Ointment  (to make,  
p. 295). For minor burns, 
apply up to 3 times a day.Infusion (to make, p. 291). For chronic 
fungal infections, such as ringworm  
or thrush, drink 3⁄4 cup (150 ml)  
3 times a day.Calendula officinalis  (Asteraceae)
Calendula, Pot Marigold, English Marigold
Calendula is one of the most well known and versatile 
herbs in Western herbal medicine. The bright orange 
petals are an excellent remedy for inflamed and angry 
skin, their antiseptic and healing properties helping to 
prevent the spread of infection and speed up the rate 
of repair. Calendula is also a cleansing and detoxifying 
herb, and the infusion and tincture are used to treat 
chronic infections. Habitat & Cultivation
Calendula, native to southern 
Europe, is cultivated in temperate 
regions around the world. Easily 
propagated from seed, it flourishes in 
almost all soils. The flowers are 
harvested as they open in early 
summer, and are dried in the shade. Related Species
C. arvense , a wild species, seems to 
have similar therapeutic properties  
to calendula. Key Constituents
■ Triterpenes
■ Resins
■ Bitter glycosides
■ Volatile oil
■ Phytosterols
■ Flavonoids
■ Mucilage
■ Carotenes
Key Actions
■ Anti-inflammatory
■ Relieves muscle spasms
■ Astringent
■ Prevents hemorrhaging■ Heals wounds
■ Antimicrobial
■ Detoxifying
■ Mildly estrogenic
Traditional  
& Current Uses
■ Therapeutic properties  
Calendula is antiseptic. Some 
constituents are antifungal (particularly 
the resins), antibacterial, and antiviral, 
and have shown significant activity 
against Candida albicans . The herb also 
astringes the capillaries, an action that 
explains its effectiveness for cuts, 
wounds, varicose veins, and various 
inflammatory conditions. ■ Skin remedy  Calendula is above  
all a remedy for the skin, providing 
effective treatment for most minor 
skin problems. It is used for cuts, 
scrapes, and wounds; for red and 
inflamed skin, including minor burns 
and sunburn; for acne and many 
rashes; and for fungal conditions such 
as ringworm, athlete’s foot, and thrush. It is very helpful for diaper rash and 
cradle cap, and soothes nipples that 
are sore from breastfeeding. ■ Digestive disorders  T aken 
internally, calendula infusion or 
tincture helps inflammatory 
problems of the digestive system 
such as gastritis, peptic ulcers, 
regional ileitis, and colitis. ■ Detoxifying  Calendula has long 
been considered a detoxifying herb, 
and helps treat the toxicity that 
underlies many fevers and infections, 
and systemic skin disorders, such as 
eczema and acne. The herb is also 
considered cleansing for the liver and 
gallbladder and can be used to treat 
problems affecting these organs.Calendula
An annual growing  
to 2 ft (60 cm),  
with vivid orange 
flower heads similar in 
structure to daisies. ■ Gynecological uses  Calendula 
has a mild estrogenic action and  
is often used to help reduce pain 
during menstruation and to regulate 
menstrual bleeding. The infusion 
makes an effective douche for  
yeast infections. Self-help Uses
■ Acne & boils , p. 305.Calendula’s  colorful flowers were thought to 
lift the spirits and encourage cheerfulness.Parts Used
Key Preparations & Their UsesFlowers  are harvested in 
summer. Flower heads and  
petals are removed for use in  
a wide range of preparations. ■ Athlete’s foot , p. 304. ■ Bites & stings , p. 303. ■ Breast tenderness & sore  
 nipples , p. 315. ■ Digestive infections , p. 305. ■ Inflamed skin rashes , p. 303. ■ Diaper rash , p. 318. ■ Hives , p. 303. ■ Varicose veins , p. 302. ■ Wounds & bruises , p. 304. QCaution  May cause allergic reaction in rare cases.Bright orange  
petals indicate  
a high level of  
active ingredientsDried 
petals
Dried flower 
head
Fresh  
flower heads
Infused oil  (to make, p. 294). For inflamed dry skin, rub into the area  
2 –3 times a day. Tincture  (to make, p. 292). For eczema, take 30 drops with water 3 times a day. US_072-073_Bupleurum_Calendula.indd   73 07/04/16   4:37 pm
74CapsiC um frutes Censkey medicinal plantsCapsicum annuum & C. frutescens (Solanaceae)
Cayenne, Cayenne Pepper, ChiliCayenne
A perennial, spiky shrub growing to 3 ft (1 m), with scarlet-red conical fruits filled with white seeds. Cayenne is so popular in Mexico where it 
originates that it is even used to flavor  ice cream. Habitat & Cultivation
Cayenne is native to the tropical 
Americas, and is now cultivated throughout the tropics, especially  in Africa and India. It is grown from seed in early spring and flourishes  in hot, moist conditions. The fruit  is harvested when ripe in summer and is dried in the shade. Related Species
Many closely related species and varieties of C. frutescens exist, all  with different grades of pungency. Paprika, or Hungarian pepper (one  of the mildest peppers), and the  large green and red peppers that  are eaten as vegetables are both varieties of C. annuum and are important medicinal foods. Key Constituents
■ Capsaicin (0.1–1.5%)
■ Carotenoids
■ Flavonoids
■ Volatile oil
■ Steroidal saponins  
 (capsicidins—in seeds only)Key Actions
■ Stimulant
■ Tonic
■ Carminative
■ Relieves muscle spasms
■ Antiseptic
■ Increases sweating
■ Increases blood flow to the skin
■ Analgesic
Research
■ Capsaicin Extensive clinical 
research shows that capsaicin, the compound in cayenne mostly responsible for its hot, pungent taste, has strong, local analgesic activity in certain types of nerve pain. Applied to the skin, capsaicin desensitizes nerve endings and acts as a counter-irritant. It is standardly prescribed for relief of neuralgic pain. It may also provide effective pain relief in con-ditions such as arthritis and headache. Traditional &  
Current Uses
■ Warming stimulant The herb’s 
heating qualities make it a valuable 
remedy for poor circulation. It improves blood flow to the hands and feet and to the central organs. ■ Antimicrobial In Mayan herbal 
medicine, cayenne was used to counter microbial infections—different Capsicum species including cayenne are now known to have significant antimicrobial activity. Adding cayenne to food reduces the chances of developing gastric or intestinal infection, and the herb is frequently used by herbalists to treat gastroenteritis and dysentery. ■ External uses Applied locally  
to the skin, cayenne is mildly analgesic. It is also rubefacient, increasing blood flow to the affected part, and this helps to stimulate the circulation in “cold” rheumatic and arthritic conditions, aiding the removal of waste products and increasing the flow of nutrients to the tissues. Cayenne may also be applied to unbroken chilblains. ■ Internal uses Cayenne is taken  
to relieve gas and colic and to Parts Used
Fruit improves digestion  
and circulation. stimulate the secretion of digestive 
juices. It may be taken in frequent, small doses for a weak or failing heart. A pinch of cayenne is excellent when used in gargles for sore throats. Cayenne is also helpful in relieving acute diarrhea. Self-help Uses 
■ High fever, p. 311. ■ Poor circulation, p. 302. Originally from the tropical regions of the Americas, 
cayenne was first introduced to Europe in the 16th century. In cooking, it is renowned for its hot, burning taste, and it is not surprising to learn that, medicinally, it is a powerful warming stimulant. It acts on the circulation and digestion and is used to treat a wide range of complaints from arthritis and chilblains to colic  and diarrhea. Key Preparations & Their Uses
 QCautions Non-toxic at normal doses, although caution is required when  
eating or handling cayenne. Can cause intense pain and burning,  
and contact dermatitis. Fresh fruitFruit pods grow  
to 4 in (10 cm) Dried fruit
Tincture (to make, p. 292). For arthritis, 
combine 20 drops with 1/2 cup (100 ml) willow 
bark tincture. T ake 1 tsp with water twice a day.Infused oil Add 100 g chopped 
cayenne to 2 cups (500 ml) oil and 
simmer (see p. 294). Gently massage 
into rheumatic limbs. Powder For sore throats, add a pinch to 
5 tsp lemon juice. Dilute with hot water, 
add honey, and use as a gargle. Tablets are convenient for long-term use. T ake for poor circulation. Ointment (to make, p. 295). Apply to chilblains (only if the skin is unbroken). US_074-075_Capsicum_Cassia.indd   74 17/03/16   4:00 pm75 key medicinal plantsCassia senna
Cassia senna syn. senna alexandrina (Fabaceae)
Senna, Alexandrian Senna
Almost everyone will have taken a preparation containing 
senna at some time in their lives. Senna is probably one  
of the best known herbal medicines, not least because it  
is still widely used in conventional medicine. It is a very 
efficient laxative and is a particularly useful remedy for  
the occasional bout of constipation. It has a slightly bitter, 
nauseating taste, and is therefore generally mixed with 
other herbs. Habitat & Cultivation
Senna is native to tropical Africa and 
is now cultivated throughout that 
continent. It is grown from seed in 
spring or from cuttings in early summer 
and requires plenty of sun. The leaves 
may be picked before or while the plant 
is in flower, and the pods are collected 
when they are ripe in autumn. Related Species
There are over 400 species of Cassia . Tinnevelly senna ( C. angustifolia ) is 
grown in the Indian subcontinent and 
has the same therapeutic properties 
as C. senna . In Ayurvedic medicine,  
it is used for skin problems, jaundice, 
bronchitis, and anemia, as well as for 
constipation. Jue ming zi  (C. obtusifolia ) 
is used in traditional Chinese medicine 
for “liver fire” patterns, constipation, 
and atherosclerosis. Key Constituents
■ Anthraquinone glycosides  
 (sennosides)
■ Naphthalene glycosides 
■ Mucilage■ Flavonoids
■ Volatile oil
Key Actions
■ Stimulant 
■ Laxative
■ Cathartic
Research
■ Sennosides  Extensive research 
during the last 50 years has led to  
a clear understanding of senna’s 
action. The sennosides irritate the 
lining of the large intestine, causing 
the muscles to contract strongly, 
resulting in a bowel movement about 
10 hours after the dose is taken. The sennosides also stop fluid being 
absorbed from the large intestine, 
helping to keep the stool soft. Traditional &  
Current Uses
■ Early records  The herb was  
first used medicinally by Arabian 
physicians in the 9th century ce. ■ Constipation  Senna has always 
been specifically used for constipation. It is particularly appropriate when a 
soft stool is required, for example in 
cases of anal fissure. Senna is a good 
short-term laxative but should not  
be taken for more than 10 days as  
this leads to weakening of the large 
intestine muscles. ■ Cathartic  As a cathartic (very 
strong laxative), senna can cause 
cramping and colic, and is therefore 
normally taken with aromatic, 
carminative herbs that relax the 
intestinal muscles. Self-help Use
■ Constipation , p. 307. Senna 
A small perennial 
shrub growing to  
3 ft (1 m), with a 
straight, woody stem 
and yellow flowers. Senna  shrubs have pairs of lance- 
shaped leaflets arranged on either side  
of a central stem.Parts Used
Key Preparations & Their UsesDried leaves
Fresh leaves
Pods  are milder in effect than 
the leaves. They are made into 
tablets and other preparations.Leaves are stronger  
in action than the  
pods and are not  
as commonly used. Dried pods Fresh pods
GingerClovesDecoction  For constipation, 
steep 3 –6 senna pods and 1 g 
fresh ginger in 3⁄4 cup (150 ml) 
freshly boiled water for  
6 –12 hours. Strain and drink.Tablets  are the standard senna 
preparation and are convenient. T ake for occasional constipation. Infusion  For mild constipation, 
infuse 1–2 senna pods, 1 g fresh 
ginger, and 1–2 cloves in 3⁄4 cup  
(150 ml) freshly boiled water for  
15 minutes. Strain and drink. QCautions Do not give to children under 12. Do not take for more than 10 days  
at a time. Do not take if suffering from colitis. During pregnancy, take on advice  
of your health care practitioner. Tincture is prescribed by herbalists to treat short-term constipation. US_074-075_Capsicum_Cassia.indd   75 26/02/16   3:58 pm
76
key medicinal plantsCentella asiatiC a
Paste made from powder. Mix 2 tsp powder with 5 tsp 
(25 ml) water and apply to 
patches of eczema. Powder  is an important Ayurvedic 
remedy. T ake 1–2 g a day with 
water as a general tonic.In India, fresh leaves are  
eaten as a tonic herb in saladsCentella asiatica syn. Hydrocotyle asiatica (Apiaceae)
Gotu Kola (Hindi), Indian PennywortGotu kola
A perennial, herbaceous creeper, growing to 20 in (50 cm), with fan-shaped leaves. Gotu kola is found growing wild  
throughout India. Habitat & Cultivation
Gotu kola is native to India and the 
southern U.S. It also grows in tropical and subtropical parts of Australia, southern Africa, and South America. It prefers marshy areas and riverbanks. Though usually gathered wild, gotu kola can be cultivated from 
Parts Used Key Preparations & Their Uses
Aerial parts have 
valuable tonic and cleansing properties.Research 
■ Wound healing Gotu kola has  
an established ability to promote 
wound healing and tissue repair, making it useful as a cosmetic agent, in skin disorders such as psoriasis,  and in arthritis. Asiaticoside, in particular, has been shown to speed up collagen formation and the laying down of new blood vessels. This healing effect extends to the blood vessels, so that gotu kola extracts aid venous repair, notably in chronic venous insufficiency, a condition that includes symptoms such as leg swelling and varicose veins. Recent U.S. research has investigated the effectiveness of high-strength extracts to help in diabetic neuropathy (nerve pain due to poor circulation) with signs of positive benefit. ■ Brain function In the last 10 
years, research has focused on gotu kola’s ability to relieve anxiety and support healthy brain function. A Thai clinical trial in 2008 found that gotu kola extract improved attention, working memory, alertness, and mood in 28 healthy volunteers with an average age of 65. Another small study found that gotu kola eased  
the symptoms of anxiety.Traditional &  
Current Uses
■ Wound healing Gotu kola’s main 
traditional use lies in treating wounds 
and skin problems. In Ayurveda, it is used specifically to promote healing in skin ulcers and serious skin problems, as well as to prevent scarring. The herb may be applied directly to the skin, or taken internally, where it appears to promote tissue repair throughout the body. It supports peripheral circulation and can be taken to strengthen blood vessels, e.g. varicose veins. Many people swear by gotu kola’s ability to prevent and relieve arthritis and rheumatic problems. ■ T onic The herb has a longstanding 
reputation in India and southern  Asia as a “rejuvenator,” aiding concentration and memory, particularly in the elderly. In Western herbal medicine, it is understood to be an adaptogen and can be taken long-term to help support healthy brain function, slow aging, and calm anxiety. It is also thought to have a tonic effect on digestion. Self-help Uses
■ Eczema, p. 300. ■ Maintaining vitality, p. 319. Dried aerial partsFresh  
aerial partsGotu kola is an ancient Ayurvedic remedy that is now used 
extensively in the West. It is a useful tonic and cleansing herb for skin problems and digestive disorders. In India,  
it is used to treat a variety of conditions, including leprosy, but it is valued chiefly as a revitalizing herb that strengthens nervous function and memory. It has a bittersweet, acrid taste, and in India it is sometimes used in salads and as  
a vegetable. QCautions Can occasionally cause sensitivity to sunlight. Restricted 
herb in some countries. May cause allergic reactions in rare cases. Infusion (to make, p. 291). For 
rheumatism, take 7 tsp twice a day.seed in spring. The aerial parts are 
harvested throughout the year. Related Species
Marsh pennywort (Hydrocotyle vulgaris) is a related European species, but, unlike gotu kola, has no known therapeutic uses. Key Constituents
■ Triterpenoid saponins (asiaticoside,  
 brahmoside, thankuniside)
■ Alkaloids (hydrocotyline)
■ Bitter principles (vellarin)
Key Actions
■ Wound healer
■ Tonic
■ Anti-inflammatory
■ Sedative
■ Peripheral vasodilator
Tincture (to make, p. 292). For poor memory and concentration, 
take 40 drops with water 3 times a day. US_076-077_Centella_Camomilla.indd   76 07/04/16   4:37 pm77 key medicinal plantsChamomilla re Cutita
Making infusion  with flower heads 
(see p. 291). For a good night’s sleep, 
drink 3⁄4 cup (150 ml) before bed.Flower heads  may be used fresh  
or dried. They should be picked on 
the day they open, when the active 
constituents are at their strongest. Essential oil  For diaper rash, 
combine 5 drops with 1 tbsp 
carrier oil and apply.Cream  (to make,  
p. 296). Rub on to 
sore or itchy skin.Flower heads 
contain volatile 
oil, which has 
antiallergenic 
compoundsChamomilla recutita syn. matricaria recutita  (Asteraceae)
German Chamomile
Habitat & Cultivation
German chamomile grows in much  
of Europe and other temperate 
regions. The seeds are sown in spring 
or autumn and the flower heads are 
picked in full bloom, in summer. Key Constituents
■ Volatile oil (proazulenes, farnesine,   
 alpha-bisabolol, spiroether)
■ Flavonoids
■ Bitter glycosides (anthemic acid)
■ Coumarins
Key Actions
■ Anti-inflammatory
■ Antiallergenic
■ Antispasmodic
■ Relaxant
■ Carminative
Research
■ Trials in Germany  A cream 
made from German chamomile  
was tested in 1987 for its ability to 
heal wounds. The results produced 
were very positive. In 1993, another 
trial using German chamomile and 
four other herbs showed them  
to be most effective at easing 
infantile colic. ■ Premenstrual syndrome  
An Iranian clinical trial compared 
chamomile with mefenamic acid for 
relief of premenstrual syndrome 
symptoms. Both were found effective 
in relieving the physical symptoms  
of premenstrual syndrome, but 
chamomile proved better in  
relieving emotional symptoms. Traditional &  
Current Uses
■ Digestive problems German 
chamomile has been taken for 
digestive problems since at least  
the 1st century ce. Gentle and 
efficacious, it is very suitable for 
children. The herb is valuable for 
pain, indigestion, acidity, gastritis, gas, 
bloating, and colic. It is also  
used for hiatal hernia, peptic ulcer, 
Crohn’s disease, and irritable  
bowel syndrome. ■ Relaxation  German chamomile, 
which contains spiroether, a strong 
antispasmodic, eases tense muscles 
and period pain. It is known that 
women in ancient Rome commonly 
took chamomile to relieve menstrual 
cramps. Chamomile flowers also 
reduce irritability and promote 
sleep—especially helpful for children. ■ Irritation  The herb is useful  
for hay fever and asthma. On steam 
distillation, the pro azulenes produce 
chamazulene, which is markedly  
antiallergenic. Externally, it can be 
applied to sore, itchy skin, sore  
nipples, and eczema. It also relieves 
eyestrain. A poultice can be applied 
to sore breasts. Self-help Uses
■ Bites & stings , p. 303.German chamomile
A sweetly aromatic 
annual growing to 
2 ft (60 cm), with finely 
cut leaves and white 
flower heads. ■ Congestion & hay fever , p. 312. ■ Colic , p. 318. ■ Eczema , p. 300. ■ Indigestion , p. 307. ■ Insomnia , p. 309.German chamomile  is a useful herb to 
cultivate for home use.Parts Used
Key Preparations & Their UsesDried
 flower headsFresh flower 
headsGerman chamomile’s aromatic, slightly bitter taste, 
reminiscent of apples, is familiar to herbal tea drinkers. The herb’s varied medicinal uses, however, are not as 
well known. It is an excellent herb for many digestive 
disorders and for nervous tension and irritability. Externally, it is used for sore skin and eczema. Roman 
chamomile ( Chamaemelum nobile , p. 187) is a close 
relation, used in a similar way. QCautions  The fresh plant can cause dermatitis. Do not take the essential oil 
internally except under professional supervision.T ake only on professional advice if 
using blood-thinning medication. Do not use the oil externally during pregnancy. Infusion To relax irritable and overtired children, infuse 4 tsp dried herb  
in 2 cups (500 ml) water ( see p. 291) and strain into a bath. Ointment (to make, p. 295). Rub onto sore or inflamed skin. Tincture (to make, p. 292). For irritable bowel syndrome, take 1 tsp diluted 
with 1⁄2 cup (100 ml) water 3 times a day. ■ Mild asthma , p. 301. ■ Morning sickness , p. 317. ■ Sore & tired eyes , p. 310. ■ Sore nipples , p. 315. ■ Stomach spasm , p. 305. US_076-077_Centella_Camomilla.indd   77 26/02/16   3:58 pm
78
key medicinal plantsChrysanthemum x morifolium
Poultice (to make, p. 295). For eyestrain, 
steep flower heads in hot water for 10 
minutes and place them on closed eyes.Infusion of flower heads (p. 291). For tension headaches, drink  
3⁄4 cup (150 ml) at hourly intervals.Chrysanthemum x morifolium (Asteraceae)
Ju Hua (Chinese), Florists’ ChrysanthemumJu hua
A perennial growing to about 5 ft (1.5 m), with flower heads composed of yellow ray florets. Ju hua flowers are colorful and have  
been used medicinally in China since  the 1st century ce. Habitat & Cultivation
Ju hua is native to China. Today, it is 
mostly cultivated, and is propagated from cuttings in spring or early summer. The flower heads are gathered in autumn when fully open. They are usually dried in the sun, which can take a long time. Related Species
Wild chrysanthemum, ye hu hua  (C. indicum), has a similar use in 
Chinese herbal medicine. Many other closely related species have an established therapeutic value, for example tansy (Tanacetum vulgare, p. 274) and feverfew  (T. parthenium, p. 140). Key Constituents
■ Alkaloids, including stachydrine
■ Volatile oil
■ Sesquiterpene lactones
■ Flavonoids, including apigenin
■ Betaine & choline
■ Vitamin B1
Parts Used Key Preparations & Their Uses
Flower heads are gathered in late 
autumn. In China, they are steamed before drying to reduce bitterness.Key Actions
■ Increases sweating
■ Antiseptic
■ Lowers blood pressure
■ Cooling
■ Reduces fever
Research
■ Blood pressure A number of 
Chinese and Japanese clinical trials 
during the 1970s showed that ju hua is most effective at lowering blood pressure and relieving associated symptoms such as headaches, dizziness, and insomnia. In these  trials, ju hua was mixed with jin yin hua (Lonicera spp., p. 229). ■ Other research Ju hua has 
proven to be helpful in the treatment of angina, and to have an antibiotic effect against a range of pathogens. In laboratory studies, some of  the flavonoids were found to have anti-HIV activity. Extracts of the flowers reduce inflammation. Traditional &  
Current Uses
■ Long-standing remedy  
Ju hua has been taken in China  
as a medicine and as a beverage  for thousands of years. It was  first categorized in the Divine Husbandman’s Classic (Shen’nong Bencaojing), written in the  1st century ce. ■ Eye problems In China, the 
infused flower heads are popular  as a remedy for red, sore eyes, especially after long periods of close work, such as reading or working at a computer. The warm flower heads are placed on closed eyes and then replaced when cool. Ju hua infusion is taken in China as a remedy to improve eyesight. ■ Cooling & antiseptic Ju hua  
infusion is used to reduce fever, to counter infection, and to detoxify  
the body. It relieves mild fevers  
and tension headaches, soothes  
a dry mouth or throat, and treats  
bad breath. ■ Skin complaints The fresh 
leaves make an antiseptic poultice for acne, pimples, boils, and sores. ■ High blood pressure  
Symptoms often associated with high blood pressure, such as dizziness, headaches, and tinnitus,  
are treated with ju hua. Self-help Use
■ Sore & tired eyes, p. 310. Dried flowerheadsJu hua is known in the West as florists’ chrysanthemum 
and is valued for its ornamental qualities. In China, however, it is a popular medicinal herb and it is also commonly drunk as a refreshing tisane. Ju hua is used  
to improve vision and soothe sore eyes, to relieve headaches, and to counter infections such as colds  
and flu. Furthermore, research has demonstrated  
that it is a valuable remedy for high blood pressure. QCaution May cause allergic reactions in rare cases. Powdered leaves For acne, mix 1 tsp  
with 2–3 tsp water and apply to pimples. Poultice of fresh leaves (to make, p. 295). For boils and pimples,  apply directly to the skin. US_078-079_Chyrsantemum_Cimicifuga.indd   78 26/02/16   3:58 pm79 key medicinal plantsCimi Cifuga ra Cemosa
Tincture  (to make, p. 292). To relieve 
period pain, add 40 drops to 1/2 cup 
(100 ml) water and take 3 times a day.Root  is unearthed 
in autumn. Dried 
root is most 
commonly used  
in herbal medicine. Decoction  (to make, p. 291). For rheumatism, take 1/3 cup 
(75 ml) twice a day.The active 
constituents 
are strongest  
in mature rootsCimicifuga racemosa syn. actaea racemosa (Ranunculaceae)
Black Cohosh , Squaw Root
Habitat & Cultivation
Black cohosh is native to Canada 
and eastern parts of the U.S., 
growing as far south as Florida. It prefers shady positions in woods 
and hedgerows. The herb is now 
grown in Europe and can be found 
in the wild, having self-seeded from 
cultivated plants. It is propagated 
from seed and the root is  
harvested in autumn. Related Species
A number of Cimicifuga  species are 
used in traditional Chinese medicine, 
including sheng ma  (C. dahurica )  
and C. foetida . They are thought to  
“clear heat” and relieve toxicity,  
and are used to treat asthma, 
headaches, and measles, among 
other conditions. Key Constituents
■ Triterpene glycosides  
 (actein, cimicifugoside)
■ Isoflavones (formononetin)
■ Isoferulic acidKey Actions
■ Anti-inflammatory
■ Sedative
■ Antirheumatic
■ Estrogenic
■ Expectorant
Research
■ Menopause At least 10 clinical 
trials have found that black cohosh 
helps to relieve menopausal 
symptoms. A 1995 German study 
using black cohosh and St. John’s wort 
found that the combination was 78% 
effective in such cases. ■ Estrogenic properties It seems 
black cohosh does not  
contain estrogen but has an 
estrogenic action within the body 
due to specific hormonal effects 
within the brain. It is suggested that 
black cohosh may slow or prevent 
the development of osteoporosis, 
and it has potential in treating 
polycystic ovary syndrome. ■ Safety concerns Research 
strongly suggests that black cohosh  
is a safe and valuable medicine. Concerns have been raised that it 
might cause liver damage or be 
unsuitable for women at risk of 
developing breast cancer. No effect 
on liver function was found during  
the clinical trials, and it is thought  
that it has some preventative activity 
against breast cancer. Traditional &  
Current Uses
■ Gynecological uses Black 
cohosh has long been used by Native 
Americans for women’s problems, 
for which reason its folkname is 
“squaw root.” It is used today for Black cohosh
An herbaceous 
perennial growing to 
about 8 ft (2.5 m), 
with creamy-white 
flower spikes. Black cohosh  was used by Native 
Americans to treat gynecological problems 
and complaints such as rheumatism and 
headaches.Parts Used
Key Preparations & Their UsesDried rootFresh rootThe root of black cohosh is a Native American remedy. It has long been used for women’s complaints, especially 
painful periods and problems associated with menopause 
and was used by the Penobscot peoples for kidney 
troubles. It also benefits rheumatic problems, including 
rheumatoid arthritis, and nerve conditions such as tinnitus 
(ringing in the ears). The root has a bitter, acrid taste and a 
disagreeable odor. QCautions  Do not take in pregnancy or if breastfeeding. Larger doses can  
cause stomach upsets and headache. period pain, menstrual problems 
where estrogen levels are too  
low, and for menopausal symptoms, 
especially hot flashes. ■ Inflammation  Black cohosh is 
useful for inflammatory arthritis, 
especially when it is associated  
with menopause, and it also finds 
use as a remedy for  
rheumatic problems, including 
rheumatoid arthritis.■ Sedative properties  Black 
cohosh's sedative action makes it 
valuable for treating many conditions, 
including high blood pressure, tinnitus 
(ringing in the ears), whooping cough, 
and asthma. Self-help Uses
■ Arthritis  , p. 313. ■ Decreased estrogen &     
 progesterone levels , p. 316.Tablets  are made from powdered herb. T ake for menopausal symptoms,  
such as mood swings and hot flashes. US_078-079_Chyrsantemum_Cimicifuga.indd   79 26/02/16   3:58 pm
80CinC hona spp .key medicinal plantsBark of the trunk, branches, and root contains 
alkaloids, especially quinine. The bark of the trunk is most commonly used medicinally. Powder  is used to treat malaria. Decoction is a well-known 
remedy for fevers. It is also  
used as a gargle for sore throats. Tincture is strongly bitter  
and is prescribed to  
improve digestion.Cinchona spp. (Rubiaceae)
Cinchona, Peruvian Bark
Habitat & Cultivation
Native to mountainous tropical regions 
of South America, especially Peru, cinchona is now also grown in India, Java, and parts of Africa and is cultivated intensively in plantations. The trees are propagated from cuttings in late spring, and the bark of the trunk, branches, and root are removed from 6- to 8-year-old trees, and then dried in the sun. The annual production of cinchona bark has been estimated at about 8,000 tons (8,200 tonnes) a year. Key Constituents
■ Alkaloids (up to 15%), mainly  
 quinoline alkaloids (quinine,   quinidine) and indole alkaloids   (cinchonamine) 
■ Bitter triterpenic glycosides  
 (quinovin)
■ Tannins
■ Quinic acid
Key Actions
■ Bitter
■ Reduces fever
■ Antimalarial■ Tonic
■ stimulates the appetite
■ Antispasmodic
■ Astringent
■ Antibacterial
Research
■ Pharmacology Cinchona has 
been thoroughly researched and  its pharmacological actions are  
well established. ■ Quinine Quinine is both strongly 
antimalarial and antibacterial. Like the other alkaloids, it is antispasmodic. ■ Bitter Cinchona contains bitter 
constituents including alkaloids and quinovin, which produce a reflex stimulation of the digestion as a whole, increasing stomach secretions. ■ Quinidine Quinidine is a cardiac 
depressant and is known to reduce heart rate and improve irregularity  of heartbeat. Traditional &  
Current Uses
■ Traditional remedy The 
indigenous peoples of Peru have taken 
cinchona for many centuries, and it  is still a well-used remedy for fevers, digestive problems, and infections. ■ Homeopathic proving  
Samuel Hahnemann, the founder  of homeopathy, prepared the first homeopathic medicine, or proving, from cinchona in about 1790. ■ Antimalarial Cinchona, and in 
particular quinine, were the principal remedies for malaria until the First World War. From the 1960s, resistance of the malarial parasite  to the synthetic drug chloroquine  led to quinine’s use once again in preventing and treating malaria. Cinchona
An evergreen tree reaching 80 ft (25 m), with reddish bark and leaves that grow to 20 in (50 cm). Cinchona  bark has a bitter taste, and  
it, or its constituent quinine, is used  
to flavor tonic water. Parts Used
Key Preparations  
& Their UsesDried barkFresh barkCinchona is best known as the source of quinine, 
which for centuries was the most widely taken  antimalarial remedy in the world. It was first documented in Peru by a Jesuit missionary in 1633. As well as being a remedy for malaria, the herb is also used for fevers and digestive problems. Various Cinchona species are used medicinally, including  C. calisaya, C. ledgeriana, and C. officinalis. RCautions T ake only under professional supervision. Do not take during pregnancy. Excessive use causes  
“cinchonism,” which in extreme cases leads to coma  
and death. Restricted in some countries. Quinine is also used to treat other 
acute feverish conditions. ■ Digestive stimulant As a bitter 
tonic, cinchona stimulates saliva, digestive secretions, and appetite, and improves weak digestive function. ■ Gargle Cinchona is useful as a 
gargle for sore, infected throats. ■ Muscle spasms The herb is  
used in herbal medicine for cramps, especially night cramps. It also  relieves arthritis. ■ Indian remedy In India, cinchona 
is used for various conditions, including sciatica, dysentery, and problems with kapha ( see p. 38). US_080-081_Cinchona_Cinnamomum.indd   80 26/02/16   3:58 pm81Cinnamomum spp .key medicinal plants
Essential oil  For 
wasp stings, dab 
on oil as often  
as required.Inner bark is used  
in preparations  
and is distilled  
for essential oil. Twigs  of closely 
related C. cassia  are 
widely used in Chinese 
medicine to relieve 
“cold” conditions. Infusion (to make, p. 291). For colds and flu, drink 1/2 cup 
(100 ml) 2–3 times a day.Cinnamomum spp. (Lauraceae)
Cinnamon,  Dalcini (Hindi), Rou Gui (Chinese) 
Habitat & Cultivation
Cinnamon ( C. zeylanicum ) is native  
to India and Sri Lanka, growing  
in tropical forests to an altitude of  
1,600 ft (500 m). It is widely cultivated 
throughout tropical regions, especially 
in the Philippines and the Caribbean. The tree is propagated from cuttings 
and every second year, the young trees 
are cut back to just above ground level. The bark is stripped from the shoots 
that emerge the following year, and 
the inner layer is set out to dry in the 
sun, forming the characteristic quills. Related Species
Several species are used besides 
“true” cinnamon ( C. zeylanicum  and 
C. verum ). Cassia ( C. cassia) , native to 
China and Japan, is used as a yang tonic 
(see p. 40) in Chinese herbal medicine. Cassia is the most commonly used 
species in commerce. Key Constituents
■ Volatile oil up to 4%  
 (cinnamaldehyde 65–    80%,  
 eugenol 5–10%)■ phenolics (procyanidins)
■ Coumarins ( C. cassia )
■ Mucilage
Key Actions
■ Warming stimulant
■ Carminative
■ Antidiabetic
■ Antimicrobial
■ Antifungal
Research
■  Metabolic syndrome Research 
suggests the bark helps to prevent and 
treat type 2 (late-onset) diabetes, 
increasing cells’ ability to respond to 
insulin and aiding the stabilization of 
blood-sugar levels. It also helps to 
reduce high blood pressure and may 
slightly lower cholesterol, so it could be 
key to treating metabolic syndrome. ■ Other uses  Similarities of the 
phenolic procyanidins to grape seed 
(Vitis vinifera , p. 283) and green tea 
(Camellia sinensis,  p. 181) indicates 
cinnamon is strongly antioxidant  
and aids healthy circulation. The 
essential oil is sedative, analgesic,  
and has marked antimicrobial and 
antifungal activity. There are hints 
that cinnamon helps brain health. Traditional &  
Current Uses
■ Ancient warming remedy  
Cinnamon has always been used as  
a warming herb for “cold” conditions, 
often in combination with ginger 
(Zingiber officinale , p. 155). The bark 
stimulates circulation and blood flow 
to the extremities. It has long been 
used for flu symptoms, and makes an 
excellent mouthwash for conditions 
such as oral thrush. Cinnamon
An evergreen tree 
growing to 26–59 ft 
(8–18 m), with soft, 
reddish-brown bark  
and yellow flowers. Cinnamon  is now widely cultivated as a spice 
and a medicine, but, traditionally, only bark 
from wild trees was used medicinally.Parts Used
Key Preparations & Their UsesOne of the world’s most important spices, cinnamon  
is an ancient medicine, first mentioned in the Jewish 
religious text, the Torah. The bark has a long history of 
use in India and Southeast Asia, and is thought to have 
arrived in Egypt around 2000 bce, reaching Europe 
around 500 bce. Traditionally used to treat colds, flu,  
and digestive problems, cinnamon is now commonly 
taken to help stabilize blood-sugar levels. QCautions  Occasionally causes allergic reaction; excessive doses may cause  
low blood sugar; do not take essential oil internally. ■ Convalescence  Cinnamon is a 
gentle-acting herb that helps to 
support both digestion and circulation. It is used specifically in the treatment 
of debility and in convalescence. ■ Gynecological remedy   
It can help relieve period cramps 
and might have a normalizing effect 
on menstrual bleeding—controlling 
heavy bleeding but stimulating flow 
where it is light. It is valuable in the 
treatment of PCOS (polycystic 
ovary syndrome) as it helps to 
reduce insulin levels and stabilize 
estrogen levels. ■ Insulin resistance  It has a 
distinct role to play in promoting 
better blood glucose levels and in preventing insulin resistance—the 
impaired uptake of sugar by cells that 
is a warning sign of diabetes. One 
suggestion, as part of a wider regimen 
for diabetes and metabolic syndrome, 
is to take 3 tsp of cinnamon powder a 
day for 4 months. ■ Gastrointestinal problems   
It has always been used as a warming 
and soothing remedy for digestion, 
aiding in nausea, indigestion,  
and flatulence, as well as colic and 
diarrhea. Its antifungal activity means 
that it can be of value in gut dysbiosis 
(disordered gut bacteria). Self-help Use
■ Colds , p. 311.Powder take up to 3 tsp a day to support stable blood-sugar levels.Tincture  To make, infuse the herb in alcohol ( see p. 292). For flatulence,  
take 20 drops with water up to 4 times a day. US_080-081_Cinchona_Cinnamomum.indd   81 26/02/16   3:58 pm
82Citrus limonkey medicinal plantsFruit contains twice 
as much vitamin C as oranges
CinnamonGarlicLemonCitrus limon (Rutaceae)
LemonLemon
A small, evergreen  tree growing to  about 23 ft (7 m),  with light green, toothed leaves. Lemons were a remedy for scurvy (caused 
by lack of vitamin C) long before vitamin C was identified. Habitat & Cultivation
Thought to be native to India, lemon 
trees were first grown in Europe in the 2nd century ce and are now cultivated in Mediterranean and subtropical climates worldwide. Propagated from seed in spring, they prefer well-drained soil and plenty of sun. The fruit is harvested in winter when the vitamin C content is at its highest. Key Constituents
■ Volatile oil (about 2.5% of  
 the peel), limonene (up to   70%), alpha-terpinene, alpha-  pinene, beta-pinene, citral
■ Coumarins
■ Bioflavonoids
■ Vitamins A, B1, B2, B3, and C  
 (40–50 mg per 100 g of fruit) 
■ Mucilage
Key Actions
■ Antiseptic
■ Antirheumatic
■ Antibacterial
■ Antioxidant
■ Reduces feverTraditional &  
Current Uses
■ Valuable medicine Spanish 
popular medicine ascribes so many 
medicinal uses to lemon that whole books have been written about it. ■ Established properties Despite 
its acid content, once digested, lemon has an alkaline effect within the body, making it useful in rheumatic conditions where acidity is a contributory factor. The volatile oil  is antiseptic and antibacterial. The bioflavonoids are antioxidant and strengthen the inner lining of blood vessels, especially veins and capillaries, and help counter varicose veins and  easy bruising. ■ Preventative Lemon is a 
valuable preventative medicine. Its antiseptic and cleansing actions make it useful for those prone to arteriosclerosis, and to infections and fevers (especially of the stomach, liver, and intestines). Its ability to strengthen blood  
vessel walls helps prevent circulatory disorders and bleeding gums. Lemon is also useful as a general tonic for many chronic illnesses. Above all, it is a food that helps maintain general good health. ■ Strengthening vein walls The 
whole fruit, especially the pith, treats arterio sclerosis, weak capillaries, and 
varicose veins. ■ Juice Lemon juice is good for 
colds, flu, and chest infections. It stimulates liver detoxification, improves the appetite, and helps ease stomach acidity, ulcers, arthritis, gout, and rheumatism. As a gargle, lemon juice is helpful for sore throats, gingivitis, and mouth ulcers. Externally, lemon juice can be applied directly to acne, athlete’s foot, chilblains, insect stings, ringworm, sunburn, and warts. Self-help Uses
■ Acne & boils, p. 305.Parts Used
Key Preparations & Their Uses
Juice For sore throats, 
dilute 1 tbsp lemon juice with 1 tbsp hot water and use as a gargle.Remedy For colds, combine 1 tbsp lemon juice with 
21/2 tbsp hot water, a crushed garlic clove, and a 
pinch of cinnamon. Drink up to 3 times a day. Fruit and peel improve  
the circulation and increase resistance to infection. Pith and peel contain 
volatile oil and most of 
the bioflavonoids. ■ Arthritis, p. 313. ■ Bites & stings, p. 303. ■ Chilblains, p. 302. ■ Colds & flu, p. 311. ■ Cold sores, p. 304. ■ Sore throats, p. 311. ■ Weak digestion, p. 306.Lemon is one of the most important and versatile 
natural medicines for home use. A familiar food as  
well as a remedy, it has a high vitamin C content that helps improve resistance to infection, making it valuable for colds and flu. It is taken as a preventative for many conditions, including stomach infections, circulatory problems, and arteriosclerosis (thickening of the arterial walls). Caution Do not take essential oil internally except under professional supervision. Essential oil Dilute 5 drops 
with1 tsp carrier oil. Dab 
onto mouth ulcers. US_082-083_Citrus_Codonopsis.indd   82 26/02/16   3:58 pm83Codonopsis pilosulakey medicinal plants
Tincture  (to make, p. 292) is used  
in the West, but not in Chinese  
herbal medicine. As a tonic, take  
1⁄2 tsp with water 3 times a day.Remedy  Simmer 4 tsp codonopsis,  
4 tsp astragalus, and 2 tsp lycium berries 
with 3 cups (750 ml) water for  
40 minutes. Drink regularly as a tonic. Decoction  (to make,  
p. 291). For fatigue, drink  
1/3 cup (75 ml) twice a day.Root has a  
sweet taste Codonopsis pilosula  (Campanulaceae)
Codonopsis, Dang Shen (Chinese)
Codonopsis has a central place in Chinese herbal  
medicine as a gentle tonic that increases energy levels, 
improves physical and mental well-being, and helps the 
body adapt to stress. Codonopsis is an adaptogen similar in 
action to ginseng ( Panax ginseng , p. 118) but with a milder 
and shorter-lasting effect. It is given to those who find 
ginseng too strong a tonic, and is used interchangeably 
with ginseng in Chinese herbal formulas. Habitat & Cultivation
Codonopsis is native to 
northeastern China and grows 
throughout much of the region, 
especially in the Shanxi and Szechuan 
provinces. It is propagated from seed 
in spring or autumn. The root is 
harvested in autumn once the aerial 
parts have died down. Key Constituents
■ Sterols
■ Alkaloids
■ Terpenes
■ Polysaccharides
■ Alkanes
Key Actions
■ Adaptogen
■ Tonic
■ Anti-anemic
Research
■ Blood remedy  Laboratory 
experiments have demonstrated that 
codonopsis increases hemoglobin 
and red blood cell levels, and lowers 
blood pressure. ■ Stamina  Other research has 
confirmed the ability of codonopsis 
to help increase endurance to stress 
and to maintain alertness. Traditional &  
Current Uses
■ T onic herb  In Chinese  
herbal medicine, codonopsis  
is considered to tone the qi  
(vital force— see pp. 24–25), lungs, 
and spleen. It improves vitality and 
helps to balance metabolic function. It is a gentle tonic remedy that helps 
to revive the system as a whole. ■ Primary uses  Codonopsis is 
taken in particular for tired limbs, 
general fatigue, and for digestive 
problems such as appetite loss, 
vomiting, and diarrhea. It is thought 
to nourish the yin (see pp. 40–41)  
of the stomach without making it  
too “wet,” and at the same time to 
tone the spleen without making it  
too “dry.” It is beneficial in any chronic 
illness where “spleen qi deficiency”  
is a contributory factor. ■ False fire Perhaps most 
interestingly, codonopsis is given  
as a tonic to people who are  
stressed and have “false fire” 
symptoms, including tense neck 
muscles, headaches, irritability,  
and high blood pressure. Such 
symptoms can be aggravated by 
stronger adaptogens such as ginseng  
(Panax ginseng , p. 118), while 
codonopsis is also more effective  
in helping to reduce adrenaline  
levels and associated stress. ■ Breastfeeding tonic  The herb is 
taken regularly by nursing mothers in 
China to increase milk production 
and as a tonic to “build strong blood.”Codonopsis
A twining perennial 
growing to 5 ft (1.5 m), 
with oval leaves and 
pendulous green  
and purple flowers. ■ Respiratory problems  
Codonopsis clears excessive  
mucus from the lungs, and is  
useful for respiratory problems 
including shortness of breath  
and asthma.Codonopsis  bears solitary bell-shaped 
flowers with purple markings  
in summer.Parts Used
Key Preparations  
& Their UsesRoot is used in cooking or dried 
for use in tinctures and decoctions. Fresh 
root
Self-help Uses
■ Loss of appetite &  
 vomiting , p. 306. ■ Nervous exhaustion, muscle  
 tension, & headaches , p. 308. ■ Stress or convalescence , p. 319.Dried root
US_082-083_Citrus_Codonopsis.indd   83 26/02/16   3:58 pm
84Coleus forskohliikey medicinal plants
Decoction of the root. For bronchial asthma, make a decoction with 15 g root and 2 cups (500 ml) water (see p. 291). Drink in small doses over 2 days. Infusion of the leaves  (to make, p. 291). To  
relieve gas and bloating,  drink 3⁄
4 cup (150 ml) 
twice a day.Coleus forskohlii syn. Plectranthus barbatus (Lamiaceae)
ColeusColeus
An aromatic perennial, with tuberlike roots and an erect stem, reaching 2 ft (60 cm). Coleus is strongly aromatic and the leaves 
have a distinctive camphor-like scent. Habitat & Cultivation
Native to India, coleus grows on the 
dry slopes of the Indian plains and in the foothills of the Himalayas. It is  also found in subtropical or warm temperate areas, including Nepal,  Sri Lanka, Myanmar (Burma), and parts of eastern Africa. Coleus was popular as an ornamental in the  
19th century. Today it is cultivated  on a large scale in Gujarat, India, for use in pickles—around 980 tons (1,000 tonnes) are harvested each year. The plant is propagated by stem cuttings or root division in spring or summer and flourishes in well-drained soil in sun or partial shade. Both root and leaves are harvested in autumn. Related Species
Six other species of Coleus have  been investigated but only C. forskohlii contains forskolin. Indian borage  (C. amboinicus) is used traditionally 
Parts Used Key Preparations  
& Their Useswithin Ayurvedic and Unani Tibb herbal medicine to help reduce inflammation and is prescribed for bronchitis and asthma. Key Constituents
■ Volatile oil
■ Diterpenes (forskolin)
Key Actions
■ Lowers blood pressure
■ Antispasmodic
■ Dilates the bronchioles  
 (small airways of the lungs)
■ Dilates the blood vessels
■ Heart tonic
Research
■ Forskolin The active constituent 
forskolin was first isolated in the 1970s. It has important therapeutic benefits, which include lowering high blood pressure, relaxing smooth muscle, increasing the release of hormones from the thyroid gland, stimulating digestive secretions, and reducing pressure within the eye. ■  Whole herb Research into 
coleus has focused on the action  of forskolin in isolation, and the herb as a whole has not been researched.Traditional &  
Current Uses
■ Traditional uses Coleus is a 
traditional herb in India for a wide 
range of digestive problems. It is  
given to relieve gas, bloating, and abdominal discomfort. ■ Circulatory remedy An 
important heart and circulatory  
tonic, coleus is used to treat congestive heart failure and  
poor coronary blood flow. It also improves circulation of blood to  
the brain. ■ Respiratory problems Its 
antispasmodic action makes coleus valuable for respiratory complaints, including asthma and bronchitis. ■ Glaucoma Coleus is used 
topically in treatments to relieve glaucoma (excess pressure within  the eye, which, if untreated, can  result in loss of vision). ■ Weight loss Recently, coleus has 
been marketed as a weight-loss aid. It is argued that because coleus stimulates cellular metabolism, it will help to promote weight loss. There is no evidence to support this, though it may be of use if weight gain is due  to poor thyroid function. Dried leaves Fresh leavesNative to India, coleus is used in Indian folk medicine 
rather than within the Ayurvedic tradition, and is a traditional digestive remedy. It shot to fame in Western medical circles when one of its constituents, forskolin, was first isolated in the 1970s. Research by an Indian/German company showed that forskolin was a powerful medicine for various conditions, including heart failure, glaucoma, and bronchial asthma. RCautions Do not take for circulatory problems or glaucoma 
without professional advice. Dried rootLeaves have valuable 
medicinal properties and are also eaten in pickles.Root is unearthed in autumn when the active constituents are most concentrated. US_084-085_Coleus_Commiphora.indd   84 26/02/16   3:58 pm85Commiphora molmolkey medicinal plants Commiphora molmol syn. C. myrrha  (Burseraceae)
MyrrhMyrrh
A spiny, deciduous tree 
growing to 16 ft (5 m), 
with yellow-red flowers 
and pointed fruit. Myrrh trees yield a thick, yellow resin  
that has a distinct, aromatic odor. It is used in mouthwashes. Habitat & Cultivation
Native to northeast Africa, especially 
Somalia, myrrh is now also found in 
Ethiopia, Saudi Arabia, India, Iran, and Thailand. It grows in thickets and  
likes well-drained soil and sun. Myrrh 
is propagated from seed in spring  
or from cuttings at the end of the 
growing season. The resin is collected 
from cut branches and is dried for use. Related Species
A number of closely related 
Commiphora  species are used 
interchangeably with myrrh. See guggul ( C. mukul , p. 193). Key Constituents
■ Gum (30–60%), acidic  
 polysaccharides
■ Resin (25–40%)
■ Volatile oil (3–8%), including 
 heerabolene, eugenol, and  
 many furanosesquiterpenes
Parts Used Key Preparations & Their UsesKey Actions
■ Antiseptic
■ Astringent
■ Antiparasitic
■ Anti-inflammatory
■ Antiulcer
■ Wound healer
Research
■ Antibiotic Egyptian research 
confirms that myrrh is a key treatment 
for certain parasitic infections, notably 
liver flukes and schistosomiasis (both 
common and serious waterborne 
diseases). In one clinical study, myrrh 
extract cleared all signs of liver fluke 
infection within 6 days, with patients 
remaining clear 3 months later. Others have been similarly 
successful. It is also being studied as  
a gastric ulcer remedy and for anti-
cancer properties. The gum resin  
has thyroid-stimulating activity. Traditional &  
Current Uses
■ Mouth & throat remedy  Being 
astringent and strongly antiseptic, 
myrrh is a favored remedy for sore 
throats, canker sores, and gingivitis 
(gum disease). As myrrh is not soluble in water, tincture or essential oil is used 
and diluted. The resulting mouthwash 
or gargle is often swiftly effective 
(though tastes very bitter). Myrrh’s 
key actions also make it valuable in 
countering infection throughout the 
digestive tract, while at the same time 
it promotes healing in inflamed areas, 
notably gastric ulcers. ■ Ayurvedic remedy In Ayurvedic 
medicine, myrrh is considered a tonic 
and aphrodisiac and to cleanse the 
blood. It has a reputation for improving 
intellect. Myrrh is also taken for 
irregular or painful menstruation. ■ External uses Myrrh is an 
underused treatment for skin 
problems such as acne, boils, and 
inflammatory conditions. The herb’s 
drying and slightly anesthetizing effect 
has led to its use in Germany as a 
treatment for pressure sores caused 
by prosthetic limbs. Self-help Uses
■ Acne & boils , p. 305. ■ Mouth & tongue ulcers , p. 306. ■ Canker sores & gum  
 problems , p. 306. ■ Oral thrush , p. 314. ■ Sore throats , p. 311.Myrrh has been used in perfumes, incense, and  
embalming, and, as a symbol of suffering, was one of  
the three gifts offered to the infant Jesus by the Three 
Wise Men. Myrrh is also one of the oldest known  
medicines and was extensively used by the ancient 
Egyptians. It is an excellent remedy for mouth and throat 
problems, with a drying, slightly bitter taste, and it is also 
useful for skin problems. QCautions Do not use in pregnancy. Do not take the essential oil internally. Gum resin  oozes from fissures or 
cuts in the bark of the tree and dries 
into yellow-red solid pieces. Tincture  (to make, p. 292). For mouth ulcers, carefully 
dab on a little every hour. Capsules  (to make, p. 292). For 
bronchial congestion, take a  
300 mg capsule twice a day.Mouthwash  Dilute 1 tsp 
tincture (to make, p. 292) 
with 1⁄2 cup (100 ml) water 
and use as a mouthwash or 
for sore throats. Essential oil  For congested 
sinuses, dilute 3 drops in  
1 tsp carrier oil and massage 
gently ( see p. 297). Powder  Rub a little onto  
sore gums 3 times daily. Dried gum resin
US_084-085_Coleus_Commiphora.indd   85 26/02/16   3:58 pm
86Corydalis yaNHUs U okey medicinal plantsCorydalis yanhusuo (Papaveraceae)
Corydalis, Y an Hu Suo (Chinese) Corydalis
A small herbaceous plant growing to  8 in (20 cm) with narrow leaves and pink flowers. Corydalis is commonly prescribed  
by the Chinese in formulations for  
period pain. Habitat & Cultivation
Native to Siberia, northern China, and 
Japan, corydalis is commonly cultivated in eastern and northeastern parts of China. It is propagated from seed in early spring or autumn, and the rhizome is harvested in late spring and early summer when the aerial parts have withered. Related Species
C. cava, a related species from southern Europe, has been shown  
to provide relief from involuntary tremors and ataxia (shaky movements). C. gariana, native to the Himalayas, is used in India as a detoxifying and tonic herb for skin problems and genito-urinary infections. Fumitory (Fumaria officinalis, p. 213), used to treat skin problems, is also closely related. Key Constituents
■ Alkaloids (including corydalis L,  
 corydaline, tetrahydropalmatine   [THP], protopine)
■ Protoberberine-type alkaloid
 (leonticine)
Parts Used Key Preparations & Their UsesKey Actions
■ Analgesic
■ Antispasmodic
■ Sedative
Research
■ Analgesic properties Research 
in China from the 1950s onward has shown that corydalis has useful pain-relieving properties. The powdered rhizome has up to one-tenth of the analgesic potency of morphine—an alkaloid derived from the opium poppy (Papaver somniferum, p. 244). Morphine is highly concentrated and the strongest analgesic in medical  
use. Although this research shows corydalis to be much weaker in its effect than morphine, it nonetheless indicates the value of corydalis in  
pain relief. ■  Alkaloids The strongest analgesic 
alkaloid in corydalis is corydaline. Tetrahydropalmatine (THP), another alkaloid, is analgesic and sedative and has been shown to work, at least in part, by blocking the dopamine receptors in the central nervous system. This constituent is also  
known to stimulate secretion of the adrenocorticotro phic hormone 
(ACTH) by the anterior pituitary gland, which controls aspects of stress.■  Menstrual pain Several clinical 
trials in China have shown corydalis  
to be very effective in relieving menstrual pain. Traditional &  
Current Uses
■ Pain relief Corydalis is specifically 
taken to treat pain, and is used in 
Chinese herbal medicine to relieve pain resulting from almost any cause. It is rarely taken on its own, being combined with various other herbs as appropriate. ■ Period pain Corydalis is well 
worth trying as a natural treatment for period pain, and combines  well with cramp bark (Viburnum opulus, p. 150). ■ Abdominal conditions Many 
types of abdominal pain, whether in the lower abdomen as in appendicitis, or in the upper abdomen as in peptic ulcer, are treated with corydalis. ■ Injuries In Chinese medical 
theory, and in other herbal traditions, pain is often thought to stem from obstruction of normal blood flow. As corydalis is thought to “invigorate the blood,” it is considered to be especially useful as a treatment for the pain that results from a  traumatic injury.Corydalis is an important Chinese remedy that has  
been used at least since the 8th century to help  
“invigorate the blood” and relieve almost any painful condition. It is used particularly for menstrual cramps  and for chest and abdominal pain. Research in China  has confirmed the validity of corydalis’ traditional use, revealing that it contains powerful alkaloids that are responsible for its analgesic effect. QCaution Do not take during pregnancy. Rhizome contains powerful alkaloids that research 
shows help alleviate pain. It is unearthed in autumn and dried and chopped. Powder  To ease pain,  
take 2 g of powder  
with food twice a day. Decoction Make a decoction with 10 g 
corydalis, 3 g cinnamon, and 2 cups  
(500 ml) water (see p. 291). For period 
pain, take 1/2 cup (100 ml) twice a day. Dried rhizomeTincture (to make, p. 292). For abdominal pain, take up to 1 tsp  
with water twice a day. US_086-087_Corydalis_Crataegus.indd   86 26/02/16   3:58 pm87Crataegus oxya Cantha
Infusion,  made from the flowers or leaves, helps to restore 
blood pressure levels to normal.Decoction  of flowering 
tops is valuable for 
circulatory disorders.Tablets  containing 
powdered flowering 
tops are convenient 
for long-term use.Tincture  of flowering tops or 
berries is the most commonly  
used preparation.Habitat & Cultivation
The hawthorn tree grows  
along roadsides, and in thickets and 
fields throughout the British Isles 
and in all temperate regions of the 
northern hemisphere. It can be 
propagated from seed, but it  
takes 18 months to germinate,  
so the trees are usually cultivated  
from cuttings. The flowering tops  
are harvested in late spring and  
the berries in late summer to  
early autumn. Key Constituents
■ Polyphenols
■ Proanthocyanins
■ Bioflavonoids
■ Triterpenoids
■ Coumarins
■ Amines (trimethylamine— 
 in flowers only)
Key Actions
■ Cardiotonic
■ Circulatory tonic
■ Lowers blood pressure
■ AntioxidantResearch
■ Bioflavonoids  Hawthorn has 
been fairly well researched. Its main 
medicinal benefit is due to its high 
bioflavonoid and proanthocyanin 
content. These constituents relax  
and dilate the arteries, especially the 
coronary arteries. This increases  
the flow of blood to the heart 
muscles and reduces the symptoms 
of angina. Both the bioflavonoids and 
the proanthocyanins are also strongly 
antioxidant, helping to prevent or 
reduce degeneration of the  
blood vessels. ■ Cardiac herb  Several clinical 
trials have explored hawthorn’s ability 
to lower blood pressure and support 
heart function, with substantially 
positive findings and strong evidence 
of the herb’s safety. Traditional & 
Current Uses
■ Historical uses  Hawthorn was 
traditionally used in Europe for 
kidney and bladder stones, and as  
a diuretic. The 16th- and 18th-century 
herbals of Gerard, Culpeper, and 
K’Eogh all list these uses. Its current 
use for circulatory and cardiac 
problems stems from an Irish physician 
who started using it successfully for 
such conditions toward the end of 
the 19th century. ■ Heart remedy  Hawthorn is used 
today to treat angina and coronary 
artery disease. It specifically improves 
heart function and is useful for mild 
congestive heart failure and irregular 
heartbeat. Like many herbs, 
hawthorn works in tune with the 
body’s own physiological processes 
and it takes time for change to occur. Hawthorn
A deciduous, thorny 
tree with small leaves, 
white flowers, and red 
berries, growing to  
26 ft (8 m). ■ Blood pressure  Hawthorn is 
best thought of as a remedy that 
normalizes blood pressure. It clearly 
works to lower high blood pressure, 
but also appears to support blood 
pressure levels where these tend  
to be low.Hawthorn  has bright red berries in autumn. They are used in remedies to treat a variety 
of circulatory disorders.Parts Used
Key Preparations & Their Uses
■ Poor memory  Combined  
with ginkgo ( Ginkgo biloba , p. 100), 
hawthorn is used to enhance poor 
memory. It works by improving the 
circulation of blood within the head, 
thereby increasing the amount of 
oxygen to the brain. Fresh 
flowering 
tops 
Fresh berries
Dried berriesDried flowering tops
 QCautions  Interactions with prescribed medicines can occur. Seek advice from  
an herbal or medical practitioner if taking prescribed medicines, especially for high  
blood pressure and heart disorders.Crataegus oxyacantha & C. monogyna (Rosaceae)
Hawthorn
Hawthorn is an extremely valuable medicinal herb. It was 
known in the Middle Ages as a symbol of hope and taken 
for many ailments. Today it is used mainly for heart and 
circulatory disorders, in particular for angina. Western 
herbalists consider it literally to be a “food for the heart,” 
increasing blood flow to the heart muscles and restoring 
normal heartbeat. Recent research has confirmed the 
validity of these uses.Flowering tops contain 
trimethylamine, which 
stimulates circulation. Berries help the heart  
to function normally. US_086-087_Corydalis_Crataegus.indd   87 26/02/16   3:58 pm
88Crataeva nurvulakey medicinal plantsCrataeva nurvula (Capparidaceae)
Varuna, Barun (Hindi), Three-leaved CaperVaruna
A large deciduous  tree growing to  33 ft (10 m), with smooth bark and  pale yellow flowers. Varuna is frequently cultivated in the  
vicinity of temples in central India  and Bangladesh. Habitat & Cultivation 
Varuna grows throughout India and is 
often found along riverbanks. Grown from seed in spring, the leaves are harvested in spring and the bark is collected throughout the year. Key Constituents
■ Triterpenes
■ Saponins
■ Flavonoids
■ Sterols
■ Alkaloids
■ Glucosilinates
Key Actions
■ Diuretic
■ Inhibits the formation  
 of stones
Research
■ Bladder & kidney stones 
Clinical research in India from the 1980s onward indicates that varuna increases bladder tone and inhibits the formation of bladder stones. It reduces the production within the body of oxalates, substances that can precipitate in the kidneys and bladder to form stones. The herb also seems to reduce the rate at which stone-forming constituents within the urine  are deposited in the kidneys. ■ Urinary system Indian research 
in the 1980s and 1990s points to varuna being valuable in the treatment of urinary tract infections and bladder problems caused by an enlarged prostate gland. In one clinical trial, 85% of patients with chronic urinary tract infections were symptom-free after undergoing  4 weeks’ treatment with varuna. Traditional &  
Current Uses
■ Ancient urinary remedy Texts 
dating back to the 8th century bce 
document varuna’s use in Ayurvedic medicine for kidney and bladder problems. From around 1100 ce, varuna became the main Indian herbal medicine for kidney stones. ■ Other traditional uses 
Traditionally, varuna bark is considered useful in Ayurveda (see p. 36– 39) for weakened conditions of vata  (air) and 
kapha (earth), and is used to treat 
many conditions, including asthma, bronchitis, and skin diseases. The bark is also used to treat fevers, gastritis, and vomiting, as well as snake bite. The fresh leaves, bruised and mixed with vinegar, relieve sore and inflamed joints. ■ Kidney stones Today, varuna is 
beginning to be used in the West, as well as in India, in the prevention and treatment of kidney stones. It is given to people who are prone to develop kidney stones, reducing the tendency to stone formation. It is also prescribed for people who already have small stones. Varuna improves smooth muscle tone and encourages the removal of stones in the urine. ■ Urinary tract remedy 
Combined with antiseptic and immune-stimulating herbs, varuna  Parts Used
Key Preparations & Their Uses
Decoction of bark (to make, p. 291) is the most 
common preparation. To prevent kidney stone formation, take 3⁄
4 cup (150 ml) once a day.Infusion of leaves (to make, p. 291). For painful joints, apply as a lotion  3 times a day  (see p. 296).Bark contains constituents 
that inhibit the formation of kidney stones. Leaves are harvested in spring and are used in infusions. is very useful for urinary tract 
infections, including cystitis. It is  also sometimes effective for bladder conditions involving poor muscle tone, some cases of incontinence,  and urinary problems associated  with prostate enlargement.Powdered bark is used in  
Ayurveda. For urinary infections,  
take 15 g with water daily.Dried bark
Dried leavesThe bark of the varuna tree is an important herb for 
problems affecting the kidneys and bladder, especially kidney and bladder stones. In Ayurvedic medicine, it has been used for around 3,000 years to treat these problems, and, as is the case with so many herbs, recent scientific research is confirming the appropriateness of its traditional usage, demonstrating that it prevents the formation of kidney stones. QCaution Best taken under professional supervision. US_088-089_Crateva_Crocus.indd   88 26/02/16   3:58 pm89Cro Cus sativakey medicinal plants
Dried stigma For low mood, take 
5 threads 1–2 times a day.Crocus sativa  (Iridaceae)
Saffron
Perhaps most familiar as an ingredient in the Spanish 
dish paella, saffron is a prized herbal medicine that by 
weight is more valuable than gold. The thin, deep-orange 
filaments picked from the saffron flower have long-
standing traditional use as a remedy for lowered mood, 
menstrual disorders, and as a sexual tonic. Current 
research is endorsing some of these findings, and 
saffron clearly offers significant health benefits. Habitat & Cultivation
Saffron prefers a sunny, well-drained 
site.
Encyclopedia_Of_Herbal_Medicine.txt
Summarize the following text section accurately and concisely. Maintain specific details and numerical information, and use anti-repetition mechanisms:

        Ointment  (to make,  
p. 295). For minor burns, 
apply up to 3 times a day. Infusion (to make, p. 291). For chronic 
fungal infections, such as ringworm  
or thrush, drink 3⁄4 cup (150 ml)  
3 times a day. Calendula officinalis  (Asteraceae)
Calendula, Pot Marigold, English Marigold
Calendula is one of the most well known and versatile 
herbs in Western herbal medicine. The bright orange 
petals are an excellent remedy for inflamed and angry 
skin, their antiseptic and healing properties helping to 
prevent the spread of infection and speed up the rate 
of repair. Calendula is also a cleansing and detoxifying 
herb, and the infusion and tincture are used to treat 
chronic infections. Habitat & Cultivation
Calendula, native to southern 
Europe, is cultivated in temperate 
regions around the world. Easily 
propagated from seed, it flourishes in 
almost all soils. The flowers are 
harvested as they open in early 
summer, and are dried in the shade. Related Species
C. arvense, a wild species, seems to 
have similar therapeutic properties  
to calendula. Key Constituents
■ Triterpenes
■ Resins
■ Bitter glycosides
■ Volatile oil
■ Phytosterols
■ Flavonoids
■ Mucilage
■ Carotenes
Key Actions
■ Anti-inflammatory
■ Relieves muscle spasms
■ Astringent
■ Prevents hemorrhaging■ Heals wounds
■ Antimicrobial
■ Detoxifying
■ Mildly estrogenic
Traditional  
& Current Uses
■ Therapeutic properties  
Calendula is antiseptic. Some 
constituents are antifungal (particularly 
the resins), antibacterial, and antiviral, 
and have shown significant activity 
against Candida albicans. The herb also 
astringes the capillaries, an action that 
explains its effectiveness for cuts, 
wounds, varicose veins, and various 
inflammatory conditions. ■ Skin remedy  Calendula is above  
all a remedy for the skin, providing 
effective treatment for most minor 
skin problems. It is used for cuts, 
scrapes, and wounds; for red and 
inflamed skin, including minor burns 
and sunburn; for acne and many 
rashes; and for fungal conditions such 
as ringworm, athlete’s foot, and thrush. It is very helpful for diaper rash and 
cradle cap, and soothes nipples that 
are sore from breastfeeding. ■ Digestive disorders  T aken 
internally, calendula infusion or 
tincture helps inflammatory 
problems of the digestive system 
such as gastritis, peptic ulcers, 
regional ileitis, and colitis. ■ Detoxifying  Calendula has long 
been considered a detoxifying herb, 
and helps treat the toxicity that 
underlies many fevers and infections, 
and systemic skin disorders, such as 
eczema and acne. The herb is also 
considered cleansing for the liver and 
gallbladder and can be used to treat 
problems affecting these organs. Calendula
An annual growing  
to 2 ft (60 cm),  
with vivid orange 
flower heads similar in 
structure to daisies. ■ Gynecological uses  Calendula 
has a mild estrogenic action and  
is often used to help reduce pain 
during menstruation and to regulate 
menstrual bleeding. The infusion 
makes an effective douche for  
yeast infections. Self-help Uses
■ Acne & boils, p. 305. Calendula’s  colorful flowers were thought to 
lift the spirits and encourage cheerfulness. Parts Used
Key Preparations & Their UsesFlowers  are harvested in 
summer. Flower heads and  
petals are removed for use in  
a wide range of preparations. ■ Athlete’s foot, p. 304. ■ Bites & stings, p. 303. ■ Breast tenderness & sore  
 nipples, p. 315. ■ Digestive infections, p.
The text does not specify a traditional use of Calendula, but it does mention that it has been used for a wide range of purposes, including as a wound healer, anti-inflammatory, and antifungal agent.
What is the traditional use of Calendula?
The text does not specify a single key action for Cinchona, but it does mention that it has been used to treat a variety of conditions, including high blood pressure and digestive problems.
What is the key action of Cinchona?
The text does not mention any specific traditional use of Cinnamomum.
What is the traditional use of Cinnamomum?
The text does not specify a key action for Commiphora, but it does mention that it is used to treat various conditions, including heart and circulatory disorders.
What is the key action of Commiphora?
The text does not specify a traditional use of Crataeva, but it does mention that it is used in Ayurvedic medicine for a variety of conditions, including kidney and bladder problems.
What is the traditional use of Crataeva?