It has long been taken as a strengthening bitter tonic, and all  kinds of bitter drinks have been made from it. Y arrow  helps recovery from colds and flu and is beneficial for  hay fever. It is also helpful for menstrual problems and circulatory disorders. QCautions May cause allergic reaction in rare cases. Use the essential  
oil only under professional supervision. Do not take during pregnancy.Fresh leaves Flowers contain 
volatile oil 
Fresh aerial 
parts 
Dried aerial parts Aerial parts contain 
flavonoids, which are thought to give yarrow its antispasmodic properties. Essential oil extracted 
from the flowers is 
used by herbalists  
to treat congestion.Tincture (to make, p. 292). For indigestion, take  20 drops 3 times a day.Remedy For colds, mix equal  parts of yarrow, peppermint, and elderflower. Infuse 1 tsp with 
3⁄4 cup (150 ml) water  
for 10 minutes (see p. 291). T ake 3 times a day.Ya rrowPeppermint
Elderflower
Self-help Uses
■ Cleansing wounds, p. 304. ■ Colds & flu, p. 311.Yarrow was once known as “nosebleed” 
because its leaves were used to  
staunch blood. Poultice (to make, p. 295). Apply to grazes, cuts, and bruises. ■ Digestive infections, p. 305. ■ Fever , p. 311. ■ Varicose veins, p. 302. US_056-057_Achillea_Acrous.indd   56 07/04/16   4:36 pm57 key medicinal plantsAcorus c A l A mus
Powder is taken  
as a tonic in  
Ayurvedic medicine.Tincture  is prescribed 
by herbalists and doctors 
for digestive ailments.Decoction is given to relieve 
indigestion and gas and to 
increase appetite.Sweet flag has a long-standing reputation as a tonic  
and stimulant. An important herb in Ayurvedic  
medicine, it is also widely used in Europe and the U.S. The rhizome is a valuable remedy for digestion,  
and is a tonic for the nervous system. It stimulates the 
appetite and soothes digestion, relieving gas and calming 
indigestion and colic. Sweet flag has a strongly aromatic, 
bitter taste.Acorus calamus (Araceae)
Sweet Flag, Calamus, Bacc (Hindi)
Habitat & Cultivation
Sweet flag, believed to originate from 
India, now grows in many parts of the 
world. It prefers wet soil and is found 
in ditches, beside lakes and rivers, and in marshy places. Propagation is carried 
out in autumn or early spring by 
dividing the clumps of rhizomes and 
replanting them in shallow water. The 
rhizomes are harvested as needed. Related Species
A. gramineus  (shi chang pu ) is a 
Chinese herb and a close relative  
that is used medicinally for much  
the same range of conditions as  
A. calamus . Key Constituents
■ Volatile oil—sesquiterpenes  
 (A. calamus  var. americanus   
 only); asarone (except  
 A. calamus  var. americanus )
■ Saponins
■ Bitter principle (acorin)
■ MucilageSweet flag
An herbaceous, aquatic 
reedlike plant with tall, 
sword-shaped leaves. It grows to 3 ft (1 m). Key Actions
■ Carminative
■ Relieves muscle spasm
■ Antioxidant
■ Anti-inflammatory
■ Tonic
Research
■ Beta-asarone  Research attention 
has focused on the constituent beta-
asarone in the volatile oil, which has  
a carcinogenic action when isolated. The American variety of sweet  
flag ( A. calamus  var. americanus ), 
commonly available in Europe, does 
not contain beta-asarone, and only 
preparations made from this should 
be used. ■ Whole herb  In India, sweet  
flag powder has been taken for 
thousands of years with no reports 
of cancer arising from its use. This suggests that use of the  
whole herb may be safe, but  
more research is needed. Traditional &  
Current Uses
■ Early uses  Sweet flag has been 
regarded as an aphrodisiac in India 
and Egypt for at least 2,500 years. In Europe, it was valued as a Sweet flag  is an aquatic plant, similar in 
appearance to the iris. It has yellow flowers 
in summer. Parts Used Key Preparations & Their Usesstimulant, bitter herb for the appetite 
(if not for the appetites) and as  
an aid to digestion. In North 
America, the decoction was used for 
fevers, stomach cramps, and colic; the 
rhizome was chewed for toothache, 
and powdered rhizome was inhaled 
for congestion. ■ Ayurvedic medicine  Sweet  
flag is an important herb in  
Ayurvedic medicine, and is valued  
as a “rejuvenator” for the brain and 
nervous system, and as a remedy  
for digestive disorders. ■ Western herbalism  In Western 
herbal medicine, the herb is chiefly 
used for digestive problems such  
as bloating, gas, colic, and poor 
digestive function. Sweet flag, 
particularly A. calamus  var. americanus , which is the most 
effective antispasmodic, relieves 
spasm of the intestines. It helps 
uncomfortable and distended 
stomachs, and headaches associated 
with weak digestion. Small amounts 
are thought to reduce stomach 
acidity, while larger doses increase 
deficient acid production—a good 
example of how different doses  
of the same herb can produce 
different results. RCautions T ake only under professional supervision. Do not  
take for more than 1 month. Restricted in some countries. Fresh rhizomeRhizomes have  
an aromatic,  
spicy fragranceDried rhizome Rhizomes grow to about 11⁄4 in (3 cm) 
thick. They are harvested as needed. US_056-057_Achillea_Acrous.indd   57 26/02/16   3:58 pm
58Aesculus hippocA stAnumkey medicinal plantsAesculus hippocastanum (Sapindaceae)
Horse ChestnutHorse chestnut
A deciduous tree with divided leaves, white and pink flowers, and spiny green fruit. It grows to 80 ft (25 m). Horse chestnut seeds are the main herbal 
medicine for venous disorders. Habitat & Cultivation
Native to mountain woods from the 
Balkans through western Asia to  
the Himalayas, horse chestnut is now cultivated as an ornamental and shade tree in temperate regions around  
the world, especially in northern and western Europe. It is propagated from seed in autumn or spring. Leaves are harvested in summer, the bark and seeds in autumn. Related Species
Do not use Ohio Buckeye (A. glabra) as it is toxic if taken internally. Key Constituents
■ Triterpenoid saponins, including  
 about 5% aescin, a complex  
 mixture of glycosides
■ Polysaccharides (about 50%)
■ Coumarins, including aesculin 
■ Flavonoids
■ Tannins, including proanthocyanidins
■ Fixed oil (2–3%)
Key Actions
■ Venous tonic
■ Astringent■ Anti-inflammatory
■ Antioxidant
■ Reduces fluid retention
Research
■ Clinical trials Numerous trials 
have confirmed horse chestnut’s value 
as a medicine in venous problems such as varicose veins, venous ulcers, hemorrhoids, and frostbite. In one London-based study, published in 1996, horsechestnut extract was shown to be as effective in treating varicose veins as compression stockings. In Germany, horse chestnut extracts and aescin are now routinely used to treat varicose veins. ■ Venous insufficiency A 2006 
review of clinical trials by the Cochrane Database assessed the use of horse chestnut extract for chronic venous insufficiency—a condition that includes leg swelling and spider and varicose veins. The review con-cluded that horse chestnut extract was a safe and effective short-term treatment for this problem. Traditional &  
Current Uses
■ Circulatory system Although 
horse chestnut has a beneficial  
effect on the heart and arteries, it  is primarily a remedy for the veins. It helps improve the tone of the  
vein walls, which when slack or distended result in varicose veins, piles, and similar problems. It also reduces edema (fluid retention) caused by fluid leaking from distended veins, and increases the permeability of the capillaries, allowing excess fluid to drain back into the circulatory system. Horse chestnut is taken internally for leg ulcers, varicose veins, piles, and frostbite, and applied locally as a lotion, gel, or ointment. A decoction of the bark or leaf can be used as an astringent lotion for varicose veins. ■ Rheumatism In France, an oil 
extracted from the seeds has  Parts Used
Key Preparations & Their Uses
been used as a topical application  
for rheumatism. ■ Chest remedy Horse chestnut 
makes a serviceable chest remedy and in Turkey has been used to treat chest complaints in horses. In the U.S. a decoction of the leaves has been considered useful for whooping cough. Extracts of horse chestnut seed—the shiny brown  
“conkers” collected by British children in autumn—have  
a scientifically established ability to relieve the symptoms  
of varicose veins, and promote their repair. T aken by  mouth, or applied as a lotion, horse chestnut will help  to tighten up the tissues and reduce the pain and  
swelling of varicose veins. It is also useful in helping  to reduce fluid retention. Cautions Best taken with professional advice. Horse chestnut can cause gastro-
intestinal upset at normal dosage (discontinue if symptoms develop) and is toxic at excess dosage. Not suitable for children. Do not apply to broken or ulcerated skin. May interact with blood-thinning drugs.Fresh 
leavesLeaves can be used to make a lotion  
for varicose veins and hemorrhoids. Seeds  are an excellent  
remedy for varicose veins  and associated fluid retention. Fresh seedsBark is much more astringent than the seeds. Tablets may have a higher aescin 
content than other preparations.Lotion (to make, p. 296). Apply 
twice daily to varicose veins. Capsules are convenient for long-term use. US_058-059_Aesculus_Allium.indd   58 26/02/16   3:58 pm59 key medicinal plantsAllium s Ativum
Cloves contain volatile 
oil, which is antiseptic 
and antibioticAllium sativum (Liliaceae)
Garlic
Known for its pungent odor and taste, garlic is an  
ideal herbal medicine, being completely safe for home  
use and a powerful treatment for a host of health 
problems. It counters many infections, including those  
of the nose, throat, and chest. It also reduces cholesterol, 
helps circulatory disorders, such as high blood pressure,  
and lowers blood-sugar levels, making it a useful dietary 
addition in type 2 diabetes. Habitat & Cultivation
Originally from central Asia, garlic  
is now grown world wide. It is grown  
by dividing the bulb and is harvested 
late the following summer. Related Species
Onion and ramsons ( A. cepa  and  
A. ursinum , p. 164) are both 
important medicinal herbs. Key Constituents
■ Volatile oil (alliin, alliinase, allicin)
■ Scordinins
■ Selenium
■ Vitamins A, B, C, and E
Key Actions
■ Antibiotic
■ Expectorant
■ Increases sweating
■ Lowers blood pressure
■ Reduces blood clotting
■ Anti-diabetic
■ Expels worms
Research
■ Invaluable remedy Well over 
1,000 research papers have been published on the medicinal effects  
of garlic. They show that it helps to 
lower raised blood fat levels, including 
cholesterol, to keep the blood thin 
and protect against blood clots, to 
lower raised blood pressure, to lower 
raised blood-sugar levels, and to have 
antibiotic activity. ■ Unknown action  While it is 
understood that when the fresh  
clove is crushed, alliin is broken down 
by alliinase into allicin (which has 
strong antiseptic activity), authorities 
still disagree on precisely how  
garlic achieves its medicinal effects. Nevertheless, research indicates that  
it is best to crush garlic cloves, and 
then to wait 10 minutes before using 
it in food or as medicine. This allows 
sufficient time for allicin to form. Traditional &  
Current Uses
■ Traditional remedy  Garlic has 
always been esteemed for its healing 
powers, and before the development 
of antibiotics it was a treatment for all 
manner of infections, from tuberculosis 
to typhoid. It was also used to dress 
wounds in World War I. ■ Bronchial infections  Garlic is  
an excellent remedy for all types of 
chest infections. It is good for colds, 
flu, and ear infections, and it helps  
to reduce mucus. ■ Digestive tract  Digestive 
infections respond well to garlic. The herb can also rid the body of 
intestinal parasites. ■ Circulatory remedy  Garlic 
prevents circulatory problems and 
strokes by keeping the blood thin. It lowers cholesterol levels and  
blood pressure.Garlic
A bulbous perennial 
growing to 1–3 ft  
(30 cm–1 m), with 
pale pink or green-
white flowers. ■ Other uses  Garlic has been  
used to treat diverse health problems, 
from hay fever and asthma to an 
enlarged prostate and osteoarthritis. It is useful when taken alongside 
conventional antibiotics to help 
prevent side-effects such as diarrhea. Strongly antifungal, garlic can be an 
effective treatment in fungal skin 
conditions, taken internally and 
applied to the skin. It has anti-cancer 
activity and helps to protect against 
stomach and colon cancer.Garlic  is widely cultivated commercially 
for use in cooking.Parts Used
Key Preparations 
& Their Uses
Self-help Uses
■ Acne & boils , p. 305. ■ Athlete’s foot , p. 304. ■ Colds & flu , p. 311. ■ Cold sores , p. 304. ■ Coughs & bronchitis , p. 310. ■ Digestive infections , p. 305. ■ Earache , p. 312. ■ Fungal infections , p. 314. ■ High blood pressure , p. 301. ■ Old age tonic , p. 319. ■ Tonsillitis , p. 311. ■ Urinary infections , p. 314. QCaution Consult a professional practitioner before giving garlic as a medicine to 
children under 12. T ake on professional advice if taking blood-thinning medication.Garlic whole, chopped, or crushed, has 
been used as a medicine and as a tonic 
food for thousands of years. Chopped cloves Use 
regularly in cooking to 
help reduce cholesterol 
levels and boost the  
immune system.Pearls contain garlic oil. T ake to 
increase resistance to infections.ClovesBulb
Fresh 
plant
Garlic syrup  
(to make, p. 293). For coughs, take  
1 tsp every 3 hours. Capsules (to make, p. 292). For bronchitis, take 2 x 100 mg capsules 3 times a day. Tablets T ake for high blood pressure and bronchitis. US_058-059_Aesculus_Allium.indd   59 17/03/16   4:00 pm
60Aloe verAkey medicinal plantsAloe vera syn. A. barbadensis (Xanthorrhoeaceae)
Aloe Vera, AloesAloe vera
A perennial with succulent leaves 2 ft (60 cm) long  and a spike of yellow or orange flowers. Aloe vera has prickly, gray-green,  
succulent leaves that yield effective medicinal substances. Habitat & Cultivation
Native to eastern and southern Africa, 
aloe vera grows wild in the tropics and is cultivated extensively worldwide. (Aloe vera plants grown as potted plants have a low anthraquinone content.) Aloe vera is propagated by breaking off small rooted plantlets. To collect the gel and bitter liquid, the leaves are cut and drained. Related Species
Cape aloes (A. ferox ) is used in  
herbal medicine as an irritant  
laxative. Many other Aloe species  
are also useful medicinally. Key Constituents
■ Anthraquinones (aloin,  
 aloe-emodin)
■ Resins
■ Tannins
■ Polysaccharides
■ Aloectin B
Key Actions
■ Heals wounds
■ Emollient■ Stimulates secretions of bile
■ Laxative
Research
■ Healing properties Extensive 
research since the 1930s in the U.S. and Russia has shown that the clear gel has a dramatic ability to heal wounds, ulcers, and burns, putting a protective coat on the affected area and speeding up the rate of healing. This action is in part due to the presence of aloectin B, which stimulates the immune system. Traditional &  
Current Uses
■ Beauty treatment Aloe vera  
has a long history as a skin lotion—
Cleopatra is said to have attributed her beauty to it. ■ Western remedy In the West,  
aloe vera first became popular in  the 1950s when its ability to heal burns, in particular radiation burns, was discovered. ■ First aid Aloe vera is an excellent 
first aid remedy for burns, scrapes, scalds, and sunburn. A leaf, broken off, releases soothing gel, which may be applied to the affected part. ■ Skin conditions The gel is useful 
for almost any skin condition that needs soothing and astringing, and will help varicose veins to some degree. ■ Ulcers The protective and healing 
effect of aloe vera also works internally, and the gel can be used  for peptic ulcers and irritable  bowel syndrome. ■ Laxative The bitter yellow liquid 
in the leaves (bitter aloes) contains anthraquinones, which are strongly laxative. They cause the colon  to contract, generally producing a  
bowel movement 8–12 hours after consumption. At low doses, the bitter properties of the herb stimulate digestion. At higher doses, bitter aloes are laxative and purgative. Parts Used
Key Preparations  
& Their Uses
Self-help Uses
■ Minor burns & sunburn, p. 303. ■ Stretch marks, p. 317. ■ Warts, p. 304. ■ Weeping skin, p. 303. ■ Wounds, p. 304.Native to Africa, aloe vera is commonly cultivated  
as a potted plant and has two distinct types of medicinal  
use. The clear gel contained in the leaf is a remarkably  effective healer of wounds and burns, speeding up  
the rate of healing and reducing the risk of infection. The yellow sap from the base of the leaf when dried  is known as “bitter aloes.” It is a strong laxative, useful  for short-term constipation. QCautions Do not use the bitter yellow juice from  
the base of the leaves (bitter aloes) on the skin. Its
use is restricted in some countries. Do not take internally   during pregnancy or while breast feeding. Do not take  if suffering from hemorrhoids or kidney disease.Leaves exude a bitter  
liquid, which is dried and  known as “bitter aloes.” They  also contain a clear gel, which is a soothing skin remedy. Chopped leaves Leaves
Leaves Break off a leaf and split open  
to collect the gel. For burns and 
eczema, apply liberally twice a day.Juice is made commercially from 
the gel. For peptic ulcers,  
take 21/2 tbsp 3 times a day.Leaves are broken 
off and the clear 
gel is applied to the 
skin as a first aid 
remedy for burns
Bitter aloes are  
used by herbalists  to treat constipation. Tincture made from bitter aloes (see p. 292). To stimulate the appetite,  take 3 drops with water before meals. US_060-061_Aloe_Alpinia.indd   60 26/02/16   3:58 pm61 key medicinal plantsAlpini A OFF i CinARUM
Tincture (to make, p. 292) is suitable for 
long-term use. To improve digestion, 
take 20 drops diluted with 1/2 cup  
(100 ml) hot water 3 times a day. Powder For nausea, take  
a 250 mg capsule (to make, 
p. 292) twice a day.Chopping root for a decoction 
(to make, p. 291). For motion 
sickness, slowly sip up to  
3⁄4 cup (150 ml).Alpinia officinarum (Zingiberaceae)
Galangal (Hindi), Gao Liang Jiang (Chinese)
Like other members of the ginger family, galangal  
is warming and comforting to the digestion. It has a  
pleasantly aromatic and mildly spicy taste, and is suitable 
for all conditions where the central areas of the body  
need greater warmth. It was introduced into Europe in  
about the 9th century. The German mystic Hildegard of 
Bingen regarded it literally as the “spice of life,” given by  
God to ward off ill-health. Habitat & Cultivation
Native to grassland areas of southern 
China, and Southeast Asia in general, 
galangal is now cultivated as a spice  
and as a medicine throughout much  
of tropical Asia. It is propagated by 
dividing and replanting the rhizomes in 
spring, and it requires well-drained soil 
and a shady position. The rhizomes are 
harvested from 4- to 6-year-old plants 
at the end of the growing season and 
may be used fresh or dried. Related Species
Greater galangal, also known as 
Siamese ginger ( A. galanga ), though a 
close relative of galangal, has a much 
inferior taste and volatile oil content. It appears to have an antiulcer action. Two other Alpinia  species, cao dou 
cou (A. katsumadai ) and yi zhi ren   
(A. oxyphylla ), are used in a broadly 
similar way to galangal in traditional 
Chinese medicine. Key Constituents
■ Volatile oil (about 1%) containing 
 alpha-pinene, cineole, linalool■ Sesquiterpene lactones  
 (galangol, galangin)
■ Diterpenes
■ Flavonoids
Key Actions
■ Warming digestive tonic
■ Carminative
■ Anti-inflammatory
■ Anti-emetic 
■ Antibacterial
■ Antifungal
■ Antitumor
Research
■ Antibacterial  Research indicates 
that galangal has antibacterial activity, 
notably against Staphylococcus aureus , 
responsible for many ear, nose, and 
throat infections. ■ Antifungal  Galangal has shown 
pronounced activity against fungi  
in laboratory research, especially 
against Candida albicans . ■ Osteoarthritis  A 2001 clinical 
trial found that a concentrated extract 
of ginger ( Zingiber officinalis , p. 155) 
and galangal was effective in relieving 
osteoarthritis symptoms in the knee. Traditional &  
Current Uses
■ Chinese medicine  In traditional 
Chinese herbal medicine, galangal is  
a warming herb used for abdominal 
pain, vomiting, and hiccups, as well as 
for diarrhea due to internal cold. When used for hiccups, it is combined 
with codonopsis ( Codonopsis pilosula ,  
p. 83) and fu ling  (Poria cocos ). ■ Indian tradition  In India  
and southwestern Asia, galangal  
is considered stomachic, anti-
inflammatory, expectorant, and  Galangal
A perennial aromatic 
plant growing to 61⁄2 ft 
(2 m), with white, red-
lipped flowers and 
lance-shaped leaves. a nervine tonic. It is used in the 
treatment of hiccups, dyspepsia, 
stomach pain, rheumatoid arthritis, 
and intermittent fever. ■ Western herbalism  Galangal 
was introduced into Europe by 
Arabian physicians over 1,000 years 
ago. It is mainly used in the West  
for gas, indigestion, vomiting, and 
stomach pain. An infusion can be  
used to alleviate mouth ulcers and 
sore gums. Galangal has long been 
recommended as a treatment for 
seasickness, which is not surprising Galangal is an important spice in Thai 
cooking and is reportedly fed to Arabian 
horses to “fire them up” in parts of Asia.Parts Used
Key Preparations &  Their Uses
given the well-established ability of  
its relative, ginger ( Zingiber officinale ,  
p. 155) to relieve motion sickness. ■ Candidiasis  Galangal can be used 
with other antifungal herbs as part of a 
regimen to treat intestinal candidiasis. ■ Dosage  At a moderate dosage, 
galangal is a warming and gently 
stimulating herb for a weakened 
digestive system, but at a higher 
dosage it can be an irritant. Self-help Use
■ Nausea & motion sickness , p. 306.Dried rhizome Fresh rhizome Rhizome has a warming, 
stimulating action and is 
useful for a wide range 
of digestive problems. Rhizomes have a 
spicy flavour and are 
used in cooking
US_060-061_Aloe_Alpinia.indd   61 07/04/16   4:36 pm
62Ammi visnA g Akey medicinal plantsAmmi visnaga syn. Daucus visnaga (Apiaceae)
Visnaga, KhellaVisnaga
An erect annual growing to 3 ft (1 m), with leaves divided into wisps and clusters of small white flowers. Visnaga is a member of the carrot family and 
has the characteristic delicate, wispy leaves. Habitat & Cultivation
Native to North Africa, visnaga grows 
wild in the Middle East and around  
the Mediterranean. It is naturalized in Australia and South America. Grown from seed, visnaga is widely cultivated. The tiny fruits containing the seeds are picked in late summer before they have fully ripened. Related Species
Bishop’s weed (A. majus, p. 166)  
is a close relative. This plant has  
been used to treat asthma but is mainly taken as a diuretic and to  
treat psoriasis. Key Constituents
■ Furochromones including  
 khellin (1%) and visnagin
■ Coumarins
■ Flavonoids
■ Volatile oil
■ Phytosterols
Key Actions
■ Antispasmodic
■ Antiasthmatic
■ RelaxantResearch
■ Strong antispasmodic  
Research by a pharmacologist working in Egypt in 1946 revealed that visnaga (in particular its constituents khellin and visnagin)  has a powerful antispasmodic action on the smaller bronchial muscles,  the coronary arteries that supply blood to the heart, and on the urinary tubules. Visnaga’s ability  to relax the small bronchi lasts  for up to 6 hours, and the plant  has practically no side effects. ■ Khellin Intal, an asthma drug  
widely used in conventional medicine, is derived chemically from khellin. Traditional &  
Current Uses
■ Kidney stones Visnaga is a 
traditional Egyptian remedy for 
kidney stones. It was mentioned  in the Ebers papyrus of Egypt  
(c. 1500 bce) and is still used  
there to relieve kidney stones. By relaxing the muscles of the  
ureter, visnaga reduces the pain caused by the trapped stone  
and helps ease the stone down  into the bladder. ■ Asthma remedy Following 
research into its antispasmodic properties, visnaga is now given  for asthma, and is safe even for children to take. Although it does  not always relieve acute asthma attacks, it does help to prevent  their recurrence. ■ Other respiratory conditions 
Visnaga is an effective remedy  
for various respiratory problems, including bronchitis, emphysema,  and whooping cough. ■ Circulatory herb By  
relaxing the coronary arteries,  visnaga helps to improve blood supply to the heart muscle and thereby eases angina. Visnaga  does not, however, reduce  blood pressure.Parts Used
Key Preparations & Their Uses
■ Dental hygiene In Andalusia  
in Spain, the largest and best-quality visnaga seeds were employed to clean the teeth. The high value given to the herb in general was reflected in the saying: “Oro, plata, visnaga, o nada!” (Gold, silver, visnaga, or nothing! ).Visnaga, with its aromatic, bitter scent and flavor, has 
greater medicinal than culinary value. It is an effective muscle relaxant and has been used for many centuries  
to alleviate the excruciating pain of kidney stones. Scientific research has confirmed the validity of this traditional  
use. Visnaga contains khellin, from which particularly  
safe pharmaceutical drugs for the treatment of asthma  have been derived. RCautions T ake only under professional supervision. Long-term use produces 
symptoms such as nausea, headaches, and insomnia. Subject to legal restrictions  
in some countries. Powder  is prescribed by doctors and 
medical herbalists to relieve angina.Infusion alleviates asthma, 
bronchitis, and kidney stones.Seeds Seeds from the fruit of the fresh plant are 
collected in late summer and dried for use  in infusions and powders. Fresh plant  
in fruit
US_062-063_Ammi_Angelica.indd   62 26/02/16   3:58 pm63 key medicinal plantsAngelic A sinensis
Angelica sinensis  syn. A. polymorpha  (Apiaceae)
Dong Quai, Chinese Angelica, Dang Gui (Chinese)
Habitat & Cultivation
Dong quai  is native to China  
and Japan, where it is now cultivated. The best rhizomes are in Gansu 
province in China. Seed is sown  
in spring and the rhizomes are  
lifted in autumn. Related Species
American angelica ( A. atropurpurea ) 
has similar properties, though it is  
less aromatic. European angelica  
(A. archangelica , p. 168) is a warming 
tonic herb for digestion and 
circulation, but does not have the 
same tonic action as dong quai . Key Constituents
■ Volatile oil (ligustilide,  
 sesquiterpenes, carvacrol)
■ Coumarins
■ Phytosterols
■ Polyacetylenes
■ Ferulic acid
Key Actions
■ Tonic
■ Anti-inflammatory
■ Antispasmodic■ Thins blood
■ Promotes menstrual flow
Research
■ Gynecology  Research in  
China from the 1970s has shown  
that the herb helps to regulate 
uterine contractions, which may 
explain its benefit for period pain. ■ Circulation  The root can help  
to normalize heart function and  
has been shown to thin the blood. It may therefore interact with 
anticoagulant medicines. Traditional &  
Current Uses
■ Blood tonic  Famous in China as  
a tonic, dong quai  is taken for 
“deficient blood” conditions, anemia, 
and for the symptoms of anemia  
due to blood loss—a pale complexion, 
palpitations, and lowered vitality. ■ Women’s health  Dong quai  
regulates the menstrual cycle, relieves 
period pain and cramps, and  
is an ideal tonic for women with heavy 
menstruation who risk becoming 
anemic. However, as it stimulates 
menstrual bleeding, other tonic herbs 
such as nettle ( Urtica dioica , p. 146) 
are best taken during menstruation if 
the flow is heavy. It is also a uterine 
tonic, and helps infertility. ■ Circulation  Dong quai   
is a “warming” herb, improving the 
circulation to the abdomen and  
to the hands and feet. It strengthens 
the digestion and is also useful in the 
treatment of abscesses and boils. Self-help Uses
■ Aiding conception , p. 316. ■ Menstrual problems , p. 315.Dong quai
A stout, erect 
perennial growing to  
61⁄2 ft (2 m), with large 
bright green leaves  
and hollow stems. Dong quai  has attractive clusters  
of white flowers in summer.Parts Used
Key Preparations & Their Uses
 QCautions Do not take during pregnancy or while breastfeeding. Should not be 
used for heavy menstrual bleeding, bleeding disorders, and diarrhea. May interact  
with prescribed blood-thinning medication.In China, dong quai  is the main tonic herb for  
conditions suffered by women. It is taken on a daily  
basis by millions of women as an invigorating tonic,  
helping to regulate menstruation and tonify the blood. It also improves the circulation. Dong quai  has a sweet, 
pungent aroma that is very distinctive, and in China it  
is often used in cooking, which is the best way to take  
it as a blood tonic.Rhizome is large  
and brownish on  
the outside and  
white insideRhizome is valued for 
its medicinal properties 
and is often used  
in cooking. Sliced dried 
rhizome
Chopped rhizome  
is commonly added 
to soups in China.Tonic wine Make with dong quai  and other tonic 
or bitter herbs ( see p. 293). To improve vitality, 
drink a 3⁄4 cup (150 ml) daily. Tincture  (to make, p. 292). For period pain, take 1⁄2 tsp  
with water up to 4 times  
a day. Infusion  For poor 
circulation, infuse  
1 tsp with 3⁄4 cup  
(150 ml) water  
(see p. 291). Drink  
3⁄4–11⁄4 cups (150– 
300 ml) a day. Decoction (to make, p. 291). For anemia, take 3⁄4 cup (150 ml) 2–3 times a day. Tablets T ake as a general female tonic. US_062-063_Ammi_Angelica.indd   63 17/03/16   4:00 pm
64Apium grA veolenskey medicinal plantsApium graveolens (Apiaceae)
CeleryCelery
A biennial with a ridged shiny stem, glossy leaves, and small flowers, growing to about 20 in (50 cm). Celery is an important medicinal herb  
as well as a vegetable. Habitat & Cultivation
Native to Britain and other European 
countries, celery is found growing wild along the English and Welsh coasts, and in marshlands. Widely grown as a vegetable, cultivated celery is less fragrant than the  wild variety. It is propagated from seed in spring and harvested  
from midsummer to autumn. Related Species
Celeriac (A. graveolens var. rapaceum) is a “turnip-rooted” variety of celery. A medicinal food, it has some of the same qualities as celery. Key Constituents
■ Volatile oil (1.5–3%) containing  
 limonene (60–70%), phthalides,   and beta-selinene
■ Coumarins
■ Furanocoumarins (bergapten)
■ Flavonoids (apiin)
Key Actions
■ Antirheumatic 
■ Carminative
■ Antispasmodic■ Diuretic
■ Lowers blood pressure
■ Urinary antiseptic
■ Anti-inflammatory
Research
■ Volatile oil Research in the 1970s 
and 1980s showed that the volatile oil has a calming effect on the central nervous system. ■ Other research A 1995 study in 
India found the seeds to have marked liver-protective activity. Extracts of the seeds may also lower blood fat levels. Iranian laboratory research from 2013 found that celery seed had a marked effect in lowering high blood pressure. Traditional & 
Current Uses
■ Ancient herb Records show  
that celery has been cultivated  
for at least 3,000 years, notably in 
pharaonic Egypt, and it was known  
in China in the 5th century bce. Throughout history, celery has been used as a food, and at various times both the whole plant and the seeds have been taken medicinally. ■ Cleansing properties Today, 
the seeds are used for treating rheumatic conditions and gout. They help the kidneys dispose of urates and other waste products, and work to reduce acidity in the body as a whole. The seeds are useful in arthritis, helping to  detoxify the body and improve  the circulation of blood to the muscles and joints. ■ Diuretic Celery seeds have 
a mildly diuretic and significantly antiseptic action. They are an effective treatment for cystitis, helping to disinfect the bladder and urinary tubules. ■ Nutritious drink Celery and 
organic carrot juice make a nutritious, cleansing drink that is good for many chronic illnesses. ■ Other uses Celery seeds are Parts Used
Key Preparations  
& Their Uses
beneficial for chest problems such  as asthma and bronchitis, and, in combination with other herbs, can help to reduce blood pressure. Self-help Uses
■ Arthritis, p. 313. ■ Gout, p. 313.More familiar as a vegetable than as a medicine, celery 
stems and seeds have long been taken for urinary, rheumatic, and arthritic problems. Celery is a good cleansing, diuretic herb, and the seeds are used specifically for arthritic complaints where there is an accumulation  of waste products. The seeds also have a reputation as  a carminative with a mild tranquilizing effect. The stems are less significant medicinally. QCautions Do not take celery seed during pregnancy or  
if suffering from kidney disease. Do not use seeds sold for 
cultivation in medicinal preparations. Do not take the essential oil internally except under professional supervision. Divided 
toothed leaves 
are aromatic 
Stem Chopped 
stem 
Seeds Seeds  contain 
volatile oil and 
are the main part used medicinally. Stems are eaten as a nourishing 
vegetable and made into juice. Tincture of seeds (to make, p. 292). For rheumatism, take 30 drops 3 times a day.Infusion of seeds (to make, p. 291). For gout and arthritis, take 
3⁄4 cup 
(150 ml) daily. Remedy As a cleansing drink, take 
3⁄4 cup (150 ml) of 
organic carrot and celery juice a day. Powder of seeds. For arthritis, mix 1 tsp with food each day. US_064-065_Apium_Artium.indd   64 26/02/16   3:58 pm65 key medicinal plantsArctium l AppA
Arctium lappa  (Asteraceae)
Burdock, Niu Bang Zi (Chinese)
Burdock is one of the foremost detoxifying herbs in  
both Western and Chinese herbal medicine. It is used  
to treat conditions caused by an “overload” of toxins,  
such as throat and other infections, boils and rashes,  
and chronic skin problems. The root and the seeds help  
to cleanse the body of waste products, and the root is 
thought to be particularly good at helping to eliminate 
heavy metals. Habitat & Cultivation
Native to Europe and Asia, burdock 
now grows in temperate regions 
throughout the world, including the U.S. Burdock is also cultivated in 
Europe and China and is propagated 
from seed in spring. The seeds are 
harvested in summer and the whole 
plant is unearthed in high summer. Related Species
A. minus  and A. tomentosum  are 
related species that are used in  
a similar way to burdock. Key Constituents 
■ Bitter glycosides (arctiopicrin)
■ Flavonoids (arctiin)
■ Tannins
■ Polyacetylenes
■ Volatile oil
■ Inulin (up to 45%)
■ LignansBurdock
A biennial, with  
stems that grow to 5 ft  
(1.5 m), reddish-purple 
flower heads, and 
hooked bracts. Key Actions
■ Detoxifying
■ Mild diuretic
■ Antibiotic
■ Antiseptic
■ Anti-inflammatory
Research
■ Antibiotic  Studies in Germany 
(1967) and Japan (1986) showed  
that the polyacetylenes, especially  
within the fresh root, have an 
antibiotic effect. ■ Other research  Burdock has 
antibacterial and antifungal properties, 
and diuretic and hypoglycemic 
(lowering blood-sugar levels) effects. It also seems to have an anti-tumor 
action. Recent studies suggest  
the seeds are anti-inflammatory,  
antioxidant, and hepatoprotective. Traditional &  
Current Uses
■ History  Burdock was a  
traditional remedy for gout, fevers, 
and kidney stones. In the 17th century, 
Culpeper wrote, “The seed is much 
commended to break the stone and 
cause it to be expelled by urine.” Burdock in its first year produces a rosette 
of large leaves. Infusion  of seeds (to make, p. 291). Use as a wash for acne and boils. ■ Cleansing herb  Burdock is used 
in both Western and Chinese herbal 
medicine as a detoxifying herb. The 
seeds are used to remove toxins in 
fevers and infections such as mumps 
and measles, and the root helps the 
body to eliminate waste products in 
chronic skin and arthritic conditions. ■ Skin problems  Burdock’s 
diuretic, antibiotic, and mildly bitter 
actions make it helpful for skin 
disorders, especially where toxicity  
is a key factor, such as in acne, 
abscesses, local skin infections, 
eczema, and psoriasis. ■ Combination remedies  
Burdock is rarely used on its own  
in remedies. It is generally mixed with 
herbs such as dandelion ( Taraxacum 
officinale , p. 141) or yellow dock 
(Rumex crispus , p. 264). These help 
the body to remove accumulated 
waste products drawn out of tissues 
by burdock’s detoxifying action. Use 
of burdock alone can cause a flare-up 
of skin conditions such as eczema. Self-help Uses
■ Acne & boils , p. 305. ■ Skin rashes , p. 303. Cautions Very rarely can cause contact dermatitis.Parts Used Key Preparations & Their Uses
Fruit is covered 
in hooked bracts
Dried root  is 
most used to aid 
detoxification. Seeds  have 
cleansing  
and diuretic 
properties. Dried leavesFresh leaves
SeedsLeaves and fruit  (containing seeds)  
are harvested in late summer. Remedy  For pimples, make  
a decoction ( see p. 291) with 
2 tsp burdock root and 5 tsp 
dandelion root. Drink 3⁄4 cup 
(150 ml) twice a day. Dandelion
Burdock
Tincture  of root (to make, p. 292). For arthritis and skin disorders, 
take 20 drops diluted with water 
2–3 times a day for up to 4 weeks. Decoction  of root (to make, p. 291) is an alternative to tincture for  
arthritis and skin disorders. Drink 7 tsp once a day for up to 4 weeks. Poultice  of leaves (to make, p. 295). Apply to abscesses and boils. US_064-065_Apium_Artium.indd   65 26/02/16   3:58 pm
66ArtemisiA  A bsinthiumKey medicinal plantsArtemisia absinthium (Asteraceae)
WormwoodWormwood
A perennial reaching  3 ft (1 m), with gray-green stems and feathery leaves, both covered in fine hairs. Wormwood is strongly aromatic 
and was used to flavor many alcoholic drinks. Habitat & Cultivation
Wormwood is a wayside plant, native to 
Europe. It now grows wild in central Asia and in eastern parts of the U.S. It is also cultivated in temperate regions worldwide. Wormwood is propagated from seed in spring or by dividing the roots in autumn. The aerial parts are harvested in late summer. Related Species
Artemisia species with a medicinal  use include A. abrotanum (p. 172);  
A. annua (p. 67); A. anomala;  
A. capillaris and A. cina (p. 172);  
A. vulgaris and A. dracunculus (p. 173). Key Constituents
■ Volatile oil containing 
 sesquiterpene lactones (artabsin,   anabsinthin); thujone; azulenes
■ Flavonoids
■ Polyphenols
■ Lignans
Key Actions
■ Aromatic bitter
■ Stimulates secretion of bile■ Anti-inflammatory
■ Eases stomach pain
■ Mild antidepressant
■ Antimicrobial
■ Antiparasitic
Research
■ Bitter herb Research into 
wormwood, mostly during the 1970s, has established that a range of  
the constituents within the plant contributes to its medicinal activity. Many are very bitter, affecting the bitter taste receptors on the tongue which sets off a reflex action, stimulating stomach and other digestive secretions. ■ Gut inflammation A German 
clinical trial in 2007 found that wormwood helped in treating Crohn’s disease (an inflammatory bowel disorder). Wormwood prevented the return of symptoms in 90% of those taking it, and reduced required dosage of powerful steroid drugs taken to control inflammation. Patients also experienced lower levels of depression. ■ Other research Constituents 
within wormwood, notably the essential oil, are thought to have wide-ranging therapeutic effects, including neuroprotective, antidepressant, antibacterial, antifungal, and antimalarial activity. Traditional &  
Current Uses
■ Absinthe Wormwood is the 
source of absinthe, an addictive  
drink favored in 19th-century 
France. Flavored with wormwood essential oil, absinthe was toxic due  to its high level of thujone. This is  a nerve stimulant that is safe at low dosage but is toxic in excess. ■ Digestive stimulant 
Wormwood is an extremely useful medicine for those with weak and underactive digestion. It increases stomach acid and bile production and therefore improves digestion and the absorption of nutrients, making it helpful for many conditions, including anemia. Wormwood also eases gas and bloating and, if the tincture is taken regularly, it slowly strengthens digestion and helps the body return to full vitality and wellness after a prolonged illness. Parts Used
Key Preparations & Their Uses
■ Worms Wormwood is commonly 
used by herbalists and naturopaths  to treat parasitic infections of the gut, such as worm infestation, amebic dysentery, and Shigella infection. ■ Traditional insect repellent 
Wormwood is a good insecticide and insect repellent. ■ Other uses The anti-inflammatory 
action of wormwood makes it useful for infections, and it has occasionally been given as an antidepressant. Self-help Uses
■ Anemia, p. 301. ■ High fever, p. 311.One of the truly bitter plants—absinthium means  
“without sweetness”—wormwood has a strong tonic effect on the digestive system, especially on the stomach and gallbladder. It is taken in small doses and sipped, the intensely bitter taste playing an important part in its therapeutic effect. In the past, wormwood was one of  the main flavorings of vermouth (whose name derives from the German for wormwood). RCautions T ake only under professional supervision. T ake only in small doses, 
generally for no more than 4 –5 weeks at a time. Do not take during pregnancy.Aerial parts contain 
bitter substances and have a wide range of medicinal uses. Aerial parts 
are used as  
an insect 
repellent
Fresh  
aerial parts
Fresh leaves Dried aerial parts
Infusion made from wormwood can be 
taken in small doses to stimulate appetite.Tincture is used to treat 
chronic digestive infections. US_066-067_Artemisia_Artemisia.indd   66 17/03/16   4:00 pm67 Key medicinal plantsArtemisi A  A nnu A
Infusion  is strongly bitter. Herbalists  
use it to treat headaches and fever.Tincture  is prescribed to prevent malaria. It is also used to treat the illness itself.Artemisia annua  (Asteraceae)
Sweet Annie, Qing Hao
Until the 1970s, sweet Annie was regarded as just another 
Artemisia , though one used in traditional Chinese medicine  
for treating malaria. After extensive research, sweet Annie 
and its key constituent artemisinin were shown to have 
powerful antimalarial activity and few side effects. Artemisinin rapidly became the key treatment for severe 
malaria worldwide, and is still the treatment of choice in 
many acute cases of the illness. Habitat & Cultivation
Sweet Annie grows in grasslands and 
in open areas in Vietnam, Japan, China, 
Russia, and North America. It is 
cultivated in eastern China. The herb 
is propagated from seed in spring  
or by dividing the rootstock in 
autumn. It is harvested in summer 
before flowering. Related Species
The related A. apiacea  is used 
interchangeably with sweet Annie  
in China and is employed as a 
general tonic in Vietnam. Many 
other Artemisia  species are used 
medicinally: A. abrotanum  (p. 172);  
A. absinthium  (p. 66); A. capillaris  and 
A. cina  (p. 172); A. dracunculus  and A. 
vulgaris  (p. 173). Key Constituents
■ Artemisinin (sesquiterpene  
 lactone)
■ Essential oil (abrotamine, beta- 
 bourbonene)
■ Flavonoids
■ PolyphenolsKey Actions
■ Bitter
■ Reduces fever
■ Antimalarial
■ Antiparasitic
■ Anti-cancer
Research
■ Chinese research  Sweet Annie 
was extensively researched in China 
in the 1980s, and studies have 
demonstrated that its key active 
constituent is an effective antimalarial, 
having a powerful action against the 
malaria parasite Plasmodium , a 
protozoan introduced into the body 
by the mosquito. ■ Artemisinin  Clinical trials, 
notably in Thailand, show that it can 
provide vital treatment in the acute 
stages of malaria, proving up to 90% 
effective in countering the infection. Artemisinin has a lesser role to play 
in chronic malaria and prevention of 
the disease. ■ Anti-cancer potential  
Laboratory studies suggest that 
sweet Annie has marked anti-  
cancer activity, promoting 
programmed cell death and inhibiting 
blood vessel growth. No clinical 
trials have so far been undertaken, 
but sweet Annie is claimed to be 
useful particularly in breast cancer 
and leukemia. Synthetic molecules 
modelled on artemisinin are also 
being researched as potential anti-
cancer drugs. Traditional &  
Current Uses
■ History  The first mention of 
sweet Annie was in a Chinese text of 
168 bce. Traditionally, it was seen as Sweet Annie
A perennial growing to 
about 3 ft (1 m), with 
green feathery leaves 
covered in fine hairs. an herb that helped “to clear and 
relieve summer heat.” 
■ Cooling properties  Sweet 
Annie has a cool, bitter taste and is 
used for conditions brought  
on by heat, especially with symptoms 
such as fever, headaches, dizziness, 
and a tight-chested sensation. It is 
used to treat chronic fevers, night 
fevers, and morning chills and is a 
traditional remedy for nosebleeds 
associated with heat. Sweet Annie  has bright green, saw-toothed 
leaves. It is used widely around the world as 
an effective antimalarial.Parts Used
Key Preparations & Their UsesLeaves  contain  
artemisinin, which  
is a powerful  
antimalarial. ■ Antimalarial  Sweet Annie has 
been used to treat the fevers  
and chills of malaria for thousands  
of years, and artemisinin is now used  
in many countries as an antimalarial. Artemisinin reduces the risk of 
developing malaria and aids a quick 
recovery, though drug resistance to it 
is now being seen. The whole plant 
may also be used to treat malaria and 
act as a preventative, though large 
doses are required. RCautions  Only take sweet Annie under professional supervision. Do not take during pregnancy. Dried leavesFresh leavesLeaves are 
harvested  
in summer
Tablets  containing artemisinin, which is extracted from the herb, are taken for 
malaria throughout the tropics. US_066-067_Artemisia_Artemisia.indd   67 26/02/16   3:58 pm
68AstrA g A lus membrA n A ceus Key medicinal plantsAstragalus membranaceus (Fabaceae)
Astragalus, Milk Vetch, Huang Qi (Chinese)Astragalus
A perennial growing  to 16 in (40 cm) with hairy stems and leaves divided into 12–18 pairs of leaflets. Astragalus is a typical member of the pea 
family and is closely related to liqorice. Habitat & Cultivation
Astragalus is native to Mongolia  
and northern and eastern China. It is grown from seed in spring or autumn and thrives in sandy, well-drained soil, with plenty of sun. The roots of 4-year-old plants are harvested in autumn. Key Constituents
■ Triterpene saponins  
 (astragolosides)
■ Isoflavonoids (formonentin)
■ Polysaccharides
■ Phytosterols
Key Actions
■ Adaptogenic
■ Immune stimulant
■ Diuretic
■ Vasodilator
■ Antiviral
Research
■ Chinese investigations 
Investigations in China indicate that astragalus is diuretic and that it lowers blood pressure and increases endurance. A 2012 clinical trial  found that 5 g a day of astragalus root helped to stabilize kidney function in patients with chronic kidney disease, delaying the need for dialysis. ■ Western research Recent 
American research has focused on the ability of astragalus to restore normal immune function in cancer patients. Clinical evidence suggests that, as with a number of other  herbs, cancer patients undergoing chemotherapy or radiotherapy recover faster and live longer if  given astragalus concurrently. Traditional &  
Current Uses
■ T onic & endurance remedy 
Astragalus is a classic energy  
tonic, perhaps even superior to ginseng (Panax ginseng, p. 118)  for young people. In China, it is believed to warm and tone the  wei qi (a protective energy that circulates just beneath the skin), helping the body to adapt to  external influences, especially to  the cold. Astragalus raises immune resistance and manifestly improves physical endurance. ■ Control of fluids Though a 
vasodilator (encouraging blood to flow to the surface), astragalus is  used for excessive sweating, including night sweats. It is also helpful in both relieving fluid retention and reducing thirstiness. It supports normal kidney function and is thought to protect the kidneys from damage. ■ Immune stimulant Not an  
herb for acute illness, astragalus is nonetheless a very useful medicine for viral infections such as the common cold.■ Other uses Astragalus is used to  
treat prolapsed organs, especially  the uterus, and it is beneficial for uterine bleeding. Astragalus is often Parts Used
 Key Preparations & Their UsesRoot is a traditional tonic remedy 
in China, improving energy levels and helping the body to resist cold. Chinese 
angelica
CinnamonAstragalusDried rootDespite the fact that astragalus is one of the most 
popular tonic herbs in China, it is not that well known in the West. In China, the root, known as huang qi, has been used for thousands of years. It has a sweet taste and is a warming tonic particularly suited to young, active people, increasing stamina and endurance, and improving resistance to the cold. It is often combined with other herbs as a blood tonic. QCautions Do not take astragalus if suffering from skin disorders,  
or during acute illness. Decoction For anemia, make a decoction  
(see p. 291) with 12 g root and 12 g Chinese angelica. T ake 1
1⁄4 cups (300 ml) daily. Dry-fried root As a stimulant tonic, 
each day fry 5 –10 g root by itself  
or with 1 tsp of honey and eat  
with meals. Remedy For cold and numbness, make  a decoction (see p. 291) with 20 g root and 5 g cinnamon. Drink 
3⁄4 cup (150 ml) 
twice a day. used in combination with dong  
quai (Angelica sinensis, p. 63) in  order to act as a blood tonic for treating anemia. Tincture (to make, p. 292). For night sweats, take 1 tsp with water  
1 –2 times daily. US_068-069_Astragalus_Atropa.indd   68 26/02/16   3:58 pm69 Key medicinal plantsAtrop A bell Adonn A
Tincture,  made from the leaves or the root, 
is a strong relaxant. It is prescribed by herbal 
practitioners to relieve colic and to treat 
Parkinson’s disease.Atropa belladonna  (Solanaceae)
Deadly Nightshade, Belladonna
Although deadly nightshade conjures up images of  
poison and death, like many plants it is an important  
and beneficial remedy when used correctly. Some of  
its constituents are employed in conventional medicine,  
for example to dilate the pupils for eye examinations  
and as an anesthetic. In herbal medicine, deadly  
nightshade is mainly prescribed to relieve intestinal  
colic and to treat peptic ulcers. Habitat & Cultivation
Deadly nightshade is native to 
Europe, western Asia, and northern 
Africa, and is now cultivated 
worldwide. It thrives in chalky soils,  
in woods, and in open areas. The 
leaves are harvested in summer, and 
the root is collected from the first 
year onward in autumn. Related Species
Many of the Solanaceae family  
are powerful medicines, including 
eggplant ( Solanum melongena ,  
p. 270), tobacco ( Nicotiana tabacum ,  
p. 240), and henbane ( Hyoscyamus 
niger, p. 220). Key Constituents
■ Tropane alkaloids (up to 0.6%),  
 including hyoscyamine and atropine
■ Flavonoids
■ Coumarins
■ Volatile bases (nicotine)
Key Actions
■ Smooth muscle antispasmodic
■ Narcotic■ Reduces sweating
■ Sedative
Research
■ Tropane alkaloids , The action  
of the tropane alkaloids is well 
understood. They inhibit the 
parasympathetic nervous system, 
which controls involuntary bodily 
activities. This reduces saliva; gastric, 
intestinal, and bronchial secretions;  
as well as the activity of the urinary 
tubules, bladder, and intestines. Tropane alkaloids also increase  
heart rate and dilate the pupils. Traditional &  
Current Uses
■ Folklore  Deadly nightshade was 
believed to help witches fly. Its other 
name “belladonna” (beautiful woman) 
is thought to refer to its use by Italian 
women to dilate the pupils of their 
eyes, making them more attractive. ■ Relaxant  Deadly nightshade  
has been used in the same way 
throughout history. It is prescribed  
to relax distended organs, especially 
the stomach and intestines, relieving 
intestinal colic and pain. It helps  
peptic ulcers by reducing gastric  
acid production, and it relaxes  
spasms of the urinary tubules. ■ Parkinson’s disease  The herb 
can be used to treat the symptoms 
of Parkinson’s disease, reducing 
tremors and rigidity, and improving 
speech and mobility. ■ Anesthetic  muscle-relaxant 
properties of deadly nightshade make 
it useful in conventional medicine as 
an anesthetic, particularly when 
digestive or bronchial secretions 
need to be kept to a minimum. Deadly nightshade
A perennial with large 
leaves and black 
berries, growing to  
5 ft (1.5 m). Deadly nightshade  produces unmistakable 
cherry-sized, glossy black berries  
in autumn.Parts Used
Key Preparations & Their UsesLeaves are harvested in early summer. They have a weaker action than the root,  
and are more commonly used. Root is collected  
in autumn. RCautions  T ake only if prescribed by a medical herbalist or doctor. Deadly nightshade can be fatal if taken at the wrong dosage.Dried leaves
Dried root Fresh rootFresh leavesLeaves, like the root,  
have relaxant 
properties. US_068-069_Astragalus_Atropa.indd   69 26/02/16   3:58 pm
70AzA dirA cht A indicAKey medicinal plantsAzadirachta indica (Meliaceae)
Neem, Margosa TreeNeem
An evergreen tree, growing to 52 ft (16 m), with compound leaves and white flowers. Neem has so many medicinal uses that the 
tree is considered a “natural pharmacy.”
Habitat & Cultivation
Native to Iran, Pakistan, India, and  
Sri Lanka, neem is found throughout the subcontinent in forests and woods, often being planted on  
roads to provide shade. It is now naturalized in other tropical regions, including Malaysia, Indonesia, Australia, and West Africa. It is grown from seed. Leaves and seed are harvested throughout the year. Related Species
Melia azedarach, also an Indian plant, is a very close relative with particular value in treating intestinal worms. It is often used as a substitute for neem. Key Constituents
■ Meliacins
■ Liminoids
■ Triterpenoid bitters
■ Sterols
■ Tannins
■ Flavonoids
Key Actions
■ Anti-inflammatory
■ Lowers fever■ Antimicrobial
■ Promotes wound healing
■ Antiparasitic
■ Antimalarial
Research
■ Recent research This indicates 
that neem oil is both anti-inflammatory and antibacterial, and to some degree reduces fever and lowers blood- sugar levels. ■ Insecticide Extensive research 
shows that liminoid azadirachtins are insecticidal and inhibit feeding and growth—making neem an inexpensive and ecologically sound insecticidal agent. The azadirachtins are also linked to the tree’s antimalarial activity. ■ Diabetes Research indicates that 
neem leaf and oil act to stabilize blood- sugar levels and may be helpful in treating or delaying type 2 diabetes. Traditional  
& Current Uses
■ Medicine chest Thought of in 
India as almost a pharmacy in its own 
right, all parts of the neem tree may be used medicinally. The bark is bitter and astringent and a decoction is used for hemorrhoids. The leaves are taken as an infusion for malaria, peptic ulcers, and intestinal worms, and may be applied locally as a juice, infusion, or ointment to skin problems including ulcers, wounds, boils, and eczema. The juice of the leaves is also  
applied to the eyes to treat night blindness and conjunctivitis. The twigs are used as a tooth cleanser, firming up the gums and preventing  gum disease. ■ Neem oil and sap Neem  
oil, expressed from the seeds,  is commonly used as a hair dressing  
and is strongly anti fungal and 
antiviral, preventing scabies and ringworm, among other things. It can be made into a useful and easily applied treatment for headlice. The oil is also used to treat skin Parts Used
Key Preparations & Their Uses
Tincture (to make, p. 292) is bitter and can be used to treat fevers. Infusion of the leaves (to make, p. 291) can be used for conjuctivitis. Decoction of the bark (to make, p. 291) is strongly bitter and astringent.Oil from the seeds is used to prevent and 
treat infestations of headlice. Apply daily to the scalp. conditions such as eczema,  
psoriasis, and even leprosy, and as  
a vehicle for other active ingredients. Neem oil should be avoided when attempting to conceive a child as  
it can reduce fertility in both women and men. Cream (to make, p. 296)  
is used to treat many skin disorders, including eczema. Apply as required.Neem is one of the most valued herbs in Indian and 
Ayurvedic medicine. Extracts of the leaves are used to treat conditions such as asthma, eczema, diabetes, and rheumatism, while neem oil has been applied as a hair lotion, to treat headlice, and to calm angry skin rashes. Research indicates that neem may prove useful as an insecticide and a contraceptive. The tree itself is said  to purify the air and is widely planted in India. QCautions Do not take during pregnancy, while breastfeeding, or during fertility 
treatment. In children, use topically only. Long term high-dose treatment is not advisable.Twigs are  
used as toothpicks to improve oral hygiene. Seeds  contain neem oil, which  
can be expressed and used to treat 
headlice in adults and children.Leaves can be infused and 
applied as a lotion to many skin rashes, including acne, eczema, and psoriasis. Fresh 
leaves
Fresh seeds
US_070-071_Azadirachta_Barosma.indd   70 26/02/16   3:58 pm71 Key medicinal plantsBarosma Betulina
Infusion  (to make, p. 291). For prostatitis, drink 3⁄4 cup  
(150 ml) twice a day.Tincture  (to make, p. 292). For chronic urinary infections, 
take 40 drops with water  
3 times a day. Capsules  (to make, p. 292). For cystitis, take a 500 mg 
capsule twice daily.Habitat & Cultivation
Buchu is native to South Africa, 
where is it widely cultivated on 
hillsides. It is also grown in parts  
of South America. The herb is  
grown from cuttings in late summer 
and requires well-drained soil  
and plenty of sun. The leaves  
are harvested when the plant is  
flowering or fruiting in summer. Related Species
Two closely related species,  
B. crenulata  and B. serratifolia ,  
are used in a similar way to buchu,  
but contain less volatile oil and  
are not so effective. Key Constituents
■ Volatile oil (1.5–2.5%),  
 including pulegone, menthone,  
 diosphenol
■ Sulphur compounds
■ Flavonoids (diosmin, rutin)
■ Mucilage
Key Actions
■ Urinary antiseptic
■ Diuretic■ Stimulant
■ Uterine stimulant
Traditional &  
Current Uses
■ Traditional remedy  Buchu is  
a traditional remedy of the Khoisan 
people of South Africa. It is used as  
a general stimulant and a diuretic. Strongly aromatic, it is taken as a 
carminative, helping to relieve gas 
and bloating. ■ Early Western uses  The herb 
was first exported to Britain in  
1790 and became an official medicine 
in 1821, being listed in the British 
Pharmacopoeia  as an effective 
remedy for “cystitis, urethritis, 
nephritis, and catarrh of the bladder.” 
■ Modern urinary treatment  
Broadly speaking, buchu is used today 
in Western herbal medicine for the 
same type of urinary complaints as  
in the 19th century. It is commonly 
prescribed for urinary tract infections, 
often proving effective in curing acute 
cystitis when combined with other 
herbs such as cornsilk ( Zea mays ,  
p. 154) and juniper ( Juniperus 
communis , p. 224). T aken regularly, it 
can help to prevent recurrent attacks 
of chronic cystitis or urethritis. It is 
also taken for prostatitis and irritable 
bladder, often in combination with 
herbs such as uva-ursi ( Arctostaphylos 
uva-ursi , p. 170) and cornsilk. The key 
active constituent diosphenol has a 
diuretic action, and may partly 
account for the herb’s antiseptic 
effect on the urinary system. ■ Gynecological uses  Buchu 
infusion or tincture is useful in 
treatments for cystitis and urethritis, 
especially when they are related to a Buchu
A bushy shrub growing 
to 61⁄2 ft (2 m), with 
stemless, slightly 
leathery leaves dotted 
with oil glands. pre-existing Candida  problem, such as 
yeast infections. The infusion is generally 
preferable to the tincture, particularly 
when onset of infection is sudden. The 
infusion is also used as a douche for 
leukorrhea (white vaginal discharge), 
and occasionally for yeast infections. The herb is a uterine stimulant and 
contains pulegone, which is also present Buchu  is grown commercially and used to 
enhance the black-currant flavor of cassis.Parts Used
Key Preparations & Their UsesLeaves  are harvested  
in summer and used  
in preparations for 
urinary infections. in large quantities in pennyroyal 
(Mentha pulegium , p. 235). Pulegone 
is an abortifacient and a powerful 
emmenagogue (stimulates menstrual 
flow). Buchu should not, therefore, 
be taken during pregnancy. Self-help Use
■ Urinary infections , p. 314. QCautions  During pregnancy take only on advice of your health care practitioner. Potentially toxic at excessive dosage.Leaves contain 
volatile oil, which 
is antiseptic
Dried leavesBarosma betulina syn. agathosma betulina  (Rutaceae)
Buchu
A traditional South African remedy, buchu is taken as a 
stimulant, a diuretic, and to relieve digestive complaints. In Western herbal medicine, it is valued as a urinary 
antiseptic and diuretic, and is used specifically to treat 
cystitis and other infections of the urinary tract. Buchu 
has a strongly distinctive aroma and taste, reminiscent 
of black currant but described by some as a mixture 
between rosemary and peppermint. US_070-071_Azadirachta_Barosma.indd   71 26/02/16   3:58 pm
72
Key medicinal plantsBupleurum chinense
Bupleurum chinense syn. B. scorzoneraefolium (Apiaceae)
Bupleurum, Hare’s Ear Root, Chai Hu (Chinese)Bupleurum
A perennial growing  to 3 ft (1 m) high, with sickle-shaped leaves and clusters of small yellow flowers. Bupleurum is commonly on sale in medicinal 
herb shops in China. It is widely taken as  a liver tonic. Habitat & Cultivation
Bupleurum grows in China and is 
cultivated throughout the central  
and eastern parts of that country. It is also found in other parts of  
Asia and in Europe. Bupleurum is propagated from seed in spring  
or by root division in autumn and requires well-drained soil and plenty of sun. The root is unearthed  in spring and autumn. Key Constituents
■ Triterpenoid saponins—saikosides  
 (saikosaponins)
■ Flavonoids
■ Polysaccharides
Key Actions
■ Protects liver
■ Anti-inflammatory
■ Tonic
■ Induces sweating
Research
■ Saikosides Research in Japan from 
the 1960s onward into the Bupleurum  
genus has revealed that the saikosides are potent medicines. They appear  to protect the liver from toxicity,  and strengthen liver function, even  in people with immune system disorders. Following this discovery, clinical trials during the 1980s in Japan showed that the root is effective in the treatment of hepatitis and other chronic liver problems. Saikosides also have antitumor activity. ■ Anti-inflammatory The 
saikosides stimulate the body’s production of corticosteroids  
as well as increasing their anti-inflammatory effect. Traditional  
& Current Uses
■ Ancient Chinese remedy 
Bupleurum has been taken in China 
for over 2,000 years as a liver tonic. It is traditionally believed to strengthen liver qi and to have a tonic action on the spleen and stomach. In Chinese medicine, bupleurum is used to treat “disharmony” between the liver and the spleen, a condition that manifests itself in problems of the digestive system such as abdominal pain, bloating, nausea, and indigestion. ■ Liver problems In common  
with milk thistle (Carduus marianus,  p. 75) and members of the Glycyrrhiza  
genus, for example licorice (G. glabra, p. 103), bupleurum is an excellent remedy for a poorly functioning  
or compromised liver. Its anti-inflammatory action may contribute to its overall use in the treatment  
of liver disease. ■ Fever  In China, bupleurum is 
taken to treat fevers, flu, and colds, especially where accompanied by a bitter taste in the mouth, irritability, and either vomiting and abdominal pain, or dizziness and vertigo. ■ Modern Japanese remedy  
The traditional uses of bupleurum and scientific research accord so well that many Japanese doctors practic-ing conventional Western medicine Parts Used
Key Preparations  
& Their UsesRoot is harvested in spring and 
autumn, when it contains the  most nutrients. It is used to  make a valuable liver tonic. now use extracts of bupleurum root 
to treat patients with liver problems. ■ Other uses Bupleurum is 
sometimes useful in the treatment  of hemorrhoids, and of prolapsed tissue in the pelvis, such as a prolapse of the uterus.Remedy To improve liver function, decoct 
15 g bupleurum, 5 g licorice, and 3 cups 
(750 ml) water (see p. 291). T ake in 3 doses  
during a 24-hour period.Decoction (to make,  
p. 291). To stimulate sweating 
and so reduce fever, drink  
3⁄4 cup (150 ml) 3 times a day.First mentioned in texts from the 1st century bce, 
bupleurum is one of China’s “harmony” herbs, balancing different organs and energies within the body. It is used as a tonic, strengthening the action of the digestive tract, improving liver function, and helping to push blood to  the surface of the body. Recent research in Japan has endorsed traditional use, showing that bupleurum protects the liver. QCautions Do not exceed the dose. Can occasionally cause nausea or vomiting. LiquoriceBupleurumSliced dried 
root
US_072-073_Bupleurum_Calendula.indd   72 07/04/16   4:37 pm73 Key medicinal plantsCalendula offi Cinalis
Cream  is easy to make ( see p. 296). Apply to cuts and grazes.
Encyclopedia_Of_Herbal_Medicine.txt
Summarize the following text section accurately and concisely. Maintain specific details and numerical information, and use anti-repetition mechanisms:

        It has long been taken as a strengthening bitter tonic, and all  kinds of bitter drinks have been made from it. Y arrow  helps recovery from colds and flu and is beneficial for  hay fever. It is also helpful for menstrual problems and circulatory disorders. QCautions May cause allergic reaction in rare cases. Use the essential  
oil only under professional supervision. Do not take during pregnancy. Fresh leaves Flowers contain 
volatile oil 
Fresh aerial 
parts 
Dried aerial parts Aerial parts contain 
flavonoids, which are thought to give yarrow its antispasmodic properties. Essential oil extracted 
from the flowers is 
used by herbalists  
to treat congestion. Tincture (to make, p. 292). For indigestion, take  20 drops 3 times a day. Remedy For colds, mix equal  parts of yarrow, peppermint, and elderflower. Infuse 1 tsp with 
3⁄4 cup (150 ml) water  
for 10 minutes (see p. 291). T ake 3 times a day. Ya rrowPeppermint
Elderflower
Self-help Uses
■ Cleansing wounds, p. 304. ■ Colds & flu, p. 311. Yarrow was once known as “nosebleed” 
because its leaves were used to  
staunch blood. Poultice (to make, p. 295). Apply to grazes, cuts, and bruises. ■ Digestive infections, p. 305. ■ Fever, p.
It helps recovery from colds and flu, and is beneficial for hay fever.
What is yarrow used for?
It is used as a "rejuvenator" for the brain and nervous system, and as a remedy for digestive disorders.
What is the traditional use of dong quai in Chinese medicine?
5 g root with 12 g Chinese angelica.
What is the recommended dosage of burdock root for anemia?
There is no recommended dosage provided in the text.
What is the recommended dosage for wormwood tincture to treat chronic urinary infections?
It is used for digestive problems such as bloating, gas, colic, and poor digestion.
What is the traditional use of wormwood in the West?