Therapeutic effects are then induced by anodic liber­
ation of protons as well as by electrophoretic and 
electroosmoric events, which change the microenvir ­
onment of the ti~ues. Cells and tissues in the elcmic 
field thereby undergo a variety of reactions. The eke· 
rrolytic production of H2, 02 and Cl2 also produce 
mechanical effects by compression of tissue, an effect 
more pronounced around the cathode than around the 
anode. The ionization of water, which has a high dielecric 
constant, indicates that the range of compound s which 
undergo molecular splitting is wide. Biologic mole­
cules with strong internal bonds will require higher 
electrode voltage than molecules with weak internal 
bonds, which indicart-s that rhe magnitude of applied 
electrode voltage produces qualitative differences in 
electrolysis of tissue. At relatively low voltages, e.g., below 10 volts, ion-
314 Treatme nt of cancer izatioo effects and transport phenomena are compara­
bly prominent while hear production is comparatively 
negligible. Nevertheless, coagulation still takes place 
due ro electrochemical precipitation of protein, an 
effect which also occurs ar high voltages. Coagulation 
appears around the anode as a central grey-white and a 
surrounding black, dry region. The black anodic zone 
has the general appearance of dry gangrene and is 
produced by diffusion and migration of protons. The 
central grey-white zone is caused by chlorine bleaching 
the tissue. Over biologically closed electric circuits (BCEC), 
several biological effects are encountered. Extensive 
thrombosis , for instance, is induced as far as several 
em out into the tissues surrounding a spontaneously 
polarizing tumour. Such extensive thrombotic changes 
are also induced when a tumour undergoes treatmem. These changes narrowing the lumens of vessels sur­
rounding a tumour will obviously restrict its blood 
supply. An instructive example is the DC-treared patient no. 4, in whom one metastatic tumour, as large as a cher­
ry, disappeared after a dose of I 00 coulombs. A second 
tumour of the same size six weeks later received 180 
coulombs under otherwise comparable conditions of 
treatment. This tumour decreased only slightly in size 
during the IS months rhar followed. Similar results 
were obtained in patient no. 2. At first glance, these 
fmdiogs do nor seem logical, but may be explained in 
the following way: 
If a dose of current is just sufficient to devitalize a 
tumour, including a "minimum" of capillary throm­
boses at its periphery , then the resorption of destroyed 
material from the tumour should proceed relatively 
rapidly, possibly after a recapillarization of the tissue 
surrounding the tumour. On delivery of an "over­
dose" of current, the destructive effects on the capil­
laries and other component s of the tissues around the 
tumour may become too extensive to allow sufficient 
recapillarization for ready resorption of devitalized tis­
sue. A sequestrari~m effect can then be expected to 
ensue; a ball of dehydrated, decomposed tumour tis· 
sue is formed, which probably best can be regarded as 
a focus of dry gangrene. The extensive dystrophic changes in lung tissue 
around granulomas are a possibly related phenom· 
enon. For example, radiograph s of the tuberculous 
granuloma in Fig. IV: I show surrounding dystrophy , 
which may be explained as a result of intense, sponta· 
neous, focal, elecrrochemical polarization caused by 
the tuberculou s agent. The amount of electric energy which is delivered to 
tissue from an external electric power source is deter­
mined by integrating momentar y densities of current 
flow and the duration of the treatment. Considerable 
ionization and electric transports may therefore ensue spont2neously, at low den5ities of current flow over 
long tissue periods. The size and shape of the electric 
field will be determined by the sizes, shapes and posi­
tions of the electrodes and the conductivity properties 
of the tissues. An obvious advantage in DC treatment is placement 
of the anode in the tumour. Tumour cells are known 
to possess an excess of fixed electronegative charges on 
their surfaces. These charges will therefore be attract­
ed inward toward the anode, which is a compelling 
reason for placing only the electropositive electrode in 
the tumour. Another specific effect in DC treatment of tumours 
is the selective attraction of leukocytes to the region of 
the anode and the accumulation of leukocytes in ves­
sels wh.icb direct tht flow of blood toward the cathode. This effect appears probably beneficial for the healing 
of tumours. A potentially far-reaching possibility is the concept 
of delivering via the blood stream an electronegatively 
charged cytostatic compound during DC treatment. In 
this way an increased amount of the cytostatic agent 
might be accumulated in the tumour and in its sur­
rounding tissue, at the same time as undesired general 
effects could be diminished. In spite of many differences, both radiation treat­
ment and DC treatment ionize tissue, which may justi­
fy some comparisons. Ionization of tissue in DC treatment is induced from 
the inside of a tumour. It is therefore far more selec­
tive than tissue ionization by external radiation. DC 
treatment should therefore make it possible to keep 
the total ionizing dose relatively low. More<>ver , in 
radiation therapy the ionization is "mixed", i.e., non­
selective, while DC treatment selectively produces an­
ions and cations and transports them in the electric 
field. The photon energy in radiation therapy must be 
h.igh enough to allow removal of electrons from their 
orbits for a sufficiently long time to prevent them from 
falling back into their orbits. DC and external radi­
ation treatment s might therefore be advantageously 
combined in the future, leading to a mutual and spe­
cific enhancement of the beneficial effects of each. The observation time of the DC treatments of the 
cancers here reported is still relatively short, i.e., a few 
years. Final judgment of the long-term results must 
necessarily wait. Preliminary canclusions about the treat­
ments nevertheless can be made. 1) DC treatrrunt appears UJ be a promising method for 
weal therapy of ca•cer. Beneficial effecu have already 
been obtained with a preliminary technique in 12 of 26 
tumours in 20 patients. The technique is still far from 
optimized. It depends on many technical and biologi­
cal variables. 2) The results reported in 1978 of the treatments of 
5 patients are still valid ( 4 I). It is possible to perform 5uccessful DC treatment of metastatic cancen in lungs 
of patients who have been rejected for surgery, radio­
therapy or chemotherapy because of poor general con­
dition, cardiorespiratory insufficiency, diabetes melli­
tus, multiple locations of pulmonary metastases or 
failing response to chemotherapy. 3) The treatments are performed under local an­
aesthesia and are only slightly uncomfonable for the 
patient. Usually only one treatment is necessary per 
mmour. Regression then takes place over several 
months or years. Despite the usually poot condition of 
the 20 patients, no deaths have occurred as a complica­
tion of treatment. One patient, however, had serious 
haemoptysis and recovered from cardiac arrest; the 
technique of the procedure was then appropriately 
revised so that this complication now seems high.ly 
unlikely in future treatments. 4) The mode of action of DC treatment of malignant 
tumours is multifold. Large parts of a tumour, or 
preferably most of it, should be destroyed by protons 
liberated from the anodic tumour electrode during the 
treatment. Because malignant tumour cells possess 
electronegative surplus charge, they will be attracted 
to the anodic electrode during treatment, a consider­
ation which should diminish risks of tumour spread. The applied electric field seems selectively to affect 
neoplastic cells more than normal cells. Clear regres­
sion of metastatic pulmonary tumours bas been ob­
served radiologically without evidence of correspond­
ing injuries to the surrounding normal tissue. Besides 
primary destruction of tumour tissue, the electric field 
induces ionic transports, dehydration around the an­
ode and peritumoural microthromboses. Leukocytes 
are accumulated around the tumour. These effects, 
produced by an external power source over tissue 
electrodes, represent a driven electric system. At the 
conclusion of the treatment the primary injured tissue 
will release catabolic energy, which activates BCEC 
channels as in any healing process. The amount of 
energy should then be of sufficient magnitude to com­
plete the healing process. For further information on 
the associated complicated events the reader is referred 
to preceding chapters of this book. 5) At the present stage of developmem of the treat­
ment technique , treatment should be limited to tu­
mours peripherally situated in the lung and preferably 
less than 3 em in diameter. Further, it seems possible 
that certain types of cancers might be more suitable for 
DC treatment than others, as is the case in radiothera­
py. 6) Costs of the procedure in terms of material, 
equipment and duration of hospitalization are low. Much of the expensive equipment and trained person­
nel are already available in departments of diagnostic 
radiology. The electrodes and the D.C. Treatment 
Processor will be available at reasonable cost. Treatment of cancer 315 7) This new form of antineoplastic therapy has been 
performed as a partial simulation and practical conse­
quence of the described mechanism of spontaneo us 
healing outlined in preceding chapters of this book. Our knowledge is still fragmemary concerning the 
necessary amounts of energy, most suitable electrode 
potentials and current densities for controlling cancers 
of different sizes, types and locations. Indiscriminate 
usc of the principle of the outlined healing mechanism 
may possibly lead to undesirable effects (see Chapter 
XVI, Section 0, P, Q and Chapter XVlll, Section E). Further modification s of the technique may improve 
its considerable promise as a simple, inexpensive and 
relatively harmless mode of effective antineoplas tic 
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principles and consequences of 
biologically closed electric 
circuits (BCEC) 
A. Structural and functional 
coordination in biology 
Structural organization has long been recognized as a 
dominating characteristic of biological systems. Many 
attempts have been made to identify factors which 
determine structural development. Such attempts have 
led to theoretical concepts of an extrabiological guid­
ing principle, an "entelechey" according to Driesch 
(21i), the "embryonic field" of Spemann (R9) and the 
"biological field" of Weiss (97). More specific func­
tions have been introduced by Ingvar (43), Lund (54) 
and Gurwitsch ( 40) in terms of bioelectric phenomena. For instance, Ingvar showed that external electric 
fields are capable of orienting growing structures in 
vitro. This result led Burr and Northrop (19) to for­
mulate an "electrodynamic theory of life" based on 
interdependence between biologic particles. These 
correlations, they suggest, depend on interactions be­
tween particles and fields at the atomic level. Accord­
ing to this theory, "the pattern or organization of any 
biological system is established by a complex electro­
dynamic field, which is in part determined by its 
atomic physicochemical component$ and which in part 
determines the behaviour and orientation of those 
318 Principles and consequepces of BCEC components". In this theory the characteristic rela­
tionships of the elements of any biological system are a 
function of the field of the system. This theory is built 
on the basic principles of molecular forces, which 
evidently must be involved in the structural arrange­
ments of nonorganic as weU as organic components. The present work can be regarded as an extension of 
such a theory. ID fact, a combination of superimposed 
forces over "large" distances and the action of "local" 
physicochemical forces can be described in terms of 
hiologically closed electric systems. B. BCEC systems and their 
physicochemical activation 
Nearly the entire content of this book serves one 
main purpose: to focus attention on the existence and 
function of an important biological principle, the bic>­
lcgically closed electric circuit. To accept this concept 
will require reviewing actual data in order to overcome 
an abundance of possible objections. The conse­
quences of the concept appear manifold and useful. They therefore merit some closing considerations. A simplified expression of the principle follows from 
the enormous importance of closed electric circuits in 
modern electronic technology. Is it seriously plausible 
that biology can "afford to ignore" the exceedingly 
efficient principle of transporting electric energy over 
closed circuits? A "yes" to this question means that we 
continue an unchanged view of biochemical reactions. A "no, means that we must revise extensively our 
present concepts of conversion of energy in biochemi­
cal reactions. The question we have formulated is 
simple but the answer is difficult and exceedingly 
important. In the author's opinion, biologically closed 
electric circuits do exist. Among these circuits, vascu­
lar-interstitial closed electric circuits (VICC) represent 
energy pathways available in all vascularized tissues. The vascular system thereby includes a new essential 
function. This function is for vessels to serve as electri­
cally conducting "cables" which are capable of con­
necting different regions of tissue over conducting 
interstitial fluid. Arguments will be presented in this discus_ ~ion that 
closed circuits other than VICC must also exist. Parts 
of such closed circuits may consist of different combi· 
nations of VICC branches, incretory and excretory 
ducts of glands and different conducting media. These 
media may include secretions and collections of electri­
cally conducting fluids, e.g., peritoneal , pleural and 
cerebrospinal fluid. This prediction is possible as long 
as at least one insulated and conducting branch, i.e., 
the vascular branch, is available. It should not be 
surprising, moreover , if walls of tissues, e.g., glandu­
lar ducts, also possess their own relatively insulating 
properties around their conducting media. The func­
tion of BCEC systems also depends closely on the 
mechanisms of their activation and on the modulating 
influence the conversion of energy exerts on all bio­
chemical reactions in closed circuits. This book represents only a slight scratch on a 
mountain of fascinating problems and possibilities. It 
should be evident that the future will require a broad 
multidisciplinary approach to disclose the abundance 
of morphologic and functional consequences of BCEC 
systems in health and disease. It is the hope of the 
author that the efforts presented in this book may 
serve to anract specialists in different fields to perform 
extended studies of the many problems and possibili­
ties which the concept offers. The reader will have found a collection of morpho­
logical (radiologic ) observations of pulmonary pathol­
ogy in Chapters II-V. These observations represent 
important primary data on the existence of BCEC 
effects. The observed transformations of tissue can not 
be explained in a conventional way. These observa­
tions gave the impetus to the present research. The 
author's background in diagnostic radiology has in 
many parts of the work been of advantage. Structural 
24-824586 NordnurrQm analysis in vivo and in vitro without instrumental in­
terference has been used as a starting point for later 
experimental studies in vivo and in vitro. Knowledge 
of this radiologic material is therefore important for 
explaining and understanding the biokinetic mecha­
nisms described. Structures of the lung have been 
described and illustrated with indications of the wide 
range of their appearances. The Structures arc all com­
ponents of what are here named the c<Jrona struccures, 
as their appearance resembles the corona of the sun. Similar structural changes were also looked for in an 
extrathoracic organ. They were identified around car­
cinomas of the breast, demonstrating that corona 
structures are not specific for a particular organ. Pre­
requisites for their radiographic demonstration have 
also been described and discussed in Chapter V. The 
discussion will therefore now continue with emphasis 
on the underlying biologic principle. Consider a release of energy for driving reactions 
over a BCEC. Development of a fluctuating physico­
chemical potential is a useful concept. Biologic struc­
tures are regarded too often as static results of a pro· 
cess of poorly understood development. In reality, aU 
biologic material undergoes continuous modification 
in an overall recirculating process. Ionic activities are 
central events in every part of this circle. Conventional expression of the electrochemica l po­
tential of an ionic species is here called physicochemical 
potential. It is a summation of four forces: chemical, 
volume-pressure, electrical and gravitational. This 
convention , in the author's view, is insufficient to 
describe the important interdependence among these 
four factors. This limitation may be overcome partly 
by graphical presentation of the physicochemical po­
tential (Fig. XIII: 2). All four panicipating factors 
are then seen to depend directly on each other. The 
magnitude of each factor is also individua lly variable. A collection of ions is named an iooar. Tbe intro­
duction of the concept of ergon, i.e., a nonionic ener­
getic compound, is of equal importance for under­
standing the function of BCEC systems. This impor­
tance is particularl y apparent when ions and ergons 
appear in collections, termed ergionars. The ionar· 
ergonar ratio and concentrations in a closed circuit can 
be expected to influence its conductivity. The differ­
ent modes of electric adminance of ions and ergons are 
of particular importance. The directly available elec­
tric energy of ions allows them to react immediately 
over their electric factor and to migrate in an activated 
closed circuit. Selective ionic transports are thereby 
possible and can, moreover, modulate different "lo­
cal" electrochemical reactions in the circuit. Ergons, 
on the other hand, carry a balanced charge, which 
must be activated before it can react over its electric 
factor. Ergons are consequently unable to migrate in a 
closed electric circuit, unless they are influenced by a 
Principles and consequences of BCEC 319 matrix capable of supporting closed-circuit transport. Such an ergonic transport mechanism can be recog­
nized in electroosmosis (Chapter IX). This mechanism 
is here also suggested to explain vesicular transports as 
recognized in, e.g., pinocytosis (Chapter XII). Ergonic 
transport depends mainly on mc:chanical and diffusion 
forces. A kind of selective distribution can neverthe­
less also be recognized for ergons. Thus, oxygen (an 
ergon) "saves" its energy in the carrier haemoglobin 
molecule. Oxygen then is favourabl y and selectively 
stored in the myoglobin molecule until local conditions 
of the muscles permit the activation of the oxygen to 
ready it for redox reactions. This formulation of the 
behaviour of an ergon is simply a way to adapt the 
known relations between oxygen, haemoglobin and 
myoglobin (45) to the concept of ergonar in BCEC 
systems. The electromotive forces driving BCEC systems de­
pend on mixed redox and diffusion potentials. In the 
experimental models illustrating these assumptions, 
water and a supportin g electrolyte (KCl) were shown 
as a driven system (electrolysis) and after electrolysis 
as a self-driving system within a matrix (page 169). Thus, redox reactions of an ergonar (water) begin with 
the creation of two ionars (n · OH-, n · H+) and two 
ergonars (n · H~, n · Oz). Tbe diffusion potential 
caused by the ionars may be cancelled by migration of 
K+ and Cl-ions ("local reactions" ) in the circuit. The ergonars n · H2> n · 02, n · Cl2 remain partly ac­
cumulated in the matrix and yet show the capacity to 
produce a current through the circuit after their activa­
tion by metal electrodes. Thus it is possible to illus­
t~atc in an experimental model the existence, function 
and importance of ionars and crgonars in BCEC sys­
te,ms. The development of diffusion potentials, constitut­
ing part of the driving force in BCEC systems, may be 
modified in many ways in vivo. Diffusion of metabolic 
reaction products depends on several factors, e.g., 
ionic concentrations and speeds of mobility. Ionic sep­
aration by diffusion, e.g., over charged and uncharged 
membran es, can further be modified by convection of 
tissue fluids. These processes can either enhance or 
level diffusion potentials . Buffe·ring capacity or specif­
ic ionic recombinations may further modify these po­
tentials. Pharmacologic induction of functional activity 
of an organ (e.g., the liver, Fig. VI: 19) was found to 
induce electrical polarization of the organ (measured as 
its diffusion potential) vs. its surroundings, here called 
a physiologic "demand' " potential of a BCEC circuit. Pulmonary malignancies of corresponding size and 
histologic character sometimes showed an electric po­
larization but no consistency of polarity or magnitude 
of electric potential (page 66). This unanticipated find­
ing led to studies which point to tissue injury as mainly 
responsible for the observed potentials of the lesions. 320 Principles and consequences of BCEC These injury potentials fluctuate and attenuate in rela­
tion to surrounding tissue, as was found with sponta­
neously degrading blood in in vitro experiments 
(Chapter VII). Once the fact of polarization of tissue it 
accepted, then attempts to determine "absolute" val­
ues of polarization of degrading tumours, without 
knowing the time-related phase of degradation, are of 
no or little value. This becomes further evident as local 
variations of oxygenation of the degrading tissue and 
the reference tissue should also markedly influence the 
mixed, total driving potential of the BCEC circuits. Fu.rthermore, BCEC channels can also be expected to 
contribute (unpredictably ) to a continuous levelling of 
the potential gradients, depending on the variable re­
sistive properties of the circuits. A continuous genera­
tion of electric transports over a BCEC might never­
theless lead to considerable trans.port of material when 
the driving force is allowed to co.ntinue over long time 
periods, i.e., days, weeks or months. Spontaneously 
degrading blood under sterile anoxic conditions (Fig. VII: 3) was found to produce in vitro a diffusion po­
tential of about 200 m V. This potential was initially 
electropositive for some days and associated with acid­
ity. Later on it became electronegative. This continu­
ous fluctuation of polarity, like any spontaneous reac­
tion, will move toward a state of equilibrium. The 
momentary polarity of a degrading tumour depends on 
the phase of development of degradation (in relation to 
the reference tissue) during which the potential is 
measured. Early in autolysis, during the electropositive phase 
of degradation, cells start to die. The rate of cellular 
death can be presumed to vary according to specific 
cellular susceptibilities to impaired living conditions. Hydrolytic enzymes, e.g., ribon!llclease, phosphatase, 
cathepsin, etc., arc known to be released from lyso­
somcs during autolysis (20, 27). The ensuing reactions 
drive toward a splitting or decomposition of cells and 
molecules in energy-liberating, catabQlic processes. In 
the absence of oxygen, protons are liberated as part of 
the hydrolysis of A TP (Chapter VII). The early forma­
tion of a surplus of protons is in turn a special ease of 
liberation of radicals in degrading tissue. In the proc­
ess of production and dissipation of protons, an initial 
excess of protons may be regarded as a statistical 
imbalance in favour of their production. Enzymatic decomposition of carbohydrates, pro­
teins and fat also is known to produce ionized pro­
ducts. Such spontaneous ionizations of degrading tis­
sue take place over redox sysrems (Chapter XIJ, Xlll). The sequence of ionizations can be anticipated to fol­
low the ionizing energies required for the production 
of different ions. Ionic recombinations then will be 
influenced by the ionic physicochemical potentials, 
mobilities, convection forces and superimposed elec­
trical forces over BCEC channels. Polarity of a degrading tissue need not change spon· 
taneously only by differences in rates of production 
and dissipation of different ions. Biologic mechanisms, 
for example, are known to be capable of driving se· 
quences of reactions, producing in tum large ranges of 
electric potentials. Such cascade reactions (sequential 
reactions) (46) are well known in the process of sponta· 
neous coagulation of blood. In sum, the present ex· 
periments on degrading blood as well as on potentials 
measured in tumour tissue indicate that a spontaneous 
injury potential exists and proceeds in a slowly fluctu· 
ating and attenuating fashion. This principle of a spontaneous reaction of two 
partial functions (£1 and £.) producing a resultant 
function (S£) is illustrated in Fig. XVIII: I. The nor· 
mal tissue surrounding an injury also undergoes meta· 
bolic fluctuations, representing a physiologic "demand 
potential". Thus, in Fig. XVIII: I the limiting values 
R + and R-indicate the range of fluctuating demand 
potentials of the normal tissues surrounding a local 
injury. The fluctuating electrical potential of injured tissue 
is therefore to be seen as a sum of many changing 
electric gradients. Furthermore, these gradients will 
vary between the injured tissue and different parts of 
the surrounding "reference tissue". Evidently, such 
circumstances make it difficult to measure defmable 
demand potentials between tissues. Measurements of 
these varying potentials also depend on size and geo· 
metry of the electrodes. :-levertheless, the principle of 
existence of metabolically changing demand potentials 
was demonstrated in one organ, the liver (page 63). Their imponancc as a driving electromotive force of 
BCEC systems should therefore be evident. We will now concentrate on the function of BCEC 
Fig. X\! Ill: 1. lllustNktion of fluctuating, attenuating, e-le-c­
tric injury potential, comprising a summation of energies 
(SE) of djfferent ionic collections (ionars, e.g., E, and E.) in 
relation to the summation of fluctuating physiologic potcn-systems in tissue injury and particularly in the redis· 
tribution of movable particles around a degrading fo­
cus of changing polarity. The transports of material 
over BCEC channels can be anticipated to follow the 
fluctuations of the driving forces, even at long dis· 
lances. These fluctuations should lead to "ebb and 
flow" sequences of anionic and cationic transports, 
modified by convection of tissue fluid and characteris­
tics of the tissue matrix, e.g., its "capillarity" , density 
and polarities of fiXed charges. Consider the "simple" example of a local injury, 
such as a necrotizing process in a tumour (Fig. 1: 1). A 
physicochemical potential difference between the in­
jured tissue and the surrounding noninjured tissue is 
demonstrated by the presence of a fluctuating 
((: )( ~ )) electric potential. The BCEC system, here 
represented by :he vascular-interstitial closed circuit 
(VICC), contains the conducting blood plasma and 
interstitial fluid. The insulating propenies of the walls 
of the blood vessels (and also organized components of 
the tissue matrix) provide relative electrical separation 
of the circuit from other electrical influences . For the 
VICC to function as an electrical transport system a 
minimum of two electrode-equivalent sites, corre­
sponding to two redox interphases , must be found. The existence of redox reactions in metabolism is 
well established and needs no discussion. Their loca­
tions and distances of electron transport, on the other 
hand, are appropriate subjects for study (24, 25, 77). For example, wet crystalline haemoglobin has been 
found t0 be a conductor of electrons (77). A theory for 
conduction of electrons in enzyme particles has also 
been advanced (24). The prese.nt srudies show that 
fibrous membranes can easily be produced in tissue 
rial~ (R+ and R-~of surroundine-normal tissue. Entropy of 
the system increases during healing. (F + ),, (F-),, (F + )2 
represent maxima and minima of flucmations. Principles and consequences of BCEC 321 adjacent to platinum electrodes when direct current is 
led between them. II is therefore possible that fibrous 
membranes in tissue indicate locations of electrode­
equivalent redox steps in closed circuit electric trans­
port in vivo. When current was led in vivo across the 
surface of a dog liver and spleen (page 133), either 
electrode -equivalent reactions were produced at the 
organ surfaces or redox reactions were produced in the 
vicinity of the organ surface, followed by electrophore­
tic transport of the reaction products. Whatever the 
explanation may be, one may here recognize a mecha­
nism, which is capable of explaining developme nt of 
organ capsules. If future research establishes, as seems 
possible, a general association between redox reactions 
and fibrous membranes , then capillary basement 
membranes should be strongly considered as a product 
of redox reactions at the nearby endothelial cell mem· 
branc. Further, a mechanism is described for switching short­
discance selective cransports co long-discance rrampor c.s over 
capillary VICC-cha•mels (Fig. XII: 30). This mecha· 
nism includes field-induced selective contractions of 
arterial capillaries, apparently leading to regional do· 
sure of their endothelial pores. Correspond ing venous 
capillaries are wide permining, e.g., diapedesis of leu­
kocytes through leaking endothelia l pores. In this hy­
pothesis, the capillary basement memb! ".me and the 
endothelia l fibrin film represent products of reactions 
at the electrode-equiva lent sites facing the interstitium 
and the blood. Intersected reactions and transports in 
the endothelial cells may be represented in electron 
micrographs by cytoplasmic vesicles, which might 
contain ergonic material. In addition to the experimenta l studies, indirect 
evidence pointing to the existence of VICC channels 
has also been collected in this book. Thus, the struc­
tural modificati ons of tissue in healing of injuries rc· 
quire mechanisms to integrate the various re-actions. Direct current applied over tissue can produce ele· 
ments of tissue healing and all the components of the 
corona changes which develop spontaneously in lung 
an!! bre~t tissue. Many direct and indirect arguments 
in this book speak in favour of the existence of BCEC 
systems. Acceptance of the principle of BCEC systems 
in tissue leads to the necessity of accepting interposi· 
tioned redox steps. We may therefore anticipate that a 
VICC is constructed roughly as shown in Fig. 1: I, 
where interpositioned redox steps in tissue healing are 
suggested to be located in the capillary walls (Fig. XII: 32) and at the interfaces between degrading tis­
sues and thromboti c material on one side and between 
thrombotic material and blood on the other. These 
sites should contain the electrode-equivalent functions 
for closed circuit release of electric energy. If degrading tissue in the centre of a tumour is 
connected electrically over a VICC with the surround-
322 Principles and consequences of BCEC Tissue 
potent•a L Tissue acidity 
ATP• H,O -ADP+ Phosphate • H\. Energy 
~lactic acid Production of ---- l CO, 
C~•H)O- HCO)·H· 
Fi'g. XVIII: 2. Electropositive, developing polarization 
(phase (F + )1) of a centrally degrading tumour (lower part). This phase of physicochemical polarization of the tumour is 
electropositive by enzymatic degradation of cellular material, 
e.g., by hydrolysis of ATP and glycolysis during hypoxia. Over a BCEC this induces later on (upper part) an electro· 
posilive, regressing potential accompanied by clcctroosmotic 
outflow (El osm) and osmotic inflow (Osm) of water, net 
streaming potentials by movement of permeable ions and 
boundary potentials by deposition of non permeable ions at 
inner and outer surfaces of the tumour barrier. /c: inner, 
non permeable ions; 0 =outer, non permeable ions; i • in· 
nee, permeable ions; o =outer, permeable ions. ing normal tissue, then different boundary phenomena 
must develop in different parts of the circuit. The 
peripheral, nonnecro tic part of the tumour will also act 
as a sieve for closed circuit transport of ions. Ionic 
transports will be interminent both to and from the 
abnormal tissue. The lower part of Fig. XVIII: 2 represents an 
electropositive, developing phase (F+)1• This leaves 
th~ degrading tumour tis~ue clectro)Xlsitive in relation 
to surrounding tissue (upper part), subsequentl y re· 
suiting in selective ionic transport (electropositive , 
regressing potential), supplementing the one-way 
mechanica l transport of materials in vascular and in· 
terstitial channels. A constantly unidirectional gradi· 
ent of injury potential would be biologically un· 
suitable, because injured tissue, like any other tissue, 
needs both anions and cations for its structural devel· 
opment and function. Therefore a series of electroposi­
tive and electronegative, developing and regressing, 
anenuating phases during healing of an injury is a 
possible (or even neoessary) means of adapting the 
transports to the need for a complete composition of 
material. Wave-like transformations of energy can be anticipated as counterreactions after any spontaneo us 
release of biologic energy. As a result, the system 
should decrease its content of free energy and obtain a 
higher level of entropy. Evidence also indicates that 
the main driving force in the healing of injury is 
delivered by the degrading process itself. An electronegative, developing phase (F-)t is illus­
trated in the lower pan of Fig. XVIII: 3. Being the 
smallest and most mobile ions, protons have been lost 
more rapidly than anions, e.g., phosphate , which rt~ 
main behind in the tumour. Combined with differ­
ences in the rates of ionic production , the changing 
concentrations of ions drive the autolyzing tissue in an 
electronegative direction ( l l ) compared to sur­
rounding tissue. In reality, such mechanism s very like­
ly proceed as sequential reactions of several integrated 
components, similar to the cascade reactions of coagu­
lating blood (Fig. XII: 6). This leaves subsequently 
the degrading tumour tissue electronegative , regress­
ing in relation tO surrounding tissue, resulting in ionic 
transports as indicated in the upper part of Fig. XVIII: 3. A resulting change of direction of current 
over a BCEC should then lead to the accumulation of 
nonpcrrneable cations at the outer boundary of the 
tumour barrier and nonperrneable anions at the inner 
boundary of the tumour barrier. The presence of VICC will affect ionic transport in 
the intravascular branches of the circuit as well as in 
the interstitial branches. A rapid and continuous wash­
out of the arriving ions can be expected in the supply­
ing vessels. Material in the interstitia l branches should 
to some extent be influenced by interstitial convection 
and lymph flow. It seems likely that material available 
in the interstitial fluid should be utilized for restruc­
turing in the process of healing. C. Spontaneou s reactions 
in BCEC systems 
1. Healing of injured tissue 
The healing of injury is often associated with the 
development of scar tissue, which may represent a 
modification of material within a BCEC. At the least, 
it is easy to produce scar tissue in normal tissue via 
closed circuit currents between electrodes (Chapter 
XVI, Sections K, L, M). Fibrosis can regularly be 
observed around the electrodes of cardiac pacemakers 
which have been in place for months or years. Fibrotic 
tissue has electrically insulating properties. When 
scarring develops around pacemaker electrodes , their 
function can be seriously disturbed. 2. Production of scar tissue, structural 
transforrnation of tissue and cells 
Of perhaps greater interest are the implications of 
the fibrous tissue produced, even in vitro, in fat tissue 
after direct current transforms fat cells and interstitial 
material (Chapter XVI). The cathodic type of fibrotic 
tisst~e lacks fibroblasts. The anodic type of fibrosis con­
tains many fibroblasts. The anodic fibrous tissue ap­
pears as if involved in the development of primitive 
channels resembling ducts and vessels. Other types of 
channels are produced in the cathodic field. When 
produced in vitro in mammary adipose tissue, the anodic 
and cathodic types of fibrosis and ductal structures have a 
striking similarity to the histologic appearance of adenoris, 
mixed with s~>-cal/ed radial scar tissue (Chapter XVI, 
Osmosis Acid buffeting . pfoton recombination. C02 dissipation 
I. 
Tissue 
potentia J_ 
Tissue alcalinity; Fig. XVIII: 3. Electronegative, developing polarization 
(phase (F-)t) of a ccntf'JIIy dcgrsding tumour (lower pan). Over a BCEC this induces later on (upper part) an electrone­
gative, regressing potential accompanied by electroosmo tic 
(EI os:m) and osmotic inflow of water, which becomes bal­
anced b)• hydrostatic pressure, inflow of permeable cations, 
outflow of permeable anions, and boundary and streaming 
potentials. Deposition of non permeable ions takes place 1.ts a 
sieve effect at the inner and outer surfaces of the tumour bar­
rier. The change from electropositive (phase (F +).,see Fig. XVIII: 2) to electronegative (phase (F-ltl polarity is caused 
by sequential reactions in the degrading tissue coupled to, 
e.g., differences in ionic mobility, diffusion and migration. I= inner, nonpcrmeab le ions; 0 • outer, nonpermeable 
ions; i = inner, permeabl e ions; o =outer, permeable ions. Principles and consequences of BCEC 323 page 241). Moreover, exposure of normal blood to 
direct current was found to transmogrify red blood cells 
into monstrous cells and cell complexes (Fig. XIV: 12). 3. Calcificat ions in tissue 
The accumulation of calcium in injured tissue is a 
particularly common and easily recognized manifesta ­
tion of transport of permeable ions. Deposition of 
calcium is often seen after traumatic bleeding in skin, 
muscles, vessels, brain, etc. Calcium is also commonly 
deposited in tissue after injuries by heat, chemicals 
and microorganisms. From the foregoing it may be evidem that a tissue 
injury potential difference is variable and can therefore 
be characterized as follows: electropositive, developing ; 
electropositive , regressing; electronegative , developing 
and electronegative , regressing. Fig. XVIII: 4, lower part, illustrates an electronego­
tive, regressing tissue injury potential profile (dotted 
line). Permeable cations, such as Ca2+ and Mg2~, 
will then enter the necrotic region, upper pan of Fig. XVIII: 4, while permeable anions will leave. The 
(F-)1 level of potential will become elevated (elec­
tronegative regressing pllasc). Some of the inflowing 
cations will recombine with available anions, e.g., 
phosphate. Calcium and magnesium will then eventu­
ally precipitate as apatite(*) when the isoelect.ric levels 
for these compounds are reached. The events de-scribed subsequently drive the reaction of the injured 
tissue in an electropositive developing phase. The inflow of calcium over a BCEC leads to the 
electrical levelling of the previousl y electronegative 
region of polarization. In this view, the presence of 
calcium localized in previously injured tissue should 
be regarded as the result of a reparative process, rather 
than as a pan of the development of the primary 
disease. Calcinosis reparativa is suggested as an appro­
priate, pathogenetically descriptive term. The "profiles" of electric potential shown in Figs. XVIII: 2-4, as well as intermediate stages, have all 
been encountered in both neoplastic and infectious 
lung lesions and in breast tumours. These potential 
profiles were first assumed to depend in some way on 
the histologic nature of the lesion. It has now become 
evident that this explanation is unlikely. Instead, the 
different electric potentials of lesions appear to depend 
on the development of local degrading processes, 
which then show fluctuations of their potential in 
relation to surrounding tissue. This concept of the 
existence of a fluctuating potential for "pathological " 
precipitation of calcium (calcinosis reparativa ) in tis­
sues was also tested in vitro in experiments to produce 
microca/cifu;atums in adipose tissue (Chapter XVI, Sec­
tion S, page 259). Unidirectional current produced 
int.raceUular matrices which, after reversal of the direc­
tion of current, served as targets for precipitation of 
calcium. The resulting calcified structures histological­
ly appeared the same as microcalcification s in breast 
tissue. Phase (f-) influx of cations 
<c.2•. Maz• ... ) 
324 Principles and consequences of BCEC Fig. XV/1/:4. Precipitation of calcium ond magnesium salts 
in injured tissue. The initial phase of degrading tissue is elec­
tropositive (phase (F + )1, see Fig. XVIII: 2). After protons 
dissipate, electrontgative ions, e.g., phosphate , remain in 
excess. The tissue becomes electronegative (phase (F-)h 
see Fig. XVIII: 3). Small cations such as calcium ond magne­
sium will migrate over BCEC channels into the necrotic elec­
tronegative tissue. Calc-ium and magnesium and other cat­
ions then drive the necrotic tissue in an electropositive direc­
tion, leading to ptuse (F +h. Calcium-magnesium pbos­
phaie and carbona:e will precipitate (*) during this phase of 
mineralization when the appropriate isoelectric levels are 
reached. It is prop~sed that al)3tite. the calcium compound 
generally found in pathologic tissue calcification s, is created 
in this way. i = inner, permeable ions; o = outer, permeable 
ions. 4. Healing of fractures 
The spontaneous healing of frauures may proceed by 
an analogous mechanism. Initially, callus may be 
formed durir~g an acid injury pluue. Not until the pro­
duced matrix turns into an electrO>regat ive phase will cal­
cium ionJ be attracted and precipitate, leading to firm 
healing of the fracture. During recent years many at­
tempts have been made to improve healing of fractures 
by use of electricity (electromagnetic fields, alternating 
current and direct current) (9, 28, 29, SO, 59, 64, 71, 
72, 99). Results have proved rather inconsistent. In 
the author's opinion, the lack of consistent results 
derives from a lack of attention to the considerat ion 
now apparent, that direct current shou.ld be used in 
simulation of the fluctuating injury potential. In addi­
tion, the "extrabiological guiding principle" of applied 
electrical fields should also in other respects be tailored 
as closely as possible to existing pathophysiological 
conditions of spontaneous healing. 5. Electroosmosis 
It has become increasingly evident that electroosmosis 
plays an important role in transport of water in tissue. In this mechanism a BCEC is a prerequisile, as are 
narrow interstitial channels lined with fixed charges. Studies of these interstitial channels (Chapter IX, Sec­
tions E-H) in normal, freshly excised, dog and human 
lung tissue, breast fat and mesentery indicated that 
electroosmotic transport of water proceeds from the 
electropositive to the electronegative electrode. Obser­
vations in vivo in the dog (Chapter XIV, Section L) 
and also in patients undergoing direct current treat­
ment of rumours in the lung (Chapter XVU) have 
shown the same direction of displacement of water in 
tissue between the electrodes. These observations are 
in complete agreement with the views of Meyer, Weiss 
and others (57, 98) that probably all cells of verte­
brates carry a surplus of fiXed negative charges on 
their surfaces. It is therefore logical that water in 
intercellular spaces should move from the electroposi­
tive to the electronegative part of a BCEC. Electroosmoti c flow of water through a tumour bar­
rier will also be influenced by osmotic and hydrostatic 
forces. An inward, osmotic flow of water to the de­
grading tissue will take place due to splitting of mole­
cules in autolysis. Such movement s of water will, of 
course, be modified by hydrostatic pressures as well as 
by hydrophilic or hydrophobic properties of tissue 
elements. These factors were therefore particularly 
studied, leading to descriptions of the biokinetic back­
ground of radiographically visible pleural retraction 
pockets, krmellae, circular structures, arches and arcades 
(Chapter Ill) in the lung and corresponding structures around breast cancers, including so-called skin thicken­
ing and skin retraction (Chapter XVI). When a degrading process in a tumour is in an 
electronegative phase, both osmotic and electroosmo­
tic forces will enhance inflow of water to the electrone­
gative tissue. Such variations of local distribution of 
water in tissue were studied quantitatively in breast 
(Chapter XVI, Sections C-F) and experimentall y in 
lung (Chapter IX). See also Chapter XV and Figs. XVIIl: 2, 3. Computerized tomography is an excellent modern 
tool for studying distribution of water in vivo. Now 
extensively used in clinical radiologic examinations of 
the brain, this technique can often disclose differe•ues 
of attenuation between a blood clot, tumour or abscess 
and the surrounding brain tissue. After some time, 
e.g., a week or two, the ratio of anenuation between 
blood clot and surrounding tissue may reverse (13). In 
the author's opinion, this phenomenon is another ex­
ample of transport of water (and calcium) over VICC 
channels. 6. Accumulation of white blood cells 
Granulocytes , as well as thrombocytes and erythro­
cytes, arc known to carry a surplus of fixed electrone­
gative charges. These cells should consequently move 
in a vrcc toward anodic tissue. It is therefore logical 
that granulocytes accumulated extensively around the 
anode in experiment s in which direct current (e.g., 
1-2 volts) was applied between one electrode in the 
tissue and one in a supplying vessel (Fig. XIV: 15). As 
an injured tissue c.nters a phase of spontaneous electro­
positive polarization , the VICC becomes a channel­
izing mechanism for electrophoretic transport of leu­
kocytes, which accumulate first in small vessels in or 
near the injured territory and then by diapedesis enter 
the interstitial tissue. After the polarity of the injured 
tissue later reverses, leukocytes are already trapped. In 
vessels, where blood is flowing toward the cathode, 
granulocytes are selectively retarded and thereby also 
selectively accumulated . This illustrates how the inter­
action between mechanical flow and electric field can 
selectively accumulate charged particles. Experiments 
on chronically and artificially polarized lung tissue in 
dogs also revealed that large quantities of lympho­
cytes accumulate (Chapter XIV, Section I and Chapter 
XVI, Section U). This description is an alternative to the so-called 
chemotactic explanation of accumulation of leuko­
cytes. In fact, no one has been able to define a biokine­
tic mechanism behind the term chemotaxis. In the 
view of the author, the many different biologic com­
pounds all said to possess chemotactic properties re­
present merely agents which polarize tissues. The wide 
Principles and consequences of BCEC 325 variation of their chemical constitution is further pos­
sible as long as each compound possesses the capability 
of activating a VICC with energies suitable for electro­
phoretic migration of leukocytes. Many problems re­
main to be solved with this new view on accumulation 
of leukocytes. For example, granulocyte s, erythrocyte s 
and thrombocytes all carry different amounts of fixed 
negative and positive charges in characteristi c steric 
arrangements on their surfaces. Moreover, the mass of 
each cell, its friction and fluid viscosity, as well as 
characteristics of the tissue matrix and the strength of 
the external electric field must be considered. The massive accumulation of white blood cells that 
can be obtained around electrodes in in vivo electro­
phoresis offers possibilities for use in therapy. Modern 
radiologic techniques permit implantation of elec­
trodes in virtually any organ in a patient. The pre­
sumed beneficial effects of granulocytes in various 
pathologic conditions may be enhanced in this way. A 
weak current also prevents bacterial growth. It has also 
been shown (Chapter XIV, Section K) that after intra­
venous injections a charged compound can accumulate 
locally around an electrode. The polarity of the com­
pound may, however, be changed during its intravas­
cular passage. Thus, Evans blue dye, which is elec­
tronegative , was injected into the aorta of a dog. As 
current simultaneou sly passed between mesenteric 
electrodes, the dye accumulated mainly around the 
cathode. This finding may indicate that the dye com­
bined after the injection with a compound of surplus 
electronegat ive charge. More likely, however, the 
mechanism of flow and field interaction (described 
above for leukocytes ) caused the accumulation of the 
dye. Possibilities may exist for electrophoretic accu­
mulation in specific tissues of a wide range of radio­
pharmaceuticals, cytostatic and antibiotic agents pro­
vided with a suitable electric charge. D. Artificial activation 
of BCEC systems 
Direct current treatment of cancer 
The possibility of treating malipw111 tumours by means 
of d£rect current merits particular attention . After a 
careful review of hundreds of cases from the world's 
medical literature , Everson and Cole (29) came to the 
conclusion that cancers occasionally do heal spontane­
ously. The mechanism has seemed obscure but is usu­
ally ascribed to spontaneous hormonal or immunologic 
influences. Theoretically , an additiona l explanation 
may now be offered, i.e., the stimulation of BCEC 
mechanisms sufficiently to heal the tumour in certain 
326 Principles and consequences of BCEC fortunate situations. The injury that is the originating 
stimulus might then include the development of spon­
taneous necrosis, bleeding or infection inside the tu­
mour. Such degrading processes are common inside a 
tumour but usually have no obvious effect on continu­
ing growth at the periphery of the tumour. Empyema 
after thoracotomy for lung cancer, however, has been 
reported to increase the patient's chances for cure, by 
mechanisms which have been unclear (79). BCEC 
mechanisms may explain this association. If we now assume that in the fortunate patient the 
degrading process releases sufficient energy to induce 
the biologic reactions of healing over a VICC system, 
then the degrading process will indirectly affect the 
periphety of tumour tissue. The induced changes can 
then be expected to include altered ionic composition 
of the tissue fluid, electrophoretic attraction of leuko­
cytes and creation of microthromboses in capillaries. The presence of scar tissue (scirrhous cancers) and 
microcalcifications, often encountered in association 
with malignant tumours, may speak in favour of the 
assumption that such a biologic process of healing over 
the VICC can take place. Clinical behaviour shows it 
to be in (almost?) every case insufficient to cause a 
can:er to heal. Cancer is a progressive disease and 
develops propessive injuries, in contrast to simple injur­
ies such as an incision, which represents a nonprogres­
sive injury. Logic should then encourage us to support 
the tendencies of healing in malignancies, in hopes 
that healing may become complete. Steps should then 
be taken to deliver more energy than does the tumour 
itself to activate the VICC system. The supply of 
electric energy over implanted electrodes appears to be 
such a step. A clinical trial was therefore undertaken by posi­
tioning one electrode in the tumour and one in the 
interstitia l or vascular part of the VICC, i.e., about 
4-5 em away from the tumour in the parenchyma or a 
ves~el of the organ. Energy could then be delivered to 
the tumour in the perspective of strongly activating the 
biologic healing process. The process also included the 
creation of an extended local electrochemical injury 
inside the tumour. These attempts to induce healing 
hy ~irecr current (Ch~pt er XVI!) of nonope111b le, but 
relatively small cancers in the lung have shown encour­
aging results. The technique of treatment can, howev­
er, be varied in many ways, so future improvementS 
should be possible. E. A possible role of BCEC 
in biogenesis, including . . carcmogene sts 
In the author's opinion, endogenous activation of 
BCEC systems, leading to unidirectional flow of cur­
rent over long time periods, may lead to modification of 
cells and tissues. The mechanism involved in cell and 
tissue modifications demonstrated in Chapters XIV 
and XVI should function with endogeno usly generated 
currents as well as with currents from an external 
source of power. Strong currents will destroy cells and 
tissue (Chapter XVII). Weak currents, on the other 
hand, will more gently create new internal and exter­
nal environments for cells.
631928626-Biologically-Closed-Electric-Ci-Bjorn-Nordenstrom-pdf.txt
Summarize the following text section accurately and concisely. Maintain specific details and numerical information, and use anti-repetition mechanisms:

        Therapeutic effects are then induced by anodic liber­
ation of protons as well as by electrophoretic and 
electroosmoric events, which change the microenvir ­
onment of the ti~ues. Cells and tissues in the elcmic 
field thereby undergo a variety of reactions. The eke· 
rrolytic production of H2, 02 and Cl2 also produce 
mechanical effects by compression of tissue, an effect 
more pronounced around the cathode than around the 
anode. The ionization of water, which has a high dielecric 
constant, indicates that the range of compound s which 
undergo molecular splitting is wide. Biologic mole­
cules with strong internal bonds will require higher 
electrode voltage than molecules with weak internal 
bonds, which indicart-s that rhe magnitude of applied 
electrode voltage produces qualitative differences in 
electrolysis of tissue. At relatively low voltages, e. g. , below 10 volts, ion-
314 Treatme nt of cancer izatioo effects and transport phenomena are compara­
bly prominent while hear production is comparatively 
negligible. Nevertheless, coagulation still takes place 
due ro electrochemical precipitation of protein, an 
effect which also occurs ar high voltages. Coagulation 
appears around the anode as a central grey-white and a 
surrounding black, dry region. The black anodic zone 
has the general appearance of dry gangrene and is 
produced by diffusion and migration of protons. The 
central grey-white zone is caused by chlorine bleaching 
the tissue. Over biologically closed electric circuits (BCEC), 
several biological effects are encountered. Extensive 
thrombosis, for instance, is induced as far as several 
em out into the tissues surrounding a spontaneously 
polarizing tumour. Such extensive thrombotic changes 
are also induced when a tumour undergoes treatmem. These changes narrowing the lumens of vessels sur­
rounding a tumour will obviously restrict its blood 
supply. An instructive example is the DC-treared patient no. 4, in whom one metastatic tumour, as large as a cher­
ry, disappeared after a dose of I 00 coulombs. A second 
tumour of the same size six weeks later received 180 
coulombs under otherwise comparable conditions of 
treatment. This tumour decreased only slightly in size 
during the IS months rhar followed. Similar results 
were obtained in patient no. 2. At first glance, these 
fmdiogs do nor seem logical, but may be explained in 
the following way: 
If a dose of current is just sufficient to devitalize a 
tumour, including a "minimum" of capillary throm­
boses at its periphery, then the resorption of destroyed 
material from the tumour should proceed relatively 
rapidly, possibly after a recapillarization of the tissue 
surrounding the tumour. On delivery of an "over­
dose" of current, the destructive effects on the capil­
laries and other component s of the tissues around the 
tumour may become too extensive to allow sufficient 
recapillarization for ready resorption of devitalized tis­
sue. A sequestrari~m effect can then be expected to 
ensue; a ball of dehydrated, decomposed tumour tis· 
sue is formed, which probably best can be regarded as 
a focus of dry gangrene. The extensive dystrophic changes in lung tissue 
around granulomas are a possibly related phenom· 
enon. For example, radiograph s of the tuberculous 
granuloma in Fig. IV: I show surrounding dystrophy, 
which may be explained as a result of intense, sponta· 
neous, focal, elecrrochemical polarization caused by 
the tuberculou s agent. The amount of electric energy which is delivered to 
tissue from an external electric power source is deter­
mined by integrating momentar y densities of current 
flow and the duration of the treatment. Considerable 
ionization and electric transports may therefore ensue spont2neously, at low den5ities of current flow over 
long tissue periods. The size and shape of the electric 
field will be determined by the sizes, shapes and posi­
tions of the electrodes and the conductivity properties 
of the tissues. An obvious advantage in DC treatment is placement 
of the anode in the tumour. Tumour cells are known 
to possess an excess of fixed electronegative charges on 
their surfaces. These charges will therefore be attract­
ed inward toward the anode, which is a compelling 
reason for placing only the electropositive electrode in 
the tumour. Another specific effect in DC treatment of tumours 
is the selective attraction of leukocytes to the region of 
the anode and the accumulation of leukocytes in ves­
sels wh. icb direct tht flow of blood toward the cathode. This effect appears probably beneficial for the healing 
of tumours. A potentially far-reaching possibility is the concept 
of delivering via the blood stream an electronegatively 
charged cytostatic compound during DC treatment. In 
this way an increased amount of the cytostatic agent 
might be accumulated in the tumour and in its sur­
rounding tissue, at the same time as undesired general 
effects could be diminished. In spite of many differences, both radiation treat­
ment and DC treatment ionize tissue, which may justi­
fy some comparisons. Ionization of tissue in DC treatment is induced from 
the inside of a tumour. It is therefore far more selec­
tive than tissue ionization by external radiation. DC 
treatment should therefore make it possible to keep 
the total ionizing dose relatively low. More<>ver, in 
radiation therapy the ionization is "mixed", i. e. , non­
selective, while DC treatment selectively produces an­
ions and cations and transports them in the electric 
field. The photon energy in radiation therapy must be 
h. igh enough to allow removal of electrons from their 
orbits for a sufficiently long time to prevent them from 
falling back into their orbits. DC and external radi­
ation treatment s might therefore be advantageously 
combined in the future, leading to a mutual and spe­
cific enhancement of the beneficial effects of each. The observation time of the DC treatments of the 
cancers here reported is still relatively short, i.
Tumour cells are attracted to the anode due to their excess of fixed electronegative charges on their surfaces.
What is the primary mechanism by which tumour cells are attracted to the anode?
The anode attracts tumour cells, which can lead to the accumulation of leukocytes, potentially enhancing the healing process.
What is the potential benefit of placing the anode in the tumour?
Radiation therapy ionizes tissue externally, while DC treatment ionizes tissue from the inside, making it a more selective and potentially more effective method.
What is the difference in the way radiation therapy and DC treatment ionize tissue?
The author suggests that BCEC systems play a crucial role in the healing process, as they can deliver energy to the injured tissue, leading to the activation of biologic reactions.
What is the author's opinion on the role of BCEC systems in the healing process?
The treatment should be limited to tumours that are peripherally situated in the lung and less than 3 cm in diameter.
What is the limitation of the current treatment technique?