US_104-105_Hops.indd   105 26/02/16   3:59 pm
106Hypericum perforatumkey medicinal plantsBright yellow petals 
have oil glands containing hypericinHypericum perforatum (Hypericaceae)
St. John’s WortSt. John’s wort
An erect perennial growing to 32 in  (80 cm), with bright yellow flowers in a  flat-topped cluster. St. John’s wort was a folk remedy for insanity 
in the Middle Ages. Habitat & Cultivation
St. John’s wort thrives in temperate 
regions worldwide. It prefers a sunny site and well-drained, chalky soil. It  can be grown from seed or by root division in autumn. The flowering tops are harvested in summer. Related Species
A number of other Hypericum species have a roughly similar medicinal action. Key Constituents
■ Phloroglucinols (hyperforin)
■ Polycyclic diones (hypericin)
■ Flavonoids
Key Actions
■ Antidepressant
■ Anxiolytic
■ Antiviral
■ Wound healer
■ Anti-inflammatory
Research
■ Depression Clinical research 
since the 1970s has established St. John’s wort as an effective treatment for mild to moderate depression. A review in 2009 also concluded  that the herb was helpful in treating severe depression. Research shows that St. John’s wort works on neurotransmitter levels (e.g. serotonin) in several different ways. ■ Viral infection St. John’s wort 
extracts (particularly hypericin, the  
red pigment found in the petals and leaves) have strong antiviral activity, notably against influenza, herpes, and hepatitis B and C. 
■ Safety St. John’s wort rarely  
causes side effects itself, but  
it does interact with certain conventional medicines, mostly increasing the rate at which they  
are broken down by the liver. This changes the amount of the drug present in the bloodstream, significantly reducing its effectiveness. In rare situations,  
this can be life threatening. Traditional &  
Current Uses
■ Nerve tonic The herb acts as a 
restorative and neuroprotective, 
helping to reverse long-term nervous exhaustion and lowered mood. It can prove useful in seasonal affective disorder and chronic anxiety, and improves sleep quality. ■ Menopause The herb is 
considered a specific for the lowered mood that can accompany menopause, often combined with black cohosh (Cimicifuga racemosa,  p. 79) in such cases. ■ Tissue healing The red infused 
oil has potent wound-healing properties and historically has been used to heal knife and stab wounds. Nowadays, St. John’s wort oil is more commonly used to promote healing after surgery and minor burns. The oil can be particularly helpful  in relieving neuralgia—shingles, sciatica, and toothache being  common applications. Self-help Uses
■ Anxiety, depression & tension,  
 p. 308.Parts Used
Key Preparations & Their UsesFlowering tops are 
picked when the flowers have opened. Fresh  
flowering tops
Infusion (to make, p. 291), Drink 1/2 cup (100 ml) daily as a digestive tonic.Cream (to make, p. 296). For 
cramps or neuralgia, rub onto  the affected part.Infused oil Make by steeping the herb  in oil for 6 weeks  (see p. 294). Dab  onto minor wounds and burns. ■ Back pain, p. 313. ■ Bites & stings, p. 303. ■ Cold sores, chicken pox, & 
shingles, p. 304. ■ Depression & decreased vitality 
due to menopause, p. 316. ■ Neuralgia, p. 308. ■ Stiff & aching joints, p. 313. ■ Tired & aching muscles, 
 p. 312.Tincture (to make, p. 292). For depression, take 1⁄2 tsp 
with water 3 times a day.Dried flowering topsSt. John’s wort flowers at the summer solstice. In medieval 
Europe it was considered to have the power to protect against ill health and evil influences. Medicinally it was thought to heal wounds and “all down-heartedness.” In the 19th century the herb fell into disuse, but recent research has brought it back into prominence as a key herb for nervous exhaustion and depression. It is now one of the most used herbal medicines in the world. QCautions Can cause sensitivity to sunlight. Due to possible interactions, seek 
professional advice if taking a prescribed medicine, including blood thinners. Restricted in some countries. Do not combine with other antidepressants. Fresh flowers
US_106-107_St_John_wort.indd   106 26/02/16   3:59 pm107Inula helen Iumkey medicinal plants
Syrup  For coughs, make an infusion ( see p. 291) and simmer until it has reduced  
to half its volume, before adding the sugar or honey (to make, p. 293). T ake 1–2 tsp 
every 2 hours.Tincture  (to make, p. 292). For bronchitis, 
mix 21⁄2 tbsp with 21⁄2 tbsp thyme tincture. T ake 1 tsp 3 times a day.Decoction  (to make, p. 291). For irritable coughs, take 1⁄3 cup  
(75 ml) 2–3 times a day.Sturdy 
flowering 
stemInula helenium  (Asteraceae)
Elecampane
Prized by the Romans as a medicine and as a food,  
this herb derives its botanical name from Helen  
of Troy, who, according to legend, was holding 
elecampane in her hand when she set off with Paris 
to live with him in Troy. The root of the plant has  
long been seen as a gently warming and tonic herb, 
and is particularly useful for chronic bronchitis and 
other chest problems. Habitat & Cultivation
Native to southeastern Europe  
and western Asia, elecampane  
now grows in many temperate 
regions, including parts of the U.S. It is also cultivated. Propagated  
from seed in spring or by root 
division, it prefers moist, well-drained 
ground. The root is unearthed in 
autumn, cut up, and then dried at  
a high temperature. Related Species
Xuan fu hua  (I. japonica ) grows  
in China and Japan. Other relatives  
used medicinally include sunflower 
(Helianthus annuus ), common 
fleabane ( Pulicaria dysenterica ), and 
echinacea ( Echinacea  spp., p. 94). Key Constituents
■ Inulin (up to 44%) 
■ Volatile oil (up to 4%),  
 containing alantol 
 and sesquiterpene lactones 
 (including alantolactone)
■ Triterpene saponins
■ PhytosterolsKey Actions
■ Expectorant
■ Soothes coughing
■ Increases sweating
■ Mildly bitter
■ Eliminates worms
■ Antibacterial
Research
■ Inulin  Inulin was first isolated  
from elecampane in 1804 and  
took its name from the herb. It  
has mucilaginous qualities that  
help soothe the bronchial linings. ■ Antimicrobial  Alantolactone  
has been shown to have significant 
activity against the tuberculosis 
mycobacterium. Researchers in 
Ireland found that the root had 
potent effect against MRSA, an 
antibiotic-resistant “superbug.” 
■ Whole herb  As a whole, the 
root has a stimulant, expectorant 
effect, encouraging the coughing  
up of mucus from the lungs. The 
volatile oil is known to be partly 
responsible for this and also for  
the herb’s antiseptic properties. Traditional &  
Current Uses
■ Chest infections  Elecampane 
has long been valued for its tonic, 
strengthening effect on the 
respiratory system and for its  
ability to resolve chest infections. Its warming effect on the lungs, 
combined with its ability to gently 
stimulate the clearing of mucus  
from the chest, makes it safe for 
young and old. It can be used in 
almost all chest conditions, and  
is very useful when the patient  
is debilitated. Elecampane
A perennial growing  
to 10 ft (3 m), with 
golden yellow, daisy-
like flowers and large, 
pointed leaves. ■ Chronic chest complaints  
Elecampane’s qualities have led to  
its specific use for chronic bronchitis 
and bronchial asthma. It is particularly 
useful because it both soothes the 
bronchial tube linings and is an 
expectorant. In addition, the herb  
is mildly bitter, helping recovery  
by improving digestion and the 
absorption of nutrients. ■ Digestive problems  
Elecampane has been taken 
traditionally as a tonic herb for the “Elecampane  will the spirits sustain,”  
is a medieval saying. It reflects the herb’s 
tonic properties.Parts Used
Key Preparations & Their UsesRoot contains inulin, a 
mucilaginous (jelly-like) 
substance that soothes  
and relieves coughing. Fresh root
digestion. It stimulates the appetite 
and relieves dyspepsia. It is a useful 
remedy for the treatment of worms. ■ Infection  In the past, elecampane 
was used in the treatment of 
tuberculosis. It works well with  
other antiseptic herbs and is given  
for infections such as tonsillitis. Its 
restorative, tonic action complements 
its ability to counter infection. Self-help Use
■ Coughs & bronchitis , p. 310.Dried root
 QCautions  Can cause skin reactions. Do not take internally in pregnancy  
or if breastfeeding. US_106-107_St_John_wort.indd   107 26/02/16   3:59 pm
108LavanduL a officinaL iskey medicinal plants
Flowers contain 
high levels of 
volatile oilLavandula angustifolia syn . L. officinalis (Lamiaceae)
LavenderLavender
A perennial shrub growing to 3 ft (1 m), with spikes of violet-blue flowers extending above the foliage. Lavender is widely cultivated for perfume 
and medicinal use. Habitat & Cultivation
Native to France and the western 
Mediterranean, lavender is cultivated worldwide for its volatile oil. It is propagated from seed or cuttings and needs a sunny position. The flowers are picked in the morning  in high summer and are dried, or distilled to produce essential oil. Related Species
Spike lavender (L. spica) yields more oil than L. officinalis, but of an inferior quality. L. stoechas is used as an 
antiseptic wash for wounds, ulcers,  and sores in Spain and Portugal. Key Constituents
■ Volatile oil (up to 3%)  
 containing over 40 constituents,   including linalyl acetate (30–60%),   cineole (10%), linalool,   nerol, borneol
■ Flavonoids
Key Actions
■ Antispasmodic
■ Relieves anxiety
■ Antidepressant■ Neuroprotective
■ Antimicrobial
Research
■ Lavender oil A 2014 clinical trial 
found lavender oil taken internally  
to be more effective than both a placebo and a conventional tranquilizer in relieving generalized anxiety. It also showed antidepressant activity. Other studies have found similar benefits and tended to confirm relaxant, antidepressant, and gently sedative activity. The oil is thought to have low toxicity and significant antibacterial and antifungal activity. ■ Flowers Lavender flowers and oil 
have similar properties. Although  
little research has been conducted,  
it is likely the flowers have a  
significantly greater carminative and neuroprotective activity. Applied externally, flower extracts are insecticidal and rubefacient (irritant and stimulating to the local circulation). Traditional &  
Current Uses
■ Nervous system Lavender is well 
known for its soothing and calming 
effect and is combined with other sedative herbs to relieve sleeplessness, irritability, headaches, and migraine. It also helps to alleviate depression. ■ Digestion Like many herbs  
with a significant volatile oil content, lavender soothes indigestion and colic, and relieves gas and bloating. ■ Asthma Lavender’s relaxing effect 
makes it helpful for some types of asthma, especially where excessive nervousness is a feature. ■ Essential oil The oil is an 
invaluable first aid remedy. It is strongly antiseptic, helping to heal burns, wounds, and sores. Rubbed  onto insect stings, it relieves pain and inflammation, and can be used to treat scabies and head lice. Massaging a few drops on the temples eases headaches, and five drops added to a bath at night relieves muscle tension, tones the nervous system, and encourages sleep.Parts Used
Key Preparations & Their UsesFlowers are  
harvested toward  the end of flowering, when the petals have begun to fade. Dried flowersFresh 
flowers
Tincture (to make, p. 292). For insomnia, take 1⁄2 –1 tsp 
with water at night. Self-help Uses
■ Back pain, p. 313. ■ Bites & stings, p. 303. ■ Burns & sunburn, p. 309. ■ Earache, p. 312. ■ Headaches & migraine, p. 309. ■ Insomnia, p. 309. ■ Neuralgia, p. 308. ■ Stiff & aching joints, p. 313.Massage oil For headaches, combine 
20 drops with 1 tbsp carrier oil and 
apply (see p. 297).Lavender is an important relaxing herb, but it is better 
known for its sweet-scented aroma than for its medicinal properties. It became popular as a medicine during the  late Middle Ages, and in 1620 it was one of the medicinal herbs taken to the New World by the Pilgrims. It was described by the herbalist John Parkinson (1640) as  being of “especiall good use for all griefes and paines  of the head and brain.”
 QCaution Do not take essential oil internally except under professional supervision. Essential oil Apply undiluted to insect stings. Infusion (to make, p. 291) is a calming remedy for digestive problems. For indigestion, take 1⁄3 cup (75 ml) twice a day. US_108-109_Lavender.indd   108 26/02/16   3:59 pm109Linum usitatissimumkey medicinal plants
Cracked or ground seed  T ake  
1–2 tbsp daily with water to help  
relieve menopausal symptoms.Oil from the seed is convenient to use 
but goes rancid easily. T ake 1–2 tsp 
daily as a nutritional supplement.Linum usitatissimum  (Linaceae)
Flaxseed, Linseed
Flaxseed or linseed has been cultivated in the Middle 
East for at least 7,000 years, and its seed and fiber 
have been put to innumerable uses—both medicinal 
and industrial—throughout history. Flaxseed has been 
shown to have very high levels of polyunsaturated 
essential fatty acids, making it valuable in maintaining  
a healthy heart and circulation, and in preventing 
chronic inflammatory diseases. Habitat & Cultivation
Originally native to temperate zones 
in Europe and Asia, flaxseed is  
now widely cultivated in temperate 
regions, including Canada and the  
U.S., Argentina, and northern Europe. It is grown from seed in spring and 
harvested when the seed is ripe in late 
summer or early autumn. Related Species
Purging flax ( L. catharticum ), native  
to western Europe, is a purgative,  
but no longer used. Key Constituents
■ Fixed oil (approximately 35%)  
 mostly alpha-linolenic acid   
 (omega-essential fatty acid)
■ Protein (about 26%)
■ Fiber (about 14%) 
■ Mucilage (about 12%)
■ Sterols
■ Lignans
Key Actions
■ Demulcent
■ Emollient
■ Laxative■ Phytoestrogenic 
■ Cancer-fighting
Research
■ Omega-3 oils  Flaxseed is  
unusual in that it has very high levels 
of alpha-linolenic acid, an omega-3 
polyunsaturated fatty acid, similar to 
those most commonly found in fish 
oils. Research indicates that omega-3 
oils have significant anti-inflammatory 
activity. They also help to protect the  
heart and circulation, and to reduce 
heart irregularities. The seed, rather 
than the oil, helps to lower 
cholesterol levels. ■ Cancer-fighting  Ground flaxseed 
appears to be specifically useful 
against endometrial, breast, and 
prostate cancer: it is rich in omega-3 
oils, which are deficient in most 
Western diets; in lignans, which are 
phytoestrogenic and reduce the 
impact of estradiol (a potentially 
harmful type of estrogen); and in 
mucilage and fiber, which prevent 
reabsorption of unwanted estrogens 
from the intestines. Flaxseed added 
to the diet lowers PSA levels (used to 
measure prostate cancer risk) and 
thus is thought to protect against 
prostate cancer. Traditional &  
Current Uses
■ Laxative  Flaxseed has mostly 
been used as a bulk laxative, 
especially valuable in chronic 
constipation. The seeds soak up  
fluid in the gut, helping to make  
the stool softer and encouraging 
easier bowel movements. They 
should be taken with about 5 times 
their volume of water. With their Flaxseed
A slender annual, to  
3 ft (1 m) tall, with 
narrow leaves, blue 
flowers, and spherical 
seed capsules. significant mucilage content, the 
seeds are also soothing and anti-
inflammatory, reducing irritation  
and inflammation in the gut in  
such conditions as colitis, irritable 
bowel, and hemorrhoids. ■ Respiratory & urinary 
disorders The seeds, which need  
to be split or ground up before being 
swallowed, soothe the chest and,  
to a lesser extent, the urinary tract. They have proved helpful in chronic 
or paroxysmal coughs, bronchitis, and 
emphysema, and in urinary troubles 
such as chronic cystitis. ■ External uses  A poultice of the 
crushed seeds or of flaxseed flour is Flaxseed  is the best vegetable source  
of omega-3 essential fatty acids.Parts Used
Key Preparations & Their UsesWhole  seeds  gently 
support elimination 
and cleanse the colon. Cracked or ground 
seeds need to be used 
for other medicinal 
benefits. Golden 
linseed varieties are 
usually preferred. applied to painful or tender boils and 
carbuncles, softening the skin and 
drawing out the purulent material. A Portuguese recipe recommends 
combining flaxseed oil with red  
wine as an effective topical remedy 
for wounds. ■ Menopause  Adding flaxseed  
to the diet can support estrogen 
balance at menopause and reduce 
associated symptoms. Flax and other 
seeds can be made into a 
“menopause cake.”
Self-help Uses
■ Constipation , p. 317. ■ Menopause , p. 316. QCaution Do not use immature seeds, which may be toxic. Store cracked or 
ground seed in a closed container and keep in the fridge. Flour  is mixed with water and used as a poultice, and used in baking as a 
phytoestrogenic food during menopause. US_108-109_Lavender.indd   109 26/02/16   3:59 pm
110LobeL ia infL atakey medicinal plantsLobelia inflata (Campanulaceae)
Lobelia, Indian TobaccoLobelia
An annual growing  to 20 in (50 cm), with lance-shaped leaves and pale blue, pink-tinged flowers. Lobelia’s pale blue flowers were believed to 
have magical properties and were used  to ward off ghosts. Habitat & Cultivation
An indigenous American plant, 
lobelia is found in much of North America, especially in eastern parts of the U.S. It grows by roadsides and in neglected areas, and prefers acid soil. The aerial parts are harvested  in early autumn, when the seed capsules are most numerous, and  are carefully dried. Related Species
At least 4 other Lobelia species were traditionally used by Native Americans. One, great lobelia (L. siphilitica), as its Latin name suggests, was credited  by Native Americans and European settlers with the power to cure syphilis. Chinese lobelia (ban bian lian, L. chinensis) is used in Chinese  
herbal medicine mainly as a diuretic and for snake bite. Key Constituents
■ Piperidine alkaloids (6%)— 
 principally lobeline, but   many others present
■ Carboxylic acidsKey Actions
■ Respiratory stimulant 
■ Antispasmodic 
■ Expectorant 
■ Induces vomiting 
■ Increases sweating
Traditional &  
Current Uses
■ Native American remedy  
Lobelia was a traditional Native 
American remedy with a wide range of applications. Its use was later championed by the American herbalist Samuel Thomson (1769–1843), who made the herb the mainstay of his therapeutic system (see p. 27). He mainly used it to 
induce vomiting. ■ Therapeutic properties The 
whole herb is strongly antispasmodic. The constituent lobeline stimulates the respiratory center within the brain stem, producing stronger  and deeper breathing. Laboratory investigations during the 1990s suggest that lobeline has antidepressant activity. ■ Respiratory problems  
A powerful antispasmodic and respiratory stimulant, lobelia is valuable for asthma, particularly bronchial asthma, and chronic bronchitis. The herb helps to relax the muscles of the smaller bronchial tubes, thereby opening the airways, stimulating breathing, and promoting the coughing up of phlegm. In the Anglo-American herbal tradition, lobelia has always been combined with cayenne (Capsicum frutescens,  p. 74); the heating, stimulant action helps to push blood into areas that lobelia has relaxed. ■ External applications Some 
constituents, especially lobeline, break down rapidly in the body, and lobelia is often most effective applied externally. Its antispasmodic action helps to relax muscles, particularly smooth muscle, making it useful for sprains, and back problems where muscle tension is a key factor. In Parts Used
Key Preparations  
& Their UsesAerial parts have  
important antispasmodic properties and help relieve respiratory complaints. Fresh  
aerial parts
Dried aerial parts
Tincture is given  
to relieve asthma.Infusion is prescribed  
for bronchitis. combination with cayenne, lobelia has 
been used as a chest and sinus rub. ■ T obacco addiction  
The piperidine alkaloids, especially lobeline, have similar chemical  effects to nicotine, found in tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum, p. 240), and lobelia is employed by herbalists  to help patients give up smoking.Tablets containing lobelia in 
combination with other herbs are used to treat bronchial asthma.Lobelia is a powerful antispasmodic used for respiratory  
and muscle disorders. In common with other Lobelia 
species, it was a traditional Native American remedy  for many conditions. It was used as a “puke weed” to induce vomiting, as a remedy for worms and venereal disease, and as an expectorant. Lobelia was also smoked  
as a substitute for tobacco, and was reputed to share  
some of its magical qualities. RCautions T ake only when prescribed by a medical herbalist  
or doctor and do not eat the fresh plant. Excessive ingestion  
is rare (vomiting normally occurs first) but can be fatal. Restricted herb in some countries.Fresh leaves
US_110-111_Lobelia.indd   110 07/04/16   4:37 pm111Lycium chinensekey medicinal plants
Tincture  of the root 
(to make, p. 292). For 
coughs and wheezing, 
take 1⁄2 tsp diluted with 
water 3 times a day.Berries  can be eaten 
raw or dried, or used 
in cooking, e.g. soups. Decoction  of the  
root (to make,  
p. 291). For fevers, take 
1/2 cup (100 ml) daily. Making a decoction with berries  
Chop dried berries and simmer 
(see p. 291). For poor eyesight, 
take 1/2 cup (100 ml) daily.Lycium chinense syn. L. barbarum  (Solanaceae)
Goji Berry, Chinese Wolfberry
Goji berry is a major Chinese tonic herb, first  
mentioned in the Divine Husbandman’s Classic  
(Shen’nong Bencaojing)  written in the 1st century ce. Traditionally it is believed to promote long life—a  
Chinese herbalist, said to have lived for 252 years, 
ascribed his longevity to tonic herbs, including goji  
berry. Today, both the berries and the root have a  
wide range of medicinal uses. Habitat & Cultivation
Goji berry grows throughout much 
of China and Tibet, and is cultivated 
extensively across central and 
northern China. It is grown from 
seed in autumn. The root can be 
unearthed at any time of the year, 
but is most commonly harvested  
in spring. The berries are picked in 
late summer or early autumn. Key Constituents
■ Beta-sitosterol
Berries only:
■ Polysaccharides
■ Betaine 
■ Sterols
■ Carotenoids—mostly zeaxanthin
■ Vitamins B1, B12, and C 
Root only:  
■ Cinnamic acid 
■ Psyllic acid
Key Actions
■ Tonic 
■ Protects liver
■ Neuroprotective 
■ Lowers blood pressure
■ Anti-agingResearch
■ Immune modulation   
Research that has been carried out 
over the past 30 years indicates goji 
berry supports immune function, in 
part countering the reduction of 
white blood cell production resulting 
from aging. It also appears to 
prevent infection by preventing 
bacteria and viruses from attaching 
to cell membranes, particularly in 
the liver. The polysaccharides have 
cancer-fighting activity. ■ Zeaxanthin  This compound, 
occurring in higher concentration  
in goji berry than any other food,  
is taken as a supplement to support 
eyesight and the health of the retina. It is thought to protect against age-
related macular degeneration. ■ T onic and neuroprotective  
Several clinical trials in China have 
found that goji berry juice promotes 
general well-being, reducing signs  
of fatigue, weakness, depression,  
and stress. In early-stage research,  
goji berry has shown promise as a 
neuroprotective agent, and seems  
to act within the brain to prevent 
some aspects of the degenerative 
processes associated with 
Alzheimer’s disease. Traditional &  
Current Uses
■ Circulation  In China, goji berry  
is taken as a blood tonic and to 
improve the circulation. It is also 
taken in order to help lower blood 
pressure and treat a range of 
symptoms that include dizziness  
and tinnitus. ■ Slowing aging  The traditional  
use of goji berry as a tonic of key Goji berry
A deciduous shrub 
growing to 13 ft (4 m), 
with bright green 
leaves and scarlet 
berries. Goji berry  produces berries that are  
a blood tonic.Parts Used
Key Preparations  
& Their UsesRoot is used in preparations 
to relieve fevers. Dried root
Fresh 
berries 
on sprig
Dried 
berries
importance in the elderly is  
gradually being endorsed by research. Combined effects that protect 
immune, liver, cardio-vascular, and 
brain function from deterioration 
suggest that goji berry has a place in the diet of anyone seeking to keep 
healthy in their later years. A small 
handful of berries taken on a daily 
basis (eaten raw or as part of a larger 
dish) makes a useful contribution to 
long term good health. QCautions  Avoid during pregnancy. It can interact  
with some prescribed medicines: do not take with warfarin.Fresh  
root
US_110-111_Lobelia.indd   111 26/02/16   3:59 pm
112Melaleuca alternifoliakey medicinal plantsLeaves have a 
strong aroma 
when crushedMelaleuca alternifolia (Myrtaceae)
Tea TreeT ea tree
An evergreen reaching 23 ft (7 m), with  layers of papery bark, pointed leaves, and white flower spikes. Tea tree provides one of the most effective 
natural antiseptics. Habitat & Cultivation
Tea tree is native to Australia, 
flourishing in moist soils in northern New South Wales and Queensland. It is now cultivated extensively, especially in New South Wales. Tea tree is grown from cuttings  in summer. The leaves and small branches are picked throughout  the year and distilled to produce essential oil. Related Species
Other Melaleuca species that provide valuable essential oils include cajuput (M. leucadendron, p. 233), broad-leaved paperbark tree (M. viridiflora) and M. linariifolia, the essential oil of which is very similar to tea tree. Key Constituents
■ Volatile oil containing terpinen-4- 
 ol (40%), gamma-terpinene (24%),  
 alpha-terpinene (10%), cineo (5%)   (percentages are variable). Key Actions
■ Antiseptic
■ Antibacterial■ Antifungal
■ Antiviral
■ Immune stimulant
Research
■ Antiseptic properties Tea tree 
essential oil was first researched in 1923 in Australia. Since the 1960s  it has been intensively investigated, and its antiseptic properties are  well established. Clinical trials, mainly in Australia, have shown that it is effective at treating a broad range  of infectious conditions, especially fungal and skin problems such as vaginal yeast, acne, and warts. ■ Active constituents One of  
the most important constituents is known to be terpinen-4-ol, which  is significantly antiseptic and well tolerated by the skin. The oil also contains cineol, which can irritate  the skin. The cineol content varies—poor-quality oil has more than  10%; in some cases up to 65%. Traditional &  
Current Uses
■ Traditional remedy Tea tree is  
a traditional Aboriginal remedy. The 
leaves are crushed and either inhaled or used in infusions for coughs, colds, and skin infections. ■ Skin problems Tea tree can be 
applied to skin infections such as athlete’s foot and ringworm, as well  as to corns, warts, acne, and boils, infected burns, wounds, insect bites and stings, and other skin conditions. ■ Chronic infections Tea tree may 
be taken internally as a treatment for chronic, and some acute, infections, notably cystitis, glandular fever, and chronic fatigue syndrome.■ Oral infections The herb is 
effective in mouthwashes, countering oral infection and gum disease, and  
it can also be used as a gargle for  
sore throats. ■ Vaginal infections Tea tree is  
an excellent remedy for vaginal irritation and infection, including yeast Parts Used
Key Preparations 
& Their UsesLeaves have high levels of a 
strongly antiseptic volatile oil and are used in preparations for skin problems and infections. Fresh  
leaves
Cream Add 5 drops 
essential oil to 1 tsp base cream and apply to pimples 3 times  a day. Infusion (to make, p. 291). For chronic 
infections, infuse 
1⁄2 tsp herb in 3⁄4 cup 
(150 ml) of water. T ake twice a day.Essential oil Add 3 drops to 12 drops carrier oil and dab onto athlete’s foot. infections. It may be used as a pessary  
or can be diluted in a carrier cream and then applied. Self-help Uses
■ Acne & boils, p. 305. ■ Athlete’s foot, p. 304. ■ Vaginal yeast infection, p. 314.Tea tree, and in particular its essential oil, is one of the 
most important natural antiseptics. Useful for stings,  burns, wounds, and skin infections of all kinds, the herb merits a place in every medicine chest. Tea tree is native  to Australia and is a traditional remedy of the Aborigines. Its therapeutic properties were first researched during  the 1920s, and it is now widely used in Europe and the  U.S., as well as in Australia. QCaution Do not take the 
essential oil internally except 
under professional supervision. Dried leaves
Pessaries (to make, p. 297). For vaginal infections, insert one a day. US_112-113_Melaleuca_Melissa.indd   112 26/02/16   3:59 pm113Melissa officinaliskey medicinal plants
Leaves produce  
a lemon scent 
when crushedMelissa officinalis  (Lamiaceae)
Lemon Balm,  Melissa
In writing that “Balm is sovereign for the brain, 
strengthening the memory and powerfully chasing  
away melancholy,” John Evelyn (1620–1706) neatly 
summarized lemon balm’s long tradition as a tonic 
remedy that raises the spirits and comforts the heart. Today, this sweet-smelling herb is still widely valued for 
its calming properties, and new research shows that it 
can help significantly in the treatment of cold sores. Habitat & Cultivation
Native to southern Europe, western 
Asia, and northern Africa, lemon 
balm now grows throughout the 
world. The plant is propagated from 
seed or cuttings in spring. The aerial 
parts are picked from early summer 
onward and are best harvested  
just before the flowers open, when 
the concentration of volatile oil is  
at its highest. Key Constituents
■ Volatile oil up to 0.2% (citral,  
 caryophyllene oxide, linalool,  
 and citronellal)
■ Flavonoids
■ Triterpenes
■ Polyphenols
■ Tannins
Key Actions
■ Relaxant
■ Antispasmodic
■ Increases sweating
■ Carminative
■ Antiviral
■ Nerve tonicResearch
■ Volatile oil  German research  
has shown that the volatile oil, and in 
particular citral and citronellal, calm 
the central nervous system. The oil  
is also strongly antispasmodic. ■ Polyphenols  Polyphenols are 
antiviral. In particular, they combat the 
herpes simplex virus, which produces 
cold sores. In one research study, the 
average healing time of cold sores was 
halved to about 5 days and the time 
between outbreaks doubled. ■ Thyroid  Lemon balm inhibits 
thyroid function. Traditional &  
Current Uses
■ Traditional uses  This herb has 
always been taken to lift the spirits. T aken regularly, it was believed to 
encourage longevity. Other traditional 
uses include healing wounds, relieving 
palpitations and relaxing the heart, 
and treating toothache. ■ Modern relaxing tonic  Lemon 
balm is a relaxing tonic for anxiety, 
mild depression, restlessness, and 
irritability. It reduces feelings of 
nervousness and panic and will  
often quiet a racing heart, being  
a valuable remedy for palpitations  
of a nervous origin. Lemon balm  
is also useful when too much anxiety 
is causing digestive problems such as 
indigestion, acidity, nausea, bloating, 
and colicky pains. ■ Cold sores  Lemon balm relieves 
cold sores and reduces the chances 
of further outbreaks. ■ Hormonal herb  Following the 
discovery of its antithyroid effect, the 
herb is given to people with an 
overactive thyroid.Lemon balm
A perennial growing  
to 5 ft (1.5 m), with 
tiny white flowers  
and deeply veined, 
toothed leaves. ■ Other uses  Lemon balm is a  
first-aid remedy for cuts and insect 
stings and is good for fevers. Self-help Uses
■ Anxiety, depression,  
 & tension , p. 308.Lemon balm’s  botanical name, Melissa , 
comes from the Greek for bee and refers to 
the great attraction the plant holds for bees.Parts Used
Key Preparations 
& Their UsesAerial parts are used in a variety  
of preparations as a calming remedy. Essential oil For shingles, add 5 drops 
to 1 tsp olive oil and massage the 
painful area gently ( see p. 297). Infusion (to make, p. 291). For nervous headaches, drink 
3⁄4 cup (150 ml) 3 times a day.Tincture (to make, p. 292). For 
anxiety and mild depression, take 
1⁄2 tsp with water 3 times a day. ■ Cold sores, chicken pox,  
 & shingles , p. 304. ■ Flu with muscle aches  
  & pains , p. 311. ■ Nausea due to emotional 
  problems , p. 306. ■ Stomachache , p. 305. QCaution  Do not take the essential oil internally 
except under professional supervision.Dried aerial parts Fresh aerial 
parts
Lotion  For cold sores, make an infusion ( see p. 291) and apply  
regularly ( see p. 296). Ointment  (to make, p. 295). Apply to insect stings.Juice Apply as needed to cuts and scrapes. US_112-113_Melaleuca_Melissa.indd   113 17/03/16   4:00 pm
114Mentha x piperitakey medicinal plants
Leaves have high  
levels of volatile oil, 
which has important 
digestive propertiesMentha x piperita (Lamiaceae)
PeppermintPeppermint
A strongly aromatic, square-stemmed annual, growing to  32 in (80 cm) with serrated leaves. Peppermint is cultivated in many parts of 
the world for its oil. Habitat & Cultivation
Peppermint is grown commercially 
and in gardens throughout Europe, Asia, and North America. It is propagated from seed in spring and is harvested just before it flowers  in summer, in dry sunny weather. Related Species
Peppermint is a hybrid of watermint (M. aquatica) and spearmint  (M. spicata), which have similar, though 
milder, therapeutic properties. Key Constituents
■ Volatile oil (up to 1.5%),  
 including menthol (35–55%),   menthone (10–40%)
■ Flavonoids (luteolin,  
 menthoside)
■ Phenolic acids
■ Triterpenes
Key Actions
■ Antispasmodic
■ Stimulates sweating
■ Antimicrobial
■ Analgesic
■ CarminativeResearch
■ Volatile oil Research has shown 
that the volatile oil is strongly antibacterial. Menthol (a constituent  
of the oil) is antiseptic, antifungal, cooling, and anesthetic to the skin, although it is also an irritant. ■ Whole herb The whole plant  
has an antispasmodic effect on the digestive system. Clinical trials in Denmark and the UK during the 1990s have confirmed its value  in the treatment of irritable  bowel syndrome. Traditional &  
Current Uses
■ Digestive problems  
Peppermint is excellent for the 
digestive system, increasing the  flow of digestive juices and bile  and relaxing the gut muscles. It reduces nausea, colic, cramps, and gas, and soothes an irritated bowel. In soothing the lining and muscles  of the colon, it helps diarrhea and relieves a spastic colon (often the cause of constipation). ■ Pain relief Applied to the  
skin, peppermint relieves pain and reduces sensitivity. It also relieves headaches and migraines linked to digestive weakness. ■ Infection Diluted oil is used as an 
inhalant and chest rub for respiratory infections. The whole herb is important for digestive infections. Self-help Uses
■ Digestive headaches, p. 309. ■ Eczema, p. 300. ■ Nausea with headache, p. 306. ■ Neuralgia, p. 308. ■ Gas & bloating, p. 306.Parts Used
Aerial parts are distilled  
for their volatile oil and used  in a variety of preparations. Fresh aerial partsPeppermint’s origin is a mystery, but it has been in 
existence for a long time—dried leaves were found  in Egyptian pyramids dating from around 1000 bce. It was highly valued by the Greeks and Romans, but  
only became popular in Western Europe in the 18th century. Peppermint’s chief therapeutic value lies in  its ability to relieve gas, flatulence, bloating, and colic, though it has many other applications. Key Preparations 
& Their Uses
 QCautions Do not give peppermint to children 
under 5. The essential oil is best taken internally 
on the advice of a healthcare practitioner; it is not suitable for children under 12.Dried aerial parts
Infusion (to make,  
p. 291). To improve digestion, drink 3⁄
4 cup 
(150 ml) after meals.Essential oil Dilute to 
2% (see p. 297) and 
dab onto temples to 
ease headaches.Lotion made with infusion (see p. 296). Apply to irritated skin. Tincture mixed with other herbs, is prescribed mainly for digestive problems. Capsules are prescribed for irritable bowel syndrome. US_114-115_Mentha_Myristica.indd   114 26/02/16   3:59 pm115Myristica fragranskey medicinal plants
Aril (mace) 
turns yellow 
as it dries
Woody seed 
casing containing 
kernel (nutmeg)Fresh,  
scarlet arilMyristica fragrans (Myristicaceae)
Nutmeg & Mace, Rou Dou Kou (Chinese)
Habitat & Cultivation
Native to the Molucca Islands of 
Indonesia, nutmeg trees are now 
widely cultivated. They are propagated 
from seed, sown when ripe. The  
tree yields fruit after about 8 years, 
and can continue to fruit for over  
60 years. The fruit is picked when 
ripe and the nutmeg and mace are 
separated and dried. Key Constituents
Nutmeg:
■ Volatile oil (up to 15%),  
 including alpha-pinene,  
 beta-pinene, alpha-terpinene,  
 beta-terpinene, myristicin,  
 elincin, safrole
■ Fixed oil (“nutmeg butter”),  
 myristine, butyrin
Mace:
■ Volatile oil (similar to nutmeg  
 but with a higher concentration  
 of myristicin)
Key Actions
Nutmeg:
■ Carminative
■ Relieves muscle spasms■ Prevents vomiting
■ Stimulant
Mace:
■ Stimulant
■ Carminative
Traditional &  
Current Uses
■ Digestive problems  Nutmeg 
essential oil has an anesthetic and 
stimulating effect on the stomach  
and intestines, increasing appetite  
and reducing nausea, vomiting, and 
diarrhea. It is a helpful remedy for 
many digestive problems, especially 
gastroenteritis. ■ Sleep aid Though nutmeg is  
a stimulant, it has narcotic and  
anticonvulsant properties and  
can be successfully used at low  
dose (a pinch of powder will do) 
as a sleep aid for short- or long-term 
sleep problems. Laboratory studies 
also indicate that nutmeg has  
antidepressant activity. ■  Aphrodisiac  In India, nutmeg  
has a long reputation as an 
aphrodisiac. It is believed to  
increase sexual stamina. ■ External uses  Ointments based 
on the fixed oil (nutmeg butter) are 
used to treat rheumatic conditions. They have a counterirritant effect, 
stimulating blood flow to the area. In India, nutmeg is ground into a  
paste and applied directly to areas  
of eczema and ringworm. ■ Safety  Low medicinal doses and 
culinary amounts of nutmeg and mace 
are safe. In excess, however, the herbs 
are strongly stimulant, hallucinogenic, 
and toxic. The consumption of just  
two whole nutmegs has been known  
to cause death. Nutmeg tree
An evergreen tree 
growing to 39 ft  
(12 m), with aromatic 
leaves and clusters of 
small yellow flowers. Nutmeg and mace  are cultivated 
commercially in the tropics.Parts Used
Aril (mace) surrounds  
the seed casing. It is used in 
cooking and as a medicine.Nutmeg and mace both come from the nutmeg tree 
and have very similar medicinal properties. They  
are infrequently used in the West because of their 
toxicity at high dosages, but nonetheless are important 
medicines, employed principally to stimulate 
digestion and to treat infections of the digestive tract. Nutmeg also has long been valued as an aphrodisiac 
and as a remedy for eczema and rheumatism. Key Preparations & Their Uses
 QCaution  T ake the essential oil internally only under professional supervision. Do not take more than 3 g of either herb a day. Do not use during pregnancy. Dried seed  
kernel (nutmeg)Dried seed and arilFruit with  
seed and aril
Seed kernel  (nutmeg)  
is a stimulant remedy for  
intestinal infections and  
rheumatic conditions. In  
China, nutmeg is known  
as rou dou kou . Grated nutmeg For  
eczema, mix 2 tsp  
with a little water  
into a paste and apply.Powdered mace is 
prescribed to treat  
gas and bloating. Infusion For gastroenteritis,  
add a pinch of nutmeg  
to 3⁄4 cup (150 ml) of 
peppermint infusion ( see  
p. 291). T ake 3 times a day.Essential oil of 
nutmeg is occasionally 
used by herbalists to 
treat vomiting. Ointment  made from fixed oil (nutmeg butter). For rheumatic conditions, 
apply several times a day. US_114-115_Mentha_Myristica.indd   115 26/02/16   3:59 pm
116
key Medicinal plantsOcimum tenuifl Orum
Leaves are serrated and 
covered in fine hairsOcimum tenuiflorum syn. O. sanctum (Lamiaceae)
Holy Basil, Tulsi (Hindi)Holy basil
An aromatic annual growing to about  
28 in (70 cm), with small, purple-red or white flowers. Holy basil is so called because it is often 
planted around temples and courtyards  in India. Habitat & Cultivation
Holy basil is native to India and other 
tropical regions of Asia. It is also grown extensively in Central and South America, mainly for its medicinal properties. Holy basil can  be grown from seed and is often cultivated as a potted plant. The aerial parts are picked before the flowers open, in early summer. Related Species
The familiar culinary species,  
sweet basil (O. basilicum, p. 241),  
is a close relative. Key Constituents
■ Volatile oil (1%) including  
 eugenol (70–80%)
■ Flavonoids (apigenin, luteolin)
■ Triterpene (ursolic acid)
■ Polyphenols
■ Saponins
Key Actions
■ Antispasmodic
■ Analgesic
■ Lowers blood-sugar levels■ Reduces fever
■ Adaptogenic
■ Anti-inflammatory
Research
■ Diabetes Research into holy basil’s 
ability to reduce blood-sugar levels, and thus help diabetes, has been going on for some decades. It has now been established as a useful medicine for some types of diabetes. ■ Indian research Research in 
India has shown that holy basil  
helps lower blood pressure and has  anti-inflammatory, pain-relieving, and  fever-reducing properties. Preliminary research also indicates that the herb strengthens immune resistance, protects against radiation, has  
anticancer properties, and inhibits sperm production. Traditional &  
Current Uses
■ Traditional use Holy basil  
has always been considered to be  
a tonic, invigorating herb, useful for 
improving vitality. ■ Ayurvedic remedy In Ayurvedic 
medicine, holy basil is chiefly employed for fevers. A classical Indian recipe mixes holy basil, black pepper (Piper nigrum, p. 250), ginger (Zingiber officinale, p. 155), and honey in a remedy that prevents infection and controls high fever. ■ Heart & stress Holy basil  
is thought to have an affinity with  the heart, protecting it from stress  and lowering blood pressure and cholesterol levels. It has a reputation for reducing stress and is regarded  as adaptogenic—helping the body to adapt to new demands and stresses.■ Diabetic remedy The herb’s 
ability to help stabilize blood-sugar levels makes it useful in the treatment of diabetes. ■ Respiratory problems Holy 
basil is valuable for respiratory infections, especially colds, coughs, bronchitis, and pleurisy. It also  
treats asthma.Parts Used
 Key Preparations & Their UsesAerial parts are tonic and 
invigorating and have a wide range of other properties. Decoction (to make, p. 291)  
is used for fevers and as a tonic. T ake 3⁄4 cup (150 ml) daily as a 
general tonic. Powder  For mouth ulcers, rub 
powder gently into sore areas 
several times a day.Dried aerial partsHoly basil, like sweet (culinary) basil, comes from India, 
where it is revered as the herb sacred to the goddess Lakshmi, wife of Vishnu, the god who preserves life. Tulsi means “matchless,” and the herb has very important medicinal properties—notably its ability to reduce blood-sugar levels. In Indian herbal medicine, holy basil has a  wide range of uses, relieving fevers, bronchitis, asthma, stress, and mouth ulcers. ■ Other uses Juice is extracted and 
applied to insect bites, ringworm,  
and skin diseases. It is also used as  ear drops for ear infections. Juice or powdered herb helps mouth ulcers to heal. Self-help Use
■ Bites & stings, p. 303. QCautions Do not take during pregnancy. Do not take if trying to conceive.Fresh aerial parts
Juice For skin infections, apply 1/2 tbsp  
to the affected part twice a day. US_116-117_Ocimum_Paeonia.indd   116 07/04/16   4:37 pm117Paeonia lactiflorakey Medicinal plants
Four things soup  (to make,  
see p. 315). Drink 3⁄4 cup  
(150 ml) daily as a general tonic.Root has  
antispasmodic  
properties
Chuan xiongRehmannia
White peonyDong quaiWhite peony’s history of medicinal use in China  
stretches back for at least 1,500 years. It is known  
most widely as one of the herbs used to make “Four 
Things Soup,” a female tonic, and it is also a remedy  
for gynecological problems and for cramps, pain, and  
dizziness. Traditionally, it is considered that women  
who take the herb on a regular basis become as  
radiant as the flower itself.Paeonia lactiflora syn. P. albiflora  (Paeoniaceae)
White Peony, Chinese Peony, Bai Shao Y ao (Chinese)
Habitat & Cultivation
White peony is cultivated throughout 
northeastern China and Inner 
Mongolia. It is propagated from seed 
in spring, or from root cuttings taken 
in winter. The root of 4- or 5-year-
old plants is harvested in spring  
or autumn. Related Species
P. suffructicosa , also commonly  
used in East Asian herbal  
medicine, and peony ( P. officinalis,   
p. 243), a European species,  
have broadly similar properties  
to white peony. Key Constituents
■ Monoterpenoid glycosides  
 (paeoniflorin, albiflorin)
■ Benzoic acid
■ Pentagalloyl glucose
Key Actions
■ Antispasmodic
■ Anti-inflammatory
■ Enhances cognition
■ Lowers blood pressureResearch
■ Paeoniflorin  White peony  
has significant anti-inflammatory  
and antispasmodic properties, and 
preclinical research indicates that  
its traditional use for problems such  
as rheumatoid arthritis is justified. Paenoniflorin, the constituent most 
responsible for these effects, is also 
thought to lower blood pressure  
and support blood flow to the heart. ■ Polycystic ovary syndrome 
(PCOS) White peony has a 
hormone-balancing activity that helps 
to reverse the symptoms of PCOS, 
which include irregular menstruation 
and infertility. In combination with 
licorice ( Glycyrrhiza glabra , p. 101) it 
has been shown to support regular 
ovulation and to lower the raised 
testosterone levels that typically 
occur in PCOS. ■ Supports cognition There is 
accumulating evidence that white 
peony supports mental function, 
including spatial awareness and 
memory. Although no clinical  
trials have yet been published,  
white peony appears to have a 
strong neuroprotective effect  
within the brain. ■ Cold sores  Pentagalloyl glucose 
may have an antiviral action against 
the cold sore virus, herpes simplex. Traditional & 
Current Uses
■ Four Things Soup  White peony 
is regarded primarily as a women’s 
herb. Together with rehmannia 
(Rehmannia glutinosa , p. 125), chuan 
xiong  (Ligusticum wallachii ), and dong 
quai (Angelica sinensis , p. 63), it is an 
ingredient in “Four Things Soup,”  White peony 
An upright perennial, 
growing to 61⁄2 ft (2 m), 
with large white 
flowers and divided, 
dark green leaves. the most widely used female tonic  
in China. ■ Gynecological remedy  White 
peony helps menstrual disorders, 
including heavy bleeding and 
bleeding between periods, and is 
specifically used to treat period pain 
and cramps. It is a blood and yin tonic White peony  is cultivated for its root, which  
is a hormonal tonic, and for its flowers.Parts Used
Key Preparations & Their UsesRoot  has important 
tonic and pain-relieving 
properties. It is boiled 
and dried for use in a 
wide range of 
preparations. Fresh rootDried root
 QCaution  Do not take during pregnancy. (see pp. 40–41) and will help “blood 
deficiency” states, as well as hot 
flashes and night sweats. Self-help Uses
■ Heavy menstrual bleeding , p. 315. ■ Hot flashes & night sweats , p. 316. ■ Period pain , p. 315.Decoction (to make, p. 291) helps relieve 
period pain, heavy bleeding, and other 
menstrual disorders. To relieve period 
pain, take 1⁄3 cup (75 ml) 3 times a day. US_116-117_Ocimum_Paeonia.indd   117 17/03/16   4:00 pm
118Panax ginseng
Tablets are a convenient way of taking ginseng. T ake for short-term stressful  
events, such as moving a household.key medicinal plantsIn China, dried 
root is chewed to provide an energy boostPanax ginseng (Araliaceae)
Ginseng, Chinese Ginseng, Ren Shen (Chinese)Ginseng
A perennial growing  to 3 ft (1 m), with oval, toothed leaves and a cluster of small green-yellow flowers. Ginseng has always been valued as a tonic  
in old age. Habitat & Cultivation
Ginseng is native to northeastern 
China, eastern Russia, and North Korea, but is now extremely rare in the wild. Ginseng cultivation requires great skill. It is propagated from seed in spring and requires rich, well-drained soil. The plant takes at least 4 years to mature. The root is then normally harvested in autumn and washed  and steamed before being dried. Related Species
San qi (P. notoginseng, p. 243),  P. pseudoginseng, and American ginseng (P. quinquefolium, p. 243)  all have significant benefits. Key Constituents
■ Triterpenoid saponins (0.7–3%),  
 ginsenosides—at least 25 have   been identified
■ Acetylenic compounds
■ Panaxans
■ Sesquiterpenes
Key Actions
■ Adaptogen
■ TonicResearch
■ Adaptogen Ginseng has been 
researched in detail over the last  
50 years in China, Japan, Korea,  
Russia, and many other countries. Its remarkable adaptogenic quality (helping the body adapt to stress, fatigue and cold) has been confirmed. Trials show that ginseng significantly improves the body’s capacity to cope with hunger, extremes of temperature, and mental and emotional stress. ■ Hormonal support The 
ginsenosides, which are similar  
in structure to the body’s own hormones, can be adapted within the body to tone up deficient hormonal states. Clinical trials support the root’s traditional use by men, as they age,  to maintain vitality and virility. There  is also evidence it helps with both impotence and erectile dysfunction. Research indicates that ginseng  
is equally valuable for women and is  a useful medicine at menopause and beyond, aiding hot flashes and lowered mood, and improving  
sexual arousal. ■ Other research Ginseng 
increases immune function and resistance to infection and improves liver function. Ginseng is a key herb in maintaining health and quality of life in those with cancer. Traditional &  
Current Uses
■ Chinese remedy In China, 
ginseng is best known as a stimulant, 
tonic herb for athletes and those subject to physical stress, and as a male aphrodisiac. It is also a tonic for old age, and is traditionally taken by people in northern and central China from late middle age onward, helping them endure the long hard winters. ■ Western tonic In the West, 
ginseng is viewed not so much as a medicine, but as a life-enhancing tonic. It is useful for those coping with stressful events, such as taking exams. Parts Used
Key Preparations & Their UsesRoot is harvested after 4 years, 
when the active constituents are most concentrated. Dried root
Capsules For nervous 
exhaustion, take a 500 mg capsule once a day. Self-help Uses
■ Impotence & premature 
 ejaculation, p. 316. ■ Maintaining vitality, p. 319. ■ Poor sleep & nervous  
 exhaustion, p. 309. ■ Short-term stress, p. 308. Soup is a common way of taking ginseng in China. Add 1 g dried root per portion  of vegetable soup. T ake daily.Fresh rootGinseng is the most famous Chinese herb of all. It has  
been prized for its remarkable therapeutic benefits for 
about 7,000 years, and was so revered that wars were fought for control of the forests in which it thrived. An Arabian physician brought ginseng back to Europe in  
the 9th century, yet its ability to improve stamina and resistance to stress became common knowledge in  the West only from the 18th century. QCautions Do not exceed dose (can cause insomnia and high blood pressure). T ake 
on professional advice if using blood-thinning medication. Y oung healthy adults should not 
take ginseng more than 6 weeks. Avoid caffeine while taking it. Do not take if pregnant. US_118-119_Panax_Passiflora.indd   118 26/02/16   3:59 pm119Passiflora incarnatakey medicinal plants
Infusion  (to make, p. 291). For 
occasional sleeplessness, drink up  
to 11⁄2 cups (300 ml) during the evening. Tablets  are a common over-the-counter 
remedy for insomnia and stress.Tincture  (to make, p. 292) is a useful 
sedative for an overactive mind. T ake 1 tsp with water daily.Passiflora incarnata  (Passifloraceae)
Passionflower, Passiflora, Maypop
Passionflower’s name comes from its beautiful flowers, 
thought to represent Christ’s crucifixion—5 stamens  
for the 5 wounds, 3 styles for the 3 nails, and white  
and purple-blue colors for purity and heaven. The herb 
has valuable sedative and tranquilizing properties and 
has a long use as a medicine in Central and North 
American herbal traditions, being taken in Mexico for 
insomnia, epilepsy, and hysteria. Habitat & Cultivation 
Native to the southern U.S. 
(Virginia, Texas, and Tennessee)  
and to Central and South America,  
passionflower is now extensively 
cultivated in Europe, notably in  
Italy, as well as in North America. It is propagated from seed in spring 
and needs plenty of sun. The aerial 
parts are gathered when the plant  
is flowering or in fruit. Related Species
There are approximately 400 Passiflora  
species, some of which are popular 
garden plants. A number have a 
similar sedative action to passionflower. P. quadrangularis  has been found  
to contain serotonin, one of the 
main chemical messengers within 
the brain. Key Constituents
■ Flavonoids (apigenin)
■ Amino acids
■ Cyanogenic glycosides  
 (gynocardin)
■ Indole alkaloids (trace)Key Actions
■ Sedative
■ Antispasmodic
■ Tranquilizing
Research
■ Tranquilizing properties  
Pharmacological research shows the 
herb to have sedative, tranquilizing, 
and sleep-inducing properties. A 2001 
clinical trial found that passionflower 
was as effective in relieving anxiety as 
oxazepam, a conventional tranquilizer, 
and had fewer reported side effects. A clinical study in 2011 found 
improvement in subjective sleep quality 
in those taking passionflower. ■ Indole alkaloids  Research has 
not yet conclusively established  
that passionflower contains  
indole alkaloids. Traditional &  
Current Uses
■ Insomnia  Passionflower is best 
known as a remedy for insomnia and 
disturbed sleep patterns, and is useful 
for short-term bouts of sleeplessness. ■ Gentle sedative  This herb  
is widely acknowledged to be a  
good medicine for anxiety, tension, 
irritability, and insomnia. Its gentle 
sedative properties produce a 
soothing and relaxing effect, reducing 
nervous activity and panic, and 
making it a mild and non-addictive 
herbal tranquilizer, comparable in 
some ways to valerian ( Valeriana 
officinalis , p. 148). Occasionally, it is 
prescribed for convulsions. ■ Pain relief  Passionflower has 
valuable painkilling properties and  
is given for toothache, period pain, 
and headaches. Passionflower
A climbing vine 
growing to 30 ft (9 m), 
with 3-lobed leaves, 
ornate flowers, and 
egg-shaped fruit. ■ Tranquilizing effects  Its ability 
to reduce anxiety makes 
passionflower valuable for many 
nervous states, and it is used to treat 
conditions as diverse as asthma, 
palpitations, high blood pressure,  
and muscle cramps. In each case,  
its antispasmodic and tranquilizing Passionflower  was used by the Algonquin 
people of North America as an herbal 
tranquilizer.Parts Used
Key Preparations & Their UsesAerial parts  are picked as 
needed for relaxing infusions. Fresh
flower
Dried aerial 
parts
Fresh  
aerial parts
properties are the key to its 
usefulness, reducing the overactivity 
responsible for the disorder. Self-help Uses
■ Insomnia , p. 309. ■ Sleeplessness due to  
 backache , p. 313. QCautions  Passionflower can cause drowsiness. Do not take high doses  
in pregnancy. US_118-119_Panax_Passiflora.indd   119 26/02/16   3:59 pm
120Pelargonium sidoideskey medicinal plantsPelargonium sidoides (Geraniaceae)
Pelargonium, UmckaloaboPelargonium
An evergreen herb growing to 10 in (25 cm), pelargonium forms a rosette of long-stalked, heart-shaped leaves with striking purple-black flowers. Pelargonium is a potent medicine for coughs, 
colds, and sore throats. Habitat and Cultivation
Pelargonium is still collected from  
the wild in the eastern parts of South Africa where it is native, though demand for the root has led to increased commercial cultivation. The root is harvested at the end of the growing season, sliced, and then kiln dried. The plant is mostly propagated from seed. Related Species
Many other geranium species have medicinal activity, including another South African species, P. reniforme, which is often used for the same indications. The closely related American cranesbill and herb robert (Geranium maculatum and Geranium robertianum, both p. 216) are strongly astringent in action. Key Constituents
■ Polyphenols (including high levels  
 of proanthocyanidins)
■ Coumarins
Key Actions
■ Antibacterial■ Antiviral
■ Immune enhancing
■ Expectorant
Research
■ Antimicrobial Pelargonium 
extracts have been shown to have strong activity against a wide range of bacteria, notably those commonly responsible for ear, nose, throat, and chest infections. Extracts have also been shown to act against herpes viruses. The root exerts a tonic effect on the immune system. ■ Upper respiratory tract 
problems German research over the last 15–20 years has established conclusively that pelargonium is a safe and effective treatment for problems affecting the upper respiratory tract and chest. Clinical trials have shown that it is an effective treatment for acute and chronic bronchitis, tonsillitis, sinusitis, and the common cold, reducing  the intensity of symptoms and speeding recovery. ■ Children’s remedy Unusually, 
several clinical trials have focused  
on treating respiratory infections  in children, and the results of these indicate that pelargonium is a very safe and well-tolerated medicine  for children (from 1 year old) with coughs, colds, sore throats, and  sinus problems. Traditional &  
Current Uses
■ Respiratory infections Now 
commonly available in health stores 
and pharmacies, pelargonium can  
be considered a front-line home treatment for upper respiratory problems and chest infections. It combines well with elderberry extract, also easily found and very safe for children. ■ Traditional African remedy 
Pelargonium has a much wider range of uses in South Africa, where the root has been used to treat not only Parts Used
Key Preparations & Their Uses
respiratory infections, including tuberculosis, but conditions as diverse as painful periods, liver disease,  and gastroenteritis. Self-help Uses
■ Colds & congestion in children,  
p. 318. RootKnown as umckaloabo (thought to mean “heavy cough”  
in Zulu), pelargonium has been used for centuries by 
traditional South African healers as a key remedy for coughs and respiratory infections and for gastrointestinal disorders. The herb came to the attention of Europeans in the early 1900s after an Englishman named Charles Stevens was cured of his tuberculosis by a Basuto traditional healer who had given him large doses of pelargonium root. Cautions Give to children under 1 year of age only on professional advice. Fluid extract is best for children with upper respiratory tract infections.Tablets can be taken to 
support and strengthen 
immune function.Tincture (to make, p. 292) is a 
valuable remedy for acute and 
chronic bronchitis.Root is used for its strong 
antimicrobial activity. Root is sliced 
and dried before it is used
US_120-121_Pelargonium_Persea.indd   120 26/02/16   3:59 pm121 key medicinal plantsPersea americana
Mashed pulp  To help wounds 
to heal, apply a little mashed 
pulp 3 times a day. Oil from the seed. For skin blemishes, rub  
a little oil on the area daily 3 times a day.Decoction  of leaves or 
bark (to make, p. 291). For 
diarrhea, take 1⁄3 cup  
(75 ml) 3 times daily.Rind has  
the ability to 
expel worms
Seed
FruitPersea americana (Lauraceae)
Avocado
Many parts of the avocado tree have a use in herbal 
medicine. The leaves and bark are effective remedies for 
digestive problems and coughs. As well as being extremely 
nutritious, the fruit has a wide range of medicinal uses. Native peoples of Guatemala, for example, use the pulp  
to stimulate hair growth, the rind to expel worms, and the 
seeds to treat diarrhea. The fruit pulp is used as a baby 
food in West Africa. Habitat & Cultivation
Indigenous to Central America, 
avocado is widely cultivated for its  
fruit in tropical and subtropical areas, 
including Israel, Spain, and South 
Africa. It is propagated from seed. The 
leaves are harvested as needed; the 
unripe fruit is picked when fully grown. Related Species
Other Persea  species have similar fruits 
to avocado and are used in a similar way. Key Constituents
Leaves & bark:
■ Volatile oil (methylchavicol,
 alpha-pinene)
■ Flavonoids
■ Tannins
Fruit pulp:
■ Unsaturated fats
■ Protein (about 25%)
■ Sesquiterpenes
■ Vitamins A, B1, and B2
Key Actions
Leaves & bark:
■ Astringent
■ Carminative■ Relieve coughs
■ Promote menstrual flow
Fruit pulp:
■ Emollient
■ Carminative
Rind:
■ Eliminates worms
Research
■ Cholesterol  Research  
shows that the fruit helps lower  
cholesterol levels. ■ Poisons  Livestock that have 
grazed on avocado leaves, fruit, or 
bark have been observed to suffer 
less toxic effects from snake bite  
and other poisons. ■ Herpes simplex  Laboratory 
experiments have shown that 
avocado leaf extracts strongly inhibit 
the herpes simplex virus, responsible 
for cold sores and genital herpes. Traditional &  
Current Uses
■ Leaves & bark  Avocado  
leaves and young bark stimulate 
menstruation and can induce 
abortion. The leaves are taken for 
diarrhea, bloating, and gas and are 
valuable for relieving coughs, for liver 
obstructions, and for clearing high 
uric acid levels, which cause gout. ■ Fruit  The rind is used to expel 
worms. The fruit pulp is considered 
to have aphrodisiac properties. Used 
externally, it soothes the skin. It is 
applied to suppurating wounds and 
to the scalp to stimulate hair growth. ■ Oil The expressed oil of the 
avocado seed nourishes the skin. It 
softens rough, dry, or flaking skin and, 
massaged into the scalp, it improves 
hair growth. Avocado
An evergreen tree, 
growing to 65 ft  
(20 m), with dark 
green, leathery leaves 
and white flowers. Avocado  is very nutritious and makes an 
excellent baby food.Parts Used
Key Preparations & Their UsesFresh 
leaves
Dried leaves
 QCaution  The leaves and bark should not be used during pregnancy.Seed  contains good-quality oil. Fruit  is nutritious and is  
used to “draw” wounds.Leaves are an astringent 
remedy for diarrhea. Bark  is stripped from the 
tree for use in treating  
diarrhea and dysentery. US_120-121_Pelargonium_Persea.indd   121 26/02/16   3:59 pm
122PiP er methysticum
Tablets containing a water-based extract can be taken for anxiety.Key medicinal plantsPiper methysticum (Piperaceae)
Kava, Kava KavaKava 
An evergreen shrub climbing to 10 ft (3 m), with fleshy stems and heart-shaped leaves. Kava has huge, tapering leaves, growing  
to 10 in (25 cm) across. Its root is used medicinally to relieve pain. Habitat & Cultivation
Kava is an indigenous Polynesian vine 
and grows throughout the Pacific Islands as far east as Hawaii. It is cultivated commercially in parts  
of the U.S. and in Australia. Kava is propagated from runners in late winter or early spring and is usually grown on frames. It needs well-drained, stony soil and a shady position. The root is harvested at any time of year. Related Species
The closely related P. sanctum is native to Mexico. It is similar to kava in many ways; for example, it also contains  
kava lactones and is traditionally taken as a stimulant. Other related species include matico, betel, cubeb, and pepper (P. angustifolia, P. betle,  
P. cubeba and P. nigrum, pp. 249–250). Key Constituents
■ Resin containing kava  
 lactones, including kawain
■ Piperidine alkaloid  
 (pipermethysticine)
Key Actions
■ Tonic
■ Reduces anxiety
■ Urinary antiseptic
■ Analgesic
■ Induces sleepKava has major ritual and cultural significance among  
the peoples of the Pacific Islands, where it is as much a part of daily social life as coffee is in the West. At  
modest doses, kava is calming and tranquilizing. At large doses, it leads to intoxication and euphoria,  though without a hangover the next day. It has a hot,  slightly aromatic and bitter taste and leaves the mouth feeling slightly numb. Parts Used Key Preparations & Their UsesResearch
■ German ban In 2002, German 
regulators banned kava products  
due to concerns that extracts were toxic to the liver and had led to  20 deaths. Many other countries followed Germany’s example. The ban was repealed by the German authorities in 2015. Those campaigning against it had long maintained that the traditional use of kava, especially water-based extracts of kava, were inherently safe. Australian regulators had adopted this approach in 2003 by allowing the sale of water-based extracts of kava. A rigorous reexamination of the 20 fatal cases found that only two cases could in any way be attributed to  the use of kava.
Encyclopedia_Of_Herbal_Medicine.txt
Summarize the following text section accurately and concisely. Maintain specific details and numerical information, and use anti-repetition mechanisms:

        US_104-105_Hops. indd   105 26/02/16   3:59 pm
106Hypericum perforatumkey medicinal plantsBright yellow petals 
have oil glands containing hypericinHypericum perforatum (Hypericaceae)
St. John’s WortSt. John’s wort
An erect perennial growing to 32 in  (80 cm), with bright yellow flowers in a  flat-topped cluster. St. John’s wort was a folk remedy for insanity 
in the Middle Ages. Habitat & Cultivation
St. John’s wort thrives in temperate 
regions worldwide. It prefers a sunny site and well-drained, chalky soil. It  can be grown from seed or by root division in autumn. The flowering tops are harvested in summer. Related Species
A number of other Hypericum species have a roughly similar medicinal action. Key Constituents
■ Phloroglucinols (hyperforin)
■ Polycyclic diones (hypericin)
■ Flavonoids
Key Actions
■ Antidepressant
■ Anxiolytic
■ Antiviral
■ Wound healer
■ Anti-inflammatory
Research
■ Depression Clinical research 
since the 1970s has established St. John’s wort as an effective treatment for mild to moderate depression. A review in 2009 also concluded  that the herb was helpful in treating severe depression. Research shows that St. John’s wort works on neurotransmitter levels (e. g. serotonin) in several different ways. ■ Viral infection St. John’s wort 
extracts (particularly hypericin, the  
red pigment found in the petals and leaves) have strong antiviral activity, notably against influenza, herpes, and hepatitis B and C. ■ Safety St. John’s wort rarely  
causes side effects itself, but  
it does interact with certain conventional medicines, mostly increasing the rate at which they  
are broken down by the liver. This changes the amount of the drug present in the bloodstream, significantly reducing its effectiveness. In rare situations,  
this can be life threatening. Traditional &  
Current Uses
■ Nerve tonic The herb acts as a 
restorative and neuroprotective, 
helping to reverse long-term nervous exhaustion and lowered mood. It can prove useful in seasonal affective disorder and chronic anxiety, and improves sleep quality. ■ Menopause The herb is 
considered a specific for the lowered mood that can accompany menopause, often combined with black cohosh (Cimicifuga racemosa,  p. 79) in such cases. ■ Tissue healing The red infused 
oil has potent wound-healing properties and historically has been used to heal knife and stab wounds. Nowadays, St. John’s wort oil is more commonly used to promote healing after surgery and minor burns. The oil can be particularly helpful  in relieving neuralgia—shingles, sciatica, and toothache being  common applications. Self-help Uses
■ Anxiety, depression & tension,  
 p. 308. Parts Used
Key Preparations & Their UsesFlowering tops are 
picked when the flowers have opened. Fresh  
flowering tops
Infusion (to make, p. 291), Drink 1/2 cup (100 ml) daily as a digestive tonic. Cream (to make, p. 296). For 
cramps or neuralgia, rub onto  the affected part. Infused oil Make by steeping the herb  in oil for 6 weeks  (see p. 294). Dab  onto minor wounds and burns. ■ Back pain, p. 313. ■ Bites & stings, p. 303. ■ Cold sores, chicken pox, & 
shingles, p. 304. ■ Depression & decreased vitality 
due to menopause, p. 316. ■ Neuralgia, p.
Treatment of mild to moderate depression.
What is the primary use of St. John's Wort?
The essential oil of Lavender is an invaluable first-aid remedy for burns and wounds.
What is the primary use of Lavender?
Flaxseed has been used as a laxative, especially in chronic constipation.
What is the primary use of Flaxseed?
Goji Berry has been used in Chinese medicine for its antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties.
What is the primary use of Goji Berry?
Ginseng is used as an adaptogenic tonic to improve mental and physical stamina.
What is the primary use of Ginseng?