Biologically Closed 
Electric Circuits 
1/lll/111111 I 11111111/IIIJI R320-KZY-X1H 2 Biologically Closed 
Electric Circuits 
CLINICAL, EXPERIMENTAL AND 
THEORETICAL EVIDENCE FOR AN 
ADDITIONAL CIRCULATORY SYSTEM 
by 
Bjorn E. W. Nordenstrom, M.D. Professor of Diagnostic Radiology 
Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden 
Nordic Medical Publications © 1983 BjOrn E. W. Nordenstrom, Karolinska lnstitutet, Stockholm, Sweden. All rights reserved. Permission to reproduce material from this book must be obtained from the author. This book may be obtained from 
Nordic Medical Publications 
Grev Turegatan 2, S-114 35 Stockholm , Sweden 
Graphic Design by jerk-Oiof Werkmaster 
Printed in Sweden by Almqvist & Wiksell, Uppsala 1983 
ISBN 91-970432-0 -6 FOREWORDS 
To contribute a preface to !his work of Bjorn Norden­
strom is an honour for a French-speaking colleague, but 
above all it is a great responsibility wi!h respect to the 
international scientific community, because the opin­
ions expressed in !his preface have the potential of 
influencing !he speed of diffusion, :study, and accept­
ance of the extraordinarily original and fruitful ideas 
of this work. "Biologically Closed Electric Circuits" 
marks no less !han a major point in !he evolution of 
our understanding of biologic science. Nordenstrom's theory offers impcortant implications 
throughout the entire range of normal and pathologic 
physiology. With profound conviction, I dare assert 
that no vital process can be fully understood without 
considering this new electrophysiologic theory. A vast 
field of multidisciplinary research is opening before 
us. Numerous concepts which today are confused, 
including even chemotaxis, are here clarified. Consider a collection of tissues, organs, interstitial 
fluid, blood vessels, lymphatic channels and excretory 
canals. Such tissues, e.g., vessels, were found to func­
tion as insulated electric "cables". Their contents of 
blood plasma conduct current effectively inside the 
relatively insulating vessel walls to join the conducting 
interstitial tissue fluid over !he blood capillaries. Dif­
ferences of electric potential (no matter whether cre­
ated normally, pa!hologically or artificially) will create 
electric fields throughout the body. Current will flow 
preferentially in conducting pathways, inducing ionic 
and electroosmotic transports over both short and long 
distances. These transports will produce diverse bio­
logic effects. This idea, so simple and logical, is supported by 
numerous experiments in this work. As !he course 
of experimentation progressed, Bjorn Nordenstrom 
found himself led beyond !he concept of !he biological­
ly closed electric circuit to predict !he existence in 
organisms of an electrical circulatory system-a sys­
tem not only as complex as !he circulation of !he blood 
but also one which intervenes in all physiologic activi­
ties. Biopotentials have fascinated me for many years, and 
when I found that small positive potentials existed on 
skin carcinomas relative to normal tissue I searched for 
an explanation, feeling that it was of fundamenta l 
importance. To !he reader of this book I offer specific advice: 
begin by reading not only !he summary Chapter I but 
also on pages 327-328 the 27 lines of Section G 
("Physiological capacity of BCEC systems"), which 
will immediately stimulate one's interest in this new 
theory and incite a wish to deepen one's knowledge 
of it. This work is very clear. I feel little need for lengthy 
considerations of its scientific merit, but I cannot resist 
emphasizing the fascinating and broad medical scope 
of this book, i.e., a new view on carcinogenesis and a 
therapeutic mode against cancer which theoretically 
offers possibilities against diverse inflammatory states, 
fractures, atheromas and neurologic complications of 
various diseases (e.g., hepatic coma). Moreover, this 
book offers new scientific ba~ which will reorient 
future research on a wide range of hitherto poorly 
understood processes, e.g, acupuncture, oral galva­
nism, meteorologic influences on human beings, types 
of adipose tissue, diverse secretory mechanisms, diur­
nal cycles and embryogenesis. This list of disparate 
functions leaves unmentioned many other applica­
tions. In particular, extrapolation of !he theory at !he 
intracellular level offers many possible consequences. The coming years will see a wealth of experimenta ­
tion derive from this new approach to electrophysio­
logy. Its full importance is today impossible tO appre­
ciate. For example, disparities of findings noted here­
tofore between in vitro and in vivo work can now be 
assessed anew. The implications of Nordenstrom's 
theory appear far-reaching even beyond today's most 
enlightened suspicions. Jacques C. Hauton, D.M. D.Sc. Professor of Biochemistry 
lnstitut National de Ia Sant~ 
et de La Recherche MMicale 
Universit~ d'Aix ~Marseille 11, Fr.tn~ 
(tranSlation from Frtncb, 
John H. M. Austin, M.D.) It was my search for more information that led me 
to Bjorn Nordenstrom. The vast amount of material he 
had collected in searching for an explanation of !he 
corona structures around a variety of pulmonary neo­
plasms and inflammatory lesions, surprised me. Forewords VII This book is an account of his research and, as so 
often happens, it touches on fields beyond th' 'lriginal 
observations . The potentials, although small, which he 
measured in many tumours seemed to be a major 
factor in water transport, cell movement , etc. Repro­
ducing these electrical conditions in vitro as well as in 
vivo produced histological evidence of cellular trans­
formations, migration of cells and ions and transport 
of tissue water, indicating that electrical forces must be 
of fundamental importance to maintain, e.g., homeo­
stasis. The way in which the morphology of breast adipose 
tissue changes under the influence of small D.C. cur­
rents and, in particular , how the histology is so differ­
ent according to the position of the tissue in the poten­
tial gradient, is convincing evidence of cellular changes 
brought about by electricity. The extracellular fluid and its regulation we know is 
fundamental to controlling cell division. Ionic differ­
ences lead to potential differences in the body between 
cells and between one organ and another. Currents of 
the order of microamperes flow across the edge of 
wounds, and limb regeneration , even fmger tip regen­
eration in children, has been reported to be connected 
to these currents. Prngre~ ~ in Nantral Science, including Medicine , de­
pends on the interaction between ideas and tech­
niques. In this book both aspects are amply represent­
ed. 1 may venture that the superb X-ray technique of 
Nordenstrom revealed to him new structures around 
tumours in the lung and the breast which he calls the 
corona structures. In the search for their origin he 
made use of various techniques, which led to, e.g., a 
mapping of the electric potential distribution across 
tumours and normal tissues in vivo and in tissue mod­
els. This started a new train of ideas. All the evidence pointed to the existence of local 
electric current flow on a 17UZCroscopic scale in living 
tissue. His overall conclusion is that the blood ves­
sels, not excluding even the large ones, are current 
carrying cables which, in combination with other con· 
dueling tissue media as, e.g., interstitial tissue fluid, 
allow closed electric circuits to operate over largt dis­
tances (Nordenstrom's nomenclature: BCEC, Biologi­
cally Closed Electric Circuits). One specific circuit 
particularly considered in this book is called VlCC 
(Vascular-Interstitial Closed Circuit). The activation of 
such a circuit must lead to various physiologi cal ef­
fects and possibly structural modifications. VIII Forewords The new concept of energy conversion in tissue over 
biologically closed electric circuits (BCEC) described 
in this book offers a unified theory even for such 
diverse phenomena as acupuncture and the effect of 
electromagnetic fields on man and increases our un­
derstanding of the mechanism of tumour growth. The test of a good theory is if it indicates further 
experiments. The treatment of lung tumours by direct 
current was such an experiment which has produced 
positive results in those patients treated so far. This 
encouraging application alone justifies the concept of 
BCEC and should encourage us to seek further appli· 
cations of this theory. I once heard a Professor say that writing a book 
was like giving birth to a baby. This book took my 
friend many hours of toil, not only in its conception 
but in meticulous measurement and experimentation. The time, in my opinion, is ripe for a new look at the 
importance of electricity in biology and therefore I am 
sure that this is a book not "born premature ly". Bernard W. Watson, Ph.D. Professor of Medical Electronics 
St. Bartholomew's Hospital 
London, England 
Nordenstrom's new views may appear startlin~t to 
most physiologists , who are familiar with the old ideas 
of local nerve circuits, injury potentials, electrotonus, 
etc, which appear in the traditional textbooks. An 
important distinction, however, is the question of di­
mensions and location. While the nerve events take 
place in domains with the magnitude of millimetres, 
Nordenstrlim' s BCEC represent electrogenic systems 
for long range selective transports of material and dis­
tant functional effects in the entire body beyond cen­
timetric even to the metric range, i.e., between 
organs. I will now comment particularly on two physiologic 
aspects related to Nordenstrlim's concept of BCEC: 
I. The electric current as a driving force for water 
movement, i.e., electroosmos is, 
2. The energetics of the current flow. For more than a century electric potentials and 
currents have been discussed as driving forces for ions 
in the body fluids, mostly relating to nerve and mus­
cles. The fact that theoretically, electrical forces are 
involved in the transport of the universal solvent, 
water, has by and large been neglected. The enormous literature on "fluid balance" and "oedema formation" 
is based mainly on purely colloid-osmotic concepts. This is paradoxical , because the fixed charges, located 
in the ionic structure of protein-lipid membranes of 
the body, ought to mediate a force moving the mobile 
solvent water, providing an electric potential field is 
present. This is certainly the case in most living mem­
branes and is also shown by Nordenstrom in his pro­
file mapping mentioned above. The complex nature of 
electroosmosis may be unfamiliar to medico-physiolo­
gists, but is explained in many of the informative 
illustrations in his book. However , in spite of the theoretical probabilit y of 
the importance of electroosmosis, the evidence for 
its significance in biological material has been scanty 
and inconclusive. The reason may be that the 
systems studied have been on the microscopic or cellu­
lar levels. The detection of small degrees of swelling 
and shrinkage indicating water-transfer is vety diffi­
cult. Only recently, I. Tasaki and K. Iwasa reponed, 
for the llrst time, such events during action potentials 
on isolated, unmyelinated nerve fibres, using a sophis­
ticated mechano-optical device (Upsala J Med Sci 85, 
211-215, 1980). At this "to be or not to be" stage of in vivo electro­
osmosis, Nordenstrom's new views on macroscopi c sys­
tems may change the scenario radically. Nordenstrom 
deals with the loose, spongy lung (and breast) tissue, 
where the mechanical restriction to swelling-$hrinkage 
is minimized as.compared with more compact cellular 
assemblies. Here the BCEC systems have ample space 
to operate. An additional advantage is that the direct 
observation by X-ray or histological or local biochemi ­
cal analysis (of water--fat ratios, etc) could be utilized. The fmal results ci numerous experiments, some 
with ingenious model systems, lead the author to the 
conclusion that long distance control of water shifts 
operates; this is identified tentatively as electroosmosis 
and/or electrophoretic effects. Most interesting with 
respect to electrophoresis are some illustrations of the 
massive accumulation of different blood cell elements 
in certain vascular areas, exposed to external current 
flow. These experiments must reactivate discussions on 
Many important discoveries have been made through 
further investigations of seemingly trivial features that 
may well have been generally observed, but neglected. Pulmonary radiography has undoubtedly been one of 
the most widely performed radiographic examinations 
over the years. When Bjorn Nordenstrom 's curiosity the process of leukopedesis. These citations may serve 
as examples of the many effects which are logical 
consequences of an acceptance of the principle of 
BCEC. As implied above, the energetics of the electric cur­
rent production is involved. Nordenstrom clearly real­
izes that this is a "big" problem. He distinguishes the 
energetic behaviour of, what he calls, ionars (collec­
tions of ions) from ergonars (collections of ergons, i.e., 
nonionic energetic components) in the release of elec­
tromotive forces and the modulation s of conductivity 
of BCEC systems. Thus he approaches the riddles of 
biological current formation, i.e., the "fuel cells". This is indeed a crucial problem in electrobiology. The 
great variety of terms in the contemporary literature 
such as salt baneries, active transport, ion-pumps, 
metabolic potentials, channels, gates, etc bear witness 
to the fact that the links between metabolism and 
electric currents are only vaguely understood, at least 
at the present. It is therefore evident that many of the 
electrochemical steps in the generation of electromo­
tive forces to drive BCEC systems have to be consid­
ered in the future. Nevertheless, the primary energetic 
prerequisite for transport of currents over BCEC chan­
ntis, i.e., metabolic potential differences , are since 
long well established facts. At this point I conclude my review of Professor 
Nordenstrom's great interdiscip linary work by turning 
back to its origin, the observations of new structures in 
pathological .conditions and the following advances: 
electrochemical treatment of tumours, the thorough 
analysis of the mechanism of water transport, and 
many other consequences of biologically closed electric 
circuits, aU ftne achievements. The overriding impli­
cation is the realization that electric current can act on 
ti!Sue structure formation and by virtue of that panki­
pate in regulation of cell function and tissue transfor­
mation. This has an impact for the future and is also a 
bridge between clinical and theoretical sciences. Torstrn Teore/1, M.D. Emeritus Professor of Physiology 
University of UppsaJa, Sweden 
led him to look into the mecbartism behind the corona 
that can be radiographically demonstrated around pul­
monary lesions, he encountered a hitherto unknown 
biological system. The further evidence the author presents in favour 
of his concept of Biologically Oosed Electric Circuits 
Forewords IX (BCEC) is remarkable, and takes the reader on a fasci­
nating and thrilling journey through the tissues of 
the human body in health and disease during which 
generally accepted ideas of pathogenetic mechanisms 
are challenged. Thus, fundamental tissue reactions 
such as fibrosis and scarring, thrombosis, pathological 
vascularization, leukocyte accumulation , etc are given 
alternative explanations to those generally accepted. Hitherto obscure and vividly debated reactions such as 
oral galvanism and the effects of acupuncture are ex­
plained. The concept of BCEC is based not merely on sound 
speculations but is supponed by careful and uncon­
ventional experiments. The author's lomg experience 
of close cooperatio n with pathological anatomists has 
made it easy for him to relate the concept of BCEC to 
X Forewords structural tissue alterations. The book can, in fact, be 
regarded as an alrernative introduction into the fuld of 
pathological anatomy. A hallmark of a good book is a feeling of losing a 
good friend and stimulating company when you close 
it after having read its last page. This was my feeling 
when my reading of this book was over. I do not feel 
too sorry, however, because I will repeatedly go back 
to this new friend of mine to benefit from its rich 
source of stimulating ideas for funher research. Ame Lj~mgqvist, M.D. Professor of 1'1tbology 
K.a.rolinsk.a lnstitut~t 
Stockholm, Sweden ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 
I wis.h to acknowledge the considerable and valuable 
contributions which have been made by my co-work­
ers, my research assistant Mr Jerker Olsson, and my 
secretary Miss Kerstin Ersson. Mr Olsson's technical 
skill, knowledge and endurance have been valuable 
assets throughout the project. Miss Ersson's organiz­
ing ability, patience, language proficiency, and capabi­
lity to decipher the author's usually illegible manu­
script have been important elements in the process of 
completion of the book. Dr John Austin, M.D., Associate Professor of Clini­
cal Radiology , Columbia-Presbyterian Medical Center, 
New York City, USA has revised the English gram­
mar of the author's original manuscript. Dr Aus~in has 
spent a considerab le time with the text and has gone 
through a great deal of trouble to correct the gram­
matical form without altering the intended meaning of 
the contents. His contribution has been invaluable . Dr 
Austin has also contributed with a glossary as a guide 
to possible readers without medical background. A special thanks is directed to Mr Jaak Berendson of 
the Department of Applied Electrochemistry and Cor­
rosion Science at the Royal Institute of Techn<Jlogy, 
Stockholm, for good advice and many stimulating dis­
cussions. Valuable assistance has also been given by Mr Bo 
Tedner, Mr Hans Larsson and Mr Jan Bergholm of 
the Department of Medical Engineering , Karolinska 
lnstinute, Stockholm, Mrs !sa Schwartzkopf, Mrs Lil-ly Winberg and Mr Veijo Methonen of the Depart­
ment of Photography, and the st:aff at the Department 
of Diagnostic Radiology, Karolinska Hospital, Stock­
holm. Part of the work concerning the electrical activity of 
the liver was carried out during a 2 month period in 
1971 at the Strong Memorial Hospital, Rochester, 
New York, USA. This was made possible by Professor 
Harry Fischer, Head of the Department of Radiology. Without economic assistance this work could not 
have been completed. The author is deeply grateful for 
the generous support given by: 
Mr Sten Persson, lnitium AB, Stockholm 
National Swedish Board fo:r Technical Develop­
ment, Stockholm 
Tekniska Rontgencentralen AB, Stockholm 
King Gustaf V's Jubilee Fund, Stockholm 
Captain Arthur Eriksson's Fund for Medical Re­
search, Stockholm 
Torsten and Ragnar Soderberg's Fund, Stock­
holm 
AB Astra, SOdertalje 
Finally, I like to thank the members of the staff of 
Almqvist & Wiksell Tryckeri AB, Uppsala, Mr GOsta 
Nystrom, Mr Jerk-Oiof Werkmastcr and Mr Alf Hed­
lund for their personal interest and help in the produc­
tion of this book. Stockholm 1983 
B. N. 
Aclmowledgemen ts XI CONTENTS 
FOR£WORQ $ 
ACKNOWl .EDCEMflNTS 
L Summary 
n. Ra4iocraphic detecubilitt of corou 
DL StnJCU ifCS 
Rrferrncr 
Corona structures around mali&~~ant 
and beni111 neoplasms in the lung 
A "A" zone 
B. Small arches and arcadN 
C. "B" zone, including its demonstra· 
tion in a dog model . . . . . . p. lmerlobular Oujd accumulation 
E. Radiating structures . . . . . F. Course radiating structures: lamellae 
and jnfi!trated strands 
G. Narrowing and circular displace· 
ment of vessels around lung tumours 
H. Differential diagnosis: "B" zone, 
pleural thickenin g and "retraction 
pocket". Pathogenesis of local re­
traction of lung and pleura 
Rc:(crrnrc:s 
Corona stmcturn around jnOamma .. VII 
XI 
ll 
ll 
J.i 
14 
18 
20 
27 
27 
29 
31 
35 
38 
tory lesions, including those of silicosis 39 
Reference 0 0 t 0 0 I t n e 
Discussion of the radiological observa· 
tjoos of corona stru(turta 
References . . . . .. .. 
Electric potential s in oormalluy, 
pleura and liver and in focal pulmonary 
lesions, including bronchogenic carc:i· 
noma 
A. Preliminary studies 
!. lnrroduction 
2. Procedures 
3 Casematmal 
4 Resulcs 
B. Shon circuiting of different pans of 
normal subouaoeou s •issue 
C. Induced levelling of the electric po­
tential of pulmonary lesions 40 
43 
44 
46 
46 
46 
46 
47 
48 
53 
57 vu. Y.I.IL D. Experimental charging and discharg· 
ing of tissue . . . . . . . . . . . 58 
E. Control studies of electric potentials 
of normal and pathological tissues 58 
I. El«rrodes, rtcording o( potmtials, 
and tulrni({IUS of ct/1 sampling . . 59 
2. Elettric poUnJials of pleura and 
lung . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . 60 
3. Flucruatin g "dmrand potential" of 
a ureference tissue" ({iwr) . . . . 4. Electric poteruial of pulmonary car-
cinqtn4J 
F. Summary and conclusions 
References 
Spontaoeous devdopmeot of a fluctu­
ating injury potential in tissue 
A. Degradation of blood 
B. The Ouctuatins electrochemical po­
tential of an injured tissue 
Rcfcrrnces 
Concentra tion-dispenion forces: A 
brief review of intermolecular physical 
behaviour 
Rcfc:rc.nces 62 
63 
66 
69 
70 
72 
74 
75 
77 
IX. Water: Electroosmoti c transpon over 
cJowl electric circuits 79 
A. Movement of water imo occmrjc tis-
sw: n. Intercellular space and movement of 
water through tissue . . . . . . . C. Fixed surface durges on cells 
D. Liquid water: nructure and energy 
E. ElectrOOSmosis . transport mec.ha­
nisms Tvpes I-IV 
I. Type I electroosmons . . 2. Type II electroosmosis 
3. T'!Pe III elettroosmosis 
4. Type IV electroosmosis 
F. Two distinguishable pressure varia­
bles in electroosmotic transpon of 
water 
I. Ext>erimnual metJoods and rnulu . 2. Discusrion o[ pressure clranges and 
electric rrans{K!rl of W<lttr 
G. Transport energy in Type I elec­
rroosmosis &1 
81 
83 
83 
83 
84 
84 
86 
87 
Contents XIU X. 
XI 
XII. H. Experimental electroosmosis in dog 
and human lung tissue 88 
Electroosmotjc Oaw of water· local 
displacement of water in the forma· 
tjoo of "A" and "B" zones around a 
tumour 
References 
Corpuscular mov.ement and structural 
development: Effects of molecular and 89 
9! electric field forces 93 
A. Experimental model: molecular 
forces and a superimposed electric 
field mmbjne jn vitro to form corona 
gtrnCtJitP$ 
B Molecular and electrosratjc forces jo 
t.he development of "A" and "B" 
zones 
C. Edge enhancement and radiating 95 
95 
structures 96 
D. Stabilizin g effects on radiating struc-
tures 96 
E. Development of "arches" and "ar-
cades" 96 
F Inertness and matrjx fnnctjons 97 
G. Energy potenr.ial of corpuscular dis-
rribJIIjon 
H Structur al effects of molecular con. centratjoo forces 
I. Electrolytic double layers 
References 
Stnrchrral effects of an adjfic:ial ty-
mour in dog lung 
A. Experimental stucties 
B Oiscussjon 
References 
BiologicaUy closed electric circuits 
(BCEC) 
A Corrosjoo jo vjyo 
I. Ordinary "uncomplicared corro­
rion" 
2. Corrosion influmced bv BCEC: 98 
(l){) 
102 
!04 
105 
105 
108 
Ill 
112 
112 
I 14 
"complicare:d corrosion" 115 
3. The precipilarion line 119 
4. Dynamic [acwn in in vivo corrosion 120 
5. Pathwavs [or the elecrric currmt 121 
B. A biologically closed electric circuit 
over vascular-interstitial conductin g 
channels 122 
I. Srructure o[ Lhe vascular-inr~mitial 
closed circuil (V ICC) 123 
2. Resisriviry of tissue and body fluids 124 
3. Resisrivity o(the walls of blood ves-
sel< I 25 
XIV Contents a) Alrernating currenr 126 
b) Pulsed direct curretlt 128 
C. Observations of a preferential elec-
tric pathway in vessels and tissues 129 
I. Carhodic field 129 
2. Anodic field 131 
D. Structurin g of interfaces in BCEC 
systems: development of membranes 
and organ capsules 132 
E. Capillaries and VICC 134 
I. Biologic transfer of electrons 134 
2. The capillarv wall 135 
3. Capillarv reactions in elecrric [relds 138 
4. Selective distribution o{granulocvres 
jn a closed cjrcujt 138 
5. Mechanisms of regional comractio>l 
of arterioles and arrerial capillaries 141 
6. Search for redox sites: possible ori­
gin of the basemem membrane ami 
the endorhelwl fibrin film 141 
7. Search for redox sites: rhe vesicles 144 
8. Long and shorr diswnce selective 
transports in tissue over V ICC svs· 
tems 
F Conclusions 
Rcferencrs 
Xill. Energetics of BCEC systems, ionars 146 
148 
ISO 
and ergonars 152 
A. Components of BCEC systems 152 
B. Ionic energy 156 
C. Interdependence of energies, includ· 
ing gravity 
D. Ergonic energy 
E. Conversion of ionic and ergonic en­
ergv 
F. Development of ionars 
G. lonars and ergonars in experimental 
electrolysis of water 
H. Discussion of experimental results 
I. Summary and conclusions 
Reference s 
XIV. Experimental a ctivation of vascular··in· 157 
158 
158 
160 . 163 
170 
170 
172 
terstitial closed circuits (VICC) 173 
A Materials and method s 174 
B. Charging and discharging of tissue 175 
C. Diapedetic bleedings 175 
D. Vascular pockets, ischaemic dystro­
phy and perifocal enhancement of 
radiographic contrast 176 
E lonjzarjon and joojc recnmhjnarjons 177 
F. Transport and mechanical effects 178 
G. Conductivit y changes 180 
H Effcx:ts on red blood cells and tbejr 
distrjbutjoo 180 XV. XVI I. Accumulation of granulocytes 187 
I. A revised view of so-called "chemo· 
tactic" accumulation of granulocyte s 
in jnOammar jon 
K I oral accumul arjon jn tissue of a 189 
charged chemical compound I 91 
L. Direct current studies in the dog's 
lung 192 
1 A cute qnadjc )94 
2 A cure catbodjr 194 
3 Four tneeks anodjc !94 
4 Etmr UJeeks cathqdic 194 
M Djgcussinn 195 
Referenc es )96 
Corona structures around pulmonary 
masses; yascular .. jnterstjt jal closed cjr. cuit effects 198 
Reference< 202 
Tjssue transfonnations oyer BCEC jn 
cancer of the breast 703 
A. Electric polarization in breast cancer 205 
I Case material qnd methods 205 
2 Rerulrs 206 
3 Djsrussiqn and conclusjqns 209 
B. Radiating structures 211 
C. Pcritumoural changes of radiopacity 213 
0 Fat-water distriburjon· closed cirrujr 
effects and radiographic appearance 
jn yjtro 215 
E. Local alteration of conductivi ty in a 
fat-water mjxture 216 
F. Closed circuit transports of fat and 
water in mammarv fat tissue 218 
I Method 218 
2 Res-ults 2 1 8 
3 Disansion and conchtsjons 222 
G. Peritumoura l water and fat, includ­
ing atrophy of fat adjacent to elec· 
tronegative mammary carcinomas 222 
H. Circular displacement of tissue 
$fr!ICUJrtS atQJJDd breast tiJID011f$ 224 
I Arches and arcades 225 
J. "Skin thickenin g" and retraction: a 
T£SIJ!t of altered disrrjbJJtjon of tiSSJte 
warer 228 
K. Closed circuit production of fibrous 
radiating structures: cathodic and 
anodic types of fibrosis 232 
L. Closed circuit production of fibrous 
membr anes 234 
M. Closed circuit production of a ca· 
rhMjc and anodic fibrous tiSS"C 236 N. Closed circuit production of anodic 
rjssue channels 240 
0. Closed circuit production of cathodic 
tissue channel s 
p Transfonnarjon of rissne and cel!s 
across the intcrmcdjare zone he-247 
tween anode and cathode 249 
0. Discussion on closed circuit develop· 
ment of vessels 
R Mjcrocalcjficatjons· hjgtorjcal reyjew 256 
S. Closed circuit production of micro· 
ralcificatjons 257 
T. The yellowish zone around breast 
carcinomas 260 
U. Electrophoretic accumulation of 
lymphocytes around and inside 
breast carcinomas 
V Conclusions 
References 
XVII. Application of the principle of BCEC 
for tre.atment of cancer 
A. Spontaneous and induced healing of 767 
765 
766 
269 
cancers 272 
B. Diatherm ic production of local tis· 
sue injurv in lung tumours 272 
I. Dry electrodes 272 
2. Electrodes perfused with liquid 273 
3 Results 275 
4. Complicatiom 280 
5 Discussion 781 
C. Induction of healing reactions in tu· 
mours by direct current 281 
I lntmduoion 
2. Preliminarv tech11ique 
3. Prelimina ry conclusio11s 
4 R!ecrrodes 
5. Application of electrodes 
6. Voltage and curre>rt 
7 D-jvussion 
D. Direct current treatment of malig· 
nant lumours in lung: experience in 283 
285 
286 
291 
293 
294 
20 patients 295 
I Case material 295 
2. Preparation of patients 295 
3. Technique of treatment 295 
4. Case Jnalvsis of treated patie111s 296 
a) Morralirv 296 
b) Beneficial effects of DC treat-
ment 297 
5. Complications 313 
E. DC treatment of lung tumours: dis· 
russian and concJusjon 313 
References 316 
Contents XV XVID. Afterword: a discussion of principles 
and consequences of biologically 
closed electric circuits {BCEC) 318 
A $rrucnn '31 and functional coordjna-
tion in biology 318 
B. BCEC svstems and their physicoche 
mica! activation 3 J 8 
C. Spontaneo us reactions in BCEC sys-
tems 323 
I. Healing of injured tissue 323 
2. ProductiMr of scar tissue. structural 
trans{onr.ation of tissue and cells 323 
3. Calci{icOlions in tisSU£ 324 
4. Healing of fractures 325 
5 Rlertroqsmnsis 325 
6. Accumulation of white blood cells 325 
D. Artificial a:tivation of BCEC svs-
tcms 326 
Direcc curre•t rrea~menr of cancer 326 
E. A possible r6le of BCEC in biogene-
sis, including carcinogenesis 327 
XVI Contents F. Morphogenetic capacity of BCEC 
systems 327 
Formation of membranes and organ 
capsules 327 
G. Pbvsiological capacity of BCEC sys-
tems 327 
H. Acupuncture 328 
I Vesicles jn rhe transmission of nerv-
ous impulses 332 
J. Oral galvanism 332 
K. BCEC systems as receptors for mov-
ing external electroma gnetic fields 335 
Concludin g remarks 336 
References 3 37 
GLOSSAR Y 339 
SYMBOLS ANP UNITS 348 
ABBREVIATIONS 349 
INQF.X 350 I. 
Swnmary 
This book leads stepwise to the identification of a basic 
biologic concept: energy cont1<1rsion in tissue over biologi­
cally closed electric circuits (BCEC). Originally, this line 
of research developed from the observation that some 
seemingly strange structures arc radiographicall y 
sometimes apparent in vivo around masses in the pe­
riphery of the lungs. Because of an appearanc e similar 
to the corona of the sun, these morphologi c alterations 
were called the corona structures. It will be suggested 
that these structures represent modificat ions of tissue 
over a BCEC system, shortly to be explained, activated 
by a nonspecific injury of tissue. Injury to tissue represents a source of release of 
energy, which induces closed circuit transport s over 
BCEC channels, leading in turn to structural modifica­
tions in tissue. These modifications arc of considerable 
interest because they represent a result of the process of 
healing. Consequently, knowledge of BCEC mecha­
nisms may increase our understanding of how tissues 
heal. Indeed, it will be shown that artificial activation 
of BCEC mechanisms can even lead tO benefidal ef­
fects in disease. Therefore, the theoretical and practi­
cal importance of BCEC as a basic biologic concept has 
made it necessary to devote most of this book to the 
identification of such circuits, including their activa­
tion and their function. BCEC systems are possible because tissues differ in 
conductance and structure. Several kinds of BCEC can 
therefore be distinguished. The circuit particularly 
identified and studied in this investigation is the vascu­
lar-imerstitial closed drcuit (VICC). BCEC systems are activated not only by the release of 
energ)' in tissue injury but also by physiologic polarization 
of tissues. This fmding opens many possibilities for 
new understanding of normal and abnormal function 
and structural development of tissue. This summary will concentra te on principles which, 
in the opinion of the author, arc capable of bringing 
some new light on a number of biologic problems 
which presently are poorly understood. The original 
observatio ns which led to the description of the corona 
structures will therefore be treated here only briefly, 
because associated problems reflect only one specific 
instance of the general principle. On the other hand, 
the corona structures represent a set of specific facts 
from which the general principle of BCEC systems has 
been inferred. Anyone interested in a full insight into 
the principle of BCEC systems is advised, therefore, to 
review the chapters in which the corona structures are 
described and analysed. Physicochemical potentials are central to the biokinetic 
mechanism to be described. The importance of a so-
Summary called injury potential has long been known, for exam­
ple, as a source of error in bioelectri c measurements. Its possible role in "clinical" injury of tissue has been 
neglected to a remarkably large extent. Current re­
search tends to concentrate on "local" biochemical 
reactions in different kinds of injury to tissue. After the development in the 1960's of techniques 
for percutaneous needle biopsy of pulmonary masses, 
anempts were made to supplement the biopsies with 
recordings of electric potentials in tissue. Two types of 
electrodes were used. In one secies of patients, mixed 
redox-diffusion potentials of pulmonary masses were 
measured by means of metal electrodes. In another 
series, diffusion potential s wc.rc me-asured over nonpo­
larizable electrodes. In both types of measurement s it 
was found that fOQ!l pulmonary lesions, mostly malig­
nant tumours and granulomas, sometimes show an elec­
tric potential in relation to surrounding tissue. It soon 
became apparent that mixed potentials of lesions may 
develop under cenain circumstances. These potentials 
are, when present, reproducible for each individual 
lesion. They are inconsistent among lesions in terms of 
polarity, even when lesions which are histologically 
similar are compared. This unexpected finding was 
interpreted as follows. Locally injured tissue can be regarded as a site 
which liberates catabolic e nergy. This energy gives rise 
to a physicochemica l potential difference in relation 
to surrounding noninjured tissue. Such potential dif­
ferences are, in all probability , the results of local in­
jury in tumours, for example caused by spontaneous 
necrosis, haemorrhage or infection. By means of such 
local processes of degradation, different regions of 
tissue polarize in relation to each other. Polarizing 
regions of tissue therefore tend spontaneously to 
equalize their physicochemical gradients. It is also a 
well known physical fact that any spontaneous reaction 
induces opposing reactions. The total process then 
attenuates in a fluctuating fashion as entropy of the 
system increases. A series of in vitro experintents was 
performed, showing how this tendency of increasing 
entropy can be modified. Varying the influence of 
movable or fixed matrices was found to affect both the 
speeds of reactions and their "final" structural appear­
ances. The gradients of potential observed in vivo in pul­
monary masses therefore appear to reflect instanta­
neous stages of fluctuating and attenuating differences 
of potential. Any anempts, therefore, to determine the 
"absolute" magnitude of the potential gradient, with­
out knowledge of at least the age of the degrading 
process become of no or little value. Next, in vitro 
experiments were performed on spontaneously degrad­
ing blood during hypoxia, to simulate at least some of 
the conditions common to degradation in vivo of ne­
crotizing tissue. In these experiments , diffusion poten-
2 Summary tials measured with Ag-AgCl electrodes were observed 
to fluctuate by 250 m V while pH varied between 6. 5 
and 7.5, which is "'60 mV. Determination s of tissue potentials in vivo of this 
kind are of rather lintited value for even funher rea­
sons. Potentials of normal tissue, used as reference to a 
degrading tissue, can be: anticipated to vary in differ­
ent tissues as a function of their varying metabolic 
phases. Assuming the existence of a closed circuit 
system, the electric resistance of the circuit will deter­
mine both the rate of losses of potential (from a de­
fined potential difference ) and the rate of generation of 
the potential difference . Blood plasma and interstitial 
fluid are the anticipated conducting media of vascular­
interstitial closed circuit (VICC) channels. The resis­
tivity of each of these media is about 0.7 ohm-m. The 
numerous interstitial and vascular channels between a 
degrading tissue and its surroundings should then, in 
all probability , allow substantial leak of current 
through tissue. Moreover, the magnitude of potential 
difference indicates nothing about the important fac­
tor, the quantity of current transported. Besides diffusion potentials, redox potentials must 
also be considered in the activation of BCEC systems. We will shortly return to these potentials, to which a 
separate chapter is devoted. For the time being, we 
may conclude that electric potential differences can be 
measured between degrading tissue of a tumour, infec­
tious lesion or granuloma in relation to the surround­
ing and presumably normal tissue, both by means of 
polarizable metal electrodes and nonpolarizable 
Ag-AgCJ electrodes. The "profiles of tissue potential" 
obtained are reproducible in each lesion, but show 
varying polarity among different lesions. This result 
has been interpreted as an effect of the age of the 
necrotizing process in an injured tissue, which can be 
expected to present a fluctuating potential difference. It should be apparent that in a biologically closed 
electric circuit, such as a VICC, even small electrical 
gradients working over a long time may give rise to 
substantial transport of ions. BCEC must also be con­
sidered to function between normal regions of tissue or 
even between different organs under the influence of 
regional differences in metabolic activities. For exam­
ple, normal dog liver showed, relative to peritoneal 
fluid, that slowly fluctuating potentials can be induced 
by epinephrine, isoprenaline, glucagon and Vamin® 
(an amino acid and electrolyte preparation for paren­
teral nutrition). The release of energy of degrading tissue appears to 
be coupled to systems of selective ionic transport 
through BCEC channels. The energy transformation 
of healing represents in this view a continually chang­
ing, fluctuating and attenuating process of electric 
transport amongst tissues. Ebbs and flows of ionic 
transport are induced, securing an appropriate ly time-dependent supply of anions and cations for the healing 
process. Healing is achieved when the injured tissue 
has equilibrated with its surroundings . This equilibri­
um means that both the injured tissue and the sur­
rounding tissues have changed. The driving force in 
these events is therefore not confined exclusively to the 
injured tissue but also involves the physiologically 
fluctuating metabolic potentials of the surrounding 
normal tissue. The integrated function of physicoche­
mical forces over BCEC is, in the author's opinion, 
important not only for understandi ng tissue healing 
but also for understandi ng normal functions of tissue 
and morphogenesis. The morphologic basis for closed circuit transports i11• 
eludes selec.tive pathwa)'s for flow of currem in tissue. This property should be evident because different tis­
sues and tissue fluids possess different resistivities. Differences in conductive properties are known for 
fat, bone, muscle, tissue fluid, blood, kidney, liver, 
lung and brain tissue. The possibility that certain 
materials and structures may function as electrically 
conducting branches of closed circuit systems in tissue 
does, however, not appear to have been previously 
considered. As an introduction to the identification of 
vascular-interst itial closed circuits (VICC) as one ex­
ample of BCEC, the process of corrosion of metal in 
vivo was studied. Two types of corrosion in vivo have been defined. Uncomplicated corrosion is the type of corrosion which 
occurs when a piece of iron is placed in salt water. The driving force derives from the relatively anod.ic 
and cathodic parts of the metal. Metal dissolves at the 
anode depending on closed circuit transport of ions in 
the water, redox reactions at the anode and cathode, 
and transport of electrons in the metal. Such a process 
now appears to be identifiable radiograph ically in vivo 
on the basis of changes in the metal surfaces and 
adjacent tissues. The second type of corrosion is called 
complicated corrosion. In this case, driving electro­
chemical potentials are created between an injured 
tissue (e.g., due to trauma, blood clots, necrosis, infec­
tion), adjacent noninjured tissue and the metal. Even 
this type of corrosion may be radiographically identi­
fied. The energy in this type of corrosion is channel­
ized over closed circuits, which in part have to be 
located in the tissue. Among the tissues which might 
fulfil the requirements of a separated conductor, blood 
vessels were the first SIUdied. Direct measurements of resistivity of vessel walls in 
''ivo on dogs showed that "large" blood vessels (i.e., 
visible to the unaided eyes) function as relatively insu­
lating and electrically conducting "cables". The walls 
of vessels present an electric resistivity which is at least 
200-300 times higher than the conducting blood plas­
ma and surrounding interstitial fluid, each of which 
have a resistivity only slightly higher th:m th:u of physiologic saline solution. Blood plasma and intersti­
tial fluid, moreover , connect electrically over the capil­
lary membrane s. 
The vascular-interstitial channels have been tested 
directly in vivo in animal experiments which show that 
vessels constitute preferential pathways for electric 
current, within certain limits. Therefore , in addition 
to the property of serving as mechanical transport 
channels, the "large" blood vessels also fimcrion as i>JSII­
lated, electrically conducci11g "cables". After vascular­
interstitia l closed circuits (VICC) are recognir.ed, it 
will become apparent that other biologically closed 
electric circuits must also exist. Such circuits may 
include conducting media such as urine, peritoneal 
fluid, excretory material in ducts, etc., in various com· 
binations with vascular or interstitial channels in tis­
sues. Consider a necrotic tumour, electrochem ically po­
larizing in relation to surrounding normal tissue (Fig. 1: 1). The vascular-interstitial closed circuit (VICC) 
consists of vascular and interstitial branches, electri­
cally connecting the tumour and its surroundings . This circuit is seemingly very simple. A closer look 
at its different pans will soon disclose its complexity 
(Chapter XII). Its function includes the requirement 
of at least two (but very likely numerous ) interposi­
tioned redox steps for each closed circuit. Such redox 
steps are anticipated to function as electrode-equi­
valent sites for transfer of electrons. There is no doubt 
that redox reactions take place in biologic material, but 
their location and the structure of such sites for BCEC 
systems have yet to be established. Experimenta l evi­
dence is presented suggesting that the location of one 
type of such sites is adjacent to fibrous membranes. Blood, flowing in vessels with electrically insulating 
walls, contains a conducting part in the plasma and a 
nonconducting part in the blood cells. The membranes 
of the erythrocytes add a high resistance and capaci­
tance in series and parallel with the plasma, which is a 
relatively good conductor. The er)•throcytes can be 
regarded as a movable matrix while the vessel walls 
function as a structural matrix. An increase of hacma­
tOcrit or contraction or a vessel will consequently in­
crease intravascular electrical resistance. The conducting medium, the plasma, obtains its 
conducting properties by the presence of water, elec­
trolytes and charged, complex molecules. These com­
ponents are evidently prerequis ites for the function of 
BCEC systems. Another group of compounds can also 
be recognized with equally importam but different 
properties for the function of BCEC systems. These 
arc the nonionic compounds , which modulate conduc­
tivity and arc able to "§ave" their electric energy until 
conditions are suitable for its release. Some of the most 
important sources of energy are present in this group, 
e.g., oxygen and glucose. These consideration s lead us 
Summary 3 14--- -I Insulating vascular walls 
Conducting blood plasma 
B Insulating tissue matrix 
Conduct ing interstitial fluid 
m Capillary walls 
Copen po:res) 
nz: Redox sites 
Contracted capillaries (closed 
pores) and surfaces of thrombus 
Potential difference 
Fig. I: I. Simplified principl. : of the vascular-intmtitial do.ed 
circuit (VICC). Local processes ofintratumoural degradation 
(e.g., necrosis, haemorrhage ) create a d_rivin.g, physicoche· 
mica! "injury potential" between the tumour and surround· 
to the problem of activation and function of BCEC 
systems. We may recognize tbat metabolically produced ions 
will appear temporarily witbin BCEC channels, as 
groups of ions. These groupings are possible as a result 
of diffusion and mechanica l transport (circulation), dif­
ferences in ionic mobility, gravity, influences of matrix 
properties , ionic recombinations, etc. A resulting and 
measurable difference of electrical potential (e.g., an in­
jury potential) will become apparent. Such collections 
of separated ions giving rise to a net gradient of electric 
potential, compared with a "reference" tissue within a 
BCEC, are here tentatively called umars. Two ionars of 
different ionic charges then represent a driving electro­
motive force of a BCEC system. The energy of an 
ionar couple depends, however, not only on its electric 
gradient. The total energy gradient is a composition of 
chemical, electric, volume-pressure and gravitatio nal 
energies. Furthermore, the energy components arc 
interdependent even as each is available for energy 
exchange. Chemical energy, for example, when ex­
changed between two reactants must be preceded by 
transports which take place in different steps. For 
instance, oxygen and glucose are transported in bulk 
in the blood stream over long distances before these 
compounds reach a working muscle. In tbe muscle, 
other steps of transport then follow, including selec­
tive transports . The vascular-interstitial closed circuit 
(VICC) serves as such a selective system of transport, 
4 Summary ing normal tissue. Suggested sites of redox reactions of the 
circuit are indicated at the capiHary membrane and vascular 
thrombus. although by definition it also is an integrated part of 
tbe mechanical system of indiscriminate bulk trans­
port. Its closed circuit function depends consequentl y 
on the character istics of the material transported . At 
the same time, the superimpos ed driving e/ec~rom01ive 
force causing the closed circuic !Tanspor!S will also 
influence both "local" ond distant chemical reactions in 
the circuit. Such distant effects in VICC include ele­
ments of structura l mo<lification and selective distribu­
tion of materials contribwitrg to the maimerrance of ho­
meostasis. The function of VICC with regard to tbeir 
content of ionic and nonionic compounds will now be 
briefly reviewed. The electric energy of i= and groups of ions (ionars) is 
immediately available, unlike the electric energy of 
nonion.ic compounds, e.g., oxygen and glucose. These 
energetic compounds are here named ergons (Greek, 
ergon = work), analogous to ions. Collections of ergons 
are here called ergonars, analogous to ionars. The ne­
cessity of introducing tbese terms is a consequence of 
the closed circuit functions of BCEC systems. Ergons arc carriers of balanced electric charge, but 
under certain circumstances become electrically active. After activation they obtain electronegativity in relatim• 
to cheir surroundings . In this transformation the crgon is 
turned into an ion. Converse ly, appropriate metabolic 
change of an ion may result in the creation of an ergon. The existence and function of ergons appear to be a 
prerequisite for tbe existence of highly developed or-ganisms, which require special systems such as circula­
tion of the blood for transporta tion of energetic com­
pounds. During transport, ergons "save" their electric 
energy, unlike ions, which arc available instantaneous­
ly for electric interactions. Special couplings of oxygen 
to haemoglobin are known to exist. Oxygen is thereby 
prevented from starting immediate reactions with sur­
rounding material, e.g., in the blood stream. The 
blood pigment packs the oxygen in a protective trans­
port cover. This mechanism therefore functions to 
maintain the ergonic state of oxygen. The transport and 
storage of oxygen in the skeletal muscles of deep div­
ing mammals is an extreme example of how efficiently 
this mechanism is utilized to preserve the crgonic 
character of oxygen. Ergons as well as ions carry four energetic factors 
(chemical, electric, volume-pressure, gravitational ). The interaction between the chemical and electric 
components of energetic compounds is treated theo­
retically and experimentally. Ek-ctrolytic experiments 
have been performed with water (an ergonar) and with 
water and a supporting electrolyte (KCl, an ionar) in 
the presence of a stabilizing matrix. These experi­
ments illustrate important principk'S of interaction of 
ionars and ergonars in the activat.ion ofBCEC systems. The electric energy in ergons is available only after 
activation by their surrounding media. This principle 
is demonstrated experimentall y in models in which 
electrolysis of the crgonar water produces proton and 
hydroxyl ionars as well as matrix-adsorbed hydrogen 
and oxygen ergonars. Such a driven system can actual­
ly then be turned into a self-driving system, in which 
the metal electrodes become activators for release of 
the electric energy of the ergonars. The metal electrodes , providing the in vitro experi­
ments with sites for redox reactions, should logically 
have their biologic counterparts within BCEC systems. The existence of redox reactions in biology is well 
established. A morphologic, organized structural ana­
logue to metal electrodes in tissue is, however, still to 
be found. Several possibilities exist to localize such 
sites: one was attempted. When direct current was 
passed between flat platinum electrodes over tissue, 
fibrous membra r~es were easily produced at the c.lectrodc 
surfaces. In clinical medicine , fibrous tissue is known 
to develop around cardiac pacemaker devices and their 
electrode against the myocardium. Such fibrosis may 
eventually interrupt the current, because fibrous tissue 
is electrically insulating. One possibility for finding 
sites for redox steps may therefore be to look for 
locations of fibrous membrane s. Many fibrous mem­
brane structures are easily accessible, e.g., organ cap­
sules, muscle fasciae and cerebrospinal dura, as well as 
less accessible, e.g., basement membrane s, tissue 
septa and cellular membrane s. In vivo experiments in 
dogs were therefore performed as follows: direct cur-rent was passed between one platinum electrode in the 
inferior vena cava and one in a glass cylinder (filled 
with 2M KCl in litmus-agar), placed against the ex­
posed spleen or liver. Depmding 011 the direction of 
currt.nc fl(IW, reversible litmus reactions were produced ar 
the surface of the orgar~ as at the surface of an inrerposi­
tioned metal. One possible explanation of these reac­
tions may be that electrode-equiva lent redox reactions 
have taken place at the organ surface. An alternate 
mechanism may be that metabolic products separated 
electrophoretically immediately under the liver sur­
face. Whatever the mechanis m, the experiments dem­
onstrate that interphasic accumulation of material can 
be produced by leading direct current across the sur­
face of an organ. Further studies on production of 
fibrous membranes in vitro by direct current support 
the theory that fibrous membranes may be explained as 
interphase depositior~ of material ("electrode depositior~" ) 
within BCEC systems. When metabolic polarization of 
an organ, e.g., the liver, is asynchronous in relation to 
surrounding organs, ebb and flow transport of anions 
and cations should take place, leading to the develop­
ment of fibrous membranes . The membranes can be 
expected to grow under the influence of the polariza­
tion current until the membrane becomes sufficiently 
thick to interrupt the current. After this introductory description of the principle 
of BCEC systems, some specific observations and 
problems will be reviewed: 
Water traruport i11 a closed circuit has been devoted a 
full chapter. Prerequisite s for electroosmos is arc ana­
lyzed in in vitro and in vivo experiments. Four mecha­
nisms of electric water transport arc distinguished. Elect.roosmot ic transport between electrodes has also 
been demonstrated in vivo in animals and in pulmo­
nary parench)•ma in man in connection with direct 
current treatment of inoperable lung tumours. Effects 011 cells atld tissues after application of direct 
currem arc described throughout this book in in vitro 
and in vivo studies. Specific reactions at the anodic and 
cathodic electrode surfaces arc described , as well as 
induced field effects and electrophoretic effects. In in 
vitro electrophoresis of blood, red blood cells show 
laking of blood pigment around the anode, while pig­
ment near the cathode accumulates in the centres of 
the red cells. Observations also suggest that anodic 
acidity and cathodic alkalinity may influence the polar­
ity of the blood pigment. Thus, repelling and attract­
ing of intracellular blood pigment have been observed . Moreover, haemoglobi n may arrange in peculiar pat­
terns in the erythrocyte s. Many red blood cells were 
found actually to fuse into monstrous cell-like units, 
with strange arrangements of blood pigment. Massive accumulatio11 of leukocytes has been pro­
duced around the anode, when applied to dog mesen­
tery and lung. It is suggested that the local attraction 
Summary 5 of leukocytes (which carry a surplus of fixed electrone­
gative surface charges) in tissue injury is caused by the 
driving electric force of the degrading tissue, during its 
electropositive phase over the VICC. This explanation 
represents a clearly definable mechanism for attraction 
of leukocytes in tissue injury as an alternative to the 
prevailing, but in many respects vague, concept of so­
called chemotaxis. ln vessels directing the blood now 
tOward the cathode, leukocytes are accumulated as a 
result of interference between blood now and the ca­
thodic field. Thrombosis is also produced in the anodic field. Platelets, like other cells, are known to carry a surplus 
of electronegative charges. Accumulation of platelets 
may therefore also depend on electrophoresis in addi­
tion to other factors such as steric location and magni­
tude of charges. When a lesion in tissue polarizes 
spontaneously, the anodic phase may lead to micro­
thromboses in capillaries in or near the lesion. The 
resultant focally decreased blood now may contribute 
to local dystrophy of tissue. This mechanism probably 
contributes to the local "emphysema" which is some­
times seen around lung lesions. Local development of 
thrombosis around an anode will also cause blindly 
ending vascular pockets. Radiographi c contrast media 
6 Summary Fig./:Z. SquarnousceUcar­
cltaoma in the risht upper 
lobe, surrounded by a 3 mm 
wide radjolucent zone sepa­
rating the tumour from a su· 
pcrolatcral , 2-3 em broad, 
radiopaque zone. This ra­
diograph from 1954, con­
taining two of the corona 
strucwres (an .. A" and "8" 
zone) became the imperus 
for the present s-mdy. Sc.a.~is t 
atelectasis, cancer growth or 
infection can nm adequately 
explain the presence a.nd ap­
pearance of the radiolucent 
and radiopaque zones. injected into the blood stream will then appear on 
angiography as the delayed "contrast enhancement" 
which is often seen around tumours. The radiographic corona stmctures sometimes seen 
around lung tumours are described and analysed rather 
extensively as one example of an activated BCEC sys­
tem causing structural modifications. The corona 
structures include a radiolucent uA" zone around a 
tumour, a racliopaque "B" zone outside the "A, zone 
(Fig. 1: 2), radiating structures of various lengths 
extending from the surface of the tumour into sur­
rounding tissue, and small arches, which connect to 
form arcades at the interface of the "A" and "B" 
zones. Furthermore, the corona structures include ir­
regularly narrowed vessels and circumferemially dis­
placed tissue structures, including vessels, around the 
tumour. These structural modifications can be ex­
plained as transformations of tissue in a polarizing 
BCEC system activated by degrading processes in the 
tumour. The corona structures could therefore be re­
produced in in vitro and in vivo experiments. Radiologi c differe.ntial diagnosis of corona struc­
tures is also described and an3iysed. The radiopaque 
"B, zone mainly represent s electroosmotic accumula­
tion of water during an electropositive phase of polar-ization of the tumour. The "B" zone can be distin· 
guished from focal thickening of the pleurn, atelecta· 
sis, neoplastic extension to the pleura and a previously 
undescribed finding called a pleural retraction pocket. This latter finding is produced by hydropenic rctrac· 
tion of fibrous radiating structures during anodic (elec· 
tropositive) driving phase of the tumour. As overlying 
visceral pleura is retrncted, an intrapleurnl pocket re· 
mains filled with pleural fluid. Further radiographic 
signs named lamellae and inftltrated strands are also 
described and analysed. Radiographically observed corona structures are not 
specific for any kind of lung tumour, benign or malig­
nant. This unexpected result Jed to consideration of 
the possibility that we here arc encountering a more 
general biologic mechanism (which later on developed 
into the concept of BCEC). Clinical and experimental studies of the corona 
transformation in lung tissue imply strongly that cor· 
responding pathophysiological mechanisms ought to 
be found in other organs as well. To test this possibil· 
ity, the human female brea.st was selected for study. Mammary structure and function obviously differ con· 
sidernbly from pulmonary structure and function. The 
breast has the additional advantage that it is easily 
accessible for in vivo radiograp hic-pathologic correl· 
ative studies. Corona structures around breast cancers can be 
shown rndiographically rather commonly. These struc­
tural changes are the same as those seen around lung 
tumours, including "A" and "B" zones, arches and 
arcades, radiating structures, circular displacemems of tis· 
sue structures and retractum of certain fibrotic compo· 
nents within the radiating structures. Electric potential measurements (with nonpolariza· 
ble Ag-AgCI electrodes over KCI bridges) were also 
performed , which showed that reproducible potemial 
differences could be demonstrat ed between tumour and 
surrounding tissue in certain instances of breast cancers. Like lung tumours the polarity of the tumour was 
sometimes electronegative, sometimes electropos itive, 
in relation to surrounding tissue. Mammary tissue water in relation to fat was shown 
in in vitro and in vivo experiments to move from the 
anode toward the cathode in an electricall y closed 
circuit. This movement produces radiographica lly de­
tectable differences of attenuation between hydropic 
and hydropenic fat tissue. Fat and water were then measured quantitatively in 
"A" and "B" zones after in vitro electrophore sis of 
dog fat tissue. High fat content and low water content 
appeared in "A" zones. High water and relatively low 
fat content were found in "B" zones. When electrone· 
gative fat is mobilized adjacent to the cathode in elec­
trophoresis, it moves interstitially toward the anode 
and there enters the fat cells. This movement is, how-ever, countered by that of fat from the anodic field, 
which obtains a reversed polarity under influence of 
anodic acidity. Eventually the moving fat boundaries 
will meet in the middle as a zone of cathodic and 
anodic fat. In vivo electrophore tic experiments in 
breast fat of dogs with quantitative determinations of 
relative fat and water content indicate that spontane­
ous development of radiograp hic "A" and HB" zones 
around a brttl$1 tumour can be explained as ;, vivo 
electrophoretic transports over a BCEC. Quantitative fat· 
water determinations around human breast cancers 
were found to support this hypothesis. Circumferential structures around breast masses, 
which may be berugn but are usually malignant, con· 
stitute a new radiographic sign, which should focus the 
physician's attention to a centrally located process 
which may be a carcinoma. These structures around a 
breast cancer are USL!ally produced by realignment of 
interlobular fat septa. Sometimes peritumoural vessels 
are narrowed and positioned in a circular fashion, very 
similar to the findings seen around focal lesions in the 
lung. The mechanisms of these changes seem in prin­
ciple to be the same for both lung and breast. Radiating structu<es around breast cancers often 
contain both malignant cells and pathological vessels 
close to the tumour. Farther out in breast tissue the 
radiating structures contain fibrous tissue but not rna· 
lignant cells. Some of the fibrous tissue is birefringent. Some of the non birefringent tissue is hygroscopic. A 
theory is presented, supported by in vitro experi· 
ments, that the hygroscopic tissue elements in radiati11g 
structures shrink in the hydropenic "A" zone, produci11g 
skin recractums. When the radiating structures reach 
close to the skin, these retractions contribute to lower· 
ing the local turgor pressure and facilitate the accumu­
lation of tissue water in "skin thickening". The water, 
it is suggested, moves to this hydropic "B" zone as an 
electroosmotic trnnsport of fluid from driving anodic 
to cathodic tissue within a spontaneously polarizing 
BCEC. The well known .accumulation of white blood cells 
both inside and around a carcinoma of the breast can 
readily be explained as an electrophoretic pheno· 
menon. Experimental support for this theory is pre· 
sented. When a tumour polarizes spontaneously (as by 
local necrosis or bleeding) and enters an electropositive 
driving phase, compared to its surroundings, the elec­
tronegative white blood cells will accumulate electrophor­
etical/y over VICC channels. A pathologic ftnding, often recognized but hitherto 
unexplained, is a red·yel/qwish zone in the fat tissue 
around a malignant rumour. Similar changes of colour 
of breast fat have been produced electrophor etically in 
vivo in the dog and in vitro in human mammary fat 
tissue around the anode. It was also found that the so­
called atrophic fat tissue around breast cancers, well 
Summary 7 known to pathologists, occurs adjacent to the electro· 
pOsitive electrode in in vivo and in vitro electrophore· 
sis. Fibrous tissue commonly develops around carcino­
mas, by mechanisms previously poorly understood. Electropho resis of normal fat tissue from human fe­
male breasts offers new approaches to the study of this 
phenomenon. The application of closed electric cir· 
cuits was found to transform tissue and cell elements 
in breast fat tissue. Two types of new fibrous tissue 
were found to develop in vitro. Anodic fibrous tissue appears microscopically to con· 
tain many fibroblast-like cells and large amounts of 
fibrous, partly birefringent , dense material. Irregular 
or circular arrangements of the fibres are often seen. Trus material appears to develop inside interstitial 
spaces at the time as fat cells loose their contents. Cathodic fibrous tissue appears microscopically to 
form a delicate network (later it becomes more coarse) 
of pardy birefringent material. It does not contain 
fibroblast-like cells. This tissue looks as if it develops 
by thickening of cell membrane s while other parts 
atrophy. The intracellular material develops a reticular 
panem of thin structures before it gradually disap­
pears. Similar types of SpOntaneously developed fibro· 
sis have also been found near cancers as regions of 
well-developed anodic and cathodic fibrosis. Fibrotic tissue of different gross morphologic ap· 
pearances can be produced. Thus, fibrous membranes 
of anodic and cathodic t~s can be produced by using 
flat electrodes. When these electrodes are provided 
with small protrusions, which lead to electrical edge 
enhancement, radiating fibrous structures develop. They 
can often be observed as thin fibrous streaks of irregu­
lar course between the electrodes in the in vitro speci· 
men. Further variation of fibrotic tissue is obtained by 
changing the polarity of the electrodes. This switch 
has led to the development of mixed anodic and ca­
thodic types of fibrous tissue. Inside newly devek>ped cathodic and anodic fibrosis, fat 
cells undergo remarkable transformatiom and develop 
structures which look lik.e primitive ductal and vascular 
c ha mw Is.
631928626-Biologically-Closed-Electric-Ci-Bjorn-Nordenstrom-pdf.txt
Summarize the following text section accurately and concisely. Maintain specific details and numerical information, and use anti-repetition mechanisms:

        Biologically Closed 
Electric Circuits 
1/lll/111111 I 11111111/IIIJI R320-KZY-X1H 2 Biologically Closed 
Electric Circuits 
CLINICAL, EXPERIMENTAL AND 
THEORETICAL EVIDENCE FOR AN 
ADDITIONAL CIRCULATORY SYSTEM 
by 
Bjorn E. W. Nordenstrom, M. D. Professor of Diagnostic Radiology 
Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden 
Nordic Medical Publications © 1983 BjOrn E.
The book discusses the concept of biologically closed electric circuits (BCEC) and its implications on various physiological and pathological processes.
What is the main topic of the book "Biologically Closed Electric Circuits"?
The author emphasizes that it is crucial to consider BCEC systems to fully understand normal and pathological physiology.
What is the author's conclusion regarding the importance of BCEC systems in understanding normal and pathological physiology?
The author's research has led to a new understanding of the role of electric currents in biological processes, including the transport of water, cell movement, and tissue transformation.
What is the significance of the author's research?
The book provides an account of the author's research and its implications, including its potential applications in various fields such as cancer treatment and the study of inflammatory states.
What is the purpose of the book?
The author suggests that BCEC systems may lead to the development of new therapeutic approaches for cancer treatment, including the use of direct current to stimulate healing and tissue transformation.
What is the significance of the concept of BCEC in the context of cancer treatment?