The operations performed by these young women on children far exceeded
in quality the average that I have seen by dentists in America. Their plan gives dental care to
children twelve years of age and under, provided the parents express a wish that their children
receive that care. The service was being extended rapidly to all communities. Since my return, I
have learned that the work is being organized to provide for every community of New Zealand. The art of the Maori gives evidence of their great ability and skill in sculpturing. Boys and girls do
beautiful carving and weaving. All native buildings and structures are embellished with carvings
often in fine detail. It was most gratifying to find neat and well-appointed dental office buildings for both natives and
whites, located beside a large number of the public schools throughout New Zealand. In many
communities two or three schools were served by the same operator. Children were either brought
to the central dental infirmary or provision was made for an operating room in the vicinity of each
school. The operator went from district to district. A typical dental infirmary is shown in Fig. 68,
with Colonel Saunders and one of his efficient women operators in the foreground. I had suggested
that I should be glad to have observers from the Department of Health accompany us or arrange
to be present at convenient places to observe the conditions and to note my interpretations of
them. From two to five such observers were generally present, including the official representative
of the department. The planning of the itinerary was very greatly assisted by a Maori member of
Parliament, Mr. Aparana Ngata.7/29/13 Nutrition and Physical Degeneration
gutenberg.net.au/ebooks02/0200251h.html#toc 124/250FIG. 68. The New Zealand government provides nearly
universal free dental service for the children, regardless of
color, to the age of twelve years. This is a typical dental
clinic maintained in connection with the school system. They
are operated by trained dental hygienists. The director of the
system, Colonel Saunders, is seen in the picture. Although New Zealand is a new country with a relatively small population, there being
approximately only a million and a half individuals, the building of highways has rapidly been
extended to include all modernized sections. In order to reach the most remote groups it was often
necessary to go beyond the zone of public improvements and follow quite primitive trails. Fortunately this was possible because it was the dry season. Even then many streams had to be
forded, which would have been quite impossible at other seasons of the year. We were able to
average approximately a hundred miles of travel per day for eighteen days, visiting twenty-five
districts and making examinations of native Maori families and children in native schools,
representing various stages of modernization. This included a few white schools and tubercular
sanitariums. Since over 95 per cent of the New Zealanders are to be found in the North Island, our
investigations were limited to this island. Our itinerary started at Wellington at the south end of the
North Island and progressed northward in such a way as to reach both the principal centers of
native population who were modernized and those who were more isolated. This latter group,
however, was a small part of the total native population. Detailed examinations including
measurements and photographic records were made in twenty-two groups consisting chiefly of the
older children in public schools. In the examination of 535 individuals in these twenty-two school
districts their 15,332 teeth revealed that 3,420 had been attacked by dental caries or 22.3 per
cent. In the most modernized groups 31 to 50 per cent had dental caries. In the most isolated
group only 2 per cent of the teeth had been attacked by dental caries. The incidence of deformity
of dental arches in the modernized groups ranged from 40 to 100 per cent. In many districts
members of the older generations revealed 100 per cent normally formed dental arches. The
children of these individuals, however, showed a much higher percentage of deformed dental
arches. These data are in striking contrast with the condition of the teeth and dental arches of the skulls
of the Maori before contact with the white man and the reports of examinations by early scientists
who made contact with the primitive Maori before he was modernized. These reports revealed
only one tooth in 2000 teeth attacked by dental caries with practically 100 per cent normally
formed dental arches. My investigations were made in the following places in the North Island. The Pukerora
Tubercular Sanatorium provided forty native Maori for studies. These were largely young men and
women and being in a modern institution they were receiving the modern foods of the whites of
New Zealand. Their modernization was demonstrated not only by the high incidence of dental
caries but also by the fact that 90 per cent of the adults and 100 per cent of the children had
abnormalities of the dental arches. The Hukarera College for Maori girls is at Napier. These girls were largely from modernized
native homes and were now living in a modern institution. Their modernization was expressed in7/29/13 Nutrition and Physical Degeneration
gutenberg.net.au/ebooks02/0200251h.html#toc 125/250the high percentage of dental caries and their deformed dental arches. At the Nuhaka school an opportunity was provided through the assistance of the government
officials to study the parents of many of the children. Tooth decay was wide-spread among the
women and active among both the men and children. The Mahia Peninsula provided one of the more isolated groups which showed a marked
difference between the older generation and the new. These people had good access to sea foods
and those still using these abundantly had much the best teeth. A group of the children who had
been born and raised in this district and who had lived largely on the native foods had only 1.7 per
cent of their teeth attacked by dental caries. The other places studied were Raukokore, Tekaha, Rautoki, Rotarua, Tehoro, Waiomio,
Teahuahu, Kaikohe, Whakarara, Mautauri Bay, Ahipara, Manukau, Rawena, Ellerslie, Queen
Victoria School at Auckland and Waipawa. New Zealand has become justly famous for its scenery. The South Island has been frequently
termed the Southern Alps because of its snow-capped mountains and glaciers. Of the 70,000
members of the Maori race living in the two islands, about 2000 are on the South Island and the
balance on the North Island. While snow is present on many of the mountains of the North Island
in the winter season, only a few of the higher peaks are snow capped during the summer. Most of
the shoreline of the seacoast of the South Island is very rugged, with glaciers descending almost to
the sea. The coastline of the North Island is broken and in places is quite rugged. The approach to
the Mahia Peninsula is along a rocky coast skirting the bay. The most important industries of New
Zealand are dairy products, and sheep raising for wool. The reputation of the Maori people for splendid physiques has placed them on a pedestal of
perfection. Much of this has been lost in modernization. However, through the assistance of the
government, I was able to see many excellent physical specimens. In Fig. 69 will be seen four
typical Maori who retained much of the tribal excellence. Note their fine dental arches. A young
Maori man who stands about six feet four inches and weighs 230 pounds was examined. The
Maori men have great physical endurance and good minds. Many fine lawyers and government
executives are Maori. The breakdown of these people comes when they depart from their native
foods to the foods of modern civilization, foods consisting largely of white flour, sweetened goods,
syrup and canned goods. The effect is similar to that experienced by other races after using foods
of modern civilization. Typical illustrations of tooth decay are shown in Fig. 70. In some individuals
still in their teens half of the teeth were decayed. The tooth decay among the whites of New
Zealand and Australia was severe. This is illustrated in Fig. 71. Particularly striking is the similarity
between the deformities of the dental arches which occur in the Maori people who were born after
their parents adopted the modern foods, and those of the whites. This is well illustrated in Fig. 72
for Maori boys. In my studies among other modernized primitive racial stocks, there was a very
high incidence of facial deformity, which approached one hundred per cent among individuals in
tuberculosis sanatoria. This condition obtained also in New Zealand.7/29/13 Nutrition and Physical Degeneration
gutenberg.net.au/ebooks02/0200251h.html#toc 126/250FIG. 69. Since the discovery of New Zealand the primitive
natives, the Mann, have had the reputation of having the
finest teeth and finest bodies of any race in the world. These
faces are typical. Only about one tooth per thousand teeth
had been attacked by tooth decay before they came under
the influence of the white man. FIG. 70. With the advent of the white man in New Zealand
tooth decay has become rampant. The suffering from dental
caries and abscessed teeth is very great in the most
modernized Maori. The boy at the lower left has a deep scar
in his upper lip from an accident. 7/29/13 Nutrition and Physical Degeneration
gutenberg.net.au/ebooks02/0200251h.html#toc 127/250FIG. 71. Whereas the original primitive Maori had reportedly
the finest teeth in the world, the whites now in New Zealand
are claimed to have the poorest teeth in the world. These
individuals are typical. An analysis of the two types of food
reveals the reason. FIG. 72. In striking contrast with the beautiful faces of the
primitive Maori those born since the adoption of deficient
modernized foods are grossly deformed. Note the marked
underdevelopment of the facial bones, one of the results
being narrowing of the dental arches with crowding of the
teeth and an underdevelopment of the air passages. We
have wrongly assigned these distorted forms to mixture of
racial bloods. Through the kindness of the director of the Maori Museum at Auckland, I was able to examine
many Maori skulls. Two views are shown in Fig. 73. The skulls belong in the pre-Columbian
period. Note the splendid design of the face and dental arches and high perfection of the teeth.7/29/13 Nutrition and Physical Degeneration
gutenberg.net.au/ebooks02/0200251h.html#toc 128/250FIG. 73. The large collections of skulls of the ancient Mann of New
Zealand attest to their superb physical development and to the
excellence of their dental arches. One of the most important developments to come out of these investigations of primitive races is
the evidence of a rapid decline in maternal reproductive efficiency after an abandonment of the
native foods and the substitution of foods of modern civilization. This is discussed in later chapters. It was particularly instructive to observe the diligence with which some of the isolated Maori
near the coast sought out certain types of food in accordance with the tradition and accumulated
wisdom of their tribes. As among the various archipelagos and island dwellers of the Pacific, great
emphasis was placed upon shell fish. Much effort was made to obtain these in large quantities. In
Fig. 74 (lower), will be seen two boys who have been gathering sea clams found abundantly on
these shores. Much of the fishing is done when the tide is out. Some groups used large quantities of
the species called abalone on the West Coast of America and paua in New Zealand. In Fig. 74
(upper), a man, his wife and child are shown. The father is holding an abalone; the little girl is
holding a mollusk found only in New Zealand, the toharoa; the mother is holding a plate of edible
kelp which these people use abundantly, as do many sea bordering races. Maori boys enjoy a
species of grubs which they seek with great eagerness and prize highly. The primitive Maori use
large quantities of fern root which grows abundantly and is very nutritious. FIG. 74. Native Maori demonstrating some of the accessory
essentials obtained from the sea. These include certain sea
weeds and an assortment of shell fish. It is much easier for
the moderns to exchange their labor for the palate tickling
devitalized foods of commerce than to obtain the native
foods of land and sea. 7/29/13 Nutrition and Physical Degeneration
gutenberg.net.au/ebooks02/0200251h.html#toc 129/250    Probably few primitive races have developed calisthenics and systematic physical exercise to so
high a point as the primitive Maori. On arising early in the morning, the chief of the village starts
singing a song which is accompanied by a rhythmic dance. This is taken up not only by the
members of his household, but by all in the adjoining households until the entire village is swaying in
unison to the same tempo. This has a remarkably beneficial effect in not only developing deep
breathing, but in developing the muscles of the body, particularly those of the abdomen, with the
result that these people maintain excellent figures to old age. Sir Arbuthnot Lane (2)  said of this practice the following:
    As to daily exercise, it is shown here that every person capable of movement can benefit by it,
and I am certain that the only natural and really beneficial system of exercise is that developed
through long ages by the New Zealand Maori and their race-brothers in other lands. The practical application of their wisdom is discussed in Chapter 21. The Maori race developed a knowledge of Nature's laws and adopted a system of living in
harmony with those laws to so high a degree that they were able to build what was reported by
early scientists to be the most physically perfect race living on the face of the earth. They
accomplished this largely through diet and a system of social organization designed to provide a
high degree of perfection in their offspring. To do this they utilized foods from the sea very liberally. The fact that they were able to maintain an immunity to dental caries so high that only one tooth in
two thousand had been attacked by tooth decay (which is probably as high a degree of immunity
as that of any contemporary race) is a strong argument in favor of their plan of life. REFERENCES
1. PICKERILL, H. P. The Prevention of Dental Caries and Oral Sepsis. Philadelphia, White,
1914. 2. LANE, A. Preface to Maori Symbolism by Ettie A. Rout. London, Paul Trench, Trubner,
1926.7/29/13 Nutrition and Physical Degeneration
gutenberg.net.au/ebooks02/0200251h.html#toc 130/250
Key to Route Followed in Peru
 1. Panama  10. Huaura  19. San Rosa
2. Buenaventura  11. Chimbote  20. Cuzco
 3. Manta  12. Santa Island  21. Calca
 4. Guayaquil  13. Chiclayo  22. Manchu Piccu
 5. Talara  14. Eten  23. Huancayo
 6. Trujillo  15. Huaraz  24. Oroya
 7. Callao  16. Arequipa  25. Perene
 8. Lima  17. Lake Titicaca  
  9. Huacho  18. Juallanca  
 
  
TABLE OF CONTENTS    
 
 
Chapter 13
ANCIENT CIVILIZATIONS OF PERU7/29/13 Nutrition and Physical Degeneration
gutenberg.net.au/ebooks02/0200251h.html#toc 131/250IN THE foregoing field studies among primitive races we have been dealing chiefly with living
groups. Since the West Coast of South America has been the home of several ancient cultures, it is
important that they be included with the living remnants of primitive racial stocks, in order to note
the contributions that they may make to the problem of modern degeneration. The relationship
between the Andes Mountain Range and the coast and the sea currents is such that there has been
created a zone, ranging from forty to one hundred miles in width between the coast and the
mountains, which for a distance of over a thousand miles is completely arid. The air currents
drifting westward across South America from the Atlantic carry an abundance of moisture. When
they strike the eastern foothills of the Andes they are projected upward into a region of constant
cold which causes the moisture to be precipitated as rain on the eastern slopes, and as snow on
the eastern Cordillera Range. Hence the name of the eastern range is the White Cordillera, and
that of the western range, which receives little of this rain, is the Black Cordillera. Between these
two ranges is a great plain, which in the rainy season is well watered. The great civilizations of the
past have always utilized water from the melting snow through irrigation ditches with the result that
a vast acreage was put to agricultural uses. The Humboldt Current which sweeps northward from the southern ice fields and carries its
chilly water almost to the equator has influenced the development of the West Coast of South
America. The effect of the current on the climate is generally noticeable. One of the conspicuous
results is the presence of a cloud bank which hovers over the coastal area at an altitude of from
one thousand to three thousand feet above sea level for several months of the year. Back from the
coast these clouds rest on the land and constitute a nearly constant fog for extended periods. When one passes inland from the coast up the mountains he moves from a zone which in winter is
clammy and chilly, into the fog zone, and then suddenly out of it into clear sky and brilliant sunlight. It is of interest that the capital, Lima, is so situated that it suffers from this unhappy cloud and fog
situation. When Pizarro sent a commission to search out a location for his capital city the natives
commented on the fact that he was selecting a very undesirable location. Either on the coast or
farther inland than Lima the climate is much more favorable, and these were the locations in which
the ancient civilizations have left some very elaborate foundations of fortresses and extended
residential areas. The great expanse of desert extending from the coast to the mountains, with its
great moving sand dunes and with scarcely a sign of green life, is one of the least hospitable
environments that any culture could choose. Notwithstanding this, the entire coast is a succession
of ancient burial mounds in which it is estimated that there are fifteen million mummies in an
excellent state of preservation. The few hundred thousand that have been disturbed by grave
robbers in search of gold and silver, have been left bleaching on the sands. Where had these
people come from and why were they buried here? The answer is to be found in the fact that
probably few locations in the world provided such an inexhaustible supply of food for producing a
good culture as did this area. The lack of present appreciation of this fact is evidenced by the
absence of flourishing modern communities, notwithstanding the almost continuous chain of ancient
walls, fortresses, habitations, and irrigation systems to be found along this coast. The Humboldt
Current coming from the ice fields of the Antarctic carries with it a prodigious quantity of the
chemical food elements that are most effective in the production of a vast population of fish. Probably no place in the world provides as great an area teeming with marine life. The ancient
cultures appreciated the value of these sea foods and utilized them to the full. They realized also
that certain land plants should be eaten with the sea foods. Accordingly, they constructed great
aqueducts used in transporting the water, sometimes a hundred miles, for the purpose of irrigating
river bottoms which had been collecting the alluvial soil from the Andes through past ages. These
river beds are to be found from twenty to fifty miles apart and many of them are entirely dry except
in the rainy season in the high Andes. In the river bottoms these ancient cultures grew large
quantities of corn, beans, squash, and other plants. These plant foods were gathered, stored, and
eaten with sea foods. The people on the coast had direct communication with the people in the
high plateaus. It is of more than passing interest that some twenty-one of our modern food plants
apparently came from Peru. Where there is such a quantity of animal life in the sea in the form of fish one would expect to7/29/13 Nutrition and Physical Degeneration
gutenberg.net.au/ebooks02/0200251h.html#toc 132/250find the predatory animals that live on fish. One group of these attack the fish from the air and they
constitute the great flock of guanayes, piqueros and pelicans. For a thousand miles along the coast,
these fish-eating birds are to be seen in great winding queues going to and fro between the fishing
grounds and their nesting places. At other times they may be seen in great clouds, beyond
computation in number, fishing over an area of many square miles. On one island I was told by the
caretaker that twenty-four million birds had their nests there. We passed through a flock of the
birds fishing, which the caretaker estimated to contain between four and five million birds. On one
island I found it impossible to step anywhere, off the path, without treading on birds' nests. It is of
interest that a product of these birds has constituted one of the greatest sources of wealth in the
past for Peru, namely, the guano, which is the droppings of the birds left on the islands along the
coast where they have their nests. Through the centuries these deposits have reached to a depth of
100 feet in places. When it is realized that only one-fifth of the droppings are placed on the islands,
it immediately raises the great question as to the quantity of fish consumed by these birds. As high
as seventy-five fish have been found in the digestive tract of a single bird. The quantity of fish
consumed per day by the birds nesting on this one island has been estimated to be greater than the
entire catch of fish off the New England coast per day. In addition to the birds, a vast number of sea lions and seals live on the fish. The sea lions have a
rookery in the vicinity of Santa Island, which was estimated to contain over a million. These
enormous animals devour great quantities of fish. It would be difficult to estimate how far the fish
destroyed by this one group of sea lions would go toward providing excellent nutrition for the
entire population of the United States. The guano, consisting of the partially digested animal life of
the sea, constitutes what is probably the best known fertilizer in the world. It is thirty-three times as
efficient as the best barnyard manure. At one time it was sent in shiploads to Europe and the
United States, but now the Peruvian Government is retaining nearly all of it for local use. They have
locked the barn door after the horse was stolen, figuratively speaking, since the accumulation of
ages had been carried off by shiploads to other countries before its export was checked. At the
present time all islands are under guard and the birds are protected. They are coming back into
many of the islands from which they had been driven and are re-nesting. Birds are given two or
three years of undisturbed life for producing deposits. These are then carefully removed from the
surface of the islands and the birds are allowed to remain undisturbed for another period. A very important and fortunate phase of the culture of the primitive races of the coast has been
their method of burial. Bodies are carefully wrapped in many layers of raiment often beautifully
spun. With the mummies articles of special interest and value are usually buried. Implements used
by the individuals in their lifetime were also put in the grave. With a fisherman there were placed his
nets and fishing tackle. Almost always, jars containing foods to supply him on his journey in the
transition to a future life were left in the tomb. In some of the cultures the various domestic and
industrial scenes were reproduced in pottery. These disclosed a great variety of foods which are
familiar to us today. Even the designs of their habitations were reproduced in pottery. Similarly
their methods of performing surgical operations, in which they were very skillful, were depicted. Fortunately, the different cultures had quite different types of pottery as well as quite different types
of clothing. This makes it possible to identify various groups and indicate the boundaries of their
habitations. Their engineering feats disclosed skill in planning fortresses. Their forts were probably
impregnable from assault in that day. The materials used for building their temples, abodes, and
fortifications differ somewhat in various locations. Throughout the greater extent of the coast of
Peru, the walls of buildings were made of adobe often many feet thick and sometimes sixty feet
high. They had walled cities protected by inner and outer lines of fortifications. It is particularly
significant that the hardest metals that they are known to have had were copper and bronze. Silver
and gold were quite plentiful. Their surgical instruments were flints and the operations that they
were able to perform with these instruments were very remarkable. An important instrument in
warfare consisted of a club with a star on the end made of copper or stone. With this the
opponent's skull was crushed in. One of the amazing features in the various collections of skulls is
the large number that show the results of surgical operations. These operations were apparently7/29/13 Nutrition and Physical Degeneration
gutenberg.net.au/ebooks02/0200251h.html#toc 133/250done for the purpose of saving the life of the individual. The procedure was to remove a section of
bone in the center of the depressed area and raise the depressed edges surrounding that area. The
fact that a large number of these show abundant evidence of healing and repair clearly indicates
that the individual lived for an extended period following the operation. In some cases, the opening
is apparently entirely closed in with new bone. Some of these trepanning operations removed a
quantity of bone over an area large enough for a human hand to pass through. A group of these
operated skulls are shown in Fig. 75. The owner of the one on the lower row, left, probably died
following the operation, as there is no evidence of repair. The others show good healing, which in
some is very extensive. A study of these trephined skulls reveals that 62 per cent lived for months
or years. In Fig. 75 (lower right), is seen a skull which shows a large operation. A part of the
surgical procedure was to place a plate of gold over the opening in the skull for protection. One of
these is shown in the upper half of Fig. 76. Below is shown the healed scar after removal of the
gold plate. FIG. 75. Trephined skulls of the ancient peoples of Peru. Their war weapons were designed to produce skull fractures. Their surgeons trephined the skulls, thus removing the
depressed area. The large percentage of operated skulls
showing extensive healing indicates a large percentage lived
for months and years afterwards. Their surgical flesh cutting
knives were made of copper and bronze, the bone cutting of
mounted crystals. They used cocoa leaves (cocaine) as a
sedative as the natives do today. 7/29/13 Nutrition and Physical Degeneration
gutenberg.net.au/ebooks02/0200251h.html#toc 134/250FIG. 76. These ancient surgeons placed a gold plate over the
skull opening beneath the scalp to protect the brain. Above,
two views are shown of a skull with a gold plate in position
and below the same skull with the gold plate removed. Note
that the skull opening is nearly healed in. To the right below
an extensive operation is shown. The skill of the surgeons in amputations is illustrated by the pottery reproductions of amputated
parts. One of these, for example, shows a man with an amputated foot holding the stump of his leg
with one hand while putting on a sock over the end of the stump with the other hand. The technic
of amputation is shown in pottery form in Fig. 77. A serious disease of the foot is suggested,
requiring amputation of the leg, high up. Note how the thigh bone was cut so as to provide a
fleshcovered stump. Below in Fig. 77 is shown a healed oblique fracture with good adaptation.7/29/13 Nutrition and Physical Degeneration
gutenberg.net.au/ebooks02/0200251h.html#toc 135/250FIG. 77. The skill of the ancient surgeons in plastic and bone
surgery is illustrated in the pottery jar above. In order to
provide flesh for a pad over the amputated bone stump the
flesh is cut lower than the bone by pushing the flesh up at
the time the bone is cut. In the lower view good healing is
shown of a difficult oblique fracture. When the Spaniards arrived to carry forward the conquest of Peru they found the entire coastal
area and upper plateaus under the control of a culture organized under the Inca rulers. Prior to the
domination of that culture, which had its origin in the high plateau country, several other cultures
had developed along the coast in succeeding eras of domination. In northern Peru the Chimus
developed a great culture that extended over a long period of time. Their capital city was at Chan
Chan, inland from the present coastal port of Saliverry and near Trujillo. This city is estimated to
have contained a million people. The argument is sometimes presented that at the time these
ancient cultures lived the coastal areas were not arid desert but well supplied with rain. That this
was not so is clearly evidenced by the fact that the walls were built of stucco made by mixing
water with the available sand and rubble either in continuous molds or in blocks that were built into
the fort. Since these blocks were only sun-dried they had very little resistance to rain. In this
rainless desert land they have continued to stand through many centuries, many of them probably
through several thousand years. There has been a vast change in the walls of the ruined city of
Chan Chan within a decade and a half. In 1925 this district was visited by a heavy downpour of rain which apparently exceeded any
precipitation, not only through historic times, but for many centuries preceding. Temples,
courtyards and military defenses which were in splendid preservation before that downpour were
reduced to a mere semblance of their former structure. Clearly these great cities and their defenses
could not have been built of this material in the period when downpours were even occasional, let
alone frequent. It was, of course, the wealth of the ancient cultures that spurred on the conquistadors. It is very
difficult to estimate the per capita quantity of gold available in those early cultures. That gold and
silver were abundant is evidenced by the extensive use that was made of these metals for covering
the walls of rooms and decorating public buildings with massive plates, sometimes entirely
encircling a building and the walls of its various rooms. A considerable quantity of gold and silver
has been taken from the burial mounds. One burial mound is reported to have yielded between six
and seven million dollars worth of gold. So great has been the activity of the grave robbers that the
Peruvian Government has placed a ban on this enterprise though for a period it was allowed on7/29/13 Nutrition and Physical Degeneration
gutenberg.net.au/ebooks02/0200251h.html#toc 136/250condition that a stated percentage was given to the Government. One of the principal characteristics of the Chimu culture of the coastal area of northern Peru is
shown in the type of pottery they produced. All articles were realistic in design. The pots show
hunting scenes, fishing and domestic scenes, as illustrated above. They were very skillful in
reproducing features in nearly natural size. Many thousands of these portrait jars have been taken
from the mounds of this district. The local museum in the vicinity of Chan Chan, under the skillful
direction of Mr. Larco Herrera at Chiclyan was reported to contain over twenty thousand jars and
specimens taken from the mounds. To the south of the domain of the Chimu culture, a very strong culture was built up with very
different characteristics known as the Naska. While many of their habits of life, including their
methods of providing food, were similar to those of the Chimu culture, they were unique in the
designs of their pottery, which were characterized by being allegorical. They used elaborate color
designs and fantastic patterns. Very little is known as yet of the meaning of much that they have
left. While sundials of ancient design and build have been found in many parts of Peru, it is not
known to what extent they developed a knowledge of astronomy. The pilot of the plane that flew
us from Lima to Arequipa took us over some very strange architectural designs of geometrical
patterns which he had discovered and which he suggested had not been reported upon nor
interpreted. I photographed some of these from the air. The straight lines constituting the sides of
some of the geometric figures are over a thousand feet long and reveal a precision of the angles
and a straightness of the ground structures which indicate the use of competent engineering
equipment and a high knowledge of surveying. One of the principal purposes of my trip to Peru was to study the effect of the Humboldt
Current, with its supply of human food, on the ancient cultures which were buried along the coast. In other parts of the world, where Nature had provided the sea with an abundance of sea life
which was being utilized by native races, I found quite routinely excellent physical development
with typical broad, well-developed facial forms and dental arches with normal contours. In each of
these groups, the people have reproduced quite closely the racial type in practically all members of
the group. I have emphasized with illustrations this fact in connection with the Melanesians and
Polynesians on eight archipelagos of the Pacific Ocean, the Malay races on the islands north of
Australia, the Aborigines of Australia along the east coast; also the Gaelics in the Outer Hebrides,
and the Eskimos of Alaska. The activity of grave robbers in the ancient burial mounds has left skeletons strewn helter skelter
where many of them have been weathering, probably for years. While many of these had
apparently been deliberately smashed, large numbers were intact, and in a good state of
preservation. Some of the ancient cemeteries apparently extended over areas covering a square
mile; and as far as the eye could see the white bleaching bones, particularly the skulls, dotted the
landscape. Since there were several distinct cultures, I endeavored to make a cross section study
of a number of these burial grounds in order that a fair average of specimens might be obtained. The skulls were handled by me, personally, and large numbers of them were photographed. As I
have mentioned, it was the ancient custom when making the burials to inter objects that were of
special interest to the individuals, including the implements with which he had worked. Fishermen's
skulls are shown in Fig. 78 with their nets. It will be noted that all these arches are broad and wide,
that the third molars are well formed and almost always well developed, and in good masticating
position. Notwithstanding the long period of interment the fabrics buried with these people were
often in a remarkably good state of preservation. Even the hair was well preserved. A
characteristic of the method of preparation for burial involved placing over the teeth a preparation
that was held in position by a strip of cloth which cemented the teeth quite firmly to this strip with
the result that when the mummy cases were torn open the removal of this bandage removed the
straight rooted teeth, and therefore large numbers of the skulls that were bleaching on the sandy
wastes were without the straight rooted teeth. Of course, these would readily tumble out at the
slightest jar, after the mummified tissues had decomposed from exposure. The teeth lost in this way
would include practically all of the upper and lower incisors, some of the bicuspids and third7/29/13 Nutrition and Physical Degeneration
gutenberg.net.au/ebooks02/0200251h.html#toc 137/250molars. FIG. 78. The two skulls in the upper photograph apparently
belonged to fishermen of the Chimu culture as evidenced by
the flattened back of the head. Note the splendidly formed
dental arches. In an examination of one thousand two
hundred and seventy-six skulls in succession I did not find
one with the typical deformities of our moderns. Since our study was primarily concerned with the shape of the dental arches and facial form,
these characteristics could be studied and recorded with the straight rooted teeth removed. Fortunately, there are some excellent collections of skulls in museums in Peru, with the skulls in
position where they can be readily studied for the shape of the dental arches. When we have in
mind that from 25 to 75 per cent of individuals in various communities in the United States have a
distinct irregularity in the development of the dental arches and facial form, the cause and
significance of which constitutes one of the important problems of this study, the striking contrast
found in these Peruvian skulls will be seen to constitute a challenge for our modern civilizations. In
a study of 1,276 skulls of these ancient Peruvians, I did not find a single skull with significant
deformity of the dental arches. Since these investigations have apparently established the fact that this problem is related
directly to nutrition, and chiefly to nutrition in the formative period, and, as we shall see, to a very
early part of the formative period, we have here evidence of a system of living that is very closely
in accord with Nature's fundamental laws of reproduction. Several studies have been made dealing
with the incidence of dental caries or tooth decay among these ancient cultures. The author of
"Bird Islands of Peru" (1)  states that in his examination of fifty mummies in succession he found only
four with a tooth with dental caries. This again is in striking contrast to our modernized
communities in which from 95 to 100 per cent of all the members of a community group suffer
from dental caries. I have shown in connection with the Indians of the western coast of Canada7/29/13 Nutrition and Physical Degeneration
gutenberg.net.au/ebooks02/0200251h.html#toc 138/250that in six highly modernized communities where the Indians were using white man's foods, 40 per
cent of all the teeth had been attacked by dental caries. A similar high percentage was found in the
Indians now living in Florida. The ancient burials in southern Florida revealed apparent, complete
immunity. These were pre-Columbian burials. The skill of the primitive cultures of Peru in engineering as evidenced by the irrigation systems
has always been a subject of amazement to modern engineers. I visited in a valley fifteen miles
from the Santa River an ancient aqueduct which was said to be a hundred miles long. Our guide
informed me that he had walked in it for thirty-five miles. With its even grades, overflows and
auxiliary channels for distribution, its adaptation to the area to be watered, and the skill with which
it was cut through rock shoulders and its retaining walls built, it constitutes a monument to
engineering ability. Modern engineers have estimated that this aqueduct could deliver sixty million
cubic feet of water a day. In Fig. 79 will be seen a section where it has been carried through a
rock cutting and beyond will be seen a retaining wall used to carry the flume along the sheer face
of a rock. The modern inhabitants of this community have carried away this retaining wall for use in
the foundations of their huts. Below, in Fig. 79, will be seen a district of many hundreds of acres,
possibly a thousand, where the fields are laid out just as they were left hundreds of years ago when
the primitive people were driven from this habitat. All this valley needs is water. 7/29/13 Nutrition and Physical Degeneration
gutenberg.net.au/ebooks02/0200251h.html#toc 139/250FIG. 79. The ancient civilizations of Peru had skilled
engineers. In the upper view is seen one of the ancient
aqueducts still intact for thirty-five miles which modern
scientists estimate was capable of delivering sixty million
cubic feet of water per day. They had no hardened tools or
blasting powder, yet they cut this channel through boulders
and rocks. Below is seen a valley covering thousands of
acres once made fertile by irrigation but now an arid desert. In order to reach the burial places it was necessary to drive many hundreds of miles over the
arid desert inland from the coast. We were exceedingly fortunate in having as our interpreter and
guide Dr. Albert Giesecke, who for fourteen years was the Chancellor of Cuzco University. With
his excellent knowledge of the country and its languages, with the credentials which gave us entry
to the secluded places, together with the kindness and helpfulness of the Peruvian Government
officials in almost all localities, we were able to obtain much valuable information. In an estimate of
this culture not only their arts, but their scientific skill should be included. Since the primary object of this quest was to learn of the efficiency of these primitive people in
the art of living in harmony with Nature's laws and their methods for accomplishing this, it was
desirable to find, if possible, some living descendants of these people to gain from them the
information that had been handed down. We were told that there were a few villages in an isolated
section of the coast in northern Peru where the inhabitants claimed descent from the ancient Chimu
cultures of that area. This group was characterized by a flattening of the skull at the back which
classified them as short heads and is readily identified. We were very fortunate in having the
assistance of Commander Daniel Matto of the Peruvian Army. He was able to utilize the police
facilities for locating typical old residents who could tell us much of the story of their race and its
recent history as it had been handed down by word of mouth. In Fig. 80 will be seen one of these
nonagenarians. He told us of incidents that had been related to him by his great-greatgrandfather
and by the old people of that area, of the coming of Pizarro four hundred years ago. The height of
this man can be judged as he is seen standing beside Mrs. Price, who is five feet three. His head is
shown both front and side view, revealing the flattened surface at the back. An ancient skull with
typical flattening is also shown. Fortunately these people are living very closely in accordance with
the customs of their ancestors. They are fisherfolk, with a hardihood and skill that is in striking
contrast with the lethargy of the modernized groups. Their fine physical development, the breadth
of their dental arches and the regularity of their facial features are in striking contrast to the
characteristics noted among individuals in the modernized colonies. In Fig. 81 will be seen typical
members of these colonies.7/29/13 Nutrition and Physical Degeneration
gutenberg.net.au/ebooks02/0200251h.html#toc 140/250FIG. 80. The ancient Chimus flattened the back of the head,
as shown in the lower left, by placing the infant on a board. A descendant of the Chimus is shown in the upper left with
Mrs. Price, and in front and side views at the right. Note that
the back of his head is similarly flattened. FIG. 81. Some descendants of the ancient Chimu culture are
still living in a few fishing villages in the north of Peru. They
live, as did their ancestors, largely on the sea food. Typical
faces of this native stock are shown in this photograph. Note
the breadth of the dental arches and full development of the
facial bones. 7/29/13 Nutrition and Physical Degeneration
gutenberg.net.au/ebooks02/0200251h.html#toc 141/250    The skill with which these men manage their fishing boats is inspiring. Even though the surf was
rolling in great combers they did not hesitate to go out in either their small crafts carrying one
individual or in their large sailboats carrying a dozen men. The abundance of the fish in this district
is demonstrated by the large catch that each succeeding boat brought to shore. At the time the Spanish Conquistadors arrived in Peru one of the most unique of the ancient
cultures held sway over both the mountain plateaus and the coastal plains from Santiago of Chile
northward to Quito, Equador, a distance of about 1200 miles. This culture took its name from the
ruling emperors called Incas. The capital of their, great kingdom was Cuzco, a city located
between the East and West Cordillera Ranges of the Andes. These parallel ranges are from fifty to
two hundred miles apart. Between them is situated a great plateau ranging from 10,000 to 13,000
feet above the sea. The mountain ranges are snow-capped and include in Peru alone fifty peaks
that are over 18,000 feet in altitude, ranging up to 22,185 feet in Mount Huascaran. Only Mount
Aconcagua in Chile is higher. It is 23,075 feet--the highest mountain in the Americas. The air drift
is across South America from east to west, carrying vast quantities of water received by
evaporation from the Atlantic Ocean. This moisture is precipitated rapidly when the clouds are
forced into the chill of the higher Andes. In the rainy season the great plateau area is frequently well
watered, though not in sufficient quantity to meet the needs of agriculture for much of the territory. In the past the precipitation has been supplemented by vast irrigation projects using the water from
the melting snows. It is estimated that the population ruled over by the reigning Incas at the time of
the coming of the Spaniards reached five millions. It is probable that few, if any, of the ancient or modern cultures of the world have ever attained
a more highly perfected organization of society than had this Inca culture. The ruling Inca was a
benevolent despot, and according to history unique in that he practiced most diligently all of the
laws he promulgated for his people. There was no poverty, want or crime. Every man, woman and
child was specifically provided with all necessities. The entire amount of tillable land was divided
so that every man, woman and child had his assigned parcel. Everyone worked as assigned by the
proper official. While it is not appropriate here to go into details, it is important that we have a
bird's eye view of this great culture for which I will quote a paragraph from Agnes Rothery's
"South America, The West Coast and The East." (2)
The people who erected this temple lived in order and health, under the most successful
communism the world has ever seen. Their land was divided into three portions--one portion for
the Inca, one for the Sun, and one for the people, with seventy square meters for every boy and
thirty-five for every girl. The live stock and implements were similarly apportioned and the land
was ploughed, planted, and the crops gathered in strict rotation. First the fields of the Sun were
cultivated, and then the land of the aged, the sick, widows, and orphans was tended; then the
lands of the people, neighbors assisting one another; and last of all the lands of the Inca, with
songs of praise and joy, because this was the service of their King. To every living soul was
given his tasks, according to his physical and mental capacities. He was prevented from
overwork, prohibited from idleness, cared for in illness and old age. Children were taken by the
Government when they were five and trained to the profession where they were most needed. There was no hunger, no crime in the whole empire. The Inca held his kingly office over the docile, industrious, and contented mass not only
through his royal blood, but through his wisdom and kindness in caring for and guiding his
subjects, his bravery in war, and his statesmanship at home. Although he set an example to his
subjects by following every law which he promulgated (astonishing idea to our modern
lawmakers! ), he lived, as became his rank, in luxury. In his garden were rows of corn moulded
from pure gold with leaves of pure silver, and a tassel of spun silver, as fine as silk, moving in
the air. Llamas and alpacas, life-sized and cunningly fashioned from the same metal, stood upon
his lawns, as they did in the courts of the Temple of the Sun. Cuzco, the capital, is reported to have housed about two hundred thousand people at the time
of the Spanish Conquest. It is situated on a branch of the Urabamba River in a beautiful valley
surrounded by fertile mountain sides and towering snow-capped pinnacles. The Urabamba River
drains a large area of the plateau lying to the south of Cuzco and has cut a magnificent gorge
through the southern range of the Andes where it passes from the plateau to the eastern watershed
and thence to the Amazon. A little to the south of Cuzco the eastern and the western ranges of
mountains approach and combine in a cluster of magnificent pinnacles and intervening valleys and7/29/13 Nutrition and Physical Degeneration
gutenberg.net.au/ebooks02/0200251h.html#toc 142/250gorges, that are to be equalled by no mountain scenery in the world. Today, almost all travel from
the Andean Plateau north of this region, as well as from all areas along the coast, must proceed to
the coast, thence down the coast by boat to the port of Mollendo which is often dangerous or
impossible of approach because of the heavy seas. The journey is made by train up through
Arequipa and over the western Cordillera Range of the Andes into the plateau country and from
there northward to Cuzco. So great is this natural barrier that the detour requires many days, and
the crossing of several divides ranging from fourteen to sixteen thousand feet above the sea. This
was not necessary for the Incas who had built roads and suspension bridges through these
mountains from Cuzco to all parts of the great empire. It is in this mountain vastness that the Inca
rulers had constructed their most superb fortresses. While the early Spanish conquerors of the
country knew that the nobility had great defenses to which they might retreat, the location of the
fortresses was not known. Their greatest fortress was discovered and excavated by Professor C.
W. Bingham of Yale, under the auspices of Yale University and the American Museum of Natural
History. This fortress and retreat is now world famous as Macchu Piccu, and probably represents
the highest development of engineering, ancient and in some respects modern, on the American
continent. We are particularly concerned with the type of men that were capable of such great
achievement, since they were required to carry forward their great undertakings without the use of
iron or the wheel. While the great Inca culture dominated the Sierras and the coast for several
centuries prior to the coming of the Spanish, and while they had their seat of government and vast
agricultural enterprises in the high Sierras, it is of special interest that many of the most magnificent
monuments remaining today in stone were not constructed by the Inca culture, but by the
Tauhuanocan culture which preceded the Inca. The Incas were a part of the Quechu linguistic
stock, while the Tauhuanocans were a part of the Aymara linguistic stock. The Incas had their
capital in the high plateau country about the center of Peru. The earlier Tauhuanocan culture
centered in southern Peru near Lake Titicaca where their most magnificent structures are to be
found today. One of the largest single stones to be moved and put into the building of a great
temple in the history of the world is to be found near Lake Titicaca. According to engineers, there
is no quarry known in an easily reached locality where such a stone could be quarried. It is
conjectured that it was brought two hundred miles over mountainous country. It is important to
note that many magnificent structures, evidently belonging to this ancient Tauhaunocan culture, are
found distributed through the Andean Plateau from Bolivia to Equador. Their masonry was
characterized by the fitting together of large stones faced so perfectly that in many of the walls it
was difficult to find a crevice which had enough space to allow the passage of the point of my pen
knife, notwithstanding that these stones were many-sided with some of them fifteen to twenty feet
in length. In Figure 82 above will be seen a section of wall of the great fortress Sacsahuaman
overlooking Cuzco. Modern engineers seem unable to provide a satisfactory answer as to how
these people were able to cut these stones with the limited facilities available, nor is it explained
how they were able to transport and hoist some of their enormous monoliths. The walls and
fortress of Macchu Piccu, as well as the residences and temples, were built of white granite which
apparently was taken from quarries in the bank of the river Urabamba, two thousand feet below
the fortress. Without modern hoisting machinery, how did they raise those mammoth stones? In
Fig. 82 below is shown a typical section of wall. One stone shown has twelve faces and twelve
angles, all fitting accurately its boundary stones. It is as though the stones were plastic and pressed
into a mould.7/29/13 Nutrition and Physical Degeneration
gutenberg.net.au/ebooks02/0200251h.html#toc 143/250FIG. 82. The primitive peoples of the Andean Sierra built
wonderful fortresses and temples of cut stones which are
assembled without mortar and cut to interlock. The central
stone, above, is estimated to weigh one hundred and forty
thousand pounds. Below the largest stone has twelve faces
and twelve angles. The country is rugged. Over it passes the highest standard-gage railroad in the world,--about
16,000 feet above sea level. The banks of this river are protected for long distances by ancient
stone retaining walls. The native Indians live and herd their flocks of llamas and alpacas up near the
snow line, largely between 15,000 and 18,000 feet. The Incas and their descendants now
occupying the high Sierras in the Andes have been thrifty agriculturists. They turn the soil with a
very narrow, long, slender bladed spade which they force into the ground, and with which they pry
the ground up in chunks. They then break up the chunks. These spades were originally made of
copper which they mined themselves. Cuzco is the archeological capital of South America, but its
glory is in the ancient fortresses and temples, rather than in the modern structures. As one passes
through the streets, he will note that in many instances the foundations and parts of the walls of
many of the modern Spanish cathedrals and public buildings are of old Inca construction, of fine
stone work surmounted by cheap rubble work and mortar superstructure. Whereas the original
Cuzco had running water and an excellent sanitation system, modern Cuzco has deplorable
sanitary conditions. The following is quoted from the West Coast Leader, published in Lima, dated
July 20, 1937: "Of a total 3,600 houses in the city of Cuzco 900 are without water or drainage;
2,400 are without light (windows) and 1,080 completely lack any sanitary systems. It is not
surprising, therefore, that in some years the death rate exceeds the birth rate. We are particularly concerned in studying these people to know the sources of their great
capacity for developing art, engineering, government and social organization. Can such a
magnificent culture be brought about unless founded on a superb physical development resulting
from purely biologic forces? Earthquakes are very frequent in the Andes. We experienced several while in Peru. One of these
opened up a cave in the mountainside in the Urabamba Valley near which we were making studies. The cave had just been explored and a number of ancient burials found. I was able to examine a
number of skulls from this cave which apparently represented a pre-Spanish period. The date of
the burials could not be determined. The skulls were interpreted as belonging to an early Indian
period. In Fig. 83 may be seen two typical skulls. Note the broad sweep of the dental arches and
freedom from tooth decay. The third molars (wisdom teeth) are well developed and in normal
position for mastication. These are typical of the entire group found in this burial place. It is very7/29/13 Nutrition and Physical Degeneration
gutenberg.net.au/ebooks02/0200251h.html#toc 144/250evident that these individuals were provided with an adequate nutrition throughout the formative
and growth periods, as well as during their adult life. This is significant because of the limited
variety of foods easily obtainable for the people in the high plateau country of the Andes. FIG. 83. Typical skulls of High Sierra Indians from a recently
opened burial cave. Note the breadth of the dental arches
provided by excellent development of the bones of the head. The ancient Peruvians of both the coastal area and high plateau country had developed superb
physical bodies in each of the several cultures. This development had been brought about in spite
of the bad conditions prevailing with arid desert land extending from the coast to the mountains,
and in spite of the severe climate of the high Sierras. The people utilized the wide variety of animal
life from the sea in conjunction with the excellent plant foods grown in the river basins with the aid
of irrigation. Over twenty of our common plants had their origin in ancient Peru. In the high Sierras,
their animal foods were largely limited to the llama, alpaca and wild animals. Each household,
however, maintained a colony of guinea pigs. Owing to the difficulty of boiling in the high altitudes,
they found it necessary to roast their cereals and meats. Their vegetable foods included potatoes,
which were preserved in powder form by freezing and drying and pulverizing. Corn and several
varieties of beans and quinua were their principal cereals. The latter is a small seed of very high
nutritive value. REFERENCES
1. MURPHY, R. C. Bird Islands of Peru. New York, Putnam, 1925. 2. ROTHERY, A. South America, The West Coast and the East. New York, Houghton,
Muffin, 1930. TABLE OF CONTENTS   
 
Chapter 14
ISOLATED AND MODERNIZED PERUVIAN INDIANS
IN ORDER to understand the living descendants of the ancient residents of the high Andes it is
essential that we know their environment. Their climate is cold at night the year around. While
during the winter the snow is deep in the high mountains, there is very little on the plateau, since
Peru is near the equator extending from 5 to 16 degrees south latitude. The sunshine is bright and
warm even in winter. Consequently they have pasturage for their animals the year around.7/29/13 Nutrition and Physical Degeneration
gutenberg.net.au/ebooks02/0200251h.html#toc 145/250    The only native domesticated animals of the Andean Plateau are the llama and the alpaca. Both
of these belong to the camel species, as does the vicuna. The llama is the Indians' beast of burden
in the Andes. Only the males are used. The animals are very docile and respond with gentleness
when treated with kindness. One continually marvels at the ease with which the Indian guides his
loaded caravan with soft words or motions, never with harshness. The llama has many unique
features as a beast of burden. It forages as it moves along and consequently must be driven very
slowly. Each animal will carry a burden not exceeding a hundred pounds, and if more is placed on
its back it will immediately lie down until the extra burden is removed. The llama has broad
doubletoed feet like the camel which make it very sure-footed. It requires no shoeing and
exceedingly little care. It can thrive, however, only in the high altitudes. The wool of the llama is
coarse and is used for heavy, rough garments. The alpaca is a little smaller than the llama and
produces a very heavy wool of fine quality. Accustomed as this animal is to the severe cold and
the high altitudes, as well as to the rain and sun, its fleece is both durable and warm. It is used
extensively throughout the world for suits for aviators. The native colors vary from white to bluish
tints and from light to very dark browns. It accordingly provides very stable colors for weaving
directly into ponchos and native apparel. The vicuna is a much smaller animal than either the llama
or alpaca. It has one of the most highly prized coats of fur produced anywhere in the world. This
animal has never been domesticated; vast herds have lived wild on the high slopes of the Andes
mountains. The demand for vicuna fur became so great that a million and a half of these animals
were slain in one year to obtain their fur pelts. The result is that the Peruvian Government has now
completely forbidden their destruction. The garments of the ruling class of the Incas were made of
the vicuna wool. One of the important objectives of my trip to Peru was to find and study, if possible, some
descendants of these Andean stocks. Fortunately, large numbers of the Aymara linguistic stock,
the descendants of the Tauhuanocan culture, are still residing in southern Peru and Bolivia where
they are said to retain the essentials of their ancient methods of living. They constitute the principal
native populations in the vicinity of Lake Titicaca and the high mountain plateaus of southern Peru
and northern Bolivia. I have always encountered difficulty in persuading the native peoples to allow
themselves to be photographed in their primitive costumes. They are usually willing to be
photographed provided one will wait for them to put on some modern garment. I am reminded of an experience on one of the South Sea Islands where there was need for
roads, but no money with which to build them. Laws were passed by the chiefs that anyone
approaching a highway in native garb where he might be seen by a foreigner was subject to arrest
and to payment of a fine which had to be worked out as labor in building roads. Of course, on that
island no one would allow himself to be photographed without some modern clothing. One boy
presented himself wearing a single garment, a man's full dress vest, which had evidently reached
the island in a missionary barrel. The hats in the pictures in Fig. 84 are of native design and manufacture. They are made of fur
and are like our modern derbies in construction.7/29/13 Nutrition and Physical Degeneration
gutenberg.net.au/ebooks02/0200251h.html#toc 146/250FIG. 84. Descendants of the Tauhuanocans who were the
most famous ancient workers in stone. They live in the high
Sierras of southern Peru and northern Bolivia. They belong
to the Aymara linguistic division. They make fur felt hats and
are skilled agriculturists. It is important to note the roundness of the features of the Aymaras, the wide development of
the nostrils for air intake and the breadth of the dental arches. Many of them had been transported
several hundreds of miles to a coffee plantation because of their adeptness and skill in sorting
imperfect coffee beans from the run. As I watched them I found it difficult to move my eyes fast
enough to follow their fingers and pick out from the moving run the undesired or imperfectly
formed kernels. This revealed a superb development of coordination. The wisdom of these
Aymaras is discussed in Chapter 21. I was very anxious to study the Incas in different parts of the high Andes, particularly some of
the original type in the vicinity of Cuzco, their ancient capital. Throughout the Andean Plateau, the
Indians from the higher elevations bring down their wares on market days to exchange with Indians
from other localities, as well as to meet and visit with their friends. They are very industrious and
one seldom sees a woman, either shepherding the stock or carrying a burden, who is not busily
engaged in spinning wool. While their wool is obtained in part from sheep that have been imported,
a great deal of it is obtained from the alpacas which, like the llamas, are raised in the high altitudes
where the Indians always prefer to live. I was fortunate in making contact with several groups of
Indians in high altitudes through the kindness of the prefects. A group of Indians from the high
mountains of the Urabamba Valley near Cuzco is shown in Fig. 85. An examination of this group
of twenty-five revealed the fact that not one tooth had been attacked by dental caries and that, at
all ages, the teeth normally due were present.7/29/13 Nutrition and Physical Degeneration
gutenberg.net.au/ebooks02/0200251h.html#toc 147/250FIG. 85. The Quichua Indians living in the high Andes are
descendants of the Incas. They live at high elevations, up to
18,000 feet, where they raise herds of llamas and alpacas. They weave their own garments and have great physical
endurance. They can carry over 200 pounds all day at high
altitudes in the manner shown at the lower right. In Fig. 85, lower right, may be seen a typical Indian of the Andes carrying a heavy load. The
Indians of this region are able to carry all day two hundred to three hundred pounds, and to do this
day after day. At several of the ports, these mountain Indians have been brought down to the coast
to load and unload coffee and freight from the ships. Their strength is phenomenal.
Nutrition_and_Physical_Degeneration_by_Weston_Price.txt
Summarize the following text section accurately and concisely. Maintain specific details and numerical information, and use anti-repetition mechanisms:

        The operations performed by these young women on children far exceeded
in quality the average that I have seen by dentists in America. Their plan gives dental care to
children twelve years of age and under, provided the parents express a wish that their children
receive that care. The service was being extended rapidly to all communities. Since my return, I
have learned that the work is being organized to provide for every community of New Zealand. The art of the Maori gives evidence of their great ability and skill in sculpturing. Boys and girls do
beautiful carving and weaving. All native buildings and structures are embellished with carvings
often in fine detail. It was most gratifying to find neat and well-appointed dental office buildings for both natives and
whites, located beside a large number of the public schools throughout New Zealand. In many
communities two or three schools were served by the same operator. Children were either brought
to the central dental infirmary or provision was made for an operating room in the vicinity of each
school. The operator went from district to district. A typical dental infirmary is shown in Fig. 68,
with Colonel Saunders and one of his efficient women operators in the foreground. I had suggested
that I should be glad to have observers from the Department of Health accompany us or arrange
to be present at convenient places to observe the conditions and to note my interpretations of
them. From two to five such observers were generally present, including the official representative
of the department. The planning of the itinerary was very greatly assisted by a Maori member of
Parliament, Mr. Aparana Ngata. 7/29/13 Nutrition and Physical Degeneration
gutenberg. net. au/ebooks02/0200251h. html#toc 124/250FIG. 68. The New Zealand government provides nearly
universal free dental service for the children, regardless of
color, to the age of twelve years. This is a typical dental
clinic maintained in connection with the school system. They
are operated by trained dental hygienists. The director of the
system, Colonel Saunders, is seen in the picture. Although New Zealand is a new country with a relatively small population, there being
approximately only a million and a half individuals, the building of highways has rapidly been
extended to include all modernized sections. In order to reach the most remote groups it was often
necessary to go beyond the zone of public improvements and follow quite primitive trails. Fortunately this was possible because it was the dry season. Even then many streams had to be
forded, which would have been quite impossible at other seasons of the year. We were able to
average approximately a hundred miles of travel per day for eighteen days, visiting twenty-five
districts and making examinations of native Maori families and children in native schools,
representing various stages of modernization. This included a few white schools and tubercular
sanitariums. Since over 95 per cent of the New Zealanders are to be found in the North Island, our
investigations were limited to this island. Our itinerary started at Wellington at the south end of the
North Island and progressed northward in such a way as to reach both the principal centers of
native population who were modernized and those who were more isolated. This latter group,
however, was a small part of the total native population. Detailed examinations including
measurements and photographic records were made in twenty-two groups consisting chiefly of the
older children in public schools. In the examination of 535 individuals in these twenty-two school
districts their 15,332 teeth revealed that 3,420 had been attacked by dental caries or 22. 3 per
cent. In the most modernized groups 31 to 50 per cent had dental caries. In the most isolated
group only 2 per cent of the teeth had been attacked by dental caries. The incidence of deformity
of dental arches in the modernized groups ranged from 40 to 100 per cent. In many districts
members of the older generations revealed 100 per cent normally formed dental arches. The
children of these individuals, however, showed a much higher percentage of deformed dental
arches. These data are in striking contrast with the condition of the teeth and dental arches of the skulls
of the Maori before contact with the white man and the reports of examinations by early scientists
who made contact with the primitive Maori before he was modernized. These reports revealed
only one tooth in 2000 teeth attacked by dental caries with practically 100 per cent normally
formed dental arches. My investigations were made in the following places in the North Island. The Pukerora
Tubercular Sanatorium provided forty native Maori for studies. These were largely young men and
women and being in a modern institution they were receiving the modern foods of the whites of
New Zealand. Their modernization was demonstrated not only by the high incidence of dental
caries but also by the fact that 90 per cent of the adults and 100 per cent of the children had
abnormalities of the dental arches. The Hukarera College for Maori girls is at Napier. These girls were largely from modernized
native homes and were now living in a modern institution. Their modernization was expressed in7/29/13 Nutrition and Physical Degeneration
gutenberg.
The operations performed by these young women on children far exceeded in quality the average that I have seen by dentists in America.
What is the quality of the dental care provided by the women in the places you visited?
The plan provides dental care to children twelve years of age and under, provided the parents express a wish that their children receive that care.
What is the focus of the government's plan for providing dental care to children?
The skulls were significant because they revealed a high degree of physical development and a lack of dental caries, which is in striking contrast to the modernized groups.
What is the significance of the ancient Peruvian skulls in the study of dental arches?
The primary objective of the trip was to study the effect of the Humboldt Current on the ancient cultures along the coast.
What is the purpose of the trip to Peru?
The Aymaras, as descendants of the Tauhuanocan culture, show a high degree of physical development, with broad dental arches, wide nostrils, and excellent facial features.
What is notable about the physical development of the Aymaras?