The incidence
of dental caries among those individuals living in part on imported foods at the port as compared
with those in remote districts living on native foods was as follows: Those almost exclusively on
native foods had 0.3 per cent of the teeth attacked by dental caries, and for those on trade foods,
18.7 per cent. Sea foods used here include many shell fish which are gathered and sold largely by
the young people. The octopus, the sea crab and the beche-de-mere eaten raw were used.7/29/13 Nutrition and Physical Degeneration
gutenberg.net.au/ebooks02/0200251h.html#toc 78/250FIG. 36. Note the marked difference in facial and dental arch
form of the two Samoan primitives above and the two
modernized below. The face bones are underdeveloped
below causing a marked constriction of the arches with
crowding of the teeth. This is a typical expression of
inadequate nutrition of the parents. The Hawaiian Islands lie between 18 and 22 degrees north latitude and between 154 and 160
degrees west longitude. These Islands are quite unlike any of the other Pacific Island groups
previously discussed. Sugar and pineapple plantations cover vast areas and together constitute by
far the most important industries of these Islands. In many districts the population is almost entirely
foreign or of various blends, chiefly of Filipinos and Japanese with Hawaiians. There is a large
American population and a considerable European. These different racial groups have largely
brought their own customs which are rapidly submerging the native customs. Since the native
population is so greatly reduced in comparison with the foreign population, and because
intermarrying has been so general, it was difficult to find large groups of relatively pure-blooded
Hawaiians either living almost entirely on native foods or on modernized foods. Though the number
of the individuals in these groups is accordingly not large, important data were obtained for
comparing the relative incidence of dental caries and other degenerative processes. While the
preparation of foods on the various Pacific Islands has many common factors, all natives using the
underground oven of hot stones for cooking, the Hawaiian Islands present one unique difference in
the method of preparation of their taro. They cook the root as do all the other tribes, but having
done so they dry the taro, powder it and mix it with water and allow it to ferment for several hours,
usually twenty-four or more. This preparation called "poi" becomes slightly tart by the process of
fermentation and has the consistency of heavy strap molasses or a very heavy cream. It is eaten by
rolling it up on one or two fingers and sucking it from them. It accordingly offers no resistance to
the process of mastication. In the districts where the natives are living on native foods the incidence
of dental caries was only 2 per cent of the teeth, whereas among those natives who are living in
large part on the imported foods, chiefly white flour and sweetened goods, 37.3 per cent of the
teeth had been attacked by tooth decay. Typical Hawaiian faces are seen in Fig. 37. Typical
modern tooth decay is shown in Fig. 38. This girl has tuberculosis also.7/29/13 Nutrition and Physical Degeneration
gutenberg.net.au/ebooks02/0200251h.html#toc 79/250FIG. 37. Wherever the Polynesians are being modernized a
change is occurring in facial form which is progressively
more severe in the younger members of the family. These
girls of an Hawaiian family demonstrate this. Note the
change in facial form in the sister to the right. The face is
longer and narrower, the nostrils pinched and the chin is
receding. The tribal facial pattern is lost. FIG. 38. The Polynesian race is rapidly disappearing with
modernization. Tooth decay becomes extreme as shown in
7/29/13 Nutrition and Physical Degeneration
gutenberg.net.au/ebooks02/0200251h.html#toc 80/250modernization. Tooth decay becomes extreme as shown in
the girl above. This girl has tuberculosis, one of the physical
injuries which accompany modernization. This is one of the
bodily injuries as we will see later. The study of the incidence of dental caries in these various South Sea Island groups in its
relation to diet was only one of several of the problems investigated. Since nutrition is the principal
factor that has been found related to the r6le of immunity and susceptibility to dental caries in my
previous field studies, the collection of foods for chemical analysis and the gathering of detailed
data regarding the articles of diet have been very important phases of the activities of this group of
studies. Data were collected for relating the incidence of irregularities of the teeth and dental arches to
the types of nutrition. Similarly, studies were made of the individuals who had been hospitalized, in
the few places where hospitals existed, chiefly to obtain data regarding the classification of the
individuals who were suffering from tuberculosis. These were similar to the studies that I have
made among the Eskimos and Indians of Alaska and northern and central Canada. If one will picture a community of several thousand people with an average of 30 per cent of all
the teeth attacked by dental caries and not a single dentist or dental instrument available for
assistance of the entire group, a slight realization is had of the mass suffering that has to be
endured. Commerce and trade for profit blaze the way in breaking down isolation's barriers, far in
advance of the development of health agencies and emergency relief unwittingly made necessary
by the trade contact. While dental caries was most active in the periods of systematic overloads, such as growth,
gestation and lactation, even the splendidly formed teeth of the adult men were wrecked by dental
caries when the native foods were displaced with modern foods. In all of the groups living on
native foods with a liberal intake of animal life of the sea, the health of the gums was generally
excellent. When, however, the sea foods were quite limited in the dietary, heavy deposits formed
and often were associated with a marked destruction of the supporting tissues with gingival
infection. This condition was particularly prevalent among all groups near the ports, when the
groups were displacing part of their native foods with imported foods. In American Samoa through the cooperation of the educational authorities and the Director of
the Department of Health, Commander Stephenson, and under the direct supervision of Lieutenant
Commander Lowry, the dental surgeon, a group of four young men of the native teaching staff was
selected and given instructions for the removal of the deposits. Equipment in the form of
instruments has since been provided, in part through the kindness and generosity of some dental
manufacturers. This probably constitutes the only native dental service that has ever been available
in any of the Pacific Island groups. The intelligence and aptness with which these men were able to
learn the fundamental principles, and their skill in carrying out a highly commendable prophylactic
operation was indeed remarkable. I gave them pieces of soap and asked them to carve a
reproduction of an extracted tooth which was given as a model and in which they were required to
increase all diameters to a given amount. Their work would probably equal if not exceed in
excellence that of the first effort of 90 per cent of American dental students. Many of these natives
are very dexterous with their fingers and are skilled artists in carving wood and other material. A great service could be rendered to these people who are in the process of modernization, but
who have no opportunity for dental assistance, by teaching some of the bright young men certain of
the procedures for rendering first aid. They could be compensated by contributions of native foods
and native wares much as our itinerant dentists were in earlier days. The people would not have
money to pay an American or European dentist for his service until trade is carried on with
currency. Nearly all these racial stocks are magnificent singers for which Nature has well-equipped them
physically. Their artistry can be judged by the fact that they sing very difficult music
unaccompanied and undirected. A large native chorus at Nukualofa, in the Tongan Group, sang7/29/13 Nutrition and Physical Degeneration
gutenberg.net.au/ebooks02/0200251h.html#toc 81/250without accompaniment "The Hallelujah Chorus" from Handel's Messiah with all the parts and with
phenominal volume and modulation. Much of their work, such as rowing their largest boats, and
many of their sports are carried out to the rhythm of hilarious music. Many of the island groups recognize that their races are doomed since they are melting away
with degenerative diseases, chiefly tuberculosis. Their one overwhelming desire is that their race
shall not die out. They know that something serious has happened since they have been touched by
civilization. Surely our civilization is on trial both at home and abroad. The nutrition of the primitive Polynesians is continually reinforced with animal life from the sea
which includes both soft- and hard-shell forms. The incidence of tooth decay varied from 0.6 per
cent for the most isolated groups to 33.4 per cent for the modernized groups. Those individuals
living in their native environment on their native foods have universally normal facial and dental arch
form reproducing the characteristics of the race. Those living on the normal environment except for
using the imported foods of white flour, sugar, sugar products, syrup, polished rice, and the like,
have in the succeeding generations marked changes in facial and dental arch forms. REFERENCE
1. FERGUSON, R. A. A dental survey of the school children of American Samoa. J. Am. Dent. A., 21:534, 1934. TABLE OF CONTENTS   
 
Chapter 9
ISOLATED AND MODERNIZED AFRICAN TRIBES
AFRICA has been the last of the large continents to be invaded and explored by our modern
civilization. It has one of the largest native populations still living in accordance with inherited
traditions. Accordingly, it provides a particularly favorable field for studying primitive racial stocks. This study of primitive racial stocks, with the exception of some Indian groups, has been largely
concerned with people living under physical conditions quite different from those which obtain in
the central area of a large continent. Sea foods are within reach of the inhabitants of islands and coastal. regions regardless of
latitude. The inhabitants of the interior of a continent, however, have not access to liberal supplies
of various forms of animal life of the sea. It was important, therefore, in the interest of the
inhabitants of the United States, Canada, Europe, and other large continental interiors, to study
primitive people living under environments similar to theirs. Africa is one of the few countries that
can provide both primitive living conditions and the modern life of the plains and plateau country in
the interior. The great plateau of eastern and central Africa has nurtured a score of tribes with
superb physiques and much accumulated wisdom. We are concerned to know how they have
accomplished this, and whether they or any other people can survive in that environment after
adopting the formulas of our modern civilizations. Considering that the most universal scourge of
modern civilization is dental caries, though it is only one of its many degenerative processes, it is
important that we study these people to note how they have solved the major problems of living in
so severe and disciplining an environment as provided in Africa. This was done during the summer of 1935. Our route took us through the Red Sea and down7/29/13 Nutrition and Physical Degeneration
gutenberg.net.au/ebooks02/0200251h.html#toc 82/250the Indian Ocean to enter the African continent at Mombasa below the equator and then across
Kenya and Uganda into Eastern Belgian Congo, and thence about 4,000 miles down the long
stretch of the Nile through Sudan to the modernized civilization of Egypt. This journey covered
most of the country around Ethiopia and gave us contact with several of the most primitive racial
stocks of that country. These people are accordingly the neighbors of the Abyssinians or
Ethiopians. Since the various tribes speak different languages and are under different governments,
it was necessary to organize our safari in connection with the local government officials in the
different districts. During these journeys in Africa which covered about 6,000 miles, we came in contact with
about thirty different tribes. Special attention was given to the foods, samples of which were
obtained for chemical analysis. Over 2,500 negatives were made and developed in the field. If any
one impression of our experiences were to be selected as particularly vivid, it would be the
contrast between the health and ruggedness of the primitives in general and that of the foreigners
who have entered their country. That their superior ruggedness was not racial became evident
when through contact with modern civilizations degenerative processes developed. Very few of the
many Europeans with whom we came in contact had lived in central Africa for as much as two
years without serious illness or distinct evidence of physical stress. That the cause was not the
severity of the climate, but something related to the methods of living, was soon apparent. In all the
districts it was recognized and expected that the foreigners must plan to spend a portion of every
few years or every year outside that environment if they would keep well. Children born in that
country to Europeans were generally expected to spend several of their growing years in Europe
or America if they would build even relatively normal bodies. One exacting condition of the environment that we encountered was the constant exposure to
disease. Dysentery epidemics were so severe and frequent that we scarcely allowed ourselves to
eat any food that had not been cooked or that we had not peeled ourselves. In general, it was
necessary to boil all drinking water. We dared not allow our bare feet to touch a floor of the
ground for fear of jiggers which burrow into the skin of the feet. Scarcely ever when below 6,000
feet were we safe after sundown to step from behind mosquito netting or to go out without
thorough protection against the malaria pests. These malaria mosquitoes which include many
varieties are largely night feeders. They were thought to come out soon after sundown. We were
advised that the most dangerous places for becoming infected were the public eating houses, since7/29/13 Nutrition and Physical Degeneration
gutenberg.net.au/ebooks02/0200251h.html#toc 83/250the mosquitoes hide under the tables and attack the diner's ankles if they are not adequately
protected. We rigidly followed the precaution of providing adequate protection against these pests. Disease-carrying ticks were so abundant in the grass and shrubbery that we had to be on guard
constantly to remove them from our clothing before they buried themselves in our flesh. They were
often carriers of very severe fevers. We had to be most careful not to touch the hides with which
the natives protected their bodies from the cold at night and from the sun in the daytime without
thorough sterilization following any contact. There was grave danger from the lice that infected the
hair of the hides. We dared not enter several districts because of the dreaded tsetse fly and the
sleeping sickness it carries. One wonders at the apparent health of the natives until he learns of the
unique immunity they have developed and which is largely transmitted to the offspring. In several
districts we were told that practically every living native had had typhus fever and was immune,
though the lice from their bodies could transmit the disease. One also wonders why people with
such resistance to disease are not able to combat the degenerative diseases of modern civilization. When they adopt modern civilization they then become susceptible to several of our modern
degenerative processes, including tooth decay. Dr. Anderson who is in charge of a splendid government hospital in Kenya, assured me that in
several years of service among the primitive people of that district he had observed that they did
not suffer from appendicitis, gall bladder trouble, cystitis and duodenal ulcer. Malignancy was also
very rare among the primitives. It is of great significance that we studied six tribes in which there appeared to be not a single
tooth attacked by dental caries nor a single malformed dental arch. Several other tribes were found
with nearly complete immunity to dental caries. In thirteen tribes we did not meet a single individual
with irregular teeth. Where the members of these same tribes had adopted modern civilization
many cases of tooth decay were found. In the next generation following the adoption of the
European dietaries dental arch deformities frequently developed. We are concerned to know something of the origin of these people including the Ethiopians and
to what extent racial ancestry has protected them. If we refer to an ethnographic map of African
races we find there is evidence of a great movement northward from South Africa. These people
had some things in common with the Melanesians and Polynesians of the South Pacific whom we
studied the year previously. Their language carries some words of similar meaning. While there are
many tribes existing today, it is of significance that they each possess some identifying
characteristics of language, dress and food habits. Another great racial movement has apparently
moved southward from Northern Africa. These tribes are of Hamitic origin and include Nilotic
tribes and Abyssinians. The Nilotic tribes have a distinct physical pattern and mode of life. These
great racial movements have met in the Upper Nile region of Eastern Africa near the equator, and
have swayed back and forth with successive obliteration or absorption of those tribes that were
least sturdy. The negro race occupied an area across Africa from the West to Central Africa. They
were exposed to the aggression and oppression of these two great racial movements, resulting
often in intermingling in various proportions of racial bloods. The Semitic race, chiefly Arabs,
occupied Arabia and a great area in Northern Africa. In this bird's eye view we are observing changes that have been in progress during many
hundreds or thousands of years. The Arabs have been the principal slave dealers working in from
the east coast of Africa. They have maintained their individuality without much blending except on
the coast. They have not become an important part of the native stock of the interior. These
primitive native stocks can be largely identified on the basis of their habits and methods of living. The Nilotic tribes have been chiefly herders of cattle and goats and have lived primarily on dairy
products, including milk and blood, with some meat, and with a varying percentage of vegetable
foods. It was most interesting to observe that in every instance these cattle people dominated the
surrounding tribes. They were characterized by superb physical development, great bravery and a
mental acumen that made it possible for them to dominate because of their superior intelligence. Among these Nilotic tribes the Masai forced their way farthest south and occupy a position
between two of the great Bantu tribes, the Kikuyu and the Wakamba. Both of these latter tribes7/29/13 Nutrition and Physical Degeneration
gutenberg.net.au/ebooks02/0200251h.html#toc 84/250are primarily agricultural people. Masai Tribe. The Masai are tall and strong. Fig. 39 shows a typical belle, also a Masai man
who is much taller than our six-foot guide. It is interesting to study the methods of living and
observe the accumulated wisdom of the Masai. They are reported to have known for over two
hundred years that malaria was carried by mosquitoes, and further they have practiced exposing
the members of their tribes who had been infected with syphilis by the Arabs to malaria to prevent
the serious injuries resulting from the spirochetal infection. Yet modern medicine boasts of being
the discoverers of this great principle of using malaria to prevent or relieve syphilitic infections of
the spinal cord and brain. FIG 39 These members of the Masai tribe illustrate the
splendid nutrition provided by their diet of cattle products
namely: meat, milk and blood. The chief beside our guide is
well over six feet. This Masai belle wears the customary
decorations of coils of copper wire bracelets and anklets
which largely constitute the attire of the girls. I saw the native Masai operating on their cattle with skill and knowledge. The Masai have no
currency and all their transactions are made with cows or goats. A valuable cow was not eating
properly, and I observed them taking a thorn out of the inside of her mouth. The surgical operation
was done with a knife of their own making and tempered by pounding. The wound was treated by
rubbing it with the ashes of a plant that acted as a very powerful styptic. Their knowledge of
veterinary science is quite remarkable. I saw them treating a young cow that had failed to
conceive. They apparently knew the cause and proceeded to treat her as modern veterinaries
might do in order to overcome her difficulties. For their food throughout the centuries they have
depended very largely on milk, meat and blood, reinforced with vegetables and fruits. They milk
the cows daily and bleed the steers at regular intervals by a unique process. In Fig. 40 we see a
native Masai with his bow and arrow, the latter tipped with a sharp knife which is guarded by a
shoulder to determine the depth to which the arrow may enter the vein. If the animal is sufficiently
tame, the blood is drawn while it is standing. If the animal is frightened it is quickly hobbled, as
shown below. In this figure the stream of blood may be seen spurting from the jugular vein into a
gourd which holds about a gallon. A torque is placed around the neck before the puncture is
made. The animals did not even flinch when struck by the arrow, the operation is done so quickly
and skillfully. When sufficient blood was drawn, the torque was removed and the blood
immediately stopped flowing. A styptic made of ashes referred to above was used. This serves
also to protect the wound from infection. The blood is defibrinated by whipping in the gourd. The
fibrin is fried or cooked much as bacon or meat would be prepared. The defibrinated blood is7/29/13 Nutrition and Physical Degeneration
gutenberg.net.au/ebooks02/0200251h.html#toc 85/250used raw just as the milk is, except in smaller quantities. When available, each growing child
receives a day's ration of blood as does each pregnant or lactating woman. Formerly, the warriors
used this food exclusively. These three sources, milk, blood and meat provide them with liberal
supplies of body-building minerals and the special vitamins, both fat-soluble and water soluble. Their estimate of a desirable dairy stock is based on quality not quantity. They judge the value of a
cow for keeping in their herd by the length of time it takes her calf to stand on its feet and run after
it is born, which is only a very few minutes. This is in striking contrast with the practice of our
modern dairymen who are chiefly concerned with the quantity of milk and quantity of butter fat
rather than with its value as a source of special factors for nutrition. Many of the calves of the
modern high-production cows of civilized countries are not able to stand for many hours after
birth, frequently twenty-four. This ability to stand is very important in a country infested with
predatory animals; such as lions, leopards, hyenas, jackals and vultures. FIG. 40. An important source of fat soluble vitamins during
the drought period is the blood of the steers which is drawn
about every thirty days. Above shows the lance tipped
arrow being shot into the neck vein. If the animal is wild it is
hobbled as shown below where the stream of blood is seen
spurting into the gourd. The flow ceases when the compress
is removed. This reminded me of my experience in Alaska in studying the reindeer of the Eskimos. I was
told that a reindeer calf could be dropped in a foot of snow and almost immediately it could run
with such speed that the predatory animals, including wolves, could not catch it. And, moreover,
that these fawns would go almost immediately after their birth with a herd on a stampede and never
be knocked down. The problem of combating the predatory animals, particularly the lions, calls for greater skill and
bravery than is required by other tribes in Africa. The lions live on the large grazing animals,
particularly the cattle, from which they select the strongest. In driving over the veldt we frequently
saw one or two men or boys guarding an entire herd with only their spears. Their skill in killing a
lion with a spear is one of the most superb of human achievements. I was interested to learn that
they much prefer their locally made spears to those that are manufactured outside and brought in,
because of their certainty that they will not break, will withstand straightening regardless of how
much they are bent and because due to the process of manufacture will take a very sharp edge. On one occasion, after we had been kept awake much of the night by the roaring of the lions
and neighing of the zebras that were being attacked by the lions, we visited a Masai manyata
nearby in the morning to learn that when they let their cattle and goats out of the corral of acacia7/29/13 Nutrition and Physical Degeneration
gutenberg.net.au/ebooks02/0200251h.html#toc 86/250thorns, three or four spearsmen went ahead in search of the lions that might be waiting to ambush
the cattle. They apparently did not have the slightest fear. The lions evidentally had made a kill
nearby. This the natives determined by the number of coyotes. The heart and courage of these people has been largely broken by the action of the government
in taking away their shields in order to prevent them pillaging the surrounding native tribes as
formerly. They depended upon their shields to protect them from the arrows of the other tribes. The efforts to make agriculturists of these Masai people are not promising. In a typical manyata the chief has several wives. Each one has a separate dwelling. Timber and
shrubbery are so scarce in this vicinity that the dwellings are built of clay mixed with cow dung
which is plastered over a framework of twigs. Many chiefs are over six feet in height. The Masai live in a very extensive game preserve in which hundreds of thousands of grazing
animals enjoy an existence protected from man since even the natives are not allowed to kill the
animals as formerly. They seemed to be preserved for the numerous lions which occasionally
become very bold since they have an abundance of food and no enemies. Recently the local
government authorities found it necessary to shoot off eighty of the lions in a particular district
because of their aggressiveness. In the Masai tribe, a study of 2,516 teeth in eighty-eight individuals distributed through several
widely separated manyatas showed only four individuals with caries. These had a total of ten
carious teeth, or only 0.4 per cent of the teeth attacked by tooth decay. Kikuyu Tribe, Kianzbu, Kenya. In contrast with the Masai, the Kikuyu tribe, which inhabits a
district to the west and north of the Masai, are characterized by being primarily an agricultural
people. Their chief articles of diet are sweet potatoes, corn, beans, and some bananas, millet, and
Kafir corn, a variety of Indian millet. The women use special diets during gestation and lactation. The girls in this tribe, as in several others, are placed on a special diet for six months prior to
marriage. They nurse their children for three harvests and precede each pregnancy with special
feeding. The Kikuyus are not as tall as the Masai and physically they are much less rugged. Like many of
the central African tribes, they remove some lower incisors at the time these permanent teeth erupt. This custom is reported to have been established for the purpose of feeding the individuals in case
of lock-jaw. One of the striking tribal customs is the making of large perforations in the ears in
which they carry many metal ornaments. A typical Kikuyu woman is shown in Fig. 41 (upper
right). Typical Kikuyu men are also shown in Fig. 41. Note their fine teeth and dental arches.7/29/13 Nutrition and Physical Degeneration
gutenberg.net.au/ebooks02/0200251h.html#toc 87/250FIG. 41. The development of the faces and dental arches in
many African tribes is superb. The girl at the upper right is
wearing several earrings in the lobe of each ear. The
Wakamba tribe points the teeth as shown below. This does
not cause tooth decay while they live on their native food. A study of 1,041 teeth in thirty-three individuals showed fifty-seven teeth with caries, or 5.5 per
cent. These were 36.4 per cent of the individuals affected. Much of the territory occupied by the Kikuyu tribes was formerly forest. Their practice has
been to burn down a section of forest in order to get new lands for planting. As soon as the virgin
fertility is exhausted, which is usually in three to five years, they burn down another section of
forest. By this process they have largely denuded their section of Kenya of its timber. This has
resulted in a great waste of building material. There are few stands of native forest within easy
reach of transportation. Wakamba Tribe, Kenya. The Wakamba tribe point their teeth as shown in Fig. 41. They
occupy the territory to the east of the Masai, who in past centuries have driven themselves as a
wedge between the Kikuyu and the Wakamba tribes. The Masai until checked carried on a
relentless warfare, consisting largely of raids, in which they slaughtered the men and carried off the
women and children and drove away the cattle or goats. The Wakambas are intellectually superior
to the Kikuyus and have distinct artistic skill in the carving of art objects. They are mechanical and
like machinery. Many of them have important positions in the shops of the Kenya and Uganda
railway. An examination of 1,112 teeth of thirty-seven individuals showed sixty-nine teeth with caries, or
6.2 per cent. Twenty-one and six-tenths per cent of the individuals studied had dental caries. Jalou Tribe, Kenya. This tribe occupies the territory along Lake Victoria and Kisumu Bay. They are one of the most intelligent and physically excellent native tribes. They were studied in two
groups, one at Maseno, and the other at Ogado. The group studied at the Maseno school were boys ranging from about ten years to twenty-
two, totaling about 190 in all. The principal of the school presented the boys in military formation
for inspection. Through him as interpreter I asked that all boys who had ever had toothache hold
up their hands, and nineteen did so. Of the nineteen only one individual was found to have caries;
two of his teeth were involved, which, out of 546 teeth for these individuals, gives 0.4 per cent of
the teeth with caries.7/29/13 Nutrition and Physical Degeneration
gutenberg.net.au/ebooks02/0200251h.html#toc 88/250    In the Ogada Mission a study of 258 teeth for ten individuals revealed no teeth affected with
dental caries. Jeannes School, Kenya. This school is located at Kabete. It is an institution where young
married couples are trained in domestic science, agriculture, and similar subjects. In 388 teeth of thirteen individuals, thirty-one teeth were found to have been attacked by dental
caries, or 7.9 per cent. These were in six individuals. Pumwani Mission School, Kenya. This is a native suburb of Nairobi, and there the people
have come under the influence of recent European contact. In an examination of 588 teeth of twenty-one individuals twenty-six teeth had caries, or 4.4 per
cent. C. M. S. School, Nukuru, Kenya. The children of this school belong to several tribes, chiefly
Jalou. In a study of 312 teeth of eleven individuals, only one tooth was found to have been
attacked by tooth decay, or 0.3 per cent. Chewya at Kisurnu, Kenya. The natives of this district belong to the Maragoli tribe. They are
very strong and physically well developed. They live within easy reach of Lake Victoria from
which they obtain large quantities of fish which constitutes an important part of their diet, together
with cereals and sweet potatoes. A study of 552 teeth of nineteen individuals revealed only one tooth with dental caries, or 0.2
per cent. Muhima Tribe or Anchola, Uganda. This tribe resides in southern Uganda. They, like the
Masai, are primarily a cattle raising people and live on milk, blood and meat. The district in which
they live is to the east of Lake Edward and the Mountains of the Moon. They constitute one of the
very primitive and undisturbed groups. While the Masai raise chiefly the hump-backed cattle, the
herds of this Muhima or Anchola tribe are characterized by their large wide-spread horns. Like the
Masai, they are tall and courageous. They defend their herds and their families from lions and
leopards with their primitive spears. Like the other primitive cattle people, they dominate the
adjoining tribes. In a study of 1,040 teeth of thirty-seven individuals, not a single tooth was found with dental
caries. This tribe makes their huts of grass and sticks. Watusi Tribe. This is a very interesting tribe living on the east of Lake Kivu, one of the
headwaters of the West Nile in Ruanda which is a Belgian Protectorate. They are tall and athletic. Their faces differ markedly from those of other tribes, and they boast a very noble inheritance. According to legend, a Roman military expedition penetrated into central Africa at the time of
Anthony and Cleopatra. A phalanx remained, refusing to return with the expedition. They took
wives from the native tribes and passed laws that thereafter no marriage could take place outside
their group. They have magnificent physiques. Many stand over six feet without shoes. Several of the tribes neighboring Ethiopia are agriculturists and grow corn, beans, millet, sweet
potatoes, bananas, Kafir corn, and other grains, as their chief articles of food. Physically they are
not as well built as either the tribes using dairy products liberally or those using fish from the fresh
water lakes and streams. They have been dominated because they possess less courage and
resourcefulness. The Government of Kenya has for several years sponsored an athletic contest among the
various tribes, the test being one of strength for which they use a tug-of-war. One particular tribe
has carried off the trophy repeatedly. This tribe resides on the east coast of Lake Victoria and lives
very largely on fish. The members are powerful athletes and wonderful swimmers. They are said
not to have been conquered in warfare when they could take the warfare to the water. One of their7/29/13 Nutrition and Physical Degeneration
gutenberg.net.au/ebooks02/0200251h.html#toc 89/250methods is to swim under water to the enemy's fleet and scuttle their boats. They fight with spears
under water with marvelous skill. Their physiques are magnificent. In a group of 190 boys who had
been gathered into a government school near the east coast of Lake Victoria only one boy was
found with dental caries, and two of his teeth had been affected. The people dry the fish which are
carried far inland. Uganda which lies to the north and west of Lake Victoria and west of Kenya, is high and
although on the equator, has an equitable climate with an abundance of native foods. Two crops
per year are produced, and many varieties of bananas grow wild. The Buganda Tribe, Uganda, is
the chief tribe of this region. Uganda has been called the Garden of Eden of Africa because of its
abundance of plant foods, chiefly bananas and sweet potatoes, and because of its abundance of
fresh water fish and animal life. The natives are thrifty and mentally superior to those of most other
districts. They have a king and a native parliament which the British Government recognizes and
entrusts with local administrative affairs. A typical group was studied in a mission at Masaka. An
examination of 664 teeth of twenty-one individuals revealed only three teeth with caries, or 0.4 per
cent. West Nile Laborers from the Belgian Congo. The West Nile Laborers studied at Masaka
represent a very strong and dependable group. They come from districts north of Lake Albert in
Belgian Congo. They are much sought for in industrial enterprises and are often moved in groups
for a considerable distance. A study of 984 teeth of thirty-one individuals revealed that only three teeth had ever been
attacked by tooth decay, or 0.3 per cent. Only one individual had dental caries. As one travels down the West Nile and later along the western border of Ethiopia many unique
tribes are met. A typical negroid type of the upper Nile region is shown in Fig. 42. Members of
these tribes wear little or no clothing. They have splendid physiques and high immunity to dental
caries. 7/29/13 Nutrition and Physical Degeneration
gutenberg.net.au/ebooks02/0200251h.html#toc 90/250FIG. 42. The reward of obeying nature's laws of nutrition is
illustrated in this west Nile tribe in Belgian Congo. Note the
breadth of the dental arches and the finely proportioned
features. Their bodies are as well built as their heads. Exceedingly few teeth have been attacked by dental caries
while on their native foods. After the confluence of the White Nile and West Nile, the former draining Lake Victoria and the
Uganda lakes through Uganda, and the latter, Lakes Kivu, Edwards and Albert and eastern
Belgian Congo, the volume of water moving northward is very large. A unique obstruction to
navigation has developed due to the fact that the Nile runs underground for a considerable
distance. In this district vegetation is rank and prolific, including large quantities of water plants
which form islands that are often attached temporarily to the shore. The water carries large
quantities of alluvia which furnish an abundance of nutriment to the floating plant life. Accordingly,
in many of these floating islands a large quantity of soil is enmeshed in the plant roots. At some
period in the past the river became bridged across in upper Sudan near its southern border. With
the progressive addition of new material a large natural bridge has been raised on which trees are
now growing, and across which are elephant trails. This and a series of rapids require a detour of
over a hundred miles. The elephants are so plentiful in this district that both in Uganda and Sudan the governments
have been required to send in special hunters to reduce the herds. In one district in Uganda two
hundred were said to have been slaughtered. They are very destructive to banana plantations. They break the banana trees over or pull them up by the roots and eat the succulent heart as well
as the fruits. In a night a herd may destroy an entire plantation. The only people in the districts who
are permitted to kill the elephants without license are the pygmies. They are also the only ones not
required to pay a head tax. There are many tribes of them in the great forest area in Belgian Congo
and Uganda. Their skill with spears is remarkable and they are able to kill an elephant while the
animal remains unaware of his danger. It takes them one to two days to hamstring an elephant by
working stealthily from behind, always keeping out of the elephant's sight. Although an elephant
can scent a human for a long distance, these pygmies can disguise themselves so completely that
the elephant is unaware of their presence. After disabling him by cutting the tendons of both hind
legs, they attack him openly and, while one attracts his attention, the other slowly but progressively
hacks off his trunk. In this manner he bleeds to death. They are particularly fond of elephant meat
and a slaughter means a great feast. While we were in one of the pygmy colonies two of them
brought in the tusks of an elephant they had just killed. We had the rare opportunity of witnessing
the celebration in the colony, which included the special reproduction in pantomime of the attack
and method of killing the elephant. The pygmy mother of these two men is shown in Fig. 43 (lower
half). It will be noticed that she is a full head shorter than Mrs. Price, who is five feet three inches
tall. This rugged, though small, woman is the mother of five grown men, two of whom are shown in
Fig. 43 with the tusks of the elephant. Note their homemade spears. As marksmen with bows and
arrows and as trappers, these pygmies have wonderful skill. Their arrows are tipped with iron of
their own manufacture and have receptacles for carrying drugs which they extract from plants. These drugs temporarily paralyze the animals. For animals which they wish to destroy the arrows
carry a poison which rapidly produces death. The home life of the pygmies in the forest is often
filled with danger. Just before our arrival two babies had been carried off by a leopard. This
stealthy night prowler is one of the most difficult animals to combat and probably has been one of
the reasons the pygmies build cabins in the trees. Ordinarily their homes are built on the ground in a
little clearing in the big forest. They consist of low shelters covered with banana leaves and other
plants, built over a frame work. The native missionary dispensed our gift of salt which is one of
their most prized gifts. They put on a dance for us.7/29/13 Nutrition and Physical Degeneration
gutenberg.net.au/ebooks02/0200251h.html#toc 91/250FIG. 43. The Pygmies of Belgian Congo are expert hunters. The two young men in the center above have slain single
handed the large bull elephant whose tusks they are holding. The spears used are shown. They are two of five grown sons
of the pygmy mother standing next to Mrs. Price in the lower
picture. Their teeth are excellent and their knowledge of
foods unique. Pygmies, Ituru Forest, Belgian Congo. These people are said to have originally lived in the
trees and they were exceedingly shy and difficult to contact. We were taken to several of their
villages in the heart of the dense Ituru forest. We found them very well disposed through the
confidence that has been established by the mission workers. Their shyness, however, together
with the difficulty of making them understand through two transfers of languages, made an
examination of their teeth very difficult. A study of 352 teeth of twelve individuals revealed eight teeth had been attacked by tooth
decay, or 2.2 per cent. The native tribes of Africa have depended to a great extent on fresh water fish from the
numerous lakes and rivers for certain of their essential food factors. After being dried in the sun
these fish are carried long distances into the interior. The Nile perch grows frequently to a weight
of 150 pounds. The natives of Africa know that certain insects are very rich in special food values
at certain seasons, also that their eggs are valuable foods. A fly that hatches in enormous quantities
in Lake Victoria is gathered and used fresh and dried for storage. They also use ant eggs and ants. Nyankunde Mission, Iruinu, Belgian Congo. This group is made up of members of the
Bahema, Babira, Alur and Balendu tribes. We will consider the representatives of these different
tribes collectively since they live largely on a common dietary consisting chiefly of cereals. Only the7/29/13 Nutrition and Physical Degeneration
gutenberg.net.au/ebooks02/0200251h.html#toc 92/250Bahemas of this group have small herds of cattle. Some of the others have a few goats. This
district is located southwest of Lake Albert. A study of 6,461 teeth of 217 individuals revealed 390 teeth with dental caries, or 6 per cent. Thirty-eight and seven-tenths per cent of the individuals suffered from dental caries. Bogora Mission, Belgian Congo. This mission is located west of Lake Albert and includes
members of the Bahema and Balendu tribes. While the Bahema tribe originally lived very largely on
cattle products, milk, blood and meat, in this district, the herds were small and they were using a
considerable quantity of cereals, chiefly corn and beans, some sweet potatoes and bananas. These
latter were the chief foods of the other tribes, in addition to goats' milk. An examination of 2,196 teeth of seventy-seven individuals revealed 160 teeth with caries, or
7.2 per cent. Fifty-three per cent of the individuals had caries. Kasenyi Port, Lake Albert, Belgian Congo. These natives were members of several tribes
surrounding this district who were for the most part temporary residents as laborers. The people
had been living largely on a cereal diet and now during their temporary residence at the port had
had fish. An examination of 1,940 teeth of sixty-three individuals revealed 120 teeth with dental caries, or
6.1 per cent of the teeth. Fifty and eighttenths per cent of the individuals had dental caries. Wanande Tribe, Belgian Congo. This tribe is located at Lubero in Belgian Congo. Their diet
consists largely of bananas, sweet potatoes, cereals and goats' milk. In an examination of 368 teeth of thirteen individuals, there were eight teeth with caries, or 2.2
per cent. Fifteen and four-tenths per cent of the individuals were affected. Baitu Tribe, Nyunge, Ruanda, Belgian Protectorate. This district lies south of Uganda and
east of Belgian Congo proper, northwest of Tanganyika. It lies just east of Lake Kivu. When we
learn that Lake Kivu was only discovered in 1894, even though it is one of the important sources
of the Nile waters, we realize the primitiveness of the people of this and adjoining districts. This
group lives largely on dairy products from cattle and goats, together with sweet potatoes, cereals
and bananas. In a study of 364 teeth of thirteen individuals, not a single tooth was found to have been
attacked by dental caries. Native Hotel Staff at Goina, Belgian Congo. This group consisted of the inside and outside
servants of a tourist hotel on Lake Kivu. An examination of 320 teeth of ten individuals revealed twenty teeth with caries, or 6.3 per cent. It is significant that all of these carious teeth were in the mouth of one individual, the cook. The
others all boarded themselves and lived on native diets. The cook used European foods. Where the members of the African tribes had attached themselves to coffee plantations aad
were provided with the imported foods of white flour, sugar, polished rice and canned goods,
tooth decay became rampant. This is typically illustrated in Fig. 44.7/29/13 Nutrition and Physical Degeneration
gutenberg.net.au/ebooks02/0200251h.html#toc 93/250FIG. 44. Wherever the Africans have aidopted the foods of
modern commerce, dental caries was active, thus destroying
large numbers of the teeth and causing great suffering. The
cases shown here are typical of workers on plantations
which largely use imported foods. Anglo-Egyptian Sudan has an area approximately one-third that of the United States. It is
traversed throughout its length from south to north by the Nile. There are several tribes living along
this great waterway, which are of special interest now owing to their close proximity to Ethiopia. There are wonderful hunters and warriors among them. In hunting they use their long-bladed
spears almost entirely. The shores of the Nile for nearly a thousand miles in this district are lined
with papyrus and other water plants to a depth of from several hundred yards to a few miles. Back
of this area the land rises and provides excellent pasturage for the grazing cattle. These tribes,
therefore, use milk, blood and meat from cattle and large quantities of animal life from the Nile
River. Some of the tribes are very tall, particularly the Neurs. The women are often six feet or
over, and the men seven feet, some of them reaching seven and a half feet in height. I was
particularly interested in their food habits both because of their high immunity to dental caries which
approximated one hundred per cent, and because of their physical development. I learned that
they have a belief which to them is their religion, namely, that every man and woman has a soul
which resides in the liver and that a man's character and physical growth depend upon how well he
feeds that soul by eating the livers of animals. The liver is so sacred that it may not be touched by
human hands. It is accordingly always handled with their spear or saber, or with specially prepared
forked sticks. It is eaten both raw and cooked. Many of these tribes, like the Neurs, wear no clothing and decorate their bodies with various
designs, some of them representing strings of beads produced by putting foreign substances under
the skin in definite order. They have maintained a particularly bitter warfare against the Arab slave
dealers who have come across from the Red Sea coast to carry off the women and children. In
isolated districts even to this day they are suspicious of foreigners. We were told that in one district
adjoining Ethiopia all light skinned people are in danger and cannot safely enter that territory
without a military escort. Terraizeka, Upper Nile, Sudan. These people are tall and live largely on fish and other animal
life. This part of Sudan consists of many districts of great marshland called the sudd. It is covered
with rank papyrus to the height of fifteen to thirty feet. This jungle of rank marsh growth swarms
with a wide variety of animal life, large and small. An examination of 548 teeth of eighteen individuals revealed that not a single tooth had been7/29/13 Nutrition and Physical Degeneration
gutenberg.net.au/ebooks02/0200251h.html#toc 94/250attacked by dental caries, or 100 per cent immunity. Neurs, Malakal, Sudan. The Neurs at Malakal on the Nile River are a unique tribe because of
their remarkable stature. Many of the women are six feet tall and the men range from six feet to
seven and a half feet in height. Their food consists very largely of animal life of the Nile, dairy
products, milk and blood from the herds. A study of 1,268 teeth of thirty-nine individuals revealed only six teeth with dental caries, or 0.5
per cent. Only three individuals had caries, or 7.7 per cent. Dinkas, Jebelein, Sudan. This tribe lives on the Nile. Its members are not as tall as the Neurs. They are physically better proportioned and have greater strength. They use fish from the Nile and
cereals for their diet. They decorate their bodies profusely with scars. An examination of 592 teeth of twenty-two individuals revealed only one tooth with caries, or
0.2 per cent. Arab Schools at Khartoum and Omdurman, Sudan. The Arabs are the chief occupants of
the territory of Northern Sudan. Omdurman on the west bank of the White Nile opposite
Khartoum is the largest purely Arab city in the world. It has been but slightly influenced by modern
civilization. Khartoum, on the contrary, just across the river from Omdurman and the capital of
Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, has districts which are typically modern. These include the government
offices and administration organization. The Arab section of Khartoum has been definitely
influenced by contact with the Europeans. This makes possible a comparative study of similar
groups in the two cities-modernized Khartoum and primitive Omdurman. A study of 1,284 teeth of fifty-two individuals in an Arab school at Khartoum revealed that 59
teeth or 4.7 per cent had been attacked by dental caries, or 44.2 per cent of the individuals
studied. In Omdurman a study of 744 teeth in thirty-one individuals, revealed only nine teeth that had
been attacked by tooth decay, or 1.2 per cent. In this group only two or 6.4 per cent of the
individuals had dental caries. The groups examined were selected with the assistance of the government officials and
consisted of the higher grade pupils in two advanced native schools, one in Khartoum and one in
Omdurman. It is of interest that of the two boys in the Arab school at Omdurman with dental caries one was
the son of a rich merchant and used liberally sweets and European foods. Native Hospital, Khartoum, Sudan. The individuals studied in this institution were from quite
remote areas distributed through Sudan. Some had traveled many days on camels to obtain the
help that the hospital provided. A study of 288 teeth of ten individuals revealed that thirteen had been attacked by tooth decay,
or 4.5 per cent. Ikhlas School, Cairo, Egypt. This is a native school in which the individuals are comparable in
many respects to those in the native schools at Khartoum and Omdurman. Their nutrition is highly
modernized by living in a modern city. A study of 2,092 teeth of eighty-five individuals revealed that 353 teeth or 12.1 per cent had
been attacked by tooth decay. Seventy-five per cent of the individuals of this group had dental
caries. The total number of teeth examined in the preceding groups was 28,438. Of this number, 1,346
were found with dental caries or 4.7 per cent. This represents a total of 1,002 individuals7/29/13 Nutrition and Physical Degeneration
gutenberg.net.au/ebooks02/0200251h.html#toc 95/250examined, of whom 300 had one or more carious teeth, or had lost teeth by caries, making 29.9
per cent of the individuals with dental caries. Of this total number of individuals studied in twenty-
seven groups, there were several groups with practically complete immunity to dental caries, while
other groups had relatively high incidence of that disease. Facial and Dental Arch Deformities. The purpose of these studies has included the obtaining
of data which will throw light also on the etiology of deformities of the dental arches and face,
including irregularity of position of the teeth. A marked variation of the incidence of irregularities was found in the different tribes. This
variation could be directly associated with the nutrition rather than with the tribal pattern. The
lowest percentage of irregularity occurred in the tribes living very largely on dairy products and
marine life. For example, among the Masai living on milk, blood and meat, only 3.4 per cent had
irregularities. Among the Kikuyu and Wakamba, 18.2 and 18.9 per cent respectively had
irregularities. These peap!e were largely agriculturists living primarily on vegetable foods. In the
native Arab school at Omdurman, among the pupils living almost entirely according to the native
customs of selection and preparation of foods, 6.4 per cent had irregularities, while in the native
school at modernized Khartoum 17 per cent had irregularities. In the Ikhlas school at Cairo, under
modern influence, 16.5 per cent had irregularities. In the native hospital at Khartoum, 70 per cent
had irregularities. In the Pygmy group 33.3 per cent had irregularities, and among the grain eaters
of the west Nile, 25.5 per cent had irregularities. The Jeannes School had 46.1 per cent and the
Ogada mission 30 per cent. While the primitive racial stocks of Africa developed normal facial and dental arch forms when
on their native foods, several characteristic types of deformity frequently developed in the children
of the modernized groups. One of the simplest forms, and one which corresponds with a very
common deformity pattern in the United States, involves the dropping inward of the laterals with
narrowing of the upper arch making the incisors appear abnormally prominent and crowding the
cuspids outside the line of the arch. Typical illustrations of this are shown in Fig. 45. Where the
nutritional deficiency is very severe, as at Mombasa on the coast, more severe changes in facial
form are found. 7/29/13 Nutrition and Physical Degeneration
gutenberg.net.au/ebooks02/0200251h.html#toc 96/250FIG. 45. In the new generations, born after the parents had
adopted typical modernized diets of Europeans, there was a
marked change in the facial and dental arch forms of the
adolescent children. Note the narrowing of the nostrils and
dental arches and the crowding of the teeth in these four
typical young men. Among the deformity patterns a lack of development forward of the middle third of the face or
of the lower third of the face often appeared in the more highly modernized groups. An illustration
of the former is seen in Fig. 46 (upper left), and of the latter in Fig. 46 (lower left and right). In the
girl at the upper left, the upper arch tends to go inside the lower arch all around. This girl is of the
first generation, in a mission in Nairobi, following the adoption of the modernized foods by the
parents. FIG. 46. Disturbed nature may present a variety nf deformity
patterns. In the upper left the upper arch is much too small
for the lower and nearly goes inside it. The upper right is
narrowed with crowding of the teeth. Both lower cases
demonstrate an underdevelopment of the mandible of the
lower jaw. A more extreme and severe type of facial change involves an abnormal narrowing with marked7/29/13 Nutrition and Physical Degeneration
gutenberg.net.au/ebooks02/0200251h.html#toc 97/250distortion of both upper and lower arches. This is shown typically in Fig. 47. FIG. 47. As in our civilization, even the first generation, after
the adoption of modernized foods may show gross
deformities. Note the extreme protrusion of the upper teeth
with shortening of the lower jaw in the upper pictures and
the marked narrowing with lengthening of the face in the
lower views. The injury is not limited to the visible
structures. These extreme deformities often produce facial expressions that are suggestive of the faces of
some of the monkeys. This is illustrated by the three boys shown with the monkey in Fig. 48.7/29/13 Nutrition and Physical Degeneration
gutenberg.net.au/ebooks02/0200251h.html#toc 98/250FIG. 48. A very frequent injury apearing in the offspring after
the adoption of less efficient foods often involves a marked
depression of the middle third of the face as illustrated in the
three boys in this view. Note the comparison with the
chimpanzee face. The Arabs in several districts use camels' milk extensively. It is nutritious, and in much of the
desert country constitutes the mainstay of the nomads for months at a time. The primitive Arabs
studied had fine dental arches with very little deformity. Even the horses ridden by the Arab chiefs
in moving their camel herds across the desert are often dependent, sometimes for as long as three
months, upon the milk of the camels for their nutrition. Typical Arab faces and a camel caravan at
rest are shown in Fig. 49. The primitive Arab girls have splendidly developed faces and fine dental
arches. Their natural beauty, however, is rapidly lost with modernization, as illustrated in Fig. 50.7/29/13 Nutrition and Physical Degeneration
gutenberg.net.au/ebooks02/0200251h.html#toc 99/250FIG. 49. In the hot desert countries of Asia and Africa
camel's milk is an important item of human nutrition. The
teeth of the Arahs, as illustrated helow, are excellent. Large
areas could not maintain human life without the camel and its
milk. FIG. 50. Both girls and boys in the modernized colonies in
Cairo showed typical deformity patterns in faces and dental
arches. The health of these groups is not comparable to that
of those living on the native dietaries. Reproductive
efficiency in these generations is greatly reduced. Dr. Hrdlicka has called attention to the occasional development in several racial stocks of
individuals who travel on all fours instead of upright. I saw several individuals of this type in Africa
scooting around about as rapidly as the dogs. They were, accordingly, difficult to photograph. Two are shown in Fig. 51.7/29/13 Nutrition and Physical Degeneration
gutenberg.net.au/ebooks02/0200251h.html#toc 100/250FIG. 51. These two native African children scooted around
on all fours so swiftly that it was difficult to take their
pictures. We did not see them stand up. They behaved very
much like tame chimpanzees. While slavery of the old form no longer exists in the so-called civilized countries, in its new form
it is a most tragic reality for many of the people. Taxes and the new order of living make many
demands. For many of these primitive tribes a new suit of clothes could formerly be had every day
with no more trouble than cutting a new banana leaf. With the new order they are requested to
cover their bodies with clothing. Cloth of all kinds including the poorest cotton has to be imported. They must pay an excessive charge due to the long transportation cost for the imported goods, a
charge which often exceeds the original cost in the European or American markets by several fold. In order to pay their head tax they are frequently required to carry such products as can be used
by the government officials, chiefly foods, over long distances and for part of each year. These
foods are often those which not only the adults, but particularly the growing children sorely need
for providing body growth and repair. This naturally has produced a current of acute unrest and a
chafing under the foreign domination. As we encircled Ethiopia we found the natives not only aware of what was going on in that
border country, but deeply concerned regarding the outcome. From their temper and sympathetic
attitude for the oppressed Ethiopians, it would not be surprising if sympathizers pass over the
border into that country to support their crushed neighbors. The problem is accordingly very much
larger than the interest of some particular foreign power. It deals directly with the future course of
events and the attitude of the African natives in general toward foreign domination. The native
African is not only chafing under the taxation by foreign overlords, but is conscious that his race
becomes blighted when met by our modern civilization. I found them well aware of the fact that
those of their tribes who had adopted European methods of living and foods not only developed
rampant tooth decay, but other degenerative processes. In one of the most efficiently organized mission schools that we found in Africa, the principal
asked me to help them solve a serious problem. He said there was no single question asked them
so often by the native boys in their school as why it is that those families that have grown up in the
mission or government schools were physically not so strong as those families who had never been
in contact with the mission or government schools. These young men were thinking. I was even
asked several times by them whether or not I thought that the native Africans must go the way of
the Red Indians of America. The happiness of the people in their homes and community life is everywhere very striking. A
mining prospector who had spent two decades studying the mineral deposits of Uganda was
quoted to me as stating that if he could have the heaven of his choice in which to spend all eternity
it would be to live in Uganda as the natives of Uganda had lived before modern civilization came to
it. While inter-tribal warfare has largely ceased, a new scourge is upon them, namely the scourge
which comes with modern civilization. As in the primitive racial stocks previously studied and
reported, we found that modernizing forces were often associated with a very marked increase of
the death rate over the birth rate. In some districts in Africa a marked degeneration is taking place. Geoffrey Gorer in his book, "Africa Dances," (1) which was written after making studies in West7/29/13 Nutrition and Physical Degeneration
gutenberg.net.au/ebooks02/0200251h.html#toc 101/250Africa, discusses this problem at length. He quotes figures given by Marcel Sauvage (2) in his article on French Equatorial Africa: "'In
1911 French Equatorial Africa had twenty million negro inhabitants; in 1921 there were seven and
a half million; in 1931 there were two and a half million.'" He states regarding the quotation: "These figures were given in a responsible French conservative
paper and have not been denied." Major Browne, a high official of the British Government
Administrative Department of Kenya, with long experience, states in the closing paragraph of his
book entitled, "The Vanishing Tribes of Kenya," (3)  the following:
    It must also be remembered that the "blessings of civilization" are not in practice by any
means as obvious as some simple-minded folk would like to believe. It can be said with fair
accuracy that among the tribes with which we have been dealing there is, in their
uncontaminated society, no pauperism, no paid prostitution, very little serious drunkenness,
and on the whole astonishingly little crime; while practically everyone has enough to eat,
sufficient clothing, and an adequate dwelling, according to the primitive native standard. Of
what civilized community can as much be said? Civilizations have been rising and falling not only through all the period of recorded history, but
long before as evidenced by archeological findings.
Nutrition_and_Physical_Degeneration_by_Weston_Price.txt
Summarize the following text section accurately and concisely. Maintain specific details and numerical information, and use anti-repetition mechanisms:

        The incidence
of dental caries among those individuals living in part on imported foods at the port as compared
with those in remote districts living on native foods was as follows: Those almost exclusively on
native foods had 0. 3 per cent of the teeth attacked by dental caries, and for those on trade foods,
18. 7 per cent. Sea foods used here include many shell fish which are gathered and sold largely by
the young people. The octopus, the sea crab and the beche-de-mere eaten raw were used. 7/29/13 Nutrition and Physical Degeneration
gutenberg. net. au/ebooks02/0200251h. html#toc 78/250FIG. 36. Note the marked difference in facial and dental arch
form of the two Samoan primitives above and the two
modernized below. The face bones are underdeveloped
below causing a marked constriction of the arches with
crowding of the teeth. This is a typical expression of
inadequate nutrition of the parents. The Hawaiian Islands lie between 18 and 22 degrees north latitude and between 154 and 160
degrees west longitude. These Islands are quite unlike any of the other Pacific Island groups
previously discussed. Sugar and pineapple plantations cover vast areas and together constitute by
far the most important industries of these Islands. In many districts the population is almost entirely
foreign or of various blends, chiefly of Filipinos and Japanese with Hawaiians. There is a large
American population and a considerable European. These different racial groups have largely
brought their own customs which are rapidly submerging the native customs. Since the native
population is so greatly reduced in comparison with the foreign population, and because
intermarrying has been so general, it was difficult to find large groups of relatively pure-blooded
Hawaiians either living almost entirely on native foods or on modernized foods. Though the number
of the individuals in these groups is accordingly not large, important data were obtained for
comparing the relative incidence of dental caries and other degenerative processes. While the
preparation of foods on the various Pacific Islands has many common factors, all natives using the
underground oven of hot stones for cooking, the Hawaiian Islands present one unique difference in
the method of preparation of their taro. They cook the root as do all the other tribes, but having
done so they dry the taro, powder it and mix it with water and allow it to ferment for several hours,
usually twenty-four or more. This preparation called "poi" becomes slightly tart by the process of
fermentation and has the consistency of heavy strap molasses or a very heavy cream. It is eaten by
rolling it up on one or two fingers and sucking it from them. It accordingly offers no resistance to
the process of mastication. In the districts where the natives are living on native foods the incidence
of dental caries was only 2 per cent of the teeth, whereas among those natives who are living in
large part on the imported foods, chiefly white flour and sweetened goods, 37. 3 per cent of the
teeth had been attacked by tooth decay. Typical Hawaiian faces are seen in Fig. 37. Typical
modern tooth decay is shown in Fig. 38. This girl has tuberculosis also.
0.3 per cent
What was the incidence of dental caries among the individuals living on native foods in a specific district?
The pygmy group
Which group of people was found to have 0.4 per cent of the teeth attacked by dental caries?
4.7 per cent
What was the incidence of dental caries among the individuals in the Arab school at Omdurman?
The study found that the development of dental arches is directly associated with the type of nutrition.
What was the finding on the relationship between the type of nutrition and the development of dental arches?
The purpose of the study was to investigate the relationship between diet and the development of dental caries, as well as to understand the physical and mental health of the African tribes.
What was the purpose of the study in Africa, as stated by the author?