In approaching the study of the descendants of the Inca culture, it is important to keep in mind a
little of their history and persecution under the Spanish rule. To this day they are bitter against the
white man for the treachery that has been meted out to them on many occasions. Their leader was
seized under treachery. The agreement to free him, if the designated rooms were filled with gold as
high as a man could reach, was broken and their chief killed after the gold was obtained. It is
recorded that some six million of them died in the mines under forced labor and poor foods under
the lash of their Spanish oppressors. In many places they still keep themselves aloof by staying in
the high mountains of the Andes with their flocks of llamas and alpacas. They come down only for
trading. As in the past, they still weave their own garments. Indeed, they provide practically all of
their necessities from the local environment. Their capacity for enduring cold is wonderful. They
can sleep comfortably through the freezing nights with their ponchos wrapped about their heads
and with their legs and feet bare. They wear two types of head cover, one inside the other. Several
individuals are seen in Fig. 85. Many of them have faces that show strong character and
personality. The women of this district wear felt hats which can be turned up or down according to the
weather. Fine examples of weaving were worn by the women. In Fig. 86 will be seen two young men who had just come down from the high mountains to a
government school. The one in the lower photograph is still wearing his native costume. The one in
the upper has discarded his native costume for white man's trousers. Note the fine development of
his chest, the splendid facial development and fine teeth and dental arches. It is important to keep
in mind that these people are living in a rarified atmosphere and that, because of the high altitude,
they need greater lung capacity and stronger hearts than do the people living at sea level. The ratio
of oxygen content is reduced about half at 10,000 feet.7/29/13 Nutrition and Physical Degeneration
gutenberg.net.au/ebooks02/0200251h.html#toc 148/250FIG. 86. The chest development, of necessity, must have
large lung capacity for living in the rare atmosphere of the
high Andes. The boy shown above has a magnificent
physique, including facial and dental arch development. Below is seen the typical clothing worn up among the
snows. Even in frosty weather they are bare below the knees. The broad dental arches of these Indians are shown in Fig. 87. Note the extensive wear of the
teeth at the upper left. Much of the food is eaten cold and dry as parched corn and beans. Such
rough foods as these wear the teeth down. FIG. 87. The superb facial and dental arch development of
these high Andean Indians is shown above. The man at the
upper left was said to be very old yet he climbs the
mountains up into the snows herding the llamas and alpacas. The teeth have a very high state of perfection. Long and
vigorous use has worn the teeth of the old people. Market days which usually occur on Sunday present an interesting scene. The Indians travel
long distances with their wares for exchange. They have no currency and exchanges are made by7/29/13 Nutrition and Physical Degeneration
gutenberg.net.au/ebooks02/0200251h.html#toc 149/250bargaining. Where these Indians have become modernized, the new generation shows typical changes in
facial and dental arch form as reported for the other groups. There is also a marked character
reaction which will be discussed in detail in Chapter 19. In Fig. 88 are shown four typical
modification patterns due to the influence of modernization after the foods of the white man have
displaced the native dietary. FIG. 88. The modernization of the Sierra Indians through the
introduction of foods of modern commerce has produced a
sad wreckage in physique and often character. The boy at
the upper left is a mouth breather because his nostrils are too
small to carry sufficient air. The girl at the upper right has a
badly underdeveloped chin and pinched nostrils. Both boys
below have badly narrowed arches with crowding teeth. An important item in the life of the Andean Indians is the satisfaction they get from chewing
cocoa leaves from which is made our modern cocaine. In order to extract the alkaloid they chew
with these leaves the ash produced by the burning of a particular plant. This drug is chewed as
tobacco, one large quid will last for several hours. Practically every Indian carries in a little pouch a
quantity of these leaves in dried form. The effect of this drug is to increase their capacity for
endurance. It makes them unconscious of hunger and fatigue. Through our interpreter we
frequently asked them regarding the comfort or nourishment they obtained from the leaves and
were told that they often preferred these leaves to food when they were on a journey and carrying
heavy loads. I was informed that they can increase the quantity of the drug used to a point at which
they are quite unconcious of pain and able to endure injuries without suffering, and operations
without discomfort. Since packets of these leaves were found in the burials near the coast, it is
clear that the drugs were used throughout Peru in early times. It is also of interest that several of
the skulls taken from the cave in the high Andes, were found with trephine operations in the skulls
similar to those found in the burials along the coast.7/29/13 Nutrition and Physical Degeneration
gutenberg.net.au/ebooks02/0200251h.html#toc 150/250   The physical perfection and development of the present and past Andean population has been
accomplished in spite of the difficulty of building and maintaining good bodily structure at the high
altitude where dairy products have not been and are not at present a large part of the nutritional
program. In this regard the ancient and contemporary peoples of the Andes differ radically from
the present and past groups of people who live in the high valleys of Switzerland and Tibet where
milk is plentiful. The cow, sheep, horse and pig have been imported into the high Andean countries
during the last four hundred years since the Spanish Conquests, but they have not acclimatized
easily. The earlier cultures were of course, dependent upon the llama, alpaca, wild deer, birds and
guinea pig for animal foods. While there have been vast burial mounds built and preserved in the
coastal regions where the absence of rain and the dry sand have added materially to their
preservation, the rainy seasons have established very different conditions for skeletal preservation
in the high altitudes. Nevertheless, a large number of skeletons in good state of preservation have
been recovered. The high Andean plateau extends throughout the length of Peru between the mountain chains. The present Indian stock was studied in four different places in the high plateau country, the
farthest north being Huaras. In this area we were materially assisted by the governor of the
province who very kindly sent messengers and brought down Indian families from high altitudes to
the police headquarters at Huaras. This place is at an elevation of about 11,000 feet. We had an
opportunity to study also many who had come from the higher altitudes to the markets to sell their
wares. Huaras lies in a fertile valley that has been in contact with modern civilization for many
decades. This vicinity, therefore, provided a wide range in classes of people, from Indians who are
isolated to those who are living in highly modernized groups. In addition to the opportunity for
studying the older people there were opportunities for studying adolescents in the two high
schools, one for girls and one for boys. Some were pure-bloods who had been highly isolated in
their formative and childhood periods. The mixed-bloods had been considerably modernized. There were some whites. I was told by the prefect and others who were well informed that there
was quite a distinct difference between the Indians who were living in the high northern Cordillera,
the western Andean range called the Black Mountains, and those living in the eastern range or
White Mountains. The latter were physically much better built and were least modernized. Typical
low immunity to caries and changes in facial and dental arch form were found in these modernized
groups. Another important area in which the native Indians were studied was Chiclayo. This district is
unique in large part because of the influence of the modern civilization at Lima with which it is
connected by the railroad. The native market here is very large and occupies about a mile of the
main street of the town, through which no traffic except pedestrian traffic can pass while the
market is in session. The town has been under the influence of the Spanish since the time of the
Conquest. It has many colonial buildings and a large cathedral. It has not, however,
accommodations for the influx of tourists who come out of curiosity for the purchase of Indian
wares. With the aid of the prefect, even though no public accommodations were available, we
were made very comfortable in the soldiers' barracks. As the Indians came down from the
mountains to display and sell their wares, they were brought to us at the barracks. Since this
district has been in quite intimate contact with the nutrition of the modernized capital, we found
here many individuals showing typical degeneration of the teeth and dental arches. The adaptation of racial characteristics to the environment in which they have developed is very
strikingly illustrated in the Indian cultures of the Amazon jungle district. We were very fortunate in
being able to make studies of some groups living at present as did their ancestors through countless
centuries in the Amazon basin. We were greatly pleased and impressed with the splendid
physiques and fine personalities of many of the individuals of the groups. The abundance of rain, the fertility of the soil and the warm climate make plant growth most
luxuriant on the eastern slopes of the Andes. It is of interest that in passing from the capital, Lima,
across the desert stretch between the ocean and the mountains and then up the wall of the Andes
to an altitude of sixteen thousand feet and then down to the plateau at about twelve thousand feet7/29/13 Nutrition and Physical Degeneration
gutenberg.net.au/ebooks02/0200251h.html#toc 151/250and up again over the eastern range and down into the Amazon basin, one has passed through the
tropics, temperate zone and sub-arctic zones with varieties of plant life corresponding to each. A
distance of a few hundred yards will often divide the limits of particular birds and flowers. When
one reaches the foothills of the Andes on the eastern side, he is in a region of rushing streams
teeming with fish, a region of tropical fruits and vegetables. It is in this setting that some of the finest
Indians we have seen were enjoying life in its fullness. The type of shelter is very simple, indeed,
consisting as it does of a framework covered with banana and palm leaves. We were privileged to
meet by special arrangement about thirty of this tribe who had been brought from some distance
by the officials of the Perene Colony, owned and operated by the Peruvian Corporation. In Fig. 89 will be seen the chief and one of the noble women of his retinue. They understood that they
would have their pictures taken and came dressed in royal regalia. Typical countenances are seen
in Figs. 90 and 91. These people have very kind faces with broad dental arches, and a high sense
of humor. They decorated their faces especially for their photograph. In the entire group
associated with this chief I did not find a single tooth that had been attacked by dental caries. The
fine dental arches are illustrated in Figs. 90 and 91. Many of these young men had really noble
countenances, such as would rate them as leaders in modern science and culture. FIG. 89. Jungle Indians from the Amazon. This is the chief of
a tribe who came prepared to have their pictures taken in
their tribal regalia. Note the splendid features of both and the
noble carriage of the woman. 7/29/13 Nutrition and Physical Degeneration
gutenberg.net.au/ebooks02/0200251h.html#toc 152/250FIG. 90. The facial and dental arch development of the jungle
Indians was superb and the teeth were excellent and free
from dental caries. Note the complete development of the
dental arches and nostrils. FIG. 91. The excellence of skeletal development of the jungle
Indians as expressed in the faces and dental arches, is
illustrated in these views. Their foods were selected from the
animal life of the streams and the bush together with native
plants. In another tribe, however, of the same racial stock, efforts to modernize had been in operation7/29/13 Nutrition and Physical Degeneration
gutenberg.net.au/ebooks02/0200251h.html#toc 153/250for some time by a mission. The food of this latter group had been distinctly affected by their
contact with the modern group. By reducing the animal foods, the change in physical efficiency,
and appearance of tooth decay, is most marked. In Fig. 92 above will be seen typical cases of
rampant tooth decay with extensive loss of the teeth. In Fig. 92 below are shown two of the first
generation following the adoption of the modernized type of diet in this group. Note the narrowing
of the faces with crowding of the teeth. Note the deformed dental arches. FIG. 92. At the point of contact of these jungle Indians with
modernization where it included a change from their native
diet tooth decay became rampant as shown. A marked
change in facial form occurred accompanied by crowding of
the teeth in the new generation. The native foods of these Amazon Jungle Indians included the liberal use of fish which are very
abundant in both the Amazon and its branches, particularly in the foothill streams; animal life from
the forest and thickets; bird life, including many water fowl and their eggs; plants and fruits. They
use very large quantities of yucca which is a starchy root quite similar to our potato in chemical
content. This is not the yucca of North America. The Peruvian Indians, in the highlands and in the eastern watershed of the Andes, and also in the
Amazon Basin, have built superb bodies with high immunity to dental caries and with splendidly
developed facial and dental arch forms while living on the native foods in accordance with their
accumulated wisdom. Whenever they have adopted the foods of modern civilization and have
displaced their own nutrition, dental caries has been found to be wide-spread; and in the
succeeding generations following the adoption of modern foods, a change in facial and dental arch
forms has developed. The modernized foods which displaced their native foods were the typical7/29/13 Nutrition and Physical Degeneration
gutenberg.net.au/ebooks02/0200251h.html#toc 154/250white man's dietary of refined-flour products, sugar, sweetened foods, canned goods, and polished
rice. TABLE OF CONTENTS    
 
Chapter 15
CHARACTERISTICS OF PRIMITIVE AND
MODERNIZED DIETARIES
IF PRIMITIVE races have been more efficient than modernized groups in the matter of
preventing degenerative processes, physical, mental and moral, it is only because they have been
more efficient in complying with Nature's laws. We have two procedures that we can use for
evaluating their programs: first, the interpretation of their data in terms of our modern knowledge;
and second, the clinical application of their procedures to our modern social problems. Specifically, since the greater success of the primitives in meeting Nature's laws has been based
primarily on dietary procedures, it becomes desirable first, to evaluatetheir dietary programs on the
basis of known biologic requirements for comparison with the foods of our modern civilization; and
second, to test their primitive nutritional programs by applying their equivalents to our modern
families. The advance in our knowledge of body-building and body-repairing materials from a
biochemical standpoint makes it possible even with our limited knowledge of organic catalysts, to
draw comparisons between the primitive and modernized dietaries. If we use the generally
accepted minimal and optimal quantities of the various minerals and vitamins required, as indicated
by Sherman, (1)  we shall have at once a yardstick for evaluating the primitive dietaries. Of the eighteen elements of which the human body is composed, all of which are presumably
essential, several are needed in very small quantities. A few are required in liberal quantities. The
normal adult needs to receive from the foods eaten one-half to one gram of calcium or lime per
day. Few people receive more than one-half of the minerals present in the food. The requirements
of phosphorus are approximately twice this amount. Of iron we need from one-seventh to one-
third of a gram per day. Smaller amounts than these are required of several other elements. In
order to utilize these minerals, and to build and maintain the functions of various organs, definite
quantities of various organic catalysts which act as activating substances are needed. These include
the known and unknown vitamins. Unlike some experimental animals human beings have not the ability to create some special
chemical substances (not elements) such as vitamins within their bodies. Several animals have this
capacity. For example, scurvy, which is due to a lack of vitamin C, cannot be produced readily in
rats because rats can manufacture vitamin C. Similarly, rickets cannot be produced easily in guinea
pigs, because they can synthesize vitamin D. The absence of vitamin D and adequate minerals
produces rickets in young human beings. Neither rickets nor scurvy can be produced readily in
dogs because of the dogs' capacity to synthesize both vitamins C and D. We are not so fortunate. Similarly, the absence of vitamin B (B 1) produces in birds and man severe nervous system
reactions, such as beri-beri. These symptoms are often less pronounced, or quite different, in other
animals. From our knowledge of the dietaries used by the various primitive racial stocks we can calculate
the approximate amounts of the minerals and vitamins provided by those dietaries, for comparison7/29/13 Nutrition and Physical Degeneration
gutenberg.net.au/ebooks02/0200251h.html#toc 155/250with the amounts provided by modernized foods. Our problem is simplified by the fact that the
food of the white man in various parts of the world being built from a few fundamental food
factors, has certain quite constant characteristics. Hence the displacing diets are similar for the
several modernized groups herewith considered. As a further approach to our problem, it is important to keep in mind that, in general, the wild
animal life has largely escaped many of the degenerative processes which affect modern white
peoples. We ascribe this to animal instinct in the matter of food selection. It is possible that man
has lost through disuse some of the normal faculty for consciously recognizing body requirements. In other words, the only hunger of which we now are conscious is a hunger for energy to keep us
warm and to supply power. In general, we stop eating when an adequate amount of energy has
been provided, whether or not the body building and repairing materials have been included in the
food. The heat and energy factor in our foods is measured in calories. In planning an adequate diet,
a proper ratio between body building and energy units must be maintained. It is important to keep
in mind that while the amount of body-building and repairing material required is similar for
different individuals of the same age and weight, it is markedly different for two individuals, one of
whom is leading a sedentary, and the other, an active life. Similarly, there is a great difference
between the amount of body-building and repairing material required by a growing child or an
expectant mother and an average adult. There are certain characteristics of the various dietaries of the primitive races, which are
universally present when that dietary program is associated with a high immunity to disease and
freedom from deformities. In general, these are the foods that provide adequate sources of body-
building and body-repairing material. The use by primitives, of foods relatively low in calories has
resulted in forcing them to eat large quantities of these foods, in order to provide the heat and
energy requirements of the body. The primitives have obtained, often with great difficulty, foods
that are scarce but rich in certain elements. In these rare foods were elements which the body
requires in small quantities, including minerals such as iodine, copper, manganese and special
vitamins. In connection with the vitamins it should be kept in mind that our knowledge of these
unique organic catalysts is limited. The medical profession and the public at large think of vitamin D
as consisting of just one chemical factor, whereas, investigations are revealing continually new and
additional factors. A recent review (2) describes in considerable detail eight distinct factors in
vitamin D and refers to information indicating that there may be at least twelve. Clearly, it is not
possible to undertake to provide an adequate nutrition simply by reinforcing the diet with a few
synthetic products which are known to represent certain of these nutritional factors. By the mass of
the people at large, as well as by members of the medical profession, activated ergosterol is
considered to include all that is necessary to supply the vitamin D group of activators to human
nutrition. The various dietary programs of primitive races which appear to be successful in controlling
dental caries and deformities may be divided into three groups based upon the sources from which
they derive the minerals and fat-soluble activators. I do not use the term vitamins exclusively
because as yet little is known about the whole group of organic catalysts, although we have
considerable knowledge of the limited number which are designated by the first half dozen letters
of the alphabet. Most lay people and members of the medical and dental professions assume that
the six or eight vitamins constitute practically all that are needed in an adequate nutrition. These
organic activators can be divided into two main groups, water-soluble and fat-soluble. An essential
characteristic of the successful dietary programs of primitive races has been found to relate to a
liberal source of the fat-soluble activator group. When we discuss the successful dietary programs of the various groups from the standpoint of
their ability to control tooth decay and prevent deformity we find that for the people in the high and
isolated Alpine valleys their nutrition is dependent largely on entire rye bread and dairy products
with meat about once a week and various vegetables, fresh in the summer season and stored for
the winter season. An analysis in my laboratory of the dairy products obtained from the
Loetschental Valley in Switzerland through a series of years has shown the vitamin content to be7/29/13 Nutrition and Physical Degeneration
gutenberg.net.au/ebooks02/0200251h.html#toc 156/250much higher than the average throughout the world for similar foods during the same seasons. The
milk in these high valleys is produced from green pasturage and stored green hay of exceptionally
high chlorophyll content. The milk and the rye bread provided minerals abundantly. The diet of the people in the Outer Hebrides which proved adequate for maintaining a high
immunity to dental caries and preventing deformity consisted chiefly of oat products and sea foods
including the wide variety of fish available there. This diet included generally no dairy products
since the pasture was not adequate for maintaining cattle. Oat grain was the only cereal that could
be matured satisfactorily in that climate. Some green foods were available in the summer and some
vegetables were grown and stored for winter. This diet, which included a liberal supply of fish,
included also the use of livers of fish. One important fish dish was baked cod's head that had been
stuffed with oat meal and chopped cods' livers. This was an important inclusion in the diets of the
growing children. The oats and fish, including livers, provided minerals and vitamins adequate for
an excellent racial stock with high immunity to tooth decay. For the Eskimos of Alaska the native diet consisted of a liberal use of organs and other special
tissues of the large animal life of the sea, as well as of fish. The latter were dried in large quantities
in the summer and stored for winter use. The fish were also eaten frozen. Seal oil was used freely
as an adjunct to this diet and seal meat was specially prized and was usually available. Caribou
meat was sometimes available. The organs were used. Their fruits were limited largely to a few
berries including cranberries, available in the summer and stored for winter use. Several plant
foods were gathered in the summer and stored in fat or frozen for winter use. A ground nut that
was gathered by the Tundra mice and stored in caches was used by the Eskimos as a vegetable. Stems of certain water grasses, water plants and bulbs were occasionally used. The bulk of their
diet, however, was fish and large animal life of the sea from which they selected certain organs and
tissues with great care and wisdom. These included the inner layer of skin of one of the whale
species, which has recently been shown to be very rich in vitamin C. Fish eggs were dried in
season. They were used liberally as food for the growing children and were recognized as
important for growth and reproduction. This successful nutrition provided ample amounts of fat-
soluble activators and minerals from sea animal life. For the Indians living inside the Rocky Mountain Range in the far North of Canada, the
successful nutrition for nine months of the year was largely limited to wild game, chiefly moose and
caribou. During the summer months the Indians were able to use growing plants. During the winter
some use was made of bark and buds of trees. I found the Indians putting great emphasis upon the
eating of the organs of the animals, including the wall of parts of the digestive tract. Much of the
muscle meat of the animals was fed to the dogs. It is important that skeletons are rarely found
where large game animals have been slaughtered by the Indians of the North. The skeletal remains
are found as piles of finely broken bone chips or splinters that have been cracked up to obtain as
much as possible of the marrow and nutritive qualities of the bones. These Indians obtain their fat-
soluble vitamins and also most of their minerals from the organs of the animals. An important part
of the nutrition of the children consisted in various preparations of bone marrow, both as a
substitute for milk and as a special dietary ration. In the various archipelagos of the South Pacific and in the islands north of Australia, the natives
depended greatly on shell fish and various scale fish from adjacent seas. These were eaten with an
assortment of plant roots and fruits, raw and cooked. Taro was an important factor in the nutrition
of most of these groups. It is the root of a species of lily similar to "elephant ears" used for garden
decorations in America because of its large leaves. In several of the islands the tender young leaves
of this plant were eaten with coconut cream baked in the leaf of the tia plant. In the Hawaiian
group of islands the taro plant is cooked and dried and pounded into powder and then mixed with
water and allowed to ferment for twenty-four hours, more or less, in accordance with the stiffness
of the product desired. This is called poi. Its use in this form was comparable in efficiency with its
use on other archipelagos as a boiled root served much as we use potatoes. For these South Sea
Islanders fat-soluble vitamins and many of the minerals were supplied by the shell-fish and other
animal life from the sea.7/29/13 Nutrition and Physical Degeneration
gutenberg.net.au/ebooks02/0200251h.html#toc 157/250    The native tribes in eastern and central Africa, used large quantities of sweet potatoes, beans,
and some cereals. Where they were living sufficiently near fresh water streams and lakes, large
quantities of fish were eaten. Goats or cattle or both were domesticated by many tribes. Other
tribes used wild animal life quite liberally. Some very unique and special sources of vitamins were
used by some of these tribes. For example, in certain seasons of the year great swarms of a large
winged insect develop in Lake Victoria and other lakes. These often accumulated on the shores to
a depth of many inches. They were gathered, dried and preserved to be used in puddings which
are highly prized by the natives and are well spoken of by the missionaries. Another insect source
of vitamins used frequently by the natives is the ant which is collected from great ant hills that in
many districts grow to heights of ten feet or more. In the mating season the ants develop wings and
come out of the ant hills in great quantities and go into the air for the mating process. These
expeditions are frequently made during or following a rain. The natives have developed procedures
for inducing these ants to come out by covering over the opening with bushes to give the effect of
clouds and then pounding on the ground to give an imitation of rain. We were told by the
missionaries that one of the great luxuries was an ant pie but unfortunately they were not able to
supply us with this delicacy. Parts of Africa like many other districts are often plagued by vast
swarms of locusts. These are gathered in large quantities, to be cooked for immediate use or dried
and ground into a flour for later use. They provide a rich source of minerals and vitamins. The
natives of Africa used the cereals maize, beans, linga linga, millet, and Kaffir corn, cooked or
roasted. Most of these were ground just before cooking. Among the Aborigines of Australia we found that those living near the sea were using animal life
from that source liberally, together with the native plants and animals of the land. They have not
cultivated the land plants during their primitive life. In the interior, they use freely the wild animal
life, particularly wallaby, kangaroo, small animals and rodents. All of the edible parts, including the
walls of the viscera and internal organs are eaten. The native Maori in New Zealand, used large quantities of foods from the sea, wherever these
were available. Even in the inland food depots, mutton birds were still available in large quantities. These birds were captured just before they left the nests. They developed in the rockeries about
the coast, chiefly on the extreme southern coast of the South Island. At this stage, the flesh is very
tender and very fat from the gorging that has been provided by their parent. The value of this food
for the treatment of tuberculosis was being heralded quite widely in both Australia and New
Zealand. In the primitive state of the islands large quantities of land birds were available and
because of the fertility of the soil and favorable climate, vegetables and fruits grew abundantly in
the wild. Large quantities of fern root were used. Where groups of the Maori race were found
isolated sufficiently from contact with modern civilization and its foods to be dependent largely on
the native foods, they selected with precision certain shell-fish because of their unique nutritive
value. A splendid illustration of the primitive Maori instinct or wisdom regarding the value of sea foods
was shown in an experience we had while making examinations in a native school on the east coast
of the North Islands. I was impressed with the fact that the children in the school gave very little
evidence of having active dental caries. I asked the teacher what the children brought from their
homes to eat at their midday lunch, since most of them had to come too great a distance to return
at noon. I was told that they brought no lunch but that when school was dismissed at noon the
children rushed for the beach where, while part of the group prepared bonfires, the others stripped
and dived into the sea, and brought up a large species of lobster. The lobsters were promptly
roasted on the coals and devoured with great relish. Other sea foods are pictured in Fig. 74. The native diet of the tribes living in the islands north of Australia consisted of liberal quantities
of sea foods. These were eaten with a variety of plant roots and greens, together with fruits which
grew abundantly in that favorable climate. Few places in the world have so favorable a quantity of
food for sea-animal life as these waters which provide the richest pearl fisheries in the world. This
is evidence of the enormous quantity of shell-fish that develop there. Here, as off the east coast of
Australia, are to be found some of the largest shell-fish of the world. It was a common occurrence7/29/13 Nutrition and Physical Degeneration
gutenberg.net.au/ebooks02/0200251h.html#toc 158/250to see these shells being used by natives for such purposes as water storage and for bath tubs of a
size approximately that of a wash tub. Australia and New Zealand are near enough to the Antarctic
ice cap to have their shores bathed with currents coming from the ice fields, currents which abound
in food for sea animals. The great barrier reef off the east coast of Australia extends north to within
a few leagues of New Guinea. Murray Island is near the north end of this barrier. The fish in the
water at times form such a dense mass that they can be scooped into the boats directly from the
sea. Fishermen wading out in the surf and throwing their spears into the schools of fish usually
impale one or several. The incidence of tooth decay on this island was less than one per cent of all of the teeth
examined. Another important sea food in these waters was dugong, referred to as sea cow in
northern waters. This animal is very highly prized but is becoming scarce. We found its meat very
much like lamb. It lives on the vegetation of the sea floor in shallow water. As we flew over the
bays of Eastern Australia going northward in search of colonies of native Aborigines, we could see
these sea animals pasturing in the clear water among the ocean plants. During these investigations of primitive races, I have been impressed with the superior quality of
the human stock developed by Nature wherever a liberal source of sea foods existed. These zones
of abundant marine life were largely in the wake of the ocean currents drifting from the ice fields of
the poles. The Humboldt Current is probably the most liberal carrier of marine life of any of the
ocean currents. It leaves the ice field of the Antarctic and bathes the west coast of South America
from its southern tip nearly to the equator, where the coast line changes direction and the
Humboldt Current is deflected out into the ocean. It meets here a warm current coming down from
the coast of Central America, Panama and Columbia. If the superb physiques that Nature has
established among the Maori of New Zealand, the Malays of the Islands north of Australia, the
Gaelics of the Outer Hebrides and the natives on several of the archipelagos of the Pacific, owe
their superior physical development to sea foods, we should expect to find that the tribes which
have had contact with the great Humboldt Current food would also have superb physiques. Unfortunately, very little has been known of the ancient cultures that have developed along the
coast of Chile and Peru. It has been reported that of all the Indian tribes of South America, those
in Patagonia were the most stalwart. While the west coast of Peru is bathed by the Humboldt
Current with its nearly inexhaustible supply of human nutrition, the lands bordering that shore are
among the most desolate deserts of the world. The zone between the Andes Mountains and the
coast for approximately a thousand miles is utterly barren, consisting of moving sand dunes and
jagged promontories. Practically the only break in this waterless, treeless desert is to be found in
the few ribbons of water that trickle down from the melting snows of the Andes Coastal Range. This coast has no rainy seasons. Any vegetation grown, now or in the past thousands of years, has
had to be watered from the limited supply afforded by these rivers which seem so insignificant
when compared with the vastness of the territory. These river bottoms contain the alluvial deposits
from the Andes and are very rich when watered. It has been only by means of gigantic engineering
undertakings that the water from these rivers has been carried through great irrigation ditches,
sometimes fifty to a hundred miles long for the purpose of making it possible to utilize these river
bottom lands for agriculture. In many of the primitive tribes living by the sea we found emphasis on the value of fish eggs and
on some animal forms for insuring a high physical development of growing children, particularly of
girls, and a high perfection of offspring through a reinforcement of the mother's nutrition. It is also
important to note that in several of the primitive tribes studied there has been a consciousness that
not only the mother should have special nutrition, but also the father. In this group very great value
was placed upon a product obtained from a sea form known locally as the angelote or angel fish,
which in classification is between a skate and a shark. The young of the angelota are born alive,
ready for free swimming and capable of foraging for themselves immediately at birth. Twenty to
thirty young are born in one litter. The eggs of the female before fertilization are about one inch in
diameter, slightly oval but nearly spherical. They are used as food by all, but the special food
product for men is a pair of glands obtained from the male. These glands weigh up to a pound
each, when they are dried. They have a recognized value among the natives for treating cases of7/29/13 Nutrition and Physical Degeneration
gutenberg.net.au/ebooks02/0200251h.html#toc 159/250tuberculosis, especially for controlling lung hemorrhages. The sea foods were used in conjunction
with the land plants and fruits raised by means of irrigation in the river valleys. Together these
foods provided adequate nutrition for maintaining high physical excellence. In Chapter 13 I have discussed the probable order of these ancient cultures and the possible
extent of their duration. Very little is known of their origin. Evidence has recently been discovered
in Panama indicating that both the wealth and the culture of Peru were carried northward by
maritime conquerors and that the cultures of Central America, including the Maya culture may have
had their origins in these ancient cultures of Peru. While the coastal area of Peru saw the development of many magnificent cultures through past
ages, the highlands of Peru also have left much evidence of superior attainments and wisdom. The
two great Indian linguistic groups of the Andean highlands of today are the Aymara of Southern
Peru and Bolivia and the Quichus of central and northern Peru. The Aymara are credited with
being the descendants of the Tauhuanocan culture which preceded the Incan culture in the
highlands. The Quichu are credited with being the descendants of the Incan culture which had its
zenith just prior to the coming of the Spaniards. In Chapter 14 I have shown photographs of these
racial stocks as they are found today in the Andean Sierras. It may be possible that in former times
the vast mountain ranges provided large herds of grazing wild animals of the deer family. Because
of the vastness of the population and the extent to which all available land surfaces were utilized for
agriculture, it does not seem possible that wild animal life could have been an adequate source of
nutrition. The members of the camel family, the llamas, alpacas, and vicunas were utilized for food. Of these the first two were used to considerable extent as they are today. When it is recognized
that in the Sierra the available water is largely that provided to the streams from the melting snows
and from rains in the rainy season, it will be realized that these sources of fresh water could not
provide the liberal quantity of iodine essential for human growth and development. It was,
accordingly, a matter of great interest to discover that these Indians used regularly dried fish eggs
from the sea. Commerce in these dried foods is carried on today as it no doubt has been for
centuries. When I inquired of them why they used this material they explained that it was necessary
to maintain the fertility of their women. I was informed also that every exchange depot and market
carried these dried fish eggs so that they were always available. Another sea product of very great
importance, and one which was universally available was dried kelp. Upon inquiry I learned that
the Indians used it so that they would not get "big necks" like the whites. The kelp provided a very
rich source of iodine as well as of copper, which is very important to them in the utilization of iron
for building an exceptionally efficient quality of blood for carrying oxygen liberally at those high
altitudes. An important part of their dietary consists today as in the past of potatoes which are
gathered and frozen, dried and powdered, and preserved in the powdered form. This powder is
used in soups with llama meat and other products. Since the vitamin D group of activators is
absent from nearly all plant products but must be synthesized in animal bodies from the plant
foods, where it is largely stored in organs, an adequate source had to be provided. The Indians of
the highlands of Peru maintained colonies of guinea pigs which were used in their stews. The
ancient burials also show that the guinea pig was a common source of food since mummified
bodies of this animal were found. This is significant since of all the animals that are used for
experimental work the guinea pig is probably the most efficient in synthesizing vitamin D from plant
foods. They are very hardy. They live on a great variety of green plant foods and twigs and are
very prolific. They apparently played a very important part in the physical excellence of the ancient
cultures. It is unfortunate that as the white man has come into contact with the primitives in various parts
of the world he has failed to appreciate the accumulated wisdom of the primitive racial stocks. Much valuable wisdom has been lost by this means. I have referred to the skill of the Indians in
preventing scurvy and to the many drugs that we use which the white man has learned of from the
primitives. In this connection the Indians of British Columbia, who have been so efficient in preventing
scurvy, have a plant product for the prevention and cure of diabetes. This has recently become7/29/13 Nutrition and Physical Degeneration
gutenberg.net.au/ebooks02/0200251h.html#toc 160/250known to the white man through the experience of a patient who was brought into the hospital at
Prince Rupert, British Columbia, as reported in the Canadian Medical Journal, July 1938. Prince
Rupert is near the boundary between British Columbia and Alaska on the coast. The patient came
to that hospital for an operation and suddenly showed signs of diabetes, which required treatment
with large doses of insulin. Dr. Richard Geddes Large asked him regarding the history of his
affection and what he had been taking. He was told that for several years he had been using an
Indian preparation which was a hot water infusion of a root of devil's-club which is a spiny, prickly
shrub. This medicine was in common use by the British Columbia Indians. The material was
obtained and used in this hospital for the treatment of diabetes and was found to be quite as
efficient as insulin and had the great advantage that it would be taken by mouth whereas the insulin
which is destroyed in the stomach by the process of digestion must be injected. They could see
very little difference in the efficiency of this preparation whether taken internally or used
hypodermically. This promises to be a great boon to a large group of individuals suffering from
diabetes. It is also probable that its use will prevent the development of diabetes and since the
Indians used it for other affections it may also become a very important adjunct in modern
preventive medicine. One of the sources that I have found to be helpful in studying primitive races is an investigation
of knapsacks. I have asked for the privilege of seeing what is carried in their knapsacks. I found
dried fish eggs and dried kelp in the knapsacks in the high Andes. It is also of interest that among
this group in the Andes, among those in central Africa, and among the Aborigines of Australia,
each knapsack contained a ball of clay, a little of which was dissolved in water. Into this they
dipped their morsels of food while eating. Their explanation was to prevent "sick stomach." This is
the medicine that is used by the native in these countries for combating dysentery and food
infections. It is the treatment that was given me when I developed dysentery infection in central
Africa while making studies there. The English doctor in Nairobi whom I called in said he would
give me the native treatment of a suspension of clay. It proved very effective. An illustration of the
way in which modern science is siowiy adopting practices that have been long in use among
primitive races, is to be found in the recent extensive use that is made of clay (kaolin) in our
modern medicine. This is illustrated in the following: (3)
   In the course of an expedition to Lake Titicaca, South America, financed by the Percy Slade
Trustees in which one of us (H.P.M.) took part, an interesting observation was made in regard to
the diet of the Quetchus Indians on the Capachica Peninsula near Puno. These people are
almost certainly descendants of the Incas and at the present time live very primitively. They
exist largely on a vegetable diet of which potatoes form an important part. Immediately, before
being eaten, the potatoes are dipped into an aqueous suspension of clay, a procedure which is
said to prevent "souring of the stomach." We have examined this clay and found it to consist of kaolin containing a trace of organic
material, possibly coumarin, and presumably a decomposition product of the grass from
underneath which the clay is dug. The local name for the clay is Chacco, and the Indians
distinguish between good and bad qualities. This dietetic procedure is universal among the
Indians of the Puno district, and is probably of very ancient origin. Such a practice by a primitive people would appear rather remarkable in view of the
comparatively recent introduction of kaolin into modern medicine as a protective agent for the
gastric and intestinal mucosa and as a remedy for bacterial infections of the gut. It is of interest that both the British and American Pharmacopeias have added kaolin to their list
during the last two decades. The Indians of the past buried, with their dead, foods to carry them on their journey. From an
examination of these one learns that in many respects the Indians living in the high Sierras are living
today very much as their ancestors did during past centuries. Items of importance now and in the
past are parched corn and parched beans which are nibbled as the people walk along carrying
their heavy burdens. Today these are the only foods eaten on many long journeys. We found the
parched beans pleasant to taste and very satisfying when we were hungry. The Indians of the Amazon Basin have had a history very different from either those of the high7/29/13 Nutrition and Physical Degeneration
gutenberg.net.au/ebooks02/0200251h.html#toc 161/250Sierras of the Andes or those of the coastal region. The fact that vast areas of the Amazon Basin
have not only never been surveyed, but never even penetrated, indicates the nature of the isolation
of these groups. Very little progress has been made in the effort to conquer or modernize these
Indians. A few explorers have made expeditions into parts of the interior and have reported the
characteristics of the plant and animal life, as well as of the native races. Our sole contact was with
the tribe which came to the coffee plantation to assist in the gathering and the harvest of the coffee
beans. In Chapter 14 I have described these people in considerable detail. Since the Amazon
Basin has vast quantities of rain as well as abundant streams from the eastern watershed of the
Andes, the tribes live largely in tropical jungles where there is an abundance of water. They are
expert, accordingly, in the use of river crafts and in fishing for the various types of marine life. Unlike the Indians of the high Andes or of the coast regions they are not agriculturists. They live on
wild native foods almost entirely. They are expert with the blow gun, with the bow and arrow and
in snaring with both nets and loops. They use very large quantities of a tuber root called yucca
which has many qualities similar to the roots of the edible variety of the lily family. This plant is
boiled and eaten much as are potatoes. They use also large quantities of fish from the streams,
birds and small animals of the land, together with the native fruits including bananas. Their dietary
provides a very liberal supply of minerals and vitamins together with an adequate quantity of
carbohydrates, fats and proteins. In evaluating the nutritive value of the dietary programs of primitive races and our modernized
cultures, it is important that we have a yardstick adequately adjusted to make computation in terms
of specific body needs for building good bodies and maintaining them in good health. The advance
in modern chemistry has gone far toward making this possible. The problem of estimating the mineral and activator contents, in other words the body-building
and repairing qualities of the displacing foods used by the various primitive races, is similar in many
respects to estimating these qualities in the foods used in our modern white civilizations, except that
modern commerce has transported usually only the foods that will keep well. These include chiefly
white flour, sugar, polished rice, vegetable fats and canned goods. Very important data for typical American dietaries are now available provided by the Bureau of
Home Economics, United States Department of Agriculture, and also by the Bureau of Labor
Statistics, United States Department of Labor. These surveys provide a basis of estimating the
nutrition of various income groups both with regard to the type of foods selected in our American
communities and the quantities of each type used, together with the chemical content of these
foods expressed quantitatively. Those who wish to have detailed reports are referred to the
bulletins of the above departments. In my clinical studies of the mineral constituents of individuals,
affected with dental caries and other disturbances of physical deficiency, I find a wide range of
variation in the calcium, phosphorus and fat-soluble activator content of the dietaries used,
although in general the calorie content is adequate. This latter factor is controlled by appetite. These computations reveal that the individuals studied have a calcium intake ranging from 0.3 to
0.5 grams; and a phosphorus intake of from 0.3 to 0.6 grams. The minimum adult requirements as
provided by such an authority as Sherman, whose figures are used by the United States
Department of Labor, are for the average adult 0.68 of a gram of calcium and 1.32 grams of
phosphorus per day. It can be seen readily that the amounts given above are far short of the
minimum even if individuals absorbed from the foods all of the minerals present. A question arises
at this point as to the efficiency of the human body in removing all of the minerals from the ingested
foods. Extensive laboratory determinations have shown that most people cannot absorb more than
half of the calcium and phosphorus from the foods eaten. The amounts utilized depend directly on
the presence of other substances, particularly fat-soluble vitamins. It is at this point probably that
the greatest breakdown in our modern diet takes place, namely, in the ingestion and utilization of
adequate amounts of the special activating substances, including the vitamins needed for rendering
the minerals in the food available to the human system. A recent report by the Council on Foods of
the American Medical (4)  Association makes this comment on spinach:
    Spinach may be regarded as a rich source of vitamin A and as a contributor of vitamin C, iron
and roughage to the diet. It is therefore a valuable food. (But) the iron is not well utilized by7/29/13 Nutrition and Physical Degeneration
gutenberg.net.au/ebooks02/0200251h.html#toc 162/250infants . . . (and) the feeding of spinach is of no value during early infancy as a source of
calcium. Even though calcium is present in spinach children cannot utilize it. Data have been published
showing that children absorb very little of the calcium or phosphorus in spinach before six years of
age. Adult individuals vary in the efficiency with which they absorb minerals and other chemicals
essential for mineral utilization. It is possible to starve for minerals that are abundant in the foods
eaten because they cannot be utilized without an adequate quantity of the fat-soluble activators. FIG. 93. This figure shows the rapid healing of a fractured
femur of a boy four and onehalf years of age suffering from
convulsions due to malnutrition. His fracture occurred when
he fell in a convulsion. There was no healing in sixty days. After reinforcing his nutrition with butter vitamins the
healing at the right occurred in thirty days. Whole milk
replaced skim milk and a whole wheat gruel made from
freshly ground whole wheat replaced white bread. This is illustrated in the following case. A minister in an industrial section of our city, during the
period of severe depression, telephoned me stating that he had just been called to baptize a dying
child. The child was not dead although almost constantly in convulsions. He thought the condition
was probably nutritional and asked if he could bring the boy to the office immediately. The boy
was badly emaciated, had rampant tooth decay, one leg in a cast, a very bad bronchial cough and
was in and out of convulsions in rapid succession. His convulsions had been getting worse
progressively during the past eight months. His leg had been fractured two or three months
previously while walking across the room when he fell in one of his convulsions. No healing had
occurred. His diet consisted of white bread and skimmed milk. For mending the fracture the boy
needed minerals, calcium, phosphorus and magnesium. His convulsions were due to a low calcium
content of the blood. All of these were in the skimmed milk for the butter-fat removed in the cream
contains no calcium nor phosphorus, except traces. The program provided was a change from the7/29/13 Nutrition and Physical Degeneration
gutenberg.net.au/ebooks02/0200251h.html#toc 163/250white flour bread to wheat gruel made from freshly ground wheat and the substitution of whole
milk for skimmed milk, with the addition of about a teaspoonful of a very high vitamin butter with
each feeding. He was given this meal that evening when he returned to his home. He slept all night
without a convulsion. He was fed the same food five times the next day and did not have a
convulsion. He proceeded rapidly to regain his health without recurrence of his convulsions. In a
month the fracture was united. Two views of the fracture are shown in Fig. 93, one before and one
after the treatment. Six weeks after this nutritional program was started the preacher called at the
home to see how the boy was getting along. His mother stated that the boy was playing about the
doorstep, but they could not see him. She called but received no answer. Presently they spied him
where he had climbed up the downspout of the house to the second story. On being scolded by
his mother, he ran and jumped over the garden fence, thus demonstrating that he was pretty much
of a normal boy. This boy's imperative need, that was not provided in white bread and skimmed
milk, was the presence of the vitamins and other activators that are in whole milk but not in
skimmed milk, and in whole wheat, freshly ground, but not in white flour. He was restored to
health by the simple process of having Nature's natural foods restored to him. This problem of borrowing from the skeleton in times of stress may soften the bones so that they
will be badly distorted. This is frequently seen as bow legs. An illustration of an extreme condition
of bone softening by this process is shown in Fig. 94, lower section, which is the skeleton of a
monkey that was a house pet. It became very fond of sweets and was fed on white bread,
sweetened jams, etc., as it ate at the same table with its mistress. Note that the bones became so
soft that the pull of the muscles distorted them into all sorts of curves. Naturally its body and legs
were seriously distorted. In this condition my patient, whom I was serving professionally, asked me
for advice regarding her monkey's deformed legs and distorted body. I suggested an improved
nutrition and provided fat-soluble vitamins consisting of a mixture of a high vitamin butter oil and
high vitamin cod liver oil with the result that minerals were deposited on the borders of the
vertebrae and joints and on the surfaces of the bones as shown in the illustration. This of course,
could not correct the deformity and the animal was chloroformed. 7/29/13 Nutrition and Physical Degeneration
gutenberg.net.au/ebooks02/0200251h.html#toc 164/250FIG. 94. This boy, age 5, had suffered for two and one-half
years from inflammatory rheumatism, arthritis and heart
involvement. Upper left shows limit of movement of neck, left
wrist, swollen knees and ankles. The middle upper view
shows the change in six months after improvement of his
nutrition, and at right his change in one year. Below is
shown the grossly demineralized and deformed skeleton of a
pet monkey being fed on sweets and pastries. The necessity that the foods selected and used shall provide an adequate quantity of fat-soluble
activators (including the known fatsoluble vitamins) is so imperative and is so important in
preventing a part of our modern degeneration that I shall illustrate its need with another practical
case. A mother asked my assistance in planning the nutritional program for her boy. She reported that
he was five years of age and that he had been in bed in hospitals with rheumatic fever, arthritis and
an acute heart involvement most of the time for the past two and a half years. She had been told
that her boy would not recover, so severe were the complications. As is so generally the case with
rheumatic fever and endocarditis, this boy was suffering from severe tooth decay. In this
connection the American Heart Association has reported that 75 per cent of heart involvements
begin before ten years of age. My studies have shown that in about 95 per cent of these cases
there is active tooth decay. The important change that I made in this boy's dietary program was the
removal of the white flour products and in their stead the use of freshly cracked or ground wheat
and oats used with whole milk to which was added a small amount of specially high vitamin butter
produced by cows pasturing on green wheat. Small doses of a high-vitamin, natural cod liver oil
were also added. At this time the boy was so badly crippled with arthritis, in his swollen knees,
wrists, and rigid spine, that he was bedfast and cried by the hour. With the improvement in his
nutrition which was the only change made in his care, his acute pain rapidly subsided, his appetite
greatly improved, he slept soundly and gained rapidly in weight. In the first view, to the left, in Fig. 94, the boy is shown sitting on the edge of the bed at the end of the first month on this program. His joints were still badly swollen and his spine so rigid that he could not rotate his head farther
than shown in the picture. In the center view he is shown about six months later, and in the third
view, one year later. This occurred six years ago. As I write this a letter has been received from
the boy's mother. She reports that he is taller and heavier than the average, has a good appetite
and sleeps well. In the newer light regarding the cause of rheumatic fever, or inflammatory rheumatism (discussed
in Chapter 21) there appear to be three underlying causes: a general lowered defense against
infection in which the fat-soluble vitamins play a very important part; minute hemorrhages in joint
tissues as part of the expression of deficiency of vitamin C, a scurvy symptom, and a source of
infecting bacteria such as streptococcus. This could be provided by his infected teeth. These
typical expressions of modern degeneration could not occur in most of the primitive races studied
because of the high factor of safety in the minerals and vitamins of their nutrition. It is important to
emphasize the changes that were made in our modern dietary program to make this boy's nutrition
adequate for recovery. Sugars and sweets and white flour products were eliminated as far as7/29/13 Nutrition and Physical Degeneration
gutenberg.net.au/ebooks02/0200251h.html#toc 165/250possible. Freshly ground cereals were used for breads and gruels. Bone marrow was included in
stews. Liver and a liberal supply of whole milk, green vegetables and fruits were provided. In
addition, he was provided with a butter that was very high in vitamins having been produced by
cows fed on a rapidly growing green grass. The best source for this is a pasturage of wheat and
rye grass. All green grass in a state of rapid growth is good, although wheat and rye grass are the
best found. Unless hay is carefully dried so as to retain its chlorophyll, which is a precursor of
vitamin A, the cow cannot synthesize the fat-soluble vitamins. These two practical cases illustrate the fundamental necessity that there shall not only be an
adequate quantity of body-building minerals present, but also that there shall be an adequate
quantity of fat-soluble vitamins. Of course, water-soluble vitamins are also essential. While I have
reduced the diets of the various primitive races studied to definite quantities of mineral and calorie
content, these data are so voluminous that it will not be appropriate to include them here. It will be
more informative to discuss the ratios of both body-building and repairing material in the several
primitive dietaries, in comparison with the displacing foods adopted from our modern civilization. The amount of food eaten by an individual is controlled primarily by the hunger factor which for
our modernized groups apparently relates only to need for heat and energy. The dietaries adopted
have all been built on the basis of the heat and energy requirements of the body for the groups
living in the several districts and under their modes of life. These have been calculated for the
principal foods eaten by the various groups. The figures will be published in detail in a more
technical report. There are two simple ways in which these comparisons can be made. One is in
terms of normal body requirements; and the other in terms of the ratio between the mineral and the
vitamin content of the native foods and the displacing foods. If we use as a basis the ability of
individuals to remove half of the minerals present even though their bodies need more than this, we
will be more generous than the average individual's capacity will justify. This will require that we
double the amount, as specified for minimum body use by the United States Department of Labor,
Bureau of Labor Statistics, in their Bulletin R 409, that is, for calcium 0.68 grams; for phosphorus
1.32 grams; for iron 0.015 grams. The figures that will be used, therefore, are for twice the above
amounts: 1.36 grams of calcium; 2.64 grams of phosphorus; 0.030 grams of iron. Few people who have not been in contact with experimental data on metabolism can appreciate
how little of the minerals in the food are retained in the body by large numbers of individuals who
are in need of these very chemicals. We have seen that infants cannot absorb calcium from
spinach. If we are to provide nutrition that will include an adequate excess as a factor of safety for
overloads, and for such periods as those of rapid growth (for children), pregnancy, lactation and
sickness, we must provide the excess to the extent of about twice the requirements of normal
adults. It will therefore, be necessary for an adequate nutrition to contain approximately four times
the minimum requirements of the average adult if all stress periods are to be passed safely.
Nutrition_and_Physical_Degeneration_by_Weston_Price.txt
Summarize the following text section accurately and concisely. Maintain specific details and numerical information, and use anti-repetition mechanisms:

        In approaching the study of the descendants of the Inca culture, it is important to keep in mind a
little of their history and persecution under the Spanish rule. To this day they are bitter against the
white man for the treachery that has been meted out to them on many occasions. Their leader was
seized under treachery. The agreement to free him, if the designated rooms were filled with gold as
high as a man could reach, was broken and their chief killed after the gold was obtained. It is
recorded that some six million of them died in the mines under forced labor and poor foods under
the lash of their Spanish oppressors. In many places they still keep themselves aloof by staying in
the high mountains of the Andes with their flocks of llamas and alpacas. They come down only for
trading. As in the past, they still weave their own garments. Indeed, they provide practically all of
their necessities from the local environment. Their capacity for enduring cold is wonderful. They
can sleep comfortably through the freezing nights with their ponchos wrapped about their heads
and with their legs and feet bare. They wear two types of head cover, one inside the other. Several
individuals are seen in Fig. 85. Many of them have faces that show strong character and
personality. The women of this district wear felt hats which can be turned up or down according to the
weather. Fine examples of weaving were worn by the women. In Fig. 86 will be seen two young men who had just come down from the high mountains to a
government school. The one in the lower photograph is still wearing his native costume. The one in
the upper has discarded his native costume for white man's trousers. Note the fine development of
his chest, the splendid facial development and fine teeth and dental arches. It is important to keep
in mind that these people are living in a rarified atmosphere and that, because of the high altitude,
they need greater lung capacity and stronger hearts than do the people living at sea level. The ratio
of oxygen content is reduced about half at 10,000 feet. 7/29/13 Nutrition and Physical Degeneration
gutenberg. net. au/ebooks02/0200251h. html#toc 148/250FIG. 86. The chest development, of necessity, must have
large lung capacity for living in the rare atmosphere of the
high Andes. The boy shown above has a magnificent
physique, including facial and dental arch development. Below is seen the typical clothing worn up among the
snows. Even in frosty weather they are bare below the knees. The broad dental arches of these Indians are shown in Fig. 87. Note the extensive wear of the
teeth at the upper left. Much of the food is eaten cold and dry as parched corn and beans. Such
rough foods as these wear the teeth down. FIG.
The author did not specify the exact location, but it is mentioned that the study was conducted in various regions, including the high Andes, the Amazon Basin, and the Andes Mountains.
Where did the author study the physical development of the Andean Indians?
The study aims to evaluate the diets of the primitive races in terms of their ability to provide adequate nutrition and prevent degenerative processes, such as tooth decay and deformities.
What is the significance of the study of the diet of the primitive races?
The Humboldt Current provides an abundance of marine life, which is rich in minerals and vitamins, and is essential for the physical development of the primitive races.
What is the importance of the Humboldt Current in the diet of the primitive races?
The author is critical of the influence of modernization and the adoption of modern foods, stating that this has led to a decline in physical development and an increase in tooth decay and deformities.
What is the author's opinion on the importance of modernization and the influence of modern civilization on the physical development of the indigenous populations?
The diets of the primitive races are based on a liberal source of sea foods, whereas the modernized groups have adopted a diet that is lacking in essential nutrients, leading to a decline in physical development and an increase in tooth decay and deformities.
What is the main difference in the diets of the primitive races and the modernized groups?