Constituents  Silver birch contains saponins, 
flavonoids, tannin, and a volatile oil that includes methyl salicylate. US_158-179_Abies_balsa_Boswe_serratta.indd   178 26/02/16   12:47 pm179 other medicinal Plants
Bixa orellana (Bixaceae)
Annatto
Description  Evergreen tree growing to 26 ft  
(8 m). Has large leaves, pink or white flowers, and 
red fruit capsules containing red seeds. Habitat & Cultivation  Native to tropical 
forests in the Americas and the West Indies, 
annatto is widely cultivated in similar climatic zones, 
notably in India. Seeds are collected as the fruit 
splits open. Parts Used  Seeds, leaves, root. Constituents  The seed pulp contains carotinoid 
coloring principles. History & Folklore  In tropical South  
America, the brilliant red pigment in the seed  
pulp has traditionally been used in body painting. Annatto dye is also used as a colorant for 
margarine and cheese. Medicinal Actions & Uses  In the Caribbean, 
annatto leaves and roots are used to make an 
astringent infusion that is taken to treat fever, 
epilepsy, and dysentery. The infusion is also taken  
as an aphrodisiac. The leaves alone make an 
infusion that is used as a gargle. The seed pulp 
reduces the severity of blistering when applied 
immediately to burns. T aken internally, the seed 
pulp acts as a general antidote for poisoning.Boswellia serrata (Burseraceae)
Boswellia,
Indian Olibanum,  
Sallaki (Sanskrit)
Description  Deciduous tree, growing to about 
49 ft (15 m), with pale papery bark, compound 
leaves, and clusters of small white flowers. The 
gum resin exudes from the bark and is transparent 
gold in color. Habitat & Cultivation  Boswellia grows in  
dry, hilly regions of central and northern India. Parts Used  Gum resin, bark. Constituents  Boswellia contains triterpene 
acids (including beta-boswellic acid), essential 
oil, terpenols, monosaccharides, uronic 
acids, sterols, and tannins. History & Folklore  Boswellia,  
a close relative of frankincense  
(B. sacra ), has been used for many thousands of 
years as an astringent and anti-inflammatory. Medicinal Actions & Uses  Boswellia  
makes an effective mouthwash and gargle, the 
antiseptic and astringent resin helping to heal  
and tighten inflamed mucous membranes. Sore 
throat, laryngitis, canker sores, and gum disease  
will all benefit. Boswellia is also markedly anti-
inflammatory and antiarthritic. This makes it 
potentially useful in chronic inflammatory diseases 
such as rheumatoid arthritis, ulcerative colitis,  
and psoriasis. Other conditions that may benefit 
include gout, asthma, hay fever, and nettle rash. Research  Research into Boswellia is ongoing  
and has expanded in recent years. Clinical trials 
(mostly in India and Germany) indicate that 
Boswellia counteracts inflammation in conditions 
such as arthritis and inflammatory bowel disease. The majority of trials noted that symptoms such  
as pain, stiffness, and poor grip strength all 
improved. There is increasing evidence that 
Boswellia has marked pain-relieving activity, and 
that it promotes stable blood glucose levels in 
people with type 2 diabetes.Boswellia serrata
Bignonia catalpa syn. Catalpa 
bignonioides (Bignoniaceae)
Catalpa
Description  Deciduous tree growing to 65 ft 
(20 m). Has large oval leaves in whorls of 3, white 
flowers in conical clusters, and long thin fruits 
(bean pods). Habitat & Cultivation  Native to the 
southeastern U.S., this tree is often planted in 
gardens in southern and western Europe. Parts Used  Bark, fruit. Constituents  The bark contains catalpine,  
and oxylenzoic and protocatechetic acids. History & Folklore  Catalpa bark was  
formerly used as a substitute for quinine in  
treating malaria. Medicinal Actions & Uses  The mildly 
sedative and narcotic bark is used to treat  
asthma, whooping cough, and other spasmodic 
coughs in children. The distilled water of the  
fruit, in combination with herbs commonly used  
to treat eye problems, such as eyebright ( Euphrasia 
officinalis , p. 209) and rue ( Ruta graveolens , p. 265), 
makes an effective eyewash for conjunctivitis and 
other eye infections. RCaution  Never use the roots, which are  
highly poisonous.Borago officinalis (Boraginaceae)
Borage
Description  Hairy annual growing to 2 ft  
(60 cm). Has a pulpy stem, large basal leaves, and 
attractive blue flowers in summer. Habitat & Cultivation  Borage is a common 
Mediterranean weed thought to originate from 
southern Spain and Morocco. Often grown as a 
garden herb, it is also extensively cultivated for its 
seed oil. Parts Used  Aerial parts, flowers, seed oil. Constituents  Borage contains mucilage, 
tannins, and pyrrolizidine alkaloids, which in 
isolation are toxic to the liver. The seeds contain  
up to 24% gamma-linolenic acid.in a poultice, or as an infusion. The flowers 
encourage sweating and the leaves are diuretic. The seed oil is particularly rich in polyunsaturated 
fats, and is superior in this respect to evening 
primrose oil ( Oenothera biennis , p. 241). Borage 
seed oil is used to treat premenstrual complaints, 
rheumatic problems, eczema, and other chronic 
skin conditions. Cautions  Due to the presence of toxic 
pyrrolizidine alkaloids, there is uncertainty over 
borage’s safety as a medicine. It is subject to legal 
restrictions in some countries and should not be 
taken internally. These restrictions and cautions  
do not apply to borage seed oil. Borage’s attractive blue 
flowers are traditionally  
used to decorate salads. History & Folklore  The herbalist John Gerard, 
writing in 1597, extols borage’s virtues, “A syrup 
made of the flowers of borage comforteth  
the heart, purgeth melancholy, and quieteth  
the phreneticke or lunaticke person.” Gerard  
also quotes the old saying, “I, Borage, bring  
always courage.”
Medicinal Actions & Uses With its high 
mucilage content, borage is a demulcent herb  
and soothes respiratory problems. Its emollient 
qualities make it helpful for sore and inflamed  
skin—prepared either as freshly squeezed juice,  
US_158-179_Abies_balsa_Boswe_serratta.indd   179 26/02/16   12:47 pm
180Brassica oleracea
Brassica oleracea (Brassicaceae)
Cabbage
Description  Biennial or perennial herb growing 
to 8 ft (2.5 m). Has a thick stem, grey leaves, and 
4-petaled yellow flowers. Within the first year,  
it produces a greatly enlarged terminal bud  
that develops into the familiar cabbage head  
in late summer. Habitat & Cultivation  Wild cabbage is  
native to coasts of the English Channel and the Mediterranean. Cultivated varieties are produced worldwide as a vegetable. Parts Used  Leaves. Constituents  Cabbage is rich in vitamins A, B1, 
B2, and C.
History & Folklore  The wholesome cabbage 
is one of the oldest vegetables. According to Greek 
myth, the plant sprang into existence from the perspiration of Zeus. In a Greek ritual, cabbage was given to expectant mothers shortly before birth in 
order to establish good breast-milk 
production. The Romans used 
cabbage as an antidote, 
especially to alcohol, believing 
it countered intoxication  
and prevented or reduced a 
hangover. They also used cabbage 
leaves to cleanse infected wounds. It is thought to have been cultivated 
in Britain from around 500 ce. One traditional method of making a cabbage poultice, still used today, is to cut out the thick midrib of a leaf and iron it, placing it while still hot on the area to be treated. Medicinal Actions & Uses  Cabbage’s best-
known medicinal use is as a poultice—the leaves  
of the wild or cultivated plant are blanched, crushed,  
or chopped, and applied to swellings, tumors, and painful joints. Wild cabbage leaves eaten raw or cooked aid digestion and the breakdown of toxins in the liver—so the Romans’ eating it to ease a hangover was in fact quite justified. Cabbage is also detoxifying and helpful in the long-term treatment of arthritis. The high vitamin C content of cabbage has made it useful in the prevention of scurvy. Caution  A cabbage poultice may cause blisters  
if left on for several hours. Bryonia dioica syn . B. cretica 
subsp. dioica (Cucurbitaceae)
White Bryony
Description  Perennial climbing vine with fleshy 
taproot up to 6 in (15 cm) thick. Straggling stem 
with tendrils, greenish flowers, and red berries. Habitat & Cultivation  White bryony is native to southern England and parts of Europe. The root 
is dug up in autumn. Part Used  Root. Constituents  White bryony contains 
cucurbitacins, glycosides, volatile oil, and tannins. The cucurbitacins kill cells and so act on tumors. History & Folklore From prehistory to  
the Middle Ages, the thick roots of white bryony were cut into a human shape as a substitute (or  
a counterfeit) for mandrake root (Mandragora officinarum, p. 232), which was believed to afford magical protection. The Greek physician Dioscorides (1st century ce) reports that the leaves, fruit, and root of white bryony were applied to gangrenous wounds. In medieval England, the plant was used to treat leprosy.o t h e r  m e d i c i n a l  p l a n t sRelated Species  B. alba is used in homeopathic 
medicine. Black bryony (Tamus communis) is an unrelated plant with approximately similar uses. RQ Cautions  Bryony is a toxic plant. Use 
only under professional supervision. Do not take during pregnancy. Butea monosperma (Fabaceae)
Palas, 
Flame of the Forest,  
Bengal Kino 
Description  Deciduous tree growing to 49 ft 
(15 m). Has 3-lobed leaves and large orange-red 
flowers in clusters. Habitat & Cultivation  Palas is native to India 
and Southeast Asia. It grows in forests and in open areas to altitudes of 3,900 ft (1,200 m). Parts Used  Bark, flowers, leaves, gum, and seeds. Constituents  All parts of the tree except the 
seeds contain tannins. Medicinal Actions & Uses  The gum that 
oozes from incisions made in palas bark is known as Bengal kino. Mildly astringent, it is used as a substitute for the kino derived from bastard teak (Pterocarpus marsupium). Bengal kino is taken as  a decoction or a tincture for acid indigestion, diarrhea, and dysentery, and used as a gargle for sore throats and as a douche for vaginitis. Early research suggests that the leaves and bark have  the potential to treat diabetes, and that the leaves exert a beneficial action on diarrhea. Caution  Do not take during pregnancy.Cabbage
White bryony has 
antitumor and antirheumatic properties. Medicinal Actions & Uses  A powerful 
cathartic and purgative, bryony is used with great 
caution in herbal medicine today. It is principally prescribed for painful rheumatic conditions. It may be taken internally, or applied as a counterirritant, causing swelling and increased blood flow to  the area. White bryony is also given for other inflammatory conditions such as duodenal ulcers, asthma, bronchitis, and pleurisy, and may be used  to reduce high blood pressure. The whole herb has antiviral activity and research is now suggesting that it acts as an adaptogen—helping the body to adapt more effectively to stress and strain.caesalpinia bonduc 
(Caesalpiniaceae)
Nikkar Nut
Description  Thorny bush growing to 30 ft (9 m), 
with spiny compound leaves, yellow flowers in 
dense clusters, and prickly pods containing yellow seeds (nuts). Habitat & Cultivation  Nikkar nut is pan-
tropical, common in both tropical Asia and Africa. Its seeds are gathered when ripe. Parts Used  Seeds. Constituents  The seeds contain isoflavonoids, 
diterpenes, a bitter principle, and a fixed oil (20%) rich in linoleic acid (68%). Medicinal Actions & Uses  Nikkar seeds are 
used to treat fevers and are taken as a tonic and aphrodisiac. In India, they are often mixed with black pepper (Piper nigrum, p. 250) for medicinal use. The seeds are also taken for inflammatory conditions such as arthritis. Roasted nikkar seeds are used in the treatment of diabetes. US_180-201_Brassica_dictamnus.indd   180 26/02/16   12:47 pm181Camellia sinensis
o
th
er m
ed
icin
al plan
tsRelated Species  A decoction of the bark of 
the Caribbean C. bahamensis  is used for liver and 
kidney infections, and a decoction of the wood  
is used for diabetes. An infusion of the leaves of  
C. pulcherrima  (native to Asia and Africa) is taken  
for liver problems and mouth ulcers. Calamintha ascendens  
syn. C. sylvatica, C. officinalis  
(Lamiaceae)
Calamint
Description  Mint-scented perennial growing  
to 2 ft (60 cm). Has hairy oval leaves, and purple 
flowers in late summer. Habitat & Cultivation  Calamint grows wild 
in Europe and Asia from the British Isles eastward 
to Iran, especially in the Mediterranean region. It 
flourishes along roads and in dry places. Parts Used  Aerial parts. Constituents  Calamint contains a volatile oil 
(about 0.35%) consisting mainly of pulegone. History & Folklore  In classical legend, calamint 
had the power to drive away the Basilisk, a serpent 
credited with the ability to kill with its gaze  
or breath. Medicinal Actions & Uses  Calamint stimulates 
sweating, and hence helps lower fevers. It also settles 
gas and indigestion. It is expectorant, and is a good 
cough and cold remedy. This range of applications 
makes it a good medicinal herb for mild respiratory 
infections. It should preferably be mixed with other 
herbs such as yarrow ( Achillea millefolium , p. 56) and 
thyme ( Thymus vulgaris , p. 143). Caution  Do not take during pregnancy. Calluna vulgaris  (Ericaceae)
Heather,
Ling
Description  Small, branched shrub growing  
to 2 ft (60 cm). Has tiny leaves and white or pink  
to pale-purple flowers growing on spikes. Habitat & Cultivation  Heather grows in 
temperate regions of the northern hemisphere. It is found on heaths, moors, bogs, and in open 
woods. The herb is gathered when in flower in  
late summer. Parts Used  Flowering tips. Constituents  Heather contains flavonoids, 
arbutin, tannin, and an alkaloid, ericodin. This 
constituent has a strongly disinfectant effect 
within the bladder and urinary tubules. History & Folklore  If the “ erica” that 
Dioscorides discusses in his 1st century ce Materia Medica  is indeed heather, as has been surmised, then 
the flowering tips were used in classical times to 
treat snake bite. Galen (131–200 ce) wrote of  
the plant’s ability to induce sweating. The rootstock 
of heather is made into musical pipes, the foliage 
provides mattress stuffing, and the flowers produce 
a delicate honey. White heather is considered very 
lucky, especially in Scotland. Medicinal Actions & Uses  Heather is a good 
urinary antiseptic and diuretic, disinfecting the 
urinary tract and mildly increasing urine production. Besides its role in treating cystitis and inflammatory 
bladder conditions, heather has been used to 
treat kidney and bladder stones. Cleansing and 
detoxifying, it is helpful for rheumatism, arthritis, 
and gout. A hot poultice of heather tips is a 
traditional remedy for chilblains and rheumatism.Parts Used  Leaves, buds. Constituents Tea contains xanthines, caffeine 
(1–5%), theobromine, tannins including polyphenols, 
flavonoids, fats, and vitamin C. Green tea contains 
significant levels of polyphenols; black tea, which  
is produced by a process of fermentation, has 
lower levels. History & Folklore  In China and Japan  
many rituals have developed around tea drinking. Significantly it is mostly green tea that is drunk in 
this way. Medicinal Actions & Uses  Due to its 
astringency, tea is useful in digestive infections, 
helping to tighten up the mucous membranes of 
the gut and reduce looseness. A strong brew of tea 
may be used to soothe irritated eyelids, 
insect stings, swellings, and sunburn, and 
in an emergency, if nothing better is at 
hand, tea makes a serviceable treatment 
for minor burns. In Ayurvedic medicine tea 
is considered astringent and a nerve tonic. The caffeine in tea may help to relieve 
headaches, though less effectively than 
coffee ( Coffea arabica , p. 192). In light of 
research, green tea is recognized as being a 
much healthier drink than black tea. Research  Green tea’s strong antioxidant 
activity is due to polyphenols, which give the 
leaf potential as a cancer preventative. The high intake of green tea in China and 
Japan is thought to be partly responsible for 
the low incidence of cancer in these countries. Clinical trials indicate that green tea may help to 
promote weight loss and treat hepatitis, and 
there is the suggestion that it helps to prevent 
tooth decay. A recent clinical trial indicated that 
green tea has a genoprotective action, helping to 
prevent degenerative changes within the body, and 
potentially slowing the aging process. A 2013 clinical 
trial found that green tea extract taken by women 
for 4 months successfully shrank uterine fibroids.Heather   
flowering tips in a  
poultice ease the  
aches and pains  
of rheumatism. Tea leaves are picked throughout the year and used both  
as a beverage and medicinally.Camellia sinensis syn. Thea sinensis  
(Theaceae)
Tea
Description  Evergreen shrub clipped to 5 ft 
(1.5 m) in cultivation, with leathery, dark green 
leaves and fragrant white flowers. Habitat & Cultivation  Cultivated principally in 
India, Sri Lanka, and China, tea has been grown 
since the earliest times. US_180-201_Brassica_dictamnus.indd   181 26/02/16   12:47 pm
182Cananga odorataother medicinal plantsCananga odorata syn. Canangium 
odoratum (Annonaceae)
Ylang-Ylang
Description  Evergreen tree growing to 80 ft 
(25 m). Has lance-shaped leaves and strongly 
scented yellow-green flowers. Habitat & Cultivation  Native to Indonesia 
and the Philippines, ylang-ylang is cultivated in tropical Asia and Africa. Parts Used  Flowers, essential oil. Constituents  The essential oil contains  
linalool (11–30%), safrole, eugenol, geraniol, and sesquiterpenes (including 15–25% germacrene). History & Folklore  The flowers are a traditional 
adornment in the Far East. Their scent is thought to have aphrodisiac qualities. Medicinal Actions & Uses  The flowers  
and essential oil are sedative, antimicrobial, and antioxidant. The oil has a soothing effect, and its main therapeutic uses are to slow an excessively fast heart rate and to lower blood pressure. With its reputation as an aphrodisiac, ylang-ylang may be helpful in treating impotence. QCaution  Do not take the essential oil 
internally without professional supervision. Canella winterana syn . C. alba 
(Canellaceae)
Canella,
Wild Cinnamon
Description  White-barked tree growing to  
49 ft (15 m). Has elliptical leaves, red flowers, and 
purple-black berries. Habitat & Cultivation  Native to the 
Caribbean and Florida, canella is found in coastal swamps and scrubland. The bark is collected by gently beating the branches. Part Used  Bark. Constituents  Canella contains about  
1% volatile oil (including eugenol, alpha-pinene, and caryophyllene), alpha-aldehydes (including canellal), resin, and mannitol. History & Folklore  Canella has for a long 
time been used as a flavoring for tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum, p. 240). Medicinal Actions & Uses  Canella is cytotoxic 
(kills cells), antifungal, and repels insects. It is also aromatic, stimulant, and antiseptic. Canella is often used in the West Indies and Latin America as a substitute for cinnamon (Cinnamomum spp.,  p. 81). The infusion is drunk for its pleasant flavor and tonic effect (the bark is considered a sexual stimulant). Canella is also used for stomach problems and indigestion.Cannabis sativa (Cannabinaceae)
Marijuana,
Huo Ma Ren (Chinese)
Description  Erect, branching annual growing to 
13 ft (4 m). Has fine, serrated, segmented leaves. Both male and female plants flower; the female plant produces seeds. Habitat & Cultivation  Native to the Caucasus, 
China, Iran, and northern India, marijuana is culti-vated the world over, both legally (for the fiber and seeds) and illegally (for use as a recreational drug). Parts Used  Flowering tops of female plants, seeds. Constituents  Marijuana contains 
over 60 different types of cannabinoids, 
including THC (delta 9-tetrahydrocannabinol). It also contains flavonoids, volatile oil, and alkaloids. It is the only plant to contain THC, one of the main psychoactive constituents. The seed oil contains approximately 55% linoleic acid, 20% alpha-linolenic acid and 1.5% gamma-linolenic acid. History & Folklore   
In ancient Egypt, marijuana was used to treat 
inflammations of the eye and “to cool the uterus.” First records of marijuana’s use in India date back  
to about 800 bce, where it is recommended  
for congestion. Famously, Queen Victoria took marijuana as an analgesic—in the 19th century  
the plant was a standard painkiller for menstrual pain and cramps. From 1840 to 1900, over 100 papers were published recommending marijuana as a medicine. Medicinal Actions & Uses  In view of its  
long history as a medicinal treatment, it is hardly surprising that marijuana has, at one time or another, been recommended for almost every illness. As an analgesic, it appears to relieve pain with minimal side effects, being particularly helpful for cancer and AIDS patients undergoing chemotherapy. For those suffering from multiple sclerosis, cerebral palsy, and other muscular illnesses, marijuana can reduce neurological overactivity and muscle spasm. The plant provides effective treatment for glaucoma,  
in which pressure within the eye is abnormally  
high, and is hypotensive, lowering blood pressure. Marijuana relieves asthma, menstrual pains, the pain of childbirth, and of arthritis and rheumatism, and may have value as an antidepressant. It encourages and induces sleep. The seeds are used in Chinese medicine as a strong but well-tolerated laxative, especially for constipation in the elderly; and as a dietary supplement to provide a balanced and healthy supply of polyunsaturated fatty acids. Research  Modern research shows marijuana to 
be a sedative, an anti-inflammatory agent, and an analgesic as effective as codeine. Research has focused on the constituent THC, but it is clear that the complex of constituents within marijuana has a significantly wider range of applications. Clinical studies from 1975 onwards have shown that the cannabinoids are powerfully antiemetic, especially in those having chemotherapy. To varying degrees, clinical trials indicate that marijuana or its cannabinoids relieves symptoms in multiple sclerosis (such as tremor, muscle spasm, and poor coordination), in spinal cord injuries, epilepsy, glaucoma, chronic pain, and loss of appetite. Now 
that medical marijuana is legally available in a number of U.S. states, there is 
accumulating evidence of just how 
effective the herb, and extracts of it, are in relieving pain. A 2015 article in the Journal of 
the American Medical Association found “30% 
or greater improvement in pain with 
cannabinoid compared to placebo,” 
i.e., marijuana extracts on average 
produced a 30% or more improvement 
when compared to an inert substance. It also 
found that availability of medical-grade marijuana was associated “with a 15–35% decrease in substance abuse admissions.” Not only is medical marijuana a valuable analgesic, it also helps to prevent addiction to other painkillers, in particular opioids, such as codeine and morphine. Caution  Marijuana is a controlled substance in 
North America. Research your local laws. Marijuana leaf
Capparis spinosa (Capparaceae)
Caper
Description  Shrub growing to 3 ft (1 m), with 
spiny trailing stems, fleshy oval leaves, green buds, 
large white flowers, and red berries in autumn. Habitat & Cultivation Native to the 
Mediterranean region, caper thrives in open areas, often growing on stony terrain. The buds are harvested before the flowers open and are pickled for culinary use. Parts Used  Root bark, bark, flower buds. Constituents  Contains phenolic compounds. History & Folklore  Though much favored as a 
piquant food by the ancient Greeks, capers were said to disagree with the stomach. They remain a popular condiment to this day. Medicinal Actions & Uses  The unopened 
flower buds are laxative and, if prepared correctly with vinegar, are thought to ease stomach pain. The bark is bitter and diuretic and can be taken immediately before meals to increase the appetite. US_180-201_Brassica_dictamnus.indd   182 26/02/16   12:47 pm183Cari Ca papayaother medicinal plants
The root bark is purifying and stops internal 
bleeding. It is used to treat skin conditions, 
capillary weakness, and easy bruising, and is also 
used in cosmetic preparations. A decoction of the 
plant is used to treat yeast and vaginal infections 
such as candidiasis. Related Species  A decoction of the North 
American C. cynophallophora  is taken to encourage 
the onset of menstruation, and is used as a gargle 
for throat infections. Capsella bursa-pastoris syn. Thlaspi 
bursa-pastoris  (Brassicaceae)
Shepherd’s Purse
Description  Annual or biennial with an erect 
stem, rosette of basal leaves, 4-petaled white 
flowers, and heart-shaped seed pods. Habitat & Cultivation  Thought to be native 
to Europe and Asia, shepherd’s purse is now found 
throughout most temperate regions, and grows 
profusely as a weed. It is harvested throughout  
the year. Parts Used  Aerial parts. Constituents  Contains flavonoids, polypeptides, 
choline, acetylcholine, histamine, and tyramine. History & Folklore  This herb’s name derives 
from the appearance of the seed pods, which 
resemble heart-shaped purses. During the First 
World War, when the standard herbal medicines for staunching blood—goldenseal ( Hydrastis 
canadensis , p. 105) and ergot ( Claviceps 
purpurea )—were unobtainable in Britain, 
shepherd’s purse was used as an alternative. Medicinal Actions & Uses  One of the best 
remedies for preventing or arresting hemorrhage, 
shepherd’s purse has long been a specific treatment 
for heavy uterine bleeding. While weaker-acting in 
this respect than ergot, shepherd’s purse has none 
of ergot’s toxicity and is better tolerated by the body. It may be used for bleeding of all kinds—from 
nosebleeds to blood in the urine. An astringent herb, 
it disinfects the urinary tract in cases of cystitis, and 
is taken for diarrhea. It is used in Chinese medicine 
to treat dysentery and eye problems. Research  Reports suggest that the plant is  
anti-inflammatory and reduces fever. Caution  Do not take during pregnancy. Self-help Use  Heavy menstrual bleeding , p. 315. Cardiospermum spp. (Sapindaceae)
Balloon Vine
Description  Deciduous perennial climbers 
growing to 10 ft (3 m), with compound leaves, 
small white flowers, and black seeds. Habitat & Cultivation  Balloon vine is found 
growing in tropical regions around the world. Parts Used  Root, leaves, seeds.Constituents  Most Cardiospermum  species 
contain cyanogenic glycosides. History & Folklore  Native Amazonians string 
balloon vine seeds into armbands that are worn to 
ward off snakes. Medicinal Actions & Uses  In Indian herbal 
medicine, balloon vine root is used to bring on 
delayed menstruation and to relieve backache and 
arthritis. The leaves stimulate local circulation  
and are applied to painful joints to help speed  
the clearing of toxins. The seeds are also thought 
to help in the treatment of arthritis. The plant as  
a whole has sedative properties. Caution  Do not take during pregnancy. Carica papaya  (Caricaceae)
Papaya
Description  Herbaceous tree growing very 
rapidly to 26 ft (8 m). Has segmented leaves, 
yellow flowers, and large, black-seeded yellow  
to orange fruits weighing up to 11 lb (5 kg). Habitat & Cultivation  Native to tropical 
America, papaya is now cultivated in tropical regions 
throughout the world. Parts Used  Fruit, latex, leaves, flowers, seeds. Constituents  The fruit contains proteolytic 
enzymes (papain and chymopapain), and traces  
of an alkaloid, carpaine. Papain, which is found in 
the milky white latex that flows from incisions  
in the unripe fruit, is a protein-dissolving enzyme 
that aids digestion. History & Folklore  Papaya juice, shoots,  
and latex were used in Mayan herbal medicine. In 
tropical Latin America, the leaves are used as a 
meat tenderizer. Medicinal Actions & Uses  Papaya’s main 
medicinal use is as a digestive agent. The leaves  
and the fruit can both be used (the unripe fruit is 
especially effective). The latex from the trunk of  
the tree is applied externally to speed the healing 
of wounds, ulcers, boils, warts, and cancerous 
tumors. The seeds are used as a gentle purgative 
for worms. The latex has a similar but more violent 
effect. The flowers may be taken in an infusion to 
induce menstruation, and a decoction of 
the ripe fruit is helpful for 
treating persistent 
diarrhea and 
dysentery in 
children. The ripe 
fruit is mildly 
laxative and the 
leaves are used 
to dress wounds.Caper’s  buds pickled 
with vinegar have been 
used as a condiment 
since ancient times. Balloon vine  leaves are  
applied to relieve aching joints. Fruit
US_180-201_Brassica_dictamnus.indd   183 07/04/16   4:37 pm
184Carthamus tinC torius  other medicinal plantsCarthamus tinctorius (Asteraceae)
Safflower,
Hong Hua (Chinese) 
Description  Annual herb growing to 3 ft (90 
cm). Has long spiny leaves with 6 oblong-oval 
leaflets, and groups of yellow flowers arising from the leaf axils. Habitat & Cultivation  Thought to be native 
to Iran and northwestern India, this herb is also 
found in North America and the Far East. It grows in open areas and is gathered in summer. Parts Used  Flowers, seeds, seed oil. Constituents  Safflower contains lignans, 
polysaccharides and a volatile oil. The seeds  
contain a fixed oil, up to 80% linoleic acid. History & Folklore  In 19th century North 
American herbal medicine, safflower was used  
to induce sweating, to promote the onset of a menstrual period and as a treatment for measles. Safflower flowers are falsely sold as saffron  
(Crocus sativus, p. 89). Medicinal Actions & Uses  In Chinese  
herbal medicine, the flowers are given to stimulate menstruation and to relieve abdominal pain. The flowers are also used to cleanse and heal wounds and sores and to treat measles. In the Anglo-American herbal tradition, the flowers are given  as a treatment for fever and skin rashes. The unpurified seed oil is purgative. Research  Chinese research indicates that 
safflower flowers can reduce coronary artery disease, and lower cholesterol levels. Safflower contains a polysaccharide that has been shown to stimulate immune function in mice. Safflower oil also lowers cholesterol levels. Caution  Do not take the flowers or seeds during 
pregnancy (seed oil is safe). Carum carvi (Apiaceae)
Caraway
Description  Aromatic annual growing to 2 ft 
(60 cm). Has ridged stem, feathery leaves, and umbels of white flowers in midsummer. Exploding capsules each contain 2 small narrow seeds. Habitat & Cultivation  Caraway grows wild 
in Europe, North Africa, and Asia. It prefers sunny sites up to 6,600 ft (2,000 m) above sea level. It  is cultivated in Europe, Russia, North Africa, and the US, and the seeds are harvested ripe in  
late summer. Parts Used  Seeds, essential oil. Constituents  Caraway contains a volatile oil 
high in carvone (about 50%) and limonene. It also contains a fixed oil, flavonoids, polysaccharides, proteins, and furanocoumarins.History & Folklore  Caraway seed is 
“conducive to all the cold griefs of the head and stomach… and has a moderate quality whereby  
it breaketh wind, and provoketh urine” (Nicholas Culpeper, The English Physitian, 1652). The seeds 
are commonly used in cooking. Medicinal Actions & Uses  Caraway is similar 
in action to anise (Pimpinella anisum, p. 248)  
and fennel (Foeniculum vulgare, p. 212). Being antispasmodic, the seeds soothe the digestive tract, acting directly on the intestinal muscles to relieve colic and cramps as well as bloating and flatulence. They sweeten the breath, improve appetite, counter heart irregularity caused by excess digestive gas, and ease cramping period pain. In addition, the seeds are expectorant and tonic and are frequently used in bronchitis and cough remedies, especially those for children. Caraway has a reputation for increasing breast-milk production. The diluted essential oil is useful for scabies. Research  In a German clinical trial (1999), 
patients with dyspepsia were given a combination of peppermint and caraway essential oils. Overall, patients experienced a significant reduction  
in symptoms. Caution  Do not use the essential oil internally 
except under professional supervision.Castanea sativa (Fagaceae)
Sweet Chestnut
Description  Deciduous tree growing to a height 
of 100 ft (30 m). Has smooth silver-grey bark, lance-shaped dark green leaves, male and female catkins, and spiny yellow-green seed cases containing 2–3 glossy brown nuts. Caraway is 
antispasmodic, 
diuretic, and 
expectorant. It is  
a mild remedy, 
suitable for children.Sweet chestnut nuts are a nutritious food and the leaves are 
useful for treating coughs. Habitat & Cultivation  Native to the 
Mediterranean, Asia Minor, and the Caucasus, 
sweet chestnut grows freely across Europe, including Britain. It is cultivated for its timber and for its nuts, which are collected in the autumn. Parts Used  Leaves, bark. Constituents  Sweet chestnut contains tannins, 
plastoquinones, and mucilage. History & Folklore  Tradition has it that the 
sweet chestnut tree was carried from Turkey to Sardinia and from there it subsequently spread through Europe, arriving in Britain with the Romans. The nuts are a nutritious foodstuff that can be roasted, candied, or made into a flour. The flowers are sometimes added to blends of aromatic tobaccos. Medicinal Actions & Uses  An infusion of 
sweet chestnut leaves is taken to treat whooping cough, bronchitis and bronchial congestion. The preparation tightens the mucous membranes and inhibits racking coughs. A decoction of leaves or bark is also valuable as a gargle for sore throats, and may be taken for diarrhea. The leaves are used in the treatment of rheumatic conditions, to ease lower back pain and also to relieve stiff joints or muscles. Related Species  The Mohicans in North 
America used an infusion obtained from American chestnut leaves (C. dentata) to treat whooping cough. In his Natural History of North Carolina (1737), John Brickell reports that the “leaves or bark of the tree boiled in wine are good against the bloody flux [excessive bleeding].”
US_180-201_Brassica_dictamnus.indd   184 26/02/16   12:47 pm185Centaurea Cyanusother medicinal plantsCatha edulis  (Celastraceae)
Khat,
Catha
Description  Tree growing to 49 ft (15 m). Has 
reddish twigs, oval leathery leaves, and small yellow 
or white flowers. Habitat & Cultivation  Native to the Middle 
East and the Horn of Africa, khat prefers grassland 
and arid conditions. It is cultivated in Ethiopia, 
Somalia, East Africa, and the Arabian peninsula. Parts Used  Leaves, twigs. Constituents  Khat contains alkaloids similar to 
those in Ephedra  species—norpseudoephedrine 
(up to 1%) and ephedrine, tannins, and a volatile  
oil. Ephedrine-type alkaloids strongly stimulate 
the central nervous system, are antiallergenic, 
and suppress the appetite. History & Folklore  Khat is taken in some 
African and Middle Eastern countries as a stimulant, 
tonic, and appetite suppressant. Infused, smoked, 
or chewed, khat produces an effect somewhat 
similar to that of coca leaves ( Erythroxylum coca ,  
p. 206). Whether khat is addictive is unclear, but 
withdrawal can produce lethargy. Medicinal Actions & Uses  Mainly used as a 
social drug, khat is also chewed fresh or taken in an 
infusion to treat ailments such as malaria. In Africa, it 
is taken in old age, stimulating and improving mental 
function. Khat is used in Germany to counter obesity. QCautions  Khat may cause headaches, raised 
blood pressure, and general overstimulation if used 
more than a few weeks at a time. Do not take 
during pregnancy or while breastfeeding. Caulophyllum thalictroides 
(Berberidaceae)
Blue Cohosh
Description  Upright perennial growing to 3 ft 
(1 m) with large, 3-lobed leaves, yellow to purple 
flowers, and striking blue berries. Habitat & Cultivation Blue Cohosh grows 
wild in much of eastern North America from 
Manitoba to Alabama, preferring woodland valleys 
and damp, north-facing slopes. It is mainly wild-
harvested but is also cultivated commercially. Parts Used  The root and rhizome are harvested 
in the autumn. Constituents  Blue cohosh contains alkaloids, 
steroidal saponins, and resin. History & Folklore  “Cohosh” is an Algonquin 
name, and blue cohosh was a popular herb with 
many Native American tribes. Though it was taken 
by both sexes to treat genitourinary problems, it 
was primarily considered a women’s herb.into the skin, it treats congestion, chest infections, 
and cystitis. It is used to treat skin wounds and ulcers. Caution  Do not take essential oil of cedar 
internally except under professional supervision. Celtis australis  (Ulmaceae)
European Nettle Tree
Description  Dome-shaped deciduous tree 
growing to 80 ft (25 m). Has lance-shaped leaves, 
green flowers, and small round purple-black fruits. Habitat & Cultivation  Native to the 
Mediterranean region and southwestern Asia, 
European nettle tree is also planted as a border 
tree in Italy and France. Parts Used  Leaves, fruit. Constituents  European nettle tree contains 
tannins and mucilage. Medicinal Actions & Uses  Due to their 
astringent properties, both the leaves and the fruit 
of European nettle tree may be taken as a decoction 
to reduce heavy menstrual and intermenstrual 
uterine bleeding. The fruit and leaves may be used 
to astringe the mucous membranes of the gut in 
peptic ulcers, diarrhea, and dysentery. Centaurea cyanus ( Asteraceae )
Cornflower
Description  Annual or biennial plant growing  
to 3 ft (90 cm). Has a multi-branched stem, a basal 
rosette of leaves, and sky-blue flowers in summer. Habitat & Cultivation Native to the Near 
East, cornflower grows wild in all temperate regions, 
often in cornfields. The flowers are gathered just 
after they open. Parts Used  Flowers, seeds, leaves. Constituents  Cornflower contains flavonoids, 
sesquiterpene lactones (including cnicin), acetylenes, 
and coumarins. Cnicin is slightly antibiotic. History & Folklore  Cornflower’s medicinal 
properties were first mentioned in the 12th-century 
writings of Hildegard of Bingen. Later, the herbalist 
Pierandrea Mattioli (1501–1577) recommended it 
on the basis of the Doctrine of Signatures, which 
held that a plant’s appearance indicated the ailments 
it would cure. Cornflower’s deep blue color 
symbolized healthy eyes, and for this reason it 
became a treatment for eye ailments. (In France,  
the plant is called casse-lunette , or “break glasses.”)
Medicinal Actions & Uses  Cornflower is still 
used in French herbal medicine as a remedy for the 
eyes (the strained infusion is used as an eyewash, 
and the petals applied as a poultice), but opinion 
differs as to its efficacy. The petals are also taken as 
a bitter tonic and stimulant, improving digestion Blue cohosh  is mainly wild-harvested but is also  
cultivated commercially. Medicinal Actions & Uses  Current  
medicinal uses of blue cohosh are not that 
different from the past—the root is still valued  
as a women’s remedy. It is often prescribed as  
a uterine tonic, bringing relief from uterine and 
ovarian pain, while regulating to improve menstrual 
blood flow. The herb also has anti-inflammatory 
activity and may be used in treatments for 
arthritic and rheumatic conditions. QCautions  Only take under professional 
supervision. Do not take during pregnancy or while 
breastfeeding. The plant can cause contact dermatitis. Cedrus spp. (Pinaceae)
Cedar
Description  Cedar of Lebanon ( C. libani ) is a 
majestic flat-topped tree growing to 130 ft (40 m). It has dark green needle-like leaves and oval cones. African cedar ( C. atlantica ) grows to 115 ft (35 m). Habitat & Cultivation  Cedar of Lebanon  
is native to mountain forests of Lebanon, Israel,  
and southwest Turkey. Atlas cedar is native to  
the Atlas Mountains of Morocco, growing from 
4,600–7,200 ft (1,400–2,200 m) above sea level. Parts Used  Leaves, wood, essential oil. Constituents  The essential oil of Atlas cedar 
wood contains mainly alpha-pinene (up to 79%). History & Folklore  Cedar of Lebanon is 
thought to have been used in building Solomon’s 
Temple and the Hanging Gardens of Babylon. The oil has been used for thousands of years in 
incense, perfumes, and embalming. Medicinal Actions & Uses  Cedar of Lebanon 
is antiseptic and expectorant, acting to disinfect the 
respiratory tract. Cedarwood essential oil has been 
used for thousands of years for perfumes and for 
embalming. It is most commonly distilled from Atlas 
cedar and eastern red cedar ( Juniperus virginicus ). The oil is strongly antiseptic, astringent, diuretic, 
expectorant, and sedative. Diluted and massaged 
US_180-201_Brassica_dictamnus.indd   185 26/02/16   12:47 pm
186Cephaelis ipe C a C uanhaother medicinal plantsand possibly supporting the liver as well as improving 
resistance to infection. The seeds have been used as a mild laxative for children. A decoction of the leaves is used to treat rheumatic complaints. Related Species  Greater knapweed (C. scabiosa)  
formed part of the medieval salve, an ointment applied to heal wounds and to treat skin infections. Self-help Use  Conjunctivitis, p. 310. Cephaelis ipecacuanha (Rubiaceae)
Ipecac
Description  Small shrub with a slender stem 
growing to 1 ft (30 cm). Has a few oblong leaves, 
small white flowers, and purple-black berries. Habitat & Cultivation  This herb grows mainly 
in Brazil. Cultivation has been attempted in Southeast 
Asia with limited success. The root of 3-year-old plants is unearthed when the plant is in flower. Parts Used  Root, rhizome. Constituents  Ipecac contains isoquinoline 
alkaloids, tannins, and glycosides. The alkaloids are expectorant and, at a larger dose, cause vomiting and diarrhea. They are also strongly amebicidal. History & Folklore  Ipecac came to Europe 
in 1672, and achieved fame as a cure  
for dysentery. But the cure was not without controversy. It appeared to work well in some cases but to have no effect in others. Now it is possible to see why. There are two types of dysentery—amebic and bacillary. While the herb is strongly amebicidal, it has little effect against bacilli. Medicinal Actions & Uses  Though a highly 
effective emetic (even moderate doses of ipecac will stimulate vomiting until the contents of the stomach are cleared), it is now rarely used in conventional medicine as safer substitutes have been developed. Ipecac continues to be a common ingredient in patent over-the-counter cough medicines, as its strong expectorant action helps to clear phlegm and ease irritable coughs. It is used in the treatment of bronchitis and whooping cough. Ipecac is also still used for amebic dysentery. QCautions  Do not use the root or rhizome. T ake formulations containing ipecac carefully and only as instructed on the label. Several deaths have resulted from overdose.climates; it is said to “want sight of the sea.” It is cultivated for its fruit, and harvested in late summer or autumn. Parts Used  Fruit, bark. Constituents  The fruit contains up to 70% 
sugars, fats, starch, proteins, vitamins, and tannins. History & Folklore  In ancient Egypt, carob 
pods were combined with porridge, honey, and wax as a remedy for diarrhea. They also featured in recipes for expelling worms, and treating poor eyesight and eye infections. Medicinal Actions & Uses  Carob pods are 
nutritious and, due to their high sugar content, sweet-tasting and mildly laxative. A decoction of the pulp can be used as an antidiarrheal, gently helping to cleanse and relieve irritation within  the gut. Iceland moss is used 
to ease coughs and treat congestion. It also has a soothing and bitter tonic effect on the digestive tract.Carob seeds were used to weigh gold and gave rise to the word “carat.”
Helonias root was chewed 
by Native American women 
to prevent miscarriage.Cetraria islandica (Parmeliaceae)
Iceland Moss
Description  Y ellow-green lichen growing in 
undulating, leathery tufts up to 3 in (8 cm) across. Habitat & Cultivation  Iceland moss is native 
to northern and alpine areas of Europe. It flourishes 
in sub-Arctic and mountainous regions on rocks and on the bark of trees, especially conifers. It is harvested throughout the year. Part Used  Whole plant. Constituents  Iceland moss contains lichen acids 
(including usnic acid) and about 50% polysaccharides. Usnic acid and the other lichen acids are powerfully antibiotic. The polysaccharides are antiviral. History & Folklore  Iceland moss has been 
used since ancient times as a cough remedy, and has also been used in European folk medicine as  
a cancer treatment.Medicinal Actions & Uses  Strongly demulcent, 
Iceland moss soothes the mucous membranes of the chest, counters congestion, and calms dry and paroxysmal coughs, being particularly helpful as a treatment for elderly people. Iceland moss is also very bitter and, within the gut, has both a demulcent and bitter tonic effect—a combination almost unique in medicinal herbs. It is thus of value in all kinds of chronic digestive problems, for instance irritable bowel syndrome. Chamaelirium lutea (Liliaceae)
Helonias,
False Unicorn Root
Description  Herbaceous perennial growing to  
3 ft (1 m) with large, green leaves forming a basal rosette from which emerges a tall spike of green-white flowers. Habitat & Cultivation  Native to North 
America, helonias grows in low, moist, well-drained ground east of the Mississippi river. In view of its rarity in the wild, it is best to use alternative herbs such as black cohosh (Cimicifuga racemosa, p. 79) and wild yam (Disocorea villosa, p. 91). Parts Used  Rhizome (lifted in autumn). Constituents  Root contains steroidial saponins 
(up to 9%), including chamaelirin and diogenin. History & Folklore A traditional Native 
American medicine, Helonias was prized as  a woman’s herb and used to treat a range of gynecological problems. There is some confusion about its precise use since several herbs share the same (or similar) name. Seeds
Ceratonia siliqua (Fabaceae)
Carob
Description  Evergreen tree growing to a height 
of 30 ft (10 m). Has compound leaves, green flowers, and large violet-brown fruit (bean pods). Habitat & Cultivation  Native to south-
eastern Europe, western Asia, and North Africa, carob flourishes in poor soil in warm temperate 
US_180-201_Brassica_dictamnus.indd   186 26/02/16   12:47 pm187Chelidonium majusother medicinal plantsMedicinal Actions & Uses  In Western 
herbal medicine, helonias has been valued as a key 
remedy for conditions affecting the uterus and 
ovaries. It is thought to have a “normalizing” effect 
on the female reproductive system. It is thought to 
regulate the release of hormones by the ovaries 
and encourage a regular menstrual cycle. It has  
also been used to treat conditions such as 
endometriosis, ovarian cysts, and menopausal 
problems. As it is now an endangered species, 
other herbs (notably black cohosh) are routinely 
used in its place. Caution  Do not take during pregnancy. Chamaemelum nobile syn. anthemis nobilis (Asteraceae)
Roman Chamomile
Description  Aromatic perennial growing to  
20 in (50 cm). Has feathery leaves and daisy-like 
flower heads. Habitat & Cultivation  Native to western 
Europe, Roman chamomile is now cultivated  
across Europe, and also in other temperate regions. The flowers are harvested as they open in summer. Parts Used  Flowers, essential oil. Constituents  Roman chamomile contains up  
to 1.75% essential oil (including tiglic and angelic 
acid esters, chamazulene and other sesquiterpene 
lactones), flavonoids, coumarins, 
and phenolic acids. History & Folklore  
Though called Roman 
chamomile, this herb was 
not cultivated in Rome 
until the 16th century, 
probably arriving there  
from Britain. Medicinal Actions & Uses  A remedy for  
the digestive system, Roman chamomile is often 
used interchangeably with German chamomile 
(Chamomilla recutita , p. 77). However, an infusion  
of Roman chamomile has a more pronounced bitter 
action than its German namesake. It is an excellent 
treatment for nausea, vomiting, indigestion, and  
loss of appetite. It is also sedative, antispasmodic,  
and mildly analgesic, and will relieve colic, cramps, 
and other cramping pains. By stimulating digestive 
secretions and relaxing the muscles of the gut,  
it helps normalize digestive function. Roman 
chamomile may also be taken for headaches  
and migraine, even by children. Its marked anti-
inflammatory and antiallergenic properties make  
it helpful when applied to irritated skin. Cautions  Do not use the essential oil  
internally except under professional supervision. The essential oil is subject to legal restrictions in  
some countries.Habitat & Cultivation  Native to southern 
Europe, wallflower is now found throughout the 
continent. It grows on cliffs and old walls, and is  
a common garden plant. Parts Used  Leaves, flowers. Constituents  The herb contains cheiranthin and 
other cardioactive glycosides. History & Folklore  In 1735, the Irish herbalist 
K’Eogh described wallflower thus: “It provokes 
urination and menstruation and expels a stillborn 
child, and the afterbirth if a decoction of the dried 
flowers or a little seed is drunk in wine.”
Medicinal Actions & Uses  Although 
wallflower was formerly used as a diuretic, there 
was no understanding of its powerful effect on 
the heart. In small doses it is cardiotonic, supporting 
a failing heart in a manner similar to foxglove 
(Digitalis purpurea , p. 202). In more than small 
doses it is toxic, and is therefore rarely used in 
herbal medicine. RQ Cautions  Use only under professional 
supervision. Do not take during pregnancy. The Greek physician Dioscorides (1st century ce) used 
wallflower roots to treat gout. Chamaenerion angustifolia  
syn. epilobium angustifolium 
(Onagraceae)
Rosebay Willowherb
Description  Perennial growing to 61⁄2 ft (2 m). Has an erect stem, narrow leaves, and long spikes  
of pink-purple flowers. Habitat & Cultivation  This herb is found in 
Europe and western Asia, and grows in clearings,  
along roads, and in open areas. It is picked  
when in flower in late summer. Parts Used  Aerial parts. Constituents  Rosebay willowherb contains 
flavones and tannins. History & Folklore  In Siberia, an alcoholic 
drink has been made from this herb and the fly 
agaric mushroom ( Amanita muscaria ). Medicinal Actions & Uses  Demulcent and 
astringent, rosebay willowherb treats diarrhea, 
mucous colitis, and irritable bowel syndrome. It has 
also been made into an ointment to soothe skin 
problems in children. Rosebay willowherb is used 
to treat prostate problems. Cheiranthus cheiri (Brassicaceae)
Wallflower
Description  Evergreen perennial growing  
to 18 in (45 cm). Has lance-shaped leaves and 
yellow-orange flowers appearing in spring. Dried flower headsChelidonium majus  
(Papaveraceae)
Greater Celandine
Description  Thin-stemmed perennial herb 
growing to a height of 3 ft (90 cm). Has indented 
yellow-green leaflets and 4-petaled flowers, which 
appear in clusters in late spring. Habitat & Cultivation  Native to Europe, 
western Asia, and North Africa, greater celandine 
flourishes close to human habitation, preferring 
open areas, the banks of roadsides, and damp 
places. The aerial parts of the herb are collected  
in late spring or early summer. Parts Used  Aerial parts, latex. Constituents  Greater celandine contains 
isoquinoline alkaloids, including allocryptopine, 
berberine, chelidonine and sparteine. Several  
of these alkaloids are analgesic. Chelidonine is 
antispasmodic and also lowers blood pressure. Sparteine, by contrast, raises it. History & Folklore  In folk medicine, greater 
celandine has often been viewed as a cure-all. It  
has also been used for thousands of years to treat 
and clear the eyesight, especially cataracts. According 
to Pliny and Dioscorides (both writing in the  
1st century ce), swallows used the latex that  
flows from cuts in the stems or leaves as a  
means to sharpen their eyesight. In 1598, Gerard 
recommended the herb for eye disorders “for it 
clenseth and consumeth awaie slimie things that 
cleave about the ball of the eie.”
Medicinal Actions & Uses  Greater celandine 
acts as a mild sedative, relaxing the muscles of the 
bronchial tubes, intestines, and other organs. US_180-201_Brassica_dictamnus.indd   187 26/02/16   12:47 pm
188Chelone glabraother medicinal plantsHabitat & Cultivation  Balmony is native  
to eastern North America, balmony thrives in 
habitats such as marshland, wet woodland, and riverbanks. It is harvested when in flower during summer or autumn. Parts Used  Aerial parts. Constituents  Contains resins and bitters. History & Folklore  Balmony’s genus name, 
Chelone, means “tortoise” in Greek, referring to the flower head’s supposed resemblance to the head of the tortoise. Medicinal Actions & Uses  A strongly bitter 
remedy, balmony is principally used to treat gallstones and other gallbladder problems. It stimulates bile flow and has a mildly laxative action. It can be taken to relieve nausea, vomiting, and intestinal colic, and to expel worms. It may also  
be antidepressant. Balmony is a suitable remedy  for children.henricus), a species that is native to Europe, is  both eaten as a vegetable and used medicinally  to treat anemia. RQ Cautions  Use only under professional 
supervision. Wormseed is toxic when taken in overdose. Do not take during pregnancy. The herb is subject to legal restrictions in some countries. Chimaphila umbellata (Pyrolaceae)
Pipsissewa
Description  Evergreen plant with several stems, 
growing to 8 in (20 cm). Has shiny wedge-shaped leaves and small flat-topped clusters of white flowers tinged with red. Habitat & Cultivation  Native to North 
America, Europe, and Asia, pipsissewa grows in woods and shady places, in sandy soils. The leaves are gathered in summer. Parts Used  Leaves. Constituents  Pipsissewa contains hydroquinones 
(including arbutin), flavonoids, triterpenes, methyl salicylate, and tannins. The hydroquinones have  
a pronounced disinfectant effect within the urinary tract. History & Folklore  Pipsissewa was much used 
by Native North Americans to induce sweating and treat fevers, including typhus. European settlers used the herb for rheumatism and for urinary and kidney problems. It was listed in the Pharmacopoeia of the United States from 1820 to 1916. Medicinal Actions & Uses  Astringent, tonic, 
and diuretic, pipsissewa is mainly used in an infusion for urinary tract problems such as cystitis and urethritis. It has also been prescribed for more serious conditions such as gonorrhea and kidney stones. By increasing urine flow, it stimulates the removal of waste products from the body, and is therefore of benefit in the treatment of rheumatism and gout. The fresh leaves of pipsissewa may be applied externally to rheumatic joints or muscles, as well as to blisters, sores, and swellings. Research  In tests on animals, pipsissewa leaves 
appear to lower blood-sugar levels. Balmony’s bile-inducing 
property makes it useful 
for gallbladder problems.In both Western and Chinese herbal traditions, it has been used to treat bronchitis, whooping cough, and asthma. The herb’s antispasmodic effect extends to the gallbladder, where it helps to improve bile flow. This would partly account for its use in treating jaundice, gallstones, and gallbladder pain, as well as its longstanding reputation as a detoxifying herb. Greater celandine’s sedative action does not, however, extend to the uterus—it causes the muscles of this organ to contract. The herb is applied externally to soothe and encourage the healing of skin conditions such as eczema. The yellow latex of greater celandine is applied to warts, ringworm, and malignant skin tumors, which are slowly broken down by the effect of its protein-dissolving enzymes. QCautions  Use only under professional 
supervision. Can cause liver damage in rare cases. It is subject to legal restrictions in some countries. Chenopodium ambrosioides 
(Chenopodiaceae)
Wormseed
Description  Annual herb growing to 3 ft (1 m) 
with toothed lance-shaped leaves. Y ellow-green 
flowers in round clusters bloom in summer, producing small black seeds in autumn. Habitat & Cultivation  Wormseed is native 
to Central and South America and the Caribbean. It has been extensively cultivated in Maryland, and in China. Parts Used  Aerial parts, flowering tops. Constituents  Wormseed contains a volatile  
oil (up to 90% ascaridol, plus geraniol and methyl salicylate), and triterpenoid saponins. Ascaridol is  a powerful worm expellent. History & Folklore  An herbal remedy that  
has been used for centuries, wormseed was used  
by the Maya in Central America to expel worms. In the eastern U.S., European settlers employed it for the treatment of worms, especially in children. The Catawba made a poultice from the plant,  which they used to detoxify snake bite and  other poisonings. Medicinal Actions & Uses  Wormseed is 
principally known for its ability to expel worms, especially roundworm and hookworm. It is also used in the Americas as a digestive remedy, the leaves being taken to settle colic and stomach pains. Wormseed’s muscle-relaxing action has led to its use in the treatment of spasmodic coughs and asthma. Externally, juice expressed from the whole herb is applied as a wash for hemorrhoids. Related Species  Many species of Chenopodium 
are used as foods, and some medicinally. The seeds of C. rhadinostachyum are used as food by Aborigines 
in central Australia. Good King Henry (C. bonus-Chionanthus virginicus (Oleaceae)
Fringe Tree
Description  Deciduous shrub or tree growing 
to a height of 33 ft (10 m). Has elliptical dark green leaves and long flowering stems with spikes of white flowers. Produces dark blue oval fruits. Habitat & Cultivation  Native to the U.S., 
fringe tree grows from Pennsylvania south to Florida and Texas. It is also now found in eastern Asia, and thrives on riverbanks and in damp Chelone glabra (Scrophulariaceae)
Balmony
Description  Perennial herb growing to 2 ft (60 
cm). Has narrow leaves and short spikes of creamy-white to purple double-lipped flowers. US_180-201_Brassica_dictamnus.indd   188 26/02/16   12:47 pm189CiChorium intybusother medicinal plants
shrubby areas. The root is 
unearthed in spring or autumn,  
mostly in Virginia and North Carolina. Parts Used  Root bark, bark. Constituents  Contains saponins (including 
chionanthin) and glycosides (including phyllirine). History & Folklore  Fringe tree was 
commonly used by Native Americans and 
European settlers to treat inflammations of the 
eye, canker sores, and spongy gums. The Choctaw 
of Louisiana applied the mashed bark to cuts and 
bruises. Native Americans in Alabama used the 
bark as a treatment for toothache. In the 19th 
century Anglo-American Physiomedicalist 
tradition, fringe tree was valued as a bitter tonic, 
and the bark was often used to aid recovery from 
long-term illness. Medicinal Actions & Uses  The root bark is  
a liver tonic, stimulates bile flow, and acts as a mild 
laxative. It is prescribed mainly for gallbladder pain, 
gallstones, jaundice, and chronic weakness. While it 
appears to be of benefit to liver and gallbladder 
function, there is as yet no research to substantiate 
its effects. The root bark also appears to strengthen 
function in the pancreas and spleen. Anecdotal 
evidence indicates that it may substantially reduce 
sugar levels in the urine. Fringe tree also stimulates 
the appetite and digestion and is an excellent 
remedy for chronic illness, especially where the 
liver has been affected. For external use, the 
crushed bark may be made into a poultice for 
treating sores and wounds. Chondrodendron tomentosum 
(Menispermaceae)
Pareira
Description Vine climbing to a great height in 
tropical rainforests. Reaches 100 ft (30 m). Has 
large leaves up to 1 ft (30 cm) long and trailing 
clusters of flowers.Habitat & Cultivation  Pareira grows wild  
in rainforests in the upper Amazon region and in 
Panama. It is collected from the wild as available. Parts Used  Root, stem. Constituents  Pareira contains alkaloids, 
including delta-tubocurarine and L-curarine. Tubocurarine is a potent muscle relaxant. History & Folklore  Pareira and similar species 
are famous for being the source of curare, 
the paralyzing arrow poison used by 
Amazonian and other South 
American Indians to catch their 
prey. A dart or spear tipped with 
curare causes instantaneous paralysis 
on entering the bloodstream of the 
animal. Traditional recipes for toxins 
usually involve blending 10 or more different 
plants, but pareira or a plant with similar action  
is always present in the mix. Medicinal Actions & Uses  Pareira’s notoriety 
as a poison hinges on the effect of its toxic derivative 
entering directly into the bloodstream. Provided 
there are no cuts or sores in the mouth, the plant is 
reasonably safe taken orally as a medicinal remedy. The bitter and slightly sweet-tasting roots and stems 
are mildly laxative, tonic, and diuretic, and also act  
to induce menstruation. The plant is chiefly used to 
relieve chronic inflammation of the urinary tubules. In Brazil, it is also used for snake bite. Research  Pareira’s powerful ability to paralyze  
has led to its being extensively researched. Tubocurarine–one of the many alkaloids within  
the plant–is now used (as tubocurarine chloride)  
as an anesthetic to paralyze the muscles  
during operations. Related Species  At least four other closely 
related species of Chondrodendron  are used to 
produce the traditional poison known as curare. RCautions  Use only under professional 
supervision. Pareira and/or curare are subject  
to legal restrictions in some countries.amino acids, iodine, and bromine, plus many other 
minerals. The polysaccharides become jelly-like and 
demulcent when the plant is immersed in water. History & Folklore  Irish moss is used 
extensively in the food and pharmaceutical 
industries as an emulsifying and binding agent,  
for example in toothpastes. Medicinal Actions & Uses  A useful 
demulcent and emollient, Irish moss is mainly  
taken for coughs and bronchitis. Its expectorant 
effect encourages the coughing up of phlegm, and  
it soothes dry and irritated mucous membranes. It 
is of value for acid indigestion, gastritis, and urinary 
infections such as cystitis. For these conditions it is 
normally combined with other appropriate herbs. Mucilaginous in texture and slightly salty in taste, 
Irish moss makes a valuable nutrient in 
convalescence. Applied externally, this emollient 
herb soothes inflamed skin. Irish moss also acts  
to thin the blood. Caution  Due to its blood-thinning property, 
carragheen should not be used by people taking 
anticoagulant medicines. Cichorium intybus  (Asteraceae)
Chicory
Description  Deep-rooted perennial growing to 
5 ft (1.5 m). Has a hairy stem, oblong leaves, and 
blue flowers.Fringe tree   
is a valuable  
tonic for the  
liver, gallbladder,  
and pancreas. Chicory  leaves make a settling digestive tea.Chondrus crispus (Gigartinaceae)
Irish Moss,
Carragheen
Description  Reddish-brown seaweed growing 
to10 in (25 cm). Plant body is flat and forked, with 
a fan-shaped outline. Habitat & Cultivation  Irish moss is found on 
the Atlantic coasts of Europe and North America. It grows just below the waterline, attached to rocks 
and stones. In summer in North America, and in 
autumn in Ireland, it is pulled up by hand or with a 
rake at low tide and dried in the sun. Part Used  Whole herb. Constituents  Irish moss contains large  
amounts of polysaccharides, proteins (up to 10%), Habitat & Cultivation  Native to Europe, 
chicory also grows in North Africa and western 
Asia. It flourishes along paths and roadsides, and  
in banks and dry fields. The root is unearthed in 
spring or autumn. Parts Used  Root, leaves, flowers. Constituents  The root contains up to 58% 
inulin, caffeic acids, coumarins, flavonoids, polyynes, 
an essential oil including sesquiterpene lactones, 
US_180-201_Brassica_dictamnus.indd   189 26/02/16   12:47 pm
190Cinnamomum Camphoraother medicinal plantsand vitamins and minerals. There is now significant 
evidence to show that chicory root protects the liver from damage. History & Folklore  According to Pliny  
(23–79 ce), chicory juice was mixed with rose oil and vinegar as a remedy for headaches. The roasted root is commonly used as a coffee substitute. The young root can be boiled and eaten like parsnips. Medicinal Actions & Uses  Chicory is an 
excellent mild bitter tonic for the liver and digestive tract. The root is therapeutically similar to dandelion root (Taraxacum officinale, p. 141), supporting the action of the stomach and liver and cleansing the urinary tract. Chicory is also taken for rheumatic conditions and gout, and as a mild laxative, one particularly appropriate for children. An infusion  of the leaves and flowers also aids digestion.
Encyclopedia_Of_Herbal_Medicine.txt
Summarize the following text section accurately and concisely. Maintain specific details and numerical information, and use anti-repetition mechanisms:

        Constituents  Silver birch contains saponins, 
flavonoids, tannin, and a volatile oil that includes methyl salicylate. US_158-179_Abies_balsa_Boswe_serratta. indd   178 26/02/16   12:47 pm179 other medicinal Plants
Bixa orellana (Bixaceae)
Annatto
Description  Evergreen tree growing to 26 ft  
(8 m). Has large leaves, pink or white flowers, and 
red fruit capsules containing red seeds. Habitat & Cultivation  Native to tropical 
forests in the Americas and the West Indies, 
annatto is widely cultivated in similar climatic zones, 
notably in India. Seeds are collected as the fruit 
splits open. Parts Used  Seeds, leaves, root. Constituents  The seed pulp contains carotinoid 
coloring principles. History & Folklore  In tropical South  
America, the brilliant red pigment in the seed  
pulp has traditionally been used in body painting. Annatto dye is also used as a colorant for 
margarine and cheese. Medicinal Actions & Uses  In the Caribbean, 
annatto leaves and roots are used to make an 
astringent infusion that is taken to treat fever, 
epilepsy, and dysentery. The infusion is also taken  
as an aphrodisiac. The leaves alone make an 
infusion that is used as a gargle. The seed pulp 
reduces the severity of blistering when applied 
immediately to burns. T aken internally, the seed 
pulp acts as a general antidote for poisoning. Boswellia serrata (Burseraceae)
Boswellia,
Indian Olibanum,  
Sallaki (Sanskrit)
Description  Deciduous tree, growing to about 
49 ft (15 m), with pale papery bark, compound 
leaves, and clusters of small white flowers. The 
gum resin exudes from the bark and is transparent 
gold in color. Habitat & Cultivation  Boswellia grows in  
dry, hilly regions of central and northern India. Parts Used  Gum resin, bark. Constituents  Boswellia contains triterpene 
acids (including beta-boswellic acid), essential 
oil, terpenols, monosaccharides, uronic 
acids, sterols, and tannins. History & Folklore  Boswellia,  
a close relative of frankincense  
(B. sacra ), has been used for many thousands of 
years as an astringent and anti-inflammatory. Medicinal Actions & Uses  Boswellia  
makes an effective mouthwash and gargle, the 
antiseptic and astringent resin helping to heal  
and tighten inflamed mucous membranes. Sore 
throat, laryngitis, canker sores, and gum disease  
will all benefit. Boswellia is also markedly anti-
inflammatory and antiarthritic. This makes it 
potentially useful in chronic inflammatory diseases 
such as rheumatoid arthritis, ulcerative colitis,  
and psoriasis. Other conditions that may benefit 
include gout, asthma, hay fever, and nettle rash. Research  Research into Boswellia is ongoing  
and has expanded in recent years. Clinical trials 
(mostly in India and Germany) indicate that 
Boswellia counteracts inflammation in conditions 
such as arthritis and inflammatory bowel disease. The majority of trials noted that symptoms such  
as pain, stiffness, and poor grip strength all 
improved. There is increasing evidence that 
Boswellia has marked pain-relieving activity, and 
that it promotes stable blood glucose levels in 
people with type 2 diabetes. Boswellia serrata
Bignonia catalpa syn. Catalpa 
bignonioides (Bignoniaceae)
Catalpa
Description  Deciduous tree growing to 65 ft 
(20 m). Has large oval leaves in whorls of 3, white 
flowers in conical clusters, and long thin fruits 
(bean pods). Habitat & Cultivation  Native to the 
southeastern U. S. , this tree is often planted in 
gardens in southern and western Europe. Parts Used  Bark, fruit. Constituents  The bark contains catalpine,  
and oxylenzoic and protocatechetic acids. History & Folklore  Catalpa bark was  
formerly used as a substitute for quinine in  
treating malaria. Medicinal Actions & Uses  The mildly 
sedative and narcotic bark is used to treat  
asthma, whooping cough, and other spasmodic 
coughs in children. The distilled water of the  
fruit, in combination with herbs commonly used  
to treat eye problems, such as eyebright ( Euphrasia 
officinalis, p. 209) and rue ( Ruta graveolens, p. 265), 
makes an effective eyewash for conjunctivitis and 
other eye infections. RCaution  Never use the roots, which are  
highly poisonous. Borago officinalis (Boraginaceae)
Borage
Description  Hairy annual growing to 2 ft  
(60 cm). Has a pulpy stem, large basal leaves, and 
attractive blue flowers in summer. Habitat & Cultivation  Borage is a common 
Mediterranean weed thought to originate from 
southern Spain and Morocco. Often grown as a 
garden herb, it is also extensively cultivated for its 
seed oil. Parts Used  Aerial parts, flowers, seed oil. Constituents  Borage contains mucilage, 
tannins, and pyrrolizidine alkaloids, which in 
isolation are toxic to the liver. The seeds contain  
up to 24% gamma-linolenic acid. in a poultice, or as an infusion. The flowers 
encourage sweating and the leaves are diuretic. The seed oil is particularly rich in polyunsaturated 
fats, and is superior in this respect to evening 
primrose oil ( Oenothera biennis, p. 241). Borage 
seed oil is used to treat premenstrual complaints, 
rheumatic problems, eczema, and other chronic 
skin conditions. Cautions  Due to the presence of toxic 
pyrrolizidine alkaloids, there is uncertainty over 
borage’s safety as a medicine. It is subject to legal 
restrictions in some countries and should not be 
taken internally. These restrictions and cautions  
do not apply to borage seed oil. Borage’s attractive blue 
flowers are traditionally  
used to decorate salads. History & Folklore  The herbalist John Gerard, 
writing in 1597, extols borage’s virtues, “A syrup 
made of the flowers of borage comforteth  
the heart, purgeth melancholy, and quieteth  
the phreneticke or lunaticke person. ” Gerard  
also quotes the old saying, “I, Borage, bring  
always courage. ”
Medicinal Actions & Uses With its high 
mucilage content, borage is a demulcent herb  
and soothes respiratory problems. Its emollient 
qualities make it helpful for sore and inflamed  
skin—prepared either as freshly squeezed juice,  
US_158-179_Abies_balsa_Boswe_serratta. indd   179 26/02/16   12:47 pm
180Brassica oleracea
Brassica oleracea (Brassicaceae)
Cabbage
Description  Biennial or perennial herb growing 
to 8 ft (2. 5 m). Has a thick stem, grey leaves, and 
4-petaled yellow flowers. Within the first year,  
it produces a greatly enlarged terminal bud  
that develops into the familiar cabbage head  
in late summer. Habitat & Cultivation  Wild cabbage is  
native to coasts of the English Channel and the Mediterranean. Cultivated varieties are produced worldwide as a vegetable. Parts Used  Leaves. Constituents  Cabbage is rich in vitamins A, B1, 
B2, and C. History & Folklore  The wholesome cabbage 
is one of the oldest vegetables. According to Greek 
myth, the plant sprang into existence from the perspiration of Zeus. In a Greek ritual, cabbage was given to expectant mothers shortly before birth in 
order to establish good breast-milk 
production. The Romans used 
cabbage as an antidote, 
especially to alcohol, believing 
it countered intoxication  
and prevented or reduced a 
hangover. They also used cabbage 
leaves to cleanse infected wounds. It is thought to have been cultivated 
in Britain from around 500 ce. One traditional method of making a cabbage poultice, still used today, is to cut out the thick midrib of a leaf and iron it, placing it while still hot on the area to be treated. Medicinal Actions & Uses  Cabbage’s best-
known medicinal use is as a poultice—the leaves  
of the wild or cultivated plant are blanched, crushed,  
or chopped, and applied to swellings, tumors, and painful joints. Wild cabbage leaves eaten raw or cooked aid digestion and the breakdown of toxins in the liver—so the Romans’ eating it to ease a hangover was in fact quite justified. Cabbage is also detoxifying and helpful in the long-term treatment of arthritis. The high vitamin C content of cabbage has made it useful in the prevention of scurvy. Caution  A cabbage poultice may cause blisters  
if left on for several hours. Bryonia dioica syn. B. cretica 
subsp. dioica (Cucurbitaceae)
White Bryony
Description  Perennial climbing vine with fleshy 
taproot up to 6 in (15 cm) thick. Straggling stem 
with tendrils, greenish flowers, and red berries. Habitat & Cultivation  White bryony is native to southern England and parts of Europe. The root 
is dug up in autumn. Part Used  Root. Constituents  White bryony contains 
cucurbitacins, glycosides, volatile oil, and tannins. The cucurbitacins kill cells and so act on tumors. History & Folklore From prehistory to  
the Middle Ages, the thick roots of white bryony were cut into a human shape as a substitute (or  
a counterfeit) for mandrake root (Mandragora officinarum, p. 232), which was believed to afford magical protection. The Greek physician Dioscorides (1st century ce) reports that the leaves, fruit, and root of white bryony were applied to gangrenous wounds. In medieval England, the plant was used to treat leprosy. o t h e r  m e d i c i n a l  p l a n t sRelated Species  B. alba is used in homeopathic 
medicine. Black bryony (Tamus communis) is an unrelated plant with approximately similar uses. RQ Cautions  Bryony is a toxic plant. Use 
only under professional supervision. Do not take during pregnancy. Butea monosperma (Fabaceae)
Palas, 
Flame of the Forest,  
Bengal Kino 
Description  Deciduous tree growing to 49 ft 
(15 m). Has 3-lobed leaves and large orange-red 
flowers in clusters. Habitat & Cultivation  Palas is native to India 
and Southeast Asia. It grows in forests and in open areas to altitudes of 3,900 ft (1,200 m). Parts Used  Bark, flowers, leaves, gum, and seeds. Constituents  All parts of the tree except the 
seeds contain tannins. Medicinal Actions & Uses  The gum that 
oozes from incisions made in palas bark is known as Bengal kino. Mildly astringent, it is used as a substitute for the kino derived from bastard teak (Pterocarpus marsupium). Bengal kino is taken as  a decoction or a tincture for acid indigestion, diarrhea, and dysentery, and used as a gargle for sore throats and as a douche for vaginitis. Early research suggests that the leaves and bark have  the potential to treat diabetes, and that the leaves exert a beneficial action on diarrhea. Caution  Do not take during pregnancy. Cabbage
White bryony has 
antitumor and antirheumatic properties. Medicinal Actions & Uses  A powerful 
cathartic and purgative, bryony is used with great 
caution in herbal medicine today. It is principally prescribed for painful rheumatic conditions. It may be taken internally, or applied as a counterirritant, causing swelling and increased blood flow to  the area. White bryony is also given for other inflammatory conditions such as duodenal ulcers, asthma, bronchitis, and pleurisy, and may be used  to reduce high blood pressure. The whole herb has antiviral activity and research is now suggesting that it acts as an adaptogen—helping the body to adapt more effectively to stress and strain. caesalpinia bonduc 
(Caesalpiniaceae)
Nikkar Nut
Description  Thorny bush growing to 30 ft (9 m), 
with spiny compound leaves, yellow flowers in 
dense clusters, and prickly pods containing yellow seeds (nuts). Habitat & Cultivation  Nikkar nut is pan-
tropical, common in both tropical Asia and Africa. Its seeds are gathered when ripe. Parts Used  Seeds. Constituents  The seeds contain isoflavonoids, 
diterpenes, a bitter principle, and a fixed oil (20%) rich in linoleic acid (68%). Medicinal Actions & Uses  Nikkar seeds are 
used to treat fevers and are taken as a tonic and aphrodisiac. In India, they are often mixed with black pepper (Piper nigrum, p. 250) for medicinal use. The seeds are also taken for inflammatory conditions such as arthritis. Roasted nikkar seeds are used in the treatment of diabetes. US_180-201_Brassica_dictamnus. indd   180 26/02/16   12:47 pm181Camellia sinensis
o
th
er m
ed
icin
al plan
tsRelated Species  A decoction of the bark of 
the Caribbean C. bahamensis  is used for liver and 
kidney infections, and a decoction of the wood  
is used for diabetes. An infusion of the leaves of  
C. pulcherrima  (native to Asia and Africa) is taken  
for liver problems and mouth ulcers. Calamintha ascendens  
syn. C. sylvatica, C. officinalis  
(Lamiaceae)
Calamint
Description  Mint-scented perennial growing  
to 2 ft (60 cm). Has hairy oval leaves, and purple 
flowers in late summer. Habitat & Cultivation  Calamint grows wild 
in Europe and Asia from the British Isles eastward 
to Iran, especially in the Mediterranean region. It 
flourishes along roads and in dry places. Parts Used  Aerial parts. Constituents  Calamint contains a volatile oil 
(about 0. 35%) consisting mainly of pulegone. History & Folklore  In classical legend, calamint 
had the power to drive away the Basilisk, a serpent 
credited with the ability to kill with its gaze  
or breath. Medicinal Actions & Uses  Calamint stimulates 
sweating, and hence helps lower fevers. It also settles 
gas and indigestion. It is expectorant, and is a good 
cough and cold remedy. This range of applications 
makes it a good medicinal herb for mild respiratory 
infections. It should preferably be mixed with other 
herbs such as yarrow ( Achillea millefolium, p. 56) and 
thyme ( Thymus vulgaris, p. 143).
Not mentioned in the provided text.
What is the description of the plant Silver birch?
Annatto leaves and roots are used to make an astringent infusion that is taken to treat fever, epilepsy, and dysentery. It is also used as an aphrodisiac.
What are the medicinal uses of Annatto?
Boswellia makes an effective mouthwash and gargle, and is also anti-inflammatory and antiarthritic. It may be used to treat sore throats, laryngitis, and gum disease. It is also used in the treatment of chronic inflammatory diseases such as rheumatoid arthritis, ulcerative colitis, and psoriasis.
What are the medicinal actions and uses of Boswellia?
Borage is a demulcent herb and soothes respiratory problems. It is also used to treat eczema and other chronic skin conditions. The seeds are used to treat premenstrual complaints and rheumatic problems.
What is the medicinal use of Borage?
The seed pulp of annatto has traditionally been used in body painting in tropical South America.
What is the medicinal use of Capparis spinosa (Caper)?