Related Species
Cornsmut (Ustilago zeae), a fungus that grows on corn, is used by the Zuni of New Mexico to speed childbirth and stop uterine hemorrhage. Key Constituents
■ Flavonoids
■ Carotenoids 
Cob:
■ Anthocyanins (purple corn)
Cornsilk:
■ Carotenoids
■ Volatile oil 
■ Sterols
Key Actions
■ Urinary demulcent
■ Diuretic■ Mildly stimulates bile secretion
■ Gently lowers blood pressure
Research
■ Purple corn Purple corn contains 
unusually high levels of anthocyanins, dark red or blue plant pigments  that have strong antioxidant and protective effects within the body. A 2007 paper reported that, weight for weight, purple corn contained nearly four times more anthocyanins than blueberries, suggesting that purple corn could be a key dietary source of anthocyanins. ■ Carotenoids Corncob and 
cornsilk contain high levels of carotenoids (including lutein and zeaxanthin), compounds that are thought to protect the eye from oxidative damage. Zeaxanthin in particular is thought to protect against age-related macular degeneration. Traditional &  
Current Uses
■ Traditional herb Corn meal has 
been used by Native Americans for  
a wide range of ailments. It makes  
an effective poultice and has been given in Mayan, Incan, and American medicine to treat bruises, swellings, sores, boils, and similar conditions. Virgil J. Vogel writes that “the Chickasaw Indians treated itching skin, followed by sores when scratched, by burning old corncobs and holding the affected part over the smoke.”
■ Urinary remedy Cornsilk is  
a gentle-acting diuretic with mild antibiotic activity. It can help in acute and chronic cases of cystitis and is commonly used in prostate disorders. It may also prove useful in frequent urination and bladder irritability. ■ Kidney stones Cornsilk is 
thought to have a beneficial effect  on the kidneys, reducing kidney stone formation and relieving some of  the symptoms of existing stones. ■ Chinese remedy In China, Parts Used
Key Preparations & Their UsesCornsilk (stamens) 
can be used fresh or dried as a remedy for urinary disorders.Meal is used externally to treat bruises and other skin problems. Fresh  
cornsilk Fresh meal Dried cornsilk
Infusion of cornsilk (to make,  
p. 291) is soothing. For cystitis, 
 drink 2 cups (500 ml) daily.Decoction of meal (to make, p. 291). Apply as a poultice (see p. 295) to  
sores and boils. cornsilk is used to treat fluid 
retention and jaundice. Self-help Uses
■ Fluid retention in  
 pregnancy, p. 317. ■ Urinary infections, p. 314.The outer leaves of corn are 
stripped to reveal the cornsilk and meal.The staple food of Central and South America for at least 
4,000 years, corn is also used medicinally in countless different ways. The Aztecs gave a corn meal decoction  for dysentery and “heat in the heart,” and to increase breast-milk production. Cornsilk (the silky fronds wrapped around the cob) has always been the part most used medicinally, and it is of particular value in treating  urinary conditions. Tincture of cornsilk (to make, p. 292). For cystitis, combine 1⁄3 cup (80 ml) with  
1 tbsp of buchu tincture and take 1 tsp with water 3 times a day. Capsules of cornsilk (to make, p. 292). For edema, take 2 g daily. US_154-155_Zea_Zingiber.indd   154 26/02/16   4:00 pm155Zingiber officinaleKey medicinal plants
Infusion  (to make, p. 291). For nausea, drink 3/4 cup  
(150 ml) 3 times a day. Essential oil  For arthritic 
aches and pains, dilute  
5 drops in 20 drops carrier 
oil and apply ( see p. 297).Y ellowish fresh rhizome  
is strongly aromaticZingiber officinale  (Zingiberaceae)
Ginger, Sheng Jian (Chinese), Singabera (Sanskrit)
Habitat & Cultivation
Native to Asia, ginger is grown 
throughout the tropics. It is 
propagated by dividing the 
rootstock. Ginger flourishes in  
fertile soil and needs plenty of  
rain. The rhizome is unearthed  
when the plant is 10 months old. It is washed, soaked, and sometimes 
boiled and peeled. Related Species
Various Zingiber  species are used 
medicinally, but no other has benefits 
equal to ginger. Turmeric ( Curcuma 
longa , p. 90) is a close relative. Key Constituents
■ Volatile oil (1–3%)  
 —zingiberene (20–30%)
■ Oleoresin (4–7.5%)  
 —gingerol, shogaols
Key Actions
■ Anti-inflammatory
■ Circulatory stimulant
■ Antiemetic
■ Antiviral
■ Digestive stimulantResearch
■ Digestive health Ginger speeds 
up the rate of gastric emptying and 
aids the absorption of nutrients from 
the digestive tract. By improving iron 
absorption, it helps to treat anemia. Clinical trials indicate that it can 
relieve nausea and vomiting. ■ Morning sickness A 2013 
Australian review of clinical trials 
using ginger to relieve pregnancy-
induced nausea and vomiting 
concluded that “The best available 
evidence suggests that ginger is a safe 
and effective treatment for PNV.”
■ Pain relief  Several small-  
scale research studies have found 
that ginger reduces muscle pain,  
for example, after exercise. This is because of a potent anti-
inflammatory action. One study 
found that after 2 months of 
treatment, ginger was as effective  
in relieving menstrual cramps as 
mefenamic acid (an aspirin-type 
painkiller). A 2014 Iranian clinical 
trial compared the effects of ginger 
and sumatripan (a painkiller) in 
relieving migraine, and reported  
that the two treatments were 
similarly effective. Traditional  
& Current Uses
■ Digestive problems  Ginger  
is thought to be helpful for almost 
all digestive complaints. It is an 
excellent remedy for symptoms 
such as indigestion, nausea, gas, 
bloating, and cramps—whether 
taken as an infusion, juice, tincture, 
or powder, or with food. Its 
antiseptic activity makes it valuable 
in all gastrointestinal infections, Ginger
A perennial growing  
to 2 ft (60 cm), with 
lance-shaped leaves 
and spikes of white  
or yellow flowers. including food poisoning. ■ Circulatory stimulant  Ginger 
stimulates circulation, and helps 
blood to flow to the surface, making 
it an important remedy for chilblains 
and poor circulation to the hands 
and feet. Juice squeezed from fresh 
ginger root can be applied to 
chilblains (and cold sores), bringing 
quick relief. ■ Respiratory conditions  Ginger 
has antiviral activity and is a first-rate 
remedy for coughs, colds, flu, and 
other respiratory problems. Despite 
its warming properties, ginger Ginger,  widely used as a spice, is also an 
important digestive remedy.Parts Used
Key Preparations & Their UsesRhizome contains high levels of a volatile 
oil that is warming and stimulating. Sliced  
dried rhizome
stimulates sweating and helps to 
cool and control fevers. Self-help Uses
■ Chilblains , p. 302. ■ Colds, flu, & fevers , p. 311. ■ Cold sores , p. 304. ■ Constipation , p. 307. ■ Digestive upsets,  
 gas, & colic , p. 318. ■ High blood pressure &   
 arteriosclerosis , p. 301. ■ Morning sickness , p. 317. ■ Nausea & motion sickness ,  
p. 306.Fresh rhizome
 QCautions  Do not take ginger in medicinal doses if suffering from peptic ulcers. Do not take the essential oil internally except under professional supervision. Maximum recommended dose in pregnancy and if taking anticoagulants is 2 g dried 
(4 g fresh) root a day.Familiar as a spice and flavoring, ginger is also one of  
the world’s best medicines. It has been revered in Asia 
since the earliest times, and in medieval Europe it was 
thought to have derived from the Garden of Eden. Ginger’s 
warming and anti-inflammatory properties can bring relief 
to problems as varied as headache and migraine, joint 
pain, indigestion, motion sickness, and morning sickness. Fresh ginger has a pungent, slightly lemony taste. Tincture  (to make, p. 292). To improve digestion, take 30 drops with water  
twice a day.Capsules  (to make, p. 292). For morning sickness, take a 75 mg capsule every hour. US_154-155_Zea_Zingiber.indd   155 17/03/16   4:01 pm
US_156-157_Other_Medicinal_Plants.indd   156 26/02/16   4:43 pmThe index of Other Medicinal Plants features in Latin name order over 450 plants that have 
played a significant role in herbal medicine worldwide. They include familiar plants such as 
oats ( Avena sativa , p.175) and exotic herbs like ylang-ylang ( Cananga odorata , p. 182). Some 
are well researched, while others are known only within their native region. A number of 
medicinal plants included have fallen out of favor but remain historically significant. In 
addition, the index features plants such as eucommia bark ( Eucommia ulmoides , p. 207)  
that research shows have the potential for a more prominent medicinal role in the future. Other Medicinal 
Plants
Plant names
The Latin name given is the one by which the plant is most 
generally known in medical herbalism. Latin synonyms are 
also provided. The first part of the Latin name designates 
the plant’s genus (sub-family). The second part specifies the 
species name. In brackets after the Latin name(s) comes  
the plant’s family name, the broader class to which the genus 
belongs. The plant’s common name(s) are beneath the family 
name. If more than one common name is in popular use, 
they are listed in order of importance. Where appropriate, 
the origins of common names are given in brackets. DescriPtion
Lists significant botanical information, including whether 
the plant is evergreen or deciduous and whether it is 
annual, biennial, or perennial. Gives identifying 
characteristics of the plant. Habitat &  cultivation
Includes the plant’s origins, its distribution, preferred 
growing conditions, and the seasons when it is propagated 
and harvested. Parts useD
Lists those parts of the plant that are used medicinally in 
order of importance. constituents
Gives the key active constituents of the plant in order of 
significance. Sometimes includes details of a constituent’s 
specific medicinal action on the body. Note:  To find out 
more about constituents and their actions, see How 
Medicinal Plants Work , pp. 10–16. History & Folklore
Provides information such as the derivation of the herb’s 
name, traditional lore, and quotations from old herbals 
showing how the plant was regarded in the past, and  
how it was used medicinally. Also includes details of the 
plant’s other uses.meDicinal actions & uses
Encompasses both the confirmed and presumed actions of 
the whole plant (as opposed to isolated active constituents). Discusses the symptoms and illnesses that the plant is  
used to treat and the varying ways that the herb is used 
medicinally in different herbal traditions. researcH
Gives details of scientific research into the plant, its 
constituents, and its extracts, including the results of any 
clinical trials. relateD sPecies
Provides information on related species that have a 
medicinal use. Gives a cross-reference to those species 
that have an entry in the Encyclopedia. cautions
Gives cautions about using the herb medicinally and about 
the plant in general. States if the plant, its constituents, or 
its extracts are legally restricted. QConsidered safe as a medicine but potentially harmful  
if used inappropriately. Particular safety issues are listed. Where a plant is listed as “Take only under professional 
supervision,” it is not suitable for home use. RKnown to be toxic or unsafe as a medicine. Do not self-
medicate with these plants. Some plants with this symbol 
may be safely prescribed by experienced healthcare 
practitioners within a very narrow dosage range. At a  
higher dose, such plants will be poisonous. selF-Hel P uses
Cross-refers to the self-help treatments in Remedies  
for Common Ailments . Note:  Always read the cautions about 
the herb and the information on pp. 290 & 298–299 before 
attempting a self-help use. US_156-157_Other_Medicinal_Plants.indd   157 26/02/16   4:43 pm
158
other medicinal PlantsAbies bA lsAmeA
Abies balsamea (Pinaceae)
Balsam Fir
Description  Conical evergreen tree growing  
to 90 ft (27 m). Has aromatic needle-like leaves 
and purple fir cones. Habitat & Cultivation  Native to North 
America, balsam fir is commercially grown for  its timber. The resin is tapped from 60- to 80- year-old trees in spring. Parts Used  Oleoresin, leaves. Constituents  Balsam fir leaves contain a  
liquid oleoresin. History & Folklore  Balsam fir resin, often 
known as Canada balsam, was used for many illnesses by both Native Americans and settlers. The Penobscot smeared the resin on burns, cuts, and sores, while others applied it to the chest and back for colds and chest problems. The Pillagers used the aromatic needles in their sweat lodges, inhaling smoke from the burning leaves. Dr. Wooster Beech (1794–1868), founder of the Eclectic healing movement, regarded balsam fir as stimulating and axative when taken internally, and emollient and cooling when used externally. Balsam fir leaves, cones, and resin are commonly added to potpourri. Medicinal Actions & Uses  Balsam fir is 
antiseptic and stimulant, and has been used in North America and Europe for congestion, chest infections such as bronchitis, and urinary tract conditions such as cystitis and frequent urination. Externally, balsam fir was rubbed on the chest or applied as a plaster for respiratory infections. It is not used much in herbal medicine today.infected gums. The seeds are laxative and “useful  in killing threadworms, if the rectum of the affected child be exposed to the smoke of the powdered seeds” (Herbs that Heal, H. K. Bakhru, 1992). The plant has an antiseptic effect within the urinary tract. Related Species  A. trisulcatum, native to  
Central America, is used to treat asthma in  children, and is applied as a poultice for treating cancerous sores and ulcers, especially of the  mouth and cervix. Acacia catechu syn. senegalia 
catechu (Fabaceae)
Black Catechu, 
Cutch
Description Tree growing to 49 ft (15 m)  
with thorny branches and divided, feathery leaves. Habitat & Cultivation  Native to India, 
Myanmar (Burma), Sri Lanka, and East Africa, this 
tree is cultivated for its timber. It grows to altitudes of 4,900 ft (1,500 m). Parts Used  Bark, heartwood, leaves, shoots. Constituents  The shiny, black-brown extract  
of leaves and young shoots, which is called “cutch,” becomes a brittle solid when dried, and is the form in which black catechu is generally sold. Cutch contains 25–60% tannins, 20–30% mucilage, flavonoids, and resins.contraceptive, abortifacient (to induce a miscarriage), and as a treatment for chronic conjunctivitis. However, they are so poisonous  that even external application can be fatal. In laboratory experiments, extracts of the seeds  had a strong antifertility effect on sperm production and fertility. The ground root is traditionally taken to treat worm infestation. RCautions  Never use the seeds. Use the 
leaves and roots only under professional supervision. Jequirity is subject to legal  
restrictions in some countries. Abrus precatorius (Fabaceae)
Jequirity
Description  Deciduous climber growing to  
12 ft (4 m). Has compound leaves, clusters of  pink flowers, and seed pods containing scarlet  or (rarely) white seeds. Habitat & Cultivation  Jequirity is native  
to India, and now grows in hedges and among bushes in all tropical regions. Parts Used Root, leaves, seeds. Constituents  Jequirity seeds contain  
abrin, indole alkaloids, triterpenoid saponins,  and anthocyanins. The root and leaves contain glycyrrhizin and traces of abrin. Abrin is  extremely toxic. History & Folklore  Jequirity seeds have been 
used since ancient times in India to help weigh precious materials, including the famous Koh-i-noor diamond. The seeds are notorious as a poison. Medicinal Actions & Uses  Jequirity seeds 
have been used medicinally in the past as a Jequirity seeds were used medicinally in former times,  
but are also extremely poisonous. Black catechu is an astringent and antiseptic.Abutilon indicum (Malvaceae)
Kanghi, 
Indian Mallow
Description  Upright, woody shrub growing to 5 
ft (1.5 m). Has a downy, slightly oily surface, single 
yellow flowers, and kidney-shaped seeds. Habitat & Cultivation  Kanghi grows 
throughout much of India in addition to  Southeast Asia. Parts Used  Root, bark, leaves, seeds. Constituents Kanghi contains mucilage, tannins, 
and asparagine. Asparagine is diuretic. Medicinal Actions & Uses  Also known as 
Indian mallow, kanghi is used in much the same  way as marshmallow (Althaea officinalis, p. 165),  one of the main European demulcent herbs. The root, leaves, and bark of kanghi are mucilaginous and are used to soothe and protect the mucous membranes of the respiratory and urinary systems. A decoction of the root is given for chest conditions such as bronchitis. The mucilaginous effect benefits the skin; an infusion, poultice, or paste made from the powdered root or bark is applied to wounds and used for conditions such as boils and ulcers. A decoction of the root can also be used to good effect as a mouthwash for toothache and sore and 
Medicinal Actions & Uses  Black catechu  
is a strong astringent and clotting agent. It helps reduce excess mucus in the nose, the large  intestine, or vagina. It is also used to treat eczema, hemorrhages, diarrhea, and dysentery. It may be used as an infusion, tincture, powder, or ointment. A small piece of cutch dissolved in the mouth is an excellent remedy for bleeding gums and canker sores. The powder and tincture 
US_158-179_Abies_balsa_Boswe_serratta.indd   158 26/02/16   12:47 pm159 other medicinal Plantsachyranthes bidentata
acanthus mollis (Acanthaceae)
Acanthus, 
Bear’s Breeches
Description  Perennial growing to 3 ft (1 m). Has a black, branched taproot; white, purple, or 
blue flowers; and dark green basal leaves up to  
3 ft (1 m) in length. Habitat & Cultivation  Native to Europe, 
acanthus is most commonly found as a garden 
plant. It prefers damp sites and low-lying ground. The leaves are gathered in early summer and  
the roots in autumn. Parts Used  Leaves, roots. Constituents Acanthus contains large  
quantities of mucilage and tannin. History & Folklore  Acanthus was well  
known in the ancient world. Callimacus, a Greek 
architect of the 5th century bce, reputedly  
created the decorative pattern of foliage at the  
top of Corinthian columns after being inspired  
by the perfect symmetry of acanthus leaves. The 
description of acanthus in Materia Medica , written 
in the 1st century ce by the Greek physician Dioscorides, is one of the most accurate botanical 
descriptions to survive from the ancient world. Dioscorides recommended the roots in the form 
of a plaster to treat burns and to wrap around 
dislocated joints. As an infusion, acanthus was 
thought to be diuretic. It was also used to relieve 
gas and spasms and to soothe damaged nerves. Medicinal Actions & Uses The herb’s 
appreciable quantities of mucilage and tannin 
substantiate its traditional use as a treatment for 
dislocated joints and burns. Its emollient properties 
make it useful in the treatment of irritated mucous 
membranes in the digestive and urinary tracts. Acanthus is similar to marshmallow ( Althaea 
officinalis , p. 165) in that it can be used externally  
to ease irritation, and internally to heal and protect.are also applied to infected gums and have been  
used to clean the teeth. In Ayurvedic medicine, 
decoctions of the bark and heartwood are  
used for sore throats. Research  Cutch has been shown to lower  
blood pressure. Related Species  See also babul ( Acacia nilotica, 
following entry ). Cautions  Do not take for more than 2–3 weeks 
at a time, or if suffering from kidney inflammation. There are some countries where cutch is subject 
to legal restrictions. Self-help  Use Diarrhea , p. 307.
acacia nilotica syn. a. arabica
(Fabaceae)
Babul
Description  Tree growing to 65 ft (20 m) with 
hard, rust-brown bark and feathery leaves. Small, 
bright yellow flower heads produce pods up to 6 in 
(15 cm) long. Habitat & Cultivation  Babul is native to 
North Africa. Today it is commonly found in Egypt 
and is cultivated in India. Part Used  Bark. Constituents  Babul contains tannins (12–20%), 
mucilage, and flavonoids. History & Folklore  In ancient Egypt, the  
wood of the babul tree was used to make 
dwellings, wheels, and tool handles. The leaves, 
flowers, and pods were used to expel worms, heal 
wounds, alleviate diarrhea, and suppress the 
coughing up of blood. Medicinal Actions & Uses  Strongly 
astringent, babul is used to contract and toughen 
mucous membranes throughout the body in  
much the same way as witch hazel ( Hamamelis  
virginiana , p. 102) or oak bark ( Quercus robur ,  
p. 260). Babul may be made into a variety of 
preparations: for instance, a lotion for treating 
bleeding gums, a gargle for easing the irritation of 
sore throats, a wash for eczema, an eyewash for 
conjunctivitis and other eye problems, and a 
douche for excessive vaginal discharge. It is also 
taken internally to treat diarrhea. Research  Research published in 1993 concluded 
that babul may be clinically effective in periodontal 
infections. Another study indicates that the gum 
stimulates insulin release from the pancreas and 
lowers blood-sugar levels. Related Species  Australian wattle ( A. decurrens ), 
native to Australia, is used in much the same way 
as babul. See also black catechu ( A. catechu, 
preceding entry ). Cautions  Do not take babul internally for more 
than 2–3 weeks. Acacia  species are subject to legal 
restrictions in some countries.Acanthus  flowers blossom 
on a tall spike.achyranthes bidentata
(Amaranthaceae)
Chaff flower, 
Huai Niu Xi (Chinese)
Description  Erect perennial herb growing  
to 3 ft (1 m). Has slender, rambling branches, 
elliptical leaves, and greenish-white flowers on 
terminal spikes. Habitat & Cultivation  Chaff flower is found 
in China at the edge of forests, along streams, and 
amid bushes. Grown commercially in the eastern 
provinces, the root is unearthed in winter once the 
foliage has died back. Part Used  Root. Constituents  Achyranthes  species contain 
triterpenoid saponins and sterones. History & Folklore  Chaff flower’s  
potent ability to bring on menstruation led the 
13th-century Chinese gynecologist Chen Ziming 
to prohibit its use during pregnancy to avoid 
causing miscarriage. Medicinal Actions & Uses  In traditional 
Chinese medicine, chaff flower is believed to 
invigorate blood flow. It is used to stimulate 
menstruation when a period is delayed or scanty. The herb is also prescribed to ease period  
pain. Chaff flower is used to relieve pain in the  
lower back, especially where the discomfort  
is attributable to kidney stones. The herb is  
also taken as a treatment for canker sores, 
toothache, bleeding gums, and nosebleeds. Research  Research suggests that chaff flower 
may lower blood pressure by reducing heart  
rate and dilating the peripheral arteries. Related Species  A. aspera , found in tropical 
areas worldwide, is used in Ayurvedic medicine  
to treat chest conditions and a range of  
digestive problems. Caution  Do not take chaff flower  
during pregnancy. US_158-179_Abies_balsa_Boswe_serratta.indd   159 26/02/16   12:47 pm
160
other medicinal PlantsAconitum nA pellus
Aconitum napellus (Ranunculaceae)
Aconite, 
Monkshood
Description  Perennial herb growing to 5 ft  
(1.5 m). Has dark green lobed leaves with violet or 
blue delphinium-like flowers on long spikes. Habitat & Cultivation  Aconite grows mainly 
in southern and central Europe. It prefers damp  
and shady sites, and is cultivated as a garden plant. The root is unearthed in autumn. Part Used  Root. Constituents  Aconite contains 0.3–2% 
terpenoid alkaloids, principally aconitine. History & Folklore Aconitum species have 
traditionally been used as arrow poisons. Medicinal Actions & Uses  Aconite is 
poisonous in all but the smallest doses, and is  rarely prescribed for internal use. More commonly, it is applied to unbroken skin to relieve pain from bruises or neurological conditions. In Ayurvedic medicine, aconite is used to treat neuralgia, asthma, and heart weakness. Aconite is also used extensively  
in homeopathy as an analgesic and sedative. Related Species  Chinese aconite (A. carmichaelii) 
is used in China for shock and to support the circulatory system in emergencies. Trials in China indicate that it is helpful in congestive heart failure. RQ Cautions  Aconite is highly toxic and  
is subject to legal restriction in some countries. Use only under professional supervision.Adonis vernalis (Ranunculaceae)
False Hellebore,
Y ellow Pheasant’s Eye
Description  Perennial herb growing to 8 in  
(20 cm). Has a scaly stem and feathery compound leaves. Stem bears large, bright yellow flowers up  to 3 in (8 cm) across. Adhatoda vasica (Acanthaceae)
Malabar Nut, 
Vasaka
Description  Evergreen shrub growing to 10 ft 
(3 m), with lance-shaped leaves, white or purple flowers, and 4-seeded fruit. Habitat & Cultivation  Native to tropical 
India, malabar nut grows in low-lying regions up  to the Himalayan foothills. Parts Used  Leaves, root, flowers, fruit (nut). Constituents  Malabar nut contains 
pyrroloquinoline alkaloids and an unidentified volatile oil. History & Folklore  The highly bitter-tasting 
malabar nut is a traditional Ayurvedic remedy for chest problems. Medicinal Actions & Uses  Due to its 
expectorant qualities, malabar nut is useful for bronchitis and other chest conditions. An Ayurvedic preparation that includes malabar flowers is used to treat tuberculosis. All parts of the plant are used  to expel worms. A poultice of the fresh leaves  is applied to wounds and to inflamed joints. Caution  Do not take during pregnancy.False hellebore’s cardiac glycosides help to slow  
down heart rate. Habitat & Cultivation  Originating from the 
steppes of Russia and from the Black Sea region, 
this herb is native to much of Europe but not to Britain. It grows in mountain pasture undergrowth. It is rare and legally protected in Western Europe. Parts Used  Aerial parts. Constituents  False hellebore contains cardiac 
glycosides, including adonitoxin. History & Folklore  False hellebore’s botanical 
name refers to Adonis, a figure in Greek mythology associated with the seasonal renewal of plant life. Medicinal Actions & Uses  False hellebore 
contains cardiac glycosides similar to those found  in foxglove (Digitalis purpurea, p. 202). These substances improve the heart’s efficiency, increasing its output while at the same time slowing its rate. Unlike foxglove, however, false hellebore’s effect  on the heart is slightly sedative, and it is generally prescribed for patients with hearts that are beating too fast or irregularly. False hellebore is also recommended as a treatment for certain cases of low blood pressure. In common with other plants containing cardiac glycosides, false hellebore is strongly diuretic and can be used to counter water retention, particularly in cases of poor circulatory 
function. False hellebore is used in homeopathic 
medicine as a treatment for angina. QCautions  T ake only under professional 
supervision. Gathering wild plants and their 
medicinal use are subject to legal restrictions in some countries. Maidenhair fern is used  
for chest complaints.Adiantum capillus-veneris 
(Polypodiaceae)
Maidenhair Fern
Description  Fern with delicate fronds growing 
to 1 ft (30 cm) long. Habitat & Cultivation  Native to Europe, 
Asia, most of the Americas, and Australasia. Parts Used  Aerial parts. Constituents  Maidenhair fern contains 
flavonoids (including rutin and isoquercitin), 
terpenoids (including adiantone), tannin, proanthocyanidins, and mucilage. History & Folklore  Maidenhair fern has been 
used since ancient times. Pliny the Elder (23–79 ce) states that the herb “is of singular efficacy in expelling and breaking calculi of the bladder.” 
Medicinal Actions & Uses  Commonly  
used in Latin America and occasionally in Europe,  a decoction or tincture of maidenhair fern is used  as an expectorant to treat coughs, bronchitis, sore throat, and chronic nasal congestion. The plant has  a longstanding reputation as a remedy for conditions affecting the hair and scalp. Related Species  A. caudatum has been shown 
to act as an antispasmodic and could be useful in the treatment of asthma. US_158-179_Abies_balsa_Boswe_serratta.indd   160 26/02/16   12:47 pm161 other medicinal Plantsagave americana
aegle marmelos (Rutaceae)
Bael, 
Bengal Quince
Description Thorny deciduous tree growing  
to 26 ft (8 m). Has aromatic oval- to lance-shaped 
leaves, greenish-white flowers, and yellow plum-
shaped fruit. Habitat & Cultivation  Native to India, bael 
grows throughout much of Southeast Asia in dry 
forests. It is also cultivated throughout the region. Parts Used  Fruit, leaves, root, twigs. Constituents  Bael contains coumarins, 
flavonoids, alkaloids, tannins, carotinoids, and  
volatile oil. History & Folklore  The bael tree is sacred to 
the Hindu deities Lakshmi (the goddess of wealth 
and good fortune) and Shiva (the god of health), 
and it is commonly planted near temples. Its 
medicinal virtues are described in the Charaka 
Samhita , an herbal text written c. 400 bce. Medicinal Actions & Uses The astringent 
half-ripe bael fruit reduces irritation in the digestive 
tract and is excellent for diarrhea and dysentery. The ripe fruit is demulcent and laxative, with a 
significant vitamin C content. It eases stomach pain 
and supports the healthy function of this organ. Bael’s astringent leaves are taken to treat peptic 
ulcers. The tree’s most unusual application is for 
earache. A piece of dried root is dipped in the oil 
of the neem tree ( Azadirachta indica,  p. 70) and set 
alight. Oil from the burning end is dripped into the 
ear. (This is not a recommended practice.) Self-help Use  Diarrhea , p. 307.Medicinal Actions & Uses  The acrid 
Korean mint is considered a warming herb in 
Oriental herbal medicine ( see pp. 40–43) and is 
used to treat “dampness” within the digestive 
system. In Korea, as its name suggests, the leaves 
are eaten as a condiment to aid digestion. The 
herb stimulates and warms the digestive tract, 
relieving symptoms such as abdominal bloating, 
indigestion, nausea, and vomiting. It is commonly 
used to relieve vomiting and morning sickness. Korean mint is used to treat the early stages of viral 
infections that feature symptoms such as 
stomachache and nausea. A lotion containing 
Korean mint may be applied to fungal conditions 
such as ringworm. Research  Laboratory experiments indicate  
that Korean mint has marked activity against  
fungal infections. Related Species  In southern China and  
T aiwan, Pogostemon cablin  is used interchangeably 
with Korean mint. P. cablin  is a close relative of  
the Indian plant P. patchouli , from which patchouli 
oil is produced. Korean mint is used to 
treat fungal infections 
such as ringworm.agave americana (Agavaceae)
Agave, 
Century Plant
Description  Succulent perennial with large 
rosette of 30–60 fleshy, sharply toothed leaves  
that reach a height of 61⁄2 ft (2 m). After 10 years  
or more, clusters of yellow flowers, growing to  
23⁄4 in (7 cm) across, bloom on a pole-like stem  
26–30 ft (8–9 m) tall. Habitat & Cultivation  Agave is native to 
deserts of Central America. It is now grown as an 
ornamental plant in tropical and subtropical areas 
around the world. Part Used  Sap. Constituents  Agave sap contains estrogen-like 
isoflavonoids, alkaloids, coumarins, and vitamins 
pro-A, B1, B2, C, D, and K.
History & Folklore  Unlike Europeans at  
the time of the Spanish conquest of America,  
the Aztec and Maya people were skilled in  
wound healing. They used agave sap (often  
with egg white) to bind powders and gums in 
pastes or poultices to be applied to wounds. The Badianus Manuscript (1552 ce ), which was  
the first herbal text to list the plants of the New 
World, describes an Aztec treatment for diarrhea 
and dysentery, in which agave juice, combined 
with freshly ground maize ( Zea mays , p. 154) and 
extract of bladderwort ( Utricularia  species), is 
given as an enema, using a syringe made from the 
bladder of a small animal and a hollow bone or 
reed. Both tequila and mescal, popular Mexican 
alcoholic drinks, are distilled from the fermented 
sap or juice of agaves. Medicinal Actions & Uses  Demulcent, 
laxative, and antiseptic, agave sap is a soothing and 
restorative remedy for many digestive ailments. It is used to treat ulcers and inflammatory 
conditions affecting the stomach and intestines, 
protecting these parts from infection and 
irritation and encouraging healing. Agave has 
also been employed to treat many 
other conditions, including 
constipation, jaundice, liver 
disease, and tuberculosis. Related Species  Agave is a 
fairly close relative of aloe ( Aloe vera , 
p. 60). The two plants have similar medicinal uses. The sisal agave ( A. sisalana ) is cultivated in sub-
tropical America and in Kenya as a source of 
hecogenin, the substance that is the starting  
point in the production of corticosteroids  
(steroid hormones). Cautions  Do not use during pregnancy. Do  
not exceed the dose as this may cause digestive 
irritation and eventual liver damage. External use 
may cause skin irritation.agastache rugosa (Lamiaceae)
Korean Mint,  
Huo Xiang (Chinese)
Description  Aromatic perennial or biennial 
herb growing to 4 ft (1.2 m). Has a square stem, 
triangular leaves, and purple flowers growing in 
dense spikes. Habitat & Cultivation  Native to China  
and also found in Japan, Korea, Laos, and Russia, 
Korean mint grows wild on slopes and roadsides. It is cultivated throughout China and  
gathered in summer. Parts Used Aerial parts. Constituents  Korean mint contains a volatile  
oil, including methylchavicol, anethole, anisaldehyde, 
and limonene. History & Folklore  Korean mint was first 
mentioned in a Chinese medicinal text—T ao 
Hongjing’s revision of the Divine Husbandman’s 
Classic (Shen’nong Bencaojing) , which he wrote in 
about 500 ce. US_158-179_Abies_balsa_Boswe_serratta.indd   161 26/02/16   12:47 pm
162
other medicinal Plantsagrimonia eupatoria
agrimonia eupatoria (Rosaceae)
Agrimony
Description  Erect, downy, and slightly  
aromatic perennial growing to 3 ft (1 m). Has 
paired leaves, green above and silvery-green beneath, and small 5-petaled yellow flowers growing on terminal spikes. Habitat & Cultivation Agrimony is a native 
European herb commonly found in marshes, wet meadows, and open areas. It is harvested when in flower in summer. Parts Used Aerial parts. Constituents Agrimony contains tannins, 
coumarins, flavonoids (including luteolin, a volatile oil), and polysaccharides. History & Folklore The species name 
Eupatoria has regal associations. Mithridates Eupator (d. 63 bce), King of Pontus in northern Turkey, was said to have had a profound knowledge of plant lore and antidotes to poisons. Medicinal Actions & Uses Agrimony has 
long been used by herbalists to heal wounds because it staunches bleeding and encourages  
clot formation. An astringent and mild bitter,  
it is also a helpful remedy for diarrhea and  
a gentle tonic for digestion as a whole. Combined with other herbs such as cornsilk  
(Zea mays, p. 154), it is a valuable remedy for cystitis and urinary incontinence, and has also been used for kidney stones, sore throats, hoarseness, rheumatism, and osteoarthritis. Research Agrimony’s blood-staunching and  
anti-inflammatory properties have been established by experiments in China. Related Species Xian he cao (A. pilosa)  
is used in China for comparable conditions. Self-help Uses Diarrhea,  p. 307;  
Diarrhea in children, p. 318.
agropyron repens syn. elymus repens (Graminaceae)
Couch Grass
Description Vigorous perennial growing to  
32 in (80 cm). Has a long, creeping rhizome,  
slender leaves, and erect spikes bearing green flowers aligned in two rows. Habitat & Cultivation Found in Europe,  
the Americas, northern Asia, and Australia, couch grass is an invasive weed. It is harvested throughout the year. Parts Used Rhizome, seeds, root. Constituents Couch grass contains 
polysaccharides (such as triticin), a volatile oil (mainly agropyrene), mucilage, and nutrients. Agropyrene has antibiotic properties. History & Folklore In classical times, both 
Dioscorides (40–90 ce) and Pliny (23–79 ce) recommended couch grass root for poor urine flow and kidney stones. In 1597, the herbalist  John Gerard wrote that “Couch-grasse be an unwelcome guest to fields and gardens, yet his physicke virtues do recompense those hurts; for  it openeth the stoppings of the liver and reins [ureters] without heat.” In times of famine, the  root has been roasted and ground as a substitute for coffee and flour. Medicinal Actions & Uses A gentle, effective 
diuretic and demulcent, couch grass is most commonly used for urinary tract infections such as cystitis and urethritis. It both protects the urinary tubules against infection and irritants, and increases the volume of urine, thereby diluting it. It can be taken, usually with other herbs, to help treat kidney stones, reducing the irritation and laceration they cause. Couch grass is also thought to dissolve kidney stones (insofar as this is possible), and in any case will help to prevent their further enlargement. Both an enlarged prostate and prostatitis (infection of the prostate gland) will benefit from a couch grass decoction taken over the course of several months. In German herbal medicine, heated couch grass seeds are used in a hot and moist pack that is applied to the abdomen for peptic ulcers. Juice from the roots of couch grass has been advocated for treating jaundice and other liver complaints.ailanthus altissima syn. a. glandulosa (Simaroubaceae)
Tree of Heaven, 
Chun Pi
Description Deciduous tree growing to 65 ft 
(20 m). Has large leaves with up to 12 lance-
shaped leaflets, and small greenish-yellow flowers. It has an unpleasant odor. Habitat & Cultivation Native to China and 
India, tree of heaven is now naturalized in some parts of Europe, Australia, and North America. It is cultivated as a garden tree. The bark and  root bark are harvested in spring. Parts Used Bark, root bark. Constituents The bark contains quassinoids 
(such as ailanthone and quassin), alkaloids, flavonols, and tannins. Quassinoids are intensely bitter, antimalarial, and act against cancerous cells. Medicinal Actions & Uses In Chinese 
herbal medicine, tree of heaven is used to  
treat diarrhea and dysentery, especially if there  
is blood in the stool. The bark of the tree has been used in Asian and Australian medicine to counter worms, excessive vaginal discharge, gonorrhea, and malaria, and it has also been  
given for asthma. Tree of heaven has marked antispasmodic properties and acts on the body  
as a cardiac depressant. Research Chinese researchers gave tree of 
heaven to 82 patients with acute dysentery, and cured 81. Abdominal pain generally eased within  
2 days. The anti-cancer properties of quassinoids  
are being extensively investigated. Laboratory research indicates that the whole plant has a marked antimalarial activity. Agrimony is gentle and 
suitable for children. Tree of heaven has an unpleasant, bitter taste. US_158-179_Abies_balsa_Boswe_serratta.indd   162 07/04/16   4:37 pm163 other medicinal Plantsalchemilla vulgaris
Related Species A. malabrica  is used in herbal 
medicine in Southeast Asia for its tonic properties 
and to reduce fever. QCaution Use tree of heaven only under 
professional supervision. ajuga reptans (Lamiaceae)
Bugle
Description Low-growing, creeping perennial 
up to 1 ft (30 cm) in height. Has rooting runners, 
erect hairy stems, oblong to oval leaves, and 
purplish-blue flowers. Habitat & Cultivation Native to Europe, 
North Africa, and parts of Asia, bugle has become 
naturalized in North America. It prefers damp 
woods and grassy and mountainous areas, and is 
usually gathered when in flower in early summer. Parts Used Aerial parts. Constituents Bugle contains iridoid glycosides, 
diterpene bitters, phytoecdysone, and caffeic acids.History & Folklore In the European tradition, 
bugle has long been valued as a wound-healing 
herb. Nicholas Culpeper praised it in 1652: “The 
decoction of the leaves and flowers made in wine 
and taken, dissolveth the congealed blood in those 
that are bruised inwardly by a fall or otherwise, and 
is very effectual for any inward wounds, thrusts or 
stabs into the body or bowels.” The herbalist Mrs. 
Grieve, writing in 1931, reported that it lowers the 
pulse rate and “equalizes the circulation.”
Medicinal Actions & Uses Bugle is bitter, 
astringent, and aromatic, but opinion varies as to its 
value as a medicine. It has mild analgesic properties, 
and it is still used occasionally as a wound healer. It is also mildly laxative and traditionally has been 
thought to help cleanse the liver. Related Species Ground pine ( A. chamaepitys ) 
is used to treat gout and rheumatism. It is believed 
to have diuretic, menstruation-inducing, and 
stimulant properties. A. decumbens  is used in 
Chinese medicine as an analgesic.a topical application of albizzia. Extracts of the  
plant also have antifungal and antibacterial activity. Saponins from the seed pods have spermicidal and 
antiprotozoal activity. alchemilla vulgaris (Rosaceae)
Lady’s Mantle
Description Herbaceous perennial growing to  
1 ft (30 cm). Has a basal rosette of lobed leaves 
and insignificant green flowers 1⁄8–1⁄4 in (3–5 mm) 
across in loose clusters. Habitat & Cultivation  Lady’s mantle is  
native to Britain and continental Europe. It is 
gathered in summer. Parts Used Aerial parts, root. Constituents Lady’s mantle contains tannins,  
a glycoside, and salicylic acid. Bugle  was once  
thought to be a  
remedy for hangovers.Lady’s mantle is chiefly 
used to reduce heavy 
menstrual bleeding. History & Folklore Andres de Laguna’s 
translation (1570) of Dioscorides’ Materia Medica  
recommends two preparations of lady’s mantle—
the root, powdered and mixed with red wine,  
for internal and external wounds, and an infusion 
of the aerial parts, for “greenstick” fractures  
and broken bones in babies and young 
children. When taken regularly for 15 days,  
lady’s mantle was said to reverse sterility due  
to “slipperiness” of the womb. The plant’s 
astringent effect is sufficiently marked that  
the infusion was used to contract the female 
genitalia, and it was “a thousand times sold”  
to those wishing to appear to be virgins! Medicinal Actions & Uses Lady’s mantle  
has always been prized as a wound healer. Its 
astringency ensures that blood flow is staunched 
and the first stage of healing soon gets under  
way. As the name implies, it is a valuable herb  
for women’s complaints and is thought to have a 
progesterogenic action. It is commonly taken to 
reduce heavy menstrual bleeding, to relieve 
menstrual cramps, and to aid menstrual regularity. Lady’s mantle is also prescribed for fibroids and 
endometriosis. It has been used to facilitate 
childbirth, and is thought to act as a liver albizzia lebbeck (Fabaceae)
Albizzia,
Siris Tree, Pit Shirish
Description Deciduous tree growing to  
65 ft (20 m). Has compound leaves, white 
fragrant flowers, and long, shiny, pale yellow 
seed pods. Habitat & Cultivation Native to the Indian 
subcontinent, albizzia grows in moist teak-bearing 
forests. It is also cultivated. Parts Used Stem bark; also flowers and seeds. Constituents Albizzia contains saponins, cardiac 
glycosides, tannins, and flavonoids. History & Folklore Albizzia has been used for 
several thousand years within Ayurvedic medicine 
to treat allergies, skin eruptions, glandular 
disorders, and poisoning. Medicinal Actions & Uses Albizzia bark  
has anti-allergenic properties and is used orally 
(and topically) to relieve problems such as 
eczema, hives, hay fever, and asthma. The herb 
helps to lower cholesterol and may be 
useful as part of a broad approach to 
treating abnormal fat levels in the 
blood. It is usually taken as a decoction 
or tincture. In Ayurveda, the bark is 
given for pitta (fire) and kapha  (water) 
conditions such as asthma; the flowers  
for coughs and bronchitis; and the seeds  
for skin diseases. Research Laboratory research has shown that 
the plant helps to reduce allergic sensitivity, and 
one clinical study has indicated potential value in 
the treatment of asthma. In another clinical  
study, weeping eczema improved significantly with  
US_158-179_Abies_balsa_Boswe_serratta.indd   163 26/02/16   12:47 pm
164
other medicinal PlantsAletris f ArinosA
decongestant. Its astringent properties make it  
a useful herb for the treatment of diarrhea  and gastroenteritis. Research Russian research indicates that lady’s 
mantle reduces blood viscosity. Caution Do not use lady’s mantle when pregnant. Aletris farinosa (Liliaceae)
Star Grass ,
True Unicorn Root,  
Colic Root 
Description  Perennial growing to 3 ft (1 m). Has a flowering stem, smooth lance-shaped leaves, 
and white bell-shaped flowers that appear to be covered with frost. Habitat & Cultivation  Native to eastern 
North America, star grass grows mainly in swamps and wet sandy woodland, especially near the seashore. It is harvested commercially in Virginia, Tennessee, and North Carolina. Parts Used  Rhizome, leaves. Constituents  Star grass contains steroidal 
saponins based on diosgenin, as well as a bitter principle, volatile oil, and a resin. History & Folklore The Native North 
American Catawba used a cold-water infusion of star grass leaves for stomachache. Star grass was also advocated for snake bite. Medicinal Actions & Uses  It is 
difficult to gain a clear picture of star  
grass’s medicinal value. Due to its  
estrogenic action, it is employed chiefly  
for gynecological problems, particularly  
at menopause. It is also given for period pain and irregular periods. Some authorities hold that it prevents  
threatened miscarriage. Star grass is also a good digestive herb, proving beneficial in treating loss of appetite, indigestion, flatulence, and bloating. QCautions  Use only under professional 
supervision. The dried, and especially the fresh, rhizome can be toxic when taken in overdose, causing colic, diarrhea, and vomiting.Part Used  Bulb. Constituents  Onion contains a volatile oil  
with sulphur-containing compounds such as  
allicin (an antibiotic) and alliin, flavonoids,  
phenolic acids, and sterols. History & Folklore  Authorities throughout 
the ancient world recommended onion for a variety of health problems. Bunches were hung  on doors to ward off the plague in medieval Europe. Wild onion (A. sibiricum) was also used extensively by Native North Americans to treat stings and help relieve colds. Medicinal Actions & Uses  Onion boasts a 
long list of medicinal actions—diuretic, antibiotic, anti-inflammatory, analgesic, expectorant, and antirheumatic. It is also beneficial to the circulation. Onions are taken the world over for colds, flu, and coughs, much like garlic (A. sativum, p. 59). Onion offsets tendencies to angina, arteriosclerosis, and heart attack. It is also useful in preventing oral infection and tooth decay. The warmed juice can  
be dropped into the ear for earache, and baked onion is used as a poultice to drain pus from sores. Onion has a longstanding reputation as an aphrodisiac, and it is also used cosmetically  to stimulate hair growth.Related Species  In Chinese herbal medicine, the 
scallion (A. fistulosum) is given to encourage sweating, to unblock the nose, and to relieve bloating. It is also used to help drain boils and abscesses. Self-help Use  Mild fever, p. 311. Allium ursinum (Liliaceae)
Ramsons
Description  Bulbous perennial smelling strongly 
of garlic, growing to 11 in (28 cm). Has a triangular stem and broad elliptical leaves. Clusters of white, star-like flowers grow from a common stem. Habitat & Cultivation  Ramsons are native  
to Europe and Asia. They carpet shady sites in damp woods and by streams. The plants are gathered in early summer. Parts Used  Bulb, aerial parts. Constituents  Ramsons contain volatile oil, 
aldehydes, vinyl sulfide, and vitamin C.
History & Folklore  Ramsons (and many other 
onion-like plants) have been highly regarded as preventative medicines, as an old English rhyme attests: “Eat leeks in Lide and ramsons in May/And all the year after physicians may play!” More prosaically, Gerard (1597) wrote that the leaves “maye very well be eaten in April and Maie with butter [by those of] a strong constitution.” 
Medicinal Actions & Uses  Used mainly as  
a folk remedy and as a food, ramsons are similar  
to garlic (A. sativum, p. 59) but weaker in 
action. They lower high blood pressure and 
help to prevent arteriosclerosis. As ramsons 
ease stomach pain and are tonic to the 
digestion, they have been used for diarrhea, colic, 
gas, indigestion, and loss of appetite. The whole herb is used in an infusion against threadworms, either ingested or given as an enema. Ramsons are also thought to be beneficial for asthma, bronchitis, and emphysema. The juice is used as an aid to weight loss. Onion juice is mixed 
with honey as a 
remedy for colds.Allium cepa (Liliaceae)
Onion
Description  Bulbous perennial growing to 3 ft 
(1 m). Has hollow stems and leaves, and white or purple flowers. Habitat & Cultivation  Native to the 
northern hemisphere, onion has been cultivated  in the Middle East for millennia. It is now grown worldwide as a vegetable.Alnus glutinosa  
syn. A. rotundifolia (Betulaceae)
Alder
Description  Small tree with fissured bark, 
growing to 65 ft (20 m). Has notched oval leaves 
and male and female catkins. Habitat & Cultivation  Alder is native to 
Europe, Asia, and North Africa. It thrives in damp places and along riverbanks. The bark and leaves are gathered in spring. Parts Used  Bark, leaves. Constituents  Alder contains lignans, tannin  
(10–20%), emodin (an anthraquinone), and glycosides. US_158-179_Abies_balsa_Boswe_serratta.indd   164 07/04/16   4:37 pm165 other medicinal PlantsAm A r A nthus hypochondri Acus
History & Folklore  Water-resistant, alder  
was used in the construction of Venice. Wooster 
Beech (1794–1868), founder of the Eclectic  
healing movement, used a decoction of the bark to 
“purify the blood.”
Medicinal Actions & Uses  Alder is most 
often used as a mouthwash and gargle for tooth, 
gum, and throat problems. The drying action of  
a decoction of the bark helps to contract the 
mucous membranes and reduce inflammation. A decoction may also be used to staunch internal  
or external bleeding, and to heal wounds. It is also 
used as a wash for scabies. In Spain, alder leaves  
are smoothed and placed on the soles of the feet 
to relieve aching. Leaves are used to help reduce 
breast engorgement in nursing mothers. Alstonia spp. (Apocynaceae)
Fever Bark
Description  Evergreen trees growing to 49 ft 
(15 m). Have glossy oblong leaves and creamy-
white, star-shaped flowers. Habitat & Cultivation  A. constricta  is native 
to Australia, and A. scholaris  to Australia and 
Southeast Asia. Both are now found in tropical 
regions around the world. Parts Used  Stem bark, root bark. Constituents  The bark of both species contains 
indole alkaloids. A. constricta  contains reserpine,  
a powerful hypotensive. Medicinal Actions & Uses  Fever bark has 
been taken to treat malarial fever (and has been 
called Australian quinine), but its efficacy against 
malaria remains unclear. The bark is antispasmodic 
and lowers blood pressure, and is now used mainly 
to reduce high blood pressure. Strongly bitter, the 
bark is also taken to treat diarrhea. QCautions  T ake only under professional 
supervision. Fever bark is toxic in large doses. The herb is subject to legal restrictions in  
some countries.Constituents  Marshmallow root contains about 
37% starch, 11% mucilage, 11% pectin, flavonoids, 
phenolic acids, sucrose, and asparagine. History & Folklore  The philosopher 
Theophrastus ( c. 372–286 bce) reported that 
marshmallow root was taken in sweet wine for 
coughs. Marshmallow was once a key ingredient  
in the sweets of the same name. Medicinal Actions & Uses  Useful 
whenever a soothing effect is needed, 
marshmallow protects and soothes the mucous 
membranes. The root counters excess stomach 
acid, peptic ulceration, and gastritis. Marshmallow 
is also mildly laxative and beneficial for many 
intestinal problems, including regional ileitis,  
colitis, diverticulitis, and irritable bowel syndrome. The leaves treat cystitis and frequent urination. Marshmallow’s demulcent qualities bring relief  
to dry coughs, bronchial asthma, chronic 
bronchitis, and pleurisy. The flowers are applied  
to help soothe inflamed skin. The root is used  
in an ointment for boils and abscesses, and in  
a mouthwash for inflammation. The peeled root 
may be given as a chewstick to teething babies. Other Species  Hollyhock ( A. rosea ) and 
common mallow ( Malva sylvestris , p. 232) are  
used in a similar fashion. Self-help Uses Allergic rhinitis with mucus ,  
p. 300; Earache due to chronic mucus , p. 312; 
Urinary infections , p. 314.Amaranthus hypochondriacus
(Amaranthaceae)
Amaranth
Description  Sturdy, upright annual growing  
to about 3 ft (1 m). Has deeply veined, lance-
shaped, purple-green leaves that grow to 6 in  
(15 cm) and tufts of small, deep crimson flowers  
on long spikes. Habitat & Cultivation  Native to India, 
amaranth grows wild in many countries, including 
the U.S. A common garden plant, it is harvested 
when in flower in late summer and early autumn. Parts Used  Aerial parts. Constituents  Amaranth contains tannins, 
including a red pigment used to dye foods  
and medicines. History & Folklore  Amaranth comes from 
the Greek word meaning “unwithering.” The 
amaranth was sacred to the goddess Artemis, 
worshipped at Ephesus, and was thought to have 
special healing powers. As a symbol of immortality, 
it was used to decorate tombs and images of  
the gods. Medicinal Actions & Uses  Amaranth is an 
astringent herb that is used primarily to reduce 
blood loss and to treat diarrhea. A decoction of 
amaranth is taken as a remedy in cases of heavy 
menstrual bleeding, excessive vaginal discharge, 
diarrhea, and dysentery. It is also used as a gargle to 
soothe inflammation of the pharynx and to hasten 
the healing of canker sores. Related Species  Quinoa ( A. caudatus , also 
known as Inca wheat) is a nutritious Andean grain. It is used to make bread and is eaten in salads. The 
seeds of A. grandiflorus  are used as a foodstuff by 
Australian Aborigines.Marshmallow infusion, 
made from the flowers, 
soothes sore skin.Amaranth’s  long-lasting flowers gave rise to its name, 
meaning “unwithering” in Greek. Althaea officinalis (Malvaceae)
Marshmallow
Description  Downy perennial growing to 7 ft 
(2.2 m). Has thick white roots, heart-shaped leaves, 
and pink flowers. Habitat & Cultivation  Native to Europe, 
marshmallow is naturalized in the Americas. It 
prefers marshy fields and tidal zones and is 
cultivated for medicinal use. The aerial parts are 
gathered in summer as the plant begins to flower 
and the root is unearthed in autumn. Parts Used  Root, leaves, flowers. US_158-179_Abies_balsa_Boswe_serratta.indd   165 26/02/16   12:47 pm
166
other medicinal PlantsAmmi mA jus
Ammi majus (Apiaceae)
Bishop’s Weed
Description  Erect annual herb growing to  
32 in (80 cm), with tangled leaflets and umbels  
of small white flowers.The true fruit hangs just below this stem and contains the nut, which is encased in red or  yellow flesh. Habitat & Cultivation  This tree is native to 
tropical American forests and grasslands. It is now cultivated for its highly prized nuts throughout the tropics, especially in India and eastern Africa. Parts Used  Nuts, leaves, bark, root, gum. Constituents  The gum contains anacardic acid, 
which is bactericidal and fungicidal, and kills worms and protozoa. History & Folklore The “apple” is made into 
jams, and, in Brazil, into a liquor called cajuado. The gum exuded by the stem wards off ants  and other insects. Medicinal Actions & Uses Though many 
parts of the plant are used medicinally, cashew nut is chiefly a food—after removal of its toxic lining. The nut is highly nutritious, containing 45% fat and 20% protein. The leaves are used in Indian and African herbal medicine for toothache and gum problems, and in West Africa for malaria. The bark is used in Ayurvedic medicine to detoxify snake bite. The roots are purgative. The gum is applied externally for skin conditions such as corns and fungal infection. The oil between the outer and inner shells of the nut is caustic and causes an inflammatory reaction even in small doses. In  
folk medicine in the tropics, the oil is used very sparingly to eliminate warts, corns, ringworm,  
and ulcers. Research  Research at the University of Berkeley 
(California) has shown anacardic acids to have significant antibacterial activity against Heliobacter pylori, the bacterium thought to be the main cause of stomach ulcers. Caution  The shell oil and its vapor are highly 
irritant—do not use in any form.of lozenges to relieve dryness of the mouth. It  was also taken to help ease neuralgia and paralysis of the tongue or lips. Medicinal Actions &  Uses  Pellitory root  
is taken as a decoction or chewed to relieve toothache and increase saliva production. The decoction may also be used as a gargle to soothe sore throats. In Ayurvedic medicine, pellitory root  is considered tonic and is used to treat paralysis and epilepsy. Diluted pellitory essential oil is used  in mouthwashes and to treat toothache. Caution  Do not take the oil internally except 
under professional supervision. Anagallis arvensis (Primulaceae)
Scarlet Pimpernel
Description  Creeping annual growing to  
2 in (5 cm) with oval- to lance-shaped leaves  and salmon-red flowers on long stems. Habitat & Cultivation  Scarlet pimpernel  
is found in Europe and in temperate regions generally. It prefers open areas and untended sandy ground, and is gathered in summer toward the end of its flowering period. Habitat & Cultivation  Bishop’s weed is 
native to the Mediterranean region and as far  east as Iran. It is cultivated for its seeds, which  are harvested in late summer. Parts Used  Seeds. Constituents  The seeds contain 
furanocoumarins (including bergapten), flavonoids, and tannins. History & Folklore  Bishop’s weed has  
been grown as a medicinal plant since the Middle Ages, but has been less often used than visnaga  (A. visnaga, p. 62). Medicinal Actions & Uses  Bishop’s weed 
produces strongly aromatic seeds. In an infusion  or as a tincture, they calm the digestive system. They are also diuretic, and, like visnaga, have been used to treat asthma and angina. Bishop’s weed reputedly helps treat patchy skin pigmentation  in vitiligo. It has also been used for psoriasis. Cautions  Bishop’s weed increases sensitivity  
to sunlight and can provoke sunburn and sunlight-related allergic reactions. Side effects can include nausea, vomiting, and headaches. It is subject to legal restrictions in some countries. Anacardium occidentale
(Anacardiaceae)
Cashew
Description  Evergreen tree growing to a height 
of 49 ft (15 m). Has large oval leaves and pink-
streaked yellow flowers on long spikes. Its greenish-grey “fruit” or “apple” is in fact a thickened stem. Scarlet pimpernel 
was called “poor man’s weather glass” because  its flowers close before rain.Bishop’s weed, like most members of the carrot family,  has highly aromatic seeds. Anacyclus pyrethrum
(Asteraceae)
Pellitory
Description  Perennial herb growing to 1 ft  
(30 cm). Has smooth alternate leaves and large 
white flowers with yellow centers. Habitat & Cultivation  Pellitory is native to 
the Mediterranean region as far east as the Middle East. It is cultivated in Algeria, and the root is unearthed in autumn. Parts Used  Root, essential oil. Constituents  Pellitory contains anacycline, 
inulin, and volatile oil. History & Folklore  The herbalist Nicholas 
Culpeper wrote in 1652 that pellitory “purgeth  the brain of phlegmatic humours… easing pains  in the head and teeth,” It has been listed in the British Pharmacopoeia and was used in the form  
US_158-179_Abies_balsa_Boswe_serratta.indd   166 26/02/16   12:47 pm167 other medicinal Plantsandrographis paniculata
Parts Used Aerial parts. Constituents  The herb contains saponins 
(including anagalline), tannins, and cucurbitacins. The latter are cytotoxic (damaging to cells). History & Folklore  Classical Greek writers 
believed scarlet pimpernel helped melancholy. In her Modern Herbal  (1931), Mrs. Grieve quotes  
an old saying: “No heart can think, no tongue  
can tell/The virtues of the pimpernel.” It has  
been employed in European folk medicine as  
a treatment for gallstones, liver cirrhosis, lung 
problems, kidney stones, urinary infections, gout, 
and rheumatism. This pattern of use suggests a 
detoxifying action for the plant. Medicinal Actions & Uses  Little used by 
medical herbalists today, scarlet pimpernel has 
diuretic, sweat-inducing, and expectorant 
properties. As an expectorant, it was used to 
stimulate the coughing up of mucus and help 
recovery from colds and flu. It has been used to 
treat epilepsy and mental problems for 2,000 years, 
but there is little evidence to support its efficacy. Caution  Scarlet pimpernel is not recommended 
for medicinal use for more than 2–3 weeks.ananas comosus (Bromeliaceae)
Pineapple
Description  Herbaceous perennial  
growing to 3 ft (1 m). Has a short, sturdy  
stem; spiny, lance-shaped leaves; and succulent 
reddish-yellow fruit. Habitat & Cultivation  Pineapple is native  
to South America. It is cultivated throughout the 
tropics for its fruit and, to a lesser extent, its  
leaf fiber. Parts Used  Fruit, leaves. Constituents  Pineapple fruit contains bromelain, 
a protein-splitting enzyme that aids digestion. It has 
significant levels of vitamins A and C.
Medicinal Actions & Uses  The sour,  
unripe fruit improves digestion, increases  
appetite, and relieves dyspepsia. In Indian herbal 
medicine, it is thought to act as a uterine tonic. The ripe fruit cools and soothes, and is used  
to settle gas and reduce excessive gastric acid. Its 
significant fiber content makes it useful in relieving 
constipation. The juice of the ripe  fruit is both a digestive tonic and a diuretic. The leaves are considered to be useful in 
encouraging the onset of menstrual periods  
and easing painful ones. Pineapple  contains 
an enzyme, 
bromelain, that 
acts as an aid  
to digestion.anamirta cocculus 
(Menispermaceae)
Indian Berry, 
Cocculus
Description  Large, woody climbing plant  
with alternate oval leaves and long hanging  
clusters of greenish flowers. Has male and  
female flowers on separate plants. Bears  
red-brown kidney-shaped fruit. Habitat & Cultivation  Indian berry is found 
in forests in Southeast Asia from India and Sri 
Lanka across to Indonesia. Parts Used Leaves, fruit. Constituents  Indian berry contains picrotoxin  
(up to 5%) and alkaloids. Picrotoxin is a very 
powerful poison and nerve stimulant. History & Folklore The fruit is used as a fish 
poison. Scattered in the water, it stupefies fish in the 
surrounding area, causing them to float to the surface. Medicinal Actions & Uses  Indian berry fruit  
is sold commercially as a remedy for parasites. The plant is so toxic that it is rarely taken internally. It is mainly applied externally to kill parasites  
such as lice. In Ayurvedic medicine, Indian berry   
fruit is classified as astringent, antifungal, and 
anthelmintic (de-worming), and is used for skin 
ulcers and fungal conditions such as ringworm. The herb is used in homeopathic medicine as  
a remedy for heart conditions. RQ Cautions  Indian berry is highly toxic. Do  
not take internally. Use externally only under 
professional supervision.andrographis paniculata
(Acanthaceae)
Andrographis,
Green Chiretta,  
Kiratatiktah (Sanskrit)
Description  Upright, branched annual, 
growing to 3 ft (90 cm), with lance-shaped leaves, 
spotted, pale brown or purple flowers, and long, 
thin seed capsules containing numerous yellow-
brown seeds. Habitat & Cultivation  Andrographis grows 
throughout India, on plains, and as undergrowth in 
forests. It is commonly cultivated for medicinal use 
in northern India and China, and is also grown as  
a garden plant. Parts Used  Aerial parts. Constituents  Contains bitter diterpene 
lactones, diterpene glucosides, and flavonoids. History & Folklore  In Ayurveda, andrographis 
is used mainly for the liver, to treat infection, and  
for intestinal worms. In the past it has been used 
chiefly to treat malaria. Medicinal Actions & Uses  A classically bitter 
and tonic herb, andrographis exerts a wide range 
of protective effects on the body—mostly through 
its ability to stimulate the immune system, 
especially macrophages, and to protect the liver 
from damage, whether by infection or poisoning. Like most bitters, it will help to counter fever. In 
China, andrographis is used to treat a wide range 
of infections including bacillary dysentery and 
enteritis. It may be taken for chronic infection,  
and in any situation where the immune system  
is underperforming.
Encyclopedia_Of_Herbal_Medicine.txt
Summarize the following text section accurately and concisely. Maintain specific details and numerical information, and use anti-repetition mechanisms:

        Related Species
Cornsmut (Ustilago zeae), a fungus that grows on corn, is used by the Zuni of New Mexico to speed childbirth and stop uterine hemorrhage. Key Constituents
■ Flavonoids
■ Carotenoids 
Cob:
■ Anthocyanins (purple corn)
Cornsilk:
■ Carotenoids
■ Volatile oil 
■ Sterols
Key Actions
■ Urinary demulcent
■ Diuretic■ Mildly stimulates bile secretion
■ Gently lowers blood pressure
Research
■ Purple corn Purple corn contains 
unusually high levels of anthocyanins, dark red or blue plant pigments  that have strong antioxidant and protective effects within the body. A 2007 paper reported that, weight for weight, purple corn contained nearly four times more anthocyanins than blueberries, suggesting that purple corn could be a key dietary source of anthocyanins. ■ Carotenoids Corncob and 
cornsilk contain high levels of carotenoids (including lutein and zeaxanthin), compounds that are thought to protect the eye from oxidative damage. Zeaxanthin in particular is thought to protect against age-related macular degeneration. Traditional &  
Current Uses
■ Traditional herb Corn meal has 
been used by Native Americans for  
a wide range of ailments. It makes  
an effective poultice and has been given in Mayan, Incan, and American medicine to treat bruises, swellings, sores, boils, and similar conditions. Virgil J. Vogel writes that “the Chickasaw Indians treated itching skin, followed by sores when scratched, by burning old corncobs and holding the affected part over the smoke. ”
■ Urinary remedy Cornsilk is  
a gentle-acting diuretic with mild antibiotic activity. It can help in acute and chronic cases of cystitis and is commonly used in prostate disorders. It may also prove useful in frequent urination and bladder irritability. ■ Kidney stones Cornsilk is 
thought to have a beneficial effect  on the kidneys, reducing kidney stone formation and relieving some of  the symptoms of existing stones. ■ Chinese remedy In China, Parts Used
Key Preparations & Their UsesCornsilk (stamens) 
can be used fresh or dried as a remedy for urinary disorders. Meal is used externally to treat bruises and other skin problems. Fresh  
cornsilk Fresh meal Dried cornsilk
Infusion of cornsilk (to make,  
p. 291) is soothing. For cystitis, 
 drink 2 cups (500 ml) daily. Decoction of meal (to make, p. 291). Apply as a poultice (see p. 295) to  
sores and boils. cornsilk is used to treat fluid 
retention and jaundice. Self-help Uses
■ Fluid retention in  
 pregnancy, p. 317. ■ Urinary infections, p. 314. The outer leaves of corn are 
stripped to reveal the cornsilk and meal. The staple food of Central and South America for at least 
4,000 years, corn is also used medicinally in countless different ways. The Aztecs gave a corn meal decoction  for dysentery and “heat in the heart,” and to increase breast-milk production. Cornsilk (the silky fronds wrapped around the cob) has always been the part most used medicinally, and it is of particular value in treating  urinary conditions. Tincture of cornsilk (to make, p. 292). For cystitis, combine 1⁄3 cup (80 ml) with  
1 tbsp of buchu tincture and take 1 tsp with water 3 times a day. Capsules of cornsilk (to make, p.
To speed childbirth and stop uterine hemorrhage.
What is Cornsmut used for?
It is used to relieve pain and reduce fever.
What is the traditional use of Korean mint?
It is used as a diuretic, anti-inflammatory, and antispasmodic.
What is the traditional use of Agropyron repens?
It is used to soothe and protect the mucous membranes in the respiratory and urinary tracts, and to treat cystitis, prostatitis, and kidney stones.
What is the use of Marshmallow root?
It is used to treat a wide range of infections, including malaria, and to protect the liver from damage.
What is the use of Andrographis paniculata?