It is said that all nadis originate at the kan-
dasthana, a spherical region centered around the navel. From 
there, the other nadis follow paths on all sides of the sushum­
na - right and left, front and back. Some terminate in the eyes 
or ears, others in the genital or perineal area, still others in 
the mouth or tongue. These ideas are at odds with Western 
medical knowledge, which considers the brain and the 
spinal column to be the nervous system. From the point of view of embryology, as well, it is clear 
that the navel and the formation of the nervous system are 
not related. The navel and its surrounding organs develop 
from the endoderm and mesoderm. For example, the con­
nective tissues of the following anatomical structures 
develop from the mesoderm: kidneys, adrenal glands, sexual 
glands, uterine tubes, womb, vagina, notocord, supporting 
structures (bone, cartilage, and connective tissue in the 
broad sense), dentine, heart, blood vessels, lymphatic 
vessels, lymph nodes, hemolymph nodes, spleen, striated 
muscles, smooth muscles, etc. On the other hand, the central 
nevous system develops from the ectoderm. Thus, even at the 
embryonic stage, the navel and the nervous system are not 
closely related. This evidence leads me to believe that the 139 
nadis are not identical with the nervous system. Statistical Diagram of Susceptibility to Disease 
A Model of Umbilical Cord. Amnion 
Cavity, etc. (Broman) - taken from Human Genetics by 
Dr. Takamichi Tsuzaki -
Some researchers attempt to resolve these contradictions 
by positing two types of nadis, gross and subtle. The former 
are said to correspond to the nervous and vascular systems 
of the physical body, while the latter are composed of subtle 
matter and belong to the astral body. I find this a plausible 
view. However, another possibility is to posit a close cor­
respondence between the nadis and the meridians of Chinese 
medicine. In the next section we will investigate this 
hypothesis, comparing the traditional description of the 
nadis with those of the acupuncture meridians. As noted above, the Upanishads agree that the nadis 
originate in the navel. For example, in the Shri Jabala Darshana 
Upanishad it is said that the kandasthana lies nine fingers 
(18-20 cm.) above the muladhara chakra, with the navel at 
its center. From here, the nadis spread out in all directions 
(see Table 1). The Yoga-shikka Upanishad confirms this, 
stating "there (at the navel) start the nadis, some flowing ver­
tically and others horizonally. It is called the 'navel wheel' 
(manipura chakra) and is shaped like an egg." 140 
In fact, Chinese meridian theory is in perfect agreement 
with this conception. The meridian network is said to originate 
at the chukan (chung-wan, CV12) point, which lies midway 
between the navel and the bottom of the sternum. The word 
"kan" means "stomach," and there are actually three "kan" 
points in acupuncture: upper, middle, and lower. These are 
the jokan (shang-wan, CV13, 3-4 cm. below the bottom of the 
sternum on the midsternal line); chukan, mentioned above, 
and gekan (hsia-wan CV10, 3-4 cm. above the navel). Of these 
three, chukan and gekan are within the circumference of the 
manipura chakra and the kandasthana. Like the nadis, acupuncture meridians are also deemed to 
be channels for the circulation of vital energy. Elec­
trophysiological experiments have been conducted to ver­
ify the existence of the meridians, and to establish the direc­
tionality of the energy flow. The results of these experiments 
suggest that the meridians are energy channels quite 
dissimilar to the nervous system; that they form a network 
which spreads throughout the connective tissue of the body; 
and that they are filled with body fluid. In this last respect, 
also, the meridians seem to correspond to the nadis de­
scribed in the Upanishads. For instance, the Chandogya 
Upanishad states that the gross nadis (those of the physical 
body) are filled with a body fluid which is responsible to the 
suns rays. The number of nadis and meridians may be similar. Although there are twelve ordinary and eight extraordinary 
meridians, vast numbers of minor meridians also are said to 
exist. It is quite possible that if all these were counted, the 
total number of meridians might reach 72,000, the figure 
usually associated with the nadis. The nadis and meridians are also similar in that they func­
tion both physiologically and psychologically. In common 
Japanese usage, the word ki, used to indicate the energy 
which flows through the meridians, can also refer to other 
types of both physical and emotional or mental energy. Further­
more, ki energy may be directed mentally within one's own 141 
body, as well as physically by needle stimulation. Expert 
acupuncturists are said to perceive intuitively the movement 
of ki when they are in a state of mental concentration. Similarly, the prana which flows through the nadis may be 
directed mentally by various meditation techniques, as well 
as exercises such as asanas and pranayama which directly 
stimulate the physiological system. The distinction often 
made between gross and subtle nadis also bears witness to 
the dual physiological and psychological nature of this 
energy flow. We shall now attempt to correlate, by comparative study, 
the main nadis with the principal meridians. We shall first 
examine the relationship between the three "great 
nadis" - the sushumna, ida, and pingala - and certain major 
meridians. The Sushumna Nadi 
As shown in Table I, the sushumna, or Brahman nadi, is a 
canal which follows the spine. Descriptions of its starting 
point are not entirely consistent. Shandilya Upanishad states 
that it starts at the muladhara chakra, whereas Shat-chakra-
nirupana says it originates in the kandasthana. According to 
the Chhandogya Upanishad, the sushumna nadi begins at the 
heart. However, most yoga scriptures and other Upanishads 
seem to agree that the muladhara is its starting point. The 
terminal point is always described as the Brahman Gate at 
the top of the head, through which prana and kundalini 
shakti are said to enter and exit. In Chinese medical theory, there is a major "ex­
traordinary" meridian, known as the governor vessel meri­
dian, which seems to correspond closely to the sushumna. Its function is said to be the overall governance of the six 
yang meridians. It starts at the tip of the coccyx (the approx­
imate location of the muladhara chakra), courses up the 
center of the back to the top of the head, and terminates in 142 
Governor Vessel Meridian (GV) 
the upper lip. It is said that ki energy is stored in this meri­
dian like water in a lake: the flows of ki through the twelve 
ordinary meridians are likened to rivers, which distribute 
vital energy to the various organs and tissues. In the event of 
an energy imbalance or insufficient ki in a particular organ 
or part of the body (due to disease or other malfunction), the 
energy stored in the governor vessel meridian is mobilized to 
supplement the flow in the related ordinary meridians. In 
such cases, the stored energy usually flows downward. Likewise, the normal energy flow in the sushumna is said to 
be in a downward direction. These are some of the aspects of 
these two main energy channels which lead me to believe 
they correspond. There are also similar spiritual practices within the two 
traditions of tantra yoga and Taoist meditation which sug­
gest a close correspondence. In many of the tantric yoga 143 
practices, kundalini shakti is directed upward from the 
muladhara chakra to the ajna chakra or Brahman Gate, 
utilizing various breathing and visualization techniques. In 
the Taoist practice known as shoshuten (sometimes called 
the "Circulation of Light"), ki energy is raised from the tip of 
the coccyx to the top of the head along the governor vessel 
meridian. In both cases, this physiological energy is 
sublimated into higher psychological or spiritual energy 
(known as ojas in the yoga tradition). Thus, the functions of 
the sushumna and the governor vessel meridian in spiritual 
practices of their respective traditions exhibit a high degree 
of correspondence. The Ida and Pingala Nadis 
Many yogis, gurus, and Western researchers teach that the 
ida and pingala start at the muladhara and spiral about the 
sushumna up to the ajna, intersecting at each chakra along 
the way. The ida is said to start from the left side of the 
muladhara, passing through the left nostril on its way to 
ajna; the pingala starts on the right side and passes through 
the right nostril (sometimes these two nadis are said to ter­
minate in the nostrils). It has been suggested that these two 
nadis may correspond to the pair of sympathetic nerve 
trunks which wrap around the spinal cord, due to a struc­
tural resemblance to the intersecting nadis. However, none 
of the seven traditional sources listed in Table I describes the 
ida and pingala as intersecting at all. Shri ]abala Darshana 
Upanishad records that these two nadis cover the muladhara 
chakra, and the Brahma knot within it, with their mouths. The ida is said to be located on the left of the sushumna, the 
pingala on the right. Yoga-shikka Upanishad states that they 
originate in the navel wheel (kandasthana), rather than the 
muladhara, but it agrees that they lie on the two sides of the 
sushumna. In general, most sources, ancient and modern, 
agree that the ida and pingala nadis originate in the 144 
muladhara chakra, and lie on the left and right sides, respec­
tively, of the sushumna. Only Shandilya Upanishad and Shri 
Jabala Darshana Upanishad state that they terminate in the 
nostrils; it is not specified whether they run in straight or in­
tersecting lines. Urinary Bladder Meridian (BL) 
I have come to the conclusion that the ida and pingala 
nadis flow beside the sushumna in straight lines, and that 
they correspond to the second lines of the urinary bladder 
meridian for the following reasons. On each side of the body 
this meridian originates near the bridge of the nose, flows up 
over the head, enters inside, and emerges at the back of the 
head. It then divides into two branches: one line, usually 
called the third, courses down the back approximately 9 cm. from the spine, passes along the back of the leg, and ter­
minates in the fifth toe; the second line passes down the back 
about 4.5 cm. from the spine, going through the lumbar 145 
region to the urinary bladder itself. Situated along this 
second line are the yu ("associated") points, each of which is 
said to reflect the condition of a specific organ. The yu point 
for a given organ is the meeting point between the meridians 
and the autonomic nerves which control that organ in the 
related section of the spine. Therefore, yu points simul­
taneously reflect the condition of the associated autonomic 
nerves and the relevant meridians. For example, acupunc­
ture treatment at the stomach yu point (iyu or wei-shu, BL21, 
the associated point for the stomach on the urinary bladder 
meridian), influences concurrently the condition of the 
stomach, the stomach meridian, and the spinal nerves which 
control stomach functions. Like the ida and pingala 
nadis - second in importance only to the sushumna - these 
secondary lines of the urinary bladder meridian are extreme­
ly important and are used with great frequency in acupunc­
ture treatment. Therefore I have concluded that they corres­
pond to these two nadis. It is interesting to note that in our sources, nadis located in 
the limbs are barely mentioned. Surely, if these are the chan­
nels for the vital energy of the body, they must extend to the 
extremities. The acupuncture meridians in these areas are 
clearly defined. However, we will have to content ourselves 
with analyzing the following nadis within the trunk and 
head, as they are described in the yoga texts. Gandhari Nadi 
The gandhan nadi flows beside and behind the ida nadi 
and terminates in the left eye, according to six of our seven 
sources. (Only Siddhasiddhantapaddhati claims that it 
ends in the ears.) Therefore, it might correspond to the third 
line of the urinary bladder meridian on the left side of the 
body. The rationale for this will be discussed in the following 146 
two sections. The first line of this meridian (see diagram) 
lies approximately 1.5 cm. on either side of the spinal column; 
the second and third lines lie about 4.5 cm. and 9 cm. away, 
respectively. These three lines run parallel to the spine all the 
way down to the buttocks. Hastijihva Nadi 
According to Shri Jabala Darshana Upanishad, the hastijihva 
nadi also lies beside and behind the ida nadi, terminating at 
the tip of the left big toe. Other sources state that it terminates 
either in the right eye or in the ears. In acupuncture theory, 
only the liver and spleen meridians are known to terminate 
in the big toe, but they flow along the front of the body, and 
consequently cannot correspond to this nadi. In fact, only 
the urinary bladder meridian has branches running parallel 
to the spine. If the hastijihva nadi" actually ends in the eyes 
(where the bladder meridian starts), as some sources claim, 
then it might correspond to one of these lines. But which line is 
it? In my opinion it is the first line, for reasons given in the 
next section. It is important to note that Shri Jabala Darshana Upanishad 
places the gandhari and hastijihva lateral to the ida, 
presumably on the left side, with the pusha and yashasvini 
nadis (described below) simultaneously situated in relation 
to the pingala on the right. Furthermore, the hastijihva and 
yashasvini are both described as terminating in the left big 
toe; the terminal points of the pusha and gandhari are not 
mentioned. Therefore it may be inferred that these two latter 
groups form complementary left-right pairs. The Yashasvini Nadi 
The yashasvini nadi lies on one side of the pingala between 
the pusha (which runs behind the pingala, up to the right eye) 
and sarasvati nadis. The sarasvati is said to lie to one side of 147 
the sushumna, but which side is not specified. However, 
since we are told that the shankhini nadi lies between 
sarasvati and gandhan (on the left of the sushumna), the 
sarasvaii probably also lies on the left. It follows, then, that 
the yashavini, which is situated between the pusha (on the 
right side of sushumna) and sarasvati (on the left) must lie 
closer to the posterior median line, the path of the sushumna. One may therefore conclude that yashasvini corresponds 
to the first line of the urinary bladder meridian and the pusha 
to the third, both on the right. On the left, the hastijihva, 
which forms a pair with the yashasvini, is the first line, and 
the ghandhan, paired with the pusha, is the third. As mentioned earlier, only the spleen and liver meridians 
connect with the big toe - the terminal point of the hastijihva 
and yashasvini nadis according to Shri Jabala Darshana 
Upanishad - but they do not run along the back. However, the 
urinary bladder meridian, which corresponds with these 
nadis in other respects, terminates in the small toe. When the 
general lack of detail concerning the nadis' paths in the 
limbs is taken into account, I feel it is not unreasonable to 
match these nadis with the various branches of the urinary 
bladder meridian. In this case, perhaps they actually ter­
minate in the small, not big, toe. Alambusa Nadi 
According to Shri Jabala Darshana Upanishad the alambusa 
nadi runs from the anus to Kandasthana (which encom­
passes the manipura chakra); Shandilya Upanishad adds that 
it courses upward through the tonsils. Yoga Cudamani 
Upanishad and Gorakshashatakam state that it terminates in the 
mouth, while Yoga-shikka Upanishad maintains that it con­
tinues to the ear. In acupuncture theory, of the fourteen major meridians on­
ly the conception vessel meridian starts in the anal area and 
runs along the anterior median line to the mouth. The yin 148 
Conception Vessel Meridian ICV) 
cognate of the yang governor vessel meridian (shown earlier 
to correspond to the sushumna), this conception vessel meri­
dian plays a vital role as the central connecting channel for 
all the yin meridians. Although the alambusa nadi is not con­
sidered among the three most important nadis (sushumna, 
ida, and pingala) in yoga theory, its position definitely shows 
a strong correspondence to the conception vessel meridian. Kuhu Nadi 
Again, according to Shri Jabala Upanishad and Shandilya 
Upanishad, the kuhu nadi" is supposed to lie to the side of the 
sushumna. The former also states that it starts at the bow-
shaped area between the sushumna and the raka (probably 
near the pharynx; see below), runs downward and then up to 
terminate at the nose tip. This account seems to imply that 
the nadi lies to the front of the sushumna, rather than 
parallel to it along the back. 149 
Liver Meridian(LV) 
On the other hand, other Upanishads, the Shandilya for in­
stance, state that the kuhu nadi ends in the genitals. The 
acupuncture meridian on the front of the body which passes 
through the genitals is the liver meridian: it starts at the tip of 
the big toe, runs up the medial side of the leg into the genital 
area, follows a curved path to the side of the anterior median 
line and then reaches the top of the head, passing through the 
throat and eyes. If these Upanishad descriptions are followed, 
the kuhu nadi may reasonably be assumed to correspond to 
the liver meridian. Of course no path along the leg is de­
scribed in these sources, but as we have previously noted, the 
routes of the nadis in the limbs are not usually described. Shankhini Nadi 
The descriptions of the shankhini nadi recorded in Table I 
suggest that its pivotal point is in the throat, that it is con­
nected with the muladhara chakra, anus, and penis, and that 150 
it ends at the ears. This seems to correspond to the course 
of the kidney meridian, which starts at the tip of the little toe, 
passes up the medial side of the leg, through the pubic area, 
and then runs slightly to one side of the median line up to the 
throat to end at the root of the tongue. (A second branch con­
nects the kidney itself with the main meridian line in the 
pubic region.) In addition, abnormality in the kidney meri­
dian is often associated with ear disorders, a fact which 
might explain the shankhini nadi's reputed connection to the 
ears. Kidney Meridian (KI) 
However, we must note that Shri Jabala Darshana Upanishad 
states the shankhini lies between the gandhan {behind the 
ida to one side), and the sarasvati (probably on the left of the 
sushumna). If the shankhini is in fact situated on the left side 
of the back, it cannot correspond to the kidney meridian, as 
only the urinary bladder meridian is located there. As Table I shows, our two most detailed sources - Shri Jabala 
Darshana Upanishad and Shandilya Upanishad - describe an unex­
pectedly large number of nadis as lying along the back, 151 
parallel to sushumna, ida, or pingala. If these descriptions 
are taken literally, one must conclude that these nadis all 
correspond to the various branches of the urinary bladder 
meridian (which has three on each side of the back). Here 
we run into major difficulties in our efforts to match the 
nadis and meridians, difficulties largely due to the scarcity 
and ambiguity of the nadi descriptions. Perhaps many of the 
nadis are described in relation to the sushumna, ida, and 
pingala simply because these were the most widely known 
and identifiable reference points. However, another impor­
tant reason comes to mind. The nadis were originally iden­
tified through extrasensory perception which, in humans, is 
rarely developed to the extent of ordinary vision. When 
observed in this way, the nadis usually appear in the form of 
lines or bands of light. Therefore, beyond recognizing which 
side of the sushumna, ida, or pingala a given nadi lies on, it 
may have been difficult for the ancients to identify precisely 
its location. Spleen Pancreas Meridian (SP) 152 
Sarasvati Nadi 
The sarasvati nadi is said to flow up one side of the 
sushumna to terminate in the tongue or mouth. Only Shandilya 
Upanishad states that it lies behind the sushumna. If this nadi 
actually lies to the front of the sushumna, it probably cor­
responds to the spleen meridian. The spleen meridian starts at 
the tip of the big toe, goes up the medial side of the leg, and 
enters the abdomen, where it circulates through the spleen by 
way of the stomach. It then penetrates the diaphragm, rises 
through the chest and throat, and finally disperses at the root of 
the tongue. Varuni Nadi 
Varying descriptions of this nadi are given. One source 
says that it flows down between the yashasvini and kuhu 
nadis, pervading all areas above and below kundalini. Another says it flows down from the navel to promote the 
process of excretion. In either case, this nadi seems to be 
related to the functions of the lower abdomen. According to Yoga-shikka Upanishad, the varum nadi itself 
conveys excrement, a statement which implies it comprises 
the large intestine, colon, rectum, and anus. If this is true, 
the nadi would be a gross physical structure, yet not a gross 
nadi in the conventional sense of nerves and blood vessels 
which convey physical energy. This is a possibility. In fact, 
the Ayur Veda, an important Hindu scripture on medicine, 
uses the term nadi in reference to the deferent duct in the 
male and the uterine tubes in the female. Furthermore, Yoga-
shikka Upanishad implies that the deferent duct and urethra 
are nadis, and that the citra nadi is the channel which con­
veys and discharges semen. In light of these descriptions, it 
is possible that the large intestine might be termed a nadi. If 
this is the case, I don't believe there is any meaningful cor-153 
respondence between the varum or citra nadis and the 
acupuncture meridians. Payasvini Nadi Gall Bladder Meridian COB) 
The Shandilya Upanishad states that the payasvini nadi 
runs between the pusha and sarasvati nadis. If the pusha cor­
responds to the third line of the urinary bladder meridian on 
the right side, as discussed earlier, and if the sarasvati cor­
responds to the spleen meridian in the front of the body, the 
nadi between these two should correspond to the right 
branch of the gall bladder meridian. According to Shri Jabala 
Darshana Upanishad, the payasvini nadi terminates at the 
edge of the right ear. In this respect it closely resembles the 
gall bladder meridian, which also travels up to the ear. I 
therefore believe that these two channels correspond. The 
gall bladder meridian starts at the outer corner of the eye, 
travels across the side of the skull - first above the ear, then 154 
around it - and.next, passing through the neck, runs down­
ward in a zig-zag fashion along the side of the trunk, the lum­
bar area, and finally the outside of the leg to terminate at the 
tip of the fourth toe. Shura Nadi 
The shura nadi is mentioned only in Yoga-shikka Upa-
nishad. The brief description only states that it runs from the 
navel wheel up to the point between the eyebrows. This 
point lies on the governor vessel meridian, but as we have 
seen, this meridian corresponds more closely to the sushum-
na nadi. Therefore it is difficult to pair the shura nadi with a 
particular meridian, although it may refer to this particular 
section of the governor vessel meridian. Visvodari Nadi 
Stomach Meridian (ST) 
The visvodari nadi is said to run between the kuhu (which 
tentatively corresponds to the liver meridian) and the hasti-155 
jihva (the first line of the urinary bladder meridian on the left 
side). Among the acupuncture meridians which run through 
a horizontal cross-section of the body at the hip level, the sec­
ond and third lines of the urinary bladder meridian, as well 
as the gall bladder, spleen, stomach, and kidney meridians, 
are found between the two mentioned above. According to Shri Jabala Darshana Upanishad, the 
visvodari nadi resides inside the kandasthana, and Yoga-
shikka Upanishad notes that it receives "four kinds of 
nourishment." Since the kandasthana is the area which 
encloses the manipura, the chakra which controls the 
digestive system, these statements suggest that this nadi is 
related to the stomach and other digestive organs. Of the 
eligible meridians, the stomach meridian seems most likely 
to correspond to the visvodari nadi. The Remaining Nadis 
According to Shat-chakra-nirupana, the vajra and citrini 
nadis are finer channels contained within the sushumna 
nadi. As mentioned earlier, Yoga-shikka Upanishad's description 
of the citra nadi seems to identify it with the deferent duct or 
the ureter. The raka nadi, as described in Yoga-shikka Upanishad, 
"drinks water instantaneously, causes sneezing, and collects 
phlegm." Thus, it probably corresponds to the esophagus or 
pharynx. Another nadi, called jihva, is mentioned in Shri Jabala Dar­
shana Upanishad. It is impossible to accurately describe its 
location, however, since it is merely said to "flow upwards." This completes our study of the nadis and meridians. As 
we have seen, the lack of detailed descriptions in the yoga 
sources makes it difficult to make accurate correspondences. It is my intention to gather other source materials to render 
more precise these attempts to correlate the two systems of 156 
energy circulation. I also intend to conduct scientific ex­
periments to substantiate the ideas presented here. Although the traditional descriptions of the nadis in the 
yogic texts are extremely brief, I believe that much more 
detailed knowledge has been transmitted orally throughout 
the ages, and that modern yogis have experiential knowledge 
of the nadis and their functions. In fact, as we have seen in 
previous chapters, many of the yoga asanas and mudras ef­
fectively redirect the circulation of vital energy, thereby 
strengthening the functions of the related meridians. I 
believe that accomplished yogis are fully aware of these ef­
fects. For instance, it is widely taught that Vajrasana (Japanese 
"seiza" posture, see Chapt. IV p. 107} promotes good diges­
tion. As I noted in Chapter IV, although yoga authorities of­
fer no rationale for this effect, it can be easily explained in 
terms of meridian theory. When one sits in Vajrasana, the 
medial and lateral areas of the leg below the knee touch the 
floor and are thus stimulated. The meridians which traverse 157 
these areas are the very ones which control the digestive 
functions: the stomach and gall bladder meridians in the 
lateral area, and the spleen and liver meridians in the medial 
region. The area which presses hardest against the floor con­
tains points on the stomach meridian known to be particular­
ly effective in improving stomach function: ashi no sanri (tsu 
san-li, ST36), jokokyo (shang-chu-su, ST37), joko (tiao-kou, 
ST38), gekokyo (hsia-chu-su, ST39), and horyu (teng-lung, 
ST40). It has been demonstrated experimentally, through 
radiography and other means, that the stimulation of the ashi 
no sanri point with an acupuncture needle promotes 
peristaltic movement and gastric secretion in the stomach. In my opinion, yoga gurus are aware, at least experiential-
ly, of this connection between the nadis along the leg and 
their connection with the digestive organs. Let us now turn our attention to the different varieties of 
prana which function in the body, as described in our 
sources. The Five Major Pranas 
According to yoga theory, prana or vital energy is ab­
sorbed into the body through respiration or directly through 
the function of the chakras. It is then distributed through the 
nadis to all parts of the body, converting into different forms 
of pranic energy appropriate for the various organs and 
tissues. Usually, five varieties of prana (or vayu, "wind") are 
posited: prana (that is, the sub-type of prana associated with 
respiration), apana, vyana, samana, and udana. They func­
tion as follows: 
prana: serves the area between the throat and 
diaphragm. It controls the functions of respiration and 
speech, and in my opinion, the function of the heart. apana: governs the area below the navel. It controls the 
functions of the large intestine, kidneys, bladder, 158 
genitals, and anus; in particular, it generates evacua­
tion. vyana: pervades the entire body. It spreads vitality 
through the system, maintaining a balanced energy 
flow. samana: governs the navel area, controlling the 
digestive and assimilative processes. udana: pervades the area above the throat, and the four 
limbs. It is said to govern the five senses and the func­
tions of the brain. Also, it controls the upward flow of 
vital energy in the body. Overactivity of udana causes 
such disturbances as dizziness and overheating in the 
head. Tables II and III list the locations and functions of these 
five forms of prana as described in our sources. Also in­
cluded is information provided by Swami Satyananda, 
whose theories on the chakras are presented in detail in 
Chapter IX. Brief explanations of these pranic sub-divisions 
are also found in Brhadaranyaka Upanishad, Taittiriya 
Upanishad, and Chandogya Upanishad, but they merely 
duplicate the material in the sources already cited. Five Minor Pranas 
As you can see in the above tables, five other sub­
categories of prana are often grouped with the five types 
described above, to form the "ten pranas." These latter five, 
called "upa pranas," supplement the functions of the major 
pranas. Their locations in the body are not described; Shri 
Jabala Darshana Upanishad merely states that they are 
distributed throughout the skin and bones. They function as 
follows: 
naga: controls salivation and hiccupping. kurma: opens the eyes and controls blinking 159 
krkara: causes sneezing and creates the sensation of 
hunger 
devadatta: controls yawning and sleeping. dhanamjaya: pervades the entire body, remaining even 
after death. Hair growth, which is occasionally ob­
served some months after death, might be due to the 
function of lingering dhanamjaya. As we have seen, these pranas are absorbed into the body 
through respiration and directly by the chakras, and 
distributed by the nadis to the five regions of the body. However, the specific nadis related to each region are not 
identified in the yoga texts. This clearly contrasts with 
Chinese medical theory, where the relationships between the 
meridians and internal organs, as well as the functional in­
terrelationships among the various meridians, are clearly 
defined. Further research may enable us to more clearly 
understand the connections between the nadis and the 
body's organs. Is there anything in acupuncture theory which cor­
responds to the five pranas of yoga? I feel that the "triple 
heater," a conception which posits upper, middle, and lower 
systems of vital energy in the body, is the corresponding 
principle. The upper heater works in the region above the dia­
phragm - the chest and up. It is said to govern the lungs and 
the respiratory function, and the heart and blood circulation. It thus resembles the prana of respiration, both in location 
and function. The middle heater lies in the area between the diaphragm 
and the navel. It controls the secretory, digestive, and 
assimilative functions of the stomach, spleen, pancreas, 
liver, and gall bladder. Thus it seems to correspond to 
samana. The lower heater operates in the region below the navel, 
and controls the functions of the large and small intestines, 160 
Table II Locations of the Ten Pranas at Given in Upanishads and Other Sources 
Source/ 
Name of 
Prima 
Prana 
Apana 
Vyana 
Samana 
Udana 
Naga 
Kurma 
Krkara 
Devadatta 
Dhanamjaya Yoga Cudamani 
Upanishad 
Heart 
Muladhara 
Pervades 
entire body 
Navel 
Pharynx 
0 
0 
0 
0 
Pervades 
entire body Shri jabala Darshana 
Upanishad 
In constant movement in area 
between mouth and nose, at 
center of navel, and in heart 
Works in large intestine, 
genitals, thighs and stomach; 
also at navel and in buttocks. Works from area between ears 
and eyes to heels: emerges at 
pharynx in place of prana 
Pervades all parts of body 
Upper and lower limbs 
Pervades skin and bones 
In skin and bones 
In skin and bones 
In skin and bones 
In skin and bones Shat-chakra-Nirupana 
Pandukapunchaka 
In the heart 
In the anus 
Pervades whole body 
In navel 
In throat 
0 
0 
0 
0 
0 Satyananda 
Located in region between larynx 
and top of diaphragm 
In region below navel 
Pervades whole body 
In the region between heart and navel 
In parts of body above larynx 
0 
0 
0 
0 
0 161 Table III Functions of (he Ten Pranas as Given in Upanishads and Other Sources 
Source/ 
Name of 
Prana 
Prana 
Apana 
Vyana 
Samana 
Udana 
Naga 
Kurma 
Krkara 
Devadatta 
Dhanamjaya Yoga Cudamani 
Upanishad 
0 
0 
0 
0 
0 
Spitting 
Open eyes 
Sneezing 
Yawning 
Pervades whole 
body; does not 
leave corpse Shri jabala 
Darshana 
Upanishad 
Exhalation and 
inhalation of air; 
coughing 
Excretion of feces 
and urine 
Decomposition 
activities 
Draws all parts 
together 
Upward moving 
activity 
Hiccuping 
Blinking 
Hunger 
Sleeping 
Glaring Shat-chakra-Nirupana 
Pandukapunchaka 
Respiration 
Excretory functions 
is present throughout the 
body, effecting division 
and diffusion; resists dis­
integration; and holds 
the body together in all 
parts. Governs process of 
digestion and 
assimilation 
Ascending vayu 
0 
0 
0 
0 
0 Satyananda 
Associated with the respiratory organs, the organs of 
speech, together with the muscles and nerves 
that activate those organs; the force by which 
the breath is drawn inside. Provides energy to the large intestine, kidneys, anus 
and genitals; primarily concerned with the 
expulsion of prana through the rectum. Regulates and controls the overall movement of the 
body and coordinates the other vital energies; 
harmonizes and activates all the limbs, 
and all associated muscles, ligaments, 
nerves and joints; is also responsible for erect 
posture of body. Activates and controls the digestive system; liver, 
intestines, pancreas and stomach, and secretions 
that they supply; also activates heart and circulatory 
system in general. Controls eyes, nose, ears and all other sense organs, 
as well as brain. Without it, thinking and perception 
of external world would be impossible. • sneezing 
• yawning 
• scratching 
• belching 
• hiccuping 
• hunger 162 
kidneys, urinary bladder, and genitals. It governs the excre­
tion of feces and urine, and seems to correspond to apana. There is no counterpart in acupuncture theory for udana, 
which, as we have seen, is related to sensory perception and 
the thought process. It also is said to affect directly the ad­
vancement of spiritual evolution through its capacity to 
direct energy upward. This helps the force generated when 
prana and kundalini are fused through yoga practice to rise 
along the sushumna nadi and pass through the Brahman 
Gate at the crown. The lack of a Chinese counterpart to 
udana is understandable, considering the fact that the 
primary focus of oriental medicine is the maintenance of 
health in the physiological system, rather than the manipula­
tion of mental or spiritual states. (It is true that such emo­
tional afflictions as depression or excessive fear can be 
treated through acupuncture, but these are viewed as symp­
toms caused by an imbalance in ki energy flow in the body.) Unlike the Indian system of chakras, nadis, and pranas, 
which is described primarily in terms of the individual's 
spiritual advancement, meridian theory offers few clues con­
cerning a possible functional connection between ki energy 
and the spiritual evolution of man. Vyana, which spreads and distributes vital energy to every 
minute part of the body, maintains the whole in a state of 
organic unity. This function is performed by the triple heater 
as a whole, which of course is represented by a single meri­
dian in acupuncture theory. There is no correlation to yoga's 
claim that vyana governs all voluntary movement, however, 
as this again is a mental function outside the sphere of Orien­
tal medicine. It is hoped that this discussion of the chakras, nadis, and 
pranas as they are presented in the Upanishads, and their 
possible connection with the basic tenets of Chinese 
medicine, has shed light on both systems. In the next chapter 
we will present in detail the descriptions of the chakras in 
two of the major tantric texts. VI-A 
The Chakras and Nadis as 
Described in the 
Shat-Chakra-Nirupana 
Many scholars and authorities on yoga regard the Shat-
chakra-nirupana (Descriptions of the Six Centers) as one of 
the best-written descriptions of the chakras and nadis. It was 
compiled in 1577 by the pundit Purananda, a guru from 
Bengal. His given name was Jagadananda; he assumed the 
name of Purananda upon initiation by his guru Brahmananda. Later he went to Kamarupa in Assam. It is believed that he 
obtained his siddhi (state of spiritual perfection), in an 
ashram, the Vashishthashrama, which still exists today. Pur-
nananda never returned home. He lived the life of a holy 
man and compiled several treatises on tantra. Shat-chakra-
nirupana is, in fact, one section (from Part Six) of a much 
longer work entitled Shri-tattva-cintamini". The Shat-chakra-nirupana was first translated into English 
by Arthur Avalon (Sir John Woodroffe) in 1918 and was pub­
lished in his pioneering work, The Serpent Power. This same 
volume also includes Avalon's translation of another impor­
tant tantric text, Paduka-panchaka (The Fivefold Footstool), 
as well as his commentaries on both. The following excerpts represent the major portion of the 
text, adapted by the present author from Avalon's transla­
tion. I have grouped the verses by topic, and added the 
parenthetical explanatory notes. 163 164 
Concerning the Ida, Pingala, and Sushumna nadis, Pur-
nananda writes: 
Verse 1 
• In the space outside the spinal column, on the left and 
the right, are the two nadis, Ida (moon, feminine) and 
Pingala {sun, masculine). The Nadi Sushumna, whose 
substance is the threefold Gunas (qualities), is in the 
middle (its outermost part is the Sushumna nadi"; its 
middle is the Vajra Nadi; its innermost part is the 
Chitrini Nadi). The Sushumna extends from the mid­
dle of the Kanda (the root of all the Nadis) to the head, 
the Vajra inside her extends from the penis to the 
head. * 
Verse 2 
• Inside the Vajra is the Chitrini, shining with the lustre 
of Om. She is as subtle as a spider's thread, and 
pierces all the Lotuses (chakras) which are placed 
within the backbone. She is pure intelligence. Inside 
the Chitrini is the Brahma-nadi†, which extends from 
the orifice at the top of the Linga (the symbol of the 
phallus, also representing the astral body) in the 
Muladhara chakra to the Bindu (spot or knot) in the 
pericarp of the Sahasrara. * American readers may be jarred by the use of the feminine pronoun 
throughout this translation, particularly when it is used in the same 
phrase with reference to the penis. Rather than changing Avalon's phras­
ing (from The Serpent Power) we will leave it and simply point out that the 
Sushumna nadi is personified as a female deity, thus calling for "her" , but 
the "penis" referred to belongs to the physical body of the practitioner. The Vajra is a nadi inside the sushumna. † The Brahma nadi seems to be the hollow channel inside the Chitrini, not a 
separate nadi: 165 
Verse 3 
• The Chitrini is beautiful like a chain of lightning and 
fine like a lotus fiber, and shines in the minds of the 
sages. She is extremely subtle; the awakener of pure 
knowledge and the embodiment of all bliss, her true 
nature is pure consciousness. The Brahman gate 
shines in her mouth. This place is the entrance to the 
region sprinkled by ambrosia, and is called the Knot; it 
is the mouth of the Sushumna. Describing the chakras, the text continues: 
Verse 4 
The Adhara (Muladhara) Chakra 
• This Lotus is attached to the mouth of the Sushumna, 
and is placed below the genitals and above the anus. It 
has four petals of crimson hue. Its head hangs 
downward On its petals are the four letters from Va to 
Sa, of the shining color of gold. Verse 5 
• In this Lotus the square region of Prithivi (the earth 
element) surrounded by eight shining spears. It is of a 
shining yellow color and beautiful like lightning, as is 
also the Bija (the mystical "seed" syllable of the 
chakra, here, "Lam") of Prithivi which is within. Verse 6 
• This Bija is ornamented with four arms and mounted 
on the king of elephants. He carries on his lap the 
child Creator, resplendent like the young Sun, who 
has four lustrous arms and heads. 166 
Verse 7 
• Here dwells a Devi (goddess), Dakini by name; her 
four arms shine with beauty and her eyes are brilliant 
red. She is resplendent like the lustre of many Suns 
rising at one and the same time. She is the carrier of 
the revelation of ever-pure Intelligence. Muladhara 
Verse 8 
• Near the mouth of the Nadi called Vajra, and in the 
pericarp, there constantly shines the beautifully lumi­
nous and soft, lightning-like triangle which is Kama-
rupa, also known as Traipura. There is always and 
everywhere the Vayu (vital force) called Kandarpa (the 
god of love) who is very deep red, and is the Lord of 
Beings, resplendent like ten million suns. 167 
Verse 9 
• Inside the triangle is Svayambhu ("The self-
originated") in his Linga-form (Shiva Linga), beautiful 
like molten gold, with his head downwards. He is 
revealed by knowledge (jnana) and meditation (dhy-
ana) and is of the shape and color of a new leaf. As the 
cool rays of lightning and of the full moon charm, so 
does his beauty. The Deva (god) who resides happily 
here is in form like a whirlpool. Verses 10, 11 
• Over Shiva Linga shines the sleeping Kundalini, fine 
as the fiber of the lotus-stalk. She is Maya (the bewild-
erer) in this world, gently covering the hollow on the 
head of Shiva Linga. Like the spiral of a conch-shell, 
her shining snake-like form coils three and a half 
times around Shiva Linga, and her luster is that of a 
strong flash of young lightning. Her sweet murmur is 
like the indistinct hum of swarms of love-mad bees. She produces melodious poetry and all other composi­
tions in prose or verse in Sanskrit and other lan­
guages. It is she who maintains all the beings of the 
world by means of inspiration and expiration, and 
shines in the cavity of the root Lotus like a chain of 
brilliant lights. Verse 12 
• Within Shiva Linga reigns dominant Para, the 
awakener of eternal knowledge. She is the omnipotent 
Kala [a form of Nada (sound) Shakti] who is wonder­
fully skillful in creation and is subtler than the 
subtlest. She is the receptacle of the continuous 
stream of ambrosia which flows from the Eternal 
Bliss. By her radiance the whole universe is illumined. 168 
Verse 13 
• By meditating on Para (or Kundalini) who shine's 
within the Mula Chakra, with the lustre of ten million 
suns, a man becomes Lord of speech, King among 
men, and an Adept in all kinds of learning. He be­
comes ever free from all diseases, and his inmost 
spirit becomes full of great gladness. Pure of disposi­
tion by his deep and musical words, he serves the 
foremost of the Devas. The Svadhishthana Chakra 
Svadhishthana 
Verse 14 
• There is another Lotus placed inside the Sushumna at 
the root of the genitals, of a beautiful vermilion color. On its six petals are the letters from Ba to La, with the 169 
Bindu (spot) superimposed over each, of the shining 
color of lightning. Verse 15 
• Within this Lotus is the white, shining, watery region 
of Varuna, in the shape of a crescent, and therein, 
seated on a Makara (a legendary animal resembling an 
alligator), is the Bija Vam (connected with the princi­
ple of water, just as the Bija "Lam" of the Muladhara 
is related to the earth element). It is stainless and 
white as the autumnal moon. Verse 16 
• Hari (Vishnu), who is within the Bindu of Vam, who is 
in the pride of early youth, whose body is of a 
luminous blue beautiful to behold, who is dressed in 
yellow raiment, is four-armed, and wears the Shri-
vasta (an auspicious curl on the breast of Vishnu) and 
Kaustubha (a great gem worn by him) - protect us! Verse 17 
• It is here that Rakini always dwells. She is of the color 
of a blue lotus. The beauty of her body is enhanced by 
her uplifted arms holding various weapons. She is 
dressed in celestial raiment and ornaments, and her 
mind is exhalted with the drinking of ambrosia (which 
drips down from the Sahasrara). Verse 18 
• He who meditates upon this stainless Lotus, which is 
named Svadhishthana, is freed immediately from all 
his enemies such as lust, anger, greed, and so forth. 170 
He becomes a Lord among Yogis, and is like the Sun 
illumining the darkness of ignorance. The wealth of 
his nectar-like words flows in prose and verse in well-
reasoned discourse. The Manipura Chakra 
Manipuraka 
Verse 19 
• Above the Svadhishthana, at the root of the navel, is a 
shining Lotus of ten petals, of the color of heavy-laden 
rain clouds. Within it are the letters Da to Pha, of the 
color of the blue lotus with the Nada and Bindu above 
them. Meditate there on the region of Fire, triangular 
in form and shining like the rising sun. Outside it are 
three Svastika marks (one at each side of the triangle) 
and within the Bija of Vahni (i.e. the seed-mantra of 
Fire, "Ram") himself. 171 
Verse 20 
• Meditate upon him seated on a ram, four-armed, ra­
diant like the rising Sun. In his lap ever dwells Rudra, 
who is of a pure vermilion hue. He (Rudra) is white 
with the ashes which he is smeared with; he is of an 
ancient aspect and three-eyed. His hands are placed in 
the attitude of granting boons and of dispelling fear. He is the destroyer of creation. Verse 21 
• Here abides Lakini, the benefactress of all. She is four-
armed, of radiant body, is dark of complexion, clothed 
in yellow raiment and decked with various or­
naments, and exalted by drinking ambrosia. By 
meditating on this Navel Lotus the power to destroy 
and create (the world) is acquired. Vani (the Devi of 
Speech, that is, Sarasvati) with all the wealth of 
knowledge ever abides in the Lotus of his face (that of 
Fire, represented by the seed-mantra "Ram"). The Anahata Chakra 
Anahata 172 
Verse 22 
• Above the Manipura, in the heart, is the charming 
Lotus of the shining color (crimson) of the Bandhuka 
flower, with the twelve letters beginning with Ka, of 
the color vermilion, placed therein. It is known by its 
name of Anahata, and is like the celestial wishing-tree, 
bestowing even more than is desired. The Region of 
Vayu (wind), beautiful and with six corners, which is 
like smoke in color, is here. Verse 23 
• Meditate within the Region of Vayu on the sweet and 
excellent Pavana Bija (the principle of the Anahata 
Chakra, the Bija of Vayu, "Yam"), grey as a mass of 
smoke, with four arms and seated on a black antelope. And within it also meditate upon the abode of Mercy, 
the stainless Lord who is lustrous like the Sun and 
whose two hands make the gestures which grant 
boons and dispel the fears of the three worlds. Verse 24 
• Here dwells Kakini, who in color is yellow like new 
lightning, exhilarated and auspicious; three-eyed and 
the benefactress of all. She wears all kinds of or­
naments, and in her four hands she carries the noose 
and skull and makes the sign of blessing and the sign 
which dispels fear. Her heart is softened with the 
drinking of nectar. Verse 25 
• The Shakti (power) whose tender body is like ten 
million flashes of lightning is in the pericarp of this 
Lotus in the form of a triangle. Inside the triangle is 173 
the Shiva Linga (see the verses on the Muladhara 
chakra) known by the name of Bana. This Linga is like 
shining gold, and on his head is an orifice minute as 
that in a pierced gem. He is the resplendent abode of 
Lakshmi (the Devi of prosperity). Verse 26 
• He who meditates on this Heart Lotus becomes like 
the Lord of Speech, and (like) Ishvara he is able to pro­
tect and destroy the worlds. This Lotus is like the 
celestial wishing tree, the abode and seat of Shiva. It is 
beautified by the Hamsa (here the Jivatma, the in­
dividual soul) which is like the steady tapering flame 
of a lamp in a windless place. The filaments which 
surround and adorn its pericarp, illumined by the 
solar region, are exquisite. Verse 27 
• Foremost among yogis, he (who meditates on the 
Heart Lotus) is ever dearer than the dearest to women. He is pre-eminently wise and full of noble deeds. His 
senses are completely under control. His mind, in its 
intense concentration, is engrossed in thoughts of the 
Brahman. His inspired speech flows like a stream of 
clear water. He is like the Devata who is the beloved of 
Lakshmi and he is able at will to enter another's body. The Vishuddhi Chakra 
• In the throat is the Lotus called the Vishuddhi which 
is pure and of a smoky purple hue. All the sixteen 
shining vowels on its sixteen petals, of a crimson hue, 
are distinctly visible to him whose mind is illumined. In the pericarp of this Lotus is the Ethereal Region, 
circular in shape and white like the full moon. On an 174 
elephant white as snow is seated the Bija of Ambara 
(the Ethereal Region; its bija is "Ham") who is white 
of color. Verses 28, 29 
• Of his Bija's four arms, two hold the noose and goad, 
and the other two make the gestures of granting boons 
and dispelling fear. These add to his beauty. In his lap 
there ever dwells the great snow-white Deva, three-
eyed and five-faced, with ten beautiful arms, and 
clothed in a tiger's skin. His body is united with that of 
Girija (a title of the Devi conceived as the daughter of 
the Mountain King), and he is known by what his 
name Sada-shiva (Sada - ever, Shiva - beneficence), 
signifies. Vishuddha 
Verse 30 
• Purer than the Ocean of Nectar is the Shakti Sakini 
who dwells in this Lotus. Her raiment is yellow, and 175 
in her four lotus-hands she carries the bow, the arrow, 
the noose, and the goad. The whole region of the 
Moon without the mark of the hare (the hare is the In­
dian equivalent of the "man in the moon") is in the 
pericarp of this lotus. This region is the gateway of 
great liberation for him who desires the wealth of 
Yoga and whose senses are pure and controlled. Verse 31 
• He who has attained complete knowledge of the Atma 
(Brahman) becomes, by constantly concentrating his 
mind in this Lotus, a great Sage, eloquent and wise, 
and enjoys uninterrupted peace of mind. He sees the 
three periods, and becomes the benefactor of all, free 
from disease and sorrow, and long-lived, and, like 
Hamsa (here, Antaratma, the true-self, that dwells by 
the pericarp of the Sahasrara chakra), the destroyer of 
endless dangers. Verse 31-A 
• The Yogi, his mind constantly fixed on this Lotus, his 
breath controlled by Kumbhaka (breath retention), 
could move the three worlds, were he to get angry. Neither Brahma nor Vishnu, neither Hari-Hara (the 
combined form of Vishnu and Shiva) nor Surya (the 
god of the Sun) nor Ganapa (the God of Wisdom and 
protector from obstacles) is able to control his power. The Ajna Chakra 
Verse 32 
• The Lotus named Ajna is like the moon, beautifully 
white. On its two petals are the letters Ha and Ksha, 
which are also white and enhance its beauty. It shines 176 
with the glory of Dhyana (meditation). Inside it is the 
Shakti Hakini, whose six faces are like so many 
moons. She has six arms, in one of which she holds a 
book (the gesture of enlightenment); two others are 
lifted up in gestures of dispelling fear and granting 
boons, and with the rest she holds a skull, a small 
drum, and a rosary (with which mantra recitation is 
done). Her mind is pure. Ajna 
Verse 33 
• Within this Lotus dwells the subtle mind (manas). It is 
well known. Inside the Yoni (which usually signifies 
the female genital organs, and here is symbolized by 
the triangle) in the pericarp is the Shiva called Itara in 
his phallic form. He here shines like a chain of light­
ning flashes. The first Bija of the Veda (OM), which the 
abode of the most excellent Shakti and which by its 
lustre makes visible the Nadi Chitrini, is also there. The Sadhaka (yoga practitioner on the path to realiza­
tion) with steady mind should meditate upon these ac­
cording to the order prescribed. 177 
Verse 34 
• The excellent Sadhaka, whose Atma (the True Self) is 
nothing but a meditation on this Lotus, is able quickly 
to enter another's body at will, and becomes the most 
excellent among Munis (those who are accomplished 
in dhyana yoga), and is all-knowing and all-seeing. He 
becomes the benefactor of all, and is versed in all the 
Shastras (sacred texts and commentaries). He realizes 
his unity with the Brahman and acquires excellent 
and unknown powers (Siddhi). Full of fame and long-
lived, he ever becomes the Creator, Destroyer, and 
Preserver of the three worlds. Verse 35 
• Within the triangle in this Chakra ever dwells the com­
bination of letters A and U which form the Pranava 
(the sacred syllable OM; see note below). It is the inner 
Atma as pure mind (Buddhi), and resembles a flame in 
its radiance. Above it is the crescent moon, and above 
this, again, is Ma-kara (the letter M), shining in its form 
of Bindu (this M, together with A and U, form AUM -
OM, the Bija Mantra of the Ajna Chakra). Above this is 
Nada, whose whiteness equals that of the moon, dif­
fusing its rays. Verse 36 
• When the Yogi closes the house which hangs without 
support (i.e., sever the mind's connections with the 
physical world by performing yoni mudra, in which 
the mouth, ears, nostrils, eyes, and genital and anal 
orifices are closed - see Chapt. IV, p. 105 ) the 
knowledge whereof he has attained by the service of 
the excellent guru, and when the Cetas (outer-directed 178 
consciousness) by repeated practice becomes dis­
solved in this place which is the abode of uninter­
rupted bliss, he then sees within the middle of and in 
the space above (the triangle) sparks of fire distinctly 
shining. Verse 37 
• He then also sees the light which is in the form of a 
flaming lamp. It is lustrous like the clearly shining 
morning sun, and glows between the Sky (the 
Sahasrara chakra) and the Earth (the Muladhara 
chakra). It is here that Parama Shiva manifests himself 
in the fullness of his might. He knows no decay, and 
witnesses all, and is here as he is in the region of Fire, 
Moon and Sun (that is, as in the Sahasrara chakra). Verse 38 
• This is in the incomparable and delightful abode of 
Vishnu. The excellent Yogi at the time of death joyful­
ly places his vital breath (Prana) here and enters (after 
death) the Supreme, Eternal Birthless, Primeval Deva, 
the Purusha, who was before the three worlds, and 
who is known by the Vedanta (the sacred texts dealing 
with the nature of Brahman). Verse 39 
• When the actions of the Yogi are good in all respects 
through the service of the Lotus feet of his Guru (i.e. when he is accomplished in service to his guru and in 
meditation upon the Ajna) then he will see, above the 
Ajna Chakra, the form of the Mahanada (great Nada), 
and will ever hold in the Lotus of his hand the Siddhi 
of Speech (all powers of speech). The Mahanada, 179 
which is the place of dissolution of Vayu, is half com­
prised of Shiva and like a plough in shape; it is tran­
quil and grants boons and dispels fear, and makes 
manifest pure intelligence (Buddhi). The Sahasrara Chakra 
Verse 40 
• Above all these, in the vacant space wherein is the 
Shankhini Nadi, and below the Brahman gate is the 
Lotus of a thousand petals. This Lotus, lustrous and 
whiter than the full moon, has its head turned 
downward. It charms. Its clustered filaments are 
tinged with the color of the young sun. Its body is 
luminous with letters beginning with A, and it is the 
absolute bliss. Sahasrara 180 
Verse 41 
• Within the Sahasrara is the full moon, without the 
mark of the hare, resplendent as in a clear sky. It 
sheds its rays in profusion, and is moist and cool like 
nectar. Inside it, constantly shining like lightning, is 
the Triangle and inside this, again, shines the Great 
Void (Bindu) which is served in secret by all the 
Devas. Verse 42 
• Well concealed, and attainable only by great effort, is 
the subtle Bindu (the "phase" of the moon represen­
ting Nirvana) with Ama Kala (its "nectar-dripping" 
phase). Here is the Deva who is known to all as 
Parama Shiva. He is the Brahman and the Atma of all 
beings. In him are united both Rasa (the experience of 
supreme bliss) and Virasa (the bliss which is the pro­
duct of the union of Shiva and Shakti). He is the Sun 
which destroys the darkness of nescience and delu­
sion. Verse 43 
• By shedding a constant and profuse stream of nectar­
like essence, the Lord instructs the Yati (self-
controlled) of pure mind in the knowledge by which 
he realizes the oneness of Jivatma (the individual soul) 
and Paramatma (the soul of the universe). He pervades 
all things as their Lord, who is the ever-flowing and 
spreading current of all manner of bliss known by the 
name of Hamsah Parama. 181 
Verse 44 
• The worshippers of Shiva call it the abode of Shiva; 
the worshippers of Vishnu call it the place of Parama 
Purusha (Vishnu); the worshippers of both Shiva and 
Vishnu call it the place of Hari-Hara [the united selves 
of Hari (Vishnu) and Hara (Shiva)]. Those who are 
filled with a passion for the Lotus feet of the Devi 
(Goddess Shakti) call it the excellent abode of the Devi; 
and the worshippers of the Hamsah Mantra [Hamsah 
is the union of Purusha (the true or pure Self, "Ham") 
and Prakriti (the original substance, "Sah")] call it the 
pure place of Prakriti-Purusha. Verse 45 
• That most excellent of men who has controlled his 
mind and known this place is never again born in the 
Wandering (this karmic world), as there is nothing in 
the three worlds which binds him. His mind being 
controlled and his aim achieved, he possesses com­
plete power to do all which he wishes, and to prevent 
that which is contrary to his will. He ever moves 
towards the Brahman (or, "he is able to roam the 
sky"). His speech, whether in prose or verse, is ever 
pure and sweet. Verse 46 
• Here is the excellent sixteenth Kala (phase) of the 
moon (Ama-Kala). She is pure, and resembles (in col­
or) the young sun. She is as thin as the hundredth part 
of a fiber in the stalk of a lotus. She is lustrous and soft 
like ten million lightning flashes, and is down-turned. 182 
From her, whose source is the Brahman, the contin­
uous stream of nectar flows copiously (or, "she is the 
receptacle of the stream of excellent nectar which 
comes from the blissful union of Shiva and Shakti"). Verse 47 
• Inside it (Ama-kala) is Nirvana-kala, more excellent 
than the excellent (Ama-kala). She is as subtle as the 
thousandth part of the end of a hair, and in the shape 
of the crescent moon. She is the ever-existent Bhagav-
ati who is the Devata (divinity) who pervades all be­
ings. She grants divine knowledge, and is as lustrous 
as the light of all the suns shining at one and the same 
time. Verse 48 
• Within its middle space (i.e. middle of the Nirvana-
kala) shines the Supreme and Primordial Nirvana 
Shakti. She is lustrous like ten million suns and is the 
Mother of the three worlds. She is extremely subtle, 
like the ten-millionth part of the end of a hair. She con­
tains within her the constantly flowing stream of glad­
ness, and is the life of all beings. She graciously car­
ries the knowledge of the Truth to the mind of the 
sages. Verse 49 
• Within Nirvana Shakti is the everlasting place called 
the abode of Shiva where there is neither kala [time] 
nor kala [space]. It is free from Maya (the world re­
stricted by time and space), attainable only by Yogis, 
and known by the name of Nityananda. It is replete 183 
with every form of bliss, and pure knowledge itself. Some call it the Brahman; others call it the Hamsa. Wise men describe it as the abode of Vishnu, and 
righteous men speak of it as the ineffable place of 
knowledge of the Atma, or the place of Liberation. (Here, liberation from the world of time and space 
becomes possible.) These, then, are the chakras as they are described in Pur-
nananda's Shat-chakra-nirupana. As you can see, it is clearly 
stated that each chakra has specific coloration, a fixed num­
ber of petals with a designated Sanskrit letter on each, a 
geometric figure (yantra) within the pericarp of the lotus, a 
designated animal and deity or deities whose iconography 
represents aspects or powers associated with the chakra, and 
a bija mantra. Superficially, these details may appear to be mere sym­
bolic representations of certain functions of the chakras, or 
perhaps figures which can be visualized to facilitate medita­
tion. However, the reports of many persons who have under­
gone spiritual training verify many of the details described 
here. For example, people who concentrate on the mula-
dhara or svadhishthana chakras - even those with no prior 
knowledge of chakra symbolism - often report seeing a 
flame-like glow either around the perineum or below the 
navel. This would seem to correspond to the red petals these 
two chakras are said to possess. I find it plausible that the 
designated colors of each chakra may represent the colora­
tion of its aura in the astral dimension, and that the other 
symbols may exist in some real way. Of particular interest here is the experience of my mother, 
a well-respected and highly-evolved religious personality. In 
her 20s and 30s she practiced water asceticism frequently in 
the depths of the mountains. During this practice she often 
saw around her heart a character like an inverted sailboat, 184 
surrounded by brilliant golden light. When she first asked me 
what it was I did not know, but a year or two later I began to 
study Sanskrit and read this Shat-chakra- nirupana. I realized 
immediately that the "inverted sailboat" she described was 
none other than "
  " (YAM), the bija mantra of the anahata 
chakra. Furthermore, the golden light she perceived is prob­
ably related to the golden triangle located within the bija (see 
figure of Anahata). In his book The Chakras, the Rev. C. W. 
Leadbeater (see Chapter VII), also describes the anahata as 
glowing a golden color. Therefore, in my opinion the descriptions of the chakras in 
Shat-chakra-Nirupana are more than mere symbolic repre­
sentations. I am in agreement with Swami Satyananda 
Saraswati, who states in his Tantra of Kundalini Yoga, that 
there are numerous worlds beyond our everyday conscious­
ness in the astral and causal dimensions where these geo­
metrical figures, colors, and syllables may actually exist. In­
deed, many of the iconographic details, as well as the 
paranormal abilities and mental states described here as 
associated with each chakra, correspond closely with the ex­
periences of various ascetics of many religions throughout 
the world. VI-B 
The Chakras as Described 
in the Gorakshashatakam 
Gorakshashtakam is a yoga text written by the pundit 
Goraknath for the benefit of his disciples, probably during 
the tenth century. Widely respected and loved by the people 
of his time as the greatest living saint and guru in India, he 
was a man of great knowledge whose travels took him to 
areas outside of India such as Afghanistan and Baluchistan. The descriptions of the chakras in the Gorakshashatakam 
resemble those in the Upanishads in most respects. Some ad­
ditional information is provided, however, particularly con­
cerning the paranormal abilities which accompany chakra 
awakening. Therefore, in this chapter I would like to present 
the following excerpts from the text, which I have adapted 
from the English translation edited by Swami Kuvalayanan-
da and Dr. S.A. Shikla. The paranthetical remarks are mine, 
unless otherwise indicated. Verse 78 
• The first chakra, called adhara (muladhara) is like bur­
nished gold; meditating (on it) with the gaze fixed on 
the tip of the nose, one is freed from sin. 185 186 
Verse 79 
• The second chakra is svadhishthana, beautiful like a 
genuine ruby; meditating (on it) with the gaze fixed on 
the tip of the nose one is freed from sin. Verse 80 
• The Manipuraka (manipura) chakra is like the morn­
ing sun; meditating (on it) with the gaze fixed on the 
tip of the nose one can stir up the world. Verse 82 
• Fixing the gaze on the tip of the nose and meditating 
on (Anahata), refulgent like lightning, in the Lotus of 
the heart, one becomes one with Brahman. Verse 83 
• In the center of the throat is the vishuddhi chakra, the 
source of nectar; meditating (on it) with the gaze fixed 
on the tip of the nose continuously, one becomes iden­
tified with Brahman. Verse 84 
• With the gaze fixed on the tip of the nose (and) 
meditating on the deity, resplendent as a pearl, that 
resides in the center of the brows (the ajna chakra), 
one becomes full of Bliss.
_OceanofPDF.com_Theories_of_the_Chakras_-_Hiroshi_Motoyama.txt
Summarize the following text section accurately and concisely. Maintain specific details and numerical information, and use anti-repetition mechanisms:

        It is said that all nadis originate at the kan-
dasthana, a spherical region centered around the navel. From 
there, the other nadis follow paths on all sides of the sushum­
na - right and left, front and back. Some terminate in the eyes 
or ears, others in the genital or perineal area, still others in 
the mouth or tongue. These ideas are at odds with Western 
medical knowledge, which considers the brain and the 
spinal column to be the nervous system. From the point of view of embryology, as well, it is clear 
that the navel and the formation of the nervous system are 
not related. The navel and its surrounding organs develop 
from the endoderm and mesoderm. For example, the con­
nective tissues of the following anatomical structures 
develop from the mesoderm: kidneys, adrenal glands, sexual 
glands, uterine tubes, womb, vagina, notocord, supporting 
structures (bone, cartilage, and connective tissue in the 
broad sense), dentine, heart, blood vessels, lymphatic 
vessels, lymph nodes, hemolymph nodes, spleen, striated 
muscles, smooth muscles, etc. On the other hand, the central 
nevous system develops from the ectoderm. Thus, even at the 
embryonic stage, the navel and the nervous system are not 
closely related. This evidence leads me to believe that the 139 
nadis are not identical with the nervous system. Statistical Diagram of Susceptibility to Disease 
A Model of Umbilical Cord. Amnion 
Cavity, etc. (Broman) - taken from Human Genetics by 
Dr. Takamichi Tsuzaki -
Some researchers attempt to resolve these contradictions 
by positing two types of nadis, gross and subtle. The former 
are said to correspond to the nervous and vascular systems 
of the physical body, while the latter are composed of subtle 
matter and belong to the astral body. I find this a plausible 
view. However, another possibility is to posit a close cor­
respondence between the nadis and the meridians of Chinese 
medicine. In the next section we will investigate this 
hypothesis, comparing the traditional description of the 
nadis with those of the acupuncture meridians. As noted above, the Upanishads agree that the nadis 
originate in the navel. For example, in the Shri Jabala Darshana 
Upanishad it is said that the kandasthana lies nine fingers 
(18-20 cm. ) above the muladhara chakra, with the navel at 
its center. From here, the nadis spread out in all directions 
(see Table 1). The Yoga-shikka Upanishad confirms this, 
stating "there (at the navel) start the nadis, some flowing ver­
tically and others horizonally. It is called the 'navel wheel' 
(manipura chakra) and is shaped like an egg. " 140 
In fact, Chinese meridian theory is in perfect agreement 
with this conception. The meridian network is said to originate 
at the chukan (chung-wan, CV12) point, which lies midway 
between the navel and the bottom of the sternum. The word 
"kan" means "stomach," and there are actually three "kan" 
points in acupuncture: upper, middle, and lower. These are 
the jokan (shang-wan, CV13, 3-4 cm. below the bottom of the 
sternum on the midsternal line); chukan, mentioned above, 
and gekan (hsia-wan CV10, 3-4 cm. above the navel). Of these 
three, chukan and gekan are within the circumference of the 
manipura chakra and the kandasthana. Like the nadis, acupuncture meridians are also deemed to 
be channels for the circulation of vital energy. Elec­
trophysiological experiments have been conducted to ver­
ify the existence of the meridians, and to establish the direc­
tionality of the energy flow. The results of these experiments 
suggest that the meridians are energy channels quite 
dissimilar to the nervous system; that they form a network 
which spreads throughout the connective tissue of the body; 
and that they are filled with body fluid. In this last respect, 
also, the meridians seem to correspond to the nadis de­
scribed in the Upanishads. For instance, the Chandogya 
Upanishad states that the gross nadis (those of the physical 
body) are filled with a body fluid which is responsible to the 
suns rays. The number of nadis and meridians may be similar. Although there are twelve ordinary and eight extraordinary 
meridians, vast numbers of minor meridians also are said to 
exist. It is quite possible that if all these were counted, the 
total number of meridians might reach 72,000, the figure 
usually associated with the nadis. The nadis and meridians are also similar in that they func­
tion both physiologically and psychologically. In common 
Japanese usage, the word ki, used to indicate the energy 
which flows through the meridians, can also refer to other 
types of both physical and emotional or mental energy. Further­
more, ki energy may be directed mentally within one's own 141 
body, as well as physically by needle stimulation. Expert 
acupuncturists are said to perceive intuitively the movement 
of ki when they are in a state of mental concentration. Similarly, the prana which flows through the nadis may be 
directed mentally by various meditation techniques, as well 
as exercises such as asanas and pranayama which directly 
stimulate the physiological system. The distinction often 
made between gross and subtle nadis also bears witness to 
the dual physiological and psychological nature of this 
energy flow. We shall now attempt to correlate, by comparative study, 
the main nadis with the principal meridians. We shall first 
examine the relationship between the three "great 
nadis" - the sushumna, ida, and pingala - and certain major 
meridians. The Sushumna Nadi 
As shown in Table I, the sushumna, or Brahman nadi, is a 
canal which follows the spine. Descriptions of its starting 
point are not entirely consistent. Shandilya Upanishad states 
that it starts at the muladhara chakra, whereas Shat-chakra-
nirupana says it originates in the kandasthana. According to 
the Chhandogya Upanishad, the sushumna nadi begins at the 
heart. However, most yoga scriptures and other Upanishads 
seem to agree that the muladhara is its starting point. The 
terminal point is always described as the Brahman Gate at 
the top of the head, through which prana and kundalini 
shakti are said to enter and exit. In Chinese medical theory, there is a major "ex­
traordinary" meridian, known as the governor vessel meri­
dian, which seems to correspond closely to the sushumna. Its function is said to be the overall governance of the six 
yang meridians. It starts at the tip of the coccyx (the approx­
imate location of the muladhara chakra), courses up the 
center of the back to the top of the head, and terminates in 142 
Governor Vessel Meridian (GV) 
the upper lip. It is said that ki energy is stored in this meri­
dian like water in a lake: the flows of ki through the twelve 
ordinary meridians are likened to rivers, which distribute 
vital energy to the various organs and tissues. In the event of 
an energy imbalance or insufficient ki in a particular organ 
or part of the body (due to disease or other malfunction), the 
energy stored in the governor vessel meridian is mobilized to 
supplement the flow in the related ordinary meridians. In 
such cases, the stored energy usually flows downward. Likewise, the normal energy flow in the sushumna is said to 
be in a downward direction. These are some of the aspects of 
these two main energy channels which lead me to believe 
they correspond. There are also similar spiritual practices within the two 
traditions of tantra yoga and Taoist meditation which sug­
gest a close correspondence. In many of the tantric yoga 143 
practices, kundalini shakti is directed upward from the 
muladhara chakra to the ajna chakra or Brahman Gate, 
utilizing various breathing and visualization techniques. In 
the Taoist practice known as shoshuten (sometimes called 
the "Circulation of Light"), ki energy is raised from the tip of 
the coccyx to the top of the head along the governor vessel 
meridian. In both cases, this physiological energy is 
sublimated into higher psychological or spiritual energy 
(known as ojas in the yoga tradition). Thus, the functions of 
the sushumna and the governor vessel meridian in spiritual 
practices of their respective traditions exhibit a high degree 
of correspondence. The Ida and Pingala Nadis 
Many yogis, gurus, and Western researchers teach that the 
ida and pingala start at the muladhara and spiral about the 
sushumna up to the ajna, intersecting at each chakra along 
the way. The ida is said to start from the left side of the 
muladhara, passing through the left nostril on its way to 
ajna; the pingala starts on the right side and passes through 
the right nostril (sometimes these two nadis are said to ter­
minate in the nostrils). It has been suggested that these two 
nadis may correspond to the pair of sympathetic nerve 
trunks which wrap around the spinal cord, due to a struc­
tural resemblance to the intersecting nadis. However, none 
of the seven traditional sources listed in Table I describes the 
ida and pingala as intersecting at all. Shri ]abala Darshana 
Upanishad records that these two nadis cover the muladhara 
chakra, and the Brahma knot within it, with their mouths. The ida is said to be located on the left of the sushumna, the 
pingala on the right. Yoga-shikka Upanishad states that they 
originate in the navel wheel (kandasthana), rather than the 
muladhara, but it agrees that they lie on the two sides of the 
sushumna. In general, most sources, ancient and modern, 
agree that the ida and pingala nadis originate in the 144 
muladhara chakra, and lie on the left and right sides, respec­
tively, of the sushumna. Only Shandilya Upanishad and Shri 
Jabala Darshana Upanishad state that they terminate in the 
nostrils; it is not specified whether they run in straight or in­
tersecting lines. Urinary Bladder Meridian (BL) 
I have come to the conclusion that the ida and pingala 
nadis flow beside the sushumna in straight lines, and that 
they correspond to the second lines of the urinary bladder 
meridian for the following reasons. On each side of the body 
this meridian originates near the bridge of the nose, flows up 
over the head, enters inside, and emerges at the back of the 
head. It then divides into two branches: one line, usually 
called the third, courses down the back approximately 9 cm. from the spine, passes along the back of the leg, and ter­
minates in the fifth toe; the second line passes down the back 
about 4. 5 cm. from the spine, going through the lumbar 145 
region to the urinary bladder itself. Situated along this 
second line are the yu ("associated") points, each of which is 
said to reflect the condition of a specific organ. The yu point 
for a given organ is the meeting point between the meridians 
and the autonomic nerves which control that organ in the 
related section of the spine. Therefore, yu points simul­
taneously reflect the condition of the associated autonomic 
nerves and the relevant meridians. For example, acupunc­
ture treatment at the stomach yu point (iyu or wei-shu, BL21, 
the associated point for the stomach on the urinary bladder 
meridian), influences concurrently the condition of the 
stomach, the stomach meridian, and the spinal nerves which 
control stomach functions. Like the ida and pingala 
nadis - second in importance only to the sushumna - these 
secondary lines of the urinary bladder meridian are extreme­
ly important and are used with great frequency in acupunc­
ture treatment. Therefore I have concluded that they corres­
pond to these two nadis. It is interesting to note that in our sources, nadis located in 
the limbs are barely mentioned. Surely, if these are the chan­
nels for the vital energy of the body, they must extend to the 
extremities. The acupuncture meridians in these areas are 
clearly defined. However, we will have to content ourselves 
with analyzing the following nadis within the trunk and 
head, as they are described in the yoga texts. Gandhari Nadi 
The gandhan nadi flows beside and behind the ida nadi 
and terminates in the left eye, according to six of our seven 
sources. (Only Siddhasiddhantapaddhati claims that it 
ends in the ears. ) Therefore, it might correspond to the third 
line of the urinary bladder meridian on the left side of the 
body. The rationale for this will be discussed in the following 146 
two sections. The first line of this meridian (see diagram) 
lies approximately 1.
According to the Upanishads, the nadis originate at the kandasthana, a spherical region centered around the navel.
Where do the nadis originate, according to the Upanishads?
The text states that the nadis and meridians are channels for the circulation of vital energy, and that they function both physiologically and psychologically.
What is the purpose of the nadis and meridians, according to the text?
The Shandilya Upanishad states that the ida and pingala nadis terminate in the nostrils, whereas other Upanishads describe them as not intersecting at all, and instead start at the muladhara chakra and flow on either side of the sushumna.
What is the difference in the description of the ida and pingala nadis in the Shandilya Upanishad and other Upanishads?
According to the text, the Governor Vessel Meridian plays a crucial role in the distribution of vital energy, and is said to be used in acupuncture treatment to supplement the flow of ki energy in the body.
What is the function of the Governor Vessel Meridian in Chinese medicine?
The text states that the Five Major Pranas are responsible for governing various physiological and psychological functions, such as respiration, digestion, and the control of vital energy.
What is the purpose of the Five Major Pranas, according to the text?