BLUEPRINT FOR 
IMMORTALITY 
The Electric PanerJ)S of Ufc HAROLD SAXTON BURR 
Blueprint for Immortality 
The Electric Patterns of Life 
LONDON 
NEVILLE SPEARMAN Harold Saxton Burr, Ph.D 
E. K. Hunt Professor Emeritus, Anatomy 
Yale University School of Medicine 
Portrait by An:r.yb�sheff. Rcprodu,ed by perm;uion of YOile Uniyer-sily Art GaliN)' 
Portrait was ,ill offormer students, alumni and colh.aguei of Yal. Unjver�it)' Schaal of Medidne First published in Great Britain 1972 
by Neville Spearman Limited 
112 Whitfield Street, London WIP 6DP 
Copyright © 1972 by Harold Saxton Burr 
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be 
reproduced in any form by any electronic or 
mechanical means, including information storage and 
retrieval systems, without permission in writing 
from the Publisher, except by a reviewer who may 
quote brief passages in a review. SBN 85435 281 
Library of Congress Catalog Card Number 
72-75971 
Set in II pt Tuliana, I �'2 pt leaded, and 
printed by Northumberland Press Ltd, Gates­
head. Bound by Mansell Bookbinders Ltd. 
London CONTENTS 
Foreword 
Part I 
VOYAGE OF DISCOVERY 
Chapter 1. An Adventure in Science 11 
Chapter 2. The Course and the Compass 26 
Chapter 3. The Female Field 45 
Chapter 4. The Ubiquitous Field 61 
Chapter 5. The Field as a Signpost 80 
Chapter 6. Antennae to the Universe 96 
Chapter 7. The Continuing Adventure 110 
Part II 
SELECTED PAPERS 135 
Appendix 
Bibliography of H. S. Burr 185 ILLUSTR AT IONS 
Harold Saxton Burr Frontispiece 
Voltmeter recommended by the Author page 86 
Measurement of hypnotic conditions page 87 FOREWORD 
The Universe in which we find ourselves and from which we 
can not be separated is a place of Law and Order. It is not an 
accident, nor chaos. It is organized and maintained by an 
Electro-dynamic Field capable of determining the position and 
movement of all charged particles. For nearly half a century the logical consequences of this 
theory have been subjected to rigorously controlled experiment al 
conditions and met with no contradictions. H. S. Burr PART I 
Voyage of Discovery CHAP TER ONE 
An Adventure in Science 
1 
We live in troubled and difficult times. There are wars and 
dangers of war. In many parts of the world there are revolts, pro­
tests, crime and lawlessness in ceaseless eruption. And over this 
age hangs the Sword of Damocles of possible nuclear destruction. More and more people ask themselves despondently whether 
life has any sense or purpose. Many are tempted to believe that 
man is an accident, left to grapple with his lonely fate on an 
insignificant planet in a harsh and lawless Universe. In a materialistic, scientific age many find it hard to accept 
those religious beliefs that sustained their forefathers in times 
which-to them-seemed as troubled and perilous as the present. They would like to believe that man is no accident and that the 
Universe in which he lives is one of law, order and purpose. But, 
dazzled by the methods and triumphs of science, they are unwill­
ing to take anything on trust; they demand some 'scientific' proof 
or evidence. Until some forty years ago this demand could not be met be­
cause the necessary electronic instruments and techniques had 
not been developed. When these became available, however, an 
entirely new approach to the nature of man and his place in the 
Universe became possible. For these instruments revealed that 
man-and, in fact, all forms-are ordered and controlled by 
electro-dynamic fields which can be measured and mapped with 
precision. Though almost inconceivably complicated, the 'fields of life' 
are of the same nature as the simpler fields known to modern 
physics and obedient to the same laws. Like the fields of physics, 
they are a part of the organization of the Universe and are in-
11 AN ADVENTU RE IN SCIENCE 
fluenced by the vast forces of space. Like the fields of physics, too, 
they have organizing and directing qualities which have been 
revealed by many thousands of experiments. Organization and direction, the direct opposite of chance, 
imply purpose. So the fields of life offer purely electronic, in­
strumental evidence that man is no accident. On the contrary, he 
is an integral part of the Cosmos, embedded in its all-powerful 
fields, subject to its inflexible laws and a participant in the 
destiny and purpose of the Universe. This book is an account of the adventure in science-of the 
long, step-by-step exploration-that wrested from Nature the 
answer to the question which so many in these times are asking 
so anxiously. 2 
Electro-dynamic fields are invisible and intangible; and it is 
hard to visualize them. But a crude analogy may help to show 
what the fields of life-L-fields for short-do and why they are 
so important: 
Most people who have taken high-school science will remember 
that if iron-filings are scattered on a card held over a magnet 
they will arrange themselves in the pattern of the 'lines of 
force' of the magnet's field. And if the filings are thrown away 
and fresh ones scattered on the card, the new filings will assume 
the same pattern as the old. Something like this-though infinitely more complicated­
happens in the human body. Its molecules and cells are con­
stantly being torn apart and rebuilt with fresh material from 
the food we eat. But, thanks to the controlling L-field, the new 
molecules and cells are rebuilt as before and arrange themselves 
in the same pattern as the old ones. Modern research with 'tagged' elements has revealed that the 
materials of our bodies and brains are renewed much more often 
than was previously realized. All the protein in the body, for 
example, is 'turned over' every six months and, in some organs 
such as the liver, the protein is renewed more frequently. When 
12 AN ADVENTU RE IN SCI ENCE 
we meet a friend we have not seen for six months there is not one 
molecule in his face which was there when we last saw him. But, 
thanks to his controlling L-field, the new molecules have fallen 
into the old, familiar pattern and we can recognize his face. Until modern instruments revealed the existence of the control­
ling L-fields, biologists were at a loss to explain how our bodies 
'keep in shape' through ceaseless metabolism and changes of 
material. Now the mystery has been solved, the electro-dynamic 
field of the body serves as a matrix or mould, which preserves the 
'shape' or arrangement of any material poured into it, however 
often the material may be changed. When a cook looks at a jelly-mould she knows the shape 
of the jelly she will turn out of it. In much the same way, in­
spection with instruments of an L-field in its initial stage can 
reveal the future 'shape' or arrangement of the materials it will 
mould. When the L-field in a frog's egg, for instance, is examined 
electrically it is possible to show the future location of the frog's 
nervous system because the frog's L-field is the matrix which will 
determine the form which will develop from the egg. (See 
page 61.) Inspection of L-fields is done with special voltmeters and elec­
trodes-to be described shortly-which reveal different patterns 
or gradients of voltages in different parts of the L-field. To return to the cook, when she uses a battered mould she 
expects to find some dents or bulges in the jelly. Similarly, a 
'battered' L-field-that is, one with abnormal voltage-patterns 
-can give warning of something 'out of shape' in the body, 
sometimes in advance of actual symptoms. For example, malignancy in the ovary has been revealed by 
L-field measurements before any clinical sign could be observed. Such measurements, therefore, could help doctors to detect can­
cer early, when there is a better chance of treating it successfully. (See page 54 and Dr. Langman's paper in Part II.) Nature keeps an infinite variety of electro-dynamic 'jelly­
moulds' on her shelves with which she shapes the countless diff­
erent forms of life that exist on this planet. L-fields have been 
detected and measured not only in men and women but also in 
animals, trees, plants, seeds, eggs and even in one of the lowest 
13 AN ADVENTU RE IN SCIENCE 
forms of life, slime-moulds. Of these L-fields, those of trees can tell something that others 
cannot because trees do not move about, live to a great age and 
can be hitched up to recording instruments for long periods of 
time. For many years a maple tree in New Haven and an elm in 
Old Lyme were continuously connected to recording voltmeters 
-something which, obviously, cannot be done with men and 
women. These long records showed that the L-fields of trees vary not 
only with sunlight and darkness but also with the cycles of the 
moon, with magnetic storms and with sunspots. (See page 97 and 
Mr. Markson's paper in Part II.) If such extra-terrestrial forces can influence the relatively­
simple L-fields of trees we would expect them to have an even 
greater influence on the more complex L-fields of men and 
women; and there is evidence tha t they do. These sturdy Connecticut trees, then, have helped to answer 
the question which philosophers have disputed for centuries and 
which many ask so anxiously today. For they have shown that 
life on this planet is not isolated from the Universe but a part of 
it-susceptible to those irresistible forces that exert their influ­
ence across the vast distances of space. 3 
i-fields are detected and examined by measuring the difference 
in voltage between two points on-or close to-the surface of 
the living form. In men and women L-field voltages can be 
measured by placing one electrode on the forehead and the other 
on the chest or the hand. Alternatively, the index finger of each 
hand is dipped into howls of saline solution connected to the volt­
meter. In special cases voltage readings may be taken by apply­
ing the electrodes to some specific organ or part of the body. In trees, the electrodes are in contact through salt bridges with 
the cambium layer, one about two feet above the other. The. ;e voltage measurements have nothing to do with the 
alternating electrical currents which doctors find in the heart and 
the brain. They are pure voltage potentials which can yield only 
14 AN ADVENTU RE IN SCIEN CE 
an infinitesimal amount of direct current. That is why L-fields 
could not be detected before the invention of the vacuum-tube 
voltmeter, which requires virtually no current for its operation. An ordinary voltmeter needs so much current to swing the 
needle that it would drain away the L-field potentials and make 
any reading useless if not impossible. When Sir John Fleming, an Englishman, discovered that elec­
trons flow from a heated wire in a vacuum and Lee DeForest, an 
American, found out how to use them with a grid, it is unlikely 
that either of them ever imagined that the vacuum tube which 
resulted from their discoveries would one day make possible a 
new approach to the mystery of life. And it was many years be­
fore the vacuum tube had been sufficiently perfected to make the 
vacuum-tube voltmeter a reliable instrument. In the early days of his researches, some forty years ago, the 
author spent three years developing his own instruments. Today 
highly sensitive and reliable vacuum-tube voltmeters are avail­
able commercially and are to be found in most physics labora­
tories and electronic factories. There is nothing mysterious, then, about the instruments 
required to measure L-field voltages. But these are harder to 
measure than those of a. car or transistor-radio battery. Special 
electrodes must be used and the methods outlined in Chapter 2 
must be followed rigidly and explicitly for successful results. But it will be no more difficult to train doctors and their assistants 
to read and interpret L-field voltages than it was to train them 
to use electro-cardiographs or electro-encephalographs. Extensive medical use of L-field readings, however, may not be 
seen for some time. For it took over thirty years before electro­
cardiograph techniques were perfected to the point where they 
were useful in doctors' offices. 4 
In the case of L-fields there is no technical reason why their 
use by doctors should take so long. Modern instruments are 
reliable; and any intelligent man or woman can learn the tech-
15 AN ADVENTU RE IN SCI ENCE 
niques of taking and interpreting L-field readings in a short period 
of intensive instruction. It is to be hoped that many will do so 
because L-fields can be helpful to doctors, psychiatrists and others 
in various ways. Immediate and practical results, in fact, can stem from this 
adventure in science-quite apart from the assurance that human 
life has purpose and that man is not isolated from the Universe 
-which have made the adventure even more worthwhile. As mentioned earlier, abnormalities in L-field voltages can give 
advance warning of future symptoms before these are evident. This does not apply only to the early detection of cancer. As more 
research is done and L-fields are better understood, it is probable 
that they will be used to give early warning of a variety of physi­
cal problems in time to tackle these effectively. And they have 
already been used to forecast certain psychological and psychi­
atric troubles. (See page 18 and Dr. Ravitz' paper in Part II.) Among the physical events which can be predicted by measur­
ing the voltage-gradients is the precise moment of ovulation in 
a woman. This is possible because ovulation is preceded by a 
steady and substantial rise in voltage, which falls rapidly to nor­
mal after the egg has been released. Such measurements have revealed that some women may ovul­
ate over the entire menstrual period, that ovulation may occur 
withou t mestruation and menses without ovulation. The poten­
tial importance of this knowledge to gynaecology, family-plan­
ning and birth-control is obvious; and it helps to explain why the 
'rhythm method' of birth-control is inadequate. A patient of the author's, a married woman, made good use of 
her L-field. For years she and her husband had longed in vain to 
have children. So, over a period of weeks, she made regular visits 
to the author's office and herself measured the voltages in her own 
L-field by dipping her fingers into bowls of solution connected to 
a voltmeter. When, one day, she saw her voltages rising rapidly , 
she knew that ovulation was imminent and went to her husband. A longed-for child was the result. W ounds-even a small cut on the finger-will change the 
voltages in the L-field and, as the wound heals, these will return 
to normal. This offers surgeons a simple, reliable way to measure 
16 AN ADVENTURE IN SCIENCE 
the rate of healing, which will be specially useful with internal 
wounds from operations. (See page 82.) L-field measurements are not only useful in diagnosing local 
conditions; they can also be used to assess the general state of 
the body as a whole. For these pure voltage-differences-inde­
pendent of any current flow or changes in skin-resistance-reveal 
the state of the whole human force-field. Such conditions, then, 
as ovulation or malignancy can be detected by measuring changes 
in the L-field of the body at a distance from the affected organs. And, as the force-field extends beyond the surface of the skin, it 
is sometimes possible to measure field-voltages with the elec­
trodes a short distance from the surface of the skin-not in con­
tact with it. This shows that it is a true �eld that is measured and 
not some surface potential. This, too, is additional evidence that L-�eIds have the same 
qualities as the �mpler fields of physics because they can produce 
an effect across a space or gap, without any visible intervening 
means. Since L-fields reveal the state of the body as a whole they 
can be used to assess the general effects of drugs, sleep or hypnosis. Dr. Leonard J. Ravitz, Jr., has not only measured the depth of 
hypnosis with a voltmeter but has also found that strong emo­
tions recalled during hypnosis can cause a voltage-rise of as much 
as from 15 to 20 millivolts. (See page 87 and Dr. Ravitz' paper 
in Part II.) This suggests the fascinating possibility that psychiatrists of 
the future will be able to measure the intensity of grief, anger or 
love electrically-and as easily as we measure temperature or 
noise-levels today. 'Heartbreak', hate, or love, in other words, 
may one day be measurable in millivolts. Good doctors have always known how important it is to con­
sider the patient as a whole-to take into account his mental or 
emotional state as well as his physical symptoms-because many 
human ills have a 'psychosomatic' cause. Business worries or an 
unhappy marriage are often the real cause of, say, headaches or 
ulcers. Since L-field voltages reveal both physical and mental 
conditions they can offer doctors a new insight into the state of 
both body and mind. 17 AN ADVENTURE IN SC IENCE 
When the effects on the human L-field of extraterrestrial forces 
are established and understood, this knowledge will be important 
in the study not only of human health and behaviour but also of 
medical problems which may arise in long space explorations. The fields of space may have unforseen effects on the L-fields of 
astronauts if they are exposed to them for long periods. 5 
This adventure in science promises still further 'dividends' in 
the form of a better understanding of the human mind. Dr. Ravitz has discovered that the voltages of the L-fields of 
healthy people are not constant but vary in steady rhythms over 
periods of weeks-whatever the cause may be. From plotting over 
30,000 measurements on 430 human subjects he has found that 
these rhythms show how the subjects feel. When they feel 'on 
top of the world' their voltages are high; when they feel 'below 
par' their voltages are low. For healthy, normal people these voltage rhythms can be 
plotted as steady regular curves which alter little over long 
periods. From these curves, then, it is possible to predict in 
advance when the individual will be at his best and when he will 
be feeling 'below par'. This knowledge could be of vital importance to those engaged 
in hazardous duties, especially in the Armed Forces. If command­
ing officers had advance knowledge of the 'low' periods of, say, 
combat pilots, they could try to avoid sending them on dangerous 
missions at times when their alertness and efficiency would be re­
duced. If operational necessity made that impossible, at least this 
knowledge might warn the men to use special vigilance and care. Intelligently used, warnings offered by the state of the L-fields 
could save valuable lives and equipment not only in the Armed 
Forces but also in dangerous industrial occupations. With emotionally-unstable people the voltage variations can­
not be plotted as steady regular curves. They display an erratic 
pattern which, in many cases, can be detected within a few days. By purely objective, electronic means, therefore, it will be 
18 AN ADVENTURE IN SCIENCE 
possible for the Armed Forces quickly to detect and weed out 
emotionally-unstable personnel before time and money are spent 
on training them for duties for which they are not fitted. Similarly, industry will be able not only to avoid hiring per­
sonnel who might 'crack' under responsibility but also to find 
those best qualified to assume greater responsibilities. Since L-field voltages reflect mental and emotional states they 
can also be useful in the handling of mental patients because 
they offer doctors an objective measurement of progress. Thus 
they can help to prevent the release of patients who might be a 
danger to the public; they can also help doctors to decide when it 
is safe to release others-with a great saving of hospital space and 
taxpayers' money. Voltage measurements used in this kind of psychological test­
ing are completely impersonal and reproducible. There is no need 
to question the patient; the technician who takes the readings 
need not open his mouth. In the medical laboratories of the future, it is probable that 
trained technicians will take the voltage-readings and then sub­
mit these to a doctor qualified to interpret them, in much the 
same way as technicians take X-ray photographs and submit 
them to a radiologist. 'Voltage-interpreters ', however, need not 
be as specialized as radiologists; and many doctors in the future 
will be their own interpreters. 6 
Since L-fields have been found in all living forms examined so 
far, their potential usefulness is not limited to medical diagnosis. In measuring the L-fields of plants, for instance, it has been 
found that the change of a single gene in the parent stock 
produces profound changes in the voltage-pattern. This phenom­
enon could be of great importance in the study of genetics in 
plants and in animals. (See page 70.) By measuring the i-fields of seeds it is possible to predict how 
strong and healthy the future plants will be. To have advance 
knowledge of the future vitality of living forms could be useful 
19 AN ADVENTURE IN SCIENCE 
in many fields. (See page 71.) Since the fields of life are dominant and control the growth and 
development of all living forms, medical science may one day 
find ways directly to treat the health of the patient electrically 
before the onset of physical symptoms. Agricultural scientists of the future may, perhaps, find ways 
to stimulate the growth of crops electrically and to eliminate de­
fects in their L-fields which render them prone to pests or diseases. It has long been known not only that sunlight-a form of electro­
magnetic radiation -is essential to the growth of most plant life 
but also that different species require different 'dosages' of sun­
light. It is known, too, that certain frequencies or colours of 
light are beneficial in specific cases. It may one day be dis­
covered, then, that other and invisible electro-magnetic fre­
quencies have beneficial effects on the L-fields of plants. Since animals and plants possess-and are controlled by­
their characteristic L-fields, like man they are an integral part of 
the Univ erse and subject to its laws. So the human race and the 
animal and vegetable kingdoms are component parts of the same 
whole. You and I, our pets, our trees and our plants are all sub­
ject to the same universal laws. This is borne out by the mutual interdependence of species. Plants depend for their existence on sunlight-an extraterrestrial 
force; plants nourish man and animals; animals feed on each 
other. So when we remember that we should starve without sun­
light from some ninety-three million miles away, it is not hard 
to accept that we are subject to the other great forces of space. 7 
It has taken only a few pages to summarize some of the re­
sults of this adventure in science for the benefit of the impatient 
reader. But the adventure itself occupied many years because 
Nature does not share human impatience and is in no hurry to 
yield her secrets. Those, therefore, who expect instant answers 
from Nature are likely to be disappointed. Nature, too, does not effect instant improvemen ts; she may 
20 AN ADVE NTURE IN SCIENCE 
take an aeon to evolve something better. And as we are all a part 
of Nature and subject to her laws, those who expect an immedi­
ate improvem ent of human nature or an instant answer to some 
human problem are likely to suffer from acute frustration. However impatient for results they may be, scientists realize 
that they cannot impose their will or their desires on Nature; 
they must follow her methods and meet her conditions. This may 
explain why, in this age, science is usually more successful in 
solving its problems than politics. Perhaps, then, a description of this particular adventure in 
science may serve a dual purpose: while it will give the evidence 
that man is linked to the Universe and subject to its laws it will 
also illustrate the scientific method by which the laws and secrets 
of Nature may be discovered. This has more than an academic interest at the present time 
when respect for man-made laws is decreasing and many feel 
that laws are made to be disobeyed. Natural laws, however, can­
not be disobeyed; we cannot flout, for example, the law of 
gravity. So the more we can find out about Nature's laws-and 
also about how science discovers them-the easier it will be for us 
to accept the need for laws and to realize that man-made laws 
reflect-however imperfectly-the essential principles of a Uni­
verse of law and order. Unfortuna tely, there is much confusion about the meaning of 
the word 'science'. The dictionary defines it as 'organized know­
ledge'. But, beginning probably with Galileo, the experimental 
method-with its enormous development since that time-has 
revealed that it is not enough to describe and classify the Universe 
in general and the earth in particular. It is also necessary to 
attempt to find the meaning of all the facts that have been 
accumulated. This involves trying to understand the relation between the 
component parts of the Universe-an understanding that must 
always be developing and changing as the experimental method 
uncovers more facts. All that can be done is to interpret the facts 
as best we can, always bearing in mind that our knowledge is still 
tragically incomplete. Science, therefore, means not only the collection of facts and 
21 AN ADVENTURE IN SC IENCE 
the classification and description of the physical component s of 
the Universe but also a considera tion of the laws or forces which 
govern the relation between these components. This, of course, requires a primitive assumption : that the 
Universe is a place of law and order which-it is to be hoped­
can be understood by the mind of man. There are many who maintain that the Universe is chaos, 
that the only law and order in it are those which are imposed by 
the mind of man-a far more primitive assumption. For, however 
great our respect for the powers of the human mind, it is diffi­
cult to see how man can impose the arrangements and move­
ments of the stars in their courses or, as far as we on this earth are 
concerned, the nature of the forces which define a living system. It should be reasonably clear to any thinking person that noth­
ing in the Universe could exist for a fraction of a millisecond if 
there were not forces, laws and organization which determine the 
relationship between the component parts of the Universe, all of 
which-from a galaxy to the particles of an atom-are in con­
stant motion. No living organism could exist if the process of 
living were not regulated by meticulous and powerful forces, 
about which it is obviously desirable to find out as much as we 
can. Our primitive assumption, then, that the Universe is a place 
of law and order is justified by both observation and common 
sense. The many successes of the experimental method also justify 
the hope that we can learn more and more about the laws of the 
Universe. This has enormous implications for man because it follows that 
man is not only in the Universe but also of the Universe, subject 
to laws in the living world similar to those which can be 
recognized and understood in the material Universe. At once we are faced with a curious anomaly. Many people 
object to the idea of law and order in the Universe on the ground 
that it is authoritarian and impinges on man's free will to de­
vel'1p his own ways of doing things on his own responsibility. Yet 
these same people would not dream of defying the law of gravity, 
which, so far as we know, is a universal property of the Universe, 
22 AN ADVENTURE IN SCIENCE 
and, in fact, are fully prepared to adjust to it-especially when 
walking on an icy sidewalk. Not only do we have to pay attention to the law of gravity but 
also to learn as much about it as possible so that it can be put to 
the service of man, whether in emptying a bathtub or for getting 
astronauts safely back from space. This is true not only of the 
law of gravity but also of all other natural laws that can be 
discovered. 8 
All this raises an important problem. Though many concede 
that the Universe may be dominated by physical laws, they 
maintain that man is not a part of this physical Universe but is a 
separate, spiritual being, subject to spiritual law. This at once 
denies the unity of the Universe, for it means that there are two 
sets of laws, the laws of the material Universe and the laws of the 
spiritual component of the Universe. Physical laws, determined by experiment, can be validated and 
can be found to be true not only in New York but also in Tim­
buktu. Spiritual laws, on the other hand, which are inventions of 
the mind of man, have one set of meanings in the Western hemi­
sphere and a quite different one in the East. This concept of two kinds of law make any generally-accepted 
understanding of the nature of man and his part in the Universe 
well-nigh impossible. Spiritual laws, to be sure, are believed to have been validated 
in the experience of man and, within certain limits, this is 
probably true. But laws which have different meanings in differ­
ent parts of the world-and, sometimes, different meanings to 
different people in the same part of the world-are not com­
patible with physical laws which are universally verifiable and 
accepted. This is the cause of the conflict between science and religion. It is the basic argument of religion that the intuitive, creative 
imagination of man can set up laws which transcend physical 
law and which describe aspects of nature which, otherwise, can-
23 AN ADVE NTURE IN SCIENCE 
not be validated. It is the argument -or, perhaps, the hope-of 
science that all aspects of Nature arc open to examination by the 
experimental method. It is true that, for centuries, this method 
has been limited to certain aspects of Nature. But it has been so 
successful that science sees no reason why, eventually, it should 
not be extended to all aspects. Curiously enough, the scientific method is not confined to 
science but is something by which most of us live all the time. First of all we find out all we can about a problem as a basis for 
its solution; and, in the process somewhere along the line, we 
see some unsuspected relationships between the facts we have un­
covered. Then we have a hunch, a guess, a dream or, to use a 
technical term, a hypothesis, though nobody knows how these 
crea tive ideas arise. This hunch or hypothesis suggests some logical deductions, 
which we can check in various ways to see if they offer a solu­
tion to our problem. In a physics laboratory it is not too hard to check a hypothesis 
by rigidly controlled experiments and, if these support it, it is 
generally assumed that it is correct. But when it comes to human 
problems or the problems of other living organisms it is usually 
much more difficult to check an hypothesis. In any event we should not make the mistake of assuming that 
because experiments support the hypothesis the latter is the 
only one those experiments could support. This makes it difficult 
to achieve any final, conclusive answer, which is probably just 
as well because if it were easy to get unequivocal, demonstrated 
answers to everything we would lose a lot of the fun of living. This process-fa ct-finding, hypothesis, deduction and experi­
ment-is one in which most of us engage all the time. For ex­
ample, on the basis of our knowledge of the performance of the 
horses running at Louisville, we make the logical deduction that 
Northern Dancer will win the stakes and place our bet that this 
will happen. If the horse wins we assume that our guess, hunch 
or hypothesis was valid. If he loses, we have to accept that it was 
not. This is true not only of horse-races and ball-games but also of 
almost every other aspect of the activity of the mind of man. An 
24 AN ADVEN TURE IN SC IENCE 
artist sees in the beauty of the world around him something 
which he thinks is important and at once begins to depict it. An 
author has an idea which he expresses in writing. The musician 
conceives a piece of music and composes it. We all do the same 
thing in our various forms of activity. But it is often difficult to 
know if our original idea was a good one. 1£ the picture is purchased, if the book becomes a best-seller 
and if the music is played all over the country, the creators of 
these things can assume-within limits-that their original flight 
of imagination was worthwhile. But such confirmation is not 
always available and, if it is not, that does not necessarily prove 
that the flight of imagination was worthless because many im­
portant ideas have lain dormant or unrecognized for many years. There is nothing mysterious, then, about the way in which 
scientists attempt to discover natural laws. We all use the same 
method but scientists enjoy an advantage over non-scientists : it 
is usually easier for them to check their hunches by experiments. For both scientists and non-scientists, problem-solving must al­
ways be a developing, growing process, subject to change as 
knowledge and understanding increase. To say, therefore, that 
something has been proven is often questionable, except in a few 
cases, such as the law of gravity, which we can say have been 
proven beyond question. To increase the number of things which 
can be regarded as proven is, of course, the ultimate desire of all 
students of the Universe, but that desire is not often achieved. To some this may seem a pessimistic approach, depriving man 
of his essential dignity. This is, of course, far from the truth be­
cause the complexity of the Universe and its component parts is 
so great that the mind of any individual can only analyse a few 
of the complexities and interpret them in the light of such in­
formation as may be available. A modest approach to an under­
standing of the Universe does not impair human dignity-it 
enhances it. Moreover, it is the only approach likely to succeed 
because Nature seems reluctant to reveal her secrets to the in­
tellectually arrogant. These, then, are the methods and the approach which have 
been adopted in the present adventure in science. CHAP TER TWO 
The Course and the Compass 
1 
In the previous chapter we outlined some of the results of this 
adventure in science. But it should be emphasized that when we 
set out we knew what we hoped to find but had no certainty of 
finding it. For science is a trip across unchart ed seas to a goal which lies 
beyond the horizon. We do not know the ultimate goal. All we 
can hope for is that there is some goal which we ourselves can 
reach or, if we cannot find it, that we can get near enough to it 
to learn some more about it and to pave the way for others to 
follow us. Though he already knows some of the things we found, the 
reader may be interested to know how we found them, as an 
illustration of the scientific method, just as many are interested 
to read an account of some expedition, of which they already 
know the result. However uncertain the ultimate goal, we could not, of course, 
set sail at random. Like all explorers we had to have some idea 
of what we were looking for, even though we realized that we 
might not find it or might come upon something we never 
thought of, like an early explorer who thought he was on the 
way to China and found what today is Montreal. As explained in the last chapter we had to assemble all the 
facts we could, to seek some connection between them and then 
to formulate a hunch or hypothesis which we hoped to prove by 
our voyage of discovery. Before we could set out, however, we had to look for the best 
navigational instruments we could find to keep us on our pro­
jected course. 26 THE CO URSE AND THE COMPASS 
2 
Since the time of Galvani there have been innumerable studies 
of living organisms, all of which make it abundant ly clear that 
all living organisms possess electrical properties. In our own day 
and generation, brain waves, heart waves, concomitants of ner­
vous impulses, of muscle contraction and of glandular activity 
have filled the literature with a great deal of exceedingly import­
ant information. The meaning of all these phenomena has been 
worked out almost entirely on an empirical basis. Relations of 
electrical phenomena with many biological functions in health 
and in disease have been observed. There has been no general underlying theory, however, of 
the nature and the meaning of the recorded electrical changes, 
except in so far as they can be explained by their consequences. The reason for this is fairly obvious: Modern emphasis on en­
tities, on fluid forms, atomicity and discontinuity, has dominated 
biological thought. Galileo had no sooner developed his physical and mechanical 
theory of the inorganic universe, than Harvey proceeded to apply 
physical and mechanical conceptions to living creatures in the 
discovery of the circulation of the blood. Levoisier revealed the 
chemical character of respiration in metabolism in living things 
at the same time that he placed chemistry upon a secure founda­
tion with the discovery of the principle of the conservation of 
mass. Gradually, with Liebig and a vast army of physiological 
chemists, the chemical nature of living creatures became more 
and more evident. It is to be noted that this is a distinctly modern emphasis. Chemistry rests upon a discontinuous, atomic conception of 
nature. Atomism, in its traditional interpretation, involved an 
emphasis on entities, rather than upon structure, and on con­
stituent elements, rather than on the whole. This attitude of 
mind has gone all through biology even where no thought has 
been given to the chemical nature of the processes or factors con­
sidered. Practically a century ago, Schleiden and Schwann dis-
27 THE COURS E AND THE COMP ASS 
covered the cellular nature of plants and animals. Here, sup­
posedly, was the ultimate biological atom. More recently, em­
phasis has shifted from the cell to the gene, and from that to the 
highly complex protein molecule capable of replication. But even 
so, the emphasis is still on entities. It is to be noted that this entire development involved the 
carrying over into biology of a philosophical standpoint which 
was discovered and clearly formulated first in physics and 
chemistry. There can be no doubt of its success or its validity. There is nothing to date to indicate that biologists should hesitate 
to follow the lead which the mature and exact science of physics 
gives them. But, if they are faithfully to follow this lead, it is 
clear that a slight change of emphasis should corne into biological 
theory. For in physics the former emphasis on entities rather than 
on organization, upon discontinuity, rather than upon contin­
uity, upon local systems, rather than upon their status in the 
total field of nature as a whole, has been found to need a radical 
and thoroughgoing supplementation. The word supplementation is to be emphasized, for modern 
standpoints have not rejected the former emphasis; it is merely 
being amended. The amendment is so thoroughgoing, however, 
as to amount to the placing of the Greek upon an equal footing 
with the modern standpoint. Moreover, the concepts modified are 
so primary, so important and so general and universal in their 
application that every branch of human activity-and even the 
very meaning and significance of any fact we observe or of any 
experiment we perform-are affected. The elemental and essen­
tial fact as it appears in physics can be stated very briefly. Atomic physics has had to be supplemented with field physics. The point to be noted is that the particle both conditions and is 
conditioned by its field. Stated in more general terms, this means 
that continuity, as well as discontinuity, is ultimate, that Nature 
is both one and many. In short, any local system in part, con­
stitutes-and, in part, is constituted in its behaviour by­
Nature as a whole and the physical field in which it is embedded. This rediscovery of the continuous field-or the one, as causal 
factor conditioning the behaviour of the constituent particles or 
the many-is a return to the Greek standpoint. But the partic les 
28 THE COURSE AND THE COMP ASS 
also determine the character of the field. This is the modern view­
point. The reciprocal causal relationship between field and par­
ticle amounts to the union of both viewpoints. This is the fact 
that anyone with an eye to first principles can see standing out 
amid all the complexi ties of the confusions of current discoveries 
in physics. * 
But this mere designation of the fact is not enough. We do not 
possess science until our findings are formulated in terms of clear, 
consisten t principles. The modern conception of Nature as a dis­
continuous collection of moving particles makes all order in 
Nature a temporary effect, renders Nature as a whole a mere 
aggregate and provides no meaning for the continuity as a prim­
ary factor or for the field as a causal factor. The Greek conception 
as formulated in mathema tics and astronomy by Plato and 
Eudoxius, or in biology by Aristotle, does justice to continuity, 
unity and organization-and also to the field character of 
natural phenomena-but at the cost of interpreting Nature as a 
single substance or system. It is clear, therefore, that before the doctrine of reciprocal inter­
action between particle and field can be made significant a new 
theory of the first principles of science must be developed. More­
over, this new theory must combine the Greek and modern 
conceptions of science which previously were supposed to be 
incompatible. It is essential to realize the necessity of this theor­
etical formulation before going further because, otherwise, the 
electro-dynamic theory of life will appear merely as a new name 
for traditional conceptions and its essential novelty and sig­
nificance will be lost. The theory, however, means more than this. The microscopic 
physico-chemical constituents do determine in part the character 
of the field. No one cognizant of modern physics and physiologi­
cal chemistry can deny this, but this relationship between field 
and partic le is not, as traditional modern scientific theory has 
assumed, an asymmetrical or one-way relation. The �e:ld both 
determines and is determined. To understand that the field determines the behaviour of any 
local process or constituent, it is necessary fundament ally to 
* Cf. F. S. C. Northrop, 'Science and first Principles'. THE COUR S E AND THE CO MPASS 
modify modern science by revising our theory of first principles 
in order to justify the unity of Nature as a causal factor. With­
out this revision of our most elemental concept of Nature, as 
conceived by science, all field theories, whether in physiology or 
physics, are mere verbiage. Einstein has shown that the apparently constant macro­
scopic structure of space is the approxima tely constant micro­
scopic structure of matter itself. The field is not independent of 
matter, but an appropriate determinant of the behaviour of 
matter. Thus, Einstein replaces Newton's three laws of motion 
with a single law, that a body moves in a path in the space time 
of the observer's frame of reference. But the general theory of 
relativity also prescribes that the distribution of matter deter­
mines the character of the field. Thus the particle both conditions 
and is conditioned by the metrical field. We can see the significance of this for biology if we reconsider 
its most fundamental and perplexing problem, the problem of 
organization. It is a commonplace that living creatures, not with­
standing the modification in types in evolution, maintain a cer­
tain constancy in structure through continuous changes of 
material. The traditional modern doctrine, that the chemical 
elements determine the structure and organization of the organ­
ism, fails to explain why a certain structural constancy persists 
despite continuous metabolism and chemical flux. This obvious 
inadequacy led to the introduction of non-physical factors, such 
as Driesch's entelechy, Spehmann's organizer, Child's physio­
logical gradients, Weiss's biological field, all of which have cer­
tain validity as descriptive terms. It now appears, however, that the difficulty is not in the 
failure of any possible theory, but in the inadequac y of tradi­
tional theory. For-in spite of the mass of accumulated data con­
cerning the development of the organism, in general, and of the 
nervous system, in particular-no thoroughly satisfactory ex­
planation has been given of the regulation of the control of 
growth. Description of successive steps of development in a wide 
variety of forms reveals little of the relationships which exist be­
tween the steps or the factors which regulate the passage from 
one to another. The very wealth of the accumulat ed facts tends 
30 THE COURSE AND THE CO MPASS 
to obscure the underlying regulation and to defy analysis. It was this difficulty that led Driesch to postulate a vital 
force of entelechy. This brilliant hypothesis has never received its 
just due. The whole theory is a very adequate description of an 
extraordinary constant control and regulation of growth. Its 
weakness lay in its assumption of an extra-biological agent in­
capable of scientific description. The field theories of Spehmann, 
Weiss, and Gurwitsch are also valuable attempts at explanation 
but, like the entelechies of Driesch, scientific analysis is well­
nigh impossible. It is well known to every biologist that each biologi­
cal system seems to possess a dynamic wholeness, the main­
tenance of whose integrity is a necessity of continued 
existence. Virtually all the theoretical analyses stress this quality, 
but no adequate definition of its dynamic agent or adequate ex­
planation of its working has been offered. A considerable body of 
information is available concerning the physical and chemical 
structure of protoplasm, but we know little of the way in which 
the elements are organized into a dynamic whole. The cytoplasm of a living cell is not a formless conglomeration 
of chemical substances, but is an integrated and co-ordinated 
system. It is impossible to conceive a cytoplasm as a haphazard 
arrangement of molecules. A definite pattern of relationships 
must exist. We possess a modicum of knowledge of these relation­
ships at anyone moment, but we have no adequate theory of the 
mechanism which maintains that pattern throughout the rapidly 
changing flux in living systems. The difficulties suggested above 
are no less apparent in the analysis of the development of the 
nervous system. Its successive steps have been described by in­
numerable workers. We lack any rational explanation of the 
appearanc e of local regions of growth and differentiation and of 
the final establishment of nuclear masses in fibre tract pathways. 31 THE COURS E AND THE COM PASS 
3 
With the advent in physics of the field theory of the relation­
ship between particulate matter, the resolution of the biological 
theory becomes dear. We believed that the electro-dynamic 
theory would satisfy this condition and if it could be demon­
strated, would solve many problems of biology. The theory is the result of many years of experimental in­
vestigation of the mechanisms involved in the nervous system. * 
In these studies it has been shownt that an extremely important 
factor in the organization of the nervous system is the rise and 
fall of differential growth rates within the wall of the nemal 
tube. Moreover, experimental work confirms the belief that the 
direction of growth and the end station of differentiating nerve 
fibres is related to these primary centres of rapid proliferation. Since they seem to be potent factors in imparting the fibre pattern 
of the nervous system, it is necessary to examine the agents 
which could act to determine the locus areas and to regulate the 
division rates within them. If these could be established it would 
be possible to formulate an hypothesis as to the origin of pat­
tern in the nervous system. Conceivably, this might provide a 
due to the origin of the pattern in developing organisms and in 
other living systems. An increasing body of evidencet indicates that bioelectrical 
phenomena un derlie growth as well as many other biological pro­
cesses. Numerous bioelectrical studies compel us to believe that 
polar and potential differences exist in living systems. If this is 
true, it follows by deflnition that electro-dynamic flelds are also 
present. Their existence in the physical world is generally accepted. Moreover, the interrelationship of particulate matter is, to a 
considerable degree, a function of such fields. Thus the individual 
* See papers by Burr, H. S., 1916 a and h, 1920, 1924, 1926, 1930, 
lQ32. Details in Appendix. t Burr, H. S., 1932. Details in Appendix. :t: Gurwich , 1926; Ingvar, 1920; Lund, 1922. 32 THE COUR S E AND THE CO MPASS 
characteristics of atomic matter are a result of the interdepend­
ence of fields and particles. Pattern in physics, then, is determined 
by the interplay of electro-dynamic fields and the particular 
matter therein contained. It is reasonable to extend this hypothesis into the realms of 
biology. Potential gradients and polar differences exist in living 
systems. Since this is so, then electro-dynamic fields are also 
present. The following theory may then be formulated. The pattern or 
organization of any biological system is establishe d by a complex 
electro-dynamic �eld which is in part determined by its atomic 
physio-chemical components and which in part determines the 
behaviour and orientation of those components. This �eld is 
electrical in the physical sense and by its properties relates the 
entities of the biological system in a characteristic pattern and 
is itself, in part, a result of the existence of those entities. It de­
termines and is determined by the components. More than establishing pattern, it must maintain pattern in 
the midst of a physio-chemical �ux. Therefore, it must regulate 
and control living things. It must be the mechanism, the outcome 
of whose activity is wholcncss, organization , and continuity. The electro-dyn amic field, then, is comparable to the entelechy of 
Driesch, the embryonic field of Spehmann, and the biological 
field of Weiss. The Electro-Dynamic Theory of Life stated above was de­
veloped with the collaboration of Dr. F. S. C. Northrop, of Yale, 
and was first put forward in a joint paper in 1935'* 
This theory yields a number of interesting implications for 
embryology, only one of which can be considered here: An in­
triguing problem in development of a tail is the establishment 
of a longitudinal axis. This is a very real structure alignment, 
although at early stages of development the cells which are re­
lated to it are not specialized. For experimental rearrangment of 
these cellular units does not change the axis, although they them­
selves have their ultimate fate altered. Caudal cells may become 
cephalic cells, right cells may become left cells with little serious 
* Burr, H. S. and Northrop, F. S. c., Quart erly Review of Biology 
10: 322-333, 1935. 33 THE COURSE AND THE COM PASS 
interference with the processes of growth. Yet in some way, the 
constituent cells of the growing system have their state deter­
mined and their behaviour and orientation controlled. To Driesch we owe the brilliant observation that the fate of 
any group of cells in an embryo is not only genetically condi­
tioned, but is also the result of the position of that group of cells 
in the biological whole. The mechanism by which position could 
determine cellular potencies was explained by Driesch through 
an assumption of an extra biological guiding principle, an en­
telechy. It is at this point that the electro-dynamic field theory 
proposed above provides a significant explanation of the well­
recognized facts. In the physical world, the nature of an atom is 
dependent upon the number of entities which comprise it and 
the field in which they lie, the position of the electron orbits 
being of fundamental importance. So, in a very much more com­
plex scale in the biological system, the fate of any group of cells 
is determined in part by the positions those cells occupy in the 
electro-dynamic field in the embryo. It is clear, that if the above 
is granted, three factors are present in the normal development of 
an organism. The cells must possess a certain genetic constitu­
tion, certain cellular environment, and certain positions in the 
electro-dyn amic field. 4 
The theoretical considera tions here presented led us to the 
conclusion, reached by nearly all investigators, that pattern or 
organization is a fundamental characteristic of biological systems 
or of physical systems, or of the Universe. The electro-dynamic 
theory provided a working hypothesis for a direct attack upon 
this problem and we felt that it should be possible to determine 
by objective experiment whether or not such fields exist; in other 
words, that this theory could be put to experimental test. If 
accepted, it could open up a wide field of study based on electro­
metric methods. It could also make it possible to place the 
investigation of the organization of living systems on the same 
objective and physical basis as the analysis of their chemical con­
stituents. 34 THE COUR S E AND THE COMPAS S 
It appeared, therefore, that an hypothesis of this type was 
necessary to bring biological theory into line with physical 
theory. Moreover, biological considerations themselves affirmed a 
similar necessity and provided sufficient data to warrant putting 
to Nature, by experiment al and electric methods, the questions 
which this theory raises. These questions fall naturally into three categories. In the 
first of these are questions as to the presence of potential and 
polar differences in living systems. In the second, are the ques­
tions dealing with the measurements of electro-dynamic fields 
which accompany the potential differences. In the third category 
are questions concerning the interrelationship between electric 
fields of the environment and the fields of the developing mech­
anism. If the theory could be established, we felt it would be possible 
to apply the mathematical methods developed for field physics to 
biological material. This would place the study of biological 
organization on a mathemat ical as well as on an experimen tal 
basis. The general statement of the field theory here presented re­
quired that four questions be put to Nature: The first, Are there 
potential and polar differences in living systems everywhere? The second, Do these potential differences exist in an organized 
fashion, or are they chaotic and indeterminate? The third, Are 
the electrical measurements made in the laboratory a valid 
measure of an electro-dynamic field? The fourth, If the field 
exists, does it control or determine the living process or is it a 
consequenc e-or a mere accompaniment -of that process? 5 
We now knew what we were looking for, but before we could 
set sail, we had to obtain a suitable 'compass' with which to 
navigate these unknown seas. But, some thir ty-five years ago 
when this adventure was projected, no suitable 'compass' 
existed. Up to that time, all electrical measurements of living systems 
35 THE COUR S E AND THE COMP ASS 
had been made with instruments which were operated by the 
electrical output of the system. Needless to say, this drained the 
current from the system, which was badly disturbed by the 
measuring. The brilliant exception was Lund who, in his early experi­
ments used an electrometer to study living organisms. But every­
one who has worked with these instruments knows that they 
are difficult to set up and to keep in good operating condition 
for sufficien tly-long periods to permit careful study of the living 
organism. Lund made another great advance by using zinc sulphate 
electrodes in tap water or cell sap to make contact with the pro­
toplasm itself. This technique avoided the unpredictable and un­
reliable measurements made by others with metal electrodes in 
contact with the protoplasm. Such contact always gives rise to 
artifidal potentials not related to the system being measured: 
and the resulting measurements are unreliable. One has only to read Lund's papers to realize what an incred­
ibly rigorous technique was demanded by his studies. He not 
only used a Compton electrometer, which draws no current from 
the system measured, but also reasonably-reversible electrodes. And many of his earlier experiments were carried out under 
stable environmental conditions with controlled stimuli of the 
protoplasm. It seemed desirable to find an instrument easier to 
use and more reliable over long periods. At the outset, it seemed probable that if potential differences 
could be measured in living systems they would be very small. An 
alternative to the electrometer, therefore, had to be devised which 
would draw little or no current from the system being measured. In other words, the instrument must not disturb the system. For 
it seemed likely tha t the great confusion in biometric measure­
ments of the past had been caused by the lack of any such instru­
ment in biological laboratories. A series of rather extensive specifications was set up. First, the 
device must consist of an amplifier with a very high input im­
pedance so that resistance changes in the system itself would have 
little effect upon the measurement. Second, the instrument, or 
amplifier, must be of sufficient sensitivity to record minor 
36 THE COUR S E AND THE CO MPASS 
changes in the electrical voltage gradients. Third, the device 
must necessarily be stable so that random fluctuations would be 
reduced to a minimum. Another specification was that the amplifier and the system 
being measured should not require external shielding. This meant 
a high rejection-rate at the input to the amplifier. Finally, obvi­
ously if an instrument of this kind was to be used effectively in 
biological studies, it should be portable and reliable and not too 
expensive. This latter condition was met by using standard radio 
parts, necessarily the best radio parts which could be found. The original instrument, built in the 1930S, following the de­
sign of Dr. Cecil Lane of the Physics Department of Yale Univer­
sity. used the then readily-available 112-A vacuum tube. In those 
days, such tubes were excellent vacuum tubes but they were in 
the process of development and it was difficult, therefore, to get 
two tubes that were reasonably balanced. A mathematical theory 
had been developed by Wynn-Williams for the theoretical balanc­
ing of somewhat dissimilar vacuum tubes. The tubes used were 
those having a large transconductance and were of the non-heater 
type, with relatively low temperature filament and a low plate 
impedance. This latter really defines the amplifier not as an 
amplifier, but as an impedance changer, converting the 10 mil­
lion ohm input impedance to the relatively low ten thousand 
ohm output impedance. The actual amplification factor of the 
circuit was approxima tely one. The tubes were so connected as to form two arms of a Wheat­
stone network; the other two arms are ordinary ohm resistance. Tube number one received the potential to be measured. Number 
two acted as a dummy, the function of which was to balance out 
the steady plate current of the input tube so that-with no poten­
tial difference impressed on the first tube-no current flowed 
through the galvanometer in the plate circuit of the output tube. Upon impressing a potential difference upon the first tube, the 
effective resistance of this arm of the network is changed pro­
portionally and a deflection of the galvanometer results. While it 
is admitted that this analysis is little more than a rough approxi­
mation, it has proved to be sufficient for the purposes herein 
37 THE COURSE AND THE COM PASS 
described. It should be noted that a high transconductance is a 
necessary requirem ent. A very important contribution to the theory of these devices 
was made by Wynn-Williams in the above-ment ioned paper, 
when it was shown that it is possible to compensa te automatically 
for the effect of filament battery variation. By operating the two 
tubes at slightly different filament voltages, a condition can be 
reached whereby a small fluctuation in the filament battery pro­
duced no variations in the current to the galvanometer. This is 
important: since any strong battery shows slight variations in 
voltage, which in turn would lead to unsteadiness in the instru­
ment zero. The circuit described is of considerable value to the physicist 
for certain work, but its usefulness to the biologist is minimal. The principal reason for this lies in the fact that in all commercial 
vacuum tubes a current flows in any external circuit connecting 
the grid and the filament. This so-called grid current is independ­
ent, within considerable limits, of the resistance in the external 
circuit and, hence, will cause potential differences across resistors 
in the grid circuit in proportion to the value of the resistors. It 
is easy to see that if the specimen is connected across the input 
terminals, a fictitious potential difference will register on the 
galvanometer which may, in point of fact, be many times larger 
than the true potential difference. This, of course, would in­
validate completely any results so obtained. In order to convert the Wynn-Williams bridge into a practical 
biological instrument, it was obvious that the spurious grid 
current should be eliminated. The method employed to balance 
the grid current used the well-known principle of floating grid. It is known that if the grid of a vacuum tube otherwise operating 
normally is isolated from electric contact within the other ele­
ment in the tube, the grid current will acquire a certain potential, 
a floating grid potential. If the grid is now biased by means of a 
battery to precisely this potential, it is found that the grid current 
is eliminated. In order to achieve this practically a variable grid 
bias on the input tube was employed in conjunction with the in­
put switch. The value of the grid leak employed in the original 
instrument was chosen to be 10 megohms. The actual dynamic 
38 THE COURSE AND THE COM PASS 
input impedance of the 112-A at floating grid is probably several 
times higher than this figure, but 10 megohms has proved itself 
to be a good value in practice. In the more than thirty years that these high input impedance 
amplifiers have been used, improvements have been made chiefly 
in the type of vacuum tube used. The basic circuit has not been 
altered, except that it has been possible to eliminate the Wynn­
Williams balance because modern tubes are constructed with 
such rigorous controls that it is not difficult to get two tubes 
that are reasonably well balanced. It is interesting that over the 
last thirty years more and more amplifiers have been built with 
high input impedances, many of which are well above the 10 
megohms used in this original and subsequent circuits. As a con­
sequence, the reliability of the measurement has been enhanced 
very considerably. * 
Once we had a reliable instrument to measure the very min­
ute electrical voltages in living systems, the problem of connect­
ing the instrumen t to the system became a matter of prime 
importance. For it was dear that in order to evaluate the potential 
gradients of a living system, an electrical circuit must be estab­
lished in which only potentials arising in the system could affect 
the measuring instrument. It is impossible to measure bioelectric potentials with any elec­
trode in direct contact with living tissue, because an electrode, if 
reversible, has a potential conditioned by the connection of a 
particular ion or, if not reversible, has a potential of an unknown 
or uncertain magnitude. Electric contact can be made with a salt 
solution, however, if the salt be physiologic ally balanced with 
the ionic concentration of the system being measured, thus re­
ducing to a minimum any potentials arising from a dissimilarity 
of fluids at the point of contact, or, if the salt solution be a nor­
mal environment, the contact potentials are, indeed, a part of the 
total bioelectric potential. * Today sensitive and stable vacuum tube voltmeters are com­
mercially available. A suitable American instrument for measuring 
L-fields is the Hewlett Packard DC Vacuum Tube Voltmeter Model 
412A. See illustration. No doubt there are excellent European 
equi valen ts. 39 THE COURSE AND THE COM PAS S 
Of the known electrodes reversible to the ionic constituents of 
Ringer's solution, for example, only those reversible to the 
chlorine ion have been developed to the perfection demanded by 
this technique.
333048200-Harold-Saxton-Burr-Blueprint-for-Immortality-Electric-Patterns-of-Life-OCR-pdf.txt
Summarize the following text section accurately and concisely. Maintain specific details and numerical information, and use anti-repetition mechanisms:

        BLUEPRINT FOR 
IMMORTALITY 
The Electric PanerJ)S of Ufc HAROLD SAXTON BURR 
Blueprint for Immortality 
The Electric Patterns of Life 
LONDON 
NEVILLE SPEARMAN Harold Saxton Burr, Ph. D 
E. K. Hunt Professor Emeritus, Anatomy 
Yale University School of Medicine 
Portrait by An:r. yb�sheff. Rcprodu,ed by perm;uion of YOile Uniyer-sily Art GaliN)' 
Portrait was,ill offormer students, alumni and colh. aguei of Yal. Unjver�it)' Schaal of Medidne First published in Great Britain 1972 
by Neville Spearman Limited 
112 Whitfield Street, London WIP 6DP 
Copyright © 1972 by Harold Saxton Burr 
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be 
reproduced in any form by any electronic or 
mechanical means, including information storage and 
retrieval systems, without permission in writing 
from the Publisher, except by a reviewer who may 
quote brief passages in a review. SBN 85435 281 
Library of Congress Catalog Card Number 
72-75971 
Set in II pt Tuliana, I �'2 pt leaded, and 
printed by Northumberland Press Ltd, Gates­
head. Bound by Mansell Bookbinders Ltd. London CONTENTS 
Foreword 
Part I 
VOYAGE OF DISCOVERY 
Chapter 1. An Adventure in Science 11 
Chapter 2. The Course and the Compass 26 
Chapter 3. The Female Field 45 
Chapter 4. The Ubiquitous Field 61 
Chapter 5. The Field as a Signpost 80 
Chapter 6. Antennae to the Universe 96 
Chapter 7. The Continuing Adventure 110 
Part II 
SELECTED PAPERS 135 
Appendix 
Bibliography of H. S. Burr 185 ILLUSTR AT IONS 
Harold Saxton Burr Frontispiece 
Voltmeter recommended by the Author page 86 
Measurement of hypnotic conditions page 87 FOREWORD 
The Universe in which we find ourselves and from which we 
can not be separated is a place of Law and Order. It is not an 
accident, nor chaos. It is organized and maintained by an 
Electro-dynamic Field capable of determining the position and 
movement of all charged particles. For nearly half a century the logical consequences of this 
theory have been subjected to rigorously controlled experiment al 
conditions and met with no contradictions. H.
Harold Saxton Burr
Who wrote the book "Blueprint for Immortality"?
The book discusses the discovery of electro-dynamic fields in living organisms and their potential applications in various fields.
What is the main theme of the book "Blueprint for Immortality"?
The fields serve as a matrix or mold, maintaining the shape and organization of the organism, and can also be used to predict the future shape or arrangement of the organism.
What is the purpose of the electrodynamic fields in living organisms?
The limitation is the difficulty in measuring the potential gradients in living systems due to the influence of the electrodes on the system being measured.
What is the main limitation of the previous attempts to measure bioelectric potentials?
The discovery of these fields provides a new approach to understanding the organization and behavior of living systems, and has the potential to revolutionize various fields such as medicine, psychology, and agriculture.
What is the significance of the discovery of electrodynamic fields in living organisms?