The traditional use of blue 
flag for gland problems persists. It is also believed 
by some to aid weight loss. Cautions Excessive doses cause vomiting. Do not take this plant during pregnancy.Ipomoea purga syn. convolvulus 
jalapa (Convolvulaceae)
Jalap
Description Evergreen vine reaching about  
13 ft (4 m). Has heart-shaped leaves and trumpet-
like purple flowers. Habitat & Cultivation Native to Mexico, 
jalap is cultivated in Central America, the West 
Indies, and Southeast Asia. The root is unearthed 
in summer. Part Used Root. Constituents Jalap contains the resin 
convolvulin. History & Folklore Spanish colonizers  
learned of jalap’s strong purgative effect from 
Mexican native peoples. Introduced into Europe  
in 1565, the herb was used for all types of  
illnesses until the 19th century. Medicinal Actions & Uses Jalap is such  
a powerful cathartic that its medicinal value  
is questionable. Even in moderate doses it 
stimulates the elimination of profuse watery 
stools, and in larger doses it causes vomiting. Related Species  I. turpethum , native to Asia  
and Australia, is also a drastic purgative. Other 
Ipomoea  species, such as the sweet potato  
(I. batatas , from South America), are important 
food plants. The seeds of morning glory  
(I. violacea ), native to Mexico, contain  
compounds similar to LSD, and were taken  
ritually by the Zapotecs and Aztecs. RCaution Do not take jalap under any 
circumstances. US_202-223_Digitalis_lutea_Iris_versicolor.indd   223 26/02/16   12:47 pm
224
Other medicinal plantsJasminum grandiflorum
Jasminum grandiflorum (Oleaceae)
Jasmine
Description  Slender evergreen rambler growing 
to 20 ft (6 m). Has dark green compound leaves and 
large, sweetly scented tubular white flowers. Habitat & Cultivation  Native to northern 
India, Pakistan, and the northwestern Himalayas, jasmine is now cultivated as a garden plant and for its essential oil. Parts Used  Flowers, essential oil. Constituents  Jasmine’s volatile oil contains 
benzyl alcohol, benzyl acetate, linalool, and  
linalyl acetate. History & Folklore  Jasmine was introduced  
to Europe in the 16th century, and is mainly used  as a source of perfume. Medicinal Actions & Uses  Jasmine flowers 
make a calming and sedative infusion, taken to  
relieve tension. The oil is considered antidepressant and relaxing. It is used externally to soothe dry  
or sensitive skin. Due to frequent adulteration,  
the oil is rarely used in aromatherapy. Related Species  Actually native to Southeast 
Asia, Arabian jasmine (J. sambac) is used  
as an eyewash, is added to tea (Camellia sinensis,  p. 181) to produce jasmine tea, and is used in Buddhist ceremonies. Caution  Jasmine essential oil should not be  
taken internally. Jateorhiza palmata 
(Menispermaceae)
Calumba
Description  Creeping vine with a perennial 
rootstock, growing to a great height and often 
reaching the tops of trees. Has large palm-shaped leaves, small greenish-white flowers, with male  
and female flowers on separate plants, and  round, fleshy fruit. Habitat & Cultivation  Native to the 
rainforests of eastern Africa, especially Mozambique and Madagascar, calumba is also grown in other tropical regions. The roots are dug up in dry weather in March and dried. Parts Used  Bark. Constituents  Calumba contains isoquinoline 
alkaloids (notably palmatine, columbamine, and jatrorrhizine), diterpene bitter principles, mucilage, and volatile oil (about 1%). Medicinal Actions & Uses  Profoundly bitter, 
calumba is an extremely good remedy for underactive or weakened digestion, stimulating stomach acid production and increasing appetite. It is a specific for loss of appetite and anorexia, and by making the stomach more acidic (and therefore hostile to pathogens) helps to prevent digestive infections and improve the breakdown and absorption of foods. It is a useful treatment for chronic intestinal infection such as dysentery. Research  Calumba’s bitterness is due both to the 
bitter principles and the alkaloids. Palmatine and jatrorrhizine reduce blood pressure, palmatine  
is a uterine stimulant, and jatrorrhizine is sedative  and antifungal. Other Species  Calumba has much in common 
with gentian (Gentiana lutea, p. 99), although it owes its bitterness to a different range of constituents. Caution  Avoid during pregnancy.was used to treat a variety of conditions, including rheumatic and arthritic joints, headaches, dysentery, constipation, and wounds. Medicinal Actions & Uses  Used to this  
day as a laxative and tonic, butternut is a valuable remedy for chronic constipation, gently encouraging regular bowel movements. It is especially beneficial if combined with a carminative herb, such as ginger (Zingiber officinale, p. 155) or angelica (Angelica 
archangelica, p. 168). Butternut also lowers cholesterol levels, and promotes the clearance  of waste products by the liver. It has a positive reputation in treating intestinal worms, and, being antimicrobial and astringent, it has been prescribed as a treatment for dysentery. Related Species  Black walnut (J. nigra) is used  
in the same way as butternut. The bark of the walnut tree (J. regia) is used as a gentle purgative, and is also applied to skin afflictions. The nut is used in Chinese herbal medicine as a kidney tonic. The nuts of both varieties are highly nutritious, lower cholesterol levels, and contain significant quantities of alpha-linolenic acid. Jasmine flowers are the source of an essential oil that  
is used to treat stress and depression. Juglans cinerea (Juglandaceae)
Butternut
Description  Deciduous tree growing to  
100 ft (30 m). Has gray bark, long leaves with  
many leaflets, male catkins and female flowers,  
and an oval-shaped fruit containing a hard  
dark-colored nut. Habitat & Cultivation  Native to North 
American forests, butternut is cultivated for its 
timber in other temperate regions. The bark is collected in autumn. Part Used  Inner bark. Constituents  Contains naphthaquinones 
(including juglone, juglandin, and juglandic acid),  
a fixed and a volatile oil, and tannins. The naphthaquinones have an approximately similar laxative effect to the anthraquinones found in plants such as senna (Cassia senna, p. 75) and Chinese rhubarb (Rheum palmatum, p. 126). Juglone is purgative, antimicrobial, antiparasitic,  
and cancer-inhibiting. History & Folklore  Butternut bark was 
employed by Native Americans and New World settlers as a laxative and tonic remedy. Butternut Juniperus communis 
(Cupressaceae)
Juniper
Description  Coniferous shrub sometimes  
growing to 49 ft (15 m). Has slender twigs with 
whorls of needle-like leaves, yellow male and blue female flowers on separate plants, and spherical blue-black fruit. Habitat & Cultivation  Juniper is found in 
Europe, southwestern Asia up to the Himalayas,  and North America, where it grows from southern coastal sites to more northerly moorland and mountainous regions. The ripe fruit (berries) is gathered in autumn. Parts Used  Fruit, essential oil. Constituents  Juniper contains 1–2% volatile oil, 
consisting of over 60 compounds, which include myrcene, sabinene, alpha- and beta-pinene, and cineole. Juniper also contains tannins, diterpenes, sugars, resin, and vitamin C.
History & Folklore Juniper is the main 
flavoring used in gin. Juniper berries are still mostly gathered from the wild. In former times, sprigs of juniper flung into the fire were thought to protect against evil spirits. Medicinal Actions & Uses  Juniper is tonic, 
diuretic, and strongly antiseptic within the urinary tract. It is a valuable remedy for cystitis, and helps relieve fluid retention, but should be avoided in cases of kidney disease. In the digestive system, juniper is warming and settling, easing colic and supporting the function of the stomach. T aken internally or applied externally, juniper is helpful  
US_224-245_Jasmine_Harmala.indd   224 26/02/16   12:47 pm225Lactuca virosaOther medicinal plantsConstituents  Kigelia fruit contains norviburtinal, 
coumarins, iridoids, flavonoids, fatty acids, sterols, 
glycosides, and napthaquinones. Norviburtinal has 
tumor-reducing activity, the iridoids and sterols are 
anti-inflammatory, the flavonoids are antifungal, 
and the napthaquinones are thought to  
be cytotoxic. History & Folklore  Prized by traditional 
healers throughout sub-Saharan Africa, kigelia has 
been put to many uses. The Shona of southern 
Africa use the bark or root to treat skin infections 
and ulcers, toothache, backache, and pneumonia. In Central Africa, the unripe fruit is used as a dressing 
for wounds, hemorrhoids, and rheumatism. In West Africa, the leaves are given for stomach 
and kidney problems, and the fruit is used as a 
purgative and applied as a paste to sores. Kigelia  
is commonly included in traditional herbal 
formulations for malaria. Medicinal Actions & Uses  Thanks to the 
knowledge and experience of African traditional 
healers, kigelia is now understood to be a valuable 
remedy for skin problems, particularly sores and 
ulcers, produced by bacterial and fungal infection. Kigelia has been described as a “natural antibacterial.” 
Given its marked anti-inflammatory and wound 
healing properties, kigelia is also being investigated 
as a skin toner and restorer, as well as potential 
treatment for skin disorders such as eczema, 
psoriasis, and solar keratosis (a precancerous skin 
problem caused by overexposure to sunlight). Various patents exist for kigelia products, and  
over time kigelia may become widely known as  
a key herbal resource for the skin. Kigelia  is a key remedy for treating skin problems. QCautions  T ake kigelia internally only under 
professional guidance. Do not take during 
pregnancy or while breastfeeding. Krameria triandra  (Krameriaceae)
Rhatany
Description  Dense evergreen shrub growing  
to 3 ft (90 cm). Has a deep root, oblong leaves,  
and large red flowers. Habitat & Cultivation  Rhatany is found  
in Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia on western slopes  
of the Andes at altitudes of 3,000–9,800 ft  
(900–3,000 m). The root is unearthed throughout 
the year. Part Used  Root. Constituents  Rhatany contains 10–20%  
tannins, including phlobaphene, benzofurans,  
and n-methyltyrosine. History & Folklore  A traditional South 
American remedy, rhatany was used by indigenous 
peoples as an astringent and a tooth preservative. Its Spanish name, raiz para los dientes  (root for the 
teeth), points to this traditional usage. Medicinal Actions & Uses  Rhatany is 
astringent and antimicrobial. It is a useful remedy 
taken principally for problems affecting the  
gastrointestinal tract. It is most commonly used  
for diarrhea and dysentery. In addition, rhatany 
makes a good mouthwash and gargle for bleeding 
and infected gums, mouth ulcers, and sore throats. The plant’s astringency makes it useful in the form 
of an ointment, suppository, or wash for treating 
hemorrhoids. Rhatany may also be applied to 
wounds to help staunch blood flow, to varicose 
veins, and over areas of capillary fragility that may 
be prone to easy bruising. Related Species  The Mexican K. cystisoides   
is an astringent remedy used in much the same way 
as rhatany. Another species native to North and 
Central America, K. parvifolia , was used by the 
Papago as an eyewash. in the treatment of chronic arthritis, gout, and 
rheumatic conditions. Applied externally as  
a diluted essential oil, it has a slightly warming  
effect on the skin and is thought to promote  
the removal of waste products from underlying 
tissues. Juniper also stimulates menstruation and 
tends to increase menstrual bleeding. Related Species  Oil of Cade is produced from  
J. oxycedrus  and is applied to treat skin rashes. Savin 
(J. sabina ) is toxic and a powerful abortifacient. The Japanese  J. rigida  is used as a diuretic. Cautions  Do not use juniper during pregnancy 
or if prone to heavy menstrual bleeding. Do not 
take if suffering from a kidney infection or kidney 
disease. Do not take the essential oil internally 
except under professional supervision. Self-help Use  Urinary infections , p. 314. K. pinnata  syn. K. africana  
(Bignoniaceae)
Kigelia,
African Sausage Tree
Description  Semi-deciduous tree growing to  
80 ft (25 m) with smooth, gray-brown bark and 
brown-purple flowers. The tree gets its name  
from the spectacular sausage-shaped fruit, up  
to 3 ft (1 m) in length, which hangs from a rope-  
like stalk and weighs up to 22 lb (10 kg). Habitat  & Cultivation  Kigelia grows 
throughout sub-Saharan Africa but is native to  
the eastern half of the continent from T anzania  
to South Africa. The tree is cultivated from seed  
or cuttings and flowers after 6 years. The fruit is 
harvested when ripe. Parts Used  Fruit pulp, leaves, bark, roots. Juniper  is powerfully 
antiseptic in the  
urinary tract. Lactuca virosa  (Lamiaceae)
Wild Lettuce
Description  Hollow-stemmed biennial growing 
to about 4 ft (1.2 m). Has broad spiny leaves and 
clusters of pale yellow composite flowers. All parts 
of the plant exude a white milky latex. Habitat & Cultivation  Common throughout 
Europe, wild lettuce grows in open areas, along 
roadsides, and in hedges. It is gathered when  
in flower in late summer. Parts Used  Leaves, latex, seeds. Constituents  The latex contains sesquiterpene 
lactones (including lactucopicrin and lactucerin);  
US_224-245_Jasmine_Harmala.indd   225 26/02/16   12:47 pm
226
other medicinal plantsLamium aL bum
the leaves also contain flavonoids and coumarins. The sesquiterpene lactones have a sedative effect. History & Folklore  In Assyrian herbal 
medicine, lettuce seeds were reportedly used with cumin (Cuminum cyminum, p. 197) as a poultice  
for the eyes. Dioscorides (1st century ce) wrote that the plant’s effect resembled that of the opium poppy (Papaver somniferum, p. 244). Medicinal Actions & Uses Wild lettuce is a 
safe sedative that can be given to adults and children to encourage a sound night’s sleep or to calm overactivity or overstimulation. Most commonly,  
it is recommended for excitability in children. It is also taken to treat coughs, often in combination with herbs such as licorice (Glycyrrhiza glabra,  p. 101). Wild lettuce is thought to lower the libido. It may also be used to relieve pain. Research A 2011 Egyptian clinical trial found  
that lettuce seed oil improved sleep in people suffering from insomnia. Lettuce seed oil has traditionally been used in Egypt for sleep problems. Related Species  Garden lettuce (L. sativa) may 
be used like wild lettuce, but has a much weaker therapeutic action. Lamium album (Lamiaceae)
White Deadnettle
Description  Perennial growing to 2 ft (60 cm). Has a square stem, toothed oval leaves, and clusters of white double-lipped flowers.History & Folklore  Deadnettle is so called 
because it resembles true nettle (Urtica dioica,  p. 146), without the stinging hairs. It was also known as archangel, a plant “to make the heart merry,  
to make a good colour in the face, and to refresh the vital spirits” (John Gerard, The Herball, 1597). Medicinal Actions & Uses  White deadnettle 
is astringent and demulcent. It is chiefly used as  
a uterine tonic, to arrest intermenstrual bleeding, and to reduce excessive menstrual flow. It is also  a traditional treatment for abnormal vaginal discharge. The herb is sometimes taken to relieve painful periods. Its astringency helps treat diarrhea, and, used externally, it can relieve hemorrhoids and varicose veins. Larix decidua  
syn. L. europaea (Pinaceae)
Larch
Description  Deciduous conifer growing to 165 ft 
(50 m). Has clusters of needle-like leaves, male and 
female flowers, and small, light brown cones. Habitat & Cultivation  Native to the Alps  
and the Carpathian mountains of eastern Europe, larch grows to altitudes of 6,600 ft (2,000 m). It is widely cultivated for its timber. The resin is tapped in autumn; the bark is collected when the tree is felled. Parts Used  Inner bark, resin. Constituents  Larch contains lignans, resins,  
and volatile oil (consisting mainly of alpha- and beta-pinene and limonene). Medicinal Actions & Uses  Larch has 
astringent, diuretic, and antiseptic properties. The bark may be used to treat bladder and urinary tubule infections such as cystitis and urethritis,  
and respiratory problems, including bronchitis. The resin is applied to wounds, where it protects and counters infection. A decoction of the bark  is used to soothe eczema and psoriasis. Caution  Do not take larch if suffering from 
kidney disease.acid. The latter is reportedly harmful to the lymph glands and kidneys, though recent research shows that it has beneficial antidiabetic properties. U.S. research published in 1996 demonstrated that other lignans have antiviral activity against HIV. History & Folklore  Widely used by Native 
Americans, chaparral was taken in the form of a decoction to treat stomach troubles and diarrhea. Y oung twigs were used for toothache. The leaves were applied as a poultice for respiratory problems and as a wash for skin problems. Medicinal Actions & Uses  Until the 1960s, 
chaparral remained in wide use in the U.S., with an average of 10 tons (9.07 tonnes) consumed each year. It was thought to be a beneficial remedy for rheumatic disease, venereal infections, urinary infections, and certain types of cancer, especially leukemia. Chaparral was also taken internally for skin afflictions such as acne and eczema, and applied as a lotion to sores, wounds, and rashes. In the early 1990s, sales of chaparral were banned in the U.S. and Britain due to concern over its potential toxic effect on the liver. It now seems likely that this is another herb that can, in rare cases, cause liver damage, as with some conventional medicines. In view of the uncertainty about its safety, any potential benefit from taking the herb must be weighed against the risks. Related Species  The North American  
L. divaricata, a close relative of chaparral, contains lignans, which have been shown to inhibit lymphoid tumor growth with no apparent harmful effect on normal lymphatic tissue. QCautions Only take chaparral on 
professional advice. People with a history of liver disease should never take chaparral. Laurus nobilis (Lauraceae)
Bay Laurel
Description  Aromatic evergreen shrub or tree 
growing to 65 ft (20 m). Has leathery, dark green leaves, small yellow male and female flowers, and shiny black berries. Habitat & Cultivation  Native to 
Mediterranean countries, bay laurel prefers damp and shady sites. It is also a popular garden herb, cultivated largely for culinary use. The leaves are picked year round. Parts Used  Leaves, essential oil. Constituents  Bay laurel contains up to 3% 
volatile oil (including 30–50% cineole, linalool, alpha-pinene, alpha-terpineol acetate, mucilage, tannin, and resin). History & Folklore  In ancient Greece, bay 
laurel was used in divination by the Delphic Oracle. From ancient Rome comes the tradition that the sudden withering of a bay laurel tree bodes disaster Habitat & Cultivation  White deadnettle  
is native to and widespread in Europe and  
central and northern Asia. It thrives in fields  
and in open areas. It is gathered when in  
flower in summer. Parts Used  Flowering tops. Constituents  White deadnettle contains  
a saponin, flavones, mucilage, and tannins.White deadnettle is used to treat gynecological 
conditions.Larrea tridentata (Zygophyllaceae)
Chaparral,
Creosote Bush
Description  Thorny shrub growing to 61⁄2 ft  
(2 m), with small finely divided leaves. Habitat & Cultivation  Chaparral is found  
in large numbers in the deserts of the 
southwestern U.S. and Mexico. Parts Used  Aerial parts. Constituents  Chaparral contains about 12% 
resin and lignans, including nordihydroguaiauretic 
US_224-245_Jasmine_Harmala.indd   226 26/02/16   12:47 pm227 other medicinal plantsLepidium virginicum
for the household. In ancient Rome, bay laurel 
leaves were used as a medicine, a spice, and a 
decorative garland during the December festival of 
Saturnalia. Bay laurel was sacred to the gods Apollo 
and Asclepius, who together oversaw healing and 
medicine. The herb was thought to be greatly 
protective and healing. An infusion of the leaves 
was taken for its warming and tonic effect on the 
stomach and bladder, and a plaster made from  
the leaves was used to relieve wasp and bee stings. Lawsonia inermis
syn. L. alba  (Lythraceae)
Henna
Description  Heavily scented evergreen shrub 
or tree growing to 20 ft (6 m). Has narrow 
pointed leaves, clusters of small white or pink 
flowers, and blue-black berries. Habitat & Cultivation  Native to the Middle 
East, North Africa, and the Indian subcontinent, 
henna grows in sunny areas and is widely 
cultivated for use as a hair restorative and dye. The leaves are picked during the growing season. Parts Used  Leaves, bark. Constituents  Henna contains coumarins, 
naphthaquinones (including lawsone), flavonoids, 
sterols, and tannins. History & Folklore  Henna has been used for 
thousands of years in North Africa and Asia as a red 
dye and as a scent. Mummies were wrapped in 
henna-dyed cloth in ancient Egypt. In the Middle 
East and India, the leaves have traditionally 
been used to make a pigment for dyeing 
intricate linear patterns on the fingers, palms, 
and feet. The leaves have also been used to dye not 
only human hair but the manes and tails of horses. Before meeting Antony, Cleopatra reputedly 
soaked the sails of her barge in heady henna flower oil. Medicinal Actions & Uses  Used mainly 
within Ayurvedic and Unani medicine, henna leaves 
are commonly taken as a gargle for sore throats, 
and as an infusion or decoction for diarrhea and 
dysentery. The leaves are astringent, prevent 
hemorrhaging, and strongly promote menstrual 
flow. A decoction of the bark is used to treat liver 
problems. Applied in the form of a plaster, henna 
treats fungal infections, acne, and boils.Motherwort  has been used to treat palpitations since  
at least the 16th century.Culpeper stated that “there is no better herb to 
drive away melancholy vapours from the heart, to 
strengthen it and make the mind cheerful” (1652). The Italian physician and herbalist Pierandrea 
Matteoli held it “useful for palpitations and a 
pounding heart, spasms and paralysis… [it] thins 
thick and viscid humours [and] stimulates urine  
and menstrual bleeding” (1548). Medicinal Actions & Uses  A remedy for  
the heart and nerves and often prescribed for 
palpitations, motherwort strengthens heart function, 
especially where it is weak. Antispasmodic and 
sedative, the herb promotes relaxation rather than 
drowsiness. However, motherwort stimulates the 
muscles of the uterus, and is particularly suitable for 
delayed periods, period pain, and premenstrual 
syndrome (especially if shock or distress is a factor). It 
should not be used if menstrual bleeding is heavy. Bay laurel  
adorned victors in 
ancient Greece. Medicinal Actions & Uses  Bay laurel is used 
mainly to treat upper digestive tract disorders  
and to ease arthritic aches and pains. It is settling  
to the stomach and has a tonic effect, stimulating 
the appetite and the secretion of digestive juices. When used as an ingredient in cooking, bay laurel 
leaves promote the digestion and absorption  
of food. The leaves have much the same kind of 
positive effect as spearmint ( Mentha spicata ) and 
rosemary ( Rosmarinus officinalis , p. 128) in assisting 
the breakdown of heavy food, especially meat. Bay laurel has also been used to promote the  
onset of menstrual periods. The essential oil is 
chiefly employed as a friction rub, being well 
diluted in a carrier oil and massaged into aching 
muscles and joints. A decoction of the leaves  
may be added to a bath to ease aching limbs. Cautions  Never take bay laurel essential oil 
internally. An allergic reaction may result from 
external use, therefore the oil should only be 
applied in very dilute (2%) concentrations.Related Species  Two East Asian species,  
L. heterophyllus  (from China) and L. sibiricus   
(from Siberia), are both used therapeutically  
for the same purposes as motherwort. L. heterophyllus  appears to lower blood pressure  
and to induce menstruation. Cautions  Do not take motherwort during 
pregnancy. It should also be avoided where  
there is heavy menstrual bleeding. Self-help Uses  Menstrual problems— 
irregular cycle , p. 315; Panic attacks , p. 302. Lepidium virginicum (Brassicaceae)
Virginia Peppergrass
Description  Annual herb growing to about  
2 ft (60 cm). Has slender lance-shaped leaves  
and small white flowers. Habitat & Cultivation  Virginia peppergrass is 
native to eastern North America and the Caribbean, Leonurus cardiaca (Lamiaceae)
Motherwort
Description  Perennial herb growing to 5 ft  
(1.5 m). Has toothed, palm-shaped leaves and 
double-lipped pink flowers blossoming in clusters. Habitat & Cultivation  Native to central  
Asia, motherwort is now naturalized in much  
of Europe and North America. It grows wild in 
woodlands, in open areas, and along roadsides. It is also cultivated as a garden plant. Motherwort  
is harvested when it comes into flower in summer. Parts Used  Aerial parts. Constituents  Motherwort contains alkaloids 
(including L-stachydrine), an iridoid (leonurine), 
diterpenes, flavonoids, caffeic acid, and tannins. History & Folklore  As its species name 
cardiaca  indicates, motherwort has long been 
considered a heart remedy. The herbalist Nicholas 
US_224-245_Jasmine_Harmala.indd   227 26/02/16   12:47 pm
228Leptandra virginica  
syn. Veronicastrum virginicum (Scrophulariaceae)
Black Root
Description  Perennial herb growing to 3 ft  
(1 m). Has an erect stem, lance-shaped leaves,  
and white flowers. Habitat & Cultivation  Black root grows across 
North America in meadows and woodlands. The 
root is unearthed in autumn. Part Used  Dried root. Constituents  Black root contains a volatile oil, 
saponins, sugars, and tannins. History & Folklore  Known to the Native 
Americans of Missouri and Delaware as a 
violent purgative, black root was used  
in moderate doses as a laxative, a 
detoxifier, and a remedy for liver 
disorders. In the 19th century 
Physiomedicalist tradition, black 
root was taken to stimulate  bile production. Medicinal Actions & Uses  
Black root is used in small doses 
today as a laxative and a remedy 
for liver and gallbladder disorders. The herb also treats flatulence and bloating, and eases the discomfort of hemorrhoids, chronic constipation, and rectal prolapse. Cautions  Do not use the fresh root. Do not  
take during pregnancy. Leptandra Virginicaother medicinal plantsand is naturalized in Australia. The leaves are gathered in spring and are consumed as food. The seedpods can serve as a subsitute for black pepper. Parts Used  Leaves, root. Constituents  Virginia peppergrass contains high 
levels of vitamin C.
History & Folklore  The Menominee of 
eastern North America applied a lotion of Virginia peppergrass (or a bruised fresh plant) to poison  ivy eruptions. Medicinal Actions & Uses  Virginia 
peppergrass is nutritious and generally detoxifying. It has been used to treat vitamin C deficiency and diabetes, and to expel intestinal worms. The herb  is also diuretic and of benefit in easing rheumatic pain. The root is taken to treat excess phlegm within the respiratory tract. Related Species Maca (L. meyenii) is a  
low-growing Andean perennial. The root is valued as a staple food and medicine by Andean peoples, notably to support immune function and for hormonal disorders including sterility. Maca is  
now commonly available in supplement stores and has acquired a reputation as a tonic, hormone balancer, and aphrodisiac.Levisticum officinale  
syn. Ligusticum levisticum (Apiaceae)
Lovage
Description  Perennial growing to 61⁄2 ft (2 m). Has glossy, toothed compound leaves, greenish-
yellow flowers, and tiny oval seeds. Habitat & Cultivation  Lovage is found in 
southern Europe and southwestern Asia. It thrives on sunny mountain slopes. The leaves are gathered in spring or early summer, the seeds in late summer, the root in autumn. Parts Used  Root, seeds, leaves. Constituents  Lovage root contains a volatile  
oil (about 70% phthalides), coumarins (including bergapten, psoralen, and umbelliferone), alkynes, plant acids, sterols, resins, and gums. The phthalides are sedative and anticonvulsant. History & Folklore  The Trotula  texts, written 
in Salerno during the 12th century, recommend lovage for skin lightening. The Irish herbalist K’Eogh follows this recommendation: “lovage clears the sight and removes spots, freckles and redness  from the face.” 
Medicinal Actions & Uses  Lovage is a 
warming and tonic herb for the digestive and respiratory systems. It treats indigestion, poor appetite, gas and colic, and bronchitis. Lovage  
is significantly diuretic and antimicrobial and is commonly taken for urinary tract problems. It also promotes menstruation and relieves period pain. Its warming nature improves poor circulation. Related Species  The Chinese chuan xiong  
(Ligusticum chuanxiong) is used principally as a 
means to bring on absent menstrual periods  
and to treat period pain. The Chinese gao ben  
(Ligusticum sinense) is also used for pain. Cautions  Do not take during pregnancy. Do  
not take if you suffer from kidney disease. Can increase sensitivity to sunlight. Self-help Use  Heavy menstrual bleeding, p. 315.Parts Used  Leaves. Constituents  Lippia leaves contain about 
0.15% volatile oil with different plant strains, or chemotypes, producing several essential oils with quite a distinct range of compounds, notably citral and carvone. The citral chemotype oil is thought  
to have strong anti-Candida activity. History & Folklore  In many parts of  
Central and South America, Lippia is valued for  
its ability to resolve common illnesses, such as stomach upset, nausea, gas and bloating, coughs, colds, sore throat, and headache. Its Colombian name, Prontoalivio (meaning “quick relief”) points  to its place in popular Latin American medicine. Medicinal Actions & Uses  Lippia has  
pain-relieving, anti-inflammatory, relaxant, and  
antispasmodic properties, making it useful in many non-severe health problems. In Brazil, where it is regulated as a medicinal herb, the herb is typically used for upper digestive problems, coughs, colds, and bronchitis, as well as for high blood pressure and as a sedative. The herb has been little researched, though a small clinical trial  
in Brazil found it effective in treating migraine headache. The essential oil is increasingly used  
in pharmaceutical and cosmetic preparations,  
for example, within Europe, and has significant  antifungal and antibacterial activity on the skin. Related Species  The sweet tasting L. dulcis has 
broadly similar medicinal use and is found across Central America and the Caribbean. See also Lemon Verbena (Lippia citriodora, following entry). RootLippia alba (Verbenaceae)
Lippia,
Bushy Lippia, Prontoalivio
Description  Multi-branched, square-stemmed, 
aromatic shrub growing to 5 ft (1.5 m), with 
opposite leaves and small white or pink flowers close to the leaf axils. Habitat & Cultivation  Lippia grows 
throughout South and Central America from northern Argentina to the southern U.S. It  
is a common garden herb, and may be grown  
from seed or cuttings, the latter being used for commercial cultivation. Lippia citriodora syn. aloysia 
triphylla (Verbenaceae)
Lemon Verbena
Description  Deciduous shrub growing to 61⁄2 ft  
(2 m). Has strongly scented lance-shaped leaves and 
clusters of tubular, pale green to mauve flowers. Habitat & Cultivation  Lemon verbena  
is native to South America. It is cultivated in temperate climates as an aromatic, ornamental plant and for its leaves, which are used to make herbal tea. The leaves are gathered in late summer. Parts Used  Leaves. Constituents  Lemon verbena contains a volatile 
oil (mainly consisting of citral, cineole, limonene, and geraniole), mucilage, tannins, and flavonoids. History & Folklore  Lemon verbena was 
introduced to Europe in 1784. In Spain, France, and elsewhere in Europe, the infusion is a popular drink. Medicinal Actions & Uses  An undervalued 
medicinal herb, lemon verbena shares qualities with lemon balm (Melissa officinalis, p. 113). Both herbs contain a strong lemon-scented volatile oil that has calming and digestive properties. Lemon verbena has a gentle sedative action and a reputation for 
US_224-245_Jasmine_Harmala.indd   228 26/02/16   12:47 pm229 other medicinal plantsLonicera spp . soothing abdominal discomfort. Its tonic effect on 
the nervous system is less pronounced than that  
of lemon balm, but it nonetheless helps to lift the 
spirits and counter depression. Related Species  Y erba dulce ( L. dulcis ), native  
to Mexico, is used therapeutically as a demulcent 
and expectorant remedy. In Mexico, many other 
Lippia  species are used for their antispasmodic, 
period-inducing, and stomach-soothing properties. L. adoensis  is drunk as a tea in West Africa. See also 
lippia ( Lippia alba, preceding entry ). Self-help Use  Gas & bloating , p. 306. Liquidambar orientalis 
(Hamamelidaceae)
Levant Storax
Description  Deciduous tree growing to 20 ft  
(6 m). Has purplish-gray bark, lobed leaves, and 
small single yellow-white flowers. Habitat & Cultivation  Levant storax is  
found in southwestern Turkey. Storax balsam,  
a viscid gray-brown liquid, is extracted from the 
bark, which is pried off the tree in autumn. Part Used  Bark extract.Mixed with witch hazel ( Hamamelis virginiana ,  
p. 102) and rosewater ( Rosa species ), levant storax 
makes an astringent face lotion. In China, storax 
balsam is used to clear mucus congestion and to 
relieve pain and constriction in the chest. Related Species  American storax ( L. styraciflua ), 
which grows mainly in Honduras but is also found 
farther north, has been used since the time of the 
Maya for its healing properties. Lobaria pulmonaria  
(stictaceae)
Tree Lungwort
Description  Gray or light green lichen with 
forked irregular lobes measuring up to 5⁄8 in  
(1.5 cm) across. Habitat & Cultivation  Found throughout 
Europe, tree lungwort grows on trees and rocks  
in woodland areas. It is gathered year round. Part Used  Lichen. Constituents  Tree lungwort contains a variety 
of plant acids (including stictic and sticinic acid), 
fatty acids, mucilage, and tannins. History & Folklore  Tree lungwort has been 
used since ancient times as a remedy for lung 
problems. The Italian physician and herbalist 
Pierandrea Matteoli (1501–77) recommended it for 
healing pulmonary ulcers and for treating blood-
flecked phlegm. It was also used to treat wounds, 
heal ulcers, reduce excessive menstrual bleeding, 
relieve dysentery, and halt “choleric vomiting.”
Medicinal Actions & Uses  A beneficial but 
underused remedy, tree lungwort has expectorant 
and tonic properties. It aids in clearing congested 
mucus, reduces phlegm, and helps to increase the 
appetite. In a decoction sweetened with honey, it  
is appropriate for all conditions that are marked by 
chronic respiratory infections, especially coughs 
and bronchitis. The plant also treats asthma, 
pleurisy, and emphysema. Being astringent and 
demulcent, tree lungwort makes a useful 
treatment for pulmonary ulcers as well as for a 
variety of gastrointestinal problems. It is highly 
suitable for treating ailments in children.Parts Used  Root. Constituents  Lomatium contains flavonoids, 
coumarins, tetronic acids, and volatile oil. History & Folklore  One of the most 
important medicinal plants of the Pacific 
Northwest, lomatium was “big medicine” for 
Native Americans and widely used for respiratory 
infections such as coughs, colds, and flu. In Nevada, 
lomatium root was combined with yarrow ( Achillea 
millefolium , p. 56) to treat sexually transmitted 
diseases. In Oregon, a decoction of the root was 
applied to horses to rid them of ticks. During the 
1917 influenza epidemic an American doctor, 
Ernest Krebbs, successfully used lomatium in his 
own practice, after noting the effective use of  
the herb by Native Americans. Medicinal Actions & Uses  Lomatium is 
today used mostly by botanical practitioners in 
North America to treat a broad range of viral 
infections, from chronic fatigue syndrome to 
influenza and herpes infections. A good tonic 
herb, it promotes peripheral blood flow and 
stimulates immune function. It is usually  
combined with other herbs such as echinacea 
(Echinacea spp., p. 92) or wild indigo root  
(Baptisia tinctoria , p. 176). Research  The tetronic acids have been shown to 
be markedly antimicrobial and toxic to fish (Native 
Americans used to place the fresh root in streams 
or pools in order to stun fish). Preliminary studies 
in Canada and the U.S. suggest that lomatium has 
significant antiviral activity. Cautions  A red measles-like rash, which  
clears on stopping treatment, may develop  
when taking lomatium. Like other members of 
the carrot family, lomatium can increase sensitivity 
to sunlight. Levant storax  is used to relieve congestive chest problems. Constituents  Levant storax contains cinnamic 
acid, cinnamyl cinnamate, phenylpropyl cinnamate, 
triterpene acids, and a volatile oil. History & Folklore  Levant storax has been 
the Liquidambar  species most commonly used 
medicinally since the 19th century. Levant storax  
is also employed as a fixative for perfumes. Medicinal Actions & Uses  Levant storax 
balsam acts as both an irritant and an expectorant 
within the respiratory tract, and it is one of the 
ingredients of Friar’s Balsam, an expectorant 
mixture that is inhaled to stimulate a productive 
cough. In addition, levant storax balsam is applied 
externally to encourage the healing of skin diseases 
and problems such as scabies, wounds, and ulcers. Lomatium dissectum (Apiaceae)
Lomatium,
Toza
Description  Erect perennial, growing to 61⁄2 ft 
(2 m), with a large woody taproot, divided, 
triangular leaves, and flowers in flat-topped umbels. Habitat & Cultivation  Native to coastal  
and inland regions of western North America  
from California as far north as British Columbia.Lonicera spp. (Caprifoliaceae)
Honeysuckle,  
& Jin Yin Hua
Description  A climber growing to 13 ft (4 m) 
that is deciduous (honeysuckle, L. caprifolium )  
or semi-evergreen ( jin yin hua , L. japonica ). Has 
paired oval leaves, yellow-orange (honeysuckle)  
or yellow-white ( jin yin hua ) tubular flowers, and 
red (honeysuckle) or black ( jin yin hua ) berries. Habitat & Cultivation  Honeysuckle is  
native to southern Europe and the Caucasus. Jin yin hua  is native to China and Japan. Both  
plants are commonly found growing on walls,  
on trees, and in hedges. The flowers and leaves are 
gathered in summer just before the flowers open. Parts Used  Flowers, leaves, bark. Constituents  In Europe, L. caprifolium  and  
L. japonica  are often used interchangeably and 
US_224-245_Jasmine_Harmala.indd   229 17/03/16   4:01 pm
230Lophophora wiLLiamsiiOther medicinal plantscontain approximately the same quantity of  
volatile oil. Nonetheless, Romanian research 
indicates that the Asian species contains a  
much wider range of therapeutically active antiseptic compounds. History & Folklore  Honeysuckle is one of  
the Bach Flower Remedies, and in this system  
of herbal cures it is believed to counter feelings of nostalgia and homesickness. Jin yin hua has long been used in Chinese medicine to “clear heat  
and relieve toxicity.”
Medicinal Actions & Uses  Honeysuckle 
flowers from both species can be successfully  
used to treat fever, colds, and upper respiratory tract infections. The leaves are traditionally used  
as a gargle for sore throats and as a mouthwash. In Chinese herbal medicine, honeysuckle finds frequent use in inflammatory conditions, such  
as conjunctivitis, mastitis (inflammation of the breasts), and rheumatism. Research  Chinese research indicates that the 
Asian species has significant antimicrobial activity, including against the tuberculosis bacillus. Clinical studies suggest that this species can also help to lower high blood pressure. Caution  Do not eat the berries, which are 
thought to be toxic. Loofah fruit is dried and used in Chinese medicine to treat 
muscle and joint pain. Peyote is a powerful hallucinogen. It is used in  Native American ceremonies.It is best known in the West as a bathroom 
accessory—the fibrous skeleton makes a good  skin scrubber. Medicinal Actions & Uses  In Chinese 
medicine, the inner skeleton of the dried fruit  is used to treat pain in the muscles, joints, chest,  and abdomen. It is prescribed for chest infections accompanied by fever and pain, and is used to  
clear congested mucus. Loofah is also given  
to treat painful or swollen breasts. Research  Chinese research indicates that the 
fresh vine has a stronger expectorant effect than the dried fruit. German research (1999) using a homeopathic preparation of the plant showed it  to be as effective as a standard nasal spray for relief of hay fever. Lycopodium clavatum 
(Lycopodiaceae)
Club Moss
Description  Creeping evergreen moss growing  
to 43⁄4 in (12 cm). Has numerous straggling 
branchlets covered with bright green linear leaves, 
and scaly spikes bearing yellow spores. Habitat & Cultivation  Club moss is found 
throughout temperate regions of the northern hemisphere. It is common on mountains and in moorland. The plant is gathered in summer. Parts Used  Moss, spores. Constituents  Club moss contains about  
0.1–0.2% alkaloids (including lycopodine), polyphenols, flavonoids, and triterpenes. History & Folklore  Club moss  
has been used medicinally since at least the Middle Ages. The whole plant was employed as a diuretic to aid in the flushing out of  kidney stones. In Wales, club moss was used for certain back problems and for colds and sore throats. Being strongly water-resistant, the spores are still used to coat tablets. The spores ignite explosively and have been used in  making fireworks. Medicinal Actions & Uses  Club moss is 
diuretic, sedative, and antispasmodic, and is particularly useful for treating chronic urinary issues. The herb may also be taken for indigestion and gastritis. The spores can be applied to the skin to relieve itchiness. Club moss is frequently used in homeopathic medicine, being prescribed for headache, liver problems, and digestive symptoms such as gas and burping. QCaution  Club moss is potentially toxic in 
overdose. This plant should only be used with the supervision of a professional practitioner.Constituents  Peyote contains alkaloids, principally 
mescaline, which is a powerful hallucinogen. History & Folklore  Peyote has been used  
in Native American religious ceremonies for  
over 3,000 years. Its use as a hallucinogen was 
popularized by Aldous Huxley in his book  
The Doors of Perception. Medicinal Actions & Uses  Peyote is a 
shamanistic plant, taken in Native American rituals  
to deepen spiritual understanding. It plays an important part in the emotional and mental state of the community. It is also used to treat fevers, as  
a painkiller for rheumatism, and to treat paralysis. It is applied as a poultice for fractures, wounds, and snake bite. Peyote is also used to induce vomiting. Caution The use of peyote and mescaline is 
illegal in most countries. Luffa cylindrica syn. L. aegyptica 
(Cucurbitaceae)
Loofah,
Si Gua Luo (Chinese)
Description  Annual vine climbing to 49 ft  
(15 m). Has large lobed leaves, tendrils, and  
yellow female flowers producing long cylindrical  marrow-like fruit. Habitat & Cultivation  Loofah is native to  
the tropics of Asia and Africa. It is now grown  
as a fruit in tropical regions around the world. It is harvested when ripe in summer. Part Used  Fruit. Constituents  Loofah contains polysaccharides, 
xylan, xylose, and galactan. History & Folklore  Loofah was brought from 
India to China in the T ang Dynasty (618–907 ce). Lophophora williamsii (Cactaceae)
Peyote
Description  Cactus growing to 2 in (5 cm). Has a squat gray-green body with tufted hairs,  and pink or white flowers. Habitat & Cultivation  Peyote is native  
to northern Mexico and the southwestern region of the U.S.
Part Used  Whole plant. Club moss
US_224-245_Jasmine_Harmala.indd   230 26/02/16   12:47 pm231 Other medicinal plantsMadhuca spp . Lycopus virginicus (Lamiaceae)
Bugleweed
Description  Perennial herb growing to 2 ft 
(60cm). Has a square stem, lance-shaped leaves, 
and whorls of whitish flowers. Habitat & Cultivation  Bugleweed is common 
throughout most of North America, thriving close 
to water. It is harvested in summer when in flower. Parts Used  Aerial parts. Constituents  Bugleweed contains phenolic 
acids (including derivatives of caffeic, chlorogenic, 
and ellagic acids). History & Folklore  In the 19th-century 
Physiomedicalist tradition, bugleweed was regarded 
as astringent and calming to the nerves, and was 
given for loose coughs, internal bleeding, and 
urinary incontinence. Herbal practitioners once 
considered the plant to be a mild narcotic. Medicinal Actions & Uses  Bugleweed  
has sedative properties and today the herb is 
principally prescribed to treat an overactive  
thyroid gland and the racing heartbeat that often 
accompanies this condition. Bugleweed is also 
considered an aromatic and tonic astringent  
that reduces the production of mucus. Research  Studies indicate that bugleweed and,  
to some degree, gipsywort ( see Related Species , 
below) reduce the activity of the thyroid gland. Related Species  Gipsywort ( L. europaeus ), a 
European native, has astringent and cardiotonic 
properties. It is taken for palpitations and anxiety, 
and has been used to lower fever. QCautions  T ake only under professional 
supervision. Do not take during pregnancy.Dioscorides (40–90 ce) recommended loosestrife 
to staunch wounds and for nosebleeds, and noted 
that its smoke would drive away snakes and flies. Medicinal Actions & Uses  An astringent 
herb, yellow loosestrife is principally used to treat 
gastrointestinal conditions such as diarrhea and 
dysentery, to stop internal and external bleeding, 
and to cleanse wounds. It makes a workable 
mouthwash for sore gums and mouth ulcers, and 
may be used to treat nosebleeds. Y ellow loosestrife 
has also been taken as an expectorant. Related Species  The yellow pimpernel  
(L. nemorum ), another European native, is 
astringent and staunches blood. Jin qian cao   
(L. christinae ), from China, is a diuretic used to  
treat urinary pain. A Chinese trial showed that  
the latter is also effective in treating both kidney 
stones and gallstones. Lythrum salicaria (Lythraceae)
Purple Loosestrife
Description  Attractive perennial growing to 
about 5 ft (1.5 m). Has straight red stems, 
pointed lance-shaped leaves, and spikes  
of brilliant purple flowers. Habitat & Cultivation  Purple 
loosestrife is native to Europe  
but well-established in the  
wild in North America. It thrives in marshes and along rivers and streams, to altitudes of  
3,300 ft (1,000 m). It is gathered when in flower  
in summer. Parts Used  Aerial parts. Constituents  Purple loosestrife contains salicarin, 
a glycoside (vitexin), tannins, a volatile oil, mucilage, 
and plant sterols. History & Folklore  In 1654, the herbalist 
Nicholas Culpeper praised this herb, writing that 
“the distilled water is a present remedy for hurts 
and blows on the eyes, and for blindness … it also 
cleareth the eyes of dust or any other thing gotten 
into them, and preserveth the sight.” A common 
plant in Ireland, purple loosestrife was much used 
there against diarrhea. Medicinal Actions & Uses  The astringent 
purple loosestrife is mainly employed as a 
treatment for diarrhea and dysentery. It can be 
safely taken by people of all ages; some herbalists 
recommend it to help arrest diarrhea in breast-
feeding babies. The herb may also be used  
to treat heavy periods and for inter-menstrual 
bleeding. Externally, it is applied as a poultice  
or lotion to wounds, leg ulcers, and eczema,  
and used to treat excess vaginal discharge and 
vaginal itching. Purple loosestrife is now little used 
to treat eye problems, but, as Culpeper’s 
experience suggests, the herb could be worth 
further investigation as a remedy for disorders  
of the eyes and vision. Research  In animal experiments, extracts of  
the flowers and leaves have been shown to be 
hypoglycemic—lowering blood-sugar levels. The 
plant is also thought to have antibiotic activity. Madhuca spp. (sapotaceae)
Butter Tree
Description  Deciduous tree growing to 65 ft 
(20 m). Has leathery leaves, clusters of scented 
white flowers, and greenish fruit. Habitat & Cultivation  Madhuca species are 
native to central and northern India. The flowers, 
leaves, and seeds are gathered in summer. Parts Used  Flowers, seed oil. Constituents  The leaves contain an alkaloid  
and a saponin; the seeds a saponin and fixed oil. History & Folklore  Butter tree has been a 
source of food and medicine in India for at least 
2,000 years. Its flowers are eaten and are 
fermented to make alcoholic drinks. Medicinal Actions & Uses  The 
expectorant flowers are used to treat chest 
problems such as bronchitis. They are also taken 
to increase breast-milk production. The leaves are 
applied as a poultice to eczema. The seed oil is 
laxative and is taken for constipation and to loosen 
the stool of hemorrhoid sufferers.Purple loosestrife  is  
used to relieve 
diarrhea and 
dysentery in breast-
feeding babies.Lysimachia vulgaris (primulaceae)
Y ellow Loosestrife
Description  Attractive perennial growing to  
3 ft (1 m) with whorls of broadly lance-shaped 
leaves and bright yellow flowers. Habitat & Cultivation  Native to Europe, 
yellow loosestrife commonly grows in damp 
hedgerows and near water. It is also cultivated  
as a garden plant. It is gathered when in flower  
in summer. Parts Used  Aerial parts. Constituents  Y ellow loosestrife contains a 
benzoquinone, triterpenoid saponins, flavonoids, 
and tannins. History & Folklore  Pliny (23–79 ce)  
recorded that lysimachia , the plant’s Latin name, 
was a tribute to King Lysimachus of Sicily, who 
discovered its medicinal benefits. The name 
“loosestrife” refers to the plant’s reputed power  
to prevent conflict, particularly between animals, 
and to repel insects. The Greek physician 
US_224-245_Jasmine_Harmala.indd   231 26/02/16   12:47 pm
232Magnolia officinalisOther medicinal plantsMagnolia officinalis (Magnoliaceae)
Magnolia,
Hou Po (Chinese)
Description  Deciduous tree growing to 80 ft 
(25 m). Has aromatic bark, large leaves, and 
fragrant creamy-white flowers. Habitat & Cultivation  Native to China, 
magnolia grows wild in mountainous regions. It  is now planted in many parts of the world as an ornamental tree. The bark is stripped in spring.Malva sylvestris (Malvaceae)
Common Mallow
Description  Biennial growing to 5 ft (1.5 m). Has a pulpy taproot, 5-lobed scalloped leaves,  and pink to mauve flowers. Habitat & Cultivation  Common mallow is 
native to Europe and Asia. It is naturalized in the Americas and Australasia, growing in open areas and on hedges and fences. The leaves are gathered in spring, the flowers when in bloom in summer. Parts Used  Leaves, flowers, root. Constituents  Common mallow contains 
flavonol glycosides, mucilage, and tannins. The 
flowers also contain malvin (an anthocyanin). History & Folklore  The young leaves and 
shoots of this plant have been eaten since at 
least the 8th century bce. The plant’s many 
uses gave rise to the Spanish adage, “A 
kitchen garden and mallow, sufficient 
medicines for a home.”
Medicinal Actions & Uses  
Though less useful than marshmallow 
(Althaea officinalis, p. 165), common 
mallow is an effective demulcent. The flowers 
and leaves are emollient and good for sensitive areas of the skin. It is applied as a poultice to reduce swelling and draw out toxins. T aken 
internally, the leaves reduce gut irritation and  
have a laxative effect. When common mallow  
is combined with eucalyptus (Eucalyptus globulus,  p. 96), it makes a good remedy for coughs and other chest ailments. As with marshmallow, the root may be given to children to ease teething.influential was the root’s shape, which often vaguely resembles the human form. The roots have been carved and used as talismans for thousands of years, especially to aid fertility in women, and as a charm against misfortune. From Roman times onward, mandrake root bark was used as an anaesthetic and analgesic, and as a treatment for insanity. Magnolia is distinguished by its 
beautiful creamy-white flowers. Part Used  Bark. Constituents  Magnolia bark contains alkaloids, 
coumarins, flavonoids, and lignans. The lignan, 
honokiol, found in the bark of several magnolia species appears to have antitumor and anti-anxiety activity. Another lignan, magnolol, has antibacterial and anti-anxiety activity. Medicinal Actions & Uses  Magnolia bark  
is aromatic, warming, and pungent. It relieves cramping pain and flatulence, and is taken for abdominal distension, indigestion, loss of appetite, vomiting, and diarrhea. It is now also used to treat anxiety, chronic stress, and lowered mood, and as a neuroprotective remedy that aids memory and mental function. Research  Research suggests that magnolia bark 
extract is antimicrobial and may have specific use  as an oral antiseptic to control bacteria and relieve bad breath (halitosis). Two Italian clinical studies found that magnolia extract helped relieve anxiety and support positive mood in menopausal women. A 2012 Korean study concluded that magnolia may be useful in treating Alzheimer’s disease. Related Species North American species, 
notably M. grandiflora, are used in much the same way as magnolia (above), with traditional uses including for fever and rheumatism. Caution Do not take during pregnancy. Mandrake’s narcotic properties and human-shaped root have 
inspired much legend and lore. Medicinal Actions & Uses  Mandrake  
has now largely fallen out of use. The herb is 
sometimes applied as a poultice or plaster for rheumatic and arthritic pains, or, as a decoction,  for ulcers and similar kinds of skin disorders. RCautions  Mandrake is toxic. Do not take 
internally. Use externally only under professional supervision. The plant is subject to legal restrictions in some countries. Manihot esculenta 
(Euphorbiaceae)
Cassava,
Manioc
Description  Shrub growing to 61⁄2 ft (2 m). Has fleshy roots, woody stems, large palm-shaped 
leaves, and green flowers. Habitat & Cultivation  Cassava is native to 
tropical Central and South America. Possibly the most grown root crop in the world, bitter and sweet varieties are grown commercially throughout the tropics (Nigeria, Thailand, and Brazil being the foremost producers). The plant was first cultivated in Peru around 4,000 years ago. The root is unearthed 8 to 24 months after planting. Part Used  Root. Constituents  Cassava contains cyanogenic 
glycosides (0.02–0.03% in the bitter varieties, 0.007% in the sweet) and starch.Mandragora officinarum 
(Solanaceae)
Mandrake
Description  Perennial growing to 2 in (5 cm). Has a deep branching root, a rosette of broad 
floppy leaves, funnel-shaped white to purple flowers, and yellow fruit. Habitat & Cultivation  Native to the 
Mediterranean region of Europe, mandrake grows on dry riverbeds. Its leaves are picked in summer. Part Used  Root. Constituents  Mandrake contains 0.4% tropane 
alkaloids (hyoscine and hyoscyamine). History & Folklore  Legend held that the 
mandrake, on being uprooted, emitted a scream that was so powerful it could kill the person harvesting the plant. Consequently, reported one classical authority, mandrake was pulled up by dogs that had the stems tied to their tails. The fantastic powers attributed to the plant were partly due  to the narcotic-like properties of the root. Also 
US_224-245_Jasmine_Harmala.indd   232 26/02/16   12:47 pm233 Other medicinal plantsMedicago sativa
History & Folklore  Bitter cassava has large 
quantities of highly toxic glycosides, and must be 
carefully soaked and cooked before it is safe to eat. (Sweet cassava is safe to eat without such processing.) Tapioca  is a native Brazilian name for the processed 
root, which is used in commercial food preparation 
as a thickening agent. The Witoto of the Colombian 
Amazon poison fish with the water used to wash 
bitter cassava. The Makuna use the wash water  
to treat scabies. Medicinal Actions & Uses  Cassava root is 
easily digestible and makes a suitable, if low-protein, 
food for convalescence. The bitter variety may  
be used to treat scabies, diarrhea, and dysentery. Cassava flour may be used to help dry weeping 
skin. In China, a poultice is made of cassava, wheat 
flour, and ginger ( Zingiber officinale , p. 155) to draw 
out pus when infection is present. Caution  Raw bitter cassava is toxic and has 
caused many deaths. The root must be carefully 
soaked and cooked before eating. Maranta arundinacea 
(Marantaceae)
Arrowroot
Description  Perennial growing to 61⁄2 ft (2 m). Has a creeping rhizome, many long-stemmed oval 
leaves, and flowering stems with clusters of creamy- 
white flowers. Habitat & Cultivation  Native to northern 
South America and the Caribbean islands, arrowroot 
is cultivated mostly on the island of St. Vincent. The 
rhizome is unearthed 10 to 11 months after planting. Part Used  Rhizome. Constituents  Arrowroot contains 25–27% 
neutral starch.History & Folklore  In Central America, the 
Maya made the root into a poultice for smallpox 
sores, and an infusion for urinary infections. Arrowroot was a staple food of the Arawak people 
of the Caribbean. The plant reputedly gets its name 
from its use to treat poisoned arrow wounds—
presumably as a drawing poultice. Medicinal Actions & Uses Arrowroot is 
used in herbal medicine in much the same manner 
as slippery elm ( Ulmus rubra , p. 145), as a soothing 
demulcent and a nutrient of benefit in convalescence 
and for those with weak digestions. It helps to relieve 
acidity, indigestion, and colic, and is mildly laxative. It may be applied as an ointment or poultice mixed 
with antiseptic herbs such as myrrh ( Commiphora 
molmol , p. 85). Self-help Use  Acidity & indigestion , p. 307. Marrubium vulgare (Lamiaceae)
White Horehound
Description  Square-stemmed perennial 
growing to about 20 in (50 cm). Has toothed, 
downy leaves and double-lipped white flowers. Habitat & Cultivation  Native to Europe, 
white horehound is naturalized in North and  
South America. It flourishes in dry, bare, or open  
areas, and is gathered in spring. Parts Used  Leaves. Constituents  White horehound 
contains the diterpenes marrubiin 
(0.3–1.0%) and marrubenol, 
tannins, and 0.06% volatile oil. Marrubiin is thought to be 
chiefly responsible for the 
herb’s expectorant and bitter 
activity. It also acts on the heart 
to correct an irregular heartbeat. History & Folklore  White 
horehound has been a remedy for 
chest problems since ancient times, perhaps  
most frequently taken as a syrup made with  
honey or sugar. The Greek physician Dioscorides 
(40–90 ce ) recommended a decoction of white 
horehound as a treatment for tuberculosis, 
asthma, and coughs. Medicinal Actions & Uses  White horehound 
is helpful for wheeziness, bronchitis, bronchiectasis 
(a damaged air passage within the lung), bronchial 
asthma, non-productive coughs, and whooping 
cough. The herb apparently causes the secretion 
of a more fluid mucus, which is readily cleared  
by coughing. As a bitter tonic, white horehound 
increases the appetite and supports the function 
of the stomach. It is widely used in Mexico to  
help control type 2 diabetes. The herb may also 
act to normalize heart rhythm, improving  
its regularity.Marsdenia condurango
syn. gonolobus condurango 
(Asclepiadaceae)
Condurango
Description  Climbing vine growing to 33 ft  
(10 m). Has heart-shaped leaves and funnel-
shaped, white-green flowers. Habitat & Cultivation  Condurango is native 
to deciduous forests of the Andes in Peru and 
Ecuador. It generally grows at altitudes between 
3,300–6,600 ft (1,000–2,000 m). The bark is 
collected year round. Parts Used  Bark, latex. Constituents  Condurango bark contains 
glycosides (based on condurangogenins), a volatile 
oil, and phytosterols. History & Folklore  Early in the last century, 
condurango was erroneously yet widely believed  
to be a remedy for cancer. Medicinal Actions & Uses  The bark’s  
main effect is to stimulate stomach secretions. It is often used in South American folk medicine  
as a potent bitter and digestive tonic. Condurango 
is a specific treatment for nervous indigestion  
and anorexia nervosa, since its bitterness slowly 
increases the appetite as well as the stomach’s 
ability to process more food. The herb is also 
thought to stimulate the liver and pancreas, and 
may be taken for liver disorders. Condurango  
also encourages menstruation. The caustic  
white latex has been applied topically to  
remove warts. Research  The condurangogenins in 
condurango may act to counter tumors. The whole plant, however, does not seem  
to impede cancer development. Caution  The latex is poisonous and should not 
be taken internally. Cassava  is a staple food in many tropical regions 
of the world. Dried herb
Medicago sativa (Fabaceae)
Alfalfa,
Lucerne
Description  Perennial herb growing to 32 in 
(80 cm). Has 3-lobed leaves, flowers that range  
in color from yellow to violet-blue, and spiraling 
seed pods. Habitat & Cultivation  Native to Europe, 
Asia, and North Africa, alfalfa is found in meadows 
and in both open and cultivated areas. Grown as  
a fodder crop in temperate climates, it is harvested 
in summer. Parts Used  Aerial parts, seeds, sprouting seeds. Constituents  Alfalfa contains isoflavones, 
coumarins, alkaloids, vitamins, and porphyrins. The isoflavones and coumarins are estrogenic. US_224-245_Jasmine_Harmala.indd   233 26/02/16   12:47 pm
234Melaleuca leucadendronOther medicinal plants
History & Folklore  Though mostly used as  
an animal feed, alfala seeds have been consumed  
as food for thousands of years. Pliny (23–79 ce) records that alfalfa was brought to Greece by Darius, King of Persia (550–486 bce), during his attempt to conquer Athens. Medicinal Actions & Uses  Alfalfa is perhaps 
more therapeutically useful as a food than a medicine as the seeds are taken to help lower cholesterol levels. In view of alfalfa’s estrogenic activity, it can prove useful in treating problems relating to menstruation and menopause. Cautions  Do not take alfalfa alongside the 
anticoagulant medication warfarin. Avoid sprouted seeds in compromised immune states. Using large amounts is not advisable in pregnancy or in autoimmune diseases. Melaleuca leucadendron 
(Myrtaceae)
Cajuput
Description  Aromatic, evergreen tree growing 
to 130 ft (40 m). Has peeling bark, pale green  
oval leaves, and clusters of small white flowers  on long spikes. Habitat & Cultivation  Native to Southeast 
Asia, cajuput is cultivated for its essential oil and timber. The leaves and twigs are gathered throughout the year. Part Used  Essential oil. Constituents  The volatile oil contains 
terpenoids, mainly cineole (50–60%), beta-pinene, alpha-terpineol, and others. Cineole is strongly antiseptic. Early investigations suggest the fruit  may have antiviral properties. Medicinal Actions & Uses  Cajuput is 
normally combined with other essential oils such as eucalyptus (Eucalyptus globulus, p. 96). Its antiseptic properties treat colds, sore throats, coughs, and, especially, chest infections. The diluted oil may either be steam-inhaled or applied to the chest  or throat to treat laryngitis, tracheitis, and bronchitis. As cajuput stimulates the circulation and is antispasmodic, it is used as a friction rub  
for rheumatic joints and neuralgia. Related Species  Niaouli (M. viridiflora), of New 
Caledonia, has properties similar to those of cajuput. See also tea tree (M. alternifolia, p. 112). Cautions  T ake internally only under  
professional supervision. Do not use during pregnancy. Cajuput essential oil is subject to legal restrictions in some countries. Self-help Use  Chest coughs & bronchitis,  
p. 310. Melilotus officinalis
syn. M. arvensis (Fabaceae)
Melilot
Description  Biennial herb growing to about 3 ft 
(1 m). Has 3-lobed leaves, spikes of yellow flowers, 
and brown seedpods. Melilot is an  
effective remedy for 
venous disorders.Habitat & Cultivation  Melilot is native to 
Europe, North Africa, and temperate regions  
of Asia, and is naturalized in North America. It grows in dry and open areas. It is harvested in  
late spring. Parts Used  Aerial parts. Constituents  Melilot contains flavonoids, 
coumarins, resin, tannins, and volatile oil. If allowed to spoil, the plant produces dicoumarol, a powerful anticoagulant.
Encyclopedia_Of_Herbal_Medicine.txt
Summarize the following text section accurately and concisely. Maintain specific details and numerical information, and use anti-repetition mechanisms:

        The traditional use of blue 
flag for gland problems persists. It is also believed 
by some to aid weight loss. Cautions Excessive doses cause vomiting. Do not take this plant during pregnancy. Ipomoea purga syn. convolvulus 
jalapa (Convolvulaceae)
Jalap
Description Evergreen vine reaching about  
13 ft (4 m). Has heart-shaped leaves and trumpet-
like purple flowers. Habitat & Cultivation Native to Mexico, 
jalap is cultivated in Central America, the West 
Indies, and Southeast Asia. The root is unearthed 
in summer. Part Used Root. Constituents Jalap contains the resin 
convolvulin. History & Folklore Spanish colonizers  
learned of jalap’s strong purgative effect from 
Mexican native peoples. Introduced into Europe  
in 1565, the herb was used for all types of  
illnesses until the 19th century. Medicinal Actions & Uses Jalap is such  
a powerful cathartic that its medicinal value  
is questionable. Even in moderate doses it 
stimulates the elimination of profuse watery 
stools, and in larger doses it causes vomiting. Related Species  I. turpethum, native to Asia  
and Australia, is also a drastic purgative. Other 
Ipomoea  species, such as the sweet potato  
(I. batatas, from South America), are important 
food plants. The seeds of morning glory  
(I. violacea ), native to Mexico, contain  
compounds similar to LSD, and were taken  
ritually by the Zapotecs and Aztecs. RCaution Do not take jalap under any 
circumstances. US_202-223_Digitalis_lutea_Iris_versicolor. indd   223 26/02/16   12:47 pm
224
Other medicinal plantsJasminum grandiflorum
Jasminum grandiflorum (Oleaceae)
Jasmine
Description  Slender evergreen rambler growing 
to 20 ft (6 m). Has dark green compound leaves and 
large, sweetly scented tubular white flowers. Habitat & Cultivation  Native to northern 
India, Pakistan, and the northwestern Himalayas, jasmine is now cultivated as a garden plant and for its essential oil. Parts Used  Flowers, essential oil. Constituents  Jasmine’s volatile oil contains 
benzyl alcohol, benzyl acetate, linalool, and  
linalyl acetate. History & Folklore  Jasmine was introduced  
to Europe in the 16th century, and is mainly used  as a source of perfume. Medicinal Actions & Uses  Jasmine flowers 
make a calming and sedative infusion, taken to  
relieve tension. The oil is considered antidepressant and relaxing. It is used externally to soothe dry  
or sensitive skin. Due to frequent adulteration,  
the oil is rarely used in aromatherapy. Related Species  Actually native to Southeast 
Asia, Arabian jasmine (J. sambac) is used  
as an eyewash, is added to tea (Camellia sinensis,  p. 181) to produce jasmine tea, and is used in Buddhist ceremonies. Caution  Jasmine essential oil should not be  
taken internally. Jateorhiza palmata 
(Menispermaceae)
Calumba
Description  Creeping vine with a perennial 
rootstock, growing to a great height and often 
reaching the tops of trees. Has large palm-shaped leaves, small greenish-white flowers, with male  
and female flowers on separate plants, and  round, fleshy fruit. Habitat & Cultivation  Native to the 
rainforests of eastern Africa, especially Mozambique and Madagascar, calumba is also grown in other tropical regions. The roots are dug up in dry weather in March and dried. Parts Used  Bark. Constituents  Calumba contains isoquinoline 
alkaloids (notably palmatine, columbamine, and jatrorrhizine), diterpene bitter principles, mucilage, and volatile oil (about 1%). Medicinal Actions & Uses  Profoundly bitter, 
calumba is an extremely good remedy for underactive or weakened digestion, stimulating stomach acid production and increasing appetite. It is a specific for loss of appetite and anorexia, and by making the stomach more acidic (and therefore hostile to pathogens) helps to prevent digestive infections and improve the breakdown and absorption of foods. It is a useful treatment for chronic intestinal infection such as dysentery. Research  Calumba’s bitterness is due both to the 
bitter principles and the alkaloids. Palmatine and jatrorrhizine reduce blood pressure, palmatine  
is a uterine stimulant, and jatrorrhizine is sedative  and antifungal. Other Species  Calumba has much in common 
with gentian (Gentiana lutea, p. 99), although it owes its bitterness to a different range of constituents. Caution  Avoid during pregnancy. was used to treat a variety of conditions, including rheumatic and arthritic joints, headaches, dysentery, constipation, and wounds. Medicinal Actions & Uses  Used to this  
day as a laxative and tonic, butternut is a valuable remedy for chronic constipation, gently encouraging regular bowel movements. It is especially beneficial if combined with a carminative herb, such as ginger (Zingiber officinale, p. 155) or angelica (Angelica 
archangelica, p. 168). Butternut also lowers cholesterol levels, and promotes the clearance  of waste products by the liver. It has a positive reputation in treating intestinal worms, and, being antimicrobial and astringent, it has been prescribed as a treatment for dysentery. Related Species  Black walnut (J. nigra) is used  
in the same way as butternut. The bark of the walnut tree (J. regia) is used as a gentle purgative, and is also applied to skin afflictions. The nut is used in Chinese herbal medicine as a kidney tonic. The nuts of both varieties are highly nutritious, lower cholesterol levels, and contain significant quantities of alpha-linolenic acid. Jasmine flowers are the source of an essential oil that  
is used to treat stress and depression. Juglans cinerea (Juglandaceae)
Butternut
Description  Deciduous tree growing to  
100 ft (30 m). Has gray bark, long leaves with  
many leaflets, male catkins and female flowers,  
and an oval-shaped fruit containing a hard  
dark-colored nut. Habitat & Cultivation  Native to North 
American forests, butternut is cultivated for its 
timber in other temperate regions. The bark is collected in autumn. Part Used  Inner bark. Constituents  Contains naphthaquinones 
(including juglone, juglandin, and juglandic acid),  
a fixed and a volatile oil, and tannins. The naphthaquinones have an approximately similar laxative effect to the anthraquinones found in plants such as senna (Cassia senna, p. 75) and Chinese rhubarb (Rheum palmatum, p. 126). Juglone is purgative, antimicrobial, antiparasitic,  
and cancer-inhibiting. History & Folklore  Butternut bark was 
employed by Native Americans and New World settlers as a laxative and tonic remedy. Butternut Juniperus communis 
(Cupressaceae)
Juniper
Description  Coniferous shrub sometimes  
growing to 49 ft (15 m). Has slender twigs with 
whorls of needle-like leaves, yellow male and blue female flowers on separate plants, and spherical blue-black fruit. Habitat & Cultivation  Juniper is found in 
Europe, southwestern Asia up to the Himalayas,  and North America, where it grows from southern coastal sites to more northerly moorland and mountainous regions. The ripe fruit (berries) is gathered in autumn. Parts Used  Fruit, essential oil. Constituents  Juniper contains 1–2% volatile oil, 
consisting of over 60 compounds, which include myrcene, sabinene, alpha- and beta-pinene, and cineole. Juniper also contains tannins, diterpenes, sugars, resin, and vitamin C. History & Folklore Juniper is the main 
flavoring used in gin. Juniper berries are still mostly gathered from the wild. In former times, sprigs of juniper flung into the fire were thought to protect against evil spirits. Medicinal Actions & Uses  Juniper is tonic, 
diuretic, and strongly antiseptic within the urinary tract. It is a valuable remedy for cystitis, and helps relieve fluid retention, but should be avoided in cases of kidney disease. In the digestive system, juniper is warming and settling, easing colic and supporting the function of the stomach. T aken internally or applied externally, juniper is helpful  
US_224-245_Jasmine_Harmala. indd   224 26/02/16   12:47 pm225Lactuca virosaOther medicinal plantsConstituents  Kigelia fruit contains norviburtinal, 
coumarins, iridoids, flavonoids, fatty acids, sterols, 
glycosides, and napthaquinones. Norviburtinal has 
tumor-reducing activity, the iridoids and sterols are 
anti-inflammatory, the flavonoids are antifungal, 
and the napthaquinones are thought to  
be cytotoxic. History & Folklore  Prized by traditional 
healers throughout sub-Saharan Africa, kigelia has 
been put to many uses. The Shona of southern 
Africa use the bark or root to treat skin infections 
and ulcers, toothache, backache, and pneumonia. In Central Africa, the unripe fruit is used as a dressing 
for wounds, hemorrhoids, and rheumatism. In West Africa, the leaves are given for stomach 
and kidney problems, and the fruit is used as a 
purgative and applied as a paste to sores. Kigelia  
is commonly included in traditional herbal 
formulations for malaria. Medicinal Actions & Uses  Thanks to the 
knowledge and experience of African traditional 
healers, kigelia is now understood to be a valuable 
remedy for skin problems, particularly sores and 
ulcers, produced by bacterial and fungal infection. Kigelia has been described as a “natural antibacterial. ” 
Given its marked anti-inflammatory and wound 
healing properties, kigelia is also being investigated 
as a skin toner and restorer, as well as potential 
treatment for skin disorders such as eczema, 
psoriasis, and solar keratosis (a precancerous skin 
problem caused by overexposure to sunlight). Various patents exist for kigelia products, and  
over time kigelia may become widely known as  
a key herbal resource for the skin. Kigelia  is a key remedy for treating skin problems. QCautions  T ake kigelia internally only under 
professional guidance. Do not take during 
pregnancy or while breastfeeding. Krameria triandra  (Krameriaceae)
Rhatany
Description  Dense evergreen shrub growing  
to 3 ft (90 cm). Has a deep root, oblong leaves,  
and large red flowers. Habitat & Cultivation  Rhatany is found  
in Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia on western slopes  
of the Andes at altitudes of 3,000–9,800 ft  
(900–3,000 m). The root is unearthed throughout 
the year. Part Used  Root. Constituents  Rhatany contains 10–20%  
tannins, including phlobaphene, benzofurans,  
and n-methyltyrosine. History & Folklore  A traditional South 
American remedy, rhatany was used by indigenous 
peoples as an astringent and a tooth preservative. Its Spanish name, raiz para los dientes  (root for the 
teeth), points to this traditional usage. Medicinal Actions & Uses  Rhatany is 
astringent and antimicrobial. It is a useful remedy 
taken principally for problems affecting the  
gastrointestinal tract. It is most commonly used  
for diarrhea and dysentery. In addition, rhatany 
makes a good mouthwash and gargle for bleeding 
and infected gums, mouth ulcers, and sore throats. The plant’s astringency makes it useful in the form 
of an ointment, suppository, or wash for treating 
hemorrhoids. Rhatany may also be applied to 
wounds to help staunch blood flow, to varicose 
veins, and over areas of capillary fragility that may 
be prone to easy bruising. Related Species  The Mexican K. cystisoides   
is an astringent remedy used in much the same way 
as rhatany. Another species native to North and 
Central America, K. parvifolia, was used by the 
Papago as an eyewash. in the treatment of chronic arthritis, gout, and 
rheumatic conditions. Applied externally as  
a diluted essential oil, it has a slightly warming  
effect on the skin and is thought to promote  
the removal of waste products from underlying 
tissues. Juniper also stimulates menstruation and 
tends to increase menstrual bleeding. Related Species  Oil of Cade is produced from  
J. oxycedrus  and is applied to treat skin rashes. Savin 
(J. sabina ) is toxic and a powerful abortifacient. The Japanese  J. rigida  is used as a diuretic. Cautions  Do not use juniper during pregnancy 
or if prone to heavy menstrual bleeding. Do not 
take if suffering from a kidney infection or kidney 
disease. Do not take the essential oil internally 
except under professional supervision. Self-help Use  Urinary infections, p. 314. K. pinnata  syn.
Not mentioned in the text, as blue flag is not mentioned.
What is the traditional use of blue flag for?
Not mentioned in the text, as Lippia citriodora is not mentioned.
What is the medicinal use of Lippia citriodora?
Not mentioned in the text, as Larch is not mentioned.
What is the medicinal use of Larch?
Not mentioned in the text, as Larch is not mentioned.
What is the medicinal use of Larch?
Not mentioned in the text, as Larch is not mentioned.
What is the medicinal use of Larch?