History & Folklore  The Irish herbalist  
K’Eogh reported in 1735, “a gentlewoman of my acquaintance … had a swelling for a year or more on her right side, which was cured by three or four times rubbing the grieved part with an oil made of this herb.”
Medicinal Actions & Uses  As with horse 
chestnut (Aesculus hippocastanum, p. 58), long-term use of melilot—internally or externally—can help varicose veins and hemorrhoids. Melilot also helps reduce the risk of phlebitis and thrombosis. The plant is mildly sedative and antispasmodic, and is given for insomnia (especially in children) and anxiety. It has been used to treat flatulence, indigestion, bronchitis, problems associated with menopause, and rheumatic pains. Cautions  Do not take melilot if using 
anticoagulants. If harvested from the wild,  melilot should be dried or used immediately,  as the spoiled plant is toxic.Alfalfa has been cultivated for centuries for its nutritional 
and medicinal properties. Mentha haplocalyx (Lamiaceae)
Bo He (Chinese),
Corn Mint
Description  Perennial herb growing to 2 ft  
(60 cm). Has a square stem, oval toothed leaves,  
and whorls of pale lilac flowers growing from  the leaf axils. Habitat & Cultivation  Bo he is native to 
temperate regions of the northern hemisphere, and is widely cultivated in China. Harvested 2–3 times a year, the best crops are in early summer and early autumn. Parts Used  Aerial parts. Constituents  Bo he contains a volatile oil 
comprising mainly menthol (up to 95%) with menthone, menthyl acetate, camphene, limonene, and other terpenoids. History & Folklore  Bo he was first mentioned 
in Grandfather Lei’s Discussion of Herb Preparation  (c. 470 ce). A 15th-century Chinese prescription recommends bo he for dysentery with blood. Medicinal Actions & Uses  In Chinese  
herbal medicine (see pp. 40 –43) bo he is a popular treatment for colds, sore throats, sore mouth and tongue, and a host of other conditions ranging from 
US_224-245_Jasmine_Harmala.indd   234 26/02/16   12:47 pm235 Other medicinal plantsMitchella repens
toothache to measles. Like peppermint ( M. x piperita , 
p. 114), it helps to lower the temperature, has 
antimucus properties, and may be taken for 
dysentery and diarrhea. The juice has also been 
used to treat earache. Bo he  is often combined 
with ju hua  (Chrysanthemum x morifolium,  p. 78)  
to treat headaches and bloodshot or sore eyes. Related Species The Japanese variety of bo he  
(M. arvensis ) is widely cultivated as a source of 
menthol. The closely related spearmint ( M. spicata ) 
native to Europe and Asia, is used mainly as a 
flavoring and culinary herb. See also peppermint 
(M. x piperita , p. 114) and pennyroyal ( M. pulegium, 
following entry ).only distantly related, has constituents similar  
to those of pennyroyal. American pennyroyal is 
traditionally used as a remedy for colds, headaches, 
and delayed menstrual periods. Cautions  Do not use the essential oil, which  
is highly toxic. Do not take pennyroyal during 
pregnancy, or if menstrual periods are heavy. Self-help Uses  Digestive headaches & 
biliousness , p. 309; Nausea with headache , p. 306
Menyanthes trifoliata 
(Menyanthaceae)
Bogbean
Description  Perennial aquatic plant growing  
to 9 in (23 cm). Has trefoil leaves and spikes of  
pink and white flowers with fringed petals. Habitat & Cultivation  Bogbean is native  
to Europe, Asia, and America. It is found in shallow 
fresh water. The leaves are picked in summer. Parts Used  Leaves. Constituents  Bogbean contains iridoid 
glycosides, flavonol glycosides, coumarins, phenolic 
acids, sterols, triterpenoids, tannin, and very small 
amounts of pyrrolizidine alkaloids. The iridoids are 
strongly bitter and stimulate digestive secretions.if there is abdominal discomfort. This herb is also 
used as an aid to weight gain. Bogbean is thought 
to be an effective remedy for rheumatism, especially 
when this condition is associated with weakness, 
weight loss, and lack of vitality. Mostly, bogbean is 
prescribed in combination with other herbs such 
as celery seed ( Apium graveolens , p. 64) and white 
willow ( Salix alba,  p. 129). Cautions  Do not take if suffering from 
diarrhea, dysentery, or colitis. Excessive doses  
may cause vomiting. Bogbean  leaves are gathered in summer, after the plant  
has come into flower. History & Folklore  Long used as a folk remedy 
for rheumatism and arthritis, bogbean has also been 
taken to treat fluid retention, scabies, and fever. In 
the past, because of the herb’s pronounced 
bitterness, it was used as an adulterant of, or a 
substitute for, hops ( Humulus lupulus , p. 104). Medicinal Actions & Uses  Bogbean is a 
strongly bitter herb that encourages the appetite 
and stimulates digestive secretions. It is taken to 
improve underactive or weak digestion, particularly Mentha pulegium (Lamiaceae)
Pennyroyal
Description  Powerfully aromatic perennial 
growing to 16 in (40 cm). Has oval, toothed leaves 
and whorls of lilac flowers. Habitat & Cultivation  Pennyroyal is native  
to Europe and western Asia, and has become 
naturalized in the Americas. It thrives in damp  
areas and is gathered when in flower in summer. Parts Used  Aerial parts. Constituents  Pennyroyal’s volatile oil contains 
pulegone (27–92%), isopulegone, menthol, and 
other terpenoids. Pennyroyal also contains bitters 
and tannins. History & Folklore  The Roman natural 
historian Pliny (23–79 ce) wrote that pennyroyal 
was considered a better medicinal herb than roses, 
and that it purified bad water. His contemporary, 
Dioscorides, stated that pennyroyal “provokes 
menstruation and labour.” In 1597, John Gerard 
wrote that “a garland of pennie royal made and 
worne about the head is of great force against  
the swimming of the head, and the pains and 
giddiness thereof.” The name pulegium derives 
from the Latin word for flea, referring to 
pennyroyal’s traditional use as a flea-repellent. Medicinal Actions & Uses  Similar in many 
respects to peppermint ( M. x piperita , p. 114), 
pennyroyal is a good digestive tonic. It increases  
the secretion of digestive juices, relieves flatulence 
and colic, and occasionally is used as a treatment 
for intestinal worms. It makes a good remedy for 
headaches and for minor respiratory infections, 
helping to check fever and reduce mucus. Pennyroyal powerfully stimulates the uterine muscles 
and encourages menstruation. An infusion of 
pennyroyal can be used externally to treat itchiness 
and formication (a sensation of ants crawling over 
the body) and rheumatic conditions including gout. Related Species  See peppermint ( M. x piperita , 
p. 114) and bo he  (M. haplocalyx, preceding entry ). American pennyroyal ( Hedeoma pulegoides ), while Mitchella repens (Rubiaceae)
Squaw Vine,
Partridge Berry
Description  Evergreen herb growing to  
1 ft (30 cm) and forming mats on the ground. Has rounded shiny leaves, a flowering stem bearing 
fragrant white flowers and small, bright red berries.Milletta reticulata (Fabaceae)
Ji Xue Teng
Description  Climber growing to 16 ft (5 m) 
with compound leaves and clusters of pea-type 
flowers producing large beanpods. Habitat & Cultivation  Native to China, ji xue 
teng is cultivated in the southeast of that country. Parts Used  Root, vine. Constituents  It contains flavonoids and 
isoflavones. In common with other members  
of the bean family, it also contains rotenone, a 
naturally occurring broad-spectrum insecticide. History & Folklore This plant was first 
recorded in Chinese medical texts in about  
720 ce. It is called ji xue teng,  literally “chicken  
blood vine,” because of the red sap that  
exudes when the stem is cut. Medicinal Actions & Uses  In Chinese herbal 
medicine ( see pp. 40–43), pain is often thought to 
be due to poor or obstructed blood flow. In this 
tradition, ji xue teng  is classified as an herb that 
invigorates the blood, and is mainly used to treat 
menstrual problems. Ji xue teng  is used to relieve 
period pain or normalize an irregular or absent 
cycle, especially where this may be due to anemia. This herb is also prescribed for certain types of 
arthritic pain, as well as for numbness of the hands 
and feet. Research  Limited investigation indicates that  
ji xue teng  may be anti-inflammatory and may  
lower blood pressure. Cautions Do not take during pregnancy or  
while breastfeeding. US_224-245_Jasmine_Harmala.indd   235 26/02/16   12:47 pm
236MoM ordica charantiaOther medicinal plantsHabitat & Cultivation  
Squaw vine is native to the 
eastern and central U.S. It grows in dry sites in woodlands, and is  harvested in late summer. Parts Used  Aerial parts, berries. Constituents  Squaw vine is 
believed to contain tannins, glycosides, and saponins. History & Folklore   
An infusion of squaw vine was commonly taken by Native American women to hasten childbirth. It was also occasionally used for  a variety of other complaints, including insomnia, rheumatic pain, and fluid retention. Medicinal Actions & Uses  Squaw vine is  
still extensively used to aid labor and childbirth, and is considered to have a tonic action on the uterus and the ovaries. It is taken to normalize menstruation and to relieve heavy periods and period pain. This herb has also been recommended for stimulating breast-milk production, but other herbs with a similar action, such as fennel (Foeniculum vulgare, p. 212), are preferred. The berries, crushed and mixed with tincture of myrrh (Commiphora molmol, p. 85), are helpful for sore nipples. An astringent herb, squaw vine has also been prescribed for diarrhea and colitis. Caution  Do not take during the first 6 months 
of pregnancy.Winnebagos and Dakotas as a stimulant and as a treatment for cholera. Other Native Americans used the herb for a wide variety of problems, including nausea, backache, fluid retention, chills,  and headache. Medicinal Actions & Uses  Having a  
strong volatile oil, horsemint is primarily used for digestive and upper respiratory problems. It is taken as an infusion to relieve nausea, indigestion, flatulence, and colic. It is also employed to reduce fevers and upper respiratory mucus. The herb  has an antiseptic action within the chest. T aken internally or applied externally, horsemint reduces fever by encouraging sweating. It also strongly stimulates menstruation. Related Species  In 19th-century America, 
Oswego tea (M. didyma) was considered a tonic  for young mothers, and was traditionally given  to brides. It is thought to be a mild menstrual regulator and an appetite stimulant. Caution  Do not take during pregnancy. Monsonia ovata (Geraniaceae)
Monsonia
Description  Small herbaceous plant with multi-
branched stems, very small oblong leaves and  white solitary or paired geranium-like flowers. Habitat & Cultivation  Native to South  
Africa and Namibia, monsonia is found growing  in arid conditions. It is gathered when in flower. Parts Used  Aerial parts. History & Folklore  In Zulu medicine, 
monsonia is used to treat snake bite. Medicinal Actions & Uses  Monsonia is  
used throughout southwestern Africa as a treatment for diarrhea, acute and chronic dysentery, and ulcerative colitis. The plant’s astringent properties act to tighten and protect  the inner linings of the intestinal tract. Given monsonia’s long traditional use for intestinal disorders and infections, it is possible—but as  yet unsubstantiated by research—that the plant has a direct antimicrobial effect.purgative, and is prescribed for colic. A decoction of the leaves is taken for liver problems and colitis, and it may be applied to skin conditions. The seed 
oil is used to help heal wounds. Research  Seeds are androgenic and  
inhibit sperm production, and were tested  
as a contraceptive in China in the 1980s. In diabetic laboratory animals, the fruit juice stimulated regeneration of the pancreatic cells, which secrete insulin. A major body of evidence now supports the traditional use of the fruit juice to treat non-insulin-dependent diabetes. Related Species  The seeds of the Asian  
M. cochinchinensis are applied as a poultice to relieve abscesses, hemorrhoids, and scrofula. Recent research indicates that a paste of the  seeds may help psoriasis and ringworm. Cautions  While bitter melon is relatively safe at 
low dosage, do not use for more than 4 weeks. Do  not take if prone to low blood-sugar levels. Aerial parts
Momordica charantia 
(Cucurbitaceae)
Bitter Melon,
Kerala
Description  Annual climber growing to about  
61⁄2 ft (2 m). Has deeply lobed leaves, yellow 
flowers, and orange-yellow fruit. Habitat & Cultivation  Native to southern 
Asia, bitter melon is common throughout tropical 
regions of the world. It is harvested year round. Parts Used  Leaves, fruit, seeds, seed oil. Constituents  Bitter melon contains a fixed oil, 
an insulin-like peptide, cucurbitacins, glycosides (mormordin and charantin), and an alkaloid (mormordicine). The peptide is known to lower sugar levels in the blood and urine. History & Folklore  Bitter melon is 
traditionally taken in Asia, Africa, and the Caribbean to treat the symptoms of diabetes. Medicinal Actions & Uses  The unripe fruit 
is mainly used to treat type 2 diabetes. The ripe fruit is a stomach tonic, and induces menstruation. In Turkey, it is used to treat ulcers. The fruit is much used in the West Indies for worms, urinary stones, and fever. The fruit juice is taken as a Horsemint strongly encourages sweating and the onset  
of menstruation. History & Folklore  Horsemint’s genus name, 
Monarda, was bestowed in honor of Nicolas 
Monardes, a Spanish physician, whose herbal  
of 1569 detailed the medicinal uses of a number of New World plants. Horsemint was used by the Montia perfoliata (Portulacaceae)
Miner’s Lettuce
Description  Annual growing to 4 in (10 cm) 
with pointed oval leaves (one pair enveloping  the stem), and white 5-petaled flowers. Habitat & Cultivation  Miner’s lettuce  
is native to western North America, and has  
become naturalized in temperate regions around the world, especially in Australia. The plant thrives  in acid sandy soils. It is generally gathered from  Monarda punctata (Lamiaceae)
Horsemint
Description  Strongly aromatic perennial 
growing to 3 ft (90 cm). Has downy lance-shaped leaves, and double-lipped, red-spotted yellow flowers growing in whorls from the leaf axils. Habitat & Cultivation  Native to the eastern  
and central U.S., horsemint is found in dry and  sandy areas. It is gathered when in flower in summer and autumn. Parts Used  Aerial parts. Constituents  Horsemint’s volatile oil has 
thymol as the main constituent. US_224-245_Jasmine_Harmala.indd   236 26/02/16   12:47 pm237 Other medicinal plantsMorus alba
the wild before and during the flowering period. It has also been cultivated as a vegetable. Parts Used  Aerial parts. Constituents  Miner’s lettuce is rich in vitamin C.
History & Folklore  Miner’s lettuce was a 
readily available salad vegetable on the West Coast 
of America. It most probably acquired its name 
during the California gold rush of 1849. Itinerant 
miners may have later taken the plant with them  
to Australia, where it is now common.chronic disease. For example, noni leaves are used 
to treat boils and stomach ulcers and, chewed,  
are applied as a poultice to relieve inflammation. In Hawaii, traditional healers have long used noni in 
order to promote recovery from bouts of  
serious illness. Medicinal Actions & Uses  Since the late 
1990s, word of noni’s reputed medicinal benefits 
has spread and noni is being presented as a 
medicinal food with an astonishing variety of 
potential uses. These include treating obesity, 
diabetes, cancer, pain, lowered immunity, high blood 
pressure, heart disease, and depression. With lists 
like this, many people are justifiably skeptical about 
noni’s value as a medicinal food. Nonetheless, noni 
fruit and juice is highly unlikely to do harm and may 
well prove useful in treating chronic illness, including 
pain, inflammatory disorders, heart and circulatory 
problems, and cancer. Traditionally, juice from  
the fruit is used as a mouthwash and gargle for 
infections in the mouth and throat. Noni juice is 
probably best drunk on an empty stomach. Research  The limited research into noni suggests 
that it may support immune function and be useful 
in treating chronic inflammation. A 2012 review  
of noni research concluded that the fruit “may  
have a small degree of anticancer activity.” One 
theory advanced is that noni contains appreciable 
levels of proxeronine, which the body needs to 
produce xeronine. This alkaloid appears to enable 
cells throughout the body to counter inflammation, 
promote healing, and support cellular regulation. In 
times of stress or infection, the body’s need for 
xeronine increases, and many people are thought 
to lack sufficient proxeronine to maintain adequate 
xeronine levels.and premature ejaculation in men, and is  
taken by both sexes to aid fertility. Morinda is  
employed in various other conditions, notably  
in the treatment of menstrual disorders. Researchers are investigating the root for its 
potential to prevent bone loss and help in  
treating osteoporosis. Morus alba (Moraceae)
White Mulberry,
Sang Y e (Chinese)
Description  Deciduous tree growing to about 
49 ft (15 m). Has toothed leaves, flowers in catkins, 
and white berries. Habitat & Cultivation  White mulberry  
is native to China. It is grown worldwide as a 
garden ornamental. The leaves are gathered in  
late autumn, the twigs in early summer, and the 
berries when ripe in summer. The root is dug up  
in winter. Parts Used  Leaves, twigs, fruit, root bark. Constituents  The leaves contain flavonoids, 
anthocyanins, and artocapin. The flavonoids are 
antioxidant. The fruit contains the vitamins A, B1,  
B2, and C.Miner’s lettuce  may have 
been spread around the 
world by itinerant miners. Medicinal Actions & Uses  
Apart from its value as a vegetable, 
miner’s lettuce, like its relative purslane 
(Portulaca oleracea , p. 255), may also be 
taken as an invigorating spring tonic and  
an effective diuretic. Morinda citrifolia (Rubiaceae)
Noni,
Indian Mulberry
Description  Shrub or small tree, growing to  
26 ft (8 m), with 4-angled stems, and elliptical to oval 
leaves to 14 in (35 cm) long. Large creamy-white 
flowers produce a fruit resembling a breadfruit, 
about 43⁄4 in (12 cm) long, green turning yellow to 
white, with a pungent, very unpleasant odor. Habitat & Cultivation  Originally native only 
to Southeast Asia, noni has spread to India in the 
west and across the Pacific to eastern Polynesia and 
Hawaii. It prefers volcanic soils in coastal areas  
and lowland forests up to about 1,300 ft (400 m) 
above sea level, and until recently was infrequently 
cultivated. The fruit is gathered when ripe; other 
parts of the tree are picked as required. Parts Used  Fruit and juice, leaves, bark. Constituents  Noni fruit contains polysaccharides, 
coumarins, iridoids, flavonoids and alkaloids. No active compounds unique to noni have  
been identified. History & Folklore  Different parts of the 
plant have been used in Polynesia for at least 2,000 
years, chiefly to counter infection and to treat Morinda officinalis (Rubiaceae)
Morinda, 
Ba Ji Tian (Chinese)
Description  Deciduous plant with white 
flowers and a root that yields a yellow dye. Habitat & Cultivation  Morinda is native  
to China. It is cultivated in Guangdong, Guangxi,  
and Fujian provinces. The root is unearthed in  
early spring. Part Used  Root. Constituents  Morinda contains anthraquinones, 
terpenoids, and polysaccharides. History & Folklore  The earliest written record 
of morinda’s use is in the Divine Husbandman’s Classic  
(Shen’nong Bencaojing ) of the 1st century ce. Medicinal Actions & Uses  Pungent and 
sweet-tasting, morinda root is an important tonic 
herb within traditional Chinese medicine. It has 
hormonal and antidepressant properties. As a 
sexual tonic, it is commonly used to treat impotence White mulberry  is grown  
to feed silkworms.Berry
History & Folklore  White mulberry has  
been cultivated for over 5,000 years for its leaves 
(sang ye ), the preferred food of the silkworm. The 
silkworm’s feces are used in Chinese medicine to 
treat vomiting. Medicinal Actions & Uses  White mulberry 
leaves are expectorant, encouraging the loosening 
and coughing up of phlegm, and are prescribed in 
China as a treatment for coughs. The leaves are 
also taken to treat fever, sore and inflamed eyes, 
sore throats, headaches, dizziness and vertigo. US_224-245_Jasmine_Harmala.indd   237 26/02/16   12:47 pm
238Murraya koenigiiOther medicinal plantsThe fruit juice is cleansing and tonic, and has often 
been used as a gargle and mouthwash. The root bark may be used for toothache, and it is considered laxative. An extract of the leaves has been given by injection for elephantiasis. The twigs are used to combat excess fluid retention and joint pain. The fruit is taken to prevent premature graying of the hair, and to treat dizziness, ringing in the ears, blurred vision, and insomnia. Related Species  The black mulberry (M. nigra), 
native to Iran, is cultivated for its sweet, deep  red fruit. Murraya koenigii (Rutaceae)
Curry Tree
Description  Aromatic deciduous shrub or tree 
growing to 20 ft (6 m). Has strongly scented leaves, clusters of small, fragrant white flowers, and pink  to black berries. Habitat & Cultivation  Curry tree  
is native to subtropical forests in much of  
southern Asia. It is widely cultivated in India  
for its leaves. Parts Used  Leaves, berries. Constituents  Curry tree contains over  
20 alkaloids, a glycoside (koenigin), volatile oil,  and tannins. History & Folklore  Curry tree, also known as 
curry patta, is a common flavoring in Indian food. Medicinal Actions & Uses  Curry tree leaves 
increase digestive secretions and relieve nausea, indigestion, and vomiting. They are also used to treat diarrhea and dysentery. Curry tree aids healing, for example in gastric ulcers, and the leaves are applied as a poultice on wounds and burns. It helps to stabilize blood-sugar levels and is useful for type 2 diabetes. Related Species  The very bitter leaves  
of cosmetic bark (M. paniculata) are taken  
to treat stomach ache, dysentery, toothache,  
and bruises.History & Folklore  Settlers in North America 
extolled the medicinal benefits of bayberry. A 1737 account stated that the plants “expel wind and ease all manner of pains proceeding from cold, therefore are good in colic, palsies, convulsions, epilepsies, and many other disorders.” The root bark was listed in the U.S. National Formulary from 1916 to 1936. Medicinal Actions & Uses Bayberry is used 
to increase circulation, stimulate perspiration, and keep bacterial infections in check. Colds, flu, coughs, and sore throats benefit from treatment with this herb. It helps to strengthen resistance to infection and to tighten and dry mucous membranes. An infusion is helpful for spongy gums, and a gargle is used for sore throats. Bayberry’s astringency is beneficial for irritable bowel syndrome and mucous colitis. An infusion can help treat excess vaginal discharge. A paste of the powdered root bark may be used externally on ulcers and sores. Caution  Do not take in pregnancy.immature and then allowed to ripen. The leaves  are gathered as required. Parts Used  Fruit, leaves, root. Constituents  The fruit contains flavonoids and 
is rich in vitamins B, C, and E, potassium, serotonin, and noradrenaline. History & Folklore  The delicious and highly 
nutritious banana fruit is the yield of careful horticulture, which had its origins with wild  plants in prehistoric times. Medicinal Actions & Uses  Ripe banana  
fruit is gently laxative, while the unripe fruit is astringent and used to treat diarrhea. The fruit stimulates hemoglobin production and can therefore prove useful in preventing or treating anemia. Banana makes a simple addition to diets aimed at lowering high blood pressure. Given the fruit’s serotonin content, some practitioners recommend taking three bananas a day to help treat migraines and depression. A syrup made from plantain is taken for coughs and chest conditions such as bronchitis. Myrica cerifera (Myricaceae)
Bayberry
Description  Evergreen shrub or small tree 
growing to 33 ft (10 m). Has narrow leaves, small yellow flowers in catkins, and waxy gray berries. Habitat & Cultivation Bayberry is found in 
coastal regions of the eastern and southern U.S.,  as far west as Texas. The root bark is collected in autumn or spring. Part Used  Root bark. Constituents  Bayberry contains triterpenes 
(including taraxerol, taraxerone, and myricadiol), flavonoids, tannins, phenols, resins, and gums. Myricadiol has a mild effect on potassium and sodium levels. Bananas are picked before they fully ripen. They are  
a useful remedy for diarrhea. Musa spp. (Musaceae)
Banana,
Plantain
Description  Evergreen, palm-like perennials 
growing to 30 ft (9 m). Have large, shiny green 
leaves, hanging flowering stems, and bunches of elongated green fruit that turn yellow on ripening. Habitat & Cultivation  Musa species  
are native to India and Southeast Asia, and are extensively cultivated in tropical and subtropical regions. The fruit is generally picked when Myrica gale (Myricaceae)
Sweet Gale,
Bog Myrtle
Description  Low-growing, fragrant shrub, 
growing to 61⁄2 ft (2 m), with lance-shaped leaves. Male plants produce resinous catkins in spring. Habitat & Cultivation  Sweet gale thrives  
in wet and damp heaths and moorlands across northerly regions of the northern hemisphere. The leaves are collected in summer, the catkins in spring. Parts Used  Leaves, branches, catkins. Constituents  Sweet gale contains an essential 
oil (chiefly alpha-pinene and delta-cadinene), flavonoids, and resin. History & Folklore  In Scotland, where the 
plant grows freely, Highlanders slept on fleaproof beds of sweet gale and placed it among linen to repel moths. Enterprising anglers are also reported to have worn sprigs of sweet gale to keep away midges. In Scotland and Sweden, a strong decoction was used to kill insects and intestinal worms. Medicinal Actions & Uses  Sweet gale is 
mostly used as an insect repellent and insecticide and offers a safe and ecologically sound way to protect against insect bites. Over-the-counter preparations are available, though a decoction of the plant bathed on exposed areas will also prove effective. Research  Since the 1990s, the essential oil of 
sweet gale has become recognized as an effective insect repellent (especially of midges), and is now available in blended formulations. In one trial in Scotland, volunteers exposed their arms to midges, with one arm covered in a gel containing essential oil of sweet gale. After 10 minutes, the protected arms averaged 1.6 bites, the unprotected arms 9.4. US_224-245_Jasmine_Harmala.indd   238 26/02/16   12:47 pm239 Other medicinal plantsNepeta cataria
Cautions  Do not take the essential oil internally. Do not use sweet gale internally in pregnancy or 
while breastfeeding. The essential oil is thought  
to be toxic. Myroxylon pereirae  
syn. M. balsamum var. pereirae 
(Fabaceae)
Peruvian Balsam
Description  Evergreen tree growing to 115 ft 
(35 m). Has grey bark, compound leaves dotted 
with oil glands, white pea-like flowers, and yellow 
seed pods. Habitat & Cultivation  Native to Central 
America, Peruvian balsam grows wild in tropical 
forests. It is cultivated in Central and South America 
and India. Oleoresin (balsam) is taken from cuts  
in the bark. Part Used  Oleoresin. Constituents  The oleoresin contains 50–65% 
volatile oil (mainly benzyl benzoate and benzyl 
cinnamate) and resins. Medicinal Actions & Uses  Peruvian balsam is 
strongly antiseptic and stimulates repair of damaged 
tissue. It is most commonly taken internally as an 
expectorant and antimucus remedy to treat 
bronchitis, emphysema, and bronchial asthma. It may 
also be taken to treat sore throats and diarrhea, 
and applied topically to skin disorders. Related Species  The balsam from similar species 
was used by the Inca to relieve fevers and colds. Caution  Peruvian balsam may cause allergic  
skin reactions. Myrtus communis (Myrtaceae)
Myrtle
Description  Evergreen shrub growing to a 
height of 10 ft (3 m). Has dark green leaves, white 
flowers, and purple-black berries. Habitat & Cultivation  Myrtle is native to  
the Mediterranean region and it is cultivated for  
its essential oil. The leaves are gathered in spring. Parts Used  Leaves, essential oil. Constituents  Myrtle contains tannins, 
flavonoids, and a volatile oil (mainly alpha-pinene, 
cineole, and myrtenol). History & Folklore  In ancient Greece, myrtle 
was dedicated to Aphrodite, who was the goddess 
of love, and brides bedecked themselves with myrtle 
leaves. A liqueur is made from the berries. Medicinal Actions & Uses  Myrtle leaves  
are astringent, tonic, and antiseptic. An infusion of 
the leaves can be used externally to clean and heal 
wounds and ulcers, or internally to remedy disorders Nasturtium officinale (Cruciferae)
Watercress
Description  Creeping perennial growing to  
2 ft (60 cm), with compound leaves, spikes of white 
4-petaled flowers, and small sickle-shaped pods. Habitat & Cultivation  Found in temperate 
regions throughout the world, watercress thrives 
alongside or in fresh running water. While 
commonly found in the wild, it is also widely 
cultivated as a salad herb. Watercress is best 
gathered before it flowers in summer. Parts Used  Aerial parts. Constituents  Watercress contains 
isothiocyanates and is rich in vitamins A, B1, B2, C, 
and E, and minerals (especially iodine, iron, and 
phosphorus). Allyl isothiocyanate has broad-spectrum 
antibiotic activity. Research in the 1960s suggested 
that watercress might have antitumor activity. History & Folklore  Watercress has long been 
valued as a food and medicinal plant. Xenophon, a 
Greek general in the 5th century bce, attributed 
other virtues to it, recommending the Persians to 
feed it to their children to build up their strength. In European folk medicine, watercress has primarily 
been considered a “blood-cleanser,” and was used 
in former times as a spring tonic. Medicinal Actions & Uses  Watercress 
provides excellent, easily digested nutrition. Its high 
mineral and vitamin C content makes it particularly 
suited for chronic ill health and convalescence. It  
is thought to stimulate appetite, ease indigestion,  
and counter mucus. A detoxifying herb and food, 
watercress cleanses the liver, blood, kidneys,  
and lungs. Nepeta cataria (Lamiaceae)
Catnip
Description  Downy, aromatic perennial growing 
to 3 ft (1 m). Has heart-shaped, gray-green leaves 
and whorls of white flowers with purple spots. Habitat & Cultivation  Catnip is native to 
Europe and naturalized in North America. It grows 
in dry wayside places and in mountainous regions up 
to altitudes of 5,000 ft (1,500 m). Catnip is gathered 
when in flower in summer and autumn. Parts Used  Aerial parts. Catnip  helps to lower 
fever by strongly 
encouraging sweating. Constituents  Catnip contains iridoids, tannins, 
and volatile oil (mainly comprising alpha- and  
beta-nepetalactone, citronellol, and geraniol). History & Folklore  Pechey’s Compleat Herbal  
(1694) describes catnip: “’Tis hot and dry. ’Tis 
chiefly used for obstructions of the womb, for 
barrenness, and to hasten delivery, and to help of the digestive and urinary systems. The essential oil 
is strongly antiseptic and anti-mucus, and in Spain is 
used to treat bronchial and lung infections. Caution  Do not take the essential oil internally 
except with professional advice. Myrtle  was described by the 
Greek physician Dioscorides 
as “a friend to the stomach.”
US_224-245_Jasmine_Harmala.indd   239 26/02/16   12:47 pm
240NicotiaN a tabacumOther medicinal plantsexpectoration. ’Tis used outwardly in baths for  
the womb, and the itch.” Catnip has an excitatory 
effect on cats. Medicinal Actions & Uses  Catnip settles the 
stomach, is sedative and, as it stimulates sweating, reduces fever. The herb’s pleasant taste and gentle action make it suitable for colds, flu, and fever in children, especially when mixed with elderflower (Sambucus nigra, p. 132) and sweetened with honey. Catnip is markedly antiflatulent, helping to settle indigestion and colic. The herb is also useful in treating headaches related to digestive problems. A tincture is beneficial as a friction rub for rheumatism and arthritis. Self-help Use  Digestive infections, p. 305.of Asia and the Mediterranean region for its seeds and as a garden plant. The seeds are gathered once they are ripe. Parts Used  Seeds. Constituents  The seeds contain 40% fixed  
oil, a saponin (melantin), alkaloids, and up to  1.4% volatile oil. History & Folklore  Black cumin was found in 
the tomb of Tutankhamun, but its role in ancient Egypt, medicinal or otherwise, is unknown. Dioscorides, a Greek physician of the 1st century ce, recorded that black cumin seeds were taken  to treat headaches, nasal congestion, toothache, and intestinal worms, and, in large quantities, as a diuretic, to promote menstrual periods, and to increase breast-milk production. Medicinal Actions & Uses  Like many 
culinary herbs, black cumin seeds are beneficial for the digestive system, soothing stomach pain and spasms and easing gas, bloating, and colic. The seeds are also antiseptic and are used to treat intestinal worms, especially in children. Cumin seeds are much used in India to increase the production of breast milk. Research Recent research indicates that  
black cumin seed may prove useful in metabolic syndrome, a condition that typically involves raised cholesterol levels, raised blood pressure, and type 2 diabetes. The seeds are also antiviral and show promise in the treatment of chronic viral infections, such as hepatitis C.
Caution  Love-in-a-mist (N. damascena) should 
not be used as a substitute for black cumin seeds.Nymphaea alba (Nymphaceae)
White Water Lily
Description  Perennial aquatic plant with deep 
roots, plate-shaped leaves on long cylindrical stems, and large-petaled white flowers occasionally tinged with pink. Habitat & Cultivation  Native to Europe, 
white water lily is found in ponds and in still water in lakes, rivers, and canals. The rhizome is gathered  
in autumn. Parts Used  Rhizome, flowers. Constituents  The rhizome contains alkaloids 
(nymphaeine and nupharine), resin, glycosides,  and tannins. History & Folklore  According to the 
17th-century herbalist Nicholas Culpeper, “The leaves do cool all inflammations … the syrup helpeth much to procure rest, and to settle the brains of frantic persons.”
White water lily flowers have a sedative effect, calming 
nervous tension and anxiety. Medicinal Actions & Uses  The rhizome  
of the white water lily is astringent and antiseptic. A decoction treats dysentery, or diarrhea due  
to irritable bowel syndrome. White water lily has 
also been employed to treat chronic bronchitis and kidney pain, and taken as a gargle for sore throats. The rhizome may be used to make a douche for vaginal soreness and discharge, or to make a poultice for boils and abscesses. White water lily flowers have long been reputed to reduce sexual drive. Their generally calming and sedative effect on the nervous system makes them useful in the treatment of insomnia, anxiety, and similar disorders of this nature. Research  Studies suggest that white water lily 
may, as has been claimed, act as an anaphrodisiac, diminishing sexual drive. The plant has been found to lower blood pressure in animals. Related Species  The white pond lily (N. odorata) 
is a close American relative used for much the same purposes. The rhizome of the white lotus (N. lotus), Nigella sativa (Ranunculaceae)
Black Cumin
Description  Annual herb growing to 1 ft  
(30 cm). Has an upright branching stem, fine  
deeply cut leaves, gray-blue flowers, and  
toothed seedpods. Habitat & Cultivation  Native to western 
Asia, black cumin is grown throughout much  Notopterygium incisium 
(Apiaceae)
Notopterygium Root,
Qiang Huo (Chinese)
Description  Carrot-family member with an 
upright ridged stem, deeply cut leaves, and flowers 
in dense clusters. Habitat & Cultivation  Notopterygium root 
is native to central and western China. The root is unearthed in spring or autumn. Part Used  Root. Constituents  Notopterygium root contains 
furanocoumarins, sterols, and a volatile oil. Medicinal Actions & Uses  Notopterygium 
root is taken mainly for colds and chills, fevers, headache, general aches and pains, and malaise. The herb is warming and pungent, counters cold and damp conditions, and promotes sweating, especially in fevers. It is also prescribed for neck and back pain. Caution  At high dosage notopterygium root  
may cause vomiting.Nicotiana tabacum (Solanaceae)
Tobacco
Description  Annual or biennial plant growing  
to 3 ft (1 m). Has an erect stem, large oval leaves, and pink or white flowers. Habitat & Cultivation  Tobacco is native  
to tropical America. It is now grown worldwide, chiefly for smoking tobacco but also as the source of an insecticide. Leaves for smoking are gathered, dried, and cured. Parts Used  Leaves. Constituents  Tobacco contains alkaloids (notably 
nicotine) and a volatile oil. Nicotine is stimulant  
and addictive. History & Folklore  Even in 17th-century 
England, opinions on smoking were sharply divided. King James I unsuccessfully tried to ban “a custome loathsome to the eye, hatefull to the nose, harmfull to the braine [and] dangerous to the lungs.” In Central America, tobacco was prescribed by the Maya as a treatment for asthma, convulsions, and skin disease. Tobacco has been used as part of rituals in many Native American cultures. Medicinal Actions & Uses  Tobacco is no 
longer used medicinally. The dried leaves make a good insecticide, but external application should  be avoided as nicotine is readily absorbed through the skin. Caution  Tobacco should not be taken in  
any form. US_224-245_Jasmine_Harmala.indd   240 26/02/16   12:47 pm241 Other medicinal plantsOlea eur Opaea
native to tropical Africa and Asia, has been used 
medicinally since the earliest times, and is taken  
for indigestion, dysentery, and other 
gastrointestinal problems. Ocimum basilicum (Lamiaceae)
Sweet Basil,
Basil
Description  Strongly aromatic annual growing 
to 20 in (50 cm). Has shiny oval leaves, a square 
stem, and small white flowers in whorls. Habitat & Cultivation  Sweet basil, also 
known as basil, is probably native to India. Over  
150 varieties are now grown around the world for 
their distinctive flavor and essential oil. The leaves 
and flowering tops are gathered as the plant comes 
into flower. Parts Used  Leaves, flowering tops, essential oil. Constituents  Sweet basil contains a volatile oil 
(about 1%), which consists principally of linalool 
and methylchavicol, along with small quantities  
of methyl cinnamate, cineole, and other terpenes. History & Folklore  In his 1st-century ce 
Materia Medica , the Greek physician Dioscorides 
described the African belief that eating sweet  
basil stopped the pain caused by a scorpion’s sting. The herb was used in Roman times to relieve 
flatulence, to counteract poisoning, as a diuretic, 
and to stimulate breast-milk production. Basil also 
has a history of use in Ayurvedic medicine. Medicinal Actions & Uses  Sweet basil acts 
principally on the digestive and nervous systems, 
easing flatulence, stomach cramps, colic, and 
indigestion. It can be used to prevent or relieve 
nausea and vomiting, and 
helps to kill intestinal 
worms. Sweet basil has a mildly sedative action, proving useful in 
treating nervous irritability, depression, anxiety,  
and difficulty in sleeping. It may also be taken for 
epilepsy, migraine, and whooping cough. The herb 
has been traditionally taken to increase breast-milk 
production. Applied externally, sweet basil leaves 
act as an insect repellent. The juice from the leaves 
brings relief to insect bites and stings. Sweet basil 
has an established antibacterial action. Related Species  See also holy basil ( Ocimum 
tenuiflorum , p. 116). Bush basil ( O. basilicum var. minimum ) has a much milder action than sweet basil, 
and is used to relieve cramping pain and flatulence. Caution Sweet basil essential oil should not be 
taken internally. Self-help Use  Minor bites, stings & swellings ,  
p. 303. may prove helpful in conditions as diverse as dry 
eyes and multiple sclerosis. Caution  Do not take evening primrose oil if 
suffering from epilepsy. Olea europaea (Oleaceae)
Olive
Description  Evergreen tree growing to 33 ft 
(10 m). Has a deeply grooved gray trunk, small 
leathery leaves, clusters of small greenish-white 
flowers, and a green fruit ripening to black. Olive harvesting is carried out in many groves much  
as it was centuries ago. Sweet basil  is a mildly 
sedative herb with 
antibacterial properties.Habitat & Cultivation  Olive trees grow wild 
in the Mediterranean region and are cultivated in 
Mediterranean countries and in regions with a 
similar climate in the Americas. The leaves may  
be gathered throughout the year, the fruit in late 
summer. The leaves of wild trees are believed to 
contain a higher concentration of active principles. Parts Used  Leaves, oil. Constituents  Olive leaves contain oleoropine, 
olesterol, and leine. Olive oil contains about 75% 
oleic acid, a monounsaturated fatty acid. History & Folklore The olive was probably first 
cultivated in Crete around 3500 bce. The tree has 
many symbolic associations: the olive branch is an 
emblem of peace, and the leaves crowned victors in 
the ancient Olympic Games. The leaves have been 
used since those times to clean wounds. The oil has 
been used for ritual anointing in some religions. Medicinal Actions & Uses  Olive leaves lower 
blood pressure and help to improve the function of 
the circulatory system. They are also mildly diuretic 
and may be used to treat conditions such as cystitis. Possessing some ability to lower blood-sugar levels, 
the leaves have been taken for diabetes. The oil is 
nourishing and improves the balance of fats within 
the blood. It is traditionally taken with lemon juice  
in teaspoonful doses to treat gallstones. The oil has 
a generally protective action on the digestive tract 
and is useful for dry skin.Oenothera biennis (Onagraceae)
Evening Primrose
Description  Biennial herb growing to 8 in  
(20 cm). Has red blotches on stem, crinkled lance-
shaped leaves, 4-petaled yellow flowers, and  
elongated seed capsules. Habitat & Cultivation  Native to North 
America, evening primrose is now commonly 
found in many temperate zones around the world. It thrives in open areas, especially in dunes and 
sandy soil. Evening primrose is grown commercially 
for its seed oil. Parts Used  Leaves, stem bark, flowers, seed oil. Constituents  Evening primrose oil is rich in 
essential fatty acids—linoleic (about 70%) and 
gammalinolenic acid (about 9%) in particular. Its 
action mostly depends on the gammalinolenic acid 
(GLA), which is a precursor of prostaglandin E1. The oil is often combined with vitamin E to 
prevent oxidation. Medicinal Actions & Uses  The flowers, 
leaves, and stem bark of evening primrose have 
astringent and sedative properties. All 
three parts have been employed in 
the treatment of whooping cough. Evening primrose has also been 
taken for digestive problems and 
asthma, and used as a poultice to 
ease the discomfort of rheumatic 
disorders. The oil, applied externally, is 
beneficial in the treatment of 
eczema, certain other itchy skin 
conditions, and breast tenderness. T aken internally, the oil has an effect 
in lowering blood pressure, and in 
preventing the clumping of platelets. The oil is now commonly taken for 
premenstrual problems, including 
tension and abdominal bloating, and Evening 
primrose
US_224-245_Jasmine_Harmala.indd   241 26/02/16   12:47 pm
242Opuntia ficus-indica (Cactaceae)
Prickly Pear
Description  Perennial cactus growing to 10 ft 
(3 m). Has large spatula-shaped stems covered  
in clusters of spines, brilliant yellow flowers, and 
roundish purple fruit. Habitat & Cultivation  Prickly pear is native 
to Mexico and naturalized in semitropical regions around the world. The fruit is harvested when ripe, the stems when required. Parts Used  Flowers, fruit, stems. Constituents  The fruit contains mucilage, sugars, 
vitamin C, and other fruit acids. History & Folklore  Prickly 
pear fruit is used to make conserves and an alcoholic drink in Mexico. The split stems have been bound around injured limbs as a first-aid measure. Medicinal Actions  
& Uses  Prickly pear flowers 
are astringent and reduce bleeding, and are used 
for problems of the gastrointestinal tract—particularly diarrhea, colitis, and irritable bowel syndrome. The flowers are also taken to treat an enlarged prostate gland. The fruit is nutritious.OnO nis spinO saOther medicinal plantsResearch  Clinical trials have shown that olive 
leaves lower blood pressure. Self-help Uses Cradle cap, p. 318; Stretch  
marks, p. 317. Ononis spinosa (Fabaceae)
Spiny Restharrow
Description  Spiny perennial with 3 small leaflets 
per leaf, bright pink, pea-like flowers, and small  seed pods. Habitat & Cultivation  A relatively common 
European plant, spiny restharrow thrives in dry grassland and along roadsides. Part Used  Root. Constituents  Spiny restharrow root contains 
phenols, lectins, triterpenoids, and a volatile oil (comprising mainly trans-anethole). The volatile oil in the root is diuretic; the non-volatile oil content is antidiuretic. A decoction of the root has an antidiuretic effect, as the volatile oil is lost in the steam. If a diuretic is desired, the root is made into an infusion. Medicinal Actions & Uses  The root is used as 
a diuretic and to prevent kidney and bladder stones. It is of value in a range of urinary system problems, including stones, gout, and cystitis. For excess fluid retention, spiny restharrow is best taken as a short-term treatment, in the form of an infusion.Medicinal Actions & Uses  Mainly used  
as a culinary herb, sweet marjoram is also medicinally valuable due to its stimulant and antispasmodic properties. Like oregano  
(O. vulgare, following entry), it treats flatulence,  colic, and respiratory problems, but it appears  
to have a stronger effect on the nervous system than its wild cousin. Sweet marjoram is a good general tonic, helping to relieve anxiety,headaches, and insomnia. The herb is also thought to lower sexual drive. Cautions  Do not take as a medicine during 
pregnancy. Do not take sweet marjoram essential oil internally. Origanum majorana
syn. Majorana hortensis (Lamiaceae)
Sweet Marjoram
Description  Woody perennial herb growing  
to 20 in (50 cm). Has aromatic oval leaves and 
pinkish-white flowers emerging from the  upper leaf axils. Habitat & Cultivation  Sweet marjoram is 
native to countries bordering the Mediterranean. It is much cultivated as a culinary herb, and for its essential oil. Parts Used  Aerial parts, essential oil. Constituents  Sweet marjoram 
contains about 3% volatile oil (comprising sabinene hydrate, sabinene, linalool, carvacrol, and other terpenes), flavonoids, caffeic and rosmarinic acid, and triterpenoids. History & Folklore  In 1597, the 
herbalist John Gerard made this assessment: “Sweet marjoram is a remedy against cold diseases of the braine and head, being taken anyway  
to your best liking; put up into the nostrils it  provokes sneesing, and draweth forth much baggage flegme; it easeth the toothache being chewed in the mouth.”Origanum vulgare (Lamiaceae)
Oregano,
Wild Marjoram
Description  Upright perennial herb  
growing to about 32 in (80 cm). Has square  
red stems, elliptical leaves, and clusters of deep  
pink flowers. Habitat & Cultivation  Oregano is native  
to Europe and naturalized in the Middle East. The plant thrives in chalky soils close to the sea. It is gathered when in flower in summer. Oregano’s essential oil, well 
diluted, is a traditional remedy for toothache.Operculina turpethum 
(Convolvulaceae)
Turpeth
Description  Twining climber with white tuberous 
roots, hairy, oval leaves, white funnel-shaped 
flowers, and round fruit. Habitat & Cultivation  Native to tropical India, 
turpeth is now found in tropical regions around the world. The root is unearthed throughout the year. Part Used  Root. Constituents  Turpeth root contains turpethin 
resin (approximately 4%) and a volatile oil. History & Folklore  Turpeth has been used  
for several thousand years as a purgative in Ayurvedic medicine. Medicinal Actions & Uses  Turpeth root is 
chiefly used in small doses to clear the bowels. It  is sometimes known as “Indian jalap,” and is used  in much the same way as this plant (Ipomoea purga, p. 223), though its action is slower and less drastic. In Ayurvedic medicine, turpeth is prescribed  
with picrorrhiza (Picrorrhiza kurroa, p. 248) to  
treat jaundice. Cautions  T ake only under professional supervision. Do not take during pregnancy.Prickly pear fruit
US_224-245_Jasmine_Harmala.indd   242 26/02/16   12:47 pm243 Other medicinal plantsPanax quinquefolium
Peony  is named after Paean, the physician of the Greek gods.Paeonia officinalis (Paeoniaceae)
Peony
Description  Perennial growing to 2 ft (60 cm). Has a tuberous root, upright stems, oval to lance-
shaped leaflets, and attractive large red, red-purple 
or white flowers. Habitat & Cultivation  A native of southern 
Europe, peony grows in mountain woodlands  
and is widely cultivated. The root is unearthed  
in autumn. Part Used  Root. Constituents  Peony is thought to contain 
alkaloids, tannins, saponins, flavonoids and 
triterpenoids, and a volatile oil. History & Folklore  Since the time of 
Hippocrates (470–377 bce), peony has been  
used to treat epilepsy. Ibn el Beitar, a medieval 
Arab physician, recommended a necklace of peony 
seeds to ward off epilepsy in children. Mrs. Grieve, 
the author of A Modern Herbal  (1931), recounted 
how “in ancient times, peony was thought to be  
of divine origin, an emanation from the moon, and  
to shine during the night protecting the shepherds 
and their flocks.”Panax notoginseng (Araliaceae)
Notoginseng,
San Qi (Chinese)
Description  Deciduous perennial with an erect 
stem growing to 3 ft (1 m), compound leaves, small 
greenish flowers, and small, berrylike fruit. Habitat & Cultivation  Native to China, 
notoginseng is now rare in the wild. It is cultivated 
commercially in southern and central China. The 
root is unearthed before flowering or after  
the fruit has ripened. Part Used  Root. Constituents  Notoginseng contains steroidal 
saponins, polysaccharides, and a flavonoid. History & Folklore  Despite its importance as 
a tonic, notoginseng was only recorded in Chinese 
herbal medicine in 1578, in the Compendium of 
Materia Medica  by Li Shizen. He described the  
root as being “more valuable than gold.”
Medicinal Actions & Uses  Like ginseng  
(P. ginseng , p. 118), notoginseng is a tonic that 
supports the function of the adrenal glands,  
in particular the production of corticosteroids  
and male sex hormones. Notoginseng also helps to 
improve blood flow through the coronary arteries, 
thus finding use as a treatment for arteriosclerosis, 
high blood pressure, and angina. Notoginseng 
treats internal bleeding of almost any kind. The 
herb may also be applied externally as a poultice  
to help speed the healing of wounds and bruises. Research  Clinical studies have confirmed 
notoginseng’s longstanding reputation as a means 
to arrest bleeding. A Chinese trial indicated that  
the herb hastens blood clotting. Another clinical 
trial and extensive scientific studies, again in 
China, associated the herb with positive 
improvements in coronary circulation, in lessening 
the symptoms of angina, and in the reduction of 
blood pressure levels. In common with other 
ginseng-type herbs, notoginseng has been shown 
to enhance physical performance. Caution  Do not take during pregnancy. Panax quinquefolium (Araliaceae)
American Ginseng
Description  Deciduous perennial growing to 
about 1 ft (30 cm). Has a smooth stem, leaves  
with oblong to oval leaflets, small greenish  
flowers, and kidney-shaped scarlet-red berries. Habitat & Cultivation  American ginseng  
is native to North America and the Himalayas. A woodland plant, it is rarely seen in the wild due 
to overharvesting. It is cultivated in Wisconsin, 
China, and France. The root is gathered in autumn. Part Used Root.Parts Used  Aerial parts, essential oil. Constituents  Oregano contains a volatile oil 
(comprising carvacrol, thymol, beta-bisabolene, 
caryophyllene, linalool, and borneol), tannins, resin, 
sterols, and flavonoids. Both carvacrol and thymol 
are antibacterial and antifungal. History & Folklore  Esteemed by the ancient 
Greeks, oregano was considered a cure-all in 
medieval times. It was one of the medicinal  
plants cultivated by early New England settlers. Medicinal Actions & Uses  Oregano and  
its oil are strongly antiseptic with potent activity 
against many bacteria and fungi, notably E. coli   
and Candida  strains. It can aid many acute and 
chronic infections affecting the gastrointestinal 
and respiratory tracts, especially gastroenteritis, 
dysentery, bronchitis, coughs, and tonsillitis. Both herb and oil inhibit the gut flora (bacteria 
naturally occurring within the gut) and have an 
important role to play in gut dysbiosis, a condition 
where the presence of harmful gut bacteria leads 
to symptoms such as gas, bloating, and abdominal 
discomfort. The diluted oil can be applied to 
toothache or painful joints. Cautions Do not take as a medicine during 
pregnancy. External use may cause irritation of  
the skin. Do not take essential oil internally. orthosiphon aristata (Lamiaceae)
Java Tea
Description  Shrub growing to about 3 ft (1 m). Has pointed leaves and lilac-colored flowers with 
very long stamens. Habitat & Cultivation  Java tea is native to 
Southeast Asia and Australia. Now cultivated as a 
medicinal plant, it is picked as required throughout 
the year. Part Used  Leaves. Constituents  Java tea contains flavones 
(including sinensetin), a glycoside (orthosiphonin),  
a volatile oil, and large amounts of potassium. History & Folklore The plant’s Dutch 
Indonesian name, koemis koetjing  (cat’s whiskers), 
probably derives from its long whiskery stamens. Medicinal Actions & Uses  Java tea is  
listed in the French, Indonesian, Dutch, and Swiss 
pharmacopoeias (official documents containing a list 
of drugs and their medicinal uses, preparations, and 
dosages). It is thought to increase the kidneys’ ability 
to eliminate nitrogen-containing compounds. The 
herb is much used as a diuretic and as a 
treatment for kidney infections, stones, and poor 
renal function resulting from chronic nephritis. It 
is also used to treat cystitis and urethritis. Research  Java tea’s diuretic activity has been 
confirmed in scientific experiments. Extracts 
significantly increase potassium levels in the urine.Medicinal Actions & Uses  Though little used 
in contemporary European herbal medicine, Peony 
is greatly valued within Unani herbal medicine  
from the Middle East. It has anti-inflammatory, 
antispasmodic, and sedative activity, and is 
prescribed for conditions as varied as nervous 
debility, epilepsy, and high blood pressure, and as a 
heart tonic. The root has also been taken to treat 
whooping cough, and suppositories are made of 
the root to relive anal and intestinal spasms. Related Species  Chinese peony ( Paeonia 
lactiflora , p. 117) is much used in Chinese  
herbal medicine. QCautions  T ake peony only under professional 
supervision. Do not take during pregnancy. US_224-245_Jasmine_Harmala.indd   243 26/02/16   12:47 pm
244PaPaver rhoeasOther medicinal plantsConstituents  American ginseng contains 
steroidal saponins, including panaquilon. History & Folklore  Native American peoples 
may have considered this herb a means to increase 
female fertility. From the mid-18th century, the collection of the herb for export to China became a virtual goldrush, with so many Native Americans out harvesting American ginseng that settlers reported finding villages almost deserted. The Ojibwa people always planted a seed to replace  the herb, but this was not universal practice. American ginseng became rare toward the end  
of the 19th century. Medicinal Actions & Uses  The action of 
American ginseng is presumed to be similar to,  but milder than, that of its Chinese cousin, ginseng  (P. ginseng, p. 118). American ginseng increases the ability to tolerate stress of all kinds. In traditional Chinese medicine, American ginseng is employed as a yin tonic, treating weakness, fever, wheezing, and coughs. Related Species  See ginseng, nototginseng  
(P. notoginseng, preceding entry), and Siberian 
ginseng (Eleutherococcus senticosus, p. 94). Caution  Do not take American ginseng  
during pregnancy.Chiefly employed as a mild pain reliever and as a treatment for irritable coughs, red poppy also helps reduce nervous overactivity. The herb may be used in the treatment of insomnia, general irritability, coughs—especially paroxysmal coughs—and asthma, and is generally given as a syrup. Related Species  See also opium poppy  
(P. somniferum, following entry), Mexican poppy 
(Argemone mexicana, p. 171), and California poppy 
(Eschscholzia californica, p. 207). QCautions  Use only under professional 
supervision. All parts of red poppy except the seeds are potentially toxic if eaten. Papaver somniferum 
(Papaveraceae)
Opium Poppy
Description  Thick-stemmed annual growing  
to about 3 ft (1 m). Has many dull green leaves, 
solitary pink, purple or white flowers, and globe-shaped seed capsules. Habitat & Cultivation  Native to western 
Asia, opium poppy is now cultivated commercially around the world as the source of morphine and codeine, and as an illegal crop for the production of opium and heroin. During the summer, the seed capsules are cut and the white latex that exudes is gathered the next day and dried. Part Used  Latex. Constituents  Opium poppy contains more  
than 40 opium alkaloids, including morphine  (up to 20%), narcotine (about 5%), codeine  
(about 1%), and papaverine (about 1%). It also contains meconic acid, albumin, mucilage, sugars, resin, and wax. Many of the opium poppy’s  
alkaloids have a well-established therapeutic  
action. Morphine is one of the most powerful analgesics of all, used extensively in conventional medicine to relieve pain, especially in terminal illness. Codeine is a milder analgesic used for headaches and other pain, and in the symptomatic treatment of diarrhea. Opium’s strongly addictive nature is well established. History & Folklore  Cultivated for its 
medicinal properties for at least 4,000 years,  
the opium poppy was introduced to Greece about 3,000 years ago, and from there spread throughout Europe. It was unknown in China  
until the 7th century ce, and in Japan until the 15th century. It is mentioned in the Assyrian herbals (c. 1700 bce), and the Greek physician Dioscorides (40–90 ce) wrote that “a decoction of the leaves and flowerheads if drunk and bathed on the head is unrivaled in inducing sleep. The mashed heads, mixed with flour, make a useful plaster in inflammations and St. Anthony’s fire [erysipelas, a bacterial infection of the skin].”Medicinal Actions & Uses  Opium (the  
dried latex) is a potent narcotic, analgesic, and antispasmodic, and has been taken to relieve pain of various kinds. In all the main herbal traditions it is regarded as a powerfully “cold” remedy, reducing physical function and sedating or suppressing nervous activity, pain, and coughs. In view of its addictive nature, opium is mainly used after other less powerful analgesics have failed to bring relief. It is also an effective remedy for acute diarrhea and severe coughs. Pharmaceutical drugs produced from opium poppy include morphine and codeine. Research  Much research has been done, 
confirming most of the uses of opium poppy  listed above. Related Species  See also red poppy  
(P. rhoeas, preceding entry), Mexican poppy 
(Argemone mexicana, p. 171), and California 
poppy ( Eschscholzia californica, p. 207). QCautions  Use opium poppy only under 
professional supervision. It is subject to legal restrictions in most countries. Opium poppy’s seed  
capsules contain a  
latex that is the source  
of morphine.Papaver rhoeas (Papaveraceae)
Red Poppy
Description  Delicate hairy-stemmed annual 
growing to 3 ft (90 cm). Has basal rosette of  
lance-shaped leaves and deeply incised stem  
leaves, 4-petaled red flowers with black anthers, and small rounded seed capsules. Habitat & Cultivation  Red poppy is native  
to Europe, North Africa, and temperate regions of Asia, and is naturalized in North and South America. It thrives on cultivated land and on  
road verges. The flowers are picked in summer. Parts Used  Flowers. Constituents  Red poppy contains alkaloids 
(including papaverine, rhoeadine, isorhoeadine, and many others), meconic acid, mekocyanin, mucilage, and tannin. The alkaloids are similar to those in the opium poppy (P. somniferum, see following entry), but are much milder. History & Folklore  According to Agnus 
Castus, writing in the 14th century, “If a man hawe ony peyne aboutyn his eyne or if a man hawe a mygreyn tak this herb and stamp it and nedle it with oyle de olywe and anoynt ther-with the forhed and it schal amende the syth and slake  
the peyne and distroye the mygreyn.”
Medicinal Actions & Uses  Red poppy 
flowers are mildly analgesic and sedative, and  
have long been used in European herbal medicine, particularly for ailments in children and the elderly. Flowerhead
US_224-245_Jasmine_Harmala.indd   244 26/02/16   12:47 pm245 Other medicinal plantsPeganum harmala
Parietaria officinalis syn. P. diffusa 
(Urticaceae)
Pellitory-of-the-Wall
Description  Annual growing to 28 in (70 cm). Has deep green leaves, greenish flowers, and small 
dark seeds. Habitat & Cultivation  Native to Europe,  
this plant is commonplace in southern countries, 
where it is found on walls and in dry stony sites. It is gathered in summer when in flower. Parts Used  Aerial parts. Constituents  Pellitory-of-the-wall contains 
flavonoids and tannins. History & Folklore  For more than 2,000 
years, pellitory-of-the-wall has been valued as a 
diuretic, as a soother of chronic coughs, and as  
a balm for wounds and burns. Medicinal Actions & Uses  Pellitory-of-the 
wall is chiefly employed as a diuretic, demulcent,  
and stone-preventing herb. In European herbal 
medicine, it is regarded as having a restorative 
action on the kidneys, supporting and strengthening 
their function. It has been prescribed for conditions 
such as nephritis, pyelitis (inflammation of the 
kidney), kidney stones, renal colic (pain caused  
by kidney stones), cystitis, and edema (fluid 
retention). It is also occasionally taken as a laxative. Caution  Do not take if suffering from hay fever 
or other allergies.Medicinal Actions & Uses  Guarana’s 
medicinal uses are similar to those of coffee 
(Coffea arabica , p. 192)—it is taken for headache 
and migraine, for mild depression, and to boost 
energy levels. The problems that apply to long-
term or excessive consumption of coffee also 
apply to guarana—both stimulate over the short 
term but tend to inhibit the body’s restorative 
processes over the longer term. In view of 
guarana’s high tannin content, long-term use  
is even less advisable, because tannins impair  
the intestines’ ability to absorb nutrients. Nevertheless, guarana is a useful short-term 
remedy for boosting energy, or for treating  
a tension headache that cannot be treated  
with rest. Guarana’s astringency also treats 
chronic diarrhea. Related Species  P. yoco , native to the Colombian 
Amazon, is used by indigenous peoples to reduce 
fevers, as a stimulant, and as a post-malarial treatment. Caution  Do not take guarana if suffering  
from cardiovascular disease or from high blood  
pressure. It should also not be taken during 
pregnancy or while breastfeeding.Peganum harmala 
(Zygophyllaceae)
Harmala,
African Rue
Description  Multi-branched shrubby perennial 
growing to 20 in (50 cm). Has deeply cleft linear 
leaves, white 5-petaled flowers, and rounded 
3-celled seed capsules. Habitat & Cultivation  Native to the Middle 
East, North Africa, and southern Europe, harmala 
is naturalized in other subtropical regions, including 
Australia. It thrives in saline soil in semidesert areas. The seeds are gathered in summer. Parts Used  Seeds, root. Constituents  Harmala contains up to 4% 
indole alkaloids (including harmine, harmaline,  
and harmalol). Harmine has been used to help 
alleviate the tremors of Parkinsonism. Harmala,  which thrives in dry conditions, has been used  
as an intoxicant in the Middle East. SeedsHistory & Folklore  Since the earliest times, 
harmala has been used in the Middle East as  
a means to induce intoxication.
Encyclopedia_Of_Herbal_Medicine.txt
Summarize the following text section accurately and concisely. Maintain specific details and numerical information, and use anti-repetition mechanisms:

        History & Folklore  The Irish herbalist  
K’Eogh reported in 1735, “a gentlewoman of my acquaintance … had a swelling for a year or more on her right side, which was cured by three or four times rubbing the grieved part with an oil made of this herb. ”
Medicinal Actions & Uses  As with horse 
chestnut (Aesculus hippocastanum, p. 58), long-term use of melilot—internally or externally—can help varicose veins and hemorrhoids. Melilot also helps reduce the risk of phlebitis and thrombosis. The plant is mildly sedative and antispasmodic, and is given for insomnia (especially in children) and anxiety. It has been used to treat flatulence, indigestion, bronchitis, problems associated with menopause, and rheumatic pains. Cautions  Do not take melilot if using 
anticoagulants. If harvested from the wild,  melilot should be dried or used immediately,  as the spoiled plant is toxic. Alfalfa has been cultivated for centuries for its nutritional 
and medicinal properties. Mentha haplocalyx (Lamiaceae)
Bo He (Chinese),
Corn Mint
Description  Perennial herb growing to 2 ft  
(60 cm). Has a square stem, oval toothed leaves,  
and whorls of pale lilac flowers growing from  the leaf axils. Habitat & Cultivation  Bo he is native to 
temperate regions of the northern hemisphere, and is widely cultivated in China. Harvested 2–3 times a year, the best crops are in early summer and early autumn. Parts Used  Aerial parts. Constituents  Bo he contains a volatile oil 
comprising mainly menthol (up to 95%) with menthone, menthyl acetate, camphene, limonene, and other terpenoids. History & Folklore  Bo he was first mentioned 
in Grandfather Lei’s Discussion of Herb Preparation  (c. 470 ce). A 15th-century Chinese prescription recommends bo he for dysentery with blood. Medicinal Actions & Uses  In Chinese  
herbal medicine (see pp. 40 –43) bo he is a popular treatment for colds, sore throats, sore mouth and tongue, and a host of other conditions ranging from 
US_224-245_Jasmine_Harmala. indd   234 26/02/16   12:47 pm235 Other medicinal plantsMitchella repens
toothache to measles. Like peppermint ( M. x piperita, 
p. 114), it helps to lower the temperature, has 
antimucus properties, and may be taken for 
dysentery and diarrhea. The juice has also been 
used to treat earache. Bo he  is often combined 
with ju hua  (Chrysanthemum x morifolium,  p. 78)  
to treat headaches and bloodshot or sore eyes. Related Species The Japanese variety of bo he  
(M. arvensis ) is widely cultivated as a source of 
menthol. The closely related spearmint ( M. spicata ) 
native to Europe and Asia, is used mainly as a 
flavoring and culinary herb. See also peppermint 
(M. x piperita, p. 114) and pennyroyal ( M. pulegium, 
following entry ). only distantly related, has constituents similar  
to those of pennyroyal. American pennyroyal is 
traditionally used as a remedy for colds, headaches, 
and delayed menstrual periods. Cautions  Do not use the essential oil, which  
is highly toxic. Do not take pennyroyal during 
pregnancy, or if menstrual periods are heavy. Self-help Uses  Digestive headaches & 
biliousness, p. 309; Nausea with headache, p. 306
Menyanthes trifoliata 
(Menyanthaceae)
Bogbean
Description  Perennial aquatic plant growing  
to 9 in (23 cm). Has trefoil leaves and spikes of  
pink and white flowers with fringed petals. Habitat & Cultivation  Bogbean is native  
to Europe, Asia, and America. It is found in shallow 
fresh water. The leaves are picked in summer. Parts Used  Leaves. Constituents  Bogbean contains iridoid 
glycosides, flavonol glycosides, coumarins, phenolic 
acids, sterols, triterpenoids, tannin, and very small 
amounts of pyrrolizidine alkaloids. The iridoids are 
strongly bitter and stimulate digestive secretions. if there is abdominal discomfort. This herb is also 
used as an aid to weight gain. Bogbean is thought 
to be an effective remedy for rheumatism, especially 
when this condition is associated with weakness, 
weight loss, and lack of vitality. Mostly, bogbean is 
prescribed in combination with other herbs such 
as celery seed ( Apium graveolens, p. 64) and white 
willow ( Salix alba,  p. 129). Cautions  Do not take if suffering from 
diarrhea, dysentery, or colitis. Excessive doses  
may cause vomiting. Bogbean  leaves are gathered in summer, after the plant  
has come into flower. History & Folklore  Long used as a folk remedy 
for rheumatism and arthritis, bogbean has also been 
taken to treat fluid retention, scabies, and fever. In 
the past, because of the herb’s pronounced 
bitterness, it was used as an adulterant of, or a 
substitute for, hops ( Humulus lupulus, p. 104). Medicinal Actions & Uses  Bogbean is a 
strongly bitter herb that encourages the appetite 
and stimulates digestive secretions. It is taken to 
improve underactive or weak digestion, particularly Mentha pulegium (Lamiaceae)
Pennyroyal
Description  Powerfully aromatic perennial 
growing to 16 in (40 cm). Has oval, toothed leaves 
and whorls of lilac flowers. Habitat & Cultivation  Pennyroyal is native  
to Europe and western Asia, and has become 
naturalized in the Americas. It thrives in damp  
areas and is gathered when in flower in summer.
The medicinal action of Bogbean is to stimulate digestive secretions and relieve abdominal discomfort.
What is the medicinal action of Bogbean?
The fruit is taken to treat diabetes, and the leaves are used to treat menstrual disorders and stimulate the uterus.
What is the traditional use of Noni fruit in Chinese medicine?
Turpeth root is used to treat colds and chills, fevers, headache, and general aches and pains.
What is the recommended use of Turpeth root?
Do not take Opium poppy. It is strongly addictive and should be used under professional supervision.
What is the warning for the use of Opium poppy?
Harmala is used to help alleviate the tremors of Parkinsonism, and has been used as an intoxicant in the Middle East.
What is the medicinal action of Harmala?