shown to help relieve the symptoms 
of sexual dysfunction (in both men  
and women) that can sometimes 
present themselves as a side effect 
of taking fluoxetine. ■ Eye health  Research from a 
combined Italian-Australian study 
suggests that saffron has a useful  
role to play in helping to support  
eye health in the early stages of 
macular degeneration. The study 
found that retinal function  
improved in those taking saffron. Other research suggests that  
saffron might prove useful in 
treating glaucoma. ■ Cognitive function   
Saffron appears to have marked 
neuroprotective activity ( see 
Depression  and Eye health ). Iranian 
clinical research has examined 
saffron’s therapeutic potential in 
people with moderate Alzheimer’s 
disease. Though still at a very early 
stage, two small studies indicate  
that saffron, and particularly the 
crocins within it, acts on the brain  
to improve memory and cognitive 
function, including in those  
with dementia. ■ Adulteration Due to its high 
cost, saffron is frequently adulterated. Saffron
A perennial growing  
to 1 ft (30 cm), saffron 
has slender leaves and 
multiple lilac to mauve 
flowers. For medicinal purposes, good-quality 
material is essential. Traditional &  
Current Uses
■ Traditional uses  Avicenna,  
a 10th-century physician famous for 
his Canon of Medicine, described 
saffron in detail, noting that it was  
an “exhilarant and cardiac tonic” that 
“strengthens eyesight,” “reduces 
appetite,” and is “a stimulant of sexual 
desire. ” A rereading of the Canon  
paved the way for much of the 
Iranian research over recent years. The herbalist Christopher Catton, 
following the English view of saffron Saffron’s  golden-red threads may help  
to support eyesight and prevent  
macular degeneration. Parts Used
Key Preparations 
& Their UsesStigma  are the three deep 
orange-red threads at the 
center of the flower. as a “cordial” or heart tonic, wrote in 
1862 that “Saffron hath power to 
quicken the spirits, and the virtue 
thereof pierceth by and by to the 
heart, provoking laughter and 
merriness. ” It is said that rubbed into 
the palm, saffron has an immediate 
action on the heart. ■ Chinese herbal medicine 
In Chinese medicine, saffron is used 
for depression and shock. It also has 
long use as a remedy for menstrual 
difficulties such as period cramps  
and pre-menstrual syndrome (PMS). Saffron is also used to treat skin 
disorders, stomach weakness, and  
to reduce appetite. StigmaFlower head
 QCautions  Do not take as a medicine during pregnancy. Excessive doses can be toxic. Capsules  (to make, p. 292). For menstrual cramps, take a 300 mg capsule up to 
five times a day. US_088-089_Crateva_Crocus. indd   89 26/02/16   3:59 pm
90Cur Cuma longakey medicinal plantsCurcuma longa syn. C. domestica (Zingiberaceae)
Turmeric, Haldi (Hindi), Jiang Huang (Chinese)T urmeric
A perennial reaching 3 ft (90 cm), with a short stem, lance-shaped leaves, and  
a knobbly rhizome. Turmeric is a valuable remedy for  
arthritic and skin conditions. Habitat & Cultivation
Turmeric is native to India and 
southern Asia and is now cultivated throughout the tropics. It is propagated by cuttings from the root, and needs well-drained soil and a humid climate. The rhizome is unearthed in winter. Key Constituents
■ Curcumin
■ Volatile oil (3–5%), including 
 zingiberen and turmerone
■ Bitter principles
■ Resin
Key Actions
■ Anti-inflammatory
■ Lowers cholesterol levels
■ Antimicrobial
■ Anti-platelet (blood-thinning)
Research
■ New interest in turmeric 
Despite its long-standing use in India and China, the therapeutic actions of turmeric were not researched until recent decades when there was an upsurge of interest in foods and medicines that lower cholesterol levels or have antioxidant properties 
Parts Used Key Preparations & Their Uses(neutralize harmful free radicals). Research from the 1970s onward, mostly in India, has tended to confirm traditional uses of the root. ■ Anti-inflammatory Research 
has established that turmeric, and curcumin in particular, blocks several different inflammatory pathways, countering inflammation throughout the body. Turmeric is largely taken as  a supplement to prevent or treat cancer, dementia, and many auto-immune diseases. Black pepper  is traditionally taken with turmeric  to augment its efficacy. This effect  is now supported by research. ■ Curcumin When applied to the 
skin and exposed to sunlight, turmeric is strongly antibacterial. Curcumin is the constituent responsible for this action. Curcumin is also more strongly antioxidant than vitamin E. ■ Cholesterol Chinese clinical trials 
in 1987 indicate that turmeric lowers cholesterol levels. ■ Cancer Turmeric may be a 
valuable preventative remedy for those at risk of developing cancer, but more research is needed. ■ Other actions Research has 
shown that turmeric has an anti-coagulant action, keeping the blood thin. It also increases bile production and flow, and has a protective action on the stomach and liver. Traditional &  
Current Uses
■ Traditional remedy Turmeric 
improves the action of the liver and  
is a traditional remedy for jaundice in both Ayurvedic and Chinese herbal medicine. It is also an ancient herb for digestive problems such as gastritis and acidity, helping to increase mucus production and protect the stomach. The herb also alleviates nausea. ■ Arthritis & allergies Even though 
turmeric does not relieve pain, its anti-inflammatory action makes it useful for arthritis and other inflammatory conditions such as asthma and eczema. ■ Circulatory disorders Due to 
its anti-inflammatory, blood-thinning, and cholesterol-lowering properties, turmeric is now used to reduce the risk of strokes and heart attacks. ■ Skin conditions Applied to the 
skin, turmeric is useful in treating  
a number of conditions, including psoriasis, and fungal infections such  as athlete’s foot. Self-help Uses
■ Athlete’s foot, p. 304. ■ Nausea & motion sickness,  p. 306. Although best known for its bright yellow color  
and spicy taste in Indian food, turmeric is increasingly recognized as a medicinal food with almost unparalleled health benefits. Its powerful anti-inflammatory action makes turmeric a key remedy in many chronic health problems, including allergies, arthritis, diabetes, and psoriasis, where long-term inflammation is usually  
a major underlying factor. QCautions If taking blood-thinning medication, or if gallstones are present,  
take only on professional advice. Turmeric occasionally causes skin rashes. Rhizome is carefully 
unearthed and broken  
into sections. It is boiled  or steamed before drying. Poultice using a paste made 
with powder. For psoriasis,  
mix 1 tsp with a little water  
and apply 3 times a day. Powder  is the most common preparation 
in Ayurvedic medicine. For gastritis, take  1 tsp with water 3 times a day. Decoction (to make, 
p. 291). For gastritis, take 1/3 cup (75 ml)  
3 times a day. Fresh rhizome Dried rhizome
Fresh rhizome is 
bright orange insideTincture (to make, p.
Iran
Where is saffron primarily grown?
To improve mental resilience and reduce the risk of stroke
What is the traditional use of Siberian ginseng in Western herbal medicine?
To stimulate the immune system
What is the primary use of Echinacea?
To improve memory and cognitive function
What is the primary use of Ginkgo biloba?
As a bitter tonic
What is the traditional use of Gentian in European herbal medicine?
As a sedative and for sleeplessness
What is the primary use of Hops?