Related Species  The endive (C. endiva) has 
similar though milder effects.Citrullus vulgaris (Cucurbitaceae)
Watermelon
Description  Annual vine with hairy, 3–5 lobed 
leaves, yellow flowers, and green fruit typically growing to 10 in (25 cm) across. Habitat & Cultivation  Native to tropical 
Africa, watermelon is grown throughout warm temperate to tropical regions. The fruit is gathered when ripe. Parts Used  Fruit, seeds. Constituents  Watermelon contains citrullin  
and arginine, both of which are thought to  
increase urea production in the liver, so  
increasing the flow of urine. History & Folklore  Watermelon species have 
been used in Egypt for more than 4,000 years, figuring in wall paintings dating to the Old Kingdom (2686–2181 bce). They appear to have been a component in remedies for trembling fingers, constipation, and expelling disease brought on  
by demons. Egyptian myth recounts that the watermelon originated from the semen of  
the god Seth. Medicinal Actions & Uses  Watermelon is 
best known as a thirst-quenching fruit that comes into season when temperatures are at their hottest. In traditional Chinese medicine it is used precisely to counter “summer heat” patterns—characterized by excessive sweating, thirst, raised temperature, scanty urine, diarrhea, and irritability or anger. Watermelon fruit and juice soothe these symptoms, increasing urine flow and cleansing the kidneys. The fruit’s refreshing properties extend to the digestive system, where it clears gas. Watermelon may also be used in the treatment of hepatitis. In hot, stifling weather it is helpful for those suffering from bronchitis or asthma. The cooling fruit pulp may  
be applied to hot and inflamed skin and to soothe sunburn. The seeds can be mashed and used to expel worms. Related Species  The watermelons of Egypt  
(C. lanata and C. colocynthoides) are very similar species. The colocynth (C. colocynthus), native to  dry areas of Africa and Asia, is extremely bitter  and contains a cucurbitacin glycoside with  antitumor properties.Parts Used  Fruit, peel, leaves, flowers, seeds, 
essential oil. Constituents  Bitter orange peel contains a 
volatile oil with limonene (around 90%), flavonoids, coumarins, triterpenes, vitamin C, carotene, and pectin. The flavonoids are anti-inflammatory, antibacterial, and antifungal. The composition of  the volatile oils in the leaves, flowers and peel varies significantly. Linalyl acetate (50%) is the main constituent in oil from the leaves (petitgrain) and linalool (35%) in oil from the flowers (neroli). The unripe fruit of the bitter orange contains cirantin, which reportedly is contraceptive. History & Folklore  The bitter orange has 
provided food and medicine for thousands of years. It yields neroli oil from its flowers, and the oil known as petitgrain from its leaves and young shoots. Both distillates are used extensively in perfumery. Orange flower water is a by-product  of distillation and is used in perfumery and to flavor candies and cookies, as well as being  used medicinally. Medicinal Actions & Uses  The strongly acidic 
fruit of the bitter orange stimulates digestion and relieves flatulence. An infusion of the fruit is thought to soothe headaches, calm palpitations, and lower fevers. The juice helps the body eliminate waste products and, being rich in vitamin C, helps the immune system ward off infection. If taken to excess, however, its acid content can exacerbate arthritis. In Chinese herbal medicine, the unripe fruit, known as zhi shi, is thought to “regulate the qi,” helping to relieve flatulence and abdominal bloating, and to open the bowels. The Bitter orange has  
a wide range of medicinal uses. Citrus aurantium (Rutaceae)
Bitter Orange
Description  Evergreen tree growing to 30 ft 
(10 m). Has leathery, dark green leaves, delicately 
perfumed white flowers, and orange fruit. Habitat & Cultivation  Native to tropical Asia, 
this tree is now grown throughout the tropics and subtropics. Orchards of bitter orange are found along the Mediterranean coast, especially in Spain. Cinnamomum camphora  
syn. Laurus camphora (Lauraceae)
Camphor
Description  Evergreen tree growing to 100 ft 
(30 m). Produces red leaves that turn dark green 
as they mature, small fragrant yellowish flowers,  and oval red berries. Habitat & Cultivation  Native to China  
and Japan, this tree is cultivated in tropical and  
sub-tropical regions for its wood, from which camphor oil is derived. Parts Used Stems, root, wood, leaves, twigs, 
volatile oil. Constituents  The plant contains a volatile oil 
comprising camphor, safrole, eugenol, and terpineol. It also contains lignans. Camphor is irritant and antiseptic; safrole is thought to be carcinogenic. A white crystalline substance derived from the stems, root, and other parts of the tree, also called camphor, has powerful antiseptic, stimulant, and antispasmodic properties. History & Folklore  In the 13th century,  
Marco Polo noted that camphor oil was highly valued by the Chinese as a medicine, scent, and embalming fluid. Medicinal Actions & Uses  Camphor is most 
commonly applied externally as a counterirritant and analgesic liniment to relieve arthritic and rheumatic pains, neuralgia, and back pain. It may be applied to skin problems, such as cold sores and chilblains, and used as a chest rub for bronchitis and other chest infections. Though the oil has been taken for various complaints, internal use is not advised. Related Species  See also cinnamon 
(Cinnamomum spp., p. 81). Cautions  Do not take internally. Camphor oil is 
subject to legal restrictions in some countries. US_180-201_Brassica_dictamnus.indd   190 26/02/16   12:47 pm191Co Chlearia offi Cinalisother medicinal plantsessential oils of bitter orange, especially neroli, are 
sedative. In Western medicine, these oils are used 
to reduce heart rate and palpitations, to encourage 
sleep, and to soothe the digestive tract. Diluted neroli 
is applied as a relaxing massage oil. The distilled flower 
water is antispasmodic and sedative. Related Species  The lime ( C. aurantiifolia )  
and lemon ( C. limon,  p. 82) have nutritional 
properties that are similar to those of bitter 
orange. See also bergamot ( C. bergamia,  
following entry ). Caution  Do not take the essential oils internally 
except under professional supervision. Citrus bergamia syn. C. aurantium 
var. bergamia  (Rutaceae)
Bergamot
Description  Evergreen tree growing to 30 
ft (10 m). Has pointed oval leaves, scented 
white flowers, and fruit with aromatic peel. Habitat & Cultivation  Native to tropical 
Asia, bergamot is cultivated in sub-tropical regions, 
especially in southern Italy. Part Used  Essential oil. Constituents  Bergamot contains a volatile  
oil including linalyl acetate (30–60%), limonene  
(26–42%), and linalool (11–22%), bergapten,  
and a diterpene. History & Folklore  Bergamot oil, expressed 
from the peel, provides the distinctive flavor of 
Earl Grey tea. The oil (or constituents of it) is 
sometimes added to suntanning oils. Medicinal Actions & Uses  Bergamot is  
little used in herbal medicine, but it can be used  
to relieve tension, relax muscle spasms, and  
improve digestion. Caution  Do not take bergamot essential  
oil internally. Clerodendrum trichotomum  
(Verbenaceae)
Chou Wu Tong
Description  Upright, deciduous shrub growing 
to 10 ft (3 m). Has large leaves, clusters of white 
flowers, and blue berries. Habitat & Cultivation  This herb grows  
in central and southern China. The leaves are 
harvested just before it flowers. Parts Used  Leaves. Constituents  Chou wu tong  contains clerodendrin, 
acacetin, and mesoinositol. History & Folklore  Chou wu tong  was first 
documented in the Illustrated Classic of the Materia 
Medica  (1061 ce).Medicinal Actions & Uses  In Chinese herbal 
medicine, chou wu tong is prescribed for joint pain, 
numbness, and paralysis, and occasionally for 
eczema. Traditionally regarded as a plant that 
“dispels wind-dampness,” it is now also being used 
to help lower blood pressure. The plant is mildly 
analgesic and, when used with the herb 
Siegesbeckia pubescens , is anti-inflammatory. Research  In a Chinese trial, 171 people with high 
blood pressure were given chou wu tong . In 81%  
of those tested, blood pressure levels dropped 
significantly. This effect was reversed when the 
treatment was stopped. Related Species  C. serratum  is commonly used 
in Ayurvedic medicine for respiratory conditions.History & Folklore  In the Middle Ages,  
holy thistle was thought to cure the plague. In his 
herbal of 1568, Nicholas Turner wrote: “There  
is nothing better for the canker [ulcerous sore]  
and old rotten and festering sores than the 
leaves, juice, broth, powder, and water of 
holy thistle.”
Medicinal Actions & Uses  Holy thistle 
is a good bitter tonic, stimulating secretions 
within the salivary glands, stomach, gallbladder, 
and intestines, and thereby improving digestion. It is taken, generally as a tincture, for minor 
digestive complaints. It has also been a treatment 
for intermittent fevers. Holy thistle is mildly 
expectorant and antibiotic. It makes a healing balm 
for wounds and sores. Cautions  In excessive doses, holy thistle 
may cause vomiting. It is subject to legal 
restrictions in some countries. Chou wu tong has been 
shown by research to lower 
high blood pressure. Holy thistle  was a 
16th-century remedy for 
migraine headaches. Cochlearia officinalis  (Cruciferae)
Scurvy Grass
Description  Low-growing perennial with  
fleshy heart-shaped leaves, dense clusters of white 
4-petaled flowers, and rounded swollen seed pods. Habitat & Cultivation  Native to Europe  
and temperate regions of Asia and North America, 
but now rare, scurvy grass thrives in the salty  
soil of coastal areas and salt marshes. It is 
occasionally cultivated. Parts Used  Leaves, aerial parts. Constituents  Scurvy grass contains glucosilinates, 
a volatile oil, a bitter principle, tannin, vitamin C, 
and minerals. History & Folklore  As the common name 
suggests, this plant has long been used for its high 
vitamin C content. It was used by sailors and others Cnicus benedictus  syn. Carbenia 
benedicta, Carduus benedictus 
(Asteraceae)
Holy Thistle
Description  Erect, red-stemmed annual growing 
to 26 in (65 cm). Has spiny leathery leaves, a spiny 
stem, and yellow flowers in summer and autumn. Habitat & Cultivation  This Mediterranean 
plant flourishes on dry stony ground and in open 
areas. The leaves and flowering tops are collected 
in summer. Parts Used  Leaves, flowering tops. Constituents  Holy thistle contains lignans, 
sesquiterpene lactones (including cnicin), volatile 
oil, polyacetylenes, flavonoids, triterpenes, 
phytosterols, and tannins. Cnicin is bitter and anti-
inflammatory; the volatile oil is thought to have 
antibiotic properties. US_180-201_Brassica_dictamnus.indd   191 26/02/16   12:47 pm
192Co Cos nuC iferaother medicinal plantsto prevent the onset of scurvy, a potentially  
fatal vitamin C deficiency marked by bleeding  
of the gums. Medicinal Actions & Uses  Besides having a 
high vitamin C content, scurvy grass has antiseptic 
and mild laxative actions. The young plant, which has a general detoxicant effect and contains a wide range of minerals, is taken as a spring tonic. Like watercress (Nasturtium officinale, p. 239), it has diuretic properties and is useful for any condition in which poor nutrition is a factor. It can be used in the form of a juice as an antiseptic mouthwash for canker sores, and can also be applied externally to spots and pimples.Constituents  Coconut oil is about 90% 
saturated fat, mostly medium-chain fatty acids 
(lauric, myristic, caprylic, and capric acids). Coconut water contains significant levels of minerals, notably potassium. Virgin coconut oil is entirely non-toxic. History & Folklore  The coconut palm is 
described as “Kalpavriksha” (meaning “the all-giving tree”) in ancient Indian texts. Medicinal Actions & Uses  Coconut oil  
and cream have established antimicrobial and immunostimulant activity. With antibacterial, antifungal, and antiviral properties, the oil and cream can be used to counter many commonly occurring infections, such as influenza, cold sores, shingles, and fungal problems. Coconut has a beneficial action on the gut flora and can prove useful (alongside other treatment) in clearing intestinal worms and parasites. Coconut oil and cream aid digestion and the absorption of nutrients (notably calcium and magnesium), and may be taken as part of a regimen to prevent or treat osteoporosis. Coconut water is reported to lower blood pressure, in part due to its high potassium content, while the oil helps prevent arteriosclerosis. It is also thought to lower cholesterol levels, aid weight loss, and lower blood glucose levels. Coconut oil helps keep skin and hair healthy and is a common ingredient in skin creams and shampoos. Coconut merits its name of “all-giving tree.” 
Coffea arabica (Rubiaceae)
Coffee
Description  Evergreen shrub or small tree 
growing to 30 ft (9 m). Has dark green, shiny oval leaves and white star-shaped flowers. Produces small red fruit, each containing 2 seeds (beans). Habitat & Cultivation  Coffee is native  
to tropical East Africa, and is now cultivated in  tropical areas worldwide. The best-quality beans are produced by fermenting, sun-drying, and roasting the seeds. Parts Used  Seeds. Constituents  Coffee contains chlorogenic  
acids, tannins, and xanthines–caffeine (0.6–0.32%), theobromine, and theophylline. Caffeine is a strong stimulant. Theophylline is a stimulant and smooth muscle relaxant. Chlorogenic acids are anti-inflammatory. History & Folklore  Native to the plateaus of 
central Ethiopia, where it is thought to have originated, coffee spread to Y emen in the 6th century ce and then on into the Arabian peninsula. The Arabian physician Rhazes first recorded coffee’s use in the 10th century ce. While coffee drinking formed part of Sufi prayer rituals, being taken to enable longer, more ecstatic prayer through the night, coffee gradually became the popular stimulant drink that we know  
today, spreading to Europe in the 17th century. By 2015, the annual trade in coffee exceeded  $10 billion. Medicinal Actions & Uses  Coffee is an 
effective and much-loved stimulant of central nervous function, aiding mental alertness and perception. Coffee (and extracts) increase physical performance and heart output, stimulate digestive juices, and act as a powerful diuretic. It can be taken to counter drowsiness and to relieve headaches and migraines. It is non-addictive, although excess intake or sudden withdrawal from coffee may cause headaches. Many natural medicine practitioners consider overuse of coffee to be unhealthy as it is associated with nervous and endocrine exhaustion. Decaffeinated green coffee bean extract is taken to promote weight loss. Research Regular coffee drinking is associated 
with a significantly decreased risk of colon cancer. Coffee may have a protective effect against Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s diseases. Cautions Percolated or boiled coffee is thought 
to have potentially harmful effects on the heart and circulation and to raise cholesterol levels. Caffeine can increase pre-menstrual symptoms  and period pains.Coffee, native to East Africa, can be used to  
relieve headaches. Coconut palms have spread across the tropical regions of the globe. The oil has antimicrobial properties.Cocos nucifera (Arecaceae)
Coconut,
Coconut Palm
Description  Too familiar to need description, 
the coconut is a large palm reaching up to 100 ft 
(30 m) in height with a single, smooth trunk and long-ribbed leaves up to 20 ft (6 m) in length. Habitat & Cultivation  Thought to have 
originated in Southeast Asia, coconut is now found throughout the tropics. It thrives in sandy, salty soils (typically coastal) and requires abundant sun and rain. Propagated by seed, the one-seeded nut grows out through one of the three germinating pores at its base. In 2009, coconut was grown commercially in 80 countries, with a total production of 61.7 million tons. A coconut palm can produce up to 10,000 nuts during its lifetime. Parts Used  Kernel (fresh or dried), water. Every 
part of coconut is useful. Cola acuminata (Sterculiaceae)
Kola Nut,
Cola Nut
Description  Evergreen tree growing to 65 ft 
(20 m) with dark green leaves and yellowish-white flowers. Large woody seed pods contain 5–10 white or red seeds (nuts). Habitat & Cultivation  Native to West 
Africa, kola nut is cultivated widely in the tropics, especially in Nigeria, Brazil, and the West Indies. US_180-201_Brassica_dictamnus.indd   192 26/02/16   12:47 pm193Commiphora mukulother medicinal plantsThe seeds are harvested when ripe and dried  
in the sun. Parts Used  Seeds. Constituents  Kola nut contains up to  
2.5% caffeine (generally higher than coffee), 
theobromine, tannins, phlobaphene, and an 
anthocyanin. History & Folklore  Chewed for their 
digestive, tonic, and aphrodisiac properties, kola 
nuts have been an integral part of western and 
central African life for thousands of years. Kola  
nuts are used in huge quantities today to flavor 
soft drinks. Medicinal Actions & Uses  Kola nut 
stimulates the central nervous system and the body 
as a whole. It increases alertness and muscular 
strength, counters lethargy, and has been used 
extensively both in western African and Anglo-
American herbal medicine as an antidepressant, 
particularly during recovery from chronic illness. Like coffee ( Coffea arabica, preceding entry ), kola  
is used to treat headaches and migraine. It is 
diuretic and astringent, and may be taken for 
diarrhea and dysentery. Related Species  C. nitida , which grows in 
Africa, Brazil, and the West Indies, is used in the 
same fashion. Cautions  Do not take if suffering from high 
blood pressure, peptic ulcers, or palpitations. been successfully treated with meadow saffron, 
and the plant has also been used with some 
success to treat Behcet’s syndrome, a chronic 
disease marked by recurring ulcers and leukemia. T aken internally, the herb has significant side effects 
even at low dosage. Externally, it is applied to 
relieve neuralgia and itchiness. RQ Cautions  This herb is highly toxic. Use 
only under professional supervision. Do not use 
during pregnancy. Meadow saffron is subject to 
legal restrictions in some countries. Collinsonia canadensis  (Lamiaceae)
Stone Root
Description  Perennial herb growing to 3 ft  
(1 m). Has a square stem, oval leaves, and clusters  
of greenish-yellow flowers. Habitat & Cultivation  This herb is native  
to moist woodlands of eastern North America. The root is dug up in autumn. Parts Used  Root, leaves. Constituents  Stone root contains a volatile oil, 
tannins, and saponins. Medicinal Actions & Uses  Stone root  
has diuretic and tonic properties, and is chiefly 
employed in the treatment of kidney stones. It is 
also prescribed to counteract fluid retention. It has been used to reduce back pressure in the veins, 
which in turn helps prevent the formation or 
worsening of hemorrhoids and varicose veins. As an astringent, stone root contracts the inner 
lining of the intestines, and can be helpful in treating 
disorders of the digestive system such as irritable 
bowel syndrome and mucous colitis. The fresh leaves 
or roots of stone root are applied as a poultice to 
bruises and sores. Colchicum autumnale  (Liliaceae)
Meadow Saffron
Description  Attractive perennial growing from 
a bulb-like corm to 4 in (10 cm). Has pointed 
lance-shaped leaves and tubular 6-petaled pink 
flowers in autumn. Habitat & Cultivation  Common in Europe 
and North Africa, meadow saffron grows wild in 
woods and damp meadows. It is also cultivated. The corm is gathered in early summer, the seeds  
in late summer. Parts Used  Corm, seeds. Constituents  Meadow saffron contains 
alkaloids (including colchicine) and flavonoids. Colchicine is anti-inflammatory and is used in 
conventional medicine for acute attacks of gout. As it affects cell division it can cause fetal 
abnormality. It has been used in the laboratory  
to create new genetic strains. History & Folklore  Meadow saffron was not 
used in classical times due to its poisonous nature. Arabian physicians used it in the Middle Ages to 
treat joint pain and gout, but otherwise herbalists 
disregarded the plant until the 19th century. Medicinal Actions & Uses  Despite its 
toxicity, meadow saffron is considered one of the 
best remedies for acute gout pain. Leukemia has Commiphora mukul  (Burseraceae)
Guggul
Description  Spiny shrub or tree, growing to 61⁄2 
ft (2 m), with oval, serrated leaves, brownish-red 
flowers, and red fruits. Guggul, the gum resin 
obtained from the bark, forms pale yellow to 
brown “tears” on the stems. Habitat & Cultivation  Guggul thrives in dry, 
semi-arid and desert environments across much 
of the Indian sub-continent and the Middle East. Parts Used  Gum resin. Constituents  Guggul is an oleo-gum resin, its 
main active constituents being fat-soluble steroids 
(guggulipids), in particular guggulsterones E and Z. History & Folklore  Early Ayurvedic texts 
describe guggul as being effective in treating 
obesity. This has led to research into whether the 
gum resin might be useful for problems associated 
with fat metabolism, such as raised blood 
cholesterol levels. Medicinal Actions & Uses  Guggul has  
anti-inflammatory, blood-thinning, and  
cholesterol-lowering activity, and—true to  
ancient understanding of the herb—can be  
helpful in treating obesity. In Ayurveda, guggul  
is principally used to treat arthritic problems, such 
as osteoarthritis, though it is also considered to 
have tonic and rejuvenating properties. As a result 
of research in the 1980s and 1990s, guggul is  
now most commonly used to lower raised blood 
cholesterol levels and to improve blood fat 
profiles in general. It reduces the stickiness of 
platelets and thins the blood, and may have a 
protective activity on the heart. Guggul is also 
useful in the treatment of acne. The normal dose 
of guggulipid extract is 1–1.5 g a day (equivalent 
to 50–75 mg of guggulsterones). Research  Extensive research has shown that 
the guggulipids have anti-inflammatory and 
antiarthritic activity and prevent or reverse raised 
blood cholesterol levels. In several clinical trials, 
patients showed an average fall in cholesterol 
levels of about 12%, and in triglycerides of about 
14%. The overall blood-fat profile was also shown 
to improve. Some clinical trials recorded weight 
loss for patients taking guggulipids. Caution  Avoid if breastfeeding.Meadow saffron  is an 
attractive yet highly toxic 
herb, requiring great 
caution in usage. It is a 
well-established remedy  
for treating gout. US_180-201_Brassica_dictamnus.indd   193 26/02/16   12:47 pm
194Conium ma Culatumother medicinal plantsConium maculatum (Apiaceae)
Hemlock
Description  Graceful biennial growing to a 
height of 8 ft (2.5 m). Has slender, red-speckled 
stems, finely divided leaves, small clusters of white flowers, and small seeds that have beaded ridges.Convallaria majalis (Liliaceae)
Lily of the Valley
Description  Attractive perennial growing to  
9 in (23 cm). Has a pair of elliptical leaves, clusters of bell-shaped white flowers on one side of the stem, and red berries. Habitat & Cultivation  Native to Europe,  
this herb is also distributed over North America and northern Asia. It is widely cultivated as a garden plant. The leaves and flowers are  
gathered in late spring as the plant comes  
into flower. Parts Used  Leaves, flowers. Constituents  Lily of the valley contains cardiac 
glycosides, including the cardenolides convallotoxin, 
convalloside, convallatoxol, and others, and flavonoid glycosides. The cardiac glycosides  act to strengthen a weakened heart. History & Folklore  The herbalist Apuleius, 
writing in the 2nd century ce, records that Apollo gave lily of the valley as a gift to Asclepius, the  god of healing. In the 16th century, the herbalist John Gerard had the following to say about its therapeutic value: “The flowers of the valley lillie distilled with wine, and drunke to the quantitie of  a spoonful, restore speech unto those that have 
the dumb palsie and that are fallen into apoplexy, 
and are good against the gout, and comfort 
the heart.”
Medicinal Actions & Uses  Lily of the 
valley is used by European herbalists in 
place of common foxglove (Digitalis 
purpurea, p. 202). Both herbs 
have a profound effect in cases of heart failure, whether due in the long term to a cardiovascular problem, or to a chronic lung problem such as emphysema. Lily of the valley encourages a failing heart to beat more slowly and regularly, and to pump more efficiently, thereby improving blood flow to the heart itself via the coronary arteries. It is also diuretic and lowers blood volume. The herb is better tolerated than foxglove, as it does not accumulate within the body to the same degree. Relatively low doses are required to support heart rate and rhythm, and to increase urine production. QCautions  Use only under professional 
supervision. Lily of the valley is subject to legal restrictions in some countries. Conyza canadensis syn . Erigeron 
canadensis (Asteraceae)
Canadian Fleabane
Description Erect annual herb growing to 3 ft 
(1 m). Has narrow, dark green, lance-shaped leaves and clusters of small white flower heads that quickly fade into silky white tufts. Habitat & Cultivation Native to North 
America, Canadian fleabane is now common  
in South America and Europe. It thrives on uncultivated and recently cleared land, often invading in large swaths. It is gathered from  
the wild when in flower. Parts Used Aerial parts. Constituents Canadian fleabane contains  
a volatile oil (including limonene, terpineol,  and linalool), flavonoids, terpenes, plant  
acids, and tannins. Canadian fleabane was used both ritually and medicinally by 
Native North Americans. Habitat & Cultivation  Commonly found in 
Europe, hemlock also grows in temperate regions 
of Asia and North America. It flourishes in damp meadows, on riverbanks, and in open areas. The seeds are gathered when almost ripe in summer. Parts Used  Leaves, seeds. Constituents  Hemlock contains alkaloids, 
mainly coniine, and a volatile oil. Coniine is extremely toxic and causes congenital deformities. History & Folklore  Hemlock is notorious  
as the poison administered as a capital punishment in ancient Greece. The Greek philosopher Socrates 
died in 399 bce after drinking hemlock juice. According to an old English tradition, the stems 
took their color in sympathy with the mark placed on Cain’s forehead after he murdered Abel. In the 19th century, hemlock was used in conventional medicine as a painkiller. Medicinal Actions & Uses  In extremely 
small quantities, hemlock is sedative and analgesic; in larger doses it causes paralysis and death. Rarely used today, it has been prescribed in the past as a treatment for epilepsy, Parkinson’s disease, and Sydenham’s chorea. Hemlock has also been used  to treat acute cystitis. RCautions  Do not take internally. Use externally 
only under professional supervision. Hemlock is subject to legal restrictions in many countries.Lily of the valley encourages 
a regular heartbeat and acts as a strong diuretic.Hemlock is highly poisonous and was used for capital punishment. US_180-201_Brassica_dictamnus.indd   194 26/02/16   12:47 pm195Coriandrum sativumother medicinal plantsHistory & Folklore In traditional North 
American herbal medicine, Canadian fleabane  
was boiled to make steam for sweat lodges,  
taken as a snuff to stimulate sneezing during  
the course of a cold, and burned to create a  
smoke that warded off insects–hence its  
common name. Medicinal Actions & Uses An astringent 
herb, Canadian fleabane is taken for 
gastrointestinal problems such as diarrhea and 
dysentery. A decoction of Canadian fleabane is 
reportedly a very effective treatment for bleeding 
hemorrhoids. The herb is occasionally used as a 
diuretic for bladder problems, to clear toxins in 
rheumatic conditions, and to treat gonorrhea and 
other genitourinary diseases. Related Species The Philadelphia fleabane  
(E. philadelphicus ) was used by the Houma as  
a treatment for menstrual problems. E. affinis , a 
Mexican relative, is used to make a tooth powder 
and to treat toothache.Coptis chinensis  (Ranunculaceae)
Huang Lian (Chinese),
Chinese Goldthread
Description  Perennial herb growing to 20 in 
(50 cm). Has basal leaves and small whitish-green 
flowers. Habitat & Cultivation This herb is native  
to the mountains of China, and is most commonly 
cultivated in Szechwan province. The root is dug 
up in autumn. Part Used Root. Constituents  Huang lian contains isoquiniline 
alkaloids, including berberine, coptisine, and 
worenine. Berberine is antibacterial, amebicidal, 
and antidiarrheal. Medicinal Actions & Uses  A bitter-tasting 
herb, huang lian  is given in the Chinese herbal 
tradition as a decoction to “clear heat” and “dry 
dampness,” relieving fever, red and sore eyes, and 
sore throats. The herb is particularly helpful for 
diarrhea and dysentery, and has been used to quell 
vomiting. Skin problems such as acne, boils, 
abscesses, and burns are also treated with huang 
lian. Like the root of goldthread ( C. trifolia, see 
following entry ), huang lian  is taken as a gargle for 
mouth and tongue ulcers, and for swollen gums 
and toothache. Research  In a Chinese trial, 30 patients with 
tuberculosis were given huang lian , and all of them 
showed marked improvement in their symptoms. QCautions  Use only under professional 
supervision. Do not take during pregnancy. Coptis trifolia  (Ranunculaceae)
Goldthread
Description  Perennial growing to 6 in (15 cm). Has a slender golden root, 3-lobed leaves, and single 
small white flowers. Habitat & Cultivation  Native to eastern  
North America from Labrador to Tennessee,  
this herb prefers damp sites. The rhizome is dug  
up in autumn. Part Used  Rhizome. Constituents  Goldthread contains isoquiniline 
alkaloids (including berberine and coptisine). History & Folklore  Though little used in 
herbal medicine today, goldthread was once highly 
valued. In a book recounting his travels in North 
America, published in 1779, Jonathan Carver states 
that the plant “was greatly esteemed both by the 
Indians and the colonists as a remedy for any 
soreness in the mouth.” The Montagnais used  
a decoction of the root for problems associated 
with the mouth, lips, and eyes. The Menominee 
used the plant as a gargle for children’s throat problems and also to treat ulcers and tumors  
in the mouth. Medicinal Actions & Uses  A strongly bitter 
tonic, goldthread has been prescribed in the North 
American tradition principally for indigestion and 
stomach weakness, though it has also come under 
consideration as a treatment for peptic ulcers, and 
has been applied as a wash for vaginal yeast 
infection. Goldthread has been used as a 
mouthwash, gargle, or lotion for mouth ulcers, 
sore lips, and throats. The herb’s constituents (and 
to some degree its actions) are similar to those of 
goldenseal ( Hydrastis canadensis, p. 105) and it has 
been used as a substitute for this herb. Related Species  Huang lian (C. chinensis,  
preceding entry)  is a close relative that has  
similar actions. QCautions  Use only under professional 
supervision. Do not take during pregnancy. Coriander  was used as a digestive aid and a treatment for 
measles in 6th-century China. Habitat & Cultivation  Native to southern 
Europe and western Asia, the herb is cultivated 
throughout the world. The seeds are gathered  
ripe in late summer. Parts Used  Seeds, essential oil, leaves. Constituents  Coriander contains up to  
1.5% volatile oil, consisting mainly of delta-linalool 
(at around 70%), alpha-pinene and terpinine. It  
also contains flavonoids, coumarins, phthalides,  
and phenolic acids.Coriandrum sativum  (Apiaceae)
Coriander,
Cilantro
Description  Strongly aromatic annual growing 
to 20 in (50 cm). Has finely cut upper leaves 
(known as cilantro), small white or pink flowers, 
and rounded seeds (coriander) in beige seed coats. Copaifera spp. (Fabaceae)
Copaiba
Description  Evergreen trees growing to  
59 ft (18 m). Have compound leaves and small 
yellow flowers. Habitat & Cultivation  Copaiba is native to 
tropical South America, and also found in southern 
Africa. Oleoresin, a blend of volatile oil and resin 
often also referred to as copaiba, is obtained by 
drilling holes in the trunk. Part Used  Oleoresin. Constituents  The oleoresin contains a volatile 
oil (30–90%), which in turn contains alpha- and beta-  
caryophyllene, sesquiterpenes, resins, and  
terpenic acids. History & Folklore  Copaiba was used by 
native Brazilians long before the arrival of 
Europeans. In 1625, the Portuguese monk Manoel 
Tristaon observed that it was employed to heal 
wounds and remove scars. Medicinal Actions & Uses  Antiseptic, 
diuretic, and stimulant, copaiba is still used 
extensively in Brazil. Chiefly employed to counter 
mucus in the chest and genitourinary system, it 
irritates the mucous membranes and promotes 
the coughing up of mucus. A solution or tincture 
of copaiba may be taken for bronchitis, chronic 
cystitis, diarrhea, and hemorrhoids. Eczema  
and other skin diseases reportedly benefit  
from its application. Related Species  Several of the 40 Copaifera  
species yield a medicinal oleoresin. QCaution  Copaiba is toxic in overdose. Use 
only under professional supervision. US_180-201_Brassica_dictamnus.indd   195 26/02/16   12:47 pm
196History & Folklore  Coriander has been used 
throughout Asia, northern Africa, and Europe for 
well over 2,000 years. It is listed in the Ebers papyrus (dating to about 1500 bce), and apparently was much employed in ancient Egypt. The herb reached China during the Han Dynasty (202 bce–220 ce). Pliny (23–79 ce) describes its use “for spreading sores … diseased testes, burns, carbuncles, and sore ears, fluxes of the eyes, too, if woman’s milk be added.”
Medicinal Actions & Uses  Coriander is 
more often used as a spice than as a medicine. Nevertheless, an infusion of the herb is a gentle remedy for flatulence, bloating, and cramps. It settles spasms within the gut and counters the effects of nervous tension. Coriander is also chewed to sweeten the breath, especially after consumption of garlic (Allium sativum, p. 59). Coriander seed has been used as an expectorant to treat coughs and bronchitis, and in traditional Middle Eastern medicine it is taken to calm  anxiety and aid sleep. The ground seed is  applied externally as a rub for rheumatic pain. In Europe, it has traditionally been thought  to possess aphrodisiac properties. Caution  Do not take coriander essential  
oil internally.Cornus offiC inalisother medicinal plantsand the bark of common dogwood (C. sanguinea) 
are used as astringents and to relieve fever. The American boxwood (C. florida) was used by  
Native Americans as a fever remedy. Crithmum maritimum (Apiaceae)Croton spp. (Euphorbiacea)
Dragon’s Blood,
Sangre de Drago
Description  Fast-growing tree reaching 49 ft 
(15 m) in height. It has large, heart-shaped leaves 
and greenish-white flowers. Habitat & Cultivation  Dragon’s blood  
is a rainforest tree native to northwestern Amazonia (from Bolivia to Colombia), preferring riverbanks and sites with disturbed soil. It is cultivated by the indigenous peoples there as  an environmentally sustainable crop. Parts Used  Latex, sap, resin (fresh or dried), bark. Constituents  Key constituents within dragon’s 
blood include proanthocyanidins, mono- and diterpenes, an alkaloid (taspine), and a lignan (dimethylcedrusine). Many constituents, notably taspine and dimethyldedrusine, have potent  anti-inflammatory and wound healing properties. T aspine also has cancer-fighting and antiviral activity. History & Folklore  Dragon’s blood derives its 
name from the deep red sap or latex that oozes from the tree when the bark is cut. A prized rainforest medicine, the latex is applied to wounds, fractures, skin infections, and insect bites. Internally, 
it is taken to treat diarrhea and dysentery, 
stomach ulcers, viral infections, and as a vaginal bath before and following childbirth. The first 
written record of its use was in 1653 (Bernabe 
Cobo, Historia del Nuevo Mundo). Medicinal Actions & Uses  Dragon’s blood is 
a first-rate wound healer and has been described as a “liquid bandage.” Tissue healing and repair is strongly stimulated, while the chances of infection developing in open wounds and sores is minimized due to the marked antiseptic action of the latex and its ability to seal off the wound from the open air. The latex (fresh or dried) is a key remedy for herpes, including shingles and genital herpes, and fungal skin infections. T aken internally, it helps to treat and prevent gastrointestinal infection and peptic ulcers, and to control diarrhea in conditions such as ulcerative colitis. A patent U.S. medicine (Crofelemer) derived from dragon’s blood is licensed for the treatment of chronic diarrhea, typically in patients with HIV. Related Species  C. lecheri is most commonly 
used to make dragon’s blood, although similar Croton species grow in Central America. C. flavens (Y ellow balsam), a traditional Mayan and Aztec remedy, is used for fever and infections, and as a wound salve. Dragon trees, such as the Socotra dragon tree (Dracaena cinnabari), are desert trees and unrelated to dragon’s blood, though some also produce a red latex. Caution  Can permanently stain clothing. Sea fennel is rich in vitamin C and minerals.Sea Fennel,
Samphire
Description  Maritime herb growing to a height 
of 2 ft (60 cm). Has long, succulent, bright green 
leaves and clusters of small yellowish-green flowers. Habitat & Cultivation  Sea fennel grows on 
the Atlantic, Mediterranean, and Black Sea coasts of 
Europe and Asia Minor. It is found on rocks and cliffs close to the sea, and gathered in early summer. Parts Used  Aerial parts. Constituents  Sea fennel contains a volatile oil, 
pectin, vitamins (especially vitamin C), and minerals. History & Folklore  A much-valued herb in 
the past, sea fennel fell into disfavor but is slowly becoming popular again as a vegetable, either pickled or eaten fresh. The English herbalist John Gerard described it in 1597 as “the pleasantest sauce, most familiar, and best agreeing with man’s body, both for the digestion of meates, breaking of stone, and voiding of gravel.” 
Medicinal Actions & Uses  Though it is 
currently little used in herbal medicine, sea fennel is a good diuretic, and it has potential as a treatment for obesity. Sea fennel has a high vitamin C and mineral content, and is thought to relieve flatulence and soothe the digestion. In this, the plant resembles its inland namesake, fennel (Foeniculum vulgare, p. 212). Glasswort (Salicornia europeae), also known as samphire, is an unrelated coastal plant with a high mineral content and is commonly eaten as a vegetable.Cornus officinalis (Cornaceae)
Shan Zhu Yu
Description  Deciduous tree reaching 13 ft (4 m) 
with glossy elliptical leaves and bright red oval berries. Habitat & Cultivation  Native to China, 
Japan, and Korea, this tree is cultivated in central and eastern China. The fruit is harvested when ripe in autumn. Part Used  Fruit. Constituents  Shan zhu yu contains an iridoid 
glycoside (verbenalin), saponins, and tannins. Verbenalin produces a mild tonic effect on the involuntary nervous system, especially that governing the digestive system. History & Folklore  Listed in the 1st-century ce  
Divine Husbandman’s Classic (Shen’nong Bencaojing), shan zhu yu is one of the constituents of the “Pill of Eight Ingredients,” used to “warm up and invigorate the yang  of the loins.”
Medicinal Actions & Uses  As an herb that 
“stabilizes and binds,” shan zhu yu is used principally to reduce heavy menstrual bleeding and unusually active secretions, including copious sweating, excessive urine, spermatorrhea (involuntary discharge of semen), and premature ejaculation. Related Species  Several Cornus species are 
used medicinally around the world. In Europe,  the fruit and bark of the cornelian cherry (C. mas) 
US_180-201_Brassica_dictamnus.indd   196 26/02/16   12:47 pm197Cupressus sempervirensother medicinal plantsCucurbita pepo  (Cucurbitaceae)
Pumpkin
Description  Annual plant with twining stems, 
lobed leaves, yellow flowers, and large orange fruit. Habitat & Cultivation  Probably native to 
North America, pumpkin is now found worldwide. It is harvested in autumn. Parts Used  Seeds, pulp. Constituents  Pumpkin seeds contain a fixed oil 
(30–50%), which is mostly linoleic acid (43–56%) 
and oleic acid (24–38%). The oil also contains 
protein (31–51%), sterols, cucurbitin, vitamin E, 
beta-carotene, and minerals (4–5%), including 
significant levels of iron, zinc, and selenium. History & Folklore  The pumpkin has been 
much used as a medicine in Central and North 
America. The Maya applied the sap of the plant  
to burns, the Menominee used the seeds as a 
diuretic, and European settlers ground and mixed 
the seeds with water, milk, or honey to make a 
remedy for worms. This practice became so 
widespread in homes across North America that 
the medical profession eventually adopted it as a 
standard treatment. Medicinal Actions & Uses  Pumpkin has  
been used mostly as a safe and effective deworming 
agent, particularly in children and pregnant women 
for whom strong-acting and toxic preparations are 
inappropriate. It is thought most effective in 
removing tapeworms. The seeds are diuretic and 
tonic to the bladder, and they have distinct value in 
treating the early stages of prostate enlargement. The fruit pulp is used as a decoction to relieve 
intestinal inflammation and is applied as a poultice  
or plaster for burns. Research  Pumpkin seeds’ range of medicinal and 
nutritional compounds ensures that they have great 
value as a “natural” food supplement. A good 
dietary source of zinc, the seeds also contain relatively high levels of selenium, a mineral with 
important antioxidant and anticancer activity in  
the body. Cucurbitin repels intestinal worms, and the 
sterols are anti-inflammatory. Research suggests 
that pumpkin seed is effective in helping reduce 
benign enlargement of the prostate gland (BPH), 
due to both the hormonal influence of the sterols 
and this anti-inflammatory activity. In one clinical 
trial pumpkin seeds were combined with saw 
palmetto ( Serenoa repens , p. 136) to treat BPH: 
those taking the herbal extract showed improved 
urine flow and reduced frequency of urination. Cuminum cyminum  (Apiaceae)
Cumin
Description  Small annual growing to 1 ft  
(30 cm). Has long, narrow segmented leaves,  
clusters of pink or white flowers, and small  
oblong ridged fruits. Habitat & Cultivation  Cumin is native to 
Egypt and widely cultivated in southern Europe  
and Asia. The seeds are gathered when ripe in  
late summer. Parts Used  Seeds. Constituents  
Cumin seeds contain 
2–5% volatile oil, 
which consists of 
25–35% aldehydes, 
pinene, and alpha-
terpineol. The seeds  
also contain flavonoids. History & Folklore  
A popular spice and medicinal herb in ancient 
Egypt, cumin was used for illnesses of the  
digestive system, for chest conditions and coughs, 
as a painkiller, and to treat rotten teeth. The  
herb is mentioned in the Old Testament and was 
widely used in the Middle Ages. It has declined  
in popularity since that time, although it is still 
frequently used in contemporary Egyptian  
herbal medicine. In cooking, cumin is an  
ingredient that is found in many Chinese,  
Indian, and Middle Eastern recipes, especially 
curries and pickles. Medicinal Actions & Uses  Cumin, like  
its close relatives caraway ( Carum carvi , p. 184)  
and anise ( Pimpinella anisum,  p. 248), relieves 
flatulence and bloating, and stimulates the entire 
digestive process. It reduces abdominal gases and 
distension and relaxes the gut. In Indian herbal 
medicine, cumin is used for insomnia, colds and 
fevers, and, mixed into a paste with onion juice,  
has been applied to scorpion stings. The seeds  
can be taken to improve breast-milk production–  
a role it shares with fennel seeds ( Foeniculum 
vulgare , p. 212).Cupressus sempervirens  
(Cupressaceae)
Cypress
Description  Evergreen tree growing to 100 ft 
(30 m). Has tiny dark green leaves, and male and 
female cones. Habitat & Cultivation  Native to Turkey  
and cultivated in the Mediterranean, this herb  
is gathered in spring. Parts Used  Cones, branches, essential oil. Constituents  Cypress contains a volatile oil 
(with pinene, camphene, and cedrol) and tannins. History & Folklore  Ancient Greeks took  
the cones, mashed and steeped in wine, to treat 
dysentery, the coughing up of blood, asthma,  
and coughs. Medicinal Actions & Uses  Applied 
externally as a lotion or as a diluted essential oil, 
cypress astringes varicose veins and hemorrhoids, 
tightening up the blood vessels. A footbath of  
the cones is used to cleanse the feet and counter 
excessive sweating. T aken internally, cypress acts  
as an antispasmodic and general tonic, and is 
prescribed for whooping cough, the spitting up  
of blood, and spasmodic coughs. Colds, flu, and sore throats, 
and rheumatic aches and 
pains, also benefit from  
this remedy. Caution  Do not take  
the essential oil internally 
without professional 
supervision. Pumpkin was a popular medicinal plant in the Americas; 
its seeds are still used to treat worms.Cypress has properties 
similar to those of 
witch hazel.Seeds
US_180-201_Brassica_dictamnus.indd   197 26/02/16   12:47 pm
198Cur Cuma zedoariaother medicinal plantsCurcuma zedoaria  
(Zingiberaceae)
Zedoary
Description  Perennial herb with large, tapering, 
elliptical leaves, pink or yellow flowers, and an 
aromatic, pale yellow root. Habitat & Cultivation  Zedoary is a common 
Indian and East Asian plant. It is cultivated in India, Bangladesh, Indonesia, China, and Madagascar. Part Used  Rhizome. Constituents  Zedoary contains a volatile oil, 
sesquiterpenes, curcumemone, curcumol, and curdione. Curcumol and curdione have cancer-fighting properties. Medicinal Actions & Uses  An aromatic, 
bitter digestive stimulant, zedoary is used in much the same way as ginger (Zingiber officinale, p. 155)—to relieve indigestion, nausea, flatulence, and bloating, and generally to improve digestion. The rhizome is used in China to treat certain types  of tumors. Research  In trials carried out in China, zedoary 
was found to reduce cervical cancer, and  
increase the cancer-killing effects of radiotherapy and chemotherapy. Related Species  In Chinese herbal medicine, 
zedoary is often substituted for turmeric  
(C. longa, p. 90).Culpeper similarly recommended it “to purge  
black or burnt choler.” Culpeper further states  that dodder plucked off thyme is the most efficacious, making the interesting point that the parasite’s medicinal benefits are determined in  part by its host. Medicinal Actions & Uses  In line with its 
traditional use to purge black bile, dodder is still considered a valuable, though little-used, herb for problems affecting the liver and gallbladder. It is thought to support liver function and is taken for jaundice. Dodder has a mildly laxative effect, and is also taken for urinary problems. Related Species  Greater dodder (C. europaea) 
and flax dodder (C. epilinum) may be used in the same way as C. epithymum. C. reflexa  is employed in 
Ayurvedic medicine to treat difficulty in urinating, jaundice, muscle pain, and coughs.Cydonia oblonga (Rosaceae)
Quince
Description  Deciduous tree growing to 26 ft  
(8 m). Has green-grey oval leaves, pink or white flowers, and yellow, pear-shaped sweet-smelling fruit. Habitat & Cultivation  Native to southwest 
and central Asia, quince has become naturalized  in Europe, especially in the Mediterranean region. It grows in damp, rich soils in hedges and copses. The fruit is harvested when ripe in autumn. Parts Used  Fruit, seeds. Constituents  The fruit contains tannin,  
pectin, and fruit acids; the seeds contain about  20% mucilage, cyanogenic glycosides (including amygdalin), fixed oil, and tannins. History & Folklore  The quince has long been 
prized as a fruit and medicine in Greece and the eastern Mediterranean. It was used as an astringent in the time of Hippocrates (460–377 bce). Dioscorides (40–90 ce) records a recipe for quince oil, which was applied to itchy and infected wounds and spreading sores. In northerly climates, quince is often cooked to make a preserve. The English word “marmalade,” meaning citrus fruit jam, comes from the Portuguese word for quince, marmelo. Medicinal Actions & Uses  The great 
astringency of the unripe fruit makes it useful as  
a remedy for diarrhea, one that is particularly  
safe for children. The fruit and its juice can also  
be taken as a mouthwash or gargle to treat canker 
sores, gum problems, and sore 
throats. When cooked, 
much of the fruit’s 
astringency is lost; 
quince syrup is recommended as a 
pleasant, mildly astringent, 
digestive drink. The seeds contain 
significant quantities of mucilage 
and are helpful both in  
treating bronchitis and  
as a bulk laxative. Caution  Do not use the 
seeds except under 
professional supervision. Cymbopogon citratus 
(Graminaceae)
Lemon Grass
Description  Sweetly scented grass growing in 
large clumps up to 5 ft (1.5 m). Has narrow leaf 
blades and branched stalks of flowers. Habitat & Cultivation  Native to southern 
India and Sri Lanka, lemon grass is now cultivated  
in tropical regions around the world.Cuscuta epithymum 
(Convolvulaceae)
Dodder,
Hellweed, Devil’s Guts
Description  Leafless parasitic plant. Has 
threadlike stems, which are usually yellow-red in 
color, and small, scented, pale pink flowers. Habitat & Cultivation  Dodder grows 
throughout Europe, Asia, and southern Africa. It prefers coastal and mountainous regions, and is gathered in summer. Parts Used  Aerial parts. Constituents  Dodder contains flavonoids 
(including kaempferol and quercitin), and hydroxycinnamic acid. History & Folklore Dodder has always  
been an unpopular country plant. It is also known as hellweed and devil’s guts, due to its tendency to overrun and strangle the plant on which it feeds. This host can be thyme (Thymus vulgaris, p. 143), gorse (Ulex europeaus), or a crop such as beans. Dodder does, however, have medicinal benefits. In his Materia Medica, Dioscorides (1st century ce) notes its use in classical times in combination  with honey to purge “black bile” and to lift a melancholy humor. In 1652, the herbalist Nicholas Cyanopsis tetragonoloba 
(Fabaceae)
Guar Gum
Description  Erect annual growing to 2 ft (60 cm), 
with hairy 3-lobed leaves, small purple flowers, and 
fleshy seed pods. Habitat & Cultivation  Native to the Indian 
subcontinent, guar gum is cultivated extensively  in India and Pakistan. The seed pods are harvested when ripe in summer. Parts Used  Pods, seeds. Constituents  Guar gum contains about  
86% water-soluble mucilage, comprising  mainly galactomannan. History & Folklore  Guar gum is a 
viscous substance made from ground guar seed mixed with water. It has been used as a filter in the mining industry, in paper manufacturing, and in cosmetics. Medicinal Actions & 
Uses  Guar gum is an 
effective bulk laxative, 
similar in action to psyllium (Plantago ovata , p. 123). It delays 
the emptying of the stomach and thus slows down absorption of carbohydrates. As this appears to help stabilize blood-sugar levels, guar gum may prove useful in prediabetic conditions and in the early stages of type 2 diabetes. Research also indicates that  guar gum lowers cholesterol levels. In Indian medicine, guar seed is a laxative and a  digestive tonic. Caution  Do not exceed the dose. Guar gum  
can cause flatulence, abdominal distension, and 
intestinal obstruction.Quince
US_180-201_Brassica_dictamnus.indd   198 26/02/16   12:47 pm199Cypripedium pubes Censother medicinal plants
Parts Used  Leaves, essential oil. Constituents  Lemon grass contains a volatile oil 
with citral (about 70%) and citronellal as its main 
constituents. Both are markedly sedative. History & Folklore  Lemon grass is cultivated 
for its oil, which is used as a culinary flavoring,  
a scent, and medicinally. Medicinal Actions & Uses  Lemon grass  
is principally taken as a tea to remedy digestive 
problems. It relaxes the muscles of the stomach 
and gut, relieves cramping pains and flatulence, and 
is particularly suitable for children. In the Caribbean, 
lemon grass is primarily regarded as a fever-reducing 
herb (especially where there is significant 
congestion). It is applied externally as a poultice or 
as diluted essential oil to ease pain and arthritis. In 
India, a paste of the leaves is smeared on patches  
of ringworm. Related Species  C. martinii  and C. nardus  yield 
essential oils that are widely used in soaps and 
detergents. In T anzania, medicine men smoke the 
flowers of C. densiflorus  to produce dreams 
foretelling the future. Caution  Do not take the essential oil internally 
without professional supervision. Cynara scolymus  
syn. C. cardunculus  (Asteraceae)
Artichoke
Description  Perennial herb growing to 5 ft  
(1.5 m). Has large, thistle-like leaves, grey-green 
above and woolly white beneath, and very large 
purple-green flower heads.Habitat & Cultivation  Native to the 
Mediterranean region, artichoke thrives in rich 
loam in warm temperate climates. Commercially 
grown plants are renewed after 4 years. The 
unopened flower heads and leaves are picked in 
early summer. Parts Used  Flower heads, leaves, root. Constituents  All parts of the plant contain the 
sesquiterpene lactone cynaropicrin (which is strongly 
bitter) and much inulin. The leaves also contain 
cynarin, which has liver-protective properties. History & Folklore  Artichokes were  
greatly valued by the ancient Greeks and Romans. Dioscorides (1st century ce) recommended 
applying the mashed roots to the armpit or 
elsewhere on the body to sweeten offensive odors. Medicinal Actions & Uses  Artichoke is a 
valuable medicinal plant. Like milk thistle ( Silybum 
marianus , p. 137), it benefits the liver, protecting 
against toxins and infection. Though the leaves are 
particularly effective, all parts of the plant are 
bitter and stimulate digestive secretions, especially 
bile. This makes artichoke useful for the treatment 
of gallbladder problems, nausea, indigestion, and 
abdominal distension, with the added benefit that  
it lowers blood cholesterol levels. A home recipe 
from the Mediterranean region uses fresh artichoke 
leaf juice mixed with wine or water as a liver tonic. Artichoke is also taken during the early stages of 
type 2 diabetes. It is a good food for diabetics,  
as it significantly lowers blood sugar. It is also a 
useful diuretic, and in France it has been used to 
treat rheumatic conditions. Research  Research with laboratory animals  
in the late 1990s has shown that artichoke has  
a powerful positive effect on the liver. Artichoke 
extracts, and cynaroside in particular, appear to 
reduce cholesterol synthesis in the liver, while leaf 
extracts are strongly antioxidant and liver protective.Cyperus esculentus  (Cyperaceae)
Chufa, 
Tiger Nut
Description  Erect, grass-like plant growing to 
20 in (50 cm). Has cylindrical brown tubers, lance-
shaped leaves, and rays of small spikes of green-
brown flowers. Habitat & Cultivation  Native to the 
Mediterranean region, chufa was first introduced to 
Spain and North Africa by the Arabs. It now grows 
worldwide, including in India. The tubers (called 
“nuts”) are unearthed in winter and summer. Parts Used  Tubers. Constituents  Chufa contains 20–36% fixed oil, 
known as chufa or tiger nut oil. History & Folklore  Chufa nuts have been 
found in the excavations of the earliest settlements 
in the Nile Valley, and since ancient times they have 
remained a popular food in the region. The Greek 
physician Dioscorides, writing in the 1st century ce, 
mentions their ability to comfort the stomach. Medicinal Actions & Uses  Chufa is regarded 
as a digestive tonic, having a heating and drying effect 
on the digestive system and alleviating flatulence. It 
also promotes urine production and menstruation. The juice is taken to heal ulcers of the mouth and 
gums. Ayurvedic medicine classifies the nuts as 
digestive, tonic, and aphrodisiac. Related Species  Many other species of 
Cyperus are used as foods or medicines. For 
example, in Chinese herbal medicine C. rotundus  
is used as a liver tonic, to counter indigestion and 
to promote menstruation. C. stolonifera , native to 
tropical regions of Asia and Australia, is thought 
to ease stomach pain and act as a heart stimulant. Perhaps the most famous Cyperus species of all  
is papyrus ( C. papyrus ). This plant provided fiber 
for the first writing paper, invented by the ancient 
Egyptians. Papyrus was also chewed like sugar cane, 
and used medicinally in eye compresses and to 
bandage wounds.Lemon grass  makes  
a soothing tea. Artichoke  flower heads are nourishing and beneficial for the 
liver and digestion. Cypripedium pubescens  
(Orchidaceae)
Lady’s Slipper, 
American Valerian
Description  Perennial orchid with several  
stems sheathed by broad lance-shaped leaves. Has beautiful, complex golden-yellow and purple 
flowers in late summer. Habitat & Cultivation  This herb is native to 
eastern North America. Its natural habitat is woods 
and pastures, but due to overharvesting, it is rarely 
found in the wild. It is cultivated to a limited degree. US_180-201_Brassica_dictamnus.indd   199 26/02/16   12:47 pm
200Cytisus s Copariusother medicinal plantsPart Used  Rootstock. Constituents  Lady’s slipper is poorly 
researched, but it is known to contain a volatile oil, 
resins, glucosides, and tannins. History & Folklore  Lady’s slipper was held in 
high regard by Native Americans, who used it as a sedative and antispasmodic. It was commonly taken to ease menstrual and labor pains, and to counter insomnia and nervous conditions. The Cherokee used one variety to treat worms in children. In the Anglo-American Physiomedicalist tradition, lady’s slipper had many uses. Swinburne Clymer (in Nature’s Healing Agents, 1905) considered the plant “of special value in reflex functional disorders, or chorea, hysteria, nervous headache, insomnia, low fevers, nervous unrest, hypochondria, and nervous depression accompanying stomach disorders.”
Medicinal Actions & Uses  Due to its scarcity 
and cost, lady’s slipper is now rarely used. A sedative and relaxing herb, it treats anxiety, stress-related disorders such as palpitations, headaches, muscular tension, panic attacks, and neurotic conditions generally. Like valerian (Valeriana officinalis, p. 148), lady’s slipper is an effective tranquilizer. It reduces emotional tension and often calms the mind sufficiently to allow sleep. Indeed, its restorative effect appears to be more positive than that  
of valerian. Caution  In view of its rarity, lady’s slipper should 
no longer be used medicinally. Myddfai recommend broom as a means to treat 
suppressed urine: “seek broom seed, and grind into fine powder, mix with drink and let it be drank. Do this till you are quite well.” Broom tops have been pickled and used as a condiment similar to capers (Capparis spinosa, p. 182). Medicinal Actions & Uses  Broom is used 
mainly as a remedy for an irregular, fast heartbeat. The plant acts on the electrical conductivity of the heart, slowing and regulating the transmission  
of the impulses. Broom is also strongly diuretic, stimulating urine production and thus countering fluid retention. Since broom causes the muscles of the uterus to contract, it has been used to prevent blood loss after childbirth. QCautions  T ake broom internally only under 
professional supervision. Do not take during pregnancy, or if suffering from high blood pressure. The plant is subject to legal restrictions in  
some countries.History & Folklore  Mezereon was formerly 
well used in northern Europe, both internally as  a purgative and externally as an ointment for cancerous sores and skin ulcers. The Swedish naturalist Carolus Linnaeus (1707–1778) recorded that the bark was applied to the bites of poisonous reptiles and rabid dogs. People have reportedly died simply from eating birds that have eaten the highly poisonous berries. Medicinal Actions & Uses  Today, mezereon 
is considered too poisonous to be ingested. Mezereon is used occasionally as an external counterirritant and is effective on rheumatic  joints, increasing blood flow to the affected area. RCautions  Under no circumstances should 
mezereon be taken internally. It should only be used externally under professional supervision,  and never on open wounds. Mezereon was once 
used as a remedy 
for rheumatic joints.Broom, taken under professional guidance, helps to 
regulate an overly rapid heartbeat. Cytisus scoparius syn. sarothamnus 
scoparius (Fabaceae) 
Broom
Description  T all deciduous shrub growing  
to 61⁄2 ft (2 m). Has narrow ridged stems, small  
trefoil leaves, and bright yellow flowers in leafy 
terminal spikes. Habitat & Cultivation  Native to Europe, 
broom is commonly found on heaths and verges,  
and in open woodland. It is naturalized in many 
temperate regions, including in the U.S. The flowering tops are picked from spring to autumn. Parts Used  Flowering tops. Constituents  Broom contains quinolizidine 
alkaloids (particularly sparteine and lupanine), phenethylamines (including tyramine), isoflavones (such as genistein), flavonoids, a volatile oil, caffeic and p-coumaric acids, tannins, and pigments. Sparteine reduces the heart rate and the isoflavones are estrogenic. History & Folklore  Both the common and 
species names of this plant indicate its usefulness  as a sweeper (“scopa” means “broom” in Latin). Broom’s medicinal value is not mentioned in classical writings, but it does appear in medieval herbals. The 12th-century Welsh Physicians of Daphne mezereum 
(Thymelaeaceae)
Mezereon
Description  Hardy deciduous shrub growing  
to 4 ft (1.2 m). Has oval to lance-shaped leaves, 
clusters of red or pink flowers, and small  red berries. Habitat & Cultivation  Mezereon is found in 
Europe, North Africa, and western Asia, in damp mountain woodlands. It is cultivated as a garden plant. The root and bark are gathered in autumn. Parts Used  Root, root bark, bark. Constituents  Mezereon contains diterpenes 
(including daphnetoxin and mezerein), mucilage, and tannins. Though highly toxic, daphnetoxin and mezerein have antileukemic properties and have been used to treat cancer.Datura stramonium (Solanaceae)
Thornapple
Description  Robust annual growing to 3 ft  
(1 m). Has lobed oval leaves, long white or violet 
trumpet-shaped flowers, and spiny fruit capsules. Habitat & Cultivation  Thornapple grows in 
the Americas, Europe, Asia, and North Africa. It  is cultivated for medicinal use in Hungary, France, and Germany. The leaves and flowering tops are harvested in summer, and the seeds in early autumn when the capsules burst. Parts Used  Leaves, flowering tops, seeds. US_180-201_Brassica_dictamnus.indd   200 26/02/16   12:47 pm201Dianthus superbusother medicinal plants
Constituents  Thornapple contains 0.2–0.45% 
tropane alkaloids (especially hyoscyamine and 
hyoscine), flavonoids, steroidal lactones, 
withanolides, coumarins, and tannins. The tropane 
alkaloids are similar to those found in deadly 
nightshade ( Atropa belladonna , p. 69), acting to 
reduce secretions and relax smooth muscle. History & Folklore  Thornapple has a long 
history of medicinal use. If taken in sufficient doses, 
it causes hallucinations; the Delphic oracle in ancient 
Greece and the Inca in South America may have 
used it as an aid to making prophecies. Though it is 
hallucinogenic, thornapple has traditionally been 
used to treat insanity. Medicinal Actions & Uses  At low doses, 
thornapple is a common remedy for asthma, 
whooping cough, muscle spasms, and the 
symptoms of Parkinsonism. It relaxes the muscles 
of the gastrointestinal, bronchial, and urinary tracts, 
and reduces digestive and mucous secretions. Like 
deadly nightshade, thornapple may be applied 
externally to relieve rheumatic pains and neuralgia. Related Species  D. metel  and D. innoxia  are both 
native to India. These plants are employed in treating 
asthma, coughs, fevers, and skin conditions. RQ Cautions  T ake only under professional 
supervision. Since it is toxic at more than small 
doses, thornapple is subject to legal restrictions  
in most countries.Parts Used  Seeds, root, leaves. Constituents  Wild carrot seeds contain 
flavonoids, and a volatile oil including asarone, 
carotol, pinene, and limonene. Cultivated carrot 
root contains sugars, pectin, carotene, vitamins, 
minerals, and asparagine. Carrot leaves contain 
significant amounts of porphyrins, which stimulate 
the pituitary gland and lead to the release of 
increased levels of sex hormones.
Encyclopedia_Of_Herbal_Medicine.txt
Summarize the following text section accurately and concisely. Maintain specific details and numerical information, and use anti-repetition mechanisms:

        Related Species  The endive (C. endiva) has 
similar though milder effects. Citrullus vulgaris (Cucurbitaceae)
Watermelon
Description  Annual vine with hairy, 3–5 lobed 
leaves, yellow flowers, and green fruit typically growing to 10 in (25 cm) across. Habitat & Cultivation  Native to tropical 
Africa, watermelon is grown throughout warm temperate to tropical regions. The fruit is gathered when ripe. Parts Used  Fruit, seeds. Constituents  Watermelon contains citrullin  
and arginine, both of which are thought to  
increase urea production in the liver, so  
increasing the flow of urine. History & Folklore  Watermelon species have 
been used in Egypt for more than 4,000 years, figuring in wall paintings dating to the Old Kingdom (2686–2181 bce). They appear to have been a component in remedies for trembling fingers, constipation, and expelling disease brought on  
by demons. Egyptian myth recounts that the watermelon originated from the semen of  
the god Seth. Medicinal Actions & Uses  Watermelon is 
best known as a thirst-quenching fruit that comes into season when temperatures are at their hottest. In traditional Chinese medicine it is used precisely to counter “summer heat” patterns—characterized by excessive sweating, thirst, raised temperature, scanty urine, diarrhea, and irritability or anger. Watermelon fruit and juice soothe these symptoms, increasing urine flow and cleansing the kidneys. The fruit’s refreshing properties extend to the digestive system, where it clears gas. Watermelon may also be used in the treatment of hepatitis. In hot, stifling weather it is helpful for those suffering from bronchitis or asthma. The cooling fruit pulp may  
be applied to hot and inflamed skin and to soothe sunburn. The seeds can be mashed and used to expel worms. Related Species  The watermelons of Egypt  
(C. lanata and C. colocynthoides) are very similar species. The colocynth (C. colocynthus), native to  dry areas of Africa and Asia, is extremely bitter  and contains a cucurbitacin glycoside with  antitumor properties. Parts Used  Fruit, peel, leaves, flowers, seeds, 
essential oil. Constituents  Bitter orange peel contains a 
volatile oil with limonene (around 90%), flavonoids, coumarins, triterpenes, vitamin C, carotene, and pectin. The flavonoids are anti-inflammatory, antibacterial, and antifungal. The composition of  the volatile oils in the leaves, flowers and peel varies significantly. Linalyl acetate (50%) is the main constituent in oil from the leaves (petitgrain) and linalool (35%) in oil from the flowers (neroli). The unripe fruit of the bitter orange contains cirantin, which reportedly is contraceptive. History & Folklore  The bitter orange has 
provided food and medicine for thousands of years. It yields neroli oil from its flowers, and the oil known as petitgrain from its leaves and young shoots. Both distillates are used extensively in perfumery. Orange flower water is a by-product  of distillation and is used in perfumery and to flavor candies and cookies, as well as being  used medicinally. Medicinal Actions & Uses  The strongly acidic 
fruit of the bitter orange stimulates digestion and relieves flatulence. An infusion of the fruit is thought to soothe headaches, calm palpitations, and lower fevers. The juice helps the body eliminate waste products and, being rich in vitamin C, helps the immune system ward off infection. If taken to excess, however, its acid content can exacerbate arthritis. In Chinese herbal medicine, the unripe fruit, known as zhi shi, is thought to “regulate the qi,” helping to relieve flatulence and abdominal bloating, and to open the bowels. The Bitter orange has  
a wide range of medicinal uses. Citrus aurantium (Rutaceae)
Bitter Orange
Description  Evergreen tree growing to 30 ft 
(10 m). Has leathery, dark green leaves, delicately 
perfumed white flowers, and orange fruit. Habitat & Cultivation  Native to tropical Asia, 
this tree is now grown throughout the tropics and subtropics. Orchards of bitter orange are found along the Mediterranean coast, especially in Spain. Cinnamomum camphora  
syn. Laurus camphora (Lauraceae)
Camphor
Description  Evergreen tree growing to 100 ft 
(30 m). Produces red leaves that turn dark green 
as they mature, small fragrant yellowish flowers,  and oval red berries. Habitat & Cultivation  Native to China  
and Japan, this tree is cultivated in tropical and  
sub-tropical regions for its wood, from which camphor oil is derived. Parts Used Stems, root, wood, leaves, twigs, 
volatile oil. Constituents  The plant contains a volatile oil 
comprising camphor, safrole, eugenol, and terpineol. It also contains lignans. Camphor is irritant and antiseptic; safrole is thought to be carcinogenic. A white crystalline substance derived from the stems, root, and other parts of the tree, also called camphor, has powerful antiseptic, stimulant, and antispasmodic properties. History & Folklore  In the 13th century,  
Marco Polo noted that camphor oil was highly valued by the Chinese as a medicine, scent, and embalming fluid. Medicinal Actions & Uses  Camphor is most 
commonly applied externally as a counterirritant and analgesic liniment to relieve arthritic and rheumatic pains, neuralgia, and back pain. It may be applied to skin problems, such as cold sores and chilblains, and used as a chest rub for bronchitis and other chest infections. Though the oil has been taken for various complaints, internal use is not advised. Related Species  See also cinnamon 
(Cinnamomum spp. , p. 81). Cautions  Do not take internally. Camphor oil is 
subject to legal restrictions in some countries. US_180-201_Brassica_dictamnus. indd   190 26/02/16   12:47 pm191Co Chlearia offi Cinalisother medicinal plantsessential oils of bitter orange, especially neroli, are 
sedative. In Western medicine, these oils are used 
to reduce heart rate and palpitations, to encourage 
sleep, and to soothe the digestive tract. Diluted neroli 
is applied as a relaxing massage oil. The distilled flower 
water is antispasmodic and sedative. Related Species  The lime ( C. aurantiifolia )  
and lemon ( C. limon,  p. 82) have nutritional 
properties that are similar to those of bitter 
orange. See also bergamot ( C. bergamia,  
following entry ). Caution  Do not take the essential oils internally 
except under professional supervision. Citrus bergamia syn. C. aurantium 
var. bergamia  (Rutaceae)
Bergamot
Description  Evergreen tree growing to 30 
ft (10 m). Has pointed oval leaves, scented 
white flowers, and fruit with aromatic peel. Habitat & Cultivation  Native to tropical 
Asia, bergamot is cultivated in sub-tropical regions, 
especially in southern Italy. Part Used  Essential oil. Constituents  Bergamot contains a volatile  
oil including linalyl acetate (30–60%), limonene  
(26–42%), and linalool (11–22%), bergapten,  
and a diterpene. History & Folklore  Bergamot oil, expressed 
from the peel, provides the distinctive flavor of 
Earl Grey tea. The oil (or constituents of it) is 
sometimes added to suntanning oils. Medicinal Actions & Uses  Bergamot is  
little used in herbal medicine, but it can be used  
to relieve tension, relax muscle spasms, and  
improve digestion. Caution  Do not take bergamot essential  
oil internally. Clerodendrum trichotomum  
(Verbenaceae)
Chou Wu Tong
Description  Upright, deciduous shrub growing 
to 10 ft (3 m). Has large leaves, clusters of white 
flowers, and blue berries. Habitat & Cultivation  This herb grows  
in central and southern China. The leaves are 
harvested just before it flowers. Parts Used  Leaves. Constituents  Chou wu tong  contains clerodendrin, 
acacetin, and mesoinositol. History & Folklore  Chou wu tong  was first 
documented in the Illustrated Classic of the Materia 
Medica  (1061 ce). Medicinal Actions & Uses  In Chinese herbal 
medicine, chou wu tong is prescribed for joint pain, 
numbness, and paralysis, and occasionally for 
eczema. Traditionally regarded as a plant that 
“dispels wind-dampness,” it is now also being used 
to help lower blood pressure. The plant is mildly 
analgesic and, when used with the herb 
Siegesbeckia pubescens, is anti-inflammatory. Research  In a Chinese trial, 171 people with high 
blood pressure were given chou wu tong. In 81%  
of those tested, blood pressure levels dropped 
significantly. This effect was reversed when the 
treatment was stopped. Related Species  C. serratum  is commonly used 
in Ayurvedic medicine for respiratory conditions. History & Folklore  In the Middle Ages,  
holy thistle was thought to cure the plague. In his 
herbal of 1568, Nicholas Turner wrote: “There  
is nothing better for the canker [ulcerous sore]  
and old rotten and festering sores than the 
leaves, juice, broth, powder, and water of 
holy thistle. ”
Medicinal Actions & Uses  Holy thistle 
is a good bitter tonic, stimulating secretions 
within the salivary glands, stomach, gallbladder, 
and intestines, and thereby improving digestion. It is taken, generally as a tincture, for minor 
digestive complaints. It has also been a treatment 
for intermittent fevers. Holy thistle is mildly 
expectorant and antibiotic. It makes a healing balm 
for wounds and sores. Cautions  In excessive doses, holy thistle 
may cause vomiting. It is subject to legal 
restrictions in some countries. Chou wu tong has been 
shown by research to lower 
high blood pressure. Holy thistle  was a 
16th-century remedy for 
migraine headaches. Cochlearia officinalis  (Cruciferae)
Scurvy Grass
Description  Low-growing perennial with  
fleshy heart-shaped leaves, dense clusters of white 
4-petaled flowers, and rounded swollen seed pods. Habitat & Cultivation  Native to Europe  
and temperate regions of Asia and North America, 
but now rare, scurvy grass thrives in the salty  
soil of coastal areas and salt marshes. It is 
occasionally cultivated. Parts Used  Leaves, aerial parts. Constituents  Scurvy grass contains glucosilinates, 
a volatile oil, a bitter principle, tannin, vitamin C, 
and minerals. History & Folklore  As the common name 
suggests, this plant has long been used for its high 
vitamin C content. It was used by sailors and others Cnicus benedictus  syn. Carbenia 
benedicta, Carduus benedictus 
(Asteraceae)
Holy Thistle
Description  Erect, red-stemmed annual growing 
to 26 in (65 cm). Has spiny leathery leaves, a spiny 
stem, and yellow flowers in summer and autumn. Habitat & Cultivation  This Mediterranean 
plant flourishes on dry stony ground and in open 
areas. The leaves and flowering tops are collected 
in summer. Parts Used  Leaves, flowering tops. Constituents  Holy thistle contains lignans, 
sesquiterpene lactones (including cnicin), volatile 
oil, polyacetylenes, flavonoids, triterpenes, 
phytosterols, and tannins. Cnicin is bitter and anti-
inflammatory; the volatile oil is thought to have 
antibiotic properties.
Watermelon
What is the name of the plant that contains citrullin and arginine, which increase urea production in the liver?
Bitter orange
What is the name of the plant that has a volatile oil with limonene (around 90%) and linalool (35%)?
Bergamot
What is the name of the plant that has a volatile oil with limonene (26-42%) and linalool (11-22%)?
Guggul
What is the name of the plant that has been used in Ayurvedic medicine to treat arthritic problems?
Cypress
What is the name of the plant that has a volatile oil, flavonoids, and tannins, and is used to relieve rheumatic pains?