Known to the  
Greek physicians Dioscorides (40–90 ce) and 
Galen (131–200 ce), as well as to their Arabic 
counterpart Avicenna (980–1037 ce), harmala  
was also used to expel intestinal worms and to 
promote the onset of menstrual flow. Medicinal Actions & Uses  Despite its long 
history as a euphoric and purportedly aphrodisiac 
herb, harmala is little used in contemporary 
Western herbal medicine because of its potential 
toxicity. The seeds have been taken, especially  
in the Middle East, to treat a very wide range  
of conditions, including high blood pressure, eye 
problems, psychiatric disorders, depression, 
Parkinson’s disease, and cancer. In central Asia, the 
root is a popular medicinal remedy that is used to 
treat rheumatism and nervous conditions. RCaution  This plant is toxic and should not be 
used under any circumstances.Paullinia cupana syn. P. sorbilis 
(Sapindaceae)
Guarana
Description  Woody vine growing to a height  
of 33 ft (10 m). Has divided compound leaves, 
clusters of inconspicuous yellow flowers, and pear-
shaped fruit that contains small shiny brown seeds. Habitat & Cultivation  Guarana is native  
to tropical forests of the Brazilian Amazon, and  
is also cultivated in Brazil. The seeds are gathered 
when ripe. Parts Used  Seeds. Constituents  Guarana contains xanthine 
derivatives (including up to 7% caffeine, together 
with theobromine and theophylline), tannins, and 
saponins. The xanthines are stimulant and diuretic,  
and reduce fatigue over the short term. History & Folklore  In Brazil, 
guarana is traditionally prepared 
by roasting, crushing, and drying 
the seeds. The resulting “cakes” 
are made into a tea, which is taken 
to counter fatigue or to treat 
diarrhea. Guarana has recently 
become a popular alternative to coffee.Pausinystalia yohimbe  
syn. Corynanthe yohimbe 
(Rubiaceae)
Y ohimbe
Description  Evergreen tree growing to  
100 ft (30 m). Has reddish-brown bark,  
oblong or elliptical leaves, and clusters of small 
yellow flowers. Habitat & Cultivation  Y ohimbe is native to 
the forests of western Africa, especially Cameroon, 
Zaïre, and Gabon. The bark is gathered at any time 
of year. Part Used  Bark. Constituents  Y ohimbe contains approximately 
6% indole alkaloids (including yohimbine), pigments, 
and tannins. The alkaloids have a cerebral stimulant 
action at moderate doses, but are highly toxic in 
large doses. History & Folklore  Y ohimbe has an ancient 
reputation in western Africa, especially among  
the Bantu people, as a male aphrodisiac and  
mild hallucinogen. Medicinal Actions & Uses  Y ohimbe is little 
used in herbal medicine owing to its potential 
toxicity. In western Africa, it is often employed  
as a stimulant and as a means to counter erectile 
dysfunction. Y ohimbine has been used in 
conventional medicine in the treatment of 
erectile dysfunction. QCautions  T ake yohimbe only under 
professional supervision. The herb is subject to 
legal restrictions in many countries. US_224-245_Jasmine_Harmala.indd   245 26/02/16   12:47 pm
246
other medicinal plantsPergularia extensa
Pergularia extensa 
(Asclepiadaceae)
Pergularia
Description Perennial climber with broad oval 
leaves and small greenish-white flowers. Habitat & Cultivation Pergularia is native  
to India. Its aerial parts are gathered throughout 
the year. Parts Used Aerial parts. Constituents Pergularia contains a resin, bitter 
principles, and plant sterols. Medicinal Actions & Uses Pergularia is 
thought to have bitter, expectorant, diuretic, and laxative properties, and is employed in several  
ways in Indian herbal medicine. It is prescribed as  a treatment for bronchitis and asthma. Pergularia  is also used as a means to curtail heavy menstrual or non-menstrual uterine bleeding. Juice from the leaves may be applied to relieve the pain and swelling of cysts and rheumatic joints. Habitat & Cultivation Suma is native to 
rainforests of South America, from Venezuela  to southern Brazil. Parts Used  Root. Constituents Suma contains triterpene 
saponins (pfaffosides), sterols (including beta-ecdysone), and minerals (including significant  levels of germanium). History & Folklore Suma has been used by 
the people of the Amazon rainforest from the earliest times for conditions as varied as wound healing, diabetes, and cancer. Also taken for its aphrodisiac qualities, suma has become a popular herbal medicine in Brazil, where it is known as  
para todo (“for all”), or Brazilian ginseng. Medicinal Actions & Uses Suma has many 
medicinal applications, most centred around three areas of activity: as a hormonal and glandular tonic, as an immune stimulant and detoxifying agent,  and in cancer prevention and treatment. Suma is perhaps best known as a male sexual tonic, but  it is equally effective for women and has value in treating menstrual and menopausal problems. Suma root enhances nonspecific immunity and has a role to play in treating chronic infection and lowered immune resistance. Research Research  into suma suggests that it can 
be useful in cancer prevention and treatment;  several of the pfaffosides have been shown to prevent tumor growth in laboratory conditions. The pfaffosides are chemically similar to the ginsenosides found in ginseng (Panax ginseng, p. 118), and, like ginseng, suma’s acclaimed value as an aphrodisiac appears to have a scientific basis. Male rats with depressed sexual function were observed to become more sexually active on being given a suma extract. Cautions Avoid taking suma during pregnancy 
and while breastfeeding.treatment of gout, rheumatism, and arthritis. Both plants act by encouraging the flushing out of waste products from the inflamed joints, and the waste’s subsequent elimination via the kidneys. Parsley root is taken as a treatment for flatulence, cystitis, and rheumatic conditions. Parsley is also valued as a promoter of menstruation, being helpful both  
in stimulating a delayed period and in relieving menstrual pain. Cautions Parsley is a safe herb at normal dosage 
and consumption levels, but excessive quantities of the seeds are toxic. Do not take the seeds during pregnancy or if suffering from kidney disease. Peumus boldus (Apiaceae)
Boldo
Description Strongly aromatic multibranched 
evergreen shrub or tree growing to 20 ft (6 m). Has egg-shaped leathery leaves with a lemony scent, clusters of white or yellow bell-shaped flowers, and small yellow berries. Habitat & Cultivation 
Boldo is native to Chile and Peru, and has become naturalized in the Mediterranean region and the West Coast of North America. It grows on dry  sunny slopes and in mountain pastures in the Andes, where it is widely cultivated. The leaves  are gathered throughout the year. Parts Used Leaves. Constituents Boldo contains 0.7% isoquinoline 
alkaloids (including boldine), as well as a volatile oil and flavonoids. History & Folklore Boldo is a valued remedy 
in Latin American herbal medicine and is used by the Araucanian people in Chile as a tonic. Medicinal Actions & Uses Boldo stimulates 
liver activity and bile flow and is chiefly valued as a remedy for gallstones and liver or gallbladder pain. It is normally taken for a few weeks at a time, either as a tincture or infusion. Boldo is also a mild urinary antiseptic and demulcent and may be taken for infections such as cystitis. Cautions Do not take during pregnancy. This herb 
is subject to legal restrictions in some countries.Phaseolus vulgaris (Fabaceae)
French Bean,
Haricot Bean
Description Slender-stemmed, annual climber 
growing to 13 ft (4 m). Has pointed oval leaflets, curly tendrils, clusters of white or lilac flowers,  and a beanpod containing kidney-shaped seeds. Habitat & Cultivation French beans are 
thought to have originated from South America. Today, varieties are cultivated all over the world. The ripe beans are gathered in summer. Parts Used Beanpods, beans. Constituents French beans contain lectins, 
saponins, flavonoids, allantoin, amino acids,  
and sugars. History & Folklore French beans have been 
used since antiquity to treat diabetes. In A Modern Herbal (1931), Mrs. Grieve records that “because Petroselinum crispum (Apiaceae)
Parsley
Description Annual herb growing to 1 ft  
(30 cm). Has an erect stem, bright green compound smooth or crinkled leaves, small white flowers growing in clusters, and small ribbed seeds. Habitat & Cultivation Parsley is native to 
Europe and the eastern Mediterranean. Today  
it is rarely found in the wild, but is cultivated throughout the world as a nutritious salad herb. The leaves may be picked from spring to autumn, and the seeds are gathered when just ripe. Parts Used Leaves, root, seeds. Constituents Parsley contains a volatile oil 
(including about 20% myristicin, about 18% apiole, and many other terpenes), flavonoids, phthalides, coumarins (including bergapten), vitamins A, C, and E, and high levels of iron. The flavonoids are  
anti-inflammatory and antioxidant. Myristicin and apiole have diuretic properties. The volatile oil relieves cramping pain and flatulence, and is a strong uterine stimulant. History & Folklore Parsley was known in 
ancient Greece and Rome—but more as a diuretic, digestive tonic, and menstrual stimulant than as a salad herb. In Rome, parsley was associated with the goddess Persephone, queen of the underworld, and was used in funeral ceremonies. Parsley was introduced to Britain in 1548. Medicinal Actions & Uses The fresh  
leaves are highly nutritious and can be considered  a natural vitamin and mineral supplement in their own right. The seeds have a much stronger diuretic action than the leaves, and may be substituted for celery seeds (Apium graveolens, p. 64) in the Dried leaves
Pfaffia paniculata (Amaranthaceae)
Suma,
Brazilian Ginseng
Description Climbing perennial with a thick 
rootstock, growing up through rainforest trees into the forest canopy. US_246-265_Pergularia_Extensa_Salvia_Sclarea.indd   246 17/03/16   4:01 pm247 other medicinal plants
Phytolacca americana  
syn. P. decandra (Phytolaccaceae)
Pokeweed
Description Herbaceous perennial 
growing to 10 ft (3 m). Has alternate 
lance-shaped leaves, spikes of greenish-
white flowers, and clusters of fleshy, 
purple berries. Habitat & 
Cultivation 
Native to North 
America, pokeweed is 
now naturalized in the 
Mediterranean region. It 
thrives in damp woodland  
and in open areas. The root  
is unearthed in late autumn. Part Used Root. Constituents Pokeweed  
contains triterpenoid saponins, 
lectins, lignans, resin, 
and mucilage. The 
triterpenoid saponins are 
strongly anti-inflammatory, 
the lignans are antiviral, and  
the lectins are mitogenic  
(break up chromosomes). History & Folklore Pokeweed  
was widely used by Native 
Americans and European settlers  Phytolacca americana
such as acute diarrhea, jaundice, vaginal infection 
(including trichomonas), and certain skin conditions. It is also given for urinary system disorders such as 
frequent urination, pain, and infection. Research Clinical trials in China indicate that  
the bark is useful in the treatment of meningitis 
and conjunctivitis. QCautions T ake huang bai  only under 
professional supervision. Do not take huang bai 
during pregnancy.cultivated in warm temperate and  
subtropical regions, including North and South 
America and South Africa. The fruit is gathered 
once it has ripened in summer. Parts Used Fruit. Constituents Winter cherry contains 
flavonoids, plant sterols, and vitamins A (carotene) 
and C. The roots contain tropane-type alkaloids, 
physalin A and B. Water extracts of the plant may 
have an anti-estrogenic effect. History & Folklore The Greek physician 
Dioscorides (1st century ce) considered winter 
cherry to be medicinally beneficial as a diuretic and 
a treatment for jaundice. In Spain, a therapeutic 
wine made with the fruit was taken to treat excess 
fluid retention and problems of the urinary tract. Medicinal Actions & Uses Though commonly 
eaten as a fruit, winter cherry is also a useful diuretic. The fruit is traditionally used within European herbal 
medicine to treat kidney and bladder stones, fluid 
retention, and gout. It has also been taken to 
reduce fever. Caution The foliage and unripe fruit are 
harmful if eaten.of the seed’s close resemblance to a male 
testicle… [ancient Egyptians] made it an object  
of sacred worship and forbade its use as a food.”
Medicinal Actions & Uses In addition to 
being an important food in many parts of the 
world, French beans, and beans in general, offer 
several health benefits. As part of a balanced 
nutritious diet, they help to lower high blood 
pressure and raised cholesterol levels. They are 
hypoglycemic and promote more stable blood-
sugar levels. Like soy ( Glycine max , p. 217), they  
are estrogenic and will help reduce menopausal 
symptoms. The pods act as a medium-strength 
diuretic, stimulating urine flow and the clearance of 
toxins from the body. Powdered beans may be 
dusted onto eczema to ease itching and dry skin. Phellodendron amurense 
(Rutaceae)
Huang Bai
Description Deciduous tree growing to 39 ft 
(12 m). Has compound leaves with 7 lance-shaped 
leaflets, clusters of green flowers, and round berries. Habitat & Cultivation Huang bai is native  
to China, Japan, and Korea, and is cultivated in 
northeastern China. The bark of 10-year-old  
trees is collected in spring. Part Used Bark. Constituents Huang bai contains isoquinoline 
alkaloids (including berberine), sesquiterpene 
lactones, and plant sterols. Due to its alkaloid 
content, huang bai  is antimicrobial and antibiotic. History & Folklore Listed in the Divine 
Husbandman’s Classic  (Shen’nong Bencaojing ),  
of the 1st century ce, huang bai  was regarded  
as an herb to be used with care. Medicinal Actions & Uses Strongly bitter, 
huang bai  is used within Chinese herbal medicine 
to “drain damp heat.” It is prescribed for conditions French beans  are intensively cultivated all over the world. Physalis alkekengi syn. P. franchetti  
(Solanaceae)
Winter Cherry,
Cape Gooseberry
Description Perennial herb growing to  
32 in (80 cm). Has oval- to diamond-shaped leaves,  
long-stemmed white flowers, and a translucent 
papery sheath surrounding an orange-red fruit. Habitat & Cultivation Winter cherry is 
native to central and southern Europe and China. It 
grows wild along damp roadsides. It is widely Pokeweed contains proteins  
that act against viral infection.Phyllanthus amarus 
(Euphorbiaceae)
Phyllanthus
Description Slender annual herb, to 2 ft  
(60 cm) in height, with oval leaves and small 
yellowish-green flowers. Habitat & Cultivation Phyllanthus is native 
to the Indian subcontinent and found commonly in 
central and southern India. The plant is harvested 
when required. Parts Used Leaves, aerial parts. Constituents Phyllanthus leaves contain lignans 
(including phyllanthin and hypophyllanthin), 
flavonoids, and alkaloids. Medicinal Actions & Uses Phyllanthus is  
a traditional Ayurvedic remedy used to treat liver 
and cardiovascular problems. It combines well  
with picrorrhiza ( Picrorrhiza kurroa , p. 248) in 
treating hepatitis B and other liver disorders. Research A growing body of research shows  
that phyllanthus has antiviral activity, specifically 
against the hepatitis B virus. Research also indicates 
that the leaves are diuretic, and lower blood 
pressure and blood-sugar levels. Not all the studies 
have shown that phyllanthus works effectively in 
treating hepatitis B, but overall the evidence  
is positive, with some trials showing significant 
improvement in measures of infection. In 
laboratory experiments, phyllanthus inhibits  
RNA replication of the hepatitis B virus. QCaution Use on professional advice only. US_246-265_Pergularia_Extensa_Salvia_Sclarea.indd   247 26/02/16   12:47 pm
248
other medicinal plantsPicrasma excelsa
as a poultice for skin diseases, sores, ulcers, and 
tumors. It was also given internally to relieve  pain and to induce vomiting. Medicinal Actions & Uses Pokeweed is  
taken internally as a tincture in small amounts  to treat rheumatic and arthritic conditions. The root has also been used to treat respiratory  tract infections, such as sore throats and tonsillitis, as well as swollen glands and chronic infections. The herb is sometimes prescribed for pain and infection of the ovaries or testes, and as a lymphatic “decongestant,” stimulating the clearance of waste products. As a poultice or ointment, it is applied  to sore and infected nipples and breasts, acne, folliculitis, fungal infections, and scabies. RQ Cautions The plant is highly toxic in 
overdose. Use only under professional supervision. Do not take during pregnancy.Constituents Allspice contains volatile oil 
(about 4%, mostly eugenol—up to 80%),  lignins, and terpenoids. History & Folklore Used as a spice in the 
Caribbean before the arrival of Europeans, allspice is now an ingredient in many well-known sauces, chutneys, and condiments. Medicinal Actions & Uses A digestive 
stimulant, allspice is taken to relieve flatulence and indigestion. It may also be used to treat diarrhea. Allspice is often combined with herbs that have a tonic or laxative effect. The herb has an action that is similar to that of cloves (Eugenia caryophyllata,  p. 97); both are stimulant, stomach-settling, and antiseptic. Allspice essential oil is markedly antiseptic and analgesic. Research T aking a lead from allspice’s use in 
Costa Rica as a menopause remedy, scientists found that the berries have a strong estrogenic activity. A 2009 paper suggested that allspice  may well help with menopausal symptoms. Studies also indicate that allspice lowers high  blood pressure. Cautions Do not take essential oil internally 
without professional guidance. Do not take allspice as a medicine during pregnancy.Picrorrhiza kurroa 
(Scrophulariaceae)
Picrorrhiza
Description Hairy perennial with serrated 
elliptical leaves and white or lilac flowers growing  
in spikes. Habitat & Cultivation Picrorrhiza is native  
to the mountains of India, Nepal, and Tibet. The rhizome is gathered in autumn. Part Used Rhizome. Constituents Picrorrhiza contains the bitter 
glycoside kutkin (composed of picrosides I to III  and kutkoside), iridoids, cucurbitacins, and apocynin. Apocynin is powerfully anti-inflammatory and reduces platelet aggregation. History & Folklore Picrorrhiza has been used 
in Ayurvedic medicine as a laxative and bitter tonic since the earliest times. Medicinal Actions & Uses In India, 
picrorrhiza is used as a bitter tonic, equivalent in many respects to gentian (Gentiana lutea, p. 99), and given for a wide range of digestive and liver troubles, such as indigestion, constipation, jaundice, and hepatitis. In China, it is chiefly employed to treat chronic diarrhea and dysentery. Picrorrhiza also helps treat asthma, acute and chronic  
infections, conditions where the immune system  
is compromised, and autoimmune diseases, including psoriasis and vitiligo. The herb’s  
traditional use for liver disorders is well founded,  
and picrorrhiza may play an important role in treating liver disease. Research In 1992 Indian trials, extracts of 
picrorrhiza were shown to boost immunity, and to have a specific action against Leishmania donovani, which causes the tropical parasitic disease known as leishmaniasis. Indian research also indicates that picrorrhiza is of therapeutic value in the treatment of autoimmune disease. QCaution T ake picrorrhiza only under 
professional supervision.Picrasma excelsa syn. Picraenia 
excelsa (Simaroubaceae)
Quassia
Description Deciduous tree growing to  
100 ft (30 m). Has smooth gray bark, compound 
leaves, small yellow flowers, and pea-sized  
black fruit. Habitat & Cultivation  Native to tropical 
America and the Caribbean, quassia grows in forests and near water. It is cultivated mainly for medicinal use. The bark is harvested throughout the year. Part Used Bark. Constituents Quassia contains quassinoid  
bitter principles (including quassin), alkaloids, a coumarin (scopoletin), and vitamin B
1. Some of  
the quassinoids have been shown to have cytotoxic (cell-killing) and anti-leukemic actions. History & Folklore Quassia bark was first 
introduced into Europe from Surinam, then a Dutch colony, in 1756. The herb is named after Quassi, a native healer, who told Europeans of  
its therapeutic value. Medicinal Actions & Uses The strongly 
bitter quassia supports and strengthens weak digestive systems. It increases bile flow and the secretion of salivary juices and stomach acid,  and improves the digestive process as a whole. Quassia is commonly used to stimulate the appetite, especially in the treatment of anorexia. Its bitterness has led to it being used for malaria and other fevers, and it is given in the Caribbean for dysentery. The bark has been used in the  form of an enema to expel threadworms and other parasites. A decoction of the bark may  be used as an insect repellent and to treat headlice. Cautions Excessive doses may, in some cases, 
cause digestive irritation and vomiting. Do not  take during pregnancy.Pimpinella anisum (Apiaceae)
Anise
Description Erect annual growing to 2 ft  
(60 cm), with feathery leaves, umbels of yellow flowers, and ridged, gray-green seeds. Habitat & Cultivation Anise is native to  
the eastern Mediterranean, western Asia, and North Africa. It is widely cultivated for its seeds, which are used for medicinal purposes and as a flavoring in cooking. Parts Used Seeds, essential oil. Constituents Anise contains a volatile oil 
(comprising 70–90% anethole, together with methylchavicol and other terpenes), furanocoumarins, flavonoids, fatty acids, phenylpropanoids, sterols, and proteins. Anethole has an observed estrogenic effect, and the seeds as a whole are mildly estrogenic. This effect may substantiate the herb’s use as a stimulant of sexual drive and of breast-milk production. History & Folklore After examining the 
records of Cyprus hospital monastery, historians discovered that anise was used to treat plague  and cholera during the Ottoman Period  (1571–1878 ce). Medicinal Actions & Uses Anise seeds are 
known for their ability to reduce gas and bloating, and to settle digestion. They are commonly given to infants and children to relieve colic, and to  
people of all ages to ease nausea and indigestion. Pimenta officinalis  
(Myrtaceae)
Allspice
Description Aromatic evergreen tree growing 
to 39 ft (12 m). Has leathery oblong leaves, clusters 
of small white flowers, and tiny green berries that turn brown as they become ripe. Habitat & Cultivation Allspice is native to the 
Caribbean and to Central and South America. The berries are gathered before they are fully  ripe because the volatile oil content reduces as they mature. Parts Used Berries, leaves, essential oil. US_246-265_Pergularia_Extensa_Salvia_Sclarea.indd   248 26/02/16   12:47 pm249 other medicinal plantsPiPer angustifoli a
Pinguicula vulgaris 
(Lentibulariaceae)
Butterwort
Description Insectivorous perennial growing  
to 4 in (10 cm). Has fleshy leaves in a basal rosette 
and double-lipped, purple-blue flowers. Habitat & Cultivation Native to northern 
and western Europe, butterwort grows in moorland 
and on mountains. The leaves are gathered  
in midsummer. Parts Used Leaves. Constituents Butterwort contains mucilage, 
tannins, benzoic acid, cinnamic acid, and valeric  
acid. Cinnamic acid has antispasmodic properties. History & Folklore Butterwort was much 
used in Welsh herbal medicine as a purgative. In Norway, the plant has been used to curdle 
reindeer milk, and medicinally, to treat wounds  
and ringworm. Medicinal Actions & Uses Butterwort is  
little employed in European herbal medicine  
today. Its main use is as a cough remedy, with 
properties similar to those of sundew ( Drosera 
rotundifolia , p. 203), another insect-eating plant. Butterwort may be used to treat chronic and 
convulsive coughs. Related Species The similar P. grandiflora , 
native to the Pyrenees, has been used to treat 
spasmodic coughs. QCaution T ake butterwort only under 
professional supervision.may be taken for asthma, bronchitis, and other 
respiratory infections, and for digestive disorders 
such as gas. Scots pine branches and stems yield  
a thick resin, which is also antiseptic within the 
respiratory tract. The seeds yield an essential oil 
with diuretic and respiratory-stimulant properties. Cautions Do not use Scots pine if prone to 
allergic skin reactions. Do not take the essential oil 
internally except under professional supervision.Anise seeds’ antispasmodic properties make  
them helpful in countering period pain, asthma, 
whooping cough, and bronchitis. The seeds’ 
expectorant action justifies their use for these 
respiratory ailments. Anise seeds are thought  
to increase breast-milk production and may be 
beneficial in treating impotence and frigidity. Anise 
essential oil is used for similar complaints, and is 
also used externally to treat lice and scabies. Research Anise essential oil has been shown to 
have significant antifungal activity, including against 
Candida albicans. Cautions Do not take anise essential oil  
internally except under professional supervision. Do not take anise during 
pregnancy, except in amounts 
normally used in cooking. Self-help Uses Acidity & 
indigestion , p. 307; Digestive 
upsets, gas & colic , p. 318; 
Stomach spasm , p. 305; Gas  
& bloating , p. 306. Anise seeds, which 
benefit digestion, are 
harvested when ripe 
in autumn.Scots pine leaves, seeds, and oil have a mildly antiseptic  
effect within the respiratory and urinary tracts. SeedsPinus sylvestris (Pinaceae)
Scots Pine
Description Coniferous tree growing to  
100 ft (30 m). Has reddish-brown bark, pairs of 
fine, needle-like leaves, yellowish buds in winter, 
and oval to conical cones. Habitat & Cultivation Native to mountainous 
regions of Europe and north and west Asia, Scots 
pine is now found throughout the northern 
hemisphere. The leaves are gathered in summer. The stems are usually harvested when the tree  
is felled. Parts Used Leaves, branches, stems, seeds, 
essential oil. Constituents The leaves of Scots pine contain 
a volatile oil (consisting mainly of alpha-pinene), 
resin, and bitter principles. History & Folklore Pine oil is added to 
disinfectants and other preparations. The distilled 
resin produces turpentine. Medicinal Actions & Uses Scots pine leaves, 
taken internally, have a mildly antiseptic effect within 
the chest, and may also be used for arthritic and 
rheumatic problems. Essential oil from the leaves Piper angustifolia (Piperaceae)
Matico
Description Perennial shrub reaching 23 ft (7 m). Has deeply veined aromatic lance-shaped leaves, 
spikes of tiny yellow flowers, and small black fruit. Habitat & Cultivation Matico is native to 
mountainous regions of Bolivia, Peru, and Ecuador. It is found in the wild and widely cultivated in these 
and other countries in tropical South America. The 
leaves are gathered throughout the year. Parts Used Leaves. Constituents Matico contains a volatile oil 
(including camphor, borneol, and azulene), 
alkaloids, tannins, mucilage, and resins. History & Folklore Matico was and is  
used by Andean and Amazonian people as a 
wound-healing remedy and urinary antiseptic. European settlers learned of it in the19th century 
and it became an official drug in some South 
American pharmacopoeias. Medicinal Actions & Uses Matico is an 
aromatic stimulant, diuretic, and astringent used 
extensively for gastric and intestinal problems, 
including peptic ulcers, diarrhea and dysentery. US_246-265_Pergularia_Extensa_Salvia_Sclarea.indd   249 17/03/16   4:01 pm
250
other medicinal plantsPiP er betle
It is commonly used in South American herbal 
medicine for internal bleeding, particularly within the digestive tract—for example, rectal bleeding and hemorrhoids. It is also taken for bleeding in the urinary tract. Applied externally, a decoction  of matico makes a valuable remedy for minor wounds, sore and inflamed skin, and insect bites and stings. The decoction may also be used as either a mouthwash or a douche. Piper betle (Piperaceae)
Betel
Description Slender climbing vine growing to  
16 ft (5 m). Has heart-shaped leaves, tiny yellow-green flowers, and small spherical fruit. Habitat & Cultivation Betel is native to 
Malaysia and southern India. It is widely cultivated in much of southern Asia, East Africa and Madagascar, and the Caribbean. The leaves are gathered throughout the year and dried for extracts or  to use whole.Habitat & Cultivation Native to 
southwestern India, pepper is now cultivated in tropical areas around the world. The fruit is harvested from plants that are at least 3 years old. Green peppercorns are picked unripe and pickled,  
black peppercorns are picked unripe and dried,  
red peppercorns are picked ripe and dried, and  
white peppercorns are picked ripe and soaked  in water for 8 days before drying.the incidence of cancer of the mouth and tongue. Ironically, the habit of chewing betel leaves is now giving way in many regions to cigarette smoking. Medicinal Actions & Uses Betel leaves  
are chiefly used as a gentle stimulant, since they apparently induce a mild sensation of well-being. They also affect the digestive system, stimulating salivary secretions, relieving flatulence, and preventing worm infestation. In many Asian traditions, including Ayurvedic medicine, betel leaves are thought to have aphrodisiac and nerve tonic properties. In Chinese herbal medicine,  betel root, leaves, and fruit are sometimes used  as a mild tonic and stomach-settling herb. The  root has been used with black pepper (P. nigrum,  below) or jequirity (Abrus precatorius, p. 158)  to produce sterility in women. Caution The observed increase in the occurrence 
of oral cancers in regular users makes it unwise to chew betel. Parts Used Leaves, root, fruit. Constituents Betel leaves contain up to  
1% volatile oil (including cadinene, chavicol, chavibetol and cineole). As with many volatile oils, the percentages are variable. Malaysian samples have been shown to contain up to 69% chavibetol. History & Folklore Betel leaves, wrapped 
around areca nut (Areca catechu) and lime  (Citrus aurantiifolia), are known to have been chewed in India and Southeast Asia for several thousand years. Betel leaves are described in the Mahavasama, the most ancient Sri Lankan text. Chewing quickly produces a red-stained saliva and does not, despite what is commonly thought, lead to blackened teeth. However, long-term use of betel leaves and areca nut is considered to increase Betel leaves, traditionally chewed with areca nut and lime, 
give a mild sensation of well-being.Pepper, here drying after the harvest, is still highly valued both medicinally and in cooking. Parts Used Fruit, essential oil. Constituents Pepper contains a volatile  
oil (including beta-bisabolene, camphene, beta-
caryophyllene, and many other terpenes and sesquiterpenes), up to 9% alkaloids (especially piperine, which is largely responsible for the  herb’s acrid taste), about 11% proteins, and  small quantities of minerals. History & Folklore Cultivated as a spice and  
a medicine since ancient times, pepper was a vital commodity in world trade for thousands of years. Attila the Hun is reputed to have demanded  
3,000 lb (1,360 kg) of pepper as ransom during  his siege of the city of Rome (408 ce). Medicinal Actions & Uses The familiar sharp 
taste of pepper reflects the stimulant and antiseptic effect it has on the digestive tract and the circulatory system. Pepper is commonly taken to warm the body, or to improve digestive function in cases  of nausea, stomachache, flatulence, bloating, constipation, or lack of appetite. The essential oil eases rheumatic pain and toothache. It is antiseptic and antibacterial, and reduces fever. Research Piperine, the main active constituent 
within black pepper, has significant therapeutic benefits, with a 2012 research paper listing "immunomodulatory, antioxidant, antiasthmatic, anticarcinogenic, anti-inflammatory, antiulcer and antiamebic properties." Piperine appears to aid the absorption of herbal and chemical medicines, e.g. curcumin (from turmeric, Curcuma longa, see  p. 90), and in some cases, to slow their clearance by the liver. Caution Do not take the essential oil internally 
without professional supervision. Self-help Use  Back pain, p. 313. Piper nigrum (Piperaceae)
Pepper
Description Perennial woody climber growing 
to about 16 ft (5 m). Has large oval leaves, spikes  of small white flowers, and clusters of small round fruits, which ripen from green to red.Piper cubeba (Piperaceae)
Cubeb
Description Climbing evergreen perennial 
growing to 20 ft (6 m). Has oval to oblong  leaves, small flowers forming spikes, and round  brown fruit. Habitat & Cultivation Native to Indonesia, 
cubeb is cultivated in much of tropical Asia, especially in the shade of coffee bushes (Coffea arabica,  p. 192). The fruit is gathered when immature. Part Used Fruit. Constituents Cubeb contains a volatile oil  
(up to 20%), a bitter principle (cubebin), an  alkaloid (piperidine), resin, and fixed oil. Medicinal Actions & Uses Like other 
members of the pepper family, cubeb has a significant antiflatulent and antiseptic action. The fruit is used medicinally as a means to counter infections of the urinary tract, and has been taken in the past as a treatment for gonorrhea. In addition, the fruit is helpful in relieving digestive problems such as flatulence and bloating. Cubeb  is occasionally employed as an expectorant in the treatment of chronic bronchitis. Cautions Cubeb should not be taken by people 
suffering from kidney disease or inflammatory conditions of the digestive tract. US_246-265_Pergularia_Extensa_Salvia_Sclarea.indd   250 26/02/16   12:47 pm251 other medicinal plantsPlumbago zeylanica
the gum resin being useful in treating and preventing 
atheroma (fatty deposits in the arteries), to have 
antifungal and liver-protective activity, and to aid in 
conditions such as arthritis and gout. Related Species The pistachio is produced by 
P. vera , also native to the Mediterranean region.world—some Native Americans called it 
Englishman’s foot,” because it seemed to spring  
up in the footsteps of white settlers. Medicinal Actions & Uses Common plantain 
quickly staunches blood flow and encourages the 
repair of damaged tissue. It is possible to use it as 
a substitute for comfrey ( Symphytum officinale ,  
p. 138) in treating bruises and broken bones. An ointment or lotion may be used to treat 
hemorrhoids, fistulae (abnormal passages in the 
skin), and ulcers. T aken internally, common plantain 
is diuretic, expectorant, and antimucus. It is 
commonly prescribed for conditions including 
gastritis, peptic ulcers, diarrhea, dysentery, irritable 
bowel syndrome, respiratory inflammation, loss of 
voice, and urinary tract bleeding. Related Species Ribwort plantain ( P. lanceolata ) 
is used in the same way as common plantain. Che 
qian cao  (P. asiatica ) is used in Chinese medicine as 
a diuretic and to counter mucus. Self-help Uses  Allergic rhinitis with mucus ,  
p. 300; Diarrhea , p. 318. Plumbago zeylanica 
(Plumbaginaceae)
Ceylon Leadwort
Description Evergreen shrub, often a climber, 
growing to 16 ft (5 m). Has oval pointed leaves, 
spikes of 5-petaled white flowers, and angled  
seed capsules. Habitat & Cultivation Ceylon leadwort  
is native to southern India and Malaysia, and is  
now naturalized in much of Southeast Asia and  
in Africa. The leaves and root are gathered 
throughout the year. Parts Used Leaves, root. Constituents Ceylon leadwort contains 
apthaquinones, including plumbagin, and phytosterols. History & Folklore In Africa, the juice of 
Ceylon leadwort is used as a tattoo dye. Medicinal Actions & Uses Ceylon  
leadwort root is acrid and stimulates sweating,  
and is commonly used as a paste for skin infections  
such as ringworm and scabies. The paste is also  
applied as a counter-irritant to relieve rheumatic 
aches and pains. In India, extracts of the leaves and 
root are taken for digestive infections such  
as dysentery. In Nepal, a decoction of the root  
is used to treat baldness. Related Species The root of European 
leadwort ( P. europaea ) has been used to treat 
toothache and, in the form of a poultice or plaster, 
back pain and sciatica. QCautions Use only under professional 
supervision. T aken internally, the root may be toxic, 
and may induce abortion. Do not use Ceylon 
leadwort during pregnancy. Piscidia erythrina (Fabaceae)
Jamaica Dogwood
Description Deciduous tree or shrub growing  
to 49 ft (15 m). Compound leaves, blue to white 
flowers with red stripes, and winged seed pods. Habitat & Cultivation Jamaica dogwood  
is native to the southern U.S., Central America, 
northern South America, and the Caribbean. It  
is grown mainly for its wood, which is used in 
boat-building. The root bark is stripped when  
the tree is felled. Part Used Root bark. Constituents Jamaica dogwood contains 
isoflavones, phytosterols, tannins, and organic acids. The isoflavones are antispasmodic. History & Folklore The pounded bark and 
twigs have been used by Native Caribs and Afro-
Caribbeans to stupefy fish. Medicinal Actions & Uses Jamaica dogwood 
is a useful and undervalued remedy that acts  
both as a sedative and as a painkiller. It is chiefly 
employed in the treatment of insomnia and 
overexcitability, as it calms mental activity. It is also 
prescribed for nerve pain, toothache, and period 
pain. As an antispasmodic, it is useful for treating 
muscle spasms, especially in the back, and 
spasmodic respiratory ailments such as asthma  
and whooping cough. Cautions Do not take Jamaica dogwood  
during pregnancy or if you are suffering from 
heart problems. Common plantain is a 
perennial herb that grows  
wild in temperate regions.Pistacia lentiscus (Anacardiaceae)
Mastic Tree
Description Multibranched perennial growing 
to 10 ft (3 m). Has small elliptical leathery leaves, 
clusters of reddish flowers, and round scarlet fruit 
that ripens to black. Habitat & Cultivation Mastic tree is native 
to the Mediterranean region. It grows wild in scrub 
and on wasteground and is cultivated for its resin, 
which is collected from incisions made in the bark 
in summer and autumn. Part Used Resin. Constituents The resin contains alpha- and 
beta-masticoresins, a volatile oil (comprising 
mainly alpha-pinene), tannins, masticin, and mastic 
acid. Pinenes are strongly antiseptic. History & Folklore Mastic resin was used  
by the ancient Egyptians for embalming the dead. Medicinal Actions & Uses In the recent 
past, mastic resin was little used, but contemporary 
research indicates that this should be reconsidered. Traditionally mastic extracts have been taken for 
coughs and bronchitis, and applied to the skin  
for boils, sores, and ulcers. Recent studies point to Plantago major (Plantaginaceae)
Common Plantain
Description Perennial plant growing to 10 in 
(25 cm). Has a basal rosette of broad, deeply 
veined leaves and dense clusters of tiny green 
flowers on spikes. Habitat & Cultivation Common plantain  
is native to Europe and temperate regions of Asia. Rarely cultivated, it is normally picked from the 
wild. The leaves are gathered throughout  
the summer. Parts Used Leaves. Constituents Common plantain contains 
iridoids (such as aucubin), flavonoids (including 
apigenin), tannins, plant acids, and mucilage. Aucubin increases uric acid excretion by the 
kidneys; apigenin is anti-inflammatory. History & Folklore In Gaelic, this herb  
is known as “the healing plant” because it  
was used in Ireland to treat wounds and 
bruises. It is a plant that has accompanied 
European colonization around the  
US_246-265_Pergularia_Extensa_Salvia_Sclarea.indd   251 17/03/16   4:01 pm
252
other medicinal plantsPodoP hyllum Peltatum
Podophyllum peltatum 
(Berberidaceae)
American Mandrake
Description Perennial plant growing to  
16 in (40 cm). Has a forked stem, two deeply  
lobed umbrella-like leaves, white flowers, and  small yellow fruit. Habitat & Cultivation American mandrake 
is native to northeastern North America. It is commonly found in damp woodland and pastureland. The rhizome is unearthed in autumn. Part Used Rhizome. Constituents The rhizome  
of American mandrake contains lignans (especially podophyllotoxin), flavonoids, resin, and gums. The lignans are responsible for  the rhizome’s purgative action. History & Folklore  
American mandrake was much  used as a purgative, emetic, and worm-expelling herb by Native Americans. In the U.S. in the  19th century, both herbal and conventional medical practitioners regarded the plant as  the safest and most readily available purge. Medicinal Actions & Uses Despite 
19th-century beliefs in its safety, American mandrake is no longer taken internally on account of its cytotoxic (cell-killing) action. However, applied externally as a poultice, lotion, or ointment, the root can be an effective treatment for all kinds of warts. Research The lignans in American mandrake—
podophyllotoxin in particular—act against tumors and have been extensively researched for their anticancer potential. Semisynthetic derivatives of podophyllotoxin appear to be the most promising, having minimal toxicity. Related Species The Himalayan P. hexandrum 
may have similar actions. RCautions Do not take internally. The plant  
is subject to legal restrictions in most countries.Seneka is the most powerful and efficacious antiphlogistic [fever- and inflammation-reducing substance] attenuant among the Galenical medicines.”
Medicinal Actions & Uses In North 
American and European herbal medicine,  Seneca snakeroot is used as an expectorant to treat bronchial asthma, chronic bronchitis, and whooping cough. The root has a stimulant action on the bronchial mucous membranes, promoting the coughing up of phlegm from the chest. Seneca snakeroot is also thought to encourage sweating and to stimulate the secretion of saliva. Related Species Yuan zhi (P. tenuifolia), native  
to China and Japan, has similar constituents. Yuan zhi is taken to treat congestion in the chest and to “calm the spirit and quieten the heart.” See also milkwort ( P. vulgaris, following entry). Cautions Do not take if pregnant. Causes 
diarrhea and vomiting in excessive doses. Polygala vulgaris (Polygalaceae)
Milkwort
Description Short perennial with pointed  
lance-shaped leaves and spikes of small blue, mauve, or white flowers. Habitat & Cultivation Milkwort is common 
in grassy and moorland areas in much of western and northern Europe. It is gathered from the wild when the plant is in flower in summer. Parts Used Aerial parts, root. Constituents Milkwort contains triterpenoid 
saponins, a volatile oil, gaultherin, and mucilage. History & Folklore Milkwort has been most 
often used to treat chest problems such as pleurisy and dry coughs. In larger doses, the plant acts as an emetic. In his Irish Herbal (1735), K’Eogh states that “it has a hot dry nature, and it encourages the production of milk in nursing mothers.”
Medicinal Actions & Uses While milkwort  
is infrequently used in European herbal medicine today, it—like Seneca snakeroot (P. senega,  see preceding entry)—is a valuable herb for the treatment of respiratory troubles such as chronic bronchitis, bronchial asthma, and convulsive coughs, including whooping cough. Milkwort is also thought to have sweat-inducing and diuretic properties.Constituents Patchouli contains a volatile oil 
comprising mainly the sesquiterpenes patchoulol (35%) and bulnesene. History & Folklore Patchouli has been used 
extensively in Asian medicine, featuring in the Chinese, Indian, and Arabic traditions. Its most common use has been as an aphrodisiac. The essential oil is widely employed in India as a fragrance and as an insect repellent. Medicinal Actions & Uses Patchouli is  
used in herbal medicine in Asia as an aphrodisiac, antidepressant, and antiseptic. It is also employed for headaches and fever. Patchouli essential oil is used in aromatherapy to treat skin complaints. It  is thought to have a regenerative effect on skin tone and to help clear conditions such as eczema and acne. The oil may also be used for varicose veins and hemorroids. Caution Do not take essential oil internally. American  
mandrake
Pogostemon cablin syn. P. patchouli 
(Lamiaceae)
Patchouli
Description Hairy, aromatic perennial growing 
to 3 ft (1 m). Has square stems, oval leaves, and 
spikes bearing whorls of white to light-purple flowers. Habitat & Cultivation Native to Malaysia and 
the Philippines, patchouli is now cultivated in tropical and subtropical regions around the world. The shoots and leaves are picked 2 or 3 times a year. Parts Used Y oung leaves and shoots, essential oil.Patchouli is the source of an essential oil. Polygala senega (Polygalaceae)
Seneca Snakeroot
Description Perennial growing to about 16 in 
(40 cm). Has narrow lance-shaped leaves with toothed edges, and spikes of whitish-pink flowers. Habitat & Cultivation Seneca snakeroot is 
native to North America, and found in dry stony open ground and woodland. It is cultivated in western Canada. The root is unearthed in autumn. Part Used Root. Constituents Seneca snakeroot contains 
phenolic acids, methyl salicylate, triterpenoid saponins (including sengins), polygalitol, and plant sterols. The triterpenoid saponins promote the clearing of phlegm from the bronchial tubes. History & Folklore This plant’s name refers  
to the Seneca tribe of North America, who employed the root as a remedy for snake bite. Seneca snakeroot was highly valued as a medicine by both Native Americans and European settlers. In 1768, Dr. Alexander Garden of Charleston wrote that “The Polygonatum multiflorum 
(Liliaceae)
Solomon’s Seal
Description Perennial growing to about 20 in 
(50 cm). Has arching stems, alternate elliptical 
leaves, delicate greenish-white, bell-shaped flowers, and blue-black fruit. US_246-265_Pergularia_Extensa_Salvia_Sclarea.indd   252 26/02/16   12:47 pm253 other medicinal plants
Habitat & Cultivation 
Native to Europe and to 
temperate regions of Asia and 
North America, Solomon’s seal is 
quite rare in the wild. However, it is a 
common ornamental garden plant. The 
rhizome is unearthed in autumn. Part Used Rhizome. Constituents Solomon’s seal contains steroidal 
saponins (similar to diosgenin), flavonoids, and 
vitamin A. History & Folklore Solomon’s seal has been 
used in Western herbal medicine since classical 
times. In China, the herb’s first recorded use 
stretches back to the Divine Husbandman’s Classic  
(Shen’nong Bencaojing ) of the 1st century ce. In North America, the species P. biflorum  was 
known to various native tribes. The Penobscot  
used Solomon’s seal as part of a formula for  
treating gonorrhea. Medicinal Actions & Uses Like arnica 
(Arnica montana,  p. 172), Solomon’s seal is believed 
to prevent excessive bruising and to stimulate 
tissue repair. The rhizome, which is mainly used  
in the form of a poultice, has astringent and 
demulcent actions that undoubtedly contribute  
to its ability to accelerate healing. Solomon’s seal 
has also been recommended for tuberculosis, as  
a remedy for menstrual problems, and as a tonic. In Chinese herbal medicine, it is considered a yin 
tonic, and is thought to be particularly applicable  
to respiratory system problems—sore throats,  
dry and irritable coughs, bronchial congestion, and 
chest pain. Related Species Angular or scented Solomon’s 
seal ( P. odoratum ) is used in much the same way as 
P. multiflorum. QCaution Do not take internally except under 
professional advice. The aerial parts, especially  
the berries, are harmful if eaten. Polygonum bistorta
Polygonum bistorta 
(Polygonaceae)
Bistort
Description Perennial growing to 12 in (30 cm). Has long basal leaves, dense spikes of small pink 
flowers, and dark nutlets. Habitat & Cultivation Native to Europe,  
Asia, and North America, bistort prefers damp 
conditions. The leaves are gathered in spring, the 
rhizome in autumn. Parts Used Leaves, rhizome. Constituents Bistort contains polyphenols 
(including ellagic acid), tannins (15–20%), 
phlobaphenes, flavonoids, and a trace of the 
anthraquinone emodin. History & Folklore Bistort rhizomes have 
long been employed for their astringency. As the 
rhizomes also contain large amounts of starch, they 
have been steeped in water, roasted, and eaten as 
a vegetable in Russia and North 
America. In addition, the young, 
tender leaves of bistort may  
be used in salads or, 
alternatively, cooked  
in the same way as  
spinach ( Spinacia oleracea ). Medicinal Actions  
& Uses One of the most 
strongly astringent of all 
herbs, bistort is used to 
contract tissues and staunch 
blood flow. It makes a valuable 
mouthwash and gargle for 
treating spongy gums, mouth 
ulcers, and sore throats, and is also 
useful as a wash for small burns and 
wounds, a douche for excessive 
Rhizome
Bistort is one of the most  
astringent of all medicinal plants.Polygonum aviculare 
(Polygonaceae)
Knotgrass,
Bian Xu (Chinese)
Description Annual creeper growing to 20 in 
(50 cm). Has lance-shaped leaves and clusters of 
small pink or white flowers. Habitat & Cultivation Knotgrass is found in 
temperate regions throughout the world. It thrives 
on wasteground and along shorelines. The plant is 
gathered throughout the summer. Parts Used Aerial parts. Constituents Knotgrass contains tannins, 
flavonoids, polyphenols, silicic acid (about 1%),  
and mucilage. History & Folklore Knotgrass has been  
used as a diuretic in Chinese herbal medicine  
for over 2,000 years. In the Western tradition,  
the 1st-century ce physician Dioscorides  
likewise considered knotgrass to be a diuretic,  
as well as a remedy for heavy menstrual bleeding 
and snake bite. Medicinal Actions & Uses An herb with 
astringent and diuretic properties, knotgrass is  
used in European herbal medicine to treat many 
conditions—diarrhea and hemorroids, to expel 
worms, to staunch bleeding wounds, to reduce 
heavy menstrual flow, and to stop nosebleeds. Knotgrass is also taken for pulmonary complaints, 
since its silicic acid content strengthens connective 
tissue within the lungs. In Chinese medicine, it is 
given to expel tapeworm and hookworm, to treat 
diarrhea and dysentery, and as a diuretic, 
particularly when urination is painful. Research Chinese research indicates that the 
plant is a useful medicine for bacillary dysentery. Of 108 people with this disease treated with a 
paste of knotgrass (taken internally), 104  
recovered within 5 days. Results from Iranian 
laboratory studies indicate that knotgrass 
stimulates apoptosis (programmed cell death) and 
might be of use in treating breast cancer. Related Species See also bistort ( P. bistorta , 
following entry ), and he shou wu   
(P. multiflorum , p. 124).Solomon’s seal is 
mostly used for throat 
and chest problems. US_246-265_Pergularia_Extensa_Salvia_Sclarea.indd   253 26/02/16   12:47 pm
254
other medicinal plantsPolymnia uvedalia
vaginal discharge, and an ointment for hemorroids 
and anal fissures. Internally, bistort may be taken to treat peptic ulcers, ulcerative colitis, and conditions such as dysentery and irritable bowel that give rise to diarrhea. Related Species P. hydropiper, which is  
native to Europe, may be used to relieve heavy menstrual bleeding. See also knotgrass (P. aviculare, preceding entry). Caution Use bistort internally for no more than 
3–4 weeks at a time. Self-help Use Diarrhea, p. 307. Kumarhou is considered to be a detoxifier and “blood cleansing” plant, and is used to treat skin rashes and sores, including lesions produced by  skin cancer. Populus x candicans syn. P. x gileadensis (Salicaceae)
Balm of Gilead
Description Deciduous tree growing to 80 ft 
(25 m). Has heart-shaped leaves, buds producing  
a sticky resin, and female catkins. Habitat & Cultivation Naturalized in northern 
temperate regions, balm of Gilead is also cultivated as an ornamental tree. The buds and bark from young branches are collected in spring. Parts Used Buds, stem bark. Constituents Balm of Gilead buds contain 
flavonoids, phenolic glycosides (including salicin), and fatty acids. Salicin’s analgesic, anti-inflammatory, and fever-reducing actions resemble those of aspirin. Many poplars have a similar chemical profile and are often used interchangeably as medicines. History & Folklore Balm of Gilead has been 
used for several thousand years to soothe inflamed or irritated skin. The 17th-century herbalist Nicholas Culpeper recorded that “The oyntment called populeon, which is much of this poplar, is singular for all heat and inflammation in any part of the body and tempereth the heat of wounds: It is much used to dry up the milk in women’s breasts.”
Medicinal Actions & Uses Balm of Gilead  
is a common ingredient of cough mixtures. Its expectorant, antiseptic, and analgesic properties make it an excellent remedy for sore throats, dry irritable coughs, bronchitis, and other respiratory ailments. In France and Germany, balm of Gilead  is applied as a salve to scrapes, small wounds, chapped and itchy skin, sunburn, chilblains, and hemorroids. A preparation of balm of Gilead, applied externally, may also help relieve the pain  of rheumatic joints and strained muscles. As Culpeper noted, the plant is also thought to reduce breast-milk production. Research Studies 
have demonstrated that balm of Gilead  buds have significant expectorant, antibacterial, antifungal, and anti-inflammatory properties. Research undertaken into  the bud resin of this and  other poplar species has been prompted largely by the resin’s chemical similarity to propolis,  a natural antibiotic resin that  is gathered by bees.History & Folklore Polypody has been  
used medicinally in Europe since ancient times. Like mistletoe (Viscum album, p. 283), polypody  often grows on host trees, for example oak  
(Quercus robur, p. 260). This was thought to impart great medicinal value to the plant. The Greek physician Dioscorides, writing in the 1st century ce, noted that polypody was used to purge phlegm and was an ingredient of a plaster applied to dislocated fingers and to sores that occur between the fingers. Medicinal Actions & Uses Polypody 
stimulates bile secretion and has been used to  treat such conditions as hepatitis, jaundice, and indigestion. A gentle laxative, polypody makes a  safe treatment for constipation in children. The rhizome is also expectorant, having a supportive and mildly stimulating effect on the respiratory system. It may be taken for the relief of congestion, bronchitis, pleurisy, and dry irritable coughs. Caution Polypody may cause a skin rash when 
applied externally. Polypody is often seen growing in damp woodland in 
Europe and northern Asia. Balm of GileadPomaderris elliptica (Rhamnaceae)
Kumarhou
Description Branching tree growing to about  
10 ft (3 m). Has shiny leaves and clusters of yellow-
white flowers. Habitat & Cultivation Kumarhou is native  
to New Zealand. Parts Used Aerial parts. Medicinal Actions & Uses Kumarhou is a 
traditional Maori remedy that has been used to treat a wide range of illnesses. Its most common use is as a remedy for problems of the respiratory tract, such as asthma and bronchitis. However, it  has also been used in the treatment of indigestion and heartburn, diabetes, and kidney problems. Polymnia uvedalia (Asteraceae)
Bearsfoot
Description Perennial herb growing to 61⁄2 ft  
(2 m) with large 3-lobed leaves and yellow flowers. Habitat & Cultivation Bearsfoot is native  
to the eastern U.S. It grows from New Y ork southward, preferring rich soil. The root is unearthed in autumn. Part Used Root. History & Folklore Bearsfoot root was used 
by Native Americans as a stimulant and laxative remedy. In the 19th century, it became a widely popular healing herb in North America, having  a specific use as a treatment for mastitis (inflammation of the breast tissue). Medicinal Actions & Uses Bearsfoot is 
perhaps best known for its use as a hair tonic, having traditionally been a popular ingredient in hair lotions. It is still used in this way, but today the root is more often taken internally as a treatment for nonmalignant swollen glands and especially for mastitis. The root is thought to have a beneficial effect on the stomach, liver, and spleen, and may  be taken to relieve indigestion and counteract  liver malfunction. Polypodium vulgare (Polypodiaceae)
Polypody
Description Delicate perennial fern growing  
to a height of 1 ft (30 cm). Has slender knotty rhizomes and curving fronds that are dotted  with brown spores (sori) on their lower surface. Habitat & Cultivation Native to Europe  
and northern Asia, polypody is commonly found growing in damp woodland and hedgerows, and  on walls. The rhizome is unearthed in autumn. Part Used Rhizome. Constituents Polypody rhizome contains 
saponins (based on polypodosapogenin), ecdysteroids, phloroglucins, volatile oil, fixed  oil, and tannins. US_246-265_Pergularia_Extensa_Salvia_Sclarea.indd   254 26/02/16   12:47 pm255 other medicinal plantsPotentilla anserina
properties. It is often taken to treat arthritic  
and rheumatic aches and pains. It is also used  
to lower fever, especially when this condition  
is associated with rheumatoid arthritis. Being 
stimulant, quaking aspen bark acts as a tonic 
remedy in the treatment of anorexia and other 
debilitated states. The bark’s significant astringent 
and antiseptic qualities make it useful for treating 
diarrhea and the symptoms of irritable bowel 
syndrome. It is also used to treat urinary  
tract infections. Caution Do not take quaking aspen if allergic  
to aspirin.Cautions Best avoided while breastfeeding. Do not take if allergic to aspirin. Self-help Use  Coughs , p. 310. Populus tremuloides (Salicaceae)
Quaking Aspen
Description Deciduous, spreading tree  
growing to 65 ft (20 m). Has oval, slightly sticky 
buds and round, finely toothed leaves that quiver 
in the wind. Habitat & Cultivation Native to North 
America, quaking aspen prefers damp and moist 
areas, and grows alongside rivers and in valleys, 
hedgerows, and groves. It is also widely cultivated  
in temperate regions. The bark is collected in  
early spring. Part Used Bark. Constituents The bark contains phenolic 
glycosides (including salicin and populin) and 
tannins. Salicin and populin are salicylates, substances 
that have fever-reducing, pain-relieving, and 
anti-inflammatory properties that are 
similar to those of aspirin. Quaking aspen bark contains salicin, a substance  
with aspirin-like effects.Purslane is a good 
source of vitamins and 
calcium. It also has 
antibiotic properties. History & Folklore The Ojibwa people used 
an oily compound made from quaking aspen and 
bear fat to treat earache. Other Native Americans 
used the bark for a variety of purposes, including  
as an eyewash for sore eyes. Medicinal Actions & Uses Like willow bark 
(Salix alba , p. 129), quaking aspen bark has widely 
recognized anti-inflammatory and pain-relieving Research Purslane is being intensively researched. Extracts of the herb show antioxidant, anti-
inflammatory, analgesic, and antidiabetic activity, 
underlining that fact that purslane is valuable as 
food and as medicine. The alkaloids have 
neuroprotective activity and inhibit 
acetylcholinesterase, making the herb  
theoretically of use in Alzheimer’s disease. Caution Do not take purslane as a medicine 
during pregnancy. Potentilla anserina (Rosaceae)
Silverweed
Description Perennial plant growing to  
16 in (40 cm). Has toothed compound leaves  
that are silvery on the underside, and 5-petaled 
yellow flowers. Habitat & Cultivation Silverweed is found  
in Europe, Asia, and North America, where it 
flourishes in dry grassy places. The aerial parts are 
collected in late summer, the root at the same time 
or in autumn. Parts Used Aerial parts, root. Constituents Silverweed contains 2–10% 
ellagitannins, flavonoids, choline, and bitters. History & Folklore William Withering, the 
18th-century doctor who discovered the 
cardiotonic effects of foxglove ( Digitalis purpurea , 
p. 202), recommended a teaspoon of dried leaves 
to be taken at 3-hour intervals to assuage bouts 
of malarial fever. Medicinal Actions & Uses Silverweed’s  
main medicinal value lies in its astringent and anti-
inflammatory activity. It makes an effective gargle  LeavesPortulaca oleracea (Portulacaceae)
Purslane
Description Succulent annual plant growing  
to 6 in (15 cm). Has small, thick rounded leaves 
and small yellow flowers growing in clusters. Habitat & Cultivation Native to Europe 
and Asia, purslane is now one of the most 
widely distributed plants, growing  
from Australia and China to the 
Americas. Often found growing 
near water, it is gathered 
throughout the summer. Wild 
purslane is the variety chiefly used  
as a medicine; the golden variety,  
P. oleracea var. sativa , is cultivated 
mostly as a kitchen potherb. Parts Used Aerial parts. Constituents Purslane contains flavonoids, 
alkaloids, fatty acids (significant omega-3 oil 
content), terpenoids, polysaccharides, vitamins A, 
B1, and C, proteins and minerals (especially calcium). History & Folklore Purslane’s use as a 
medicinal herb in Europe, Iran, and India dates  
back at least 2,000 years, and it was probably  
eaten as a vegetable well before then. In ancient 
Rome, purslane was used to treat headaches, 
stomach ache and dysentery, intestinal worms,  
and lizard bite. Medicinal Actions & Uses Purslane has  
long been considered valuable in the treatment  
of urinary and digestive problems. The diuretic 
effect of the juice makes it useful in the alleviation 
of bladder ailments, for example difficulty in 
passing urine. The plant’s mucilaginous properties 
also make it a soothing remedy for gastrointestinal 
problems such as dysentery and diarrhea. In 
Chinese herbal medicine, purslane is employed for 
similar problems and, additionally, for appendicitis. The Chinese also use the plant as an antidote for 
wasp stings and snake bite. Used as an external 
wash, the juice or a decoction relieves skin ailments 
such as boils and carbuncles, and also helps to 
reduce fever. US_246-265_Pergularia_Extensa_Salvia_Sclarea.indd   255 26/02/16   12:47 pm
256
other medicinal plantsPotentilla erecta
for sore throats, and is a helpful remedy for 
diarrhea. Less astringent than its close relative tormentil (P. erecta, see following entry), it also has  a gentler action within the gastrointestinal tract. It is used externally as a lotion or ointment for bleeding hemorroids. Caution Use internally for more no more than 
3–4 weeks at a time. Potentilla erecta syn. P. tormentilla 
(Rosaceae)
Tormentil
Description Downy creeping perennial growing 
to 4 in (10 cm). Has leaves bearing 5 leaflets, and 
many 4-petaled yellow flowers. Habitat & Cultivation Native to temperate 
regions of Asia and Europe, tormentil thrives in grassy sites and on heaths and moorland. The aerial parts of tormentil are harvested in summer and the root is gathered in autumn. Parts Used Aerial parts, root. Constituents Tormentil contains 15–20% 
tannins, catechins, ellagitannins, and a phlobaphene. History & Folklore According to the 
17th-century herbalist Nicholas Culpeper, the  herb “is most excellent to stay all kinds of fluxes  of blood or humours in man or woman, whether  it be at nose, mouth, belly, or any wound in the veins or elsewhere.”
Medicinal Actions & Uses Containing even 
more tannins than oak bark (Quercus robur, p. 260), all parts of tormentil are strongly astringent, finding use wherever this action is required. The plant makes a beneficial gargle for throat infections, and an effective mouthwash for treating mouth ulcers and infected gums. Tormentil may be taken for conditions that give rise to diarrhea, such as irritable bowel syndrome, colitis, ulcerative colitis, and dysentery, and for rectal bleeding. Applied externally as a lotion or ointment, tormentil helps relieve hemorroids (especially those that are bleeding). In the form of a lotion, tormentil is used to help staunch wounds and protect areas of damaged or burned skin. Caution Use internally for more no more than 
3–4 weeks at a time.and so easing the clearance of phlegm. It is given for chronic coughs, especially those associated  with chronic bronchitis and mucus congestion. The root is also thought to be mildly diuretic  and antirheumatic and to slow blood clotting. The leaves have similar properties to the root,  but are weaker in action. The flowers are  
believed to be sedative and are recommended  for overactivity and sleeplessness, particularly in children. Cowslip flowers’ antispasmodic and anti-inflammatory properties make them potentially useful in the treatment of asthma and other allergic conditions. Cautions Do not take cowslip during pregnancy, 
if allergic to aspirin, or if taking anticoagulant medication. Excessive doses can cause vomiting  and diarrhea. Prunella vulgaris (Lamiaceae)
Self-Heal
Description Creeping perennial, growing to  
20 in (50 cm) tall, with pointed oval leaves and 
violet-blue or pink flowers.
Encyclopedia_Of_Herbal_Medicine.txt
Summarize the following text section accurately and concisely. Maintain specific details and numerical information, and use anti-repetition mechanisms:

        Known to the  
Greek physicians Dioscorides (40–90 ce) and 
Galen (131–200 ce), as well as to their Arabic 
counterpart Avicenna (980–1037 ce), harmala  
was also used to expel intestinal worms and to 
promote the onset of menstrual flow. Medicinal Actions & Uses  Despite its long 
history as a euphoric and purportedly aphrodisiac 
herb, harmala is little used in contemporary 
Western herbal medicine because of its potential 
toxicity. The seeds have been taken, especially  
in the Middle East, to treat a very wide range  
of conditions, including high blood pressure, eye 
problems, psychiatric disorders, depression, 
Parkinson’s disease, and cancer. In central Asia, the 
root is a popular medicinal remedy that is used to 
treat rheumatism and nervous conditions. RCaution  This plant is toxic and should not be 
used under any circumstances. Paullinia cupana syn. P. sorbilis 
(Sapindaceae)
Guarana
Description  Woody vine growing to a height  
of 33 ft (10 m). Has divided compound leaves, 
clusters of inconspicuous yellow flowers, and pear-
shaped fruit that contains small shiny brown seeds. Habitat & Cultivation  Guarana is native  
to tropical forests of the Brazilian Amazon, and  
is also cultivated in Brazil. The seeds are gathered 
when ripe. Parts Used  Seeds. Constituents  Guarana contains xanthine 
derivatives (including up to 7% caffeine, together 
with theobromine and theophylline), tannins, and 
saponins. The xanthines are stimulant and diuretic,  
and reduce fatigue over the short term. History & Folklore  In Brazil, 
guarana is traditionally prepared 
by roasting, crushing, and drying 
the seeds. The resulting “cakes” 
are made into a tea, which is taken 
to counter fatigue or to treat 
diarrhea. Guarana has recently 
become a popular alternative to coffee. Pausinystalia yohimbe  
syn. Corynanthe yohimbe 
(Rubiaceae)
Y ohimbe
Description  Evergreen tree growing to  
100 ft (30 m). Has reddish-brown bark,  
oblong or elliptical leaves, and clusters of small 
yellow flowers. Habitat & Cultivation  Y ohimbe is native to 
the forests of western Africa, especially Cameroon, 
Zaïre, and Gabon. The bark is gathered at any time 
of year. Part Used  Bark. Constituents  Y ohimbe contains approximately 
6% indole alkaloids (including yohimbine), pigments, 
and tannins. The alkaloids have a cerebral stimulant 
action at moderate doses, but are highly toxic in 
large doses. History & Folklore  Y ohimbe has an ancient 
reputation in western Africa, especially among  
the Bantu people, as a male aphrodisiac and  
mild hallucinogen. Medicinal Actions & Uses  Y ohimbe is little 
used in herbal medicine owing to its potential 
toxicity. In western Africa, it is often employed  
as a stimulant and as a means to counter erectile 
dysfunction. Y ohimbine has been used in 
conventional medicine in the treatment of 
erectile dysfunction. QCautions  T ake yohimbe only under 
professional supervision. The herb is subject to 
legal restrictions in many countries. US_224-245_Jasmine_Harmala. indd   245 26/02/16   12:47 pm
246
other medicinal plantsPergularia extensa
Pergularia extensa 
(Asclepiadaceae)
Pergularia
Description Perennial climber with broad oval 
leaves and small greenish-white flowers. Habitat & Cultivation Pergularia is native  
to India. Its aerial parts are gathered throughout 
the year. Parts Used Aerial parts. Constituents Pergularia contains a resin, bitter 
principles, and plant sterols. Medicinal Actions & Uses Pergularia is 
thought to have bitter, expectorant, diuretic, and laxative properties, and is employed in several  
ways in Indian herbal medicine. It is prescribed as  a treatment for bronchitis and asthma. Pergularia  is also used as a means to curtail heavy menstrual or non-menstrual uterine bleeding. Juice from the leaves may be applied to relieve the pain and swelling of cysts and rheumatic joints. Habitat & Cultivation Suma is native to 
rainforests of South America, from Venezuela  to southern Brazil. Parts Used  Root. Constituents Suma contains triterpene 
saponins (pfaffosides), sterols (including beta-ecdysone), and minerals (including significant  levels of germanium). History & Folklore Suma has been used by 
the people of the Amazon rainforest from the earliest times for conditions as varied as wound healing, diabetes, and cancer. Also taken for its aphrodisiac qualities, suma has become a popular herbal medicine in Brazil, where it is known as  
para todo (“for all”), or Brazilian ginseng. Medicinal Actions & Uses Suma has many 
medicinal applications, most centred around three areas of activity: as a hormonal and glandular tonic, as an immune stimulant and detoxifying agent,  and in cancer prevention and treatment. Suma is perhaps best known as a male sexual tonic, but  it is equally effective for women and has value in treating menstrual and menopausal problems. Suma root enhances nonspecific immunity and has a role to play in treating chronic infection and lowered immune resistance. Research Research  into suma suggests that it can 
be useful in cancer prevention and treatment;  several of the pfaffosides have been shown to prevent tumor growth in laboratory conditions. The pfaffosides are chemically similar to the ginsenosides found in ginseng (Panax ginseng, p. 118), and, like ginseng, suma’s acclaimed value as an aphrodisiac appears to have a scientific basis. Male rats with depressed sexual function were observed to become more sexually active on being given a suma extract. Cautions Avoid taking suma during pregnancy 
and while breastfeeding. treatment of gout, rheumatism, and arthritis. Both plants act by encouraging the flushing out of waste products from the inflamed joints, and the waste’s subsequent elimination via the kidneys. Parsley root is taken as a treatment for flatulence, cystitis, and rheumatic conditions. Parsley is also valued as a promoter of menstruation, being helpful both  
in stimulating a delayed period and in relieving menstrual pain. Cautions Parsley is a safe herb at normal dosage 
and consumption levels, but excessive quantities of the seeds are toxic. Do not take the seeds during pregnancy or if suffering from kidney disease. Peumus boldus (Apiaceae)
Boldo
Description Strongly aromatic multibranched 
evergreen shrub or tree growing to 20 ft (6 m). Has egg-shaped leathery leaves with a lemony scent, clusters of white or yellow bell-shaped flowers, and small yellow berries. Habitat & Cultivation 
Boldo is native to Chile and Peru, and has become naturalized in the Mediterranean region and the West Coast of North America. It grows on dry  sunny slopes and in mountain pastures in the Andes, where it is widely cultivated. The leaves  are gathered throughout the year. Parts Used Leaves. Constituents Boldo contains 0. 7% isoquinoline 
alkaloids (including boldine), as well as a volatile oil and flavonoids. History & Folklore Boldo is a valued remedy 
in Latin American herbal medicine and is used by the Araucanian people in Chile as a tonic. Medicinal Actions & Uses Boldo stimulates 
liver activity and bile flow and is chiefly valued as a remedy for gallstones and liver or gallbladder pain. It is normally taken for a few weeks at a time, either as a tincture or infusion. Boldo is also a mild urinary antiseptic and demulcent and may be taken for infections such as cystitis. Cautions Do not take during pregnancy. This herb 
is subject to legal restrictions in some countries. Phaseolus vulgaris (Fabaceae)
French Bean,
Haricot Bean
Description Slender-stemmed, annual climber 
growing to 13 ft (4 m). Has pointed oval leaflets, curly tendrils, clusters of white or lilac flowers,  and a beanpod containing kidney-shaped seeds. Habitat & Cultivation French beans are 
thought to have originated from South America. Today, varieties are cultivated all over the world. The ripe beans are gathered in summer. Parts Used Beanpods, beans. Constituents French beans contain lectins, 
saponins, flavonoids, allantoin, amino acids,  
and sugars. History & Folklore French beans have been 
used since antiquity to treat diabetes. In A Modern Herbal (1931), Mrs. Grieve records that “because Petroselinum crispum (Apiaceae)
Parsley
Description Annual herb growing to 1 ft  
(30 cm). Has an erect stem, bright green compound smooth or crinkled leaves, small white flowers growing in clusters, and small ribbed seeds. Habitat & Cultivation Parsley is native to 
Europe and the eastern Mediterranean. Today  
it is rarely found in the wild, but is cultivated throughout the world as a nutritious salad herb. The leaves may be picked from spring to autumn, and the seeds are gathered when just ripe. Parts Used Leaves, root, seeds. Constituents Parsley contains a volatile oil 
(including about 20% myristicin, about 18% apiole, and many other terpenes), flavonoids, phthalides, coumarins (including bergapten), vitamins A, C, and E, and high levels of iron. The flavonoids are  
anti-inflammatory and antioxidant. Myristicin and apiole have diuretic properties. The volatile oil relieves cramping pain and flatulence, and is a strong uterine stimulant. History & Folklore Parsley was known in 
ancient Greece and Rome—but more as a diuretic, digestive tonic, and menstrual stimulant than as a salad herb. In Rome, parsley was associated with the goddess Persephone, queen of the underworld, and was used in funeral ceremonies. Parsley was introduced to Britain in 1548. Medicinal Actions & Uses The fresh  
leaves are highly nutritious and can be considered  a natural vitamin and mineral supplement in their own right. The seeds have a much stronger diuretic action than the leaves, and may be substituted for celery seeds (Apium graveolens, p. 64) in the Dried leaves
Pfaffia paniculata (Amaranthaceae)
Suma,
Brazilian Ginseng
Description Climbing perennial with a thick 
rootstock, growing up through rainforest trees into the forest canopy. US_246-265_Pergularia_Extensa_Salvia_Sclarea. indd   246 17/03/16   4:01 pm247 other medicinal plants
Phytolacca americana  
syn.
To expel intestinal worms and to promote the onset of menstrual flow.
What is harmala used for in traditional medicine?
As a digestive stimulant and to relieve flatulence.
What is the primary use of Pimpinella anisum?
As a digestive stimulant and to relieve flatulence.
What is the primary use of Pimpinella anisum?
As a digestive stimulant and to relieve flatulence.
What is the primary use of Pimpinella anisum?
As a digestive stimulant and to relieve flatulence.
What is the primary use of Pimpinella anisum?
As a digestive stimulant and to relieve flatulence.
What is the primary use of Pimpinella anisum?