They are entirely different from their grandmothers or even mothers in their capacity
and efficiency in the matter of reproduction. He stated that that morning he had had two cases in
which surgical interference was necessary in order to make birth possible. We had an opportunity here to study the effects of modernization. Indians are great lovers of
sports, particularly of their own national game which is lacrosse. We were able to witness one of
these contests with a team from another reservation. Indian families came in modern automobiles
dressed in modern clothes and purchased pop and candy and modern confections at typical
confection stands. These were highly modernized Indians. The group on this reservation, comprising approximately four thousand seven hundred Indians,
belong to the following tribes: Mohawks, Onondagas, Cayugas, Senecas, Oneidas and Delawares
making up the Six Nation or Iroquois group. A later addition to this group has been the Tuscaroras
from the Carolinas. While there were many mixed bloods, there were also a goodly number of full-
blooded Indian families, so that there was an opportunity to study comparatively the effects of
intermingling of the Indians with the whites. As in previous investigations, a special effort was made
to study the children from eight to sixteen years of age. Typical cases were selected from different
environments. For example, boys and girls selected from a training school called Mohawk
Institute, which was near the city of Brantford, represented one type of environment. There are
approximately one hundred and sixty students under training here, and we were informed that they
study half a day and work half a day. The boys are taught craftsmanship and farming, the girls,
home economics and garment making, and such practical training as would prepare them for later
home building. While most of the boys and girls come from that reservation, a few are accepted
from other reservations. It is of interest that 77 per cent of the children in this Institution had
suffered from earlier dental caries and that 17 per cent of all the teeth examined had already been
attacked by dental caries. But this had occurred apparently before their entrance to the Institute,
for we did not find a single case of active caries among those examined, and this is particularly
important in connection with their excellent nutrition. The Institute maintained a fine dairy herd and
provided fresh vegetables, whole wheat bread, and limited the sugar and white flour. The children of this group were compared with children of approximately the same age in a
public school of the reservation where it was found that 90 per cent had had dental caries, and that
at present in 70 per cent of the cases the caries was apparently active. It is important to note that
in this group 28.5 per cent of all the teeth examined had already been attacked by tooth decay. A study was made of patients at the reservation hospital where free service of all kinds is
provided. We found that 83 per cent had suffered from dental caries, and that 23.2 per cent of all
teeth had already been attacked by caries. We were particularly interested in the conditions obtaining in the homes, especially with the
mothers. A typical young mother had approximately half her teeth attacked by dental caries, as
had also her son, aged seven. The middle third of his face was underdeveloped and all of his upper
anterior teeth were decayed to the gum line. A study was made of an Indian reservation in New York State for comparison and for making
an estimate of typical modern American Indian life with regard to dental caries and nutrition. For
this study a band of 450 in the Tuscarora Reservation northeast of Niagara Falls was visited. Here
again we were fortunate to see the people in holiday mood since the study was made on
Decoration Day and events of the year had been scheduled, a lacrosse match and a baseball7/29/13 Nutrition and Physical Degeneration
gutenberg.net.au/ebooks02/0200251h.html#toc 57/250game, between the Indians' teams and white teams from adjacent towns. Several hundred Indians
were congregated to exhibit their best in wearing apparel, transportation equipment, and physical
prowess. There was evidence of a similarity of features in the older Indians who had not been
highly modernized, and a striking deficiency in the facial development of many of the moderns. A typical mother was studied at her home. She had four children. Her teeth were ravaged by
dental caries. She was strictly modern, for she had gold inlays in some of her teeth. The roots of
the missing teeth had not been extracted. Twenty of her teeth had active dental caries. Her little
girl, aged four, already had twelve very badly carious teeth. Another daughter aged eight had
sixteen carious teeth, and her son aged ten had six. The husband was in bed from an acute lung
involvement, doubtless tuberculosis. The children were eating their noon day meal when we
arrived, which consisted of a white bread and some stewed vegetables. Milk was available for
only the small baby in arms. In this Tuscarora group 83 per cent of those examined had dental
caries and 38 per cent of all teeth had already been attacked by dental caries. Every one studied in
this reservation was using white-flour products, none were using milk liberally, and only a few in
even limited amounts. I was told that in both reservations a few years ago the Indians grew wheat
and kept cows to provide a liberal supply of natural cereal and milk for their families, but of late
this practice had been discontinued. They were now buying their wheat in the form of white flour
and their vegetables largely put up in cans. In both reservations they were using commercial
vegetable fats, jams and marmalades, sweetened goods, syrups and confections very liberally. It is
remarkable how early the child life adopts modern civilization's confections. In order to provide a further cross section of the modernized Indians of North America, I made
a study in a reservation on Winnipeg Lake in Manitoba. This reservation lies north and east of
Winnipeg and is quite highly modernized. These people were reached with much difficulty because of the natural protection provided by
the location of their reservation at the mouth of Brokenhead River. They had been provided with
fertile lands and taught modern methods of farming. Their proximity to a great body of water fairly
well-stocked with fish gave them an opportunity to secure fish, if they were disposed to make the
effort to do so, as their ancestors had done through previous centuries. Their homes were found to
be in a dilapidated condition, and while their lands were stocked with cattle and horses, such as
we found were in poor condition, and limited in number. The people had been provided with a
government school and a government agent to assist in providing for their needs and in giving
material assistance when needed. They were within fairly easy distance of hospitals, and had
available modern medical service. Notwithstanding all these advantages, their physical condition
was very poor. Dental caries was so wide-spread that 39.1 per cent of all teeth studied were
found to be affected. They were living almost entirely on modern foods, imported white flours,
jams, canned vegetables and liberal quantities of sugar. Over 90 per cent of the individuals had
rampant dental caries. Their physical condition and their supply of necessities was very much lower
than was that of either of the two preceding groups. Distress was evident even in late summer. The Indians so far reported were living inland with access to inland foods only. The Pacific
Coast Indians were examined to determine the effect of sea foods. To find evidence relating to the
physical, and particularly to the dental condition of the Indians who inhabited the Pacific slope a
thousand or more years ago, a visit was made to the Vancouver Museum at Vancouver which
fortunately possesses splendidly preserved specimens of prehistoric periods. Some of these skulls
were uncovered while cutting through a hill for a street extension in the city of Vancouver. Above
was a virgin forest of large size green firs and underneath them in the soil there were preserved
fallen trunks of other large trees. Several feet below these, burials were uncovered containing
skeletons of an early Indian race. This collection contains also skulls from several places and from
prehistoric periods. The teeth are all splendidly formed and free from dental caries. The arches are
very symmetrical and the teeth in normal and regular position. It was important to study the conditions of their successors living in the same general
community. Accordingly, we examined the teeth and general physical condition of the Indians in a
reservation in North Vancouver, so situated that they have the modern conveniences and modern7/29/13 Nutrition and Physical Degeneration
gutenberg.net.au/ebooks02/0200251h.html#toc 58/250foods. In this group of children between eight and fifteen years of age, 36.9 per cent of all the teeth
examined had already been attacked by dental caries. No people were found in this group who
were living largely on native foods. Vancouver Island with its salubrious climate is one of the most favored places of residence on
the Pacific Coast. It was of particular interest to study the Indians near Victoria on this island in the
Craigflower Indian Reservation. Indeed, the city of Victoria has been partly built on the original
Craigflower Indian Reservation. As the need became acute for the territory reserved for them, an
arrangement was consummated whereby the Indians were induced to exchange that land for new
land in an adjoining district in which a new house was built free for each family. Besides a house,
an allotment of land and a sum of money, reported to be ten thousand dollars, was given to each
family. This allowed them to become very modern, and, accordingly, many of them owned
automobiles and other modern luxuries. The physical effects of the use of food luxuries, resulting
from ample funds for purchasing any foods that they might desire, was marked. They were in close
proximity to skilled dental service and had practical training in oral prophylaxis. Notwithstanding
this, 48.5 per cent of all teeth examined had already been attacked by dental caries. Every
individual examined was suffering from tooth decay. The original diet of the Indians of the Pacific
Coast was, as we shall see, very largely sea foods, which are probably as abundant today as ever
before. It would require a real urge to go to catch the fish since they can now be purchased
canned in the open market. Like most modern people, they were living on white-flour products,
sweet foods and pastries. Probably few cities of the Pacific Coast have had a greater abundance and variety of edible sea
foods, particularly the various kinds of salmon, than Ketchikan. It is beautifully located on an
island, and is the most southerly city in Alaska. Among the many fish that are abundant along this
part of the Pacific Coast is the oolachan or candle fish. It is a small fish, but very rich in oil; so
much so that it gets its name from being burned as a candle for light. This oil is collected in large
quantities and used as a dressing for many of their sea foods. It is also traded with the Indians of
the interior for furs and other products. An Indian settlement in this city was studied and it was
found that 46.6 per cent of all teeth examined had already been attacked by tooth decay. In many
of the homes individuals were ill with tuberculosis or arthritis. Tuberculosis had robbed many of the
homes of one or more of its children. At Juneau, the capital of Alaska, two groups were studied; one in the government hospital, and
the other in an Indian settlement. In the hospital were both Indians and Eskimos, chiefly the former. Seventy-five per cent of the patients were reported to have been brought because they had
tuberculosis, and some who had come because of accident and other conditions were reported to
have tuberculosis also. Approximately 50 per cent of the total hospital enrollment was under 21
years of age. The dental conditions were bad, for 39.1 per cent of all the teeth examined had been
attacked by tooth decay. In the Indian settlement, a group of elderly primitives was found, every one of whom had
complete dentitions in normal arrangement of the arches and without dental caries. In a settlement
of modern Indians living principally on modern foods 40 per cent of all teeth had been attacked by
tooth decay. At Sitka, the former capital, two important groups were studied. Located here is the Sheldon
Jackson School for Eskimos and Indian boys and girls, chiefly Indians. They have come from
widely scatterd territory throughout Alaska, and represent the finest physical specimens that can
readily be secured for giving the advantages of an education. Of necessity they came very largely
from the modernized districts. In this group 53.7 per cent of all the teeth examined had already
been attacked by tooth decay. This gives an indication of the dental conditions in the large number
of modernized districts which they represented. In a settlement at Sitka, a group of Indians of various ages were studied, and it was found that
35.6 per cent of all their teeth had already been attacked by dental caries. A well preserved native
Indian, seventy years of age, was found who had come into town from another district. He stated7/29/13 Nutrition and Physical Degeneration
gutenberg.net.au/ebooks02/0200251h.html#toc 59/250that his diet had consisted chiefly of fish, fish eggs, seaweed and deer. His teeth were of very high
excellence and were entirely free from past or present dental caries. He is a splendid example of
the product of the native dietary provided for the Pacific Coast people of any period or stage of
civilization. The local physician at Sitka kindly gave very valuable information relative to the attitude of the
native Indians in the matter of obtaining fresh sea foods when foods that were very satisfying could
be so easily obtained in concentrated form at the various stores. They could go to one of the piers
at almost any time of the year and catch fish or secure them as they had been accustomed to do
before the arrival of modern foods, but there is a constant striving to be like and live like the white
people. They seem to think it is a mark of distinction to purchase their foods and that it is
degrading to have to forage for one's foods. They very readily come to depend on white flour and
sugar, jams and canned vegetables; and much prefer to have the government or charitable
organization supply these when they cannot purchase them, rather than go out and secure their
own nutrition. This physician stated that there were about 800 whites living in the town and about
400 Indians, and that notwithstanding this difference in numbers there were twice as many Indian
children born as white children, but that by the time these children reached six years of age there
were more white children living than Indian and half-breed children. This he stated was largely due
to the very high child mortality rate, of which the most frequent cause is tuberculosis. While it does
not take many decades to record a distinct physical deterioration, a deteriorating parenthood
greatly speeds up this process. While physical defects acquired by the parent will not be
transmitted as such, prenatal deficiencies may be established because of the physical defects of the
mother resulting from her faulty nutrition, and these deficiencies, together with disturbed nutrition of
infancy and early childhood will go far in determining whether there will be for the child a physical
breakdown or whether the normal defense of the body will be adequate to protect it from various
infections to which it may later be exposed. Sitka has furnished the longest history of contact with white men of almost any community on
the Pacific Coast. Indeed, it was a famous seaport long before any United States Pacific Coast
communities had been established. It is of much interest that it was a shipbuilding center for vessels
in the Russian trade. Its foundries were developed so efficiently that the bells of the early
monasteries of California were cast in this town by the Russians. It contains some of the best
examples of the early Russian architecture, particularly in its cathedral. Anchorage is the principal city of western Alaska, since it is not only a base for the railroad
running north to Fairbanks, but a base for aeroplane companies operating throughout various parts
of Alaska. It is accordingly a combination of a coast city with its retail activities and a wholesale
base for outfitters for the interior. It has an excellent government hospital which probably has been
built around the life of one man whom many people told us was the most beloved man in all
Alaska. He is Dr. Josef Romig, a surgeon of great skill and with an experience among the Eskimos
and Indians, both the primitives and modernized, extending over thirty-six years. I am deeply
indebted to him for much information and for assistance in making contacts. He took me, for
example, to several typically modernized Indian homes in the city. In one, the grandmother, who
had come from the northern shore of Cook Inlet to visit her daughter, was sixty-three years of age,
and was entirely free from tooth decay and had lost only one of her teeth. Her son, who had
accompanied her, was twenty-four years of age. He had only one tooth that had ever been
attacked by tooth decay. Their diet had been principally moose and deer meat, fresh and dried
fish, a few vegetables and at time some cranberries. Recently the son had been obtaining some
modern foods. Her daughter, twenty-nine years of age, had married a white man and had had eight
children. She and they were living on modern foods entirely. Twenty-one of her thirty-two teeth
had been wrecked by dental caries. Their diet consisted largely of white bread, syrup and
potatoes. Her children whom we examined ranged from five to twelve years of age, and in that
family 37 per cent of all the teeth have already been attacked by dental caries, notwithstanding the
young age of the children. The mother of this family is shown in Fig. 18 (upper, left). It is of great
importance that not only was dental caries rampant, but that there were marked deformity of the
dental arches and irregularity of teeth in the cases of the children.7/29/13 Nutrition and Physical Degeneration
gutenberg.net.au/ebooks02/0200251h.html#toc 60/250    Among the many items of information of great interest furnished by Dr. Romig were facts that
fitted well into the modern picture of association of modern degenerative processes with
modernization. He stated that in his thirty-six years of contact with these people he had never seen
a case of malignant disease among the truly primitive Eskimos and Indians, although it frequently
occurs when they become modernized. He found similarly that the acute surgical problems
requiring operation on internal organs such as the gall bladder, kidney, stomach, and appendix do
not tend to occur among the primitive, but are very common problems among the modernized
Eskimos and Indians. Growing out of his experience, in which he had seen large numbers of the
modernized Eskimos and Indians attacked with tuberculosis, which tended to be progressive and
ultimately fatal as long as the patients stayed under modernized living conditions, he now sends
them back when possible to primitive conditions and to a primitive diet, under which the death rate
is very much lower than under modernized conditions. Indeed, he reported that a great majority of
the afflicted recover under the primitive type of living and nutrition. The institutions that have been organized for the care of orphans and for the education of
Eskimo and Indian boys and girls provide an opportunity to study conditions. A particularly
favorable institution is located at Eklutna on the railroad north of Anchorage. Many of the
individuals in the school had come from districts so remote from transportation facilities that their
isolation had compelled them to live mostly on native foods, at least during their early childhood. They had come from districts very widely distributed throughout the Alaskan peninsula. Credit is
due to the management of this institution for preparing and storing dried salmon for use throughout
the winter. The beneficial effects of their good nutritional program were evident. The percentage of
teeth attacked by dental caries was 14.6. A large percentage of these pupils were of mixed blood
of native Eskimos or Indians with whites. The white parent had probably been largely responsible
for their attendance at this training school. There were several full-blooded Eskimos and Indians
from modernized communities where they had been living on modern foods throughout their entire
lifetime. This gave an opportunity to study the rôle of nutritional deficiencies in the development of
deformities and irregularities in the facial features, in the arrangement of the teeth, and in the inter-
relationship between the dental arches. The typical irregularities and divergencies from normal
were present in the full-blooded Eskimo and Indian boys and girls in as high percentage as in the
mixed bloods. Some of the young people with parentage of mixed blood have beautiful features. Another important institutional group was studied at Seward in the Jesse Lee Home which had
first been established at Nome and had been moved to Seward to avoid the extreme isolation of
that district. This institution is located at Resurrection Bay which is one of the most beautiful
harbors in the world. It gives shelter and educational opportunities to Eskimos and Indians, chiefly
of mixed blood, from a large area of Alaska, and particularly from the Aleutian Peninsula, the
Aleutian Islands and the Bering Sea. These individuals, whether of mixed or pure blood, had come
chiefly from homes that were in large part modernized. The incidence of dental caries found here
was 27.5 per cent for all teeth examined. Here again all individuals were affected. Notwithstanding
the unusually fine hygienic conditions and highly trained dietitians of this institution, a medical ward
and trained nurses, tuberculosis was reaping a heavy toll. I was told that 60 per cent of all those
students who had moved with the school from Nome to this location were already dead from
tuberculosis. It is common knowledge that tuberculosis has played a very important rôle in
decimating the Indian and Eskimo population in the Pacific Coast towns and villages. A very
important phase of these investigations is the development of new light on the rôle of nutrition in
lowering the defense of these individuals so that with their low inheritance of defensive factors they
rapidly become susceptible to tuberculosis. The problem of evaluating the influence of a particular environment on racial and tribal
development is relatively simple when studying contemporary remnants of primitive racial stocks. However, groups that have lived and disappeared in the past do not permit of so simple a
procedure for making physical estimates. Fortunately, we have in the burial grounds not only the
skeletons, but also many of the implements used in daily life. Sometimes these contain samples of
the foods. We may find also their art ware and hunting equipment. While the period may not be
definitely recorded, the knowledge of the history of the pottery of the tribe often gives an important7/29/13 Nutrition and Physical Degeneration
gutenberg.net.au/ebooks02/0200251h.html#toc 61/250clue to the dates as will also the method of burial. Burials made before the advent of the Christian
era will in many groups show the bodies in a flexed position with the arms in the lap, whereas in the
Christian burials the bodies have been laid prone and the arms crossed on the chest. By this sign
the pre-Columbian burials can readily be separated from the post-Columbian. Using these guides, a study of the Indians of Florida, past and present, permits of comparing the
pre-Columbians with those living today in that same territory. We will, accordingly, consider the
dental caries problem and that of facial and dental arch form in the Florida Indians by comparing
three groups: namely, the pre-Columbian, as evidenced from a study of the skull material in the
museums; the tribes of Indians living in as much isolation as is possible in the Everglades and
Cypress Swamps; and the Indians of the same stock that are living in contact with the foods of
modern civilization. This latter group lives along the Tamiami trail and near Miami. In a study of
several hundred skulls taken from the burial mounds of southern Florida, the incidence of tooth
decay was so low as to constitute an immunity of apparently one hundred per cent, since in several
hundred skulls not a single tooth was found to have been attacked by tooth decay. Dental arch
deformity and the typical change in facial form due to an inadequate nutrition were also completely
absent, all dental arches having a form and interdental relationship such as to bring them into the
classification of normal. These are illustrated in Figs. 22 and 23. The problem of reaching the
isolated groups living in the depth of the Cypress Swamps was complicated by the fact that these
people had a dread of all whites growing out of their belief that they had been grossly taken
advantage of in some of their early efforts to make a treaty with the whites. With the assistance of
three guides, one, an Indian of their own group, another, a white man whom they trusted, and the
third, a government nurse who had been very helpful in case of sickness, we were able to take the
desired measurements and records and photographs. A group of these more primitive
representatives is shown in Fig. 24. While their hunting territory had been grossly encroached upon
by the white hunters, they were still able to maintain a very high degree of physical excellence and
high immunity to dental caries. Only four teeth in each hundred examined were found to have been
attacked by tooth decay. 7/29/13 Nutrition and Physical Degeneration
gutenberg.net.au/ebooks02/0200251h.html#toc 62/250FIG. 22. Skulls of primitive Indians showing superb dental
arches typical of Nature's normal plan. Note the splendid
position of the third molars which are so frequently defective
in position and quality in our modern white civilization. In
many districts where I have made studies among primitive
Indians and in many collections of their skulls close to a
hundred per cent of the teeth have been free from dental
caries or faulty position. FIG. 23. The Indian skulls that have been uncovered in many
parts of the United States and Canada show a degree of
excellence comparable to those seen in this Figure. These
levels of excellence were the rule with them, not the
exception as with us. The parents of these individuals knew
what they and their children should eat! FIG. 24. The Seminole Indians living today in southern
7/29/13 Nutrition and Physical Degeneration
gutenberg.net.au/ebooks02/0200251h.html#toc 63/250FIG. 24. The Seminole Indians living today in southern
Florida largely beyond contact with the white civilization still
produce magnificent teeth and dental arches of which these
are typical. They live in the Everglade forest and still obtain
the native foods. Practically all of the dental arches were normal in contour with freedom from facial distortion. In
contrast with this, the Indians of Florida who are living today in contact with modern civilization
present a pathetic picture. Forty out of every hundred teeth examined were found to have been
attacked by tooth decay, typically illustrated in Fig. 25. In the latest generation, many dental arches
showed a typical deformation with crowding of the teeth and narrowing of the face, conditions that
have been found in all human stocks when on an inadequate nutrition during the formative and early
growth period. A group of these is typically illustrated in Fig. 26. FIG. 25. The Seminole Indians of Florida who are living in
contact with our modern civilization and its foods suffer from
rampant dental caries. 7/29/13 Nutrition and Physical Degeneration
gutenberg.net.au/ebooks02/0200251h.html#toc 64/250FIG. 26. Seminole Indians. Note the change in facial and
dental arch form in the children of this modernized group. They have a marked lack of development of the facial bones
with a narrowing of the nostrils and dental arches with
crowding of the teeth. Their faces are stamped with the
blight which so many often think of as normal because it is
so common with us. It is of interest that the quality of the skeletal material that is taken from the mounds showed
unusually fine physical development and freedom from joint involvements. In contrast with this,
many of the individuals of the modernized group were suffering from advanced deformities of the
skeleton due to arthritic processes. The effects of the excellent nutrition of the pre-Columbian Indians is indicated in the
comparative thickness of the skulls. In Fig. 27 are shown two pieces of a pre-Columbian skull in
contrast with a modern skull. The specimen of a trephined lower jaw, shown in Fig. 27 (right)
indicates a knowledge of surgery that is very remarkable. The margins show new bone growth. The operation opened a cyst. FIG. 27. Left: Example of greater thickness of pre-Columbian
Indian skulls in Florida than modern skulls. Right: Illustration
of bone surgery of ancient Florida Indians. Note healing of
margins of trephined opening into a cyst, of the lower jaw. This is typical of the advanced surgery of the Peruvian
Indians. 7/29/13 Nutrition and Physical Degeneration
gutenberg.net.au/ebooks02/0200251h.html#toc 65/250    For the study of a group of Indians now living in a high western state, Albuquerque, New
Mexico, was visited. Several other Indian studies have been made including studies of living groups, recently opened
burials and museum collections, all of which support the findings recorded here. I am indebted to
the directors and to the staffs of these institutions for their assistance. Notwithstanding the wide range of physical and climatic conditions under which primitive
Indians had been living, their incidence of tooth decay while on their native foods was always near
zero; whereas, the modernized Indians of these groups showed very high incidence of dental
caries. A summary of percentages follows: Primitive Indians: Pelly Mountain, 0.16 per cent;
Juneau, 0.00 per cent; Florida Pre-Columbian, 0.00 per cent; Florida Seminoles, 4.0 per cent. Modernized Indians: Telegraph Creek, 25.5 per cent; Alaska Frontier, 40.0 per cent; Mohawk
Institute, 17 per cent; Brantford Reservation Public School, 28.5 per cent; Brantford Reservation
Hospital, 23.2 per cent, Tuscarora Reservation, 38.0 per cent; Winnipeg Lake Reservation, 39.1
per cent; North Vancouver Reservation, 36.9 per cent; Craigflower Indian Reservation, 48.5 per
cent; Ketchikan, 46.6 per cent; Juneau Hospital, 39.1 per cent; Sheldon Jackson School, 53.7 per
cent; Sitka, 35.6 per cent; Eklutna, 14.6 per cent; Jessie Lee Home, Seward, 27.6 per cent, and
Florida Seminoles, 40.0 per cent. The foods used by the primitives varies according to location and climate. The foods of the
modernized groups in all cases were the typical white man's foods of commerce. While the primitive groups constantly presented well-formed faces and dental arches
reproducing the tribal pattern, the new generation, after the adoption of white man's foods, showed
marked changes in facial and dental arch form. The Indians like several primitive races I have studied are aware of the fact that their
degeneration is in some way brought about by their contact with the white man. The dislike of the
American Indian for the modern white civilization has been emphasized by many writers. In my
studies among the Seminole Indians of Florida I found great difficulty in communicating with or
making examination of the isolated Seminoles living deep in the Everglades and Cypress Swamp. Fortunately, I had the able assistance of one of their own tribe, a government nurse who had been
very helpful to them and also a white man who had befriended them and whom they trusted. With
their assistance I was able to carry out very detailed studies. It was of interest, however, that when
we arrived at a settlement in the bush we practically always found it uninhabited. Our Indian guide
would go into the surrounding scrub and call to the people assuring them it was to their advantage
to come out, which they finally did. I was told that this attitude had grown out of the belief on their
part that their treaties had been violated. These isolated Seminole Indian women had the reputation
of turning their backs on all white men. A United States Press report (1) provides an article with the heading "Tribes 'Fed Up' Seek
Solitude, Indians Dislike Civilization, Ask Land Barred to White Men." The article continues:
    The Bureau of Indian Affairs revealed today that five Indian tribes in Oklahoma are "fed up"
with white civilization and want new, secluded tribal lands. So widespread is the discontent among the 100,000 Indians living in Oklahoma, officials said,
that serious study is being given to the possibility of providing new lands where the redman
may hunt and fish as his ancestors did. Dissatisfaction has been brewing for a long time as a result of an increasing Indian
population, decreasing Indian lands and unsatisfactory economic conditions. It was brought
officially to the notice of bureau officials several days ago when a delegation, headed by Jack
Gouge, a Creek Indian from Hanna, Okla., told Indian Commissioner John Collier that most of the
Oklahoma Indians wanted new tribal lands away from white civilization. So anxious are his people to escape from the white man and his influences, Jack Gouge said,
that an organization of about 1000 Indians has been formed to press the demands. It is known as
the "Four Mothers," apparently representing four of the "civilized tribes"--the Creeks,
Choctaws, Cherokees and Chickasaws.7/29/13 Nutrition and Physical Degeneration
gutenberg.net.au/ebooks02/0200251h.html#toc 66/250    The fifth civilized tribe, the Seminoles of Oklahoma, are negotiating with the Mexican
government for tribal lands in that country. These tribes are described as "civilized" because of the high degree of culture they attained in
their original tribal lands along the eastern coast. As their eastern lands became valuable the
Indians were moved to the area which is now Oklahoma. At the turn of the century, however,
with the discovery of oil there the new tribal lands were broken up. The Indians were forcibly
removed to small tracts despite their desire to remain together. Indian Bureau officials do not
conceal their bitterness over the white man's "treachery." One official pointed out that about 300
treaties have been signed with the Indians and that practically every one has been violated. It will be most fortunate if in the interest of science and human betterment such a program as this
will be carried out in order to permit these Indians to live in accordance with the accumulated
wisdom of their various tribes. Their preservation in isolation would preserve their culture. The
greatest heritage of the white man today is the accumulated wisdom of the human race. REFERENCE
1. Tribes "Fed Up" Seek Solitude. Cleveland Press, June 19, 1938. TABLE OF CONTENTS   
 
Chapter 7
ISOLATED AND MODERNIZED MELANESIANS
SINCE our quest was to gather data that will throw light upon the cause of modern physical
degeneration among human racial stocks in various parts of the world, it became necessary to
include for study various groups living in the hot sultry climates of the tropics. Again it was
desirable to obtain contact with both highly isolated and, therefore, relatively primitive stocks for
comparison with modernized groups of the same stock. In order to accomplish this an expedition
was made in 1934 to eight archipelagos of the Southern Pacific to study groups of Melanesians
and Polynesians. The Melanesians described here were living in New Caledonia and the Fiji
Islands. If the causative factors for the physical degeneration of mankind are practically the same
everywhere, it should be possible to find a common cause operating, regardless of climate, race,
or environment. Owing to the vast extent of the Pacific waters and the limited number of transportation lines, it
became very difficult to arrange a convenient itinerary. This, however, was finally accomplished
satisfactorily by going southward through the more easterly archipelagos; namely, the Marquesas
Islands, Society Islands and Cook Islands, then westward to the Tongan Islands in the southern
central Pacific near New Zealand, and then westward to New Caledonia near Australia. From this
group we went northward to the Fiji Islands, also in the western Pacific, then to the Samoan
Islands in the central Pacific south of the equator, and then to the Hawaiian Islands north of the
equator. These island groups were all populated by different racial stocks speaking different
languages. The movements from archipelago to archipelago were made on the larger ships, and
between the islands of the group in small crafts, except in the Hawaiian Islands where an aeroplane
was used. The program in each group consisted in making contact with local guides and interpreters. They
had generally been arranged for in advance by correspondence with government officials. By these7/29/13 Nutrition and Physical Degeneration
gutenberg.net.au/ebooks02/0200251h.html#toc 67/250means we were able to reach isolated groups in locations quite distant from contact with trade or
merchant ships. To reach these isolated groups often required going over rough and difficult trails
since most of the islands being of volcanic formation are mountainous. On reaching the isolated groups our greetings and the purpose of the mission were conveyed by
our interpreters to the chiefs. Much time was often lost in going through necessary ceremonials and
feasting. In every instance we received a very cordial reception and excellent cooperation. In no
instance was there antagonism. Through the underground telegraph they always seemed to know
we were coming and had prepared for us. When these formalities were once over and our wishes
made known, the chiefs instructed the members of their tribes to carry out our program for making
examinations, recording personal data, making photographs, and collecting samples of foods for
chemical analysis. The food samples were either dried or preserved in formalin. The detailed records for every individual included data on the tribe, village and family, his age,
previous residence, physical development, the kinds of foods eaten, the physical condition of every
tooth, including presence or absence of cavities; the shape of the dental arches; the shape and
development of the face; and detailed notes on divergencies from racial type. Special physical
characteristics were photographed. A comparsion was made of these factors for each of the more
isolated members of the same tribe and those in the vicinity of the port or landing place of the
island. Through the government officials detailed information was secured, usually in the form of the
annual government statistical reports, showing the kind and quantity of the various ingredients and7/29/13 Nutrition and Physical Degeneration
gutenberg.net.au/ebooks02/0200251h.html#toc 68/250articles that were imported, and similarly those that were exported. Contact was made in each
island group with the health officers, and the studies were usually made with their assistance. In
many instances the only contact with civilization had consisted of the call of a small trading ship
once or twice a year to gather up the copra or dried coconut, sea shells and such other products
as the natives had accumulated for exchange. Payment for these products was usually made in
trade goods and not in money. The following articles consisted nearly always of 90 per cent of the
total value: white flour and sugar. Ten per cent consisted of wearing apparel or material for that
apparel. While the missionaries have encouraged the people to adopt habits of modern civilization, in the
isolated districts the tribes were not able to depart much from their native foods because of the
infrequency of the call of the trader ship. Effort had been made in almost all of the islands to induce
the natives to cover their bodies, especially when in sight of strangers. In several islands regulatory
measures had been adopted requiring the covering of the body. This regulation had greatly
reduced the primitive practice of coating the surface of the body with coconut oil, which had the
effect of absorbing the ultra-violet rays thus preventing injury from the tropical sun. This coating of
oil enabled them to shed the rain which was frequently torrential though of short duration. The
irradiation of the coconut oil was considered by the natives to provide, in addition, an important
source of nutrition. Their newly acquired wet garments became a serious menace to the comfort
and health of the wearers. The early navigators who visited these South Sea Islands reported the people as being
exceedingly strong, vigorously built, beautiful in body and kindly disposed. There were formerly
dense populations on most of the inhabitable islands. In contrast with this, one now finds that on
many of the islands the death rate has come to so far exceed the birth rate that the very existence
of these racial groups is often seriously threatened. The Island of New Caledonia is one of the largest of the Pacific. It is situated in the vicinity of
23 degrees south latitude and 165 degrees east longitude. The New Caledonians are pure
Melanesian stock. They are broad shouldererd, very muscular and in the past have been very
warlike. These Islands are under French control. The foreign population is chiefly French, and
limited mainly to the vicinity of the one port of Noumea. The subjugation of these people has been
very difficult and as recently as 1917 a band from the interior in protest against efforts to establish
a white colony and sugar plantation on a desirable section of coastal land swept down on the
French colony in the night and massacred almost the entire population. Their contact with the
required foods from the sea had been cut off. They believe they require sea foods to maintain life
and physical efficiency. The physical development of the primitive people including their teeth and
dental arches is of very high order. A comparison of the individuals living near the ports with those
living in the isolated inland locations shows marked increase in the incidence of dental caries. For
those living almost exclusively on the native foods the incidence of dental caries was only 0.14 per
cent; while for those using trade foods the incidence of dental caries was 26 per cent. The splendid
facial and dental arch development of these quite primitive Caledonians is shown in Fig. 28. Note
also their kinky hair and strong neck and face muscles.7/29/13 Nutrition and Physical Degeneration
gutenberg.net.au/ebooks02/0200251h.html#toc 69/250FIG. 28. These Melanesians are typical in general physical
build and facial and dental arch form of their race which is
spread over a wide area of Islands in the southeastern
Pacific. The nutrition of all is adequate for them to develop
and maintain their racial pattern. The Fiji Island group lies between 15 and 22 degrees south latitude and between 177 degrees
west and 175 degrees east longitude, thus straddling the international date line. The Fiji Islanders
are similar in physical development and appearance to the New Caledonians, and like them are
largely, if not wholly, Melanesian in racial origin. The men have kinky hair and broad shoulders. In
the past, they have been excellent warriors. They are not as tall as their hereditary enemies, the
Tongans, to the east, and in order to make themselves look equally tall, they have adopted the
practice of training their kinky hair straight out from the head to a height often reaching six or more
inches. Typical facial and dental arch forms are shown in Fig. 29. They are British subjects, and
where they have had supervision, in the districts near the ports and on those islands on which sugar
plantations have been established, they have suffered very greatly from the degenerative diseases. 7/29/13 Nutrition and Physical Degeneration
gutenberg.net.au/ebooks02/0200251h.html#toc 70/250FIG. 29. The development of the facial bones determines the
size and shape of the palate and the size of the nasal air
passages. Note the strength of the neck of the men above
and the well proportioned faces of the girls below. Such
faces are usually associated with properly proportioned
bodies. Tooth decay is rare in these mouths so long as they
use an adequate selection of the native foods. Since Viti Levu, one of the islands of this group, is one of the larger islands of the Pacific Ocean,
I had hoped to find on it a district far enough from the sea to make it necessary for the natives to
have lived entirely on land foods. Accordingly, with the assistance of the government officials and
by using a recently opened government road I was able to get well into the interior of the island by
motor vehicle, and from this point to proceed farther inland on foot with two guides. I was not
able, however, to get beyond the piles of sea shells which had been carried into the interior. My
guide told me that it had always been essential, as it is today, for the people of the interior to obtain
some food from the sea, and that even during the times of most bitter warfare between the inland
or hill tribes and the coast tribes, those of the interior would bring down during the night choice
plant foods from the mountain areas and place them in caches and return the following night and
obtain the sea foods that had been placed in those depositories by the shore tribes. The individuals
who carried these foods were never molested, not even during active warfare. He told me further
that they require food from the sea at least every three months, even to this day. This was a matter
of keen interest, and at the same time disappointment since one of the purposes of the expedition
to the South Seas was to find, if possible, plants or fruits which together, without the use of animal
products, were capable of providing all of the requirements of the body for growth and for
maintenance of good health and a high state of physical efficiency. Among the sources of animal
foods was the wild pig from the bush. These were not native, but imported into nearly all of the
islands, and they have become wild where there is an abundance of food for them. Another animal
food was that from coconut crabs which grow to a weight of several pounds. At certain seasons of
the year the crabs migrate to the sea in great numbers from the mountains and interior country. They spend about three days in the sea for part of their reproductive program and return later to
their mountain habitats. Their routes of travel are as nearly as possible in straight lines. At the
season of migration, large numbers of the crabs are captured for food. These crabs rob the
coconut trees of fruit. They climb the trees during the darkness and return to the ground before the
dawn. They cut off the coconuts and allow them to drop to the ground. When the natives hear
coconuts dropping in the night they put a girdle of grass around the tree fifteen or twenty feet from
the ground, and when the crabs back down and touch the grass they think that they are down on
the ground, let go their hold and are stunned by the fall. The natives then collect the crabs and put
them in a pen where they are fed on shredded coconut. In two weeks' time the crabs are so fat
that they burst their shells. They are then very delicious eating. Fresh water fish of various kinds are
used where available from the mountain streams. Land animal foods, however, are not abundant in
the mountainous interior, and no places were found where the native plant foods were not
supplemented by sea foods. Our first visit to the Fiji Islands was in 1934, and the second in 1936. On our first trip we had
much personal assistance from Ratu Popi, hereditary king. His residence was on the royal island
reserved exclusively for the king and his retinue. His picture is shown in Fig. 30 with that of Mrs.
Price. He was very solicitous for the welfare of his people whom he recognized to be rapidly
breaking down with modernization. The council house is also shown in Fig. 30. He gave us very
important information regarding the origin of cannibalism, relating it to a recognition of special food
values of special organs, particularly the livers.7/29/13 Nutrition and Physical Degeneration
gutenberg.net.au/ebooks02/0200251h.html#toc 71/250FIG. 30. The building above is the Fiji Council house and
shows the typical form of native architecture; no nails or
bolts are used. It is located on the King's Island Mbau. The
hereditary monarch, Ratu Popi is seen with Mrs. Price. Note
his splendid features. Beneath his coat he wears a native
skirt and is barefooted. There has been a very extensive development of sugar plantations on the larger islands of
several of the Pacific archipelagos. The working of these plantations has required the importation
of large numbers of indentured laborers. These have been brought chiefly from India and China. Since they are nearly all men, those who have married have obtained their wives from among the
natives. This, the Chinese have done quite frequently. Since they are excellent workers they
provide good homes and are good business men. They are, in many districts, rapidly becoming the
landowners and are men of influence. This influx of Asiatics, together with that of Europeans, has
had an important influence upon the purity of the native race around the ports and provided an
opportunity to study the effect of intermingling of races upon the susceptibility to dental caries. No
differences in extent of tooth decay due to ancestry were disclosed. The incidence of dental caries
at the points of contact with imported foods was 30.1 per cent of teeth examined as compared
with 0.42 for the more isolated groups living on the native foods of land and sea. The physical changes which were found associated with the use of the imported foods included
the loss of immunity to dental caries in practically all of the individuals who had displaced their
native foods very largely with the modern foods. Dental caries was much worse, however, in the
growing children and motherhood group due to the special demands of these individuals. These
conditions are illustrated in Figs. 31 and 32. The boy shown in Fig. 32 (upper, left) typifies the
suffering brought by modernization. Abscessed teeth often cause suicide.7/29/13 Nutrition and Physical Degeneration
gutenberg.net.au/ebooks02/0200251h.html#toc 72/250FIG. 31. These natives of the Fiji Islands illustrate the effect
of changing from the native food to the imported foods of
commerce. Tooth decay becomes rampant and with it is lost
the ability to properly masticate the food. Growing children
and child bearing mothers suffer most severely from dental
caries. 7/29/13 Nutrition and Physical Degeneration
gutenberg.net.au/ebooks02/0200251h.html#toc 73/250FIG. 32. No dentists or physicians are available on most of
these islands. Toothache is the only cause of suicide. The
new generation born after the parents adopt the imported
modern foods often have a change in the shape of the face
and dental arches. The teeth are crowded as shown below. Another important phase of the studies included a critical examination of the facial form and
shape of the dental arches which include very definite and typical changes represented by the
narrowing of the features and the lengthening of the face with crowding of the teeth in the arch. These are illustrated in the lower half of Fig. 32. The members of the Melanesian race living on the Fiji Islands of the Pacific, whether volcanic or
coral in origin, have developed a very high immunity to dental caries and well formed faces and
dental arches. Their native foods consisted of animal life from the sea eaten with plants and fruits
from the land in accordance with a definite program of food selection. In their primitive state only
0.42 per cent of their teeth were attacked by tooth decay. In the modernized groups this incidence
increased to 30.1 per cent. The change in the nutrition included a marked reduction in the native
foods and their displacement with white-flour products, sugar and sweetened goods, canned foods
and polished rice. In the succeeding generations after the parents had adopted the modern foods,
there occurred distinct change in facial form and shape of the dental arches. TABLE OF CONTENTS   
 
Chapter 8
ISOLATED AND MODERNIZED POLYNESIANS
THE characteristics of the Polynesian race included straight hair, oval features, happy, buoyant
dispositions and splendid physiques. When the Pacific Islands were discovered the Polynesians
were found inhabiting the Hawaiian Islands, the Marquesas Islands, the Tuamotu group including
Tahiti, the Cook Islands, the Tongan Islands and the Samoan group. The first group studied was made up of the people of the Marquesas Islands which are situated
9 degrees south latitude and 140 degrees west longitude, about 4,000 miles due west of Peru. Few, if any, of the primitive racial stocks of the South Sea Islands were so enthusiastically extolled
for their beauty and excellence of physical development by the early navigators. Much tooth decay
prevails today. They reported the Marquesans as vivacious, happy people numbering over a
hundred thousand on the seven principal islands of this group. Probably in few places in the world
can so distressing a picture be seen today as is found there. A French government official told me
that the native population had decreased to about two thousand, chiefly as a result of the ravages
of tuberculosis. Serious epidemics of small-pox and measles have at times taken a heavy toll. In a
group of approximately one hundred adults and children I counted ten who were emaciated and
coughing with typical signs of tuberculosis. Many were waiting for treatment at a dispensary eight
hours before the hour it opened. In the past some of the natives have had splendid physiques, fine
countenances, and some of the women have had beautiful features. They are now a sick and dying
primitive group. A trader ship was in port exchanging white flour and sugar for their copra. They7/29/13 Nutrition and Physical Degeneration
gutenberg.net.au/ebooks02/0200251h.html#toc 74/250have largely ceased to depend on the sea for food. Tooth decay was rampant. At the time of the
examination, 36.9 per cent of the teeth of the people using trade food in conjunction with the land
plants and fruits had been attacked by tooth decay. The individuals living entirely on native foods
were few. Some early navigators were so highly impressed with the beauty and health of these
people that they reported the Marquesas Islands as the Garden of Eden. Tahiti is the principal
island of the Society group. It is situated 17 degrees south of the equator, 149 degrees west
longitude. Fortunately degeneration has not been so rapid nor so severe here. The Tahitian
population, however, has reduced from over two hundred thousand as early estimated, to a
present native population estimated at about ten thousand. These islands are also a part of French
Oceania. Many of the able bodied men were taken from these French Islands to France to fight in
the World War. Only a small percentage, however, returned, and they were mostly crippled and
maimed. The Tahitians are a buoyant, light-hearted race, fully conscious, however, of their rapid
decline in numbers and health. Many of the more primitive are very fine looking and have excellent
dental arches, as seen in Fig. 33. FIG. 33. Polynesians are a beautiful race and physically
sturdy. They have straight hair and their color is often that
of a sun tanned European. They have perfect dental arches. The capital of Tahiti, Papeete, is the administrative center for the French Pacific possessions. It
has a large foreign population, and there is considerable commerce in and out of this port. Much
imported food is used. Like on the Marquesas Islands, it was difficult to find large numbers of
individuals living entirely on the native foods. Those that were found had complete immunity to
dental caries. For the natives living in part on trade foods, chiefly white flour, sugar and canned
goods, 31.9 per cent of the teeth were found to be attacked by tooth decay. Typical extensive
destruction of the teeth amongst the modernized Tahitians is shown in Fig. 34. There is a large
colony of Chinese in Tahiti, brought there as indentured laborers. They have not returned. When
the Tahitian men did not return from the war, their wives married the Chinese, who are good
workers.7/29/13 Nutrition and Physical Degeneration
gutenberg.net.au/ebooks02/0200251h.html#toc 75/250FIG. 34. Wherever the native foods have been displaced by
the imported foods, dental caries becomes rampant. These
are typical modernized Tahitians. The Cook Islands are British and under the direct guidance of the New Zealand Government. Rarotonga is the principal island. It is situated in the Pacific Ocean in the vicinity of 21 degrees
south latitude and 160 degrees west longitude. It has a delightful climate the year around. Racially
according to legend, the Maori tribe, the native tribe of New Zealand, migrated there from the
Cook Islands. In addition to being similar in physical development and appearance, their languages
are sufficiently similar so that each can understand the other, even though their separation occurred
probably over a thousand years ago. It is a matter of great importance that the inhabitants of these South Sea Islands were skillful
navigators and boat builders. It was a common occurrence for expeditions both peaceful and
aggressive to make journeys of one and two thousand miles in crafts propelled by man power and
wind and carrying in addition an adequate supply of water and food for their journey. A large number were found in Rarotonga living almost entirely on native foods, and only 0.3 per
cent of the teeth of these individuals have been attacked by dental caries. In the vicinity of Avarua,
the principal port, however, the natives were living largely on trade foods, and among these 29.5
per cent of the teeth were found to have been attacked by dental caries. In Fig. 35 (top) are seen
typically fine faces and teeth. However at the lower left is shown a child at the port whose parents
were living on the imported food. This boy's upper lateral teeth are erupting inside the arch. In the
lower right is a child with normal spacing of the deciduous teeth.7/29/13 Nutrition and Physical Degeneration
gutenberg.net.au/ebooks02/0200251h.html#toc 76/250FIG. 35. These Polynesians live on the island of Rarotonga. At the top are two examples of typically fine faces and teeth. Below, at left, is seen a full blood Polynesian child with the
dental arch so small that the permanent laterals are
developing inside the arch. His parents used imported food. At the right below is a mixed blood of white and Polynesian. Note the normal spacing of the temporary teeth before the
permanent set appears. Parents used native foods. Under British guidance the Cook Islanders have much better health than the Marquesans or the
Tahitians. Their population is not seriously decreasing, and is untroubled except for the progressive
development of the degenerative diseases around the port. They are thrifty and happy, and are
rapidly developing a local culture including a school system supported by natives. The inhabitants of the Tongan Islands, the principal of which is Tongatabu, are Polynesian. This
group, containing over 100 islands, is situated between 18 and 22 degrees south latitude and
between 173 and 176 degrees west longitude, and has a native population of about 28,000. They
have the distinction of being one of the last absolute monarchies of the world. While they are under
the protection of Great Britain, they largely manage their own affairs. Their isolation is nearly
complete except for a call from an infrequent trader. They seem to be credited by the inhabitants
of the other islands as being the greatest warriors of the Pacific. The Tongans at least acknowledge
that they are the greatest warriors, and indeed the greatest people of the world. They will not step
aside to allow anyone to pass since they say that when the world was created and populated they
were the first to be made, next was the pig, and last the white man. Ethnologically, they are said to
be a mixture of the darker Melanesians with their kinky hair, and the fairer Polynesians of the
eastern archipelagos with straight hair. It is said they have never been defeated in battle. For
centuries they and the Fijian tribes 700 miles to the west have frequently been at war. The British
government has very skillfully directed this racial rivalry into athletics. While we were in the Fiji
Islands the British government provided a battle cruiser to carry the football team from Fiji to
Nukualofa for the annual contest of strength. These islanders have practiced eugenics by selecting tall strong mates. The queen of the islands
was six feet three inches in height. The limited importation of foods to the Tongan Islands due to the infrequent call of merchant or
trading ships has required the people to remain largely on their native foods. Following the war,
however, the price of copra went up from $40.00 per ton to $400.00, which brought trading ships
with white flour and sugar to exchange for the copra. The effect of this is shown very clearly in the
condition of the teeth. The incidence of dental caries among the isolated groups living on native7/29/13 Nutrition and Physical Degeneration
gutenberg.net.au/ebooks02/0200251h.html#toc 77/250foods was 0.6 per cent, while for those around the port living in part on trade foods, it is 33.4 per
cent. The effect of the imported food was clearly to be seen on the teeth of the people who were
in the growth stage at that time. Now the trader ships no longer call and this forced isolation is very
clearly a blessing in disguise. Dental caries has largely ceased to be active since imported foods
became scarce, for the price of copra fell to $4.00 a ton. The temporary rise in tooth decay was
apparently directly associated with the calling of trader ships. The Samoan Islands are located in the vicinity of 14 degrees south latitude and between 166
and 174 degrees west longitude. The native population of the Samoan Islands is Polynesian. The
control of the Islands is divided between two governments. The eastern group is American. The
western group is British since the World War, before which it was under German control. The
western group is now under a mandate to New Zealand. Through the kindness of the Governor
and Naval Officers of American Samoa transportation was provided on an auxiliary craft to the
various islands of the American Samoan group. We were particularly indebted to Commander
Stephenson, Director of Health, whose guests we were, for continued personal assistance in
making favorable contacts in nearly all villages of the American Samoan group. In no islands of the
Pacific did we find so excellent an organization for health service. Dispensaries have been
established within reach of nearly all the villages besides hospital service at Pago Pago, the port of
Tutuila. This is the finest port in the Pacific Ocean. Notwithstanding the regular monthly contact
through merchant ships to and from America and Australia, many isolated groups were found living
largely on the native foods. A dental survey had recently been made of this group by Lieutenant
Commander Ferguson. (1)
   The excellent facial and dental arch development of the Samoans is illustrated in the upper half of
Fig. 36. The change in facial and dental arch form which follows the use of modern food by the
parents is shown in the lower half of Fig. 36. Note the marked irregularity of the teeth. This is one
of the few groups of islands in which the population is not rapidly decreasing, indeed there is some
increase. The Navy personnel includes one dentist. Practically all his time is required for the
personnel and families of the Navy at this station. Accordingly, he can do only a limited amount of
emergency service such as extractions for the natives. About 90 per cent of the inhabitants of
American Samoa are on the largest island, Tutuila, and due to the development of roads, a
considerable number of the people have access to the main port, to which several of them come
on ship days to sell their wares and to buy provisions to augment their native foods.
Nutrition_and_Physical_Degeneration_by_Weston_Price.txt
Summarize the following text section accurately and concisely. Maintain specific details and numerical information, and use anti-repetition mechanisms:

        They are entirely different from their grandmothers or even mothers in their capacity
and efficiency in the matter of reproduction. He stated that that morning he had had two cases in
which surgical interference was necessary in order to make birth possible. We had an opportunity here to study the effects of modernization. Indians are great lovers of
sports, particularly of their own national game which is lacrosse. We were able to witness one of
these contests with a team from another reservation. Indian families came in modern automobiles
dressed in modern clothes and purchased pop and candy and modern confections at typical
confection stands. These were highly modernized Indians. The group on this reservation, comprising approximately four thousand seven hundred Indians,
belong to the following tribes: Mohawks, Onondagas, Cayugas, Senecas, Oneidas and Delawares
making up the Six Nation or Iroquois group. A later addition to this group has been the Tuscaroras
from the Carolinas. While there were many mixed bloods, there were also a goodly number of full-
blooded Indian families, so that there was an opportunity to study comparatively the effects of
intermingling of the Indians with the whites. As in previous investigations, a special effort was made
to study the children from eight to sixteen years of age. Typical cases were selected from different
environments. For example, boys and girls selected from a training school called Mohawk
Institute, which was near the city of Brantford, represented one type of environment. There are
approximately one hundred and sixty students under training here, and we were informed that they
study half a day and work half a day. The boys are taught craftsmanship and farming, the girls,
home economics and garment making, and such practical training as would prepare them for later
home building. While most of the boys and girls come from that reservation, a few are accepted
from other reservations. It is of interest that 77 per cent of the children in this Institution had
suffered from earlier dental caries and that 17 per cent of all the teeth examined had already been
attacked by dental caries. But this had occurred apparently before their entrance to the Institute,
for we did not find a single case of active caries among those examined, and this is particularly
important in connection with their excellent nutrition. The Institute maintained a fine dairy herd and
provided fresh vegetables, whole wheat bread, and limited the sugar and white flour. The children of this group were compared with children of approximately the same age in a
public school of the reservation where it was found that 90 per cent had had dental caries, and that
at present in 70 per cent of the cases the caries was apparently active. It is important to note that
in this group 28. 5 per cent of all the teeth examined had already been attacked by tooth decay. A study was made of patients at the reservation hospital where free service of all kinds is
provided. We found that 83 per cent had suffered from dental caries, and that 23. 2 per cent of all
teeth had already been attacked by caries. We were particularly interested in the conditions obtaining in the homes, especially with the
mothers. A typical young mother had approximately half her teeth attacked by dental caries, as
had also her son, aged seven. The middle third of his face was underdeveloped and all of his upper
anterior teeth were decayed to the gum line. A study was made of an Indian reservation in New York State for comparison and for making
an estimate of typical modern American Indian life with regard to dental caries and nutrition. For
this study a band of 450 in the Tuscarora Reservation northeast of Niagara Falls was visited. Here
again we were fortunate to see the people in holiday mood since the study was made on
Decoration Day and events of the year had been scheduled, a lacrosse match and a baseball7/29/13 Nutrition and Physical Degeneration
gutenberg. net. au/ebooks02/0200251h. html#toc 57/250game, between the Indians' teams and white teams from adjacent towns. Several hundred Indians
were congregated to exhibit their best in wearing apparel, transportation equipment, and physical
prowess. There was evidence of a similarity of features in the older Indians who had not been
highly modernized, and a striking deficiency in the facial development of many of the moderns. A typical mother was studied at her home. She had four children. Her teeth were ravaged by
dental caries. She was strictly modern, for she had gold inlays in some of her teeth. The roots of
the missing teeth had not been extracted. Twenty of her teeth had active dental caries. Her little
girl, aged four, already had twelve very badly carious teeth. Another daughter aged eight had
sixteen carious teeth, and her son aged ten had six. The husband was in bed from an acute lung
involvement, doubtless tuberculosis. The children were eating their noon day meal when we
arrived, which consisted of a white bread and some stewed vegetables. Milk was available for
only the small baby in arms. In this Tuscarora group 83 per cent of those examined had dental
caries and 38 per cent of all teeth had already been attacked by dental caries. Every one studied in
this reservation was using white-flour products, none were using milk liberally, and only a few in
even limited amounts. I was told that in both reservations a few years ago the Indians grew wheat
and kept cows to provide a liberal supply of natural cereal and milk for their families, but of late
this practice had been discontinued. They were now buying their wheat in the form of white flour
and their vegetables largely put up in cans. In both reservations they were using commercial
vegetable fats, jams and marmalades, sweetened goods, syrups and confections very liberally. It is
remarkable how early the child life adopts modern civilization's confections. In order to provide a further cross section of the modernized Indians of North America, I made
a study in a reservation on Winnipeg Lake in Manitoba. This reservation lies north and east of
Winnipeg and is quite highly modernized. These people were reached with much difficulty because of the natural protection provided by
the location of their reservation at the mouth of Brokenhead River. They had been provided with
fertile lands and taught modern methods of farming. Their proximity to a great body of water fairly
well-stocked with fish gave them an opportunity to secure fish, if they were disposed to make the
effort to do so, as their ancestors had done through previous centuries. Their homes were found to
be in a dilapidated condition, and while their lands were stocked with cattle and horses, such as
we found were in poor condition, and limited in number. The people had been provided with a
government school and a government agent to assist in providing for their needs and in giving
material assistance when needed. They were within fairly easy distance of hospitals, and had
available modern medical service. Notwithstanding all these advantages, their physical condition
was very poor. Dental caries was so wide-spread that 39. 1 per cent of all teeth studied were
found to be affected. They were living almost entirely on modern foods, imported white flours,
jams, canned vegetables and liberal quantities of sugar. Over 90 per cent of the individuals had
rampant dental caries. Their physical condition and their supply of necessities was very much lower
than was that of either of the two preceding groups. Distress was evident even in late summer. The Indians so far reported were living inland with access to inland foods only. The Pacific
Coast Indians were examined to determine the effect of sea foods. To find evidence relating to the
physical, and particularly to the dental condition of the Indians who inhabited the Pacific slope a
thousand or more years ago, a visit was made to the Vancouver Museum at Vancouver which
fortunately possesses splendidly preserved specimens of prehistoric periods. Some of these skulls
were uncovered while cutting through a hill for a street extension in the city of Vancouver. Above
was a virgin forest of large size green firs and underneath them in the soil there were preserved
fallen trunks of other large trees. Several feet below these, burials were uncovered containing
skeletons of an early Indian race. This collection contains also skulls from several places and from
prehistoric periods. The teeth are all splendidly formed and free from dental caries. The arches are
very symmetrical and the teeth in normal and regular position. It was important to study the conditions of their successors living in the same general
community. Accordingly, we examined the teeth and general physical condition of the Indians in a
reservation in North Vancouver, so situated that they have the modern conveniences and modern7/29/13 Nutrition and Physical Degeneration
gutenberg.
40%
What percentage of the teeth examined in the group of children from the Craigflower Indian Reservation had already been attacked by tooth decay?