■ Anxiety A 2003 review of kava 
found that “compared with placebo, kava extract is an effective symptomatic treatment for anxiety.” The authors commented that “few adverse events were reported in the reviewed trials.” Kava is nonaddictive, and clinical evidence suggests it is also  a safe and effective treatment for anxiety linked with depression,  for insomnia, and for pain relief. Traditional &  
Current Uses
■ Traditional aphrodisiac Kava  
is valued in the South Sea Islands as a calming and stimulating intoxicant. It produces a euphoric state when taken in large quantities. ■ Relaxing remedy Kava is a safe 
and proven remedy for anxiety that does not cause drowsiness or affect the ability to operate machinery. It is valuable for treating muscle tension as well as emotional stress. ■ Pain relief With its tonic, 
strengthening, and mildly analgesic properties, kava is a good remedy  for chronic pain, helping to reduce sensitivity and to relax muscles that are tensed in response to pain. ■ Arthritic conditions The 
analgesic and cleansing diuretic effect of Kava often makes it a beneficial herb for treating rheumatic and arthritic problems such as gout. It helps to bring relief from pain and  to remove waste products from the affected joint. ■ Antiseptic Kava is routinely used 
by peoples of the South Pacific to treat infection, especially where pain is a key symptom. In New Guinea,  it is taken to soothe and treat sore throats and to relieve toothache. It makes a valuable urinary antiseptic and will help in treating cystitis, urethritis, urinary frequency, and bladder irritability. ■ External uses The herb makes  
a useful analgesic mouthwash for treating toothache and mouth ulcers. Root relieves pain and  
counters urinary infections. Dried rootTraditionally the root is 
chewed and fermented with saliva  QCautions Do not exceed recommended dosage or take for more than  
2 months at a time. Use water-based extracts. Do not take during pregnancy. If there is a history of liver disease, take only on professional advice. Subject to  legal restrictions in many countries. Infusion (to make, p. 291). To relieve anxiety and muscle  tension, drink 
1⁄3 cup (75 ml) a day. US_122-123_Piper_Plantago.indd   122 26/02/16   3:59 pm123Plantago spp . Poultice  For boils, mix 5 g of powdered husks with sufficient infusion of calendula 
to make a thick paste. Apply ( see p. 295) 3 times a day. Key medicinal plants Plantago spp. (Plantaginaceae)
Psyllium, Ispaghula (Hindi), Flea Seed
Produced by several Plantago  species— P. ovata , P. psyllium,  
and P. indica —psyllium has been used as a safe and 
effective laxative for thousands of years in Europe,  
North Africa, and Asia. Given their small size and brown 
color, psyllium husks and seeds have been mistaken for 
fleas, hence their folk name flea seed. Bland-tasting, they  
swell when moistened, and have a jellylike consistency  
in the mouth. Habitat & Cultivation
The three species that produce 
psyllium grow throughout southern 
Europe, North Africa, and Asia, 
especially in India, and are extensively 
cultivated. They are propagated from 
seed in spring and require plenty of 
sun. The seeds are harvested when 
ripe in late summer and early autumn. Related Species
Common plantain ( P. major , p. 251) 
is prescribed for diarrhea and 
irritable bowel syndrome. Che qian zi 
(P. asiatica ) is used in China as a 
diuretic, for diarrhea, and for 
bronchial congestion. The powdered 
husk is given late in pregnancy to aid 
normal presentation of the fetus 
(head-down position in the uterus). Key Constituents
■ Mucilage (arabinoxylan)
■ Fixed oil (2.5%)—mainly linoleic,  
 oleic, and palmitic fatty acids
■ Starch
Key Actions
■ Demulcent
■ Bulk laxative
■ Antidiarrheal
Research
■ Regulating bowel function  
Clinical trials in the U.S., Germany,  Psyllium
An annual, growing  
to 16 in (40 cm) high, 
with narrow leaves and 
clusters of minute 
white-brown flowers. and Scandinavia during the 1980s 
have shown that psyllium has both a 
laxative and an antidiarrheal action. ■ Diabetes  A 1998 clinical trial with 
125 patients concluded that 5 g of 
psyllium taken 3 times a day helped to 
lower blood-fat and -glucose levels in 
people with type 2 diabetes. Traditional &  
Current Uses
■ Laxative  Psyllium is prescribed  
in conventional as well as herbal 
medicine for constipation, especially 
when the condition results from an 
over-tensed or over-relaxed bowel. Both husks and seeds contain high 
levels of fiber (the mucilage) and 
expand, becoming highly gelatinous 
when soaked in water. By maintaining 
a high water content within the large 
intestine, they increase the bulk of 
the stool, easing its passage. ■ Other bowel problems  
Contrary to expectation, psyllium  
is a useful remedy for diarrhea. It is also an effective treatment  
for many other bowel problems, 
including irritable bowel syndrome, 
ulcerative colitis, and Crohn’s disease. In India, psyllium is commonly used  
to treat dysentery. ■ Hemorrhoid relief  Psyllium  
is valuable for hemorrhoids, helping 
to soften the stool and to reduce 
irritation of the veins. Psyllium  is widely cultivated for its husks  
and seeds, which are used as a remedy  
for bowel problems.■ Detoxifying herb  The jellylike 
mucilage produced when psyllium  
is soaked in water has the ability to 
absorb toxins within the large 
intestine. Psyllium is commonly taken 
to reduce autotoxicity (the toxins are 
expelled from the body with the 
husks and seeds in the feces). ■ Digestive ailments  The 
soothing, protective effect imparted 
by the mucilage-rich husks and  
seeds benefits the whole gastro-
intestinal tract. Psyllium is taken for 
stomach and duodenal ulcers, and  
for acid indigestion. ■ Urinary infections  The 
demulcent action of psyllium  
extends to the urinary tract. In  
India, an infusion of the seeds  
(the only time this preparation  
is used) is given for urethritis. ■ External uses  When psyllium 
husks are soaked in an infusion of 
calendula ( Calendula officinalis , p. 73), 
they make an effective poultice  
for external use, drawing out 
infection from boils, abscesses,  
and whitlows (pus-filled swellings  
on the fingertips). Self-help Uses
■ Chronic diarrhea & irritable  
 bowel syndrome , p. 307. ■ Constipation , p. 317. ■ Difficult passage of the stool  
 & hemorrhoids , p. 302. QCautions  Do not exceed the stated dose. Always take with plenty of water.Parts Used Key Preparations & Their Uses
Seeds  should be soaked in  
water before they are used.Husks  are generally powdered for  
use in a variety of preparations. Cold  maceration  For constipation, soak 
20 g of seeds in 3⁄4 cup (200 ml) water for 
10 hours. T ake the whole dose at night.Capsules of powdered husk (p. 292). For hemorrhoids, take a 200 mg  
capsule 3 times a day. Seeds Powdered husk
US_122-123_Piper_Plantago.indd   123 07/04/16   4:37 pm
124Polygonum multiflorumKey Medicinal PlantsPolygonum multiflorum (Polygonaceae)
Fo Ti, He Shou Wu  (Chinese)Fo Ti
A perennial climber, growing to 33 ft (10 m), with red stems, light-green leaves, and white or pink flowers. Fo ti is one of the oldest Chinese tonic 
herbs. It is used to help lower blood cholesterol levels. Habitat & Cultivation
Fo ti is native to central  
and southern China, and is cultivated 
throughout that region. It is propagated from seed or by root division in spring, or from cuttings  
in summer. The plant requires  well-fertilized soil and plenty of protection from winter weather. The roots of 3- to 4-year-old fo ti  
plants are unearthed and dried during the autumn. Older, larger roots are prized for their therapeutic properties, but  
are generally not available to  
obtain commercially. Related Species
Bistort (P. bistorta, p. 253), one of  the most strongly astringent of all herbs, and knotgrass (P. aviculare,  p. 253) are used in European herbal medicine. They do not have the  same tonic therapeutic properties  
as P. multiflorum. In Chinese herbal 
medicine, P. cuspidatum is used  
to treat amenorrhea (absence  
of periods). Key Constituents
■ Anthraquinone glycosides
■ Stilbene glycoside
■ Polyphenols
■ Phospholipids, including lecithin
Key Actions
■ Tonic
■ Antioxidant
■ Mild sedative
■ Lowers cholesterol levels
■ Neuroprotective
Research
■ Cholesterol levels In animal 
experiments in China, fo ti was shown to significantly reduce raised blood cholesterol levels. Also,  
in a clinical trial, over 80% of patients with high blood cholesterol who had been taking decoctions of the root showed an improvement. ■ Blood-sugar levels Chinese 
research has revealed that fo ti   
helps increase the levels of sugar  in the blood. ■ Neuroprotective Preclinical 
research points to fo ti having a stabilizing effect on brain function, and that it might—as traditional  
use would suggest—prove valuable in slowing aging processes within  the central nervous system. Traditional &  
Current Uses
■ Popular tonic Although fo ti is 
not the earliest tonic herb listed in 
Chinese herbal medicine (it is first mentioned in 713 ce), it has  
become one of the most widely used. It is taken regularly by  millions of people in the East  
for its rejuvenating and toning properties, and to increase fertility  
in both men and women. ■ Liver & kidney remedy  
In Chinese herbal medicine, fo ti’s most important use is as a tonic  for the liver and kidneys. By strengthening liver and kidney function, it helps cleanse the blood, enabling the qi to circulate freely around the whole body. ■ Nerve & blood tonic Fo ti is 
given in Chinese herbal medicine to people with symptoms, such as dizziness, weakness, numbness, and blurred vision, that indicate inefficient nerves and “blood deficiency.”Parts Used
Key Preparations & Their UsesRoot is highly valued in Chinese 
medicine for its tonic properties. It is unearthed in the autumn. Powder  may be added to food for its tonic effect. T ake 5 g a day.Decoction (to make,  
p. 291). As a general  
tonic, take the decoction 
over 2 days.Tablets, known as 
shou wu pian, are 
taken in China for 
their rejuvenating 
properties. ■ Premature aging Fo ti is 
prescribed in China for people 
showing signs of premature aging. This suggests it helps the body function in a balanced, healthy way. In particular, there is a lot of evidence to support the root’s use to aid reversing hair loss and graying of  the hair. ■ Malaria The herb is prescribed  
in the treatment of chronic malaria, when it is often combined with ginseng (Panax ginseng, p. 120),  dong quai (Angelica sinensis, p. 63),  as well as green tangerine peel  (Citrus reticulata).Tincture (to make, p. 292). To reduce blood cholesterol 
levels, take 1 tsp twice a day 
with water.Dried rootA Chinese tonic herb with a bittersweet taste, fo ti is 
thought to concentrate qi (vital energy) in its root, so  
that taking this herb gives vitality to the body. It  
has always been considered a rejuvenating herb,  
helping to prevent aging and encouraging longevity. Traditionally, much folklore is attached to this herb,  
and large, old roots are thought to have  
remarkable powers. QCaution Only the prepared root from Chinese herbal shops should be used. US_124-125_Polygonum_Rehmannia.indd   124 17/03/16   4:00 pm125Rehmannia glutinosaKey medicinal plants
Shu di huang  Simmer 15 g root  
in 2 cups (500 ml) red wine for 
20 minutes. For blood loss and 
anemia, take 1/2 cup (100 ml) daily.Remedy  Decoct 15 g rehmannia and 10 g 
Chinese figwort ( see p. 291). For fevers, 
take 3⁄4 cup (150 ml) 2 –3 times daily.Root is chewed 
raw and has a 
slightly bitter tasteRehmannia glutinosa  (Scrophulariaceae)
Rehmannia, Di Huang (Chinese)
An important Chinese tonic herb, rehmannia has figured 
extensively in many traditional herbal formulas and  
has an ancient history: it was referred to by Ge Hong,  
the 4th-century ce Chinese physician and alchemist. Rehmannia is a “longevity” herb and has a marked tonic 
action on the liver and kidneys. Research has confirmed  
its traditional use, showing that it protects the liver and  
is useful for hepatitis. Habitat & Cultivation
Rehmannia grows wild on sunny 
mountain slopes in northern and 
northeastern parts of China, 
especially in Henan province. Rehmannia can be cultivated, in  
which case it is propagated from  
seed sown in autumn or spring. The root is harvested in autumn, 
after the plant has flowered. Related Species
R. lutea  is used in Chinese herbal 
medicine as a diuretic. Key Constituents
■ Iridoids
■ Polysaccharides
■ Phytosterols
■ Phenethyl glycosides
Key Actions
■ Tonic
■ Anti-inflammatory
■ Kidney tonic
■ Lowers blood pressure
■ Antidiabetic
■ Reduces fever
■ AntihemorrhagicResearch
■ Liver remedy  Chinese research 
has shown rehmannia to be a very 
important liver-protective herb, 
preventing poisoning and liver 
damage. Clinical trials in China  
have demonstrated that it can  
be effective in treating hepatitis. ■ Other research Chinese 
research over the last 10 years 
indicates that rehmannia has a 
positive stabilizing effect on blood-
sugar regulation, and aids liver and 
pancreatic function. Ongoing 
preclinical research in China is 
examining the herb’s usefulness  
in preventing osteoporosis. Traditional &  
Current Uses
■ Raw & prepared  root  In Chinese 
herbal medicine, the root ( di huang ) 
is known as sheng di huang  when  
it is eaten raw and shu di huang   
when it has been cooked in wine. The former is the most commonly 
taken remedy. Both are yin tonics  
(see p. 40), but have different 
therapeutic indications. ■ Sheng di huang  The raw root 
“cools the blood,” and is given to  
help lower fever in acute and chronic 
illnesses. Its cooling nature is 
reflected in its use for problems such 
as thirst and a red tongue that arise 
from “heat patterns.” Sheng di huang  
is useful for treating people with 
impaired liver function and is used 
specifically to treat hepatitis and 
other liver conditions. ■ Shu di huang This preparation  
is used specifically for blood loss  
and “blood deficiency” states such  
as irregular and heavy menstrual Rehmannia
A perennial, reaching 
1–2 ft (30–60 cm), 
with large, sticky leaves 
and purple flowers. bleeding. It is warming rather than 
cooling, and is considered to be a 
prime kidney tonic. ■ Blood pressure  Rehmannia is 
used to treat high blood pressure. Interestingly, while sheng di huang  
appears to raise blood pressure,  
shu di huang  has the opposite effect. ■ Longevity Rehmannia is a 
traditional and valuable tonic for  
old age. It is considered to help 
prevent senility.Rehmannia’s  appearance gave rise to its 
Western folkname “Chinese foxglove.”Parts Used
Key Preparations & Their UsesRoot is unearthed in autumn. It has 
a protective action on the liver. Fresh root
■ Chinese formulas  The herb  
is an ingredient of many famous  
herbal formulas, most notably  
“the pill of eight ingredients,” which 
contemporary Chinese herbalists 
consider to “warm and invigorate  
the yang of the loins.”
Self-help Uses
■ Heavy menstrual bleeding , p. 315. ■ Weakened liver & metabolism ,  
 p. 319.Dried root
Rehmannia
Chinese 
figwort QCaution  T ake only on professional advice during pregnancy. US_124-125_Polygonum_Rehmannia.indd   125 26/02/16   4:00 pm
126Rheum palmatum
Dried rhizome Key Medicinal PlantsRhizome is a mild 
appetite stimulant and 
helps improve digestionRheum palmatum (Polygonaceae)
Chinese Rhubarb, Da Huang (Chinese)Chinese rhubarb
A thick-rhizomed perennial growing to  10 ft (3 m), with large palm-shaped leaves and small flowers. Chinese rhubarb grows best close to 
water. In summer it produces clusters  of red flowers. Habitat & Cultivation
Native to China and Tibet, where  
the best-quality herb is still found, 
Chinese rhubarb now also grows in the West. It is found in the wild and  is widely cultivated. It is grown from seed in spring or by root division  
in spring or autumn and requires a sunny position and well-drained soil. The rhizomes of 6–10-year-old plants are dug up in the autumn after the stem and leaves have turned yellow. Related Species
R. tanguticum and R. officinale have similar uses to R. palmatum. These  3 species are considered to be superior in action to other rhubarbs. The familiar, edible rhubarb is  
R. rhaponticum. Key Constituents
■ Anthraquinones (about 3–5%),  
 rhein, aloe-emodin, emodin
■ Flavonoids (catechin)
■ Phenolic acids
■ Tannins (5–10%)
■ Calcium oxalateKey Actions
■ Laxative
■ Anti-inflammatory
■ Astringent
■ Stops bleeding
■ Antibacterial
Research
■ Anthraquinones & tannins 
Chinese rhubarb’s medicinal value  is largely due to the irritant, laxative, and purgative properties of the anthraquinones, and in large doses the rhizome is strongly laxative. A 2007 Chinese study concluded that the anthraquinones in rhubarb “possess promising anticancer properties and could have a broad therapeutic potential.”
■ Antibacterial properties 
Decoctions of the root have been shown to be effective against Staphylococcus aureus, an infectious bacterium that causes mouth ulcers  
and folliculitis (an acne-type infection  
of the beard area). In laboratory studies, rhubarb has been found  
to have notable activity against Helicobacter pylori, a bacterium  
that causes stomach ulcers. Traditional &  
Current Uses
■ History Chinese rhubarb was  
first mentioned in the 1st-century ce  
Chinese text The Divine Husbandman’s 
Classic, and has been grown in the West since 1732. It is one of the few herbs still used today in conventional as well as herbal medicine, and is listed in the British Pharmacopoeia of 1988. ■ Constipation Large doses of 
Chinese rhubarb are combined with carminative herbs and taken as a laxative, helping to clear the colon without causing excessive cramping. This is useful for treating constipation where the muscles of the large intestine are weak. ■ Diarrhea Small doses of the root 
are astringent, relieving irritation of the inner lining of the gut, thus reducing diarrhea.Parts Used
Key Preparations & Their UsesRhizome contains anthraquinones, which are 
laxative, and tannins, which are astringent. Fresh rhizome
Decoction (to make, p. 291). For 
an occasional bout of constipation, 
take 1/2 cup (100 ml) each evening. ■ Other uses Chinese rhubarb 
can be applied to burns, boils, and carbuncles. The herb acts as a tonic and mild appetite stimulant and serves as a useful mouthwash for mouth ulcers. Self-help Use
■ Constipation, p. 307.Tincture (to make, p. 292). To 
stimulate the appetite, take 20 
drops with water twice a day.Chinese rhubarb has long been prized as the most  
useful purge in herbal medicine, safe even for young 
children due to its gentle action. It has been used in  China for over 2,000 years and is an extremely effective treatment for many digestive problems. Paradoxically,  it is a laxative when taken in large doses but has a constipating effect in small measures. The rhizome  has an astringent, unpleasant taste. QCautions Do not take during pregnancy or while breastfeeding. Do not take during 
menstruation or if prone to gout or kidney stones. Not suitable for children. Tablets are one of the most convenient ways of taking the herb. T ake for  
occasional bouts of constipation. US_126-127_Rheum_Rhodiola.indd   126 26/02/16   4:00 pm127Rhodiola RoseaKey Medicinal Plants
Tablets  take as recommended by 
supplier for lowered mood and vitality.Decoction  T ake 21/2 tsp twice a day 
to promote physical endurance.Rhodiola rosea (Crassulaceae)
Rhodiola, Golden Root
An Arctic plant that thrives in extreme environments, 
rhodiola’s rose-colored roots have pronounced medicinal 
activity, enhancing the ability of the body to deal with  
stresses of all kinds. An adaptogen, similar to ginseng 
(Panax ginseng , p. 118), rhodiola also acts on the central 
nervous system, supporting memory and concentration 
under conditions of stress, and helping to relieve nervous 
exhaustion and mild to moderate depression. Habitat and Cultivation
Rhodiola is indigenous to 
mountainous and Arctic regions of 
the northern hemisphere, including 
Canada, Scotland, Scandinavia, Russia, 
and Alaska. Rhodiola is still mostly 
collected from the wild, threatening 
its long-term survival in some regions, 
though it is now cultivated in Canada, 
Norway, and Finland. Related Species
The central Asian R. quadrifida  is used 
in Mongolia to enhance strength and 
vigor. R. crenulata  and R. rosea are 
used in Chinese medicine, though 
across China many different species 
of Rhodiola  are used to alleviate 
fatigue and protect against the cold. Chinese research into R. crenulata  
indicates that this species aids 
endurance and has a protective 
activity against radiation. Key Constituents
■ Phenylpropanoids (rosavins— 
   occuring only in Rhodiola rosea )
■ Salidroside
■ Flavonoids■ Monoterpenes (including rosiridin)
■ Triterpenes
Key Actions
■ Adaptogen
■ Antidepressant
■ Aids mental performance
■ Anti-inflammatory
Research
■ Adaptogen  Rhodiola is an 
unusual medicine—an adaptogen  
that combines the ability to promote 
physical and mental endurance with 
antidepressant and anti-inflammatory 
activity. Though large-scale clinical 
trials are lacking, research shows that 
rhodiola root increases the capacity 
to resist physical and mental fatigue. ■ Clinical trials  In a 2000 
Armenian clinical trial, young healthy 
hospital doctors working night shifts 
were given a rhodiola extract. After 
2 weeks, those taking the extract 
showed significantly fewer signs of 
mental fatigue, including better levels 
of concentration and short-term 
memory, than those taking a placebo. In a 2015 U.S. clinical trial, 57 adults 
with moderate depression were 
given rhodiola or sertraline, a 
conventional antidepressant. Both medicines proved effective,  
but those taking rhodiola reported  
fewer side effects. Traditional &  
Current Uses
■ Key traditional uses  In Europe 
and Asia, the central core of 
rhodiola’s use in traditional medicine 
has always been its power to 
increase endurance and work rate, 
and the capacity to cope with high Rhodiola
A fleshy perennial  
growing to 16 in (40 cm) 
in height with thick oblong 
leaves and clusters of 
yellow flowers. altitude and winter cold. The roots 
have also been taken to promote 
longevity, ease depression, and treat 
infection. Rhodiola is now most 
commonly taken to improve mental 
and physical performance and to 
protect against the harmful effects of 
ongoing stress. ■ Russian medicine  Rhodiola 
became an official medicine in Russia 
in 1969, being recommended for a wide 
range of health problems, not only as 
an adaptogen ( see Research ), but for 
psychiatric and neurological problems, 
such as depression and schizophrenia.Rhodiola  root is most commonly taken to 
improve mental and physical performance. Parts Used
Key Preparations & Their UsesRoot helps to support physical 
and mental endurance and to 
counter the effects of stress. Fresh rhizome
■ Other uses  Rhodiola is 
traditionally considered to help 
improve fertility in both men and 
women. In Siberia, rhodiola roots  
are given to marrying couples to 
promote fertility and the health of 
their future children. In Mongolia, 
alongside its use as a tonic, rhodiola  
is given for infections such as 
bronchitis and pneumonia, and  
is also used as a mouthwash for  
bad breath. Self-help Use
■ Maintaining vitality , p. 319.Dried rhizome
Cautions  Can cause irritability and sleep disturbance. Not advisable in manic and 
bipolar disorders. Tincture  (to make, p. 292). To support memory and concentration, take  
1/2 tsp 2–3 times a day. US_126-127_Rheum_Rhodiola.indd   127 07/04/16   4:37 pm
128RosmaR inus officinalisKey medicinal plantsVolatile oil is most 
concentrated in  the leavesRosmarinus officinalis (Lamiaceae)
RosemaryRosemary
A strongly aromatic evergreen shrub growing to 6
1⁄2 ft (2 m), 
with narrow, dark green, pinelike leaves. Rosemary was a symbol of fidelity between 
lovers, on account of its ability to improve  the memory. Habitat & Cultivation
Native to the Mediterranean, rosemary 
grows freely in much of southern Europe and is cultivated throughout the world. It is propagated from seed or cuttings in spring and prefers a warm, moderately dry climate and a sheltered site. The branches are gathered during the summer after flowering and dried in the shade. Key Constituents
■ Volatile oil (1–2%) containing  
 borneol, camphene, camphor,   cineole
■ Flavonoids (apigenin, diosmin)
■ Tannins
■ Rosmarinic acid
■ Diterpenes (including carnosic  
 acid and carnosol)
Key Actions
■ Tonic 
■ Stimulant
■ Astringent
■ Nervine
■ Anti-inflammatory
■ AntioxidantResearch
■ General circulation A 2011 
study published in Phytotherapy Research found that rosemary exerted anti-inflammatory and protective effects on the inner lining of blood vessels in young adults. Such research supports the understanding that many active compounds in rosemary support a healthy circulation. A  
small 2006 clinical trial in Germany concluded (in line with traditional usage) that rosemary raised blood pressure in people suffering from  
low blood pressure. All those taking rosemary also reported feeling better at the end of the trial. ■ Other actions Japanese 
laboratory research in 2003 found that diterpenes within rosemary (carnosic acid and carnosol) strongly stimulated nerve growth factor, suggesting that rosemary may stimulate nerve repair. A 2015 review in Cancer Letters stated that these constituents also had “promising results of anticancer activity.”
Traditional &  
Current Uses
■ Circulatory stimulant 
Rosemary has a central place in 
European herbal medicine as a warming, tonic remedy that stimulates blood flow throughout  the body, especially in those with  low blood pressure. It is thought to promote blood flow to the head, thus improving memory and concentration. It may be taken to relieve migraine and headaches and encourages hair growth and health. ■ Poor circulation Thought to 
raise low blood pressure, the herb  is valuable for fainting and weakness associated with deficient circulation. ■ Restorative Rosemary aids 
recovery from long-term stress  
and chronic illness. It is thought to stimulate the adrenal glands  
and is used specifically for debility, especially when accompanied by poor circulation and digestion. ■ Uplifting herb Rosemary is  
often prescribed for people who  
are stressed and “failing to thrive.” Valued as an herb that raises the Parts Used
Key Preparations  
& Their UsesLeaves are gathered in summer  
and used in preparations or distilled  for their oil. Dried leaves
Fresh leaves
Infusion (to make, p. 291). To relieve headaches, take 21/2 tsp every 3 hours. The infusion, rubbed into the scalp, improves hair growth.Tincture (to make, p. 292) 
is an excellent tonic. For 
stress, take 40 drops twice 
daily with water. spirits, it is useful for mild to 
moderate depression. ■ Other uses Applied as a lotion  
or diluted essential oil, rosemary eases aching, rheumatic muscles. Add the infusion, or essential oil,  to bathwater for a reviving soak. Self-help Uses
■ Migraine, p. 309. ■ Premenstrual syndrome, p. 315. ■ Sore throats, p. 311. ■ Tired & aching muscles, p. 312.Essential oil To improve 
concentration, burn several drops in an oil burner (to use, p. 297).Rosemary is a well-known and greatly valued herb  
that is native to southern Europe. It has been used  
since antiquity to improve and strengthen the memory. To this day it is burned in the homes of students in  
Greece who are about to take exams. Rosemary has  
a longstanding reputation as a tonic, invigorating herb, imparting a zest for life that is to some degree reflected  
in its distinctive aromatic taste. QCaution Do not take the essential oil internally except under a professional 
practitioner’s supervision. US_128-129_Rosmarinus_Salix.indd   128 26/02/16   4:00 pm129Salix albaKey medicinal plants
Remedy  Make a decoction ( see p. 291)  
with 10 g each of white willow, St John’s  
wort, and cramp bark. For aching muscles,  
drink 3/4 cup (150 ml) twice a day.Tincture  (to make, p. 292). For rheumatism, take 1/2 tsp 
with water 3 times a day. Tablets  often also contain 
other herbs. T ake for arthritis.Bark is dark 
gray and deeply 
fissuredSalix alba  (Salicaceae)
White Willow
Justly famous as the original source of salicylic acid  
(the forerunner of aspirin), white willow and closely 
related species have been used for thousands of years  
in Europe, Africa, Asia, and North America to relieve  
joint pain and manage fevers. Dioscorides, a Greek 
physician in the 1st century ce, suggested taking “willow 
leaves, mashed with a little pepper and drunk with wine”  
to relieve lower back pain. Habitat & Cultivation
Native to much of Europe, white 
willow is also found in North Africa 
and Asia, thriving in damp areas, such 
as on riverbanks. It is propagated 
from semi-ripe cuttings in summer  
or from hardwood cuttings in winter. The trees are frequently pollarded 
and bark is stripped from branches 
of 2- to 5-year-old trees in spring. Related Species
Many Salix species, for example  
crack willow ( S. fragilis ), are used 
interchangeably with white willow. S. acmophylla  is used on the Indian 
subcontinent as a remedy for  
fevers. In North American herbal 
medicine, black willow ( S. nigra )  
is given as an anaphrodisiac  
(sexual depressant). Key Constituents
■ Phenolic glycosides  
 (up to 11%) 
■ Salicin
■ Flavonoids
■ PolyphenolsKey Actions
■ Anti-inflammatory
■ Analgesic
■ Reduces fever
■ Antirheumatic
■ Astringent
Research
■ Salicylic acid & aspirin  Salicylic 
acid, a strongly anti-inflammatory  
and analgesic compound, was first 
isolated from salicin in willow bark  
in 1838. It was the forerunner of 
aspirin, a chemical drug developed in 
Germany during 1899. Salicylic acid 
(and salicin) has many of the 
properties of aspirin but causes 
notably fewer side effects. As such,  
it is now being widely researched as 
an alternative to aspirin-based anti-
inflammatory medicines such as 
ibuprofen. Unlike aspirin, salicylic 
acid does not thin the blood, and 
any problems it might cause within 
the digestive tract are likely to  
be minor. ■ Clinical trials Over the last 15 
years, clinical trials have shown that 
high-strength willow bark extract 
offers an effective alternative to 
mainstream anti-inflammatory 
medicines, particularly in treating 
conditions such as osteoarthritis and 
lower back pain. In a 2008 clinical  
trial published in Phytomedicine , 
among people with arthritis of the 
hip or knee, aged between 50 and 
75, those taking willow bark extract, 
after 6 weeks, were rated by 
doctors as doing significantly better 
than those taking standard aspirin-
based medication. Those taking 
willow bark reported far fewer  
side effects.White willow
A deciduous tree 
growing to 80 ft  
(25 m), with green 
tapering leaves, and 
catkins in spring. Traditional &  
Current Uses
■ Joint remedy  White willow is  
an excellent remedy for arthritic and 
rheumatic pain affecting the back,  
and joints such as the knees and hips, 
though large doses may be required, 
such as a standardized tablet. In 
combination with other herbs and 
dietary changes, it relieves inflammation 
and swelling, and improves mobility in 
painful or creaky joints. ■ Fevers & pain  White willow  
is taken to manage high fevers. It  White willow  is used in Britain to make 
cricket bats. The bark has anti-inflammatory 
properties.Parts Used
Key Preparations  
& Their UsesBark is stripped from  
young branches and used 
fresh or dried. Dried barkFresh bark
may also be used to ease headaches 
and head pain. ■ Menopause  A cooling herb that 
reduces sweating, willow bark can be 
helpful in controlling symptoms such 
as hot flashes and night sweats. Self-help Uses
■ Arthritis & inflamed  
 joints , p. 313. ■ Back pain due to joint   
 inflammation , p. 313. ■ Hot flashes & night  
 sweats , p. 316. QCaution  Avoid if allergic to aspirin. Do not 
take during pregnancy or if breastfeeding. Not suitable for young children. Rarely, may 
cause gastrointestinal upset. St John’s wort
Cramp bark
Decoction  (to make, p. 291). For painful joints and aching rheumatic muscles, 
take 1⁄3 cup (75 ml) 3 times a day. US_128-129_Rosmarinus_Salix.indd   129 26/02/16   4:00 pm
130Salvia miltiorrhizakey medicinal plantsSalvia miltiorrhiza (Lamiaceae)
Dan Shen, Chinese SageDan shen
A hardy perennial growing to 32 in  (80 cm), with toothed oval leaves and clusters of purple flowers. Dan shen is an important circulatory 
stimulant. It is sold in herbal markets  across China for use in medicinal formulas. Habitat & Cultivation
Native to China, dan shen is now 
cultivated in northeastern China  
and Inner Mongolia. It requires  
moist, sandy soil and is propagated  by root division in spring. The root is harvested from late autumn through early spring. Related Species
Sage (S. officinalis, p. 131) is closely related, but is used for an entirely different range of medical problems. In Mexico, the related species  
S. divinorum is used as a hallucinogen. Key Constituents
■ Diterpenes (tanshinones)
■ Phenolic compounds
■ Volatile oil
■ Vitamin E
Key Actions
■ Tonic to heart and circulation
■ Anticoagulant
■ Dilates the blood vessels
■ Sedative
■ AntibacterialResearch
■ T anshinones There has been 
extensive research into dan shen in China, and the tanshinones have been shown to have a profound effect on coronary circulation, reducing the symptoms of angina and improving heart function. ■ Heart attack The whole herb 
(rather than isolated constituents) has been used in China to assist patients who are recovering from  
a heart attack, and it appears to support heart function at this  
critical time. Clinical trials in China, however, have shown that dan shen   
is most effective when taken as  
a preventative, rather than as a remedy after the heart attack  
has taken place. ■ Other research Many recent 
clinical trials involving dan shen have used Chinese herbal combinations, rather than dan shen alone, so it is hard to draw conclusions. However, they do provide further evidence  of dan shen’s usefulness in cardio-vascular problems such as high blood pressure, angina, and heart disease. Unusually, two clinical trials in China (2012) found that injected extracts of dan shen were helpful in pre-
eclampsia, a serious condition during pregnancy which involves fluid retention and high blood pressure. Traditional &  
Current Uses
■ Circulatory stimulant Dan  
shen has been esteemed by the 
Chinese for thousands of years as a circulatory stimulant. Like hawthorn (Crataegus oxyacantha, p. 87), it is  a safe, effective remedy for many circulatory problems. It particularly benefits coronary circulation, opening up the arteries and improving blood flow to the heart, and is therefore helpful in treating coronary heart disease. Though it does not lower blood pressure, dan shen  
relaxes the blood vessels and improves circulation throughout  
the body. ■ Circulatory congestion Dan 
shen is used traditionally to treat conditions caused by blood Parts Used
Key Preparations & Their UsesRoot is an ancient 
Chinese remedy for circulatory disorders. Dried  
chopped rootDried root
Tincture is used by herbalists 
to treat angina and other 
circulatory problems. stagnation, primarily those affecting 
the lower abdomen, such as absent or painful periods and fibroids. ■ Sedative The sedative action of 
dan shen helps to calm the nerves, and it is therefore helpful in treating angina, a condition made worse by anxiety and worry. Palpitations, insomnia, and irritability also benefit from dan shen’s sedative properties. Self-help Use
■ Palpitations, p. 302. Decoction (to make, p. 291). For painful periods, take 1⁄3 cup  
(75 ml) up to 3 times a day.Recent scientific research supports dan shen’s traditional 
usage as a remedy for heart and circulatory problems such as angina and palpitations. The Divine Husbandman’s Classic (Shen’nong Bencaojing), the earliest of all Chinese herbal 
texts, listed dan shen as an herb that “invigorates the blood,” and it is still used as a circulatory remedy. In particular, it is taken for period pain and other conditions resulting from circulatory congestion. QCautions For serious circulatory or heart problems, take only under professional 
supervision. The tincture may produce digestive and skin reactions. Avoid in pregnancy. US_130-131_Salvia_Salvia.indd   130 26/02/16   4:00 pm131Salvia officinali Skey medicinal plants
Fresh sage leaves  
are a useful first aid 
remedy. Rub on stings 
and bites.Infusion  (to make,  
p. 291). Use as a gargle 
for sore throats up to  
3 times a day.Tincture  (to make,  
p. 292) is a digestive  
tonic. T ake 40 drops with 
water twice a day.Purple sage,  
S. officinalis 
purpurascens , is 
the preferred 
medicinal varietySalvia officinalis  (Lamiaceae)
Sage
Sage’s botanical name is a clue to its medicinal importance: 
Salvia  comes from salvare , meaning “to cure” in Latin. A medieval saying echoes this: “Why should a man die  
while sage grows in his garden?” Today, sage is an excellent 
remedy for sore throats, poor digestion, and irregular 
periods, and it is also taken as a gently stimulating  
tonic. It has a slightly warm, noticeably bitter, and  
astringent taste. Habitat & Cultivation
Native to the Mediterranean, sage  
is cultivated all around the world, 
thriving in sunny conditions. It is 
grown from seed in spring and the 
plants are replaced after 3 to 4 years. The leaves are picked in summer. Related Species
In all, there are about 500 species of 
Salvia . Spanish sage ( S. lavandulifolia ) is 
the most familiar culinary variety and 
does not contain thujone. Two close 
relatives of S. officinalis  are dan shen  
(S. miltiorrhiza , p. 130) and clary sage 
(S. sclarea , p. 265). Key Constituents
■ Essential oil (1–2%)
■ Diterpenes
■ Triterpenes
■ Phenolic compounds  
 including rosmarinic acid
■ Tannins
Key Actions
■ Antiseptic
■ Astringent■ Clears mucus
■ Nerve tonic
■ Estrogenic
Research
■ Nerve tonic  Ongoing research  
taking place in the UK provides 
strong support for the traditional use 
of sage to enhance memory. In the 
most recent study (2008), healthy 
volunteers averaging 73 years of age 
showed a significant improvement in 
memory processing and accuracy of 
attention after taking a single dose of 
sage extract. Interestingly, a moderate 
dose, equivalent to 2.5 g of sage, 
proved most effective, more so than 
higher doses. ■ Sore throat In a randomized trial 
published during 2006, a sage throat 
spray was found to relieve throat 
pain in people who had acute  
throat infection. ■ Hormonal activity  The herb’s 
longstanding use during menopause 
has also been researched. In the 
most recent study, undertaken in 
Switzerland (2011), women with  
at least 12 months of hot flashes 
reported an average 64% decrease  
in symptoms after 8 weeks of  
taking sage. ■ Lowering blood fat levels   
A clinical trial published in 2011 in 
Phytotherapy Research  concluded  
that “sage may be effective and safe  
in the treatment of hyperlipidemia.” 
All blood fat markers showed 
improvement in those taking sage. Traditional &  
Current Uses
■ Sore throat  Sage’s combination 
of antiseptic and astringent action Sage
An evergreen  
growing to 32 in  
(80 cm), with square 
stems and hairy grey-
green or purple leaves. makes it ideal as a gargle for sore 
throats and throat infections. It can 
equally be used for mouth ulcers  
and sore gums. ■ Hormonal remedy  A valuable 
remedy for irregular and scanty 
periods, sage encourages better 
blood flow at menstruation. The 
herb is thought to reduce or prevent 
sweating and can prove particularly 
effective during menopause. It also helps to reduce hot flashes  
and night sweats and it has a 
calming, relaxant aspect. Sage will 
decrease breast-milk production,  Sage is known most commonly as a  
culinary herb, but it is also of great  
medicinal importance.Parts Used
Key Preparations 
& Their UsesLeaves have valuable 
antiseptic and astringent 
properties. Dried leaves
and is traditionally taken by a mother 
while weaning. ■ Digestive tonic Sage has a long 
traditional use as a digestive aid, 
supporting stomach health and 
promoting better digestion  
and absorption. Self-help Uses
■ Bites & stings , p. 303. ■ Diarrhea , p. 307. ■ Hot flashes & night  
 sweats , p. 316. ■ Mouth ulcers , p. 306. ■ Sore throats , p. 311.Fresh  
leaves
 QCautions  Do not take medicinal doses during pregnancy or while  
breastfeeding, or if epileptic. US_130-131_Salvia_Salvia.indd   131 26/02/16   4:00 pm
132SambucuS  nigrakey medicinal plants
Berries contain 
vitamins A and CFlowers 
reduce 
inflammationSambucus nigra (Caprifoliaceae)
ElderElder
A deciduous tree growing to 33 ft  (10 m), with oval leaves, cream flowers, and blue-black berries. Elder was traditionally known as “Nature’s 
medicine chest.”
Habitat & Cultivation
Native to Europe, elder thrives  
in woods, hedges, and in open  
areas. It is now found in most 
temperate regions, and is often cultivated. Elder is propagated from cuttings in spring. The flowering  
tops are harvested in late spring  
and the berries are picked in early autumn. Key Constituents
Berries:
■ Flavonoids
■ Anthocyanins
■ Lectins
■ Vitamins A and C
Flowers:
■ Flavonoids
■ Anthocyanins
■ Triterpenes
■ Volatile oil (0.7%)
■ Mucilage
■ Tannins
Key Actions
■ Antiviral
■ Clears mucus
■ Anti-inflammatory■ Diuretic
■ Increases sweating
Research
■ Elder berries Israeli research  
from 1995 found 90% of people  that were given elderberry extract recovered in 2–3 days, while 90%  of those taking the placebo took up to 6 days. Further clinical trials have supported these findings—a 2014 review concluded there was “good scientific evidence” that elderberry extract was an effective treatment for influenza. Although the safety profile of elderberry has not been established, evidence indicates it is  a safe influenza remedy for adults  and children. Traditional &  
Current Uses
■ Coughs & colds The berries have 
an established antiviral activity, helping 
prevent and speed recovery from upper respiratory infections, such  
as colds and flu. Following traditional usage, the flowers are taken to stimulate sweating and relieve fever  by cooling the body. An elderflower infusion makes a soothing remedy when suffering from cold and flu. ■ Congestion & allergies The 
flowering tops tone the mucous linings of the nose and throat (increasing their resistance to infection) and are prescribed for chronic congestion, ear infections, and allergies. Infusions with other herbs can reduce severity of hay fever attacks if taken some months before the season. ■ Arthritis By encouraging  
sweating and urine production,  elder flowering tops aid removal  Parts Used
Key Preparations & Their UsesFlowering tops 
reduce fevers and help coughs, colds, and flu. Berries are nutritious and may be used as a mild laxative.Fresh 
flowering 
tops
Dried berriesFresh berriesDried flowering tops
Infusion of flowering tops  
(to make, p. 291). For colds, drink 
3/4 cup (150 ml) 3 times a day.Cream made with 
flowering tops (see 
p. 296). Apply freely 
to chapped skin.Tincture of flowering tops  
(to make, p. 292). For hay fever, take 
1 tsp with water 3–4 times a day.Elder has more folklore attached to it than almost  
any other European plant, except perhaps mandrake 
(Mandragora officinarum, p. 232). Chopping elder  
branches was considered dangerous in rural England  as it was believed that the tree was inhabited by the  Elder Mother, and to avoid her wrath, woodcutters  would recite a placatory rhyme. Elder is a valuable  remedy for flu, colds, and chest conditions. QCautions None known. Do not consume unripe berries. Decoction of berries (to make, p. 291). For rheumatic aches, take 1/2 cup 
(100 ml) 3 times a day. of waste products and are of value  
in arthritic conditions. ■ Other uses Flowers and berries 
are mildly laxative and appear to help lower blood pressure. The flowers are thought to help control diabetes. The berries appear to enhance immune function.Self-help Uses
■ Allergic rhinitis, including hay  
 fever , p. 300. ■ Colds, flu, & fevers, p. 311. ■ Colds & congestion in children,  
 p. 318. ■ Earache due to chronic  
   congestion, p. 312. US_132-133_Sambucus_Schisandra.indd   132 26/02/16   4:00 pm133Schi Sandra chinen S i Skey medicinal plants
Decoction (to make, p. 291). For coughs and 
shortness of breath, decoct 5 g crushed 
berries with 1/2 cup (100 ml) of water. Divide into 3 doses and drink during a 
24-hour period.Berries are chewed  
every day for 100 days  
as a tonic in ChinaSchisandra chinensis  (Schisandraceae)
Schisandra, Wu Wei Zi (Chinese)
Schisandra ranks along with other Chinese tonic herbs 
as an excellent tonic and restorative. It helps in stressful 
times and increases zest for life. The berries tone the 
kidneys and sexual organs, protect the liver, strengthen 
nervous function, and cleanse the blood. The name wu 
wei zi  means “5-flavored herb,” since this herb reputedly 
tastes of the 5 main elemental energies ( see p. 40). It 
has a sour, salty, and slightly warm taste. Habitat & Cultivation
Schisandra is cultivated in north -
eastern China, especially in the 
provinces of Jilin, Lianoning, 
Heilongjiang, and Hebei. It is 
propagated from seed in spring. The fruit is harvested in autumn  
when it is fully ripe. Related Species
Though less therapeutically  
active than schisandra, the berries  
of the related nan wu wei zi   
(S. sphenanthera ) are commonly  
used in Chinese medicine for the 
treatment of acute coughs. Key Constituents
■ Lignans (schizandrin, 
 deoxyschizandrin, gomisin)
■ Triterpeneso
■ Volatile oil
■ Vitamins C and E
Key Actions
■ Nerve tonic
■ Adaptogenic
■ Protects liverResearch
■ Aiding performance Healthy 
adults given schisandra extract 
showed a marked improvement  
in both physical and mental stamina. Russian sailors given schisandra had 
an increased capacity to maintain and 
endure normal working regimens,  
and Russian factory workers were 
reported to have decreased  
sickness levels. ■ Protecting the liver  The lignans 
have been shown to have pronounced 
antihepatoxic (liver-protective) action. Up to 30 different lignans have been 
identified in schisandra, which all 
contribute to this effect. One clinical 
trial reported a 76% success rate in 
treating patients with hepatitis, with 
no side effects being noted. ■ Nervous system  Schisandra is 
known to stimulate the nervous 
system, increasing the speed of reflex 
nervous responses and improving 
mental clarity. The berries have a 
mild antidepressant activity and  
are thought to improve nervous 
irritability and forgetfulness. In Russia, 
schisandra has been used to treat 
people with severe mental health 
disorders including schizophrenia and 
chronic alcoholism. Clinical studies  
in 1967 found that those taking a 
schisandra tincture became more 
sociable and less emotionally tense. Traditional &  
Current Uses
■ T onic Schisandra is a major tonic 
herb and acts throughout the body, 
strengthening and toning many 
different organs. ■ Sexual stimulant Probably best 
known as a sexual tonic for both men Schisandra
An aromatic woody 
vine reaching up to  
26 ft (8 m), with pink 
flowers and spikes of 
red berries. and women, schisandra reputedly 
increases the secretion of sexual 
fluids and, in men, it also improves 
sexual stamina. ■ Liver treatment herb 
Schisandra has proven benefits for 
the liver and is used in the treatment 
of hepatitis and poor liver function. ■ Sedative Although a stimulant, 
schisandra is used in Chinese medicine 
to “quiet the spirit and calm the heart.” 
It is given for insomnia and dream-
disturbed sleep and is a fine example 
of how adaptogenic herbs often work 
in apparently contradictory ways to 
restore normal body function. ■ Mental & emotional disorders 
In Russia and China, schisandra berries 
have traditionally been prescribed to 
treat mental illnesses such as neuroses. They are also given to improve 
concentration and coordination  
and are a traditional remedy for 
forgetfulness and irritability. ■ Respiratory infections The 
herb is used in the treatment of Schisandra  is one of China’s most important 
tonic herbs, widely taken as a sexual tonic. Parts Used
Key Preparations & Their UsesFruit helps the body  
to cope with stress. Dried fruit
respiratory infections such as  
chronic coughs, shortness of  
breath, and wheezing. ■ Balancing fluid levels  
Schisandra is used to tone up  
and strengthen kidney function  
and to help the body balance  
levels of fluid, making it helpful  
for treating night sweats, thirst,  
and urinary frequency. ■ Skin rashes  Recently, Chinese 
herbalists have started to use 
schisandra to treat urticaria (hives) 
and other skin problems, including 
eczema. It is usually given for  
these conditions in the form  
of a medicinal wine. ■ Additional uses  Schisandra  
is used for a wide variety of  
other physical disorders, including 
diarrhea and dysentery, as well  
as to help improve failing sight  
and hearing. Self-help Use
■ Low sex drive , p. 316. QCautions  Large doses can cause heartburn. Can interact with some medicines. T ake only on professional advice, if taking prescribed medicines. US_132-133_Sambucus_Schisandra.indd   133 26/02/16   4:00 pm
134Scutellaria baicalenS i Skey medicinal plantsRoot has anti-
inflammatory 
propertiesScutellaria baicalensis syn. S. macrantha (Lamiaceae)
Baical Skullcap, Huang QuinBaical skullcap
A perennial growing  to 1–4 ft (30–120 cm) high, with lance-shaped leaves and purplish-blue flowers. Baical skullcap is an important medicinal 
plant in China and is also cultivated as  an ornamental. Habitat & Cultivation
Baical skullcap is found in China,  
Japan, Korea, Mongolia, and Russia. It thrives on sunny, grassy slopes and open areas between 330 ft (100 m) and 5,900 ft (1,800 m) above sea level. Baical skullcap is propagated from seed sown in autumn or spring. The roots of 3- to 4-year-old plants are harvested in autumn or spring. Related Species
Skullcap (S. lateriflora, p. 135)  
is a close relation. It is a Native North American remedy for  
anxiety and stress. Key Constituents
■ Flavonoids (about 12%)— 
 baicalin, wogoniside
■ Sterols
■ Benzoic acid
Key Actions
■ Sedative 
■ Antiallergenic
■ Antibacterial
■ Anti-inflammatoryResearch
■ Flavonoids Baical skullcap has 
been quite widely researched in China, and it is clear that it has marked anti-inflammatory, anti-allergy, and antioxidant effects,  
all 3 actions mostly being due to  
the flavonoids. ■ Clinical evidence Clinical studies 
investigating different applications of Baical skullcap show the herb has promise in the treatment of infections, including bronchitis,  
and dysentery, high blood pressure, chronic hepatitis, and allergic rhinitis (hay fever). The root has anticancer activity, with studies showing small-scale positive results in patients with lung and prostate cancer. ■ Diabetes The herb may be useful 
for problems arising from diabetes, including cataracts. ■ Weight-loss aid A South Korean 
clinical trial in 2011 looked at the effectiveness of a baical skullcap and platycodon (Platycodon grandiflorum) combination in treating obesity. After 2 months, the group taking the herbs had lost significantly more weight than the placebo group. Traditional &  
Current Uses
■ Cold & bitter herb In  
traditional Chinese medicine,  
Baical skullcap is “cold” and “bitter” (see p. 42). It is prescribed in China 
for hot and thirsty conditions such  
as high fevers, coughs with thick yellow phlegm, and gastrointestinal infections that cause diarrhea,  such as dysentery. It is also given  to people suffering from painful urinary conditions.■ Circulatory remedy Baical 
skullcap is a valuable remedy for circulation. In combination with other herbs, it is used to treat high blood pressure, arteriosclerosis, varicose veins, and easy bruising. ■ Other uses Applied to the  
skin, Baical skullcap treats sores, swelling, and boils. It is also given  for circulatory problems that arise from diabetes.Parts Used
Key Preparations & Their UsesRoot is harvested 
when the plant is  3–4 years old in autumn or spring. Dried root Fresh root
Baical skullcap
Self-heal
Remedy For headaches, 
decoct 15 g root with 10 g self-heal (see p. 291). Drink 
1⁄3 cup (75 ml)  
3 times a day.Decoction (to make, p. 291). For feverish chest colds, drink  
1⁄3 cup (75 ml) 3 times a day. ■ Allergic conditions The herb is 
useful for treating allergic conditions 
such as asthma, hay fever, eczema, and hives. The flavonoids in particular inhibit the inflammatory processes in the body that lead to allergic reactions. Self-help Uses
■ Allergic rhinitis including hay  
 fever , p. 300. ■ Wheezing, p. 301.Tincture (to make, p. 292). For hay fever, 
take 40 drops with water 3 times a day.In 1973, 92 wooden tablets were discovered in a 
2nd-century ce tomb in northwestern China. Among other herbs listed in prescriptions for decoctions, tinctures, pills, and ointments was Baical skullcap. The  herb has had an established role in Chinese herbal medicine at least from that time, and is one of the  
main remedies for “hot and damp” conditions, such  as dysentery and diarrhea. QCautions Best taken under professional supervision. US_134-135_Scutellaria_Scutellaria.indd   134 26/02/16   4:00 pm135Scutellaria lateriflorakey medicinal plants
Capsules  (to make,  
p. 292). For nervous 
exhaustion, take a 200 mg 
capsule twice daily.Tincture  (to make,  
p. 292). For nervous 
tension and headaches, 
take 1⁄2 tsp with water 
twice a day.Infusion  (to make,  
p. 291). For short-term 
relief of stress and 
anxiety, take 21⁄2 tbsp  
3 times a day.Seed capsules, 
when dry, 
look like 
skullcapsScutellaria lateriflora  (Lamiaceae)
Skullcap, Virginian Skullcap, Mad Dog
A Native American herb, skullcap was traditionally taken 
for menstrual problems. It was also used in purification 
ceremonies when menstrual taboos had been broken. Skullcap became well known in 19th-century America  
as a treatment for rabies, hence its folk name “mad dog.” 
Today, it is mainly used as a tonic and sedative for the 
nerves in times of stress. It has a bitter, slightly  
astringent taste. Habitat & Cultivation
A native of North America, skullcap 
still grows wild in much of the U.S. 
and Canada. It thrives in damp 
conditions, for example on 
riverbanks, and needs plenty of  
sun. Skullcap can be propagated  
from seed or by root division in 
spring. The aerial parts of 3- to 
4-year-old plants are harvested  
in summer, when in flower. Related Species
There are around 100 species of 
Scutellaria . In the past, European 
skullcap ( S. galericulata ) and lesser 
skullcap ( S. minor ) have been used  
in a similar way to S. lateriflora , but 
today they are considered to have  
a less important therapeutic action. Baical skullcap ( S. baicalensis , p. 134)  
is also closely related. Key Constituents
■ Flavonoids (scutellarin)
■ Bitter iridoids (catalpol)
■ Volatile oil
■ TanninsKey Actions
■  Sedative
■ Nervine tonic
■ Antispasmodic
■ Mild bitter
Research
■ Anxiety remedy  Little research 
has been carried out on this species 
of Scutellaria  despite its long use in 
North American and British herbal 
medicine to ease anxiety and stress. A small English study published in 
2011 tested skullcap against placebo 
in reducing anxiety in 43 “non-anxious” 
people. Those taking skullcap showed 
significantly better overall mood 
levels at the end of the 2 weeks  
of the study. Traditional &  
Current Uses
■ Native American cure The 
Cherokee used skullcap to stimulate 
menstruation, relieve breast pain, and 
encourage expulsion of the placenta. ■ 19th-century remedy  The 
Physiomedicalists (followers of a 
19th-century Anglo-American school 
of herbal medicine) first discovered 
skullcap’s use as a nervine. They 
recognized that it has a “deeper” 
action on the nervous system than 
many other herbs and used it for 
hysteria, epilepsy, convulsions, and 
rabies, as well as for serious mental 
illnesses such as schizophrenia. ■ Current uses Today, skullcap is 
taken mainly as a nerve tonic and for 
its restorative properties. It helps 
support and nourish the nervous 
system, and calms and relieves stress 
and anxiety. Its antispasmodic action 
makes it useful for conditions where Skullcap
A perennial growing  
to 2 ft (60 cm), with  
an erect, many-
branched stem and 
pink to blue flowers. stress and worry cause muscular 
tension. Skullcap is often prescribed 
on its own, or with other sedative 
herbs, to treat insomnia, and it is also 
given for period pain. Skullcap  is easy to recognize. It has pairs  
of pink to blue flowers and distinctive  
seed capsules.Parts Used
Key Preparations & Their UsesAerial parts are 
harvested in summer  
for use in a number of 
calming preparations. Fresh aerial parts
Self-help Uses
■ Anxiety, depression, & tension ,  
 p. 308. ■ Migraine , p. 309. ■ Panic attacks & headaches , p. 308.Dried aerial parts
Tablets,  often containing other sedative herbs, are taken for insomnia. QCautions Best taken under professional supervision. US_134-135_Scutellaria_Scutellaria.indd   135 26/02/16   4:00 pm
136Serenoa repenSKey medicinal plantsSerenoa repens syn. Sabal serrulata (Palmaceae)
Saw PalmettoSaw palmetto
A small palm growing to 20 ft  (6 m), with fans of yellow-green leaves and ivory flowers. Saw palmetto has dark purple to black 
berries, growing in the center of the leaf fans. Habitat & Cultivation
Saw palmetto is indigenous to North 
America and can be found growing  in sand dunes along the Atlantic and Caribbean coasts from South Carolina to Texas. It is propagated from seed  in spring and needs well-drained soil and plenty of sun. The berries are harvested when ripe in autumn, then dried, often with the seeds removed. Related Species
The Maya of Central America used the roots or leaves of S. japa, another small palm, as a remedy for dysentery and abdominal pain. The crushed roots of S. adamsonii were used by the Houma, who also lived in Central America, as an eye lotion. Key Constituents
■ Lipid (fat) content includes   
 phytosterols
■ Flavonoids
■ Polysaccharides
Key Actions
■ Anti-inflammatory
■ Antispasmodic■ Diuretic
■ Male tonic
Research
■ Benign prostatic 
hypertrophy (BPH) Extensive clinical research, mostly in Europe, has shown that a lipid or fat extract of saw palmetto is effective in reversing enlargement of the prostate gland. In the process,  
the extract reduces urinary retention and eases urine flow. In many European countries saw palmetto extract is a standard treatment for enlarged prostate. It is not clear  
how extracts of the herb work. ■ Combination with nettle root 
In the late 1990s two clinical trials gave men with early stage BPH a combination of saw palmetto and nettle root. One trial compared the herbs with placebo, the other with finasteride, a standard conventional treatment for BPH. Results for the herb combination in both trials were very good, with a clear improvement in symptoms in respect to placebo, and similar outcomes for those taking the herbs or finasteride, but those taking the herbs experienced fewer side effects. Traditional &  
Current Uses
■ Urinary remedy Saw palmetto 
has been nicknamed the “plant 
catheter.” This is because it has the ability to strengthen the neck of  the bladder, and to reduce an enlarged prostate gland. It can be equally useful in treating lower urinary tract symptoms, such as pain, frequency, and urgency in urination. It is a useful remedy in cystitis and prostatitis (inflammation of the prostate gland). ■ Anabolic action Saw palmetto  
is a tonic and is one of the few Western remedies that is considered to be anabolic—it strengthens and builds body tissues and encourages Parts Used
Key Preparations & Their UsesDried berries
weight gain. Fruit pulp or tincture is given to those suffering from wasting illnesses and for general debility and failure to thrive. Self-help Use
■ Impotence & premature  
 ejaculation, p. 316.Saw palmetto berries were eaten by Native North 
Americans and animals. According to legend, on seeing the animals grow “sleek and fat,” European settlers tried  the berries and attributed medicinal properties to them. The fruit pulp was used as a tonic from the 19th century onward, and today it is used to help in debility, for urinary tract problems, and for reducing an enlarged prostate gland. QCautions Do not use during pregnancy, while breastfeeding, if taking  
hormonal drugs, or if you have a hormone-dependent cancer.Fresh berriesBerries have 
a vanilla,  
nutty flavorBerries have powerful diuretic 
and tonic properties. They  
are a traditional North  
American remedy for  
a wide range of problems. Tincture (to make, p. 292)  
can be taken as a long-term  
tonic for debility. T ake 1 tsp  
with water daily.Remedy Make an infusion  
(see p. 291) with 2 tsp saw  
palmetto, 2 tsp horsetail, 1 tsp licorice, 
and 3⁄4 cup (200 ml) water. T ake 1/2 cup 
(100 ml) as a tonic twice a day.HorsetailLicorice
Saw palmetto
Infusion (to make, p. 291) is a 
diuretic. For enlarged prostate, 
take 3/4 cup (150 ml) daily. US_136-137_Serenoa_Silybum.indd   136 26/02/16   4:00 pm137Silybum marianumKey medicinal plants
 QCautions  May cause allergic reactions in rare cases. Seek 
guidance from your health care practitioner if planning to  
take alongside chemotherapy. Tincture  of seeds may be 
taken to help hay fever. Capsules  of seeds (to make, p. 292). For a hangover, take a 500 mg capsule.Decoction  of seeds (to 
make, p. 291). For liver 
infections, take  
1⁄3 cup (75 ml) a day.Silybum marianum syn. Carduus marianus (Asteraceae)
Milk Thistle,  Mary thistle
Habitat & Cultivation
Native to the Mediterranean, milk 
thistle grows throughout Europe and is  
naturalized in California. It grows wild, 
thriving in open areas, and is cultivated 
as an ornamental plant. Milk thistle likes 
a sunny position and self-seeds readily. The flower heads are picked in full 
bloom in early summer and the seeds 
are collected in late summer. Related Species
Other closely related herbs, including 
holy thistle ( Cnicus benedictus ,  
p. 191) and globe artichoke ( Cynara 
scolymus , p. 199), protect the liver 
from toxicity and exert a positive 
restorative action on liver function. Key Constituents
■ Flavonlignans (1–4%)  
 (known collectively as “silymarin”)
■ Bitter principles
■ Polyacetylenes
Key Actions
■ Liver protective
■ Chemoprotective■ Anticancer
■ Anti-allergenic
■ Increases breast-milk production
Research
■ Silymarin  German research from 
the 1970s onward has focused on 
silymarin, a substance contained  
in the seeds. This exerts a highly 
protective effect on the liver, 
maintaining its function and preventing 
damage from compounds that are 
normally highly toxic. It has been 
shown that severe liver breakdown, 
resulting from ingesting carbon 
tetrachloride or death cap mushrooms, 
can be prevented if silymarin is  
taken immediately before, or within  
48 hours. In Germany, silymarin has 
been used successfully to treat 
hepatitis and liver cirrhosis. ■ Other research  In several clinical 
trials, silymarin extracts protected 
liver function in people taking 
chemotherapy for cancer, including,  
in one trial, children suffering from 
leukemia. Research so far suggests 
that silymarin extracts support 
healthy liver function during 
chemotherapy and do not reduce  
the effectiveness of chemotherapy 
drugs. Laboratory research indicates 
that silymarin, particularly silybin, 
has significant anticancer properties. In a 2011 clinical trial in Iran, patients 
with allergic rhinitis experienced 
significantly fewer symptoms when 
taking a silymarin extract. Traditional &  
Current Uses
■ Traditional uses  Milk thistle 
flower heads, boiled and eaten like 
artichokes, were useful as a spring Milk thistle
A spiny biennial, 
growing to 5 ft  
(1.5 m), with white-
veined leaves and 
purple flower heads. tonic after the winter months when 
people had been deprived of fresh 
vegetables. They were also taken to 
increase breast-milk production, and 
were considered excellent for 
melancholia  (depression), which was 
traditionally associated with the liver. Gerard states in his Herball  of 1597, 
“My opinion is that this [milk thistle] 
is the best remedy that grows against 
all melancholy diseases.”Milk thistle  has distinctive white markings 
on its leaves caused, according to tradition,  
by the Virgin Mary’s milk.Parts Used
Key Preparations & Their Uses
■ Liver disorders  Today, milk 
thistle is the main remedy used  
in Western herbal medicine to 
protect the liver and its many 
metabolic activities, and help  
renew its cells. The herb is used  
in the treatment of hepatitis and 
jaundice, as well as in conditions 
where the liver is under stress—
whether from infection or excess 
alcohol, or from chemotherapy.Milk thistle has been used in Europe as a remedy for 
depression and liver problems for hundreds, if not 
thousands, of years.
Encyclopedia_Of_Herbal_Medicine.txt
Summarize the following text section accurately and concisely. Maintain specific details and numerical information, and use anti-repetition mechanisms:

        ■ Anxiety A 2003 review of kava 
found that “compared with placebo, kava extract is an effective symptomatic treatment for anxiety. ” The authors commented that “few adverse events were reported in the reviewed trials. ” Kava is nonaddictive, and clinical evidence suggests it is also  a safe and effective treatment for anxiety linked with depression,  for insomnia, and for pain relief. Traditional &  
Current Uses
■ Traditional aphrodisiac Kava  
is valued in the South Sea Islands as a calming and stimulating intoxicant. It produces a euphoric state when taken in large quantities. ■ Relaxing remedy Kava is a safe 
and proven remedy for anxiety that does not cause drowsiness or affect the ability to operate machinery. It is valuable for treating muscle tension as well as emotional stress. ■ Pain relief With its tonic, 
strengthening, and mildly analgesic properties, kava is a good remedy  for chronic pain, helping to reduce sensitivity and to relax muscles that are tensed in response to pain. ■ Arthritic conditions The 
analgesic and cleansing diuretic effect of Kava often makes it a beneficial herb for treating rheumatic and arthritic problems such as gout. It helps to bring relief from pain and  to remove waste products from the affected joint. ■ Antiseptic Kava is routinely used 
by peoples of the South Pacific to treat infection, especially where pain is a key symptom. In New Guinea,  it is taken to soothe and treat sore throats and to relieve toothache. It makes a valuable urinary antiseptic and will help in treating cystitis, urethritis, urinary frequency, and bladder irritability. ■ External uses The herb makes  
a useful analgesic mouthwash for treating toothache and mouth ulcers. Root relieves pain and  
counters urinary infections. Dried rootTraditionally the root is 
chewed and fermented with saliva  QCautions Do not exceed recommended dosage or take for more than  
2 months at a time. Use water-based extracts. Do not take during pregnancy. If there is a history of liver disease, take only on professional advice. Subject to  legal restrictions in many countries. Infusion (to make, p. 291). To relieve anxiety and muscle  tension, drink 
1⁄3 cup (75 ml) a day. US_122-123_Piper_Plantago. indd   122 26/02/16   3:59 pm123Plantago spp. Poultice  For boils, mix 5 g of powdered husks with sufficient infusion of calendula 
to make a thick paste. Apply ( see p. 295) 3 times a day. Key medicinal plants Plantago spp. (Plantaginaceae)
Psyllium, Ispaghula (Hindi), Flea Seed
Produced by several Plantago  species— P. ovata, P. psyllium,  
and P. indica —psyllium has been used as a safe and 
effective laxative for thousands of years in Europe,  
North Africa, and Asia. Given their small size and brown 
color, psyllium husks and seeds have been mistaken for 
fleas, hence their folk name flea seed. Bland-tasting, they  
swell when moistened, and have a jellylike consistency  
in the mouth. Habitat & Cultivation
The three species that produce 
psyllium grow throughout southern 
Europe, North Africa, and Asia, 
especially in India, and are extensively 
cultivated. They are propagated from 
seed in spring and require plenty of 
sun. The seeds are harvested when 
ripe in late summer and early autumn. Related Species
Common plantain ( P. major, p. 251) 
is prescribed for diarrhea and 
irritable bowel syndrome. Che qian zi 
(P. asiatica ) is used in China as a 
diuretic, for diarrhea, and for 
bronchial congestion. The powdered 
husk is given late in pregnancy to aid 
normal presentation of the fetus 
(head-down position in the uterus). Key Constituents
■ Mucilage (arabinoxylan)
■ Fixed oil (2. 5%)—mainly linoleic,  
 oleic, and palmitic fatty acids
■ Starch
Key Actions
■ Demulcent
■ Bulk laxative
■ Antidiarrheal
Research
■ Regulating bowel function  
Clinical trials in the U. S. , Germany,  Psyllium
An annual, growing  
to 16 in (40 cm) high, 
with narrow leaves and 
clusters of minute 
white-brown flowers. and Scandinavia during the 1980s 
have shown that psyllium has both a 
laxative and an antidiarrheal action. ■ Diabetes  A 1998 clinical trial with 
125 patients concluded that 5 g of 
psyllium taken 3 times a day helped to 
lower blood-fat and -glucose levels in 
people with type 2 diabetes. Traditional &  
Current Uses
■ Laxative  Psyllium is prescribed  
in conventional as well as herbal 
medicine for constipation, especially 
when the condition results from an 
over-tensed or over-relaxed bowel. Both husks and seeds contain high 
levels of fiber (the mucilage) and 
expand, becoming highly gelatinous 
when soaked in water. By maintaining 
a high water content within the large 
intestine, they increase the bulk of 
the stool, easing its passage. ■ Other bowel problems  
Contrary to expectation, psyllium  
is a useful remedy for diarrhea. It is also an effective treatment  
for many other bowel problems, 
including irritable bowel syndrome, 
ulcerative colitis, and Crohn’s disease. In India, psyllium is commonly used  
to treat dysentery. ■ Hemorrhoid relief  Psyllium  
is valuable for hemorrhoids, helping 
to soften the stool and to reduce 
irritation of the veins. Psyllium  is widely cultivated for its husks  
and seeds, which are used as a remedy  
for bowel problems. ■ Detoxifying herb  The jellylike 
mucilage produced when psyllium  
is soaked in water has the ability to 
absorb toxins within the large 
intestine. Psyllium is commonly taken 
to reduce autotoxicity (the toxins are 
expelled from the body with the 
husks and seeds in the feces). ■ Digestive ailments  The 
soothing, protective effect imparted 
by the mucilage-rich husks and  
seeds benefits the whole gastro-
intestinal tract. Psyllium is taken for 
stomach and duodenal ulcers, and  
for acid indigestion. ■ Urinary infections  The 
demulcent action of psyllium  
extends to the urinary tract. In  
India, an infusion of the seeds  
(the only time this preparation  
is used) is given for urethritis. ■ External uses  When psyllium 
husks are soaked in an infusion of 
calendula ( Calendula officinalis, p. 73), 
they make an effective poultice  
for external use, drawing out 
infection from boils, abscesses,  
and whitlows (pus-filled swellings  
on the fingertips). Self-help Uses
■ Chronic diarrhea & irritable  
 bowel syndrome, p. 307. ■ Constipation, p. 317. ■ Difficult passage of the stool  
 & hemorrhoids, p. 302. QCautions  Do not exceed the stated dose. Always take with plenty of water. Parts Used Key Preparations & Their Uses
Seeds  should be soaked in  
water before they are used. Husks  are generally powdered for  
use in a variety of preparations. Cold  maceration  For constipation, soak 
20 g of seeds in 3⁄4 cup (200 ml) water for 
10 hours. T ake the whole dose at night. Capsules of powdered husk (p. 292). For hemorrhoids, take a 200 mg  
capsule 3 times a day. Seeds Powdered husk
US_122-123_Piper_Plantago. indd   123 07/04/16   4:37 pm
124Polygonum multiflorumKey Medicinal PlantsPolygonum multiflorum (Polygonaceae)
Fo Ti, He Shou Wu  (Chinese)Fo Ti
A perennial climber, growing to 33 ft (10 m), with red stems, light-green leaves, and white or pink flowers. Fo ti is one of the oldest Chinese tonic 
herbs. It is used to help lower blood cholesterol levels. Habitat & Cultivation
Fo ti is native to central  
and southern China, and is cultivated 
throughout that region. It is propagated from seed or by root division in spring, or from cuttings  
in summer. The plant requires  well-fertilized soil and plenty of protection from winter weather. The roots of 3- to 4-year-old fo ti  
plants are unearthed and dried during the autumn. Older, larger roots are prized for their therapeutic properties, but  
are generally not available to  
obtain commercially. Related Species
Bistort (P. bistorta, p. 253), one of  the most strongly astringent of all herbs, and knotgrass (P. aviculare,  p. 253) are used in European herbal medicine. They do not have the  same tonic therapeutic properties  
as P. multiflorum. In Chinese herbal 
medicine, P. cuspidatum is used  
to treat amenorrhea (absence  
of periods). Key Constituents
■ Anthraquinone glycosides
■ Stilbene glycoside
■ Polyphenols
■ Phospholipids, including lecithin
Key Actions
■ Tonic
■ Antioxidant
■ Mild sedative
■ Lowers cholesterol levels
■ Neuroprotective
Research
■ Cholesterol levels In animal 
experiments in China, fo ti was shown to significantly reduce raised blood cholesterol levels. Also,  
in a clinical trial, over 80% of patients with high blood cholesterol who had been taking decoctions of the root showed an improvement. ■ Blood-sugar levels Chinese 
research has revealed that fo ti   
helps increase the levels of sugar  in the blood. ■ Neuroprotective Preclinical 
research points to fo ti having a stabilizing effect on brain function, and that it might—as traditional  
use would suggest—prove valuable in slowing aging processes within  the central nervous system. Traditional &  
Current Uses
■ Popular tonic Although fo ti is 
not the earliest tonic herb listed in 
Chinese herbal medicine (it is first mentioned in 713 ce), it has  
become one of the most widely used. It is taken regularly by  millions of people in the East  
for its rejuvenating and toning properties, and to increase fertility  
in both men and women. ■ Liver & kidney remedy  
In Chinese herbal medicine, fo ti’s most important use is as a tonic  for the liver and kidneys. By strengthening liver and kidney function, it helps cleanse the blood, enabling the qi to circulate freely around the whole body. ■ Nerve & blood tonic Fo ti is 
given in Chinese herbal medicine to people with symptoms, such as dizziness, weakness, numbness, and blurred vision, that indicate inefficient nerves and “blood deficiency. ”Parts Used
Key Preparations & Their UsesRoot is highly valued in Chinese 
medicine for its tonic properties. It is unearthed in the autumn. Powder  may be added to food for its tonic effect. T ake 5 g a day. Decoction (to make,  
p.
Anxiety, depression, insomnia, and pain relief.
What is kava used to treat?
Not specified, but it is cautioned to not exceed the recommended dosage or take for more than 2 months at a time.
What is the recommended dosage for kava?
It is used to treat digestive issues, such as constipation, and as a circulatory stimulant.
What is the traditional use of rosemary?
It is used as an adaptogen to improve mental and physical performance, and to reduce stress and anxiety.
What is the primary use of rhodiola?
It is used to treat urinary tract problems, such as an enlarged prostate gland, and to reduce the risk of benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH).
What is the primary use of saw palmetto?