The asterisk means that this energy is 
utilized only under certain conditions. One may expect 
this utiliz.ation as a result either of redox reactions or of 
an externally induced imbalance of the electronic state 
of the ergoo by mechanisms involved in the creation of 
electronegat ivity. Eq. XIII: I, 8, being nonstoichiometric, do not 
dearly express the internal relations between the pai· 
tial energy factors of an ion or an ergon. Temperature, 
for example, is formed incorporated only in the ex­
pression for chemical potential. At the same time it is 
evident that temperature also affects pressure- volume 
and electrical potential. Pressure-volume, moreover, is 
closely related to gravity and to chemical and electrical 
potentials. In a visual attempt to bridge these inadequacies, the 
physicochemical potential is presented graphically in 
Fig. Xlli: 2 as tetrahedrons of ionic and ergonic ener· 
gies. The energy components of }lj aie present in 
BCEC systems as ionars (n · Jti) and ergonais (n · Jt,). The interdependence of energy factors (1-4) of ions 
and the respective energy factors (1-4•) of ergons is 
demonstrated . The total amount of energy is repre­
sented by the volume of the tetrahedron. The relative 
magnitudes of the different energy components are 
represented by its shape. Each of these energies may 
vary in a positive or negative direction, as indicated by 
negative aod positive vectors of force (arrows). A value 
for each of the energy components is necessary, as a 
tetrahedron must always have volume. The factor 
(z,.FE)* of an ergon is to be regarded as potentially 
available energy, despite balancing internal electrical 
forces. This formulation is appropriate because of the 
inherent tendency of an ergon to transform into an 
electrochemical reactant in a suitable surrounding. The tendency of an ergon to carry excess balanced 
charge is indicated by dashed arrows. Because a 
change of any one of the four energies will affect the 
shape of the tetrahedron, the model illustrates the 
interdependence of all the energetic components. E. Conversion of ionic and 
ergomc energy 
The energy of ions and ergons is utilized in the activa­
tion of BCEC systems (Fig. XIII: 2). These energy 
carriers then appear in collections as iooars and ergon· 
ars. They are further dependent on each other and on 
the structural and functional chBiacteristics of BCEC 
channels. lonars and ergonars change their shapes and 
densities :concentration-dilution) in relation to the 
cbaonels of reaction. These chaimels include intersti· 
tial spaces, blood and lymph vessels, ductal canals and 
body cavities. Of great importance also are their di· 
mensions, and abilities to vary their calibre. Energies 
1 Volume-Pres­
sure Vj1.,P 2 Gravity 
mj(o>gh 3Chemical 
RT In aito> 
IONAR I 
2 ~ ~ 2~-. ::y 
Electrostatic 
forces 
+(or-) surplus 
charges ERGONAR I 
I 
14"1 3 2 I 
4 redox 
IONARD 3 1-,.,..w-+--
2:--t---~--I( Activation ­
-electronegativity 
Fig. X Ill: 2. Principle of exchange of energy over BCEC 
systems. The quadripanite energy of ergonars and ionars is 
depicted graphically as tetrahedrons. The electrical system 
of BCEC circuits is depicted in red. Ions and ergons carry 
four energy factors (J-4). Ions carry a + or -surplus of im­
mediately available electric energy ( 4) while an ergon carries 
balancing + and -charges (4•). Tbeseergonic charges may 
be brought into imbalance, lea<ling to a varying degree of 
electronegativity. Collections of n ions or n ergons are repre-
Ionars and ergonars thus change by diffusion , con­
vection, local chemical and physical reactions in sur­
rounding media and by changes of the channels of 
reaction. Ionars, in contrast to ergonars, will also 
change their concentration by electrophoretic trans­
ports over BCEC channels. These circumstances make 
it understandable that a defmed number of ions or 
C::Q;UUS c.l~ DOl alw4ys Ul~ the:: sante: from tbt: puiJ1l 
of view of djstribution of energetic compounds. The 
logarithmic expression for chemical activity does in­
clude the activity and concentration coefficient a11,, = 
Yit•>•J<•> for both an ion and an ergon, but does not 
include the matrix dependence which affects all four 
energy components. Vesicular transport, e.g., is sug­
gested (Chapter XII) to represent a matrix mediated 
BCEC transport of ergonars. A complete defmition of ERGONAR D 
sented by ionars and ergonars I and II. Factor 4• permits c-r­
gonars (e.g.,oxygen or glucose) to "save" their energy from 
reactions during transpon until suitable conditions for encr~ 
gy exchange :are available. Activation of factor 4• is necessary 
for redox rea.-tions of ergonars. The electromotiv e force of 
BCEC systems is <lirectly dependent on factor 4 of ionars and 
in<lirectly on factor 4• of ergonars. For further explanation, see text. an activated, functioning BCEC is obtained by includ­
ing all the variables of the channels of reaction, the 
ionic and ergonic potentials , the conductivity of the 
supporting electrolytes and the variable spatial loca­
tions of the reactants. Ionar and ergonar energy can be further considered 
with regard to various specific partial mechanisms, 
e.g., diffuslon, shun cuu.llung dh;La.m. :c:: (.;ht:uJ.h. :al rea(. ;­
tions, capillary flow, gravity and influences of fixed 
charges. We will, however, now tum to mechanisms associat­
ed with ergionic transports and possible influences on 
physicochemical reactions in a BCEC system. Fig. XIII: 2 represents an attempt to show the interactions 
of the available Gibbs' free energy of ionars and ergon­
ars. Thus, the paired ionars I and II and the paired 
Energetics, ionars and e.egonars I S9 Table XIIJ: 4. Ener~onv<rring mediators 
Claamutli:-il'lg mtdUz Membranes , tissue matti<:es, 
~·essels, ducts, etc. Trmupcrt mtdia Blood, gas, iiss:ue and cell 
fluid, secretory products, etc. R..Wx ~'""" . Clttmical cal41yric sysrmu 
Transp.«t $Yiltml Mechanical systems for bulk ttanspon 
Osmosis and convection of fluids, diffusion 
BCEC systems for selective transpons 
ionar II and ergonar II are exchanging free energy. Each pair of reactants may exchange the enorgy of any 
one of the four partial energy components (I -4, I -4 •). The rates of these exchanges are determined by the 
AG0 free energy of the reactants. The electrical factor 
of an ergon is then brought into a state of activation 
associated with a change of balance of its electrical 
charge. The BCEC channels then constitute pathways 
for selective ionic transports in ionar-ionar , ionar-er­
gonar and ergonar-ergonar reactions. As in any electri­
cal closed circuit system, BCEC systems should also 
lead to a number of interesting effectS, i.e., on "local" 
reactions even far away from the sources of the flow of 
current created by physiologica l or pathological polar­
izatiO<n of tissue. Future acceptance of the principle of 
BCEC logically must also mean that local magnetic 
fields: are induced by the flow of current. The expo­
sure of a BCEC system to moving external magnetic 
fields:, whether manmade or natural, will also induce a 
flow of current in the circuits. In this sense BCEC 
systems must be amsidered >WI only as an additional 
circulatory system for sekctive transports and influences on 
local metabolic evems, but also as recepum for influences 
Table XIII: 5. Integrated /acton in energy exchange of BCEC 
systems 
Electrical Pol.arization 
Electron transfer 
Migration 
Formation and recombination of ions, ergons 
ElectrOOsmosi s, faed charges 
lonat-<rgon.ar ratio, mistance and capaci· 
ranee of circuit 
Autoinduction of t1ecuic and magnetic 
fields 
Induction of cu.rrent by external electro· 
magnetic fields 
Mechanical For~ convection, pn:s!iurc-volumc fortts 
lnte:rfen:nt.-es by matrices 
Clttmicol Diffusion, concentration focces 
Gravitation Sepantion 
160 Energetic s, ionan and ergonan Table XIII: 6. S""" pllyticoehernical tffects supportLd by 
BCEC systems 
Selecti,•e transports 
Suucrural development and functional effects 
Healing of injutro tissue 
Promotion of homeostasis 
Modula.tion of "local .. chc:mical reactions 
Genention of physicochemical potc:ntiaJs 
EJcctric and magndic effects by currents in BCEC channels 
Effects of cunents induced in BCEC circuits by extcrnaJ electromag-
netic fields 
lzy external magnetic and electric fields, in addition to their 
own ability 10 produce electromagnetic fields. Metabolic and catabolic processes can be described 
to exchange energy among different regions of tissue 
by energy-converting mediators. Table XIII: 4 lists 
examples. They are components both of systems for 
mechanical bulk transport (e.g., the gastrointestinal 
tract, blood and lympb circulation) and of BCEC sys­
tems for selective electrical transports. The mechanical and electrical transport . channels 
may be identical, e.g., vascular-interstitial communi­
cating channels. This identity should lead to integrat­
ed mechanical and physicochemical events, as listed in 
Table XIII: 5. Table XIII: 6 lists some anticipated general physico­
chemical effects of BCEC systems. F. Development of ionars 
Diffusion may be regarded as caused by forces which 
are relatively integrating (dispersing ) or disintegrating 
(.concentrating ). When diffusion takes place as a 
spread of a species (A) into the surrounding s (B), the 
process is one of dispersion forces integrating (A) and 
(B). The reverse takes place when the process is domi­
nated by an internal approach or disintegration of 
components of (A) respectively (B) by concentration 
forces. The well known concept of a liquid junction potential 
or diffusion boundary potential must now be consid­
ered. This potential develops at the interphase be­
tween liquids of different concentration. Whenever, 
for inslance, a small amount of a concentrated solution 
of HCI comes in contact with a weaker solution of 
HCI, differences in ionic mobility permit the protons 
to diffuse more rapidly than the chloride ions. The 
separation of ions is then counteracted by the liquid 
j·unction potential. Some values of ionic mobility are 
compiled in Table XIII: 7. Table XIII: 7. J~U: mobility u; (cm'v-1 ,-1) 25"C 
36.2 •. 0 H 7.6 20.7 7.9 7A 
Ionic diffusion takes place according to Fick's first 
law -Q = D(6cl6x) in which Q (in mol m·2 s-1) is 
the quantity of ions traversing a unit area of solvent 
per unit time. The factor Dis the diflusion coefficient , 
which expresses (in m-zs-1) the proportiona l ability 
of an ion to diffuse a distance dx in a solvent at a 
concentrl:ltion difference de. In ~ nonst~dy ~tare thi~ 
concept can often be expressed as x = constant VDc, 
where D =diffusion constant (m-Zs-1) and t = time 
(sec). It is evident that liquid junction potentials will, 
starting from zero in a closed container, develop a 
maximum potential difference and then return to zero. Considering a nonstationary condition, the amount 
of material Q passing a unit area A per second over a 
distance dx will lead to the following equation 
QA-(Q + £Q.dx)A = <k Adx, (Eq. XIII: 9), ox 01 
which in words tells us that the inflow of material Q 
through the area A, minus the rate of Q through the 
area A over the distance dx, equals the concentra­
tion change per unit time through the distance dx 
through the same area A. This equation can then be 
simplified to the well known continuity equation 
-6Q16x = 6c/6t. By substhuting Fick's first law into 
the continuity equation we obtain Fick's second law 
6d6x=D(62cl6x'), which in a three-dimensional 
distribution , gives oc/61= D(62dox2+o2cloy2+ 
o2cloz'). This equation describes one function of local 
administrat ion of a drug during application of direct 
current in tissue (Chapter XIV). In many instances, a 
more general expression for diffusability of material is 
used than the one for ionic mobility: 
Diffusion coeff = D. = u. · RT 1 1 z.F I (Eq. XIII: 10). Values of charge number, equivalent conductances 
and diffusion coefficients of some selected ions at infi­
nite dilution in water at 25°C are compiled in Table 
XIII: 8 (13). Table XIII: 8 shows that most ionic diffusion coeffi­
cients are about I or 2x10-' cm2 sec-•, except for 
hydrogen ions and hydroxyl ions, for which D; is 9.3 
and 5.3x10-5 cm2 sec-•, respectively. The equivalent conductance A of salt is obtained by 
summation of the values of each ion pair 
(Eq. XIII: II). Table XIII: 8. Values of equiNienJ conductonm and diffusjqn 
coefficients of selected ions at infinite dilutWn in water at 25"C 
ion 
w 
u· 
Na• 
K• 
N~ 
As" ,. Mg++ 2 
~~· 2 
sr++ 2 
Ba...... 2 
Cu.... 2 
Zn" * 2 
La"'"'"' 3 
Co(NH,l;.. 3 
ow -1 
a- -1 
Br" -1 
I" -1 
NOj -1 
HCOj -1 
HCOi -1 
cH,co; -1 
so; -2 
F<(CN)!" -3 
F<(CNn· -4 
10, -1 
CIO; -1 
ur0; -1 
HSO; -1 ·~ mho-c:m1 
cquiv 
349.8 
38.69 
50.11 
73.52 
73.4 
61.92 
74.7 
53.06 
59.50 
59.46 
63.64 
54 
53 
69.5 
102.3 
197.6 
76.34 
78.3 
76.8 
71.44 
41.5 
54.6 
40.9 
80 
101 
Ill 
54.38 
67.32 
:>).7M 
so D,XIO' 
em! IS« 
9.312 
1.030 
1.334 
1.957 
1.954 
1.648 
1.989 
0.7063 
0.7920 
0.7914 
0.8471 
0.72 
0.71 
0.617 
0.908 
5.260 
2.032 
2.084 
2.044 
1.902 
1.105 
1.454 
1.089 1.065 
0.896 0.739 
1.448 
1.192 
1.4g) 
1.33 
The actual conductivity of a tissue then depends on 
the sum of diflerent /\;: and their concentrations in 
relation to "nonconducting' ' substances. Among the 
"nonconductors" , bone, fibrous tissue, dielectric 
components in cell membranes , sucrose, neutral fat, 
gas and water are the most important. Biologic tissues 
can therefore be regarded as electric conductors pos­
sessing differenc intersected ohmic and capacitative 
resistances. This property also makes it possible theo­
retically to predict the existence of preferential path­
ways for electric current in tissues. Fig. XIII: 3 shows how an ionic separation may take 
place by diflusion at the interface between a droplet of 
a strong HCl solution in a weak HCI solution. The 
ionic separation leads to one electropositive and one 
electronegative phase. The individual proton and chloride ions represent 
here the smallest components of an ion pair. The 
symbol L!l indicates that each ion carries four physico-
Energetics, ionars and ergonars 161 a 
b 
c ~+----, t:: 
--6 
--!---6' 
---8 
6 6 s .6 
/!I', . 6 ' 6+/ • • 6 ' • s· ' ' ' 
Fig. XIII: 3. Liquid Junction potential arising from the de­
velopment of two ionars (spatially separated collections of 
ions). (a) Droplet of concentrated HCI solution to the right, 
in diluted HCl solution. The dotted line indicates only an in­
terface and is not a membrane. Each ion carries a physico­
chemical charge of four interdependent energy components 
(visualized as a tetrahedron symbol 1!1). (b) Because protons 
diffuse more rapidly than other ions, a relative excess of pro-­
tons collects temporarily to the left and an excess of chloride 
ions to the right, giving rise to a transient electric potential 
difference. (c) The potential profile through these phases 
shows two collections of ion!O (ionars), on~ electropos.itivdy 
and one electroncgatively charged. The shapes and charges 
of their cross sectional charge profiles are different, although 
their total charge is equal. For further explanation, see lCXl. chemical energies (Eq. Xlll: I, Fig. XIII: 2). Due to 
diffusion of the ions, an electric junction potential will 
deve!op. Before diffusion, ele<:troneutral ity was pre­
sent inside and outside the droplet. The chemical 
dispersion forces are, however, stronger than the con­
centration forces, which leads to some degree of sepa­
ration. The resulting electric liquid junction potential 
is therefore an example of the internal dependence of 
chemical and electrical forces leading to spatially new 
energy constellations of transient , diffusing ionars. Also in this connection, volume-pressure and gravita­
tional energy components must not be neglected. Fig. XIII: 3, it should also be noted, shows that one of the 
162 Energetics , ionars and ergonars Oisappe~ of ~(X) 
by flowing medium, 
convection. doHd clrwit electrtc 
tran:eport , grayity, 
rnetllbollc: .ctivitl .. X Met~ lc 
compartment 
Fig. X/11:4. Development of an ionar: modifying factors. Diffusion or different speeds of recombination of ions may 
enhance ionic separation during metabolic activiry. The 
presence of a semipermeable or permselectiv-e membrane 
will contribute to the development of ionic separation . Re­
sorption and Oow of metabolic products can be expected to 
remove externally diffused ions. The electric potential of 
such a metabolic ionar versus the different electric potential 
of another tissue region may lead to the deve-lopment of a 
self-driving system within the ehaooels of a BCEC. For explanation of symbols, see Figs. Xlll: 2, 3. 
energy components, the liquid junction potential , pre­
sents different proftles of positive and negative electric 
charge for each ionar. Tbe creation of ionic separation can be shown as 
follows (Fig. XIII: 4). Assume metabolic activities 
have started in an organ surrounded by a semipermea ­
ble or permselective membrane. Some of the ionic 
metabolites will diffuse through the membrane. Other 
ions are relatively retarded and concentrate within the 
metabolic compartment . Various factors outside the 
membrane, such as mechanical or electric transports 
or ionic recombination s, lead to removal of ions which 
have passed the membrane barrier. These changes 
may result in a transmembranous difference of physi­
cochemical potential. The compartment therefore car­
ries an ionar. This step is important: it leads logically 
to a $~arch for !he me<:hani$1m which are involved in 
the spontaneous levelling of the actual potential differ­
ences. The evident importance of modern electric 
technology based on closed circuits may here have its 
biological counterpart. This counterpa r~, however, ap­
pears to be even more complicated than contemporary 
electronic machinery. To begi.n, simultaneous interfer­
ences must take place among all four ionic energy 
factors. And, indeed, they behave differently in rela­
tion to each other and to surrounding media. The 
presence, for example, of a mechanical flow on one side of a membrane may change the transmembranous 
potential gradients . A change of turgor pressure by 
impaired circulation may interfere with transmem ­
branous ion and water transports and favour gravita­
tional influences. Selective ionic transports may take 
place without any mechanical gradient of flow in a 
BCEC. Reactions may be modified differently by cata­
lysts and intersected redox reactions. Available free 
ionic energy among ionars is, in other words, selective­
ly available. The availability of this energy also de­
pends on the functions of different energy-converting 
mediators. The principal difference between the physicochemi ­
cal energy of ionars and ergonars is the electrical fac­
tor. An ion presents either a reduced or oxidized state 
of charge while an ergon presents the possibility of 
being reduced or oxidized from an unstable but bal­
anced state. Nevertheless , just as with ions, the four 
potential energy components of ergons are interdepen ­
dent. For the time being, any attempts to prove such a 
statement must rely on logical theory. Ions as ergons 
are particles which participate in redox reactions. The 
oxidation or reduction of ergons leads to the creation 
of ions. An oxidation or reduction of ions may also 
lead to the creation of ergons. The close relationship 
between these two types of energy carriers is evident. Nevertheless, they function differently in many re­
spects during energy conversion. The development of 
ionars and ergonars and their behaviour in a closed 
electric circttit will now be considered experimentally. We will study electrolysis first of water and then of a 
salt solution, to illustrate the basic principle of creation 
and interaction of ionars and ergonars in a matrix over 
a closed electric circuit. G. Ionars and ergonars in 
experimental electrolysis 
of water 
Certain partial functions of BCEC systems are more 
conveniently demonstrated in in vitro than in in vivo 
studies. Such is the case with production and interac­
tion of ionars and ergonars in closed circuit reactions 
over a matrix. We will carry out two electrolytic experimen ts: first, 
water is treated in a closed circuit driven system by an 
external source of electric power, which leads to the 
creation of ionars and ergonars. Later, it will be shown 
bow these energetic compounds can release their ener­
gy as a self-driving system in a closed circuit. The 
ergonars participating in the reactions are n · H~O, 
n · 02 and n · Hz while the ionars are n · H+ and Battery 
,..--~--=---.·1· ~·----'"-., 
~. : -.... ,'"" : 
Pt 
v.,, .. 1~ 1-•·] Solution 
te.o. H,SO,l 
' ' ' ' ••T·------··---r••• 
Reaction reslst•nces 
R.. ..... 
IR 
V; 111 V; 
Fig. XIII: 5. A driven electric cell. When there is no net cur­
rent, the cell has an equilibrium voltage, VI!'. cell (broken 
line). When the current is increased, the cell voltage Vi is 
larger by the sum of the overpotentials (•I) developed, plus 
theIR drop (full line). Below, simplified equivalent circuit 
(From Bockris and Dra!ic). n · (OH)-. Polymers of these compounds will not be 
considered in this experiment, which is intended to 
deal only with some basic principles. Consider a whole electrochemical cell in vitro, as 
described by Bockris and Drazic (I). Two platinum 
electrodes (Fig. XIII: 5) are immersed in an electrolyte 
solution and connected with each other via cables and 
an electric battery. The electric double layer at the 
electrode surfaces is shown to represent a capacitance 
and resistance in parallel. When there is no net cur­
rent, the cell has an equilibrium voltage, V,,ceu 
(broken line). When current is flowing, the cell voltage 
V; is greater than V, .•• n by the sum of the overpoten­
tials1 plus the IR drop in the solution. The voltage 
drop IR is linear and is a function of the current 
passing and the resistance of the solution. Fig. XIII: 6 shows the situation when the cell func­
tions as a battery which is discharged over the outer 
circuit. In this case the overpotentials are subtracted 
from the total equilibrium cell voltage. The electric 
double layers (2, 6, 7) extend away from the electrode 
surfaces usu.ally only a few (to perhaps 50) A. We will 
now take a .look at corresponding events in the pres­
ence of a matrix. Unlike the conditions in a nonstabilized electrolyte 
solution, the conversion of energy in closed circttit 
electric transports, e.g., in a vascular-interstitial closed 
1 Overpotential represents the: electric potential in excess of the 
equilibrium potential in electrode reactions. At equilibrium poten· 
tial, elec:trode reactions proceed, but without any net flow of current 
between lhc ek<trod<1. Energetics, ionars and ergonars 163 load 
~®--~-----f •r---~--. ,..Reec:tion r•tltt•noe•-.._ 
R .. Mi•• 
. v .. ~·, .. , • IR ' v, 
Fig. X/11:6. A self-driving electric cell. The di=uon of 
flow of current is opposite to that of the current in the driven 
cell, and the overpotentials ('l)have opposite signs. The cell 
voltage V, is less than V, ... u by the sum of all ovcrpoteotials 
plus IR drop (from Bocltris and Dra2ic). circuit (VICC), presents moclifications of energy ex­
change. The interstitial branches of VICC channels 
possess important matrix functions, e.g., by their "ca­
pillarity" and the exisrence of flXed surface charges, at 
the same time as they create conducting channels for 
the biologically closed electric circuit. As an aid to­
ward insight into the actual problems, an in vitro 
analogue, as simplified as possible, is presented . a 
b 
Recombination zone 
<Zone of 
zero charge) 
Driving {Ec•cathode 
circuit Ea•anode Platinum string electrodes were placed against a 
matrix of T -shaped filter paper, impregnated with 
litmus and soaked in water on a perspex plate (Fig. XIII: 7 a). Either four or ten volts were applied over 
the electrodes, starting electrolysis. Hydroxyl ions, 
colouring litmus blue, and hydrogen molecules are 
then produced at the cathode. Protons, colouring lit­
mus red, and oxygen gas are produced at the anode. The induced changes of potential between the two 
platinum electrodes were measured with Ag-AgCI 
electrodes in 2 M KCl agar bridges, 5 mm in length, in 
glass capillaries with an internal tip cliameter of I mm. A grounded referen:e electrode of equal construction 
was positioned at the end of the "stem" of the T­
shaped filter paper. The perspex plate holding the 
water-soaked filter paper and the reference electrode 
was moved by a driving mechanism (Grass chart writ­
er). The "recording " electrode was fiXed at one of the 
pen-holders of the instrument. It was found that the 
presence of litmus in the filter paper had no observable 
influence on the tracings of potential. Recordings are illustrated (with litmus in the filter 
paper and during application of four volts over the 
electrodes), first from the cathode to the anode (Fig. XIII: 7 b, left half) and then in the opposite direction 
(Fig. XIII: 7 b, right half). These tracings show rough­
ly the same profile of potential, indicoting tbot no 
apparent leak of current has taken place through the 
recording circuit. Each tracing between the electrodes 
shows an S-shaped profile of potential, wit.h the ca­
thodic field electronegative in relation to the anodic 
Fig. XIII: 7. Experimental production of 
ionars and e.rgonars by electrolysis of wa· 
ter in filter paper impregnated with lit­
mus. Four volts cell voltage. (a) Cathode 
to t.he left shows blue OH-reaction and 
anode to the right red H+ reaction. These 
two iooars, n(OH)-and nH•, diffuse 
Recording {RE•grounded rete-
circuit renee electrode and migrate until they meet, where water 
(an ergonar) is produced by ionic recom­
birution. (b) Electric potential difference, 
traced over the filter paper from left to 
right, then from right to left, shows elec­
tronegative ca[hodic and electropositive 
anodic potentials in relation to the 
grounded reference electrode (RE). Su­
perimposed oscillations (2-3 per second) 
anenua.tc in the direction of the zone of 
zero charge, where water was produced. These oscillations are produced mainly by 
disturbances in conductivity caused by 
bubbles of nH2 and n02 (ergonars} 
trapped in the matrix. ME•movable electrode 
Filter 3Hz 
For further explanation, see text. 164 Energetics, ionan and ergonars field (or the same polarity as the power source). Oscil­
lations of the tracings are also seen, of greatest ampli­
tude close to the cathode. They diminish successively 
in the d!ircction away from the cathode. The amplitude 
of the oscillations increases again toward and at the 
anode. The frequency of these oscillations averaged 
around 2-3 per second, depending on th.e speed of 
movement over the matrix. As the filter paper dried, 
the irregularity of these oscillations increased while 
their frequency decreased. "Jumps" in the tracings 
were us.ually produced when the "recording electrode " 
passed over the platinum string electrode. The imped­
ance of the recording circuit was in this experiment 
only one megohm. A frequency filter of 3 Hz was 
used. The electrochemical events in this part of the experi­
ment can be explained as follows. The water itself, 
being a nonionic compound (ergonar), is a precursor 
for the development of an attenuating collection of 
OH-ions (ionar) in the cathodic area and a corre­
sponding collection of H+ ions (ionar) in the anodic 
area. These ionars move by diffusion and migration in 
the electric field (as demonstrated in Fig. XIII: 7 a by 
the colouring of the filter paper, which had been 
prepared with litmus before water was added and 
current was applied). The two coloured fronts in Fig. XIII: 7 a meet according to the relative speed of diffu­
sion and migration of the hydroxyl and hydrogen ion­
ars andl recombine to form water (in a recombination 
zone). The movements of these ionars were found to 
be very sensitive to gravitational influences in the 
experiments . In the example illustrated, the filter pa­
per and its support had to be properly adjusted in the 
horizontal plane with a water-level. In the alkaline environment of the cathodic surface 
the reaction proceeds: 
2H20+2e--+ H2+20H-
and in the acid environment of the anodic surface: 
H20-2e--+ j 02+2H+. A flow of current between the electrodes has been 
explained to proceed in the following way (4, 17). Both 
H+ and OH-are strongly hydrated in water as 
H!O+ (oxonium ) or even larger complexes, e.g., 
H,O;. These ions are short lived. They can dissociate 
rapidly_, recombine and allow protons to jump along 
hydrogen bonds. These changes correspond to a rapid 
transfer of charge: 
Similady one proton of a water molecule can jump 
U-824586!1. '~ along a hydrogen bond to combine with an OH-ion: 
H.;;.. --(Y'"H ... I -0_..-H L" ~H -+ 
Both processes should lead to a flow of current, corre­
sponding to the equivalent flow of electrons in the 
electrical cables bei!Ween the power source and the 
electrodes. The interesting fu.nction of the matrix now entering 
the picture is its capacity to reduce the effects of 
convection and also to adsorb and trap reaction pro­
ducts. Without a matrix, the distinct zones of alkalin­
ity, acidity and recombination ("zone of zero charge", 
Fig. Xlll: 7 a) could hardly develop. Moreover , hy­
drogen and oxygen gas should readily disappear from 
the system except for adsorption against the e.lectrodes 
as gas bubbles. The bubbles prevent water diffusing to 
the electrodes , thereby counteracting the process of 
electronation and deelectronation. The electrolytic 
process may then even cease, sometimes rapidly. If we 
now turn to the reaction in Fig. XIII: 8, we will fmd 
that the bulk water in the matrix represents an ergonar 
("' an ionar precursor). Electrolysis gives rise to local 
accumulations of one cathodic, n(OH-), and one an­
odic, n(H+) ionar and two new ergonars, th~ cathodic­
adsorbed hydrogen gas, nH2, and the anodic-adsorbed 
. oxygen gas, n02• 
Let us now try to identify these energy collections of 
ionars and ergonars (Figs. XIII: 8-11). By using the sam~ arrangement as shown in Fig. XIII: 7 a, electrolysis of wat~r was first produced in a 
matrix of ftlter paper impregnated with litmus. Elec­
trolysis was allowed. to proceed until the litmus reac­
tions showed that the alkaline and acidic zones 
touched each other. This process took as long as 24 
hours (the electrolysis had to be performed in a humid 
chamber to prevent drying of the matrix). Fig. Xlll: 
8 a shows the actual matrix with litmus reactions, 
platinum electrodes (Ec, Ea) and position of the refer­
ence electrode (RE) of the recording circuit. The 
Ag-AgCI electrodes of the recording circuit are not 
shown. Tracings of the electric potential between the (Ec, 
Ea) electrodes were first performed from the cathode 
to the anode and then back, during application of 4 
volts externaUy applied voltage over the electrodes 
(Fig. XJII: 8 b). Irregular oscillations are seen corre­
sponding to the alkaline, relatively electronegative 
zone but only mino~ oscillations corresponding to the 
acidic, electropositive zone. What is th~ origin of the oscillations? One explana­
tion may be that the recording electrode passes 
trapped gas bubbles adherent to the matrix. Larger 
Energetics, ionars and ergonars 165 ~-
c 
oscillations arc therefore seen in the cathodic area than 
in the anodic, perhaps because twice as much hydro­
gen gas is evolved as is oxygen gas. Differences in 
dissipation from the matrix are also a possible addi­
tional factor. Still another possibility must not be over­
looked. The Ag-AgCI electrodes a.re provided with 
3 M KCI-agar bridges. On contact with the water­
soaked matrix, the salt will diffuse from the bridge and 
start to migrate in the applied electric field, nK· 
toward the cathode and net-toward the anode. These 
migrating ionars will increase conductivity between 
the gas bubbles and modify local electric potentials. A prerequisite for recording of voltage differences 
with the actual instrument (Grass Polygraph Model 
78) is a minimal flow of current through it. The effect 
of changing the impedance of the recording circuit 
from I 0 megohms to I megohm is shown in Fig. XIII: 9. The matrix was now soaked in a 2 M KCI 
solution and 4 volts applied between the platinum 
electrodes for about one hour. A tracing of the poten­
tial from left to right and then back, compare d to the 
grounded reference electrode, shows a nearly symmet­
rical profile of potential (Fig. XIII: 9a), when the 
impedence of the recording circuit was 10 megohms. Wben the impedance is lowered to I megohm, the 
symmetry became distoned considerably (Fig. XIII:9b), caused by a leak of current, now apparent, 
through the recording instrumen t. In this case we will, 
however, make usc of a minimal leak of current 
through the recording circuit in attempts to activate 
166 EncrJclics, ionars and crgonars Filter 0.5Hz 
[soomv 
Filter 0.5Hz 
[smv Fig. Xll/:8. Electrolysis of water in 
fUter paper matrix impregnated with 
litmus and exposed to open air. (a) Hydroxyl ions produced at cathodic 
dectrodt (Ec). Protons are produced 
around anode (Ea). (b) Measu.rement of 
pot<ntial ov<r the matris during applica­
tion of four volts ecll voltage. When the 
external power sourec is disconnceted 
(c), a minimalltak of current through 
rhe recording circuit indicates a self. driving system. Unexpeetedly, theca· 
thodic pote.nrial is electroposit ive and 
the anodic potential partly elc:<:troposi­
tive. This finding indicates the presence 
of a disturbing reaction (C01 from sur­
rounding air, see funbcr text). the energy of the nH2 and n01 ergonars anticipated to 
be trapped in the matrix. In fact, we are intending to 
start hydrogen and oxygen fuel cell reactions over the 
recording circuit. We will proceed stepwise and next 
diseon.ncct the external powe.r source, which was done 
a 
10M.n. b 
tM.n. tOOmV 
Fig. X/11:9. Elcetrolysis ofl M KCI solution (in ftlter paper 
matrix, 4 volts between platinum tlcetrod .. ). (a) 10 meg­
ohms impedance ofthc recording dreuit. Tndoas of poten­
tial from left to right and then back 0\'tr the matris show 
only slight asymmetry. (b) When impedance of the reeording 
circuit is lowered to I megohm, the incrcasrd leak of current 
through the instrumen t distons considenbly tht two 
branches of the trOcing of potential. Filtering excludts su­
perimposed oscillations. before the tracing of JXltential ohown in Fig. XIII: 8c 
was obtained. Immediately upon disconnecting these 
cables the voltage is lowered by the applied 4 volts, 
including the IR drop over the matrix. The system is now characterized electrically by the 
sum of the metal potentials and the remaining diffu­
sion JXltentials. One might expect a profile of potential 
remaining across the matrix to be determined by hy­
droxyl ions to the left and protons to the right. How­
ever, as seen in Fig. XIII: 8c, the left part of the 
matrix is electrOJXlSitive in relation to the right part. Fresh litmus paper, soaked in water and placed on the 
matrix, showed persistent alkalinity (pH 10-1 I) to the 
left and acidity (pH 2-3) to the right. Is it perhaps possible that the nH2 and n02 ergonars 
have started "fuel ceil" reactions over the recording 
circuit? Such reactions arc, however, not possible. First, the KCI-agar bridge prevents effective contact 
between gas in the matrix and the "recording" elec­
trode surface. Secondly, the half-cell potential of an 
Ag-AgCI electrode at 25°C is +210 mV, relative to a 
NHE, while the H2 potential at pH 10 is -590 mV. Consequently, •••en on contact IYith the electrode, a 
Hz reaction could result only in a lowering of this 
potential component. Furtherm ore, this possibility is 
only hypothetical as the actual electrode can only trace 
the diffusion potential. Similar argument s may be 
raised against an action of trapped oxygen in the acidic 
part of the matrix as an explanation for its relatively 
lowered potential. Because the potential of O, at pH 3 
is +I 050 mV, the potential on the right acidic part of 
the matrix should be elevated. Instead, the experimen­
tal conditions presented prevent action of the hydro­
gen and oxygen ergonars, which under other condi­
tions could be very powerful. Such a restriction of 
function is a characteristic property of ergonars, which 
may be recognized as extremely important for trans­
port and conversion of energy in biology. Unlike ion­
ars, crgonars can "save" their stored electrical energy 
until they arrive at a reaction site suitable for release of 
energy. We will return 10 this problem soon and show 
how we can activate the nH2 and 1102 ergonars in the 
actual experiment. First, however, the potential pro­
file of the self-driving system (Fig. XIII: 8c) needs 
explanatio n. 
The diffusion and migration of ions over the KCI 
bridge as described above may contribute to some 
extent to changing the potential in the matrix. Another factor to consider is the possibility of con· 
tamination from C02 in surrounding air, because C02 
is easily dissolved in water, 
C02+ H,Q __. H• + HCO! On the alkaline left side this reaction will lead to: 
OW+ HCOj _,co;-+H20 which n'lcans a diminished clcctroncgativc: potential, 
while on the acidic right side: 
H• +HCOj-> H1C01-H10+C01 
which means a diminished electropositive potential. The resulting potential profile in Fig. XIII: 8c ap­
parently also depends on several other factors in addi­
tion to the matrix reactants and reaction products 
described above. For example, variations in concentra ­
tion should appear by matrix adsorption of locally 
formed water as well as by migration of HCOj, pro­
tons and hydroxyl ions. For these reasons the studies 
were continued in attempts to exclude possible sources 
of error. The possibility of contaminatio n of the distilled wa­
ter by foreign material was first checked in terms of its 
conductivity (x), which revealed: 
><(24°C) = 0.3x 10-s ohm-• em-• (pH 6.4) 
as compared with theoretically "cleann water: 
x(24•C) = 0.4x 10-1 ohm-' em-• (pH 7.0) 
An acidic contamination by easily soluble atmospheric 
C02 was therefore highly suspected. The water was 
therefore "washed" with flowing argon gas for 24 
hours before testing. Next, the electrolyses and mea­
surements of potential were performed in a chamber 
which allowed the whole experiment to be performed 
under continuously flowing argon gas. To prevent 
drying of the matrix, the argon gas was wetted with 
water (free of C02) before it was led through the 
electrolysis chamber. Testing of the potential recording system also 
showed that loss of potential at I megohm impedance 
of the recording instrument was too high when redox 
reactions were started over the recording circuit. A 
digital voltmeter with 20 megohm impedance was, 
however, found suitable for the purpose. Moreover, to 
avoid mechanical stirring effects by the electrode mov­
ing over the matrix, measurement s of potential were 
made at regularly intcrminem distances along the ma­
trix (2.5, 5 or 10 mm apart). Employing these modifi­
cations, new experiments were then undertaken. In Fig. XIII: 10 the litmus-filter paper shows an 
alkaline reaction to the left and an acidic rcuctl<m to 
the right (one hour after application of 10 volts be­
tween the platinum electrodes (Ec, Ea), positioned 7.5 
em apart on the matrix, previously soaked in argon­
treated distilled water). The electrolysis and subse­
quent steps of the experiment were performed under 
protection of flowing argon gas in the electrolysis 
chamber. During electrolysis (A) the potential was 
measured between the nonpolarizable Ag-AgCI refer­
ence (Ag I) and "recording" (Ag II) electrodes. The 
potential difference recorded over the matrix between 
these electrodes was 6. 71 volts after one hour. The 
Energetics, ionars and ergooars 167 ~Reference electrode 
Agl 
B Electrolysis interrupted 
Volts 
A During electrolysis lAg 1-Agnl 
Volts 
3-
2-
1 -
0-/ ,/ 
I .-·-· ,.-
::: ----~-~~ ~:------~r 
Ptl 10,vol~s. 0;3m~ , !Pt 
0 2 3 4 5 6 7 em 
Fig. XIII: 10. Electrolysis of distilled water on litmus· filter 
paper, protecttd from atmospheric C01 by continuous 
washing with argon gas. Sutionary reference (Ag I) and 
movable (Ag U) are Ag-AgCI electrodes (2 M KCI·agar 
bridges). PtX is a movable platinum electrode. (A) During 
cle<:trolysis with 10 volts, the clccttic potential measured 
over the matrix at regular intervals (instrume.m impedance 
20 M·ohm) revealed a difference of 6. 71 volts. (B) During 
interrupted electrolysis, one measurement B1 was performed 
with nonpolarizable Ag land Ag II electrodes. Accumulated 
electrolysis was then interrupted (B) and one measure­
ment (B 1) of potential was made over the matrix 
between the two non polarizab le electrodes (Ag I and 
Ag U), which revealed no appreciable potential differ­
ence. Three further measurements of potential were 
then made between the Ag I reference electrode and a 
"recording" platinum electrode (PIX). These tracings 
showed 82=0.35, 83=0.44 and 84=0.43 volts differ­
ence over the matrix between the cathode and anode. The magnirude of these potential differences may be 
explained as produced by the platinum, whose poten­
tial should be determined by the Pt-PtO electrode in 
relation to existing alkaline and acidic surroundings. However, the participation of nH2 and n02 ergonars 
in redox reactions in the matrix cannot be excluded. ln 
order to explore further this possibility , an augmenta­
tion of associated reactions became necessary. The 
experiments were therefore continued in the following 
way: 
168 Energetics, ionars and ergonars 0.2-i ·-.f I . ,_. -·-·-· '·"<·J!~L·-· .J.F\i::>-· 0 -
·'· ..... ~ . -o 2-,_,,...,;:;:::: .... -:::_._ ,_,_, _.-·-·-·-·~ . :,.~: .... : .... ·---· . . " -" B, "Ovolts, 0-2min-Agi-AgR 
-0.4-e. 0.35 volts, 5-7min} 
B, 0.44volts , 9-11 min Agi-PtX 
e. 0.43volts, 15-17min 
-0.6-
-0.8 
i>tl • • , !Pt 
0 2 3 4 5 6 7cm 
OH-and H• ions appear not to affect the potential differ­
ence over the matrix, which is likely ro dc~nd on compensa· 
tory effects by migration of pol11ssium and chloride ions from 
the KCI bridge of the Ag II electrode. B,-8, represent three 
measurements of potential over the matrix (Ag 1 and PtX 
elec-rrodes ). These measuremenr.s revealed electric gradients 
of0.35-1>.44 volts. The disturbing effect from atmospheric 
C02 is now excluded. See also diseussion (Section H) in 
text. The production of ergonars was increased by in­
creasing the time of electrolysis and the amount of 
current. Instead of only water in the matrix, a 2 M 
KCI solution was now used. The concentration of KCI 
was made identical with the concentration of KCI in 
the salt bridge of the nonpolarizable Ag-AgCI elec­
trodes, thereby excluding any possible error from dif­
fusion potential at these electrodes . The experiment (Fig. XU! : 11) was carried out as in 
the previous experiment but with 4. I volt$ between 
the electrodes for 12 hours. After this time the alkaline 
and acidic fronts had met and formed a recombination 
zone about 27 mm from the cathode and 48 mm from 
the anode. Around the anode chlorine bleached the 
litmus to about 5 mm from the electrode. Close to the 
recombination zone on the acidic side a dark red zone, 
four mm broad, in the litmus also accumulated. Mter 
12 hours of electrolysis, a potential difference of 0.4 
volts was measured over the matrix (Fig. XIII: I I A). Reference 
electrode Agl 
Movable electrodes 
AgH or PIX 
A During electrolysis<Agl-AgnJ 
vt~ \ / 
-0.1-/\ 1 
~~::~ //;: 0.4vlolts 
0 _.... ..... _/-1.28volts "'•2 :43volts . 4~::..-..... ......... Ptf ~.1 v?lts. 0 0.5 ·1 ":A ," --:fPt 
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 em 
Fig. XIII: 11. Production of ionars and ergonars by elec­
trolysis: creation of conditions wruch release electric energies 
from ergonars. Enhancement of electrolysis by supply of a 
supporting salt and by prolongation of time of treatment to 
12 hours (2M KCI solution, titmus-filter paper under pro· 
tection of argon gas). Reference (Ag I) and movable (Ag II) 
are Ag-AgCI electrodes with 2M KCI·agar bridge'S. PtX is 
the movable platinum electrode. (A) During electrolysis at 
4.1 volts cell voltage, a 0.4 volt potemial difference is meas­
ured o••er the matrix. In this case the compensatory effect 
on the alkaline and acidic products is caused by migration of 
the countcrions of the supporting electrolyte , K+ and Cl-. Measurement of the potential of the platinum elec­
trodes (Ec, Ea) in relation to the reference Ag I elec­
trode showed +2.43 volts (anode) and -1.26 volts 
(cathode) potential. The electrolysis was then interrupted (B) and the 
potential was again mc-•sured over the matrix using 
nonpolarizable Ag-AgCI electrodes. The potential 
measurements (B 1) revealed no appreciable voltage 
difference over the matrix. The "recording" Ag-AgCI 
electrode (Agii) was then replaced by a platinum B Electrolysis interrupted 
Volts 
0.8-
0.4
• 8
1 . ::s0volts.0-2min, f] 
.1.~~~~~~~----·-·-·---tt­.y 
0-I fh 1. 55 volta. \S-17min . • Agl·Pt~.-·-···-: 
-· I .......... . .......... 
-0.4-/. ,_ ...... ,., 
. ---~ I / S., 1.9 volts. · 8·10min . ~ I Agl·PtX 
·0.8-;· /''"' 
'l•o. :u volt• •I.08volt.t 
Pti 0 I 0 ~fPt 
0 2 3 4 5 6 7 em 
(B) Electrolysis is interrupted . (81) The diffusion potential 
is measured with Ag I and A.g II electrodes. The matrix 
shows electric equiHbrium. (82, Bl) When the Ag II elec­
trode is replaced by the platinum (PtX) electrode, r<-dox re­
actions are smrtcd at the metal surface by nH2, n02 (and 
nCiz) ergonars, trapped in the matrix. A minimal amount of 
current leaks through the recording circuiL, a requirement 
for the electrode reactions. The potential differences of I.SS 
and 1.9 volts over the matrix have a magnitude that can no1 
be explained by the pH dependence of the potential of the 
platinum metal. See also discussion (Section H) in text. electrode (PtX). The first tracing over the matrix (B 2) 
now showed a potential difference of 1.9 volts. Five 
minutes Jatcr a new potential measurement (B ;t) 
sbowed a potential difference of 1.55 volts. Measure­
ments were then made of the Pt electrodes in relation 
to the Ag I reference electrode wh.ich revealed + 1.08 
volts (anode) and -0.28 volts (cathode) . All the ex­
periment s in this section were performed with the 
same non polarizable Ag-AgCI electrodes and platinum 
electrodes. Energetics, ionars and ergonars 169 H. Discussion of 
experimental results 
The experiments in this section illustrate how an er­
gonar (water), by electrolysis in a matrix, gives rise to 
ionars (n(OH)-and nH+) and crgonars (nH2 and 
n02). The ionars diffuse and migrate in the closed 
electric circuit and recombine cvenrually into water. The cathodic nH2 and anodic 1102 ergonars appear as 
gas bubbles, trapped in the matrix, far away from the 
places of their production. They "save" their electro­
chemical energy until conditions arc created which 
allow them to start redox reactions. In the experi­
ments, such a condition was created when a polariz­
able electrode (platinum) was brought into contact 
with these ergonars. This result was possible to dem­
onstrate by means of combined "measuring and reac­
tion circuits". Differences of electric potential are then created of a 
magnitude which can only be explained by redox reac­
tions at the ergonar-platinum interface. When the 
movable ele:trode was passed from the cathode toward 
the recombination zone, oscillations of potential were 
observed . The amplitudes of oscillation decreased dur­
ing this passage. When the movable electrode then 
continued toward the anode, the amplitudes of oscilla­
tion increased. These findings can be explained by 
variations of the spatial distribution and concentra­
tions of ergonars (gas bubbles) in the matrix. It is 
remarkable that these ergonars are apparently 
"pumped, several centimetres out into the mauix and 
do not localize only adjacent to the surfaces of the 
electrodes. The first part of the experiments on electrolysis of 
water yielded unexpected results when the driven sys­
tem was turned into a self-drivi ng system. The poten­
tial difference did not remain electronegative in the 
cathodic area or electropositive in the anodic area, as 
was expected. The diffusion potential appeared re­
versed and distorted , but in a constant way. Because 
COz is easily soluble in water, contaminat ion of the 
water by C02 from the surrounding air could possibly 
explain these discrepancies . The water was there­
fore washed with aJ'gon gas in order to avoid imerfel'· 
ence of CO, in the experiments. New experiment s included such precautions. After 
one hour of electrolysis of C02-free distilled water, the 
potential differences were measured over the matrix 
with a digital voltmeter (impedance = 20 megohm). Intermitten t measureme nts over the matrix revealed a 
difference of 6. 71 volts during application of 10.0 volts 
cell voltage (Fig. XIII: lOA). After disconnect ion of 
the external power source, the diffusion potential over 
the matrix did not show any appreciable voltage differ­
ence (Fig. XIII: I 0 B 1). This finding was interpreted 
170 Energetics, ionars and ergonars as an effect of diffusion of KCI from the 2 M KCI agar 
bridge of the "recording" electrode and the matrix. When the recording Ag-AgCI electrode was repltct'<i 
by a platinum electrode a potential difference of 
0.35-0.44 volt was obtained over the matrix (Fig. XIII: IOBrB4). These measurements of potential are 
now in accord with expected findings when the dis­
turbing effect of C02 contamination is excluded. Yet 
the potential differences 82-84 are of a magnitude 
which does not exclude that they might be produced 
by the PtX electrode at different pH levels in the 
matrix. To check such a possible explanation, new 
experiments were performed under conditions of in­
creased production of ergonars in the matrix. Electrolysis in these experiment s was enhanced 
when performed with 2 M KCI solution in the mmix 
(Fig. XIII: II). In this way also a diffusion potential 
between the salt bridge and the matrix could be ex­
cluded. The supporting electrolyte now allowed a 
larger flow of current between the driving (Ec, Ea) 
electrodes than previously, leading to an augmentatio n 
of 11H2 and n02 ergonars (and to the additional devel­
opment of an nCJ, ergonar). The resulting IR drop 
over the matrix, after a prolongat ion of the electrolysis 
to 12 hours, was now 0.4 volts at 4.1 volts cell voltage 
(Fig. XIII: II A). After the external power source was 
disconnected , no appreciable difference of diffusion 
potential was measured over the matrix (Fig. XIII: 1181), a result in this case also interpreted as 
caused by compensatory migration of potassium and 
chloride ions. Measurements of the potential over the 
matrix using the same platinum e.lectrode and 
Ag-AgCI reference electrode as in the previous experi­
ment now gave potential difference s as large as I. 9 and 
1.55 volts (Fig. XIII: 1182, 83). The development of 
potential differences of this magnitude cannot be ex­
plained as caused by the Pt-PtO electrode potential. The pH dependence of platinum electrodes does not 
lead to variations of this magnitude. A starting of 
cathodic and anodic fuel cell reactions by matrix-ad­
sorbed nH2, n02 and nC12 ergonars does, however, 
explain fully the large potential differenc<:s as a result 
oi redox reactions taking place on the platinum elec­
trode. I. Summary and conclusions 
This chapter analyzes theoretically and experime ntally 
the integrated mechanisms of BCEC systems with spe­
cial respect to their activation. The conducting structure of one specific BCEC sys­
tem, the vascular-interstitial closed circuit (VICC, see 
Chapter XII), consists of plasma and interstitial fluid. The walls of the blood vessels act as electric insulators 
except at the capillary membranes, where electric con-nection is made with the conductin g interstiti2J flujd. Function oi a unit of the circuit requires it to contain 
in principle a minimum of four interfaces (two elec· 
trode equivalents ) for redox reactions in the capillary 
walls (Chapter XII). Besides the channelizing orga· 
nized "large" vessel walls of the circuit, the VICC also 
contains a "movable matrix" of blood cells, which add 
a variable factor of circuit capacitance and resistance, 
due to the dielectric properties of the cell membranes. Changing haematocrit as well as functional and mor· 
phologic variations of cross-sectional areas of the cir· 
cuit will evidently also influence flow of current. The energy for activation of BCEC systems is dcliv· 
ered by ionic and nonionic compounds. Collection s of 
these appear as energy "packages", tentatively called 
ionars and ergonars. A major argument for the intro· 
duction of this concept is the need for convenient 
defmition of the locations and characteristics of the 
sources of energy for selective transports in tissue Ol'er 
BCEC channels. Ionars and ergonars are integrated 
parts in the resistive components of BCEC systems. Resistive effects of ionars and ergonars are influenced 
by their concentration s as well as by their spatial 
distributions in BCEC channels. Ergonars are precursors of ionars. Ionars are precur­
sors of ergonars. They each contain four qualitatively 
interdependen t types of energy (chemical, volume· 
pressure, electrical and gravitational ). Consequently, a 
variety of pathways exists for the exchange of energy. BCEC channels and their driving forces therefore may 
constitute important mechanisms for selective irans­
ports of energy. The electrical factor of ionars is immediately av;:il· 
able for reactions, wbile tbe electrical factor in lbe 
energy of ergonars needs to be activated before it 
becomes a\·ailable. Ergons thereby save their electric 
energy until conditions are favourable for its release. An example is also given, illustrating how this impor· 
tant characteristic ergoDic behaviour of a molecule is 
enhanced by its microenvironment. Thus, the ergon 
02 is carried in red blood cells, protected by haerno· 
globin from possible reactions with its surroundings 
during transport. On activation, an ergonar rums into an ionar. In this 
way ionars are directly, ergonars indirectly, capable of 
interacting over BCEC channels to level or augment 
their physicochemical potentials via their electrical fac· 
tors. Reactions , not only over short distances but also 
over long distances are possible between ionar and 
eeonar couples over BCEC channels. A change of 
differences of physicochemical potential then becomes 
possible, e.g., by selective electrophoretic transports 
of simple and complex ions. A selective transport of 
water also takes place as electroosmosis. Such transports in closed circuit vascular-interstitial 
channels justify considering BCEC as a circulatory sys· tern complementary to the circuits of mechanical 
transport and diffusion. The pumping of blood repre· 
sents an indiscriminate bulk transport of material, 
while BCEC systems add selective transports in tissue. Influences are also possible on "local" chemical reac· 
tions far away from the driving forces of a BCEC. An 
acceptance of the principle of BCEC systems must 
therefore lead to a revised concept of the progress of 
local biochemical reactions. Reactants and reaction 
products arc indeed under the influence of superim­
posed forces, which by their transporting capacity can 
be anticipated also to contribute to homeostasis. In 
this context it is too early to discuss the quantitative 
transfer of individual ions or ionars in a BCEC system. This may be evident, e.g., because of the complex 
ionic and ergonic compositions and concentrations in 
the conducting pathways. In experimenta l studies of 
certain multicomponent solutions, the moving-bound· 
ary method can, as an example, not be used for trans· 
port studies of ions. In theoretical models, however, 
ionic transference numbers, obtained by the less accu· 
rate method of Hittorf may be used (13). Finally, it 
will become necessary in future analyses also to consid· 
er the transports on the basis of modern concepts of 
irreversible nonequilibrium thermodynamics. The m\)vements of collections of ions (ionars) in a 
closed circuit will of necessity induce magnetic fields 
in surrounding tissue. Conversely, motion of an cxtcr· 
nal magnetic field in relation to BCEC channels will 
induce electric transports in these channels. BCEC 
systems can be expected therefore also to act as recep­
tors for surrounding manmade as well as natural elec· 
tromagnetic fields. Ionars and ergonars, e.g., as developed by anabolic 
and catabolic processes, are subject to modifications 
by diffusion, free and forced convection, pressure· 
volume and gravitational forces, chemical reactions 
and closed circuit electric transports. The principle of 
the ionar-ergonar concept is illustrated in their experi· 
mental production in in vitro experiments with elec· 
trolysis of water contaminated by C02, clean water 
and water with an added electrolyte, KCI. These ex· 
periments also demonstrate how different conditions 
must be created for the release of iortic and ergonic 
energy. Both ionic and ergoDic carriers of energy as 
well as the matrix functions of BCEC are necessary for 
a functionally complete BCEC system. The mechanism of electrogenic production, trans· 
port, and retrieval of energy of ergonars , outlined in 
these experiments > may give a clue ::about the origin 
and function of the vesicles discussed in Chapter XII. It is suggested that vesicles within endothelial cells, as 
well as the vesicles which, e.g., develop at nerve end· 
ings, may partly represent collections of nonionic ma· 
terial (ergonars) as a result of biologic electrode reac· 
tions. The ergonic materials produced then represent 
Energetics, ionars and ergonars 171 precursors for subsequent retrieval of energy or liber­
ation of transmitter substances as a result of secondary 
electrode reactions. An additional mode of develop­
ment and transport of vesicles is also proposed, based 
on the principle of Type III electroosmosis (p. 82). Any cationic compound can become hydrated and 
thereby appear in clusters. With this view vesiclu ~ 
represent miaoclusters or more specifically "pure" ergonars 
as water in pinocytes or ekctropotiti'IJt/y charged ergionars, 
which are electrically transported toward an electrone­
gative receptor site within an activated BCEC. The 
time of transport of vesicles across a capillary mem­
brane is estimated to be about one second (21 ). The 
electrogenic development and transport of vesicles, 
containing ergonic or ergionic material, may therefore 
permit the modulation of time of transport and the 
rate of production of the precursors. As in electroos­
mosis the suggested partial mechanisms of electrogenic 
transport of vesicles may very well be integrated. This 
theory suggests many components and consequences 
yet to explore. Thus, the origin and function of vesi­
cles in nerve transmission , along these lines, requires 
the identification of an additional BCEC system. This 
system should consist of an axon branch, nerve-end­
plate "electrodes" for activation of ergonars, and an 
"external" branch, all electrically connecting the "in­
ternal" axon branch. We will now return to biological tissues in further 
attempts to identify BCEC systems in vivo. References 
1. Bockris, O'M, j., and Dnfit, D.: Electro<hcmical science. London, Taylor & Fnncis Ltd., l972. 2. Chapman , D. L.: A contributio n to the thtory of elcclrocapil­
larity. Pbilosophical Mapzinc 25:475, 1913. 3. Diem, K., and U.mner, C. (eds. ): Scientific tables. 7th td. &sic, SwiturJand, Ciba-Geigy, 1971. 4. Eigen, M., and De Maeyer, L. In: Hamer, W. J. (ed. ): The 
structure of clectn>Jyte solutions. New York, Wiley, 1959. S. '>'On Euler, U., and Lil.jC$trand, G.: Obse-rvation on pulmonary 
arteriaJ blood pressure in the car. Acta PbysioJ. Scand. 12:301, 
1946. 6. Gouy, M.: Electrici t~. Sur Ia constitution de Ia charge Clectriquc 
172 Energetics, ionars and ergonars a Ia surf'ace d'un ~lectrolyte . Compt. rend. hcbd. des~ de 
l'Aad. d. sci. 149: 6S4, 1909. 7. Helmholtz , H.: Srudien Uber elektrische Grenzscb.icbtcn. Ann. Phys. Chern. 7:337, 1879. 8. Kcndrew, j. C.: The thre«<i.mensional structure of a pnxein 
molerul<:. Sci. Amer. 205:96, 1961. 9. Kendrew, J. C.: Myoglnhin and the structure of proteins. Science 139: 1259, 1964. 10. Lehninger, A. L.: Biochemistry. 2nd ed. New York, Wonh 
Publ. Inc., 1977. 
lJ. Morowitz~ H. j.: Entropy for biologist.-an introduction to 
thermodynamics. New York, Academic Press, 1970. 12. Mulliken , R. S.: Cited by Hi!&, G. (ed. ): Allmin ochoorganisk 
kemi. Stockholm, Almqvist & Wiksell, 1973. 13. Newman, J.: Ekct:roc:hemical systems. Englewood Cliffs, N.j., 
Prwtioe- Hall Inc, 1973. 14. Nobe.l, P. S.: lntrodu<:tion to biophysical plant pbytiology. San 
Francisco . W. H. Freeman & Co., 1974, p. 92. 15. NordenstrOm, B.: Temporary uoilatcnl occlusion oft.be pulmo­
nary anery. Acta R.adiol. Suppl. 108, 1954. 16. NordeostrOm , 8.: Contrast examination of the cardiovascular 
system during lncrea.sed intrabronchial pi"C$$urc. Acta Radiol. Suppl. 200, 1960. 17. Pauling, L.: The DJ.ture of the chemical bond and the structure 
of molecules and crystals. Ithaca, Ne:w York, Cornell Univerti ~ 
IJI Press, 1948. 18. Perntz-, M. F.: The hemoglobin molecule . Proc. Roy. Sex. 173:113, 1969. 19. Roughton, F. j. W.: Transport of oxygen and carbon dioxide. In: Handbook of physiology. Section 3, Respiration. 1:767, 
1964. • 
20. Segel, I. H.: Biochemical caJculations. 2nd ed. New York, 
Wiley, 1975, p. 414. 2l. Shea, S.M. and Karnowsk y, M. J.: Brownian motion: a theo­
re-tical 6planation for the movement of vesjdes across the 
endotheli um. Naturo (London) 212:353, 1966. 21. Stryer, L.: Biochemi stry. San Francisco, W. H. Freeman & 
Co., 1974. 23. Tc:orcll, T.: Oscillatory electrophoresis in ion exchange mcm· 
branes. A.rk.iv fOr kemi 18:401, 196l. 24. Teorell, T.: Non-linear transports and oscillations in fu:ed 
charge membranes . Some possible biological implications. In: 
Silqny, M. (ed. ): Charged gels and membranes U. Dordrecbt, 
Holland, Reidel Publ., 1976, p. 205. 25. Wang, J. H.: Synthetic biochemical models. Accounts Chern. Res. 3:90, 1910. 26. Watson, H. C., and Nobbs, C. L.: The structure of oxygenated 
and dooxygcnated m)'081obi n. Colloq. G<s. Bioi. Chem. Mos­
bach·Badc:n , Springer, 1968. p. 37. 27. Watson, H. C.: The S-tert«hemistry uf lhc protein myoglobin . Progr. Stcrcochcm. 4:299, 1969. 28. West, J. 8. (cd. ): Regional diffe,rcnccs in the: lung. New York, 
Academic Press, 1977. 29. Wincnbcrg , J. B.: Myoglobin-facilitated oxygen diffusion: rotc 
of myog:lobin in oxygen entry imo muscle. Physi<>l. Rev. 50: 559, 1970. XIV. Experimental activation of 
vascular-interstitial closed 
circuits (VICC) 
Electrolysis of tissue was introduced to neurophysio­
logy in 1895, when Golsinger (16) devised a direct 
current technique of producing lesions in the brain. The lesions, pinhead sized, were produced in animals 
by 20 rnA between a needle and an abdominal plate 
electrode. In 1908 Brande, Home and Davy (9) made experi­
ments on electrolysis of blood and serum. They found 
that "strong currents" always yielded coagulatio n at 
the cathode, while "weak currents" did not. Both 
currents produced slight coagulation at the anode. Horsley and Clarke (20) showed in 1908 that ions 
migrate during electrolysis of tissue, leading to separa­
tion of different ions. Small molecules were found to 
move farther in their migrations than large molecules. These investigators observed a blue lirmus reaction 
around the cathode but a bleaching of lirmus around 
the anode, a finding which they ascribed to the pro­
duction of chlorine from NaCl. Moreover, they identi· 
fled a ring of acid reaction outside the area of bleach­
ing. Further contribut ions to this field of research are 
appropriate for later discussion in Chapter XVII, on 
therapeutic attempts to utilire the principles of closed 
circuit electric transports in tissue. We will concen­
trate in this chapter on some of the changes which we can produce experimentally and expect to find when 
electric current flows over BCEC channels in living 
tissue. It bas earlier been stressed in this book that even 
very low potential gradients can be expected to pro­
duce significant changes in biologic material when the 
"gate.s" are· opened, as in a closed circuit, and when a 
small amount of current is allowed to flow for a long 
time. An example of this effect is, for instance, en­
countered in in vivo corrosion of so-called inert metal 
implants (Chapter XII). As time extends over days, months and even years, 
the discreteness of changes per unit of tissue may be 
difficult to show in spontaneous, in vivo closed circuit 
reactions.
631928626-Biologically-Closed-Electric-Ci-Bjorn-Nordenstrom-pdf.txt
Summarize the following text section accurately and concisely. Maintain specific details and numerical information, and use anti-repetition mechanisms:

        The asterisk means that this energy is 
utilized only under certain conditions. One may expect 
this utiliz. ation as a result either of redox reactions or of 
an externally induced imbalance of the electronic state 
of the ergoo by mechanisms involved in the creation of 
electronegat ivity. Eq. XIII: I, 8, being nonstoichiometric, do not 
dearly express the internal relations between the pai· 
tial energy factors of an ion or an ergon. Temperature, 
for example, is formed incorporated only in the ex­
pression for chemical potential. At the same time it is 
evident that temperature also affects pressure- volume 
and electrical potential. Pressure-volume, moreover, is 
closely related to gravity and to chemical and electrical 
potentials. In a visual attempt to bridge these inadequacies, the 
physicochemical potential is presented graphically in 
Fig. Xlli: 2 as tetrahedrons of ionic and ergonic ener· 
gies. The energy components of }lj aie present in 
BCEC systems as ionars (n · Jti) and ergonais (n · Jt,). The interdependence of energy factors (1-4) of ions 
and the respective energy factors (1-4•) of ergons is 
demonstrated. The total amount of energy is repre­
sented by the volume of the tetrahedron. The relative 
magnitudes of the different energy components are 
represented by its shape. Each of these energies may 
vary in a positive or negative direction, as indicated by 
negative aod positive vectors of force (arrows). A value 
for each of the energy components is necessary, as a 
tetrahedron must always have volume. The factor 
(z,. FE)* of an ergon is to be regarded as potentially 
available energy, despite balancing internal electrical 
forces. This formulation is appropriate because of the 
inherent tendency of an ergon to transform into an 
electrochemical reactant in a suitable surrounding. The tendency of an ergon to carry excess balanced 
charge is indicated by dashed arrows. Because a 
change of any one of the four energies will affect the 
shape of the tetrahedron, the model illustrates the 
interdependence of all the energetic components. E. Conversion of ionic and 
ergomc energy 
The energy of ions and ergons is utilized in the activa­
tion of BCEC systems (Fig. XIII: 2). These energy 
carriers then appear in collections as iooars and ergon· 
ars. They are further dependent on each other and on 
the structural and functional chBiacteristics of BCEC 
channels. lonars and ergonars change their shapes and 
densities :concentration-dilution) in relation to the 
cbaonels of reaction. These chaimels include intersti· 
tial spaces, blood and lymph vessels, ductal canals and 
body cavities. Of great importance also are their di· 
mensions, and abilities to vary their calibre. Energies 
1 Volume-Pres­
sure Vj1. ,P 2 Gravity 
mj(o>gh 3Chemical 
RT In aito> 
IONAR I 
2 ~ ~ 2~-. ::y 
Electrostatic 
forces 
+(or-) surplus 
charges ERGONAR I 
I 
14"1 3 2 I 
4 redox 
IONARD 3 1-,. ,. w-+--
2:--t---~--I( Activation ­
-electronegativity 
Fig. X Ill: 2. Principle of exchange of energy over BCEC 
systems. The quadripanite energy of ergonars and ionars is 
depicted graphically as tetrahedrons. The electrical system 
of BCEC circuits is depicted in red. Ions and ergons carry 
four energy factors (J-4). Ions carry a + or -surplus of im­
mediately available electric energy ( 4) while an ergon carries 
balancing + and -charges (4•). Tbeseergonic charges may 
be brought into imbalance, lea<ling to a varying degree of 
electronegativity. Collections of n ions or n ergons are repre-
Ionars and ergonars thus change by diffusion, con­
vection, local chemical and physical reactions in sur­
rounding media and by changes of the channels of 
reaction. Ionars, in contrast to ergonars, will also 
change their concentration by electrophoretic trans­
ports over BCEC channels. These circumstances make 
it understandable that a defmed number of ions or 
C::Q;UUS c. l~ DOl alw4ys Ul~ the:: sante: from tbt: puiJ1l 
of view of djstribution of energetic compounds. The 
logarithmic expression for chemical activity does in­
clude the activity and concentration coefficient a11,, = 
Yit•>•J<•> for both an ion and an ergon, but does not 
include the matrix dependence which affects all four 
energy components. Vesicular transport, e. g. , is sug­
gested (Chapter XII) to represent a matrix mediated 
BCEC transport of ergonars. A complete defmition of ERGONAR D 
sented by ionars and ergonars I and II. Factor 4• permits c-r­
gonars (e.
The electrical factor of an ion presents either a reduced or oxidized state of charge, whereas an ergon presents the possibility of being reduced or oxidized from an unstable but balanced state.
What is the main difference between the energy components of ionars and ergonars?
The diagram illustrates the interdependence of the energy factors of ions and ergons, as well as the conversion of energy between them.
What is the purpose of the diagram in Fig. XIII: 2?
The experiment demonstrates the production of ionars and ergonars through electrolysis, and the subsequent recombination of these particles to form water.
What is the significance of the experiment in Fig. XIII: 10?
The result suggests that the diffusion of ions and ergonars in the matrix is influenced by the surrounding environment, which affects the experiment's outcome.
What is the implication of the finding that the potential difference over the matrix did not remain constant?
The experiment shows that the potential difference over the matrix is influenced by the migration of ions and ergonars, which is not possible in a traditional electric circuit.
What is the significance of the experiment in Fig. XIII: 11?