Habitat & Cultivation Native to Europe  
and Asia, self-heal can be found in temperate regions worldwide. It is a wayside plant, growing  in meadows and by roadsides, and thrives in sunny areas. Rarely cultivated, self-heal can easily be grown from seed or by root division. The aerial parts are picked in summer when in flower. Parts Used Aerial parts. Constituents Self-heal contains 
entacyclic triterpenes, tannins, caffeic  
and rosmarinic acids, and vitamins B1,  
C, and K.
History & Folklore As its name indicates, 
self-heal has been used for centuries to staunch 
bleeding and heal wounds. The 17th-century 
herbalist John Gerard wrote: “there is not a 
better wounde herbe in the world than that of selfe-heale.”
Medicinal Actions & Uses Self-heal is  
an undervalued astringent and wound-healer with tonic activity. In common with other members  of the mint family, such as rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis, p. 128) and sage (Salvia spp., p. 131), it has powerful antioxidant and tissue-protective activity—making it potentially of value in many chronic illnesses. Its antioxidant and astringent activity makes it beneficial in conditions such as sore throat, inflammatory bowel disease, and diarrhea, and to heal internal bleeding. Externally, a lotion can be applied to treat leukorrhea (vaginal discharge). In Chinese medicine, self-heal  is taken with ju hua (Chrysanthemum x morifolium,  p. 78) for fevers, headaches, dizziness, and vertigo,  and is thought to cool “liver fire.”Habitat & Cultivation Cowslip grows in 
Europe and western Asia, preferring fields and pastures with chalky soils. The flowers and leaves are gathered in spring and summer, the root in autumn. This increasingly rare plant should not  be picked from the wild. Parts Used Flowers, leaves, root. Constituents Cowslip contains triterpenoid 
saponins, flavonoids, phenols, tannins, and a trace  of volatile oil. The flavonoids, mainly in the flowers, are antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and antispasmodic. The triterpenoid saponins, which are concentrated in the root (5–10%), are strongly expectorant. History & Folklore This plant is so closely 
associated with springtime that it is known as primavera (spring) in Spanish and Italian. Cowslip has long been reputed to preserve beauty. The 16th-century herbalist William Turner wrote: “Some weomen … sprinkle ye floures of cowslip with whyte wine and after … wash their faces with that water to… make them fayre in the eyes of the worlde rather than in the eyes of God, whom they are not afryd to offend.”
Medicinal Actions & Uses Cowslip is an 
underused but valuable plant. The root is strongly expectorant, stimulating a more liquid mucus  Cowslip has  
calming properties. Primula veris (Primulaceae)
Cowslip,
Primula
Description Hairy perennial growing to 4 in  
(10 cm). Has a basal rosette of slightly rough oblong leaves. Stems bear clusters of bright yellow, bell-shaped flowers. US_246-265_Pergularia_Extensa_Salvia_Sclarea.indd   256 26/02/16   12:47 pm257 other medicinal plantsPrunus serotina
Prunus avium  & P. cerasus 
(Rosaceae)
Sweet Cherry, 
& T art Cherry
Description Deciduous shrub or tree growing 
to 26 ft (8 m). It has reddish-brown bark, oval to 
elliptical leaves, clusters of 2–6 white flowers, and 
almost spherical red fruit. Habitat & Cultivation Native to 
southwestern Asia, cherry is naturalized in Europe  
and cultivated in temperate regions around the 
world. The stems and ripe fruit are collected  
in summer. Parts Used Stems, fruit. Constituents Cherry stems contain phenols, 
including salicylic acid, and tannins. Cherry fruit 
contains anthocyanins and flavonoids, including 
quercetin, carotenoids, sugars, fruit acids, vitamin 
C, and melatonin. History & Folklore The 16th-century herbalist 
John Gerard recorded the French custom of 
hanging cherries in houses to ward off fever. Medicinal Actions & Uses In European  
herbal medicine, cherries and cherry stems have 
long been used for their diuretic and astringent 
properties. They have been prescribed for cystitis, 
nephritis, and urinary retention, and for arthritic 
problems, notably gout. Cherries and cherry juice 
can be useful in treating gout and arthritic 
problems. Their fruit sugar content makes them 
mildly laxative.concluded that the anti-inflammatory activities of 
anthocyanins within cherry fruit are comparable  
to those of ibuprofen. Caution The seeds are toxic and should not  
be consumed.Prunus armeniaca (Rosaceae)
Apricot
Description Sturdy deciduous tree growing  
to 33 ft (10 m). Has finely serrated oval leaves, 
clusters of white (or, rarely, pink) 5-petaled 
flowers, and lightly freckled pale yellow to  
deep purple fruits. Habitat & Cultivation Native to China and 
Japan, apricot is now cultivated in Asia, North 
Africa, and California. The fruit is collected when 
ripe in late summer. Apricot seeds yield laetrile, 
which has been  
used as a controversial  
treatment for cancer. Sweet cherry fruit and stems have been harvested for 
medicinal use since classical times.Parts Used Fruit, seeds, bark. Constituents Apricot fruit contains fruit  
sugars, vitamins, and iron. The seeds contain up  
to 8% amygdalin, the cyanogenic glycoside that  
yields laetrile and hydrocyanic (prussic) acid. The 
bark contains tannins. History & Folklore In India and China, the 
apricot has been appreciated for well over 2,000 
years. Dong Feng, a physician who practiced at the 
end of the 2nd century ce, is said to have asked for 
his payment in apricot trees. Medicinal Actions & Uses Apricot fruit  
is nutritious, cleansing, and mildly laxative. A 
decoction of the astringent bark soothes  
inflamed and irritated skin conditions. Though  
the seeds contain highly toxic prussic acid, they  
are prescribed in small amounts in the Chinese 
tradition as a treatment for coughs, asthma, and 
wheezing, and for excessive mucus production  
and constipation. An extract from the seeds,  
laetrile, has been used in Western medicine as a 
controversial (and illegal in the U.S.) treatment for 
cancer. The seeds also yield a fixed oil, similar to 
almond oil (from P. amygdalus ), that is often used  
in the formulation of cosmetics. Research Chinese trials show that apricot seed 
paste helps combat vaginal infection. Caution Apricot seeds are highly toxic in  
all but the smallest amounts and should not  
be consumed.Research  In a 2012 American-Australian clinical 
study involving 633 people with gout, the risk of an 
acute gout attack was reduced by 35% for those 
taking cherry extract. One laboratory study Prunus serotina (Rosaceae)
Wild Cherry
Description Deciduous tree growing to 100 ft 
(30 m). Has elliptical to oblong leaves, white 
flowers, and purple-black fruit. Habitat & Cultivation Native to North 
America, wild cherry grows throughout much  
of the U.S. It is cultivated in central Europe for its 
timber. The bark is collected in late summer and 
early autumn. Part Used Inner bark. Constituents Wild cherry contains prunasin  
(a cyanogenic glycoside that yields hydrocyanic 
acid), benzaldehyde, eudesmic acid, coumarins,  
and tannins. Prunasin reduces the cough reflex. History & Folklore Cherokee women 
traditionally took wild cherry bark to ease labor 
pain. Other Native Americans used it in the 
treatment of coughs and colds, hemorroids, and 
diarrhea. European settlers learned of the bark’s 
medicinal properties, and in the 19th century it 
became a widely used remedy. Medicinal Actions & Uses Figuring in  
official pharmacopoeias and much used in the 
Anglo-American tradition, wild cherry bark is an Prunus mume (Rosaceae)
Asian Plum,
Wu Mei (Chinese)
Description Deciduous tree growing to 33 ft 
(10 m). Has pointed oval to elliptical leaves, white 
flowers, and yellow fruit. Habitat & Cultivation Native to China, 
Asian plum grows wild and is planted in the 
southern and eastern provinces. The fruit is picked 
in late spring. Part Used Fruit. Constituents Asian plum contains fruit acids 
and sugars, vitamin C, and plant sterols. Medicinal Actions & Uses The sour-tasting 
astringent Asian plum is used in Chinese medicine 
to counter diarrhea and dysentery, to stop bleeding, 
and to ease coughs. It may also be effective in 
expelling hookworms. Externally, a plaster of the 
fruit is applied to the sites of removed corns and 
warts to hasten healing. Research Laboratory research undertaken in 
China indicates that the fruit of Asian plum has 
antibiotic properties. US_246-265_Pergularia_Extensa_Salvia_Sclarea.indd   257 26/02/16   12:47 pm
258
other medicinal plantsPsoralea corylifolia
effective remedy for chronic dry and irritable 
coughs. It combines well with coltsfoot (Tussilago farfara, p. 278) as a treatment for asthma and whooping cough. The astringent bark also helps treat indigestion and the symptoms of irritable bowel syndrome, especially when these conditions are of nervous origin. Caution Wild cherry bark is highly toxic in 
excessive doses.It is also used to treat or prevent baldness. The bark is strongly astringent and is employed  as a gargle for sore throats and taken in the  form of an infusion in order to treat diarrhea  and dysentery. Related Species Lirisoma ovata, another 
Brazilian tree, is also known as muira puama,  but has quite distinct chemical constituents. Pueraria lobata  
syn. P. thunbergiana (Fabaceae)
Kudzu,
Ge Gen (Chinese)
Description Deciduous climber growing to  
100 ft (30 m). Has leaves with 3 broadly oval 
leaflets, curling tendrils, and spikes of pea-type purple flowers. Habitat & Cultivation Native to China,  
Japan, and eastern Asia, kudzu is naturalized in  the U.S. It is cultivated in the central and eastern provinces of China. The root is unearthed in  spring or autumn.alopecia (loss of hair), and vitiligo (loss of skin pigmentation). In Vietnam, a tincture of the seeds  is used in the treatment of rheumatism. Research Studies in China indicate that this  
herb is of value in the treatment of skin disorders, including vitiligo. Caution Applied externally, this herb may sensitize 
the skin, resulting in an allergic reaction to sunlight. Pterocarpus marsupium (Fabaceae)
Kino
Description Handsome deciduous tree growing 
to 52 ft (16 m). Has leaves with 5–7 oval leathery 
leaflets, and numerous small yellow 
or white flowers. Habitat & Cultivation 
Native to Sri Lanka, India, Malaysia 
and the Philippines, kino grows in 
tropical rainforests. The tree is 
cultivated for its timber and for the 
sap (“kino”) that exudes from cuts made 
in the trunk. The sap is collected year round. Part Used Sap. Constituents Kino contains tannins, flavonoids, 
and marsupsin. Medicinal Actions & Uses Kino is a  
strongly astringent herb that tightens the mucous membranes of the gastrointestinal tract. Kino relieves chronic diarrhea and the irritation caused by intestinal infection and colitis. Though its taste is unpleasant, this herb makes a good mouthwash and gargle. It is widely used in Asia as a douche for excessive vaginal discharge. Research Clinical trials have found that the herb 
is therapeutically useful in treating the early stages of non-insulin-dependent diabetes.Wild cherry bears long spikes of white flowers, 
followed by fleshy, blue-black fruit. Kudzu is used in China to treat alcoholism and is an ingredient in a remedy for hangovers.Psoralea corylifolia (Fabaceae)
Bu Gu Zhi
Description Perennial growing to 3 ft (90cm). Has oval leaves, yellow clover-like flowers, and 
black seed pods containing yellow-black seeds. Habitat & Cultivation Bu gu zhi is native to 
southern and southeastern Asia and cultivated in China. The fruit is gathered when ripe in autumn. Parts Used Seeds. Constituents The seeds contain a volatile oil, 
flavonoids, a flavone, and furanocoumarins. History & Folklore In the Chinese tradition, 
bu gu zhi has long been considered a tonic remedy. It was first documented in Grandfather Lei’s Discussion of Herb Preparations, which was written in about 490 ce. Medicinal Actions & Uses Valued as a yang  
tonic, bu gu zhi is taken in China to treat impotence and premature ejaculation and to improve vitality. The seeds are also used to counter debility and other problems reflecting “kidney yang  deficiency,” 
such as lower back pain, frequent urination, incontinence, and bed-wetting. Bu gu zhi is used externally to treat skin conditions such as psoriasis, Ptychopetalum olacoides  
syn. P. uncinatum (Oleaceae)
Muira Puama
Description Tree growing to 49 ft (15 m) with 
a gray trunk, dark brown leaves, white flowers, 
and orange-yellow fruits. Habitat & Cultivation Muira puama is 
native to Brazilian rainforests, especially the  
Rio Negro and Amazonas regions. Part Used Root, bark, wood. Constituents Muira puama contains esters  
and plant sterols. Medicinal Actions & Uses Muira puama  
has long been used in Amazonian medicine as  a tonic and aphrodisiac. Considered useful as an aid for impotence, it is thought to help with both physical and psychological aspects of the problem. Parts Used Root, flower. Constituents Kudzu contains triterpenoid 
saponins, isoflavones, and phytosterols. The isoflavones are estrogenic. History & Folklore From the 6th century bce 
onward, Chinese herbalists have considered kudzu to be a remedy for muscular pain and  
a treatment for measles. Zhang Zhongjing  
(150–c. 219 ce) recommended kudzu if the 
patient “has a stiff back and muscles, does not breathe easily, and is susceptible to wind.”
Medicinal Actions & Uses In China, kudzu  
is frequently used as a remedy for measles, often  in combination with sheng ma (Cimicifuga foetida). US_246-265_Pergularia_Extensa_Salvia_Sclarea.indd   258 26/02/16   12:47 pm259 other medicinal plantsPunica granatum
History & Folklore According to the  
medieval Doctrine of Signatures, which held  
that a plant’s appearance pointed to the ailment  
it treated, lungwort was effective for chest  
ailments because its leaves were said to resemble 
lung tissue. Medicinal Actions & Uses Given its high 
mucilage content, lungwort is indeed a useful 
remedy for chest conditions, and it is particularly 
beneficial in cases of chronic bronchitis. It combines 
well with herbs such as coltsfoot ( Tussilago farfara , 
p. 278) as a treatment for chronic coughs (including 
whooping cough), and it can be taken for asthma. Lungwort can also be used as a treatment for  
sore throats and congestion. In the past, lungwort  
was given for the coughing up of blood arising 
from tubercular infection. Lungwort leaves are 
astringent, and have been applied externally to  
stop bleeding. Caution Lungwort is subject to legal restrictions 
in some countries.Punica granatum (Lythraceae)
Pomegranate
Description Deciduous shrub or tree growing 
to 20 ft (6 m). Has branches tipped with spines, 
whorls of lance-shaped leaves, scarlet flowers, and 
leathery-rinded round fruit containing many pulp-
covered seeds. Habitat & Cultivation Native to 
southwestern Asia, pomegranate has become 
naturalized in Europe. The tree is widely cultivated 
for its fruit, which is gathered in autumn when it is 
ripe. The bark is also gathered in autumn. Parts Used Juice, fruit pulp, rind, bark. Constituents The fruit and juice contain 
pelletierene alkaloids, elligatannins (up to 25%),  
and triterpenoids. The alkaloids are highly toxic.Kudzu is also given for muscle aches and pains, 
especially when they are linked with fever or are 
affecting the neck and upper back. The root may be 
taken to treat symptoms of headache, dizziness, or 
numbness caused by high blood pressure. Kudzu also 
treats diarrhea and dysentery. Kudzu flowers are 
traditionally taken to treat alcohol intoxication and 
hangovers, and are thought to increase the rate of 
clearance of alcohol from the body, aiding recovery 
from intoxication. Kudzu root, however, is thought  
to act in a more or less opposite way—it slows the 
liver’s ability to break down (and clear) alcohol from 
the system. Kudzu root may therefore increase the 
risks associated with alcohol consumption, and 
should not be taken as a “hangover cure.”
Research Chinese studies indicate that kudzu 
increases cerebral blood flow in patients with 
arteriosclerosis, and eases neck pain and stiffness. U.S. research indicates that kudzu may suppress  
the desire for alcohol. Related Species The closely related P. mirifica  
and P. tuberosa  have been investigated for their 
contraceptive effect. Pulmonaria officinalis 
(Boraginaceae)
Lungwort
Description Perennial growing to 1 ft (30 cm). Has broad oval basal leaves, smaller upper leaves 
mottled with white spots, and clusters of  
pink-purple flowers. Habitat & Cultivation Lungwort is native to 
Europe and the Caucasus. It flourishes in mountain 
pastures and in damp sites. The leaves are gathered 
in late spring. Parts Used Leaves. Constituents Lungwort contains allantoin, 
flavonoids, tannins, mucilage, and saponins. Pyrrolizidine alkaloids occur in the roots, but in 
negligible quantities in the leaves.Pomegranate’s leathery 
fruit and jewel-toned 
seeds feature in ancient 
Greek mythology. Lungwort’s speckled leaves were once considered a sign of 
its ability to cure lung problems.History & Folklore In 1500 bce, the pharaoh 
Tuthmosis reputedly brought back pomegranate to 
Egypt from Asia. Prized as a fruit, it was also sought 
after as a remedy for worms. The Greek physician 
Dioscorides, in the 1st century ce, knew of the 
herb’s ability to expel worms, but this attribute was 
subsequently forgotten in Europe for nearly 1,800 
years. In the early 19th century, after an Indian 
herbalist used pomegranate to cure an Englishman 
of tapeworms, English doctors in India became 
interested in pomegranate and its medicinal 
properties were investigated.Pulsatilla chinensis 
(Ranunculaceae)
Chinese Anemone,
Bai Tou Weng (Chinese)
Description Perennial herb growing to  
10 in (25 cm). Has erect downy stems, 
compound leaves, bell-shaped flowers,  
and feathery seedheads. Habitat & Cultivation Chinese anemone  
is native to eastern Asia, and is found in Mongolia, 
China, and Japan. The root is unearthed either 
before the plant comes into flower in spring,  
or in autumn. Part Used Root. Constituents Chinese anemone contains 
lactones (including protoanemonin and anemonin), 
pulsatoside, and anemonol. History & Folklore Chinese anemone root 
was first documented in Chinese medicine in the 
Divine Husbandman’s Classic  (Shen’nong Bencaojing ), 
a herbal written in the 1st century ce. Medicinal Actions & Uses Chinese 
anemone is thought to clear toxicity and to lower 
fever. It is most commonly taken as a decoction  
to counter infection within the gastrointestinal 
tract. The root is also used to treat malarial fever 
and vaginal infections. Research Chinese studies have shown the root 
to be potentially valuable as a treatment for 
amoebic dysentery. Related Species See pasque flower ( Anemone 
pulsatilla , p. 168). Caution T ake Chinese anemone only under 
professional supervision.Pomegranate  
fruit
US_246-265_Pergularia_Extensa_Salvia_Sclarea.indd   259 26/02/16   12:47 pm
260
other medicinal plantsPygeum africanum
Medicinal Actions & Uses Until recently,  
the chief medicinal value of pomegranate was  
as a deworming agent, with the rind and bark being considered specific remedies for tapeworm infestation. Now, pomegranate juice is widely available and known for its positive effects on the heart and circulation. Like other medicinal plants with a high anthocyanidin content, pomegranate fruit and juice have potent protective activity on  all aspects of the circulation, supporting healthy circulation and countering local inflammatory activity, which damages the inner lining of the blood vessels. The juice is commonly taken to  help with cardiovascular problems, including  high blood pressure, capillary fragility, angina,  and congestive heart failure. It also appears  to help prevent dental plaque. Research In recent years, there has been  
significant interest in the medicinal properties  of pomegranate fruit and juice. As above, pomegranate has a strongly beneficial activity  on the cardiovascular system, but it also appears  to have an unusually wide range of potential therapeutic properties, including antibacterial, antiseptic, anti-inflammatory, and estrogenic activity. James A. Duke, a former USDA  botanist, has described it as an “antimenopausal fruit.” Pomegranate shows signs of having  
anticancer activity and has been recommended  as a preventative and treatment for prostate cancer. New potential uses are likely to emerge over time. Cautions Do not use the rind or bark unless 
under professional supervision. This plant, and especially its bark extracts, is subject to legal restrictions in some countries. Pygeum africanum (Boraginaceae)
Pygeum
Description Evergreen tree growing to  
115 ft (35 m). Has oblong leaves, white flowers,  and red berries. Habitat & Cultivation Pygeum is native  
to Africa. It is still harvested from the wild, but severe shortages have led to the establishment  of plantations. Part Used Bark. Constituents Pygeum contains phytosterols 
(beta-sitosterol), triterpenes (ursolic and oleanolic acids), long-chain alcohols (n-tetracosanol), as well as tannins. Medicinal Actions & Uses In conventional 
medicine in France, the fat-soluble extract of pygeum bark has become the primary treatment for an enlarged prostate gland. A decoction of the bark may reduce the severity of chronic prostate inflammation, and it may also help reverse male Quillaja saponaria (Rosaceae)
Soap Bark
Description Evergreen tree growing to 65 ft 
(20 m). Has glossy oval leaves, white flowers, and star-shaped fruit. Habitat & Cultivation Soap bark is native to 
Chile and Peru, and is cultivated in California and India. The bark is gathered throughout the year. Part Used Inner bark. Constituents Soap bark contains up to 10% 
triterpenoid saponins, calcium oxalate, and tannins. The saponins are strongly expectorant and can cause inflammation of the digestive tract. History & Folklore In Peru and Chile, soap 
bark has traditionally been used by Andean peoples as an alternative to soap. The bark has been used medicinally as an expectorant remedy. Medicinal Actions & Uses Soap bark has  
a long tradition of use as a treatment for chest problems. Its strong expectorant effect is beneficial in the treatment of bronchitis, especially in the early stages of the illness. Like other medicinal plants that contain saponins, soap bark stimulates the production of a more fluid mucus in the airways, facilitating the clearing of phlegm through coughing. Soap bark is useful for treating any condition featuring congested mucus within the chest, but it should not be used for dry irritable coughs. Soap bark is also used externally, appearing in the formulations of dandruff shampoos. QCautions Use only under professional 
supervision. As soap bark is irritant to the digestive tract, internal use must be carefully monitored.sterility when this is due to insufficient prostate secretions. In combination with other plants, pygeum may be valuable in the treatment of prostate cancer. Research Trials carried out since the 1960s, 
many of them in France, have established that pygeum extract has positive effects on the  
prostate gland. Specifically, the extract increases glandular secretions and reduces levels of cholesterol within the organ. In some Western countries, surgery is the main option for enlarged prostates, but in France pygeum is prescribed in 81% of cases. Related Species The fruit kernels of the  
Asian P. gardneri are used to poison fish. QCaution Only take pygeum under 
professional supervision. ranunculus ficaria 
(Ranunculaceae)
Lesser Celandine,
Pilewort
Description Mat-forming perennial growing to 
6 in (15 cm). Has small tubers, fleshy heart-shaped 
leaves, and shiny-petaled, brilliant yellow flowers. Habitat & Cultivation Lesser celandine is 
native to western Asia, North Africa, and Europe. Commonly found in woods, roadsides, and bare open spaces, it is collected when in flower in spring. Parts Used Aerial parts. Constituents Lesser celandine contains 
saponins, protoanemonin and anemonin, tannins, and vitamin C. 
History & Folklore Lesser celandine has  
been used from the earliest times as a medicine  for the relief of hemorroids and ulcers. In medieval times it was believed that simply carrying lesser celandine on one’s person was sufficient to cure hemorroids.Quercus robur (Fagaceae)
English Oak
Description Slow-growing, long-lived  
deciduous tree reaching 150 ft (45 m). Has  deeply lobed leaves, long catkins, and green to brown fruit (acorns). Habitat & Cultivation English oak  
grows throughout the northern hemisphere, in woods and forests, and along roadsides. The bark  is collected in spring and the fruit is harvested  in autumn. Parts Used Bark, galls (growths produced by 
insects or fungi). Constituents English oak bark contains 
15–20% tannins (including phlobatannin, ellagitannins, and gallic acid). Oak galls contain  about 50% tannins. History & Folklore Sacred to the Druids, the 
oak tree has been esteemed in European herbal medicine for its astringent bark, leaves, and acorns. Medicinal Actions & Uses English oak bark, 
prepared as a decoction, is often used as a gargle to treat sore throats and tonsillitis. It may also be applied as a wash, lotion, or ointment to treat conditions such as hemorroids, anal fissures, small burns, or other skin problems. Less commonly,  a decoction of the bark is taken in  small doses to treat diarrhea, dysentery, and  rectal bleeding. Powdered oak bark may be sniffed to treat nasal polyps, or sprinkled on eczema to dry the affected area. Caution Do not take oak bark internally for 
more than 4 weeks at a time. Self-help Use Hemorroids, p. 302. Oak bark
US_246-265_Pergularia_Extensa_Salvia_Sclarea.indd   260 26/02/16   12:47 pm261 other medicinal plantsRhamnus f Rangula
Habitat & Cultivation Radish is believed to 
be native to southern Asia. Cultivated varieties are 
grown around the world both as vegetables and 
for medicinal use. The root is unearthed in autumn. Part Used Root. Constituents Radish contains 
glucosilinates, which yield a volatile 
oil, raphanin, phenolic compounds, 
and vitamin C. Raphanin is antibiotic; 
the phenolic compounds are 
antioxidant. The leaves are a highly 
nutritious and underused food. History & Folklore Herodotus  
(c. 485– c. 425 bce) wrote that the builders of the 
pyramids in ancient Egypt were paid in radishes, 
onions, and garlic. In Egypt, the plant was used as a 
vegetable and a medicine. In ancient Rome, radish 
oil was applied to treat skin diseases. In China, 
radish was listed in the Tang Materia Medica  
(659 ce) as a digestive stimulant. Medicinal Actions & Uses Radish stimulates 
the appetite and digestion. The common red 
radish is eaten as a salad vegetable and an 
appetizer. The juice of the black radish is drunk to 
counter gassy indigestion and constipation. Black 
radish juice has a tonic and laxative action on the 
intestines, and indirectly stimulates the flow of bile. Consuming radish generally results in improved 
digestion, but some people are sensitive to its 
acridity and robust action. In China, radish is eaten 
to relieve abdominal distension. The root is also 
prepared “dry-fried” to treat chest problems. Caution Avoid if gallstones are present.until 1946 that conventional Western medicine 
recognized the herb’s efficacy. After that date, the 
whole plant, and its reserpine extract in particular, 
were widely used in conventional medicine to lower 
high blood pressure and lessen the symptoms of 
mental illness. Medicinal Actions & Uses Indian snakeroot 
is useful in the treatment of high blood pressure  
and anxiety. The root has a pronounced sedative and 
depressant effect on the sympathetic nervous 
system. By reducing the system’s activity, the herb 
brings about the lowering of blood pressure. It may 
also be used to treat anxiety and insomnia, as well 
as more serious mental health problems such as 
psychosis. Indian snakeroot is a slow-acting remedy 
and it takes some time for its effect to become 
fully established. Research As indicated above, Indian snakeroot 
and its alkaloids have been extensively researched 
since the 1930s. Despite concerns raised in the 
medical journal The Lancet in 1974, there is little 
evidence to show that the root has serious side-
effects at normal dosage. Related Species The West African species  
R. vomitoria is used as a sedative, aphrodisiac, and 
anticonvulsant in traditional African medicine. QCautions  T ake only under professional 
supervision. Indian snakeroot is subject to legal 
restrictions in some countries.Medicinal Actions & Uses Lesser celandine 
makes a useful ointment or suppository for treating 
hemorroids. Related Species Various other Ranunculus  
species have been used in herbal medicine, even 
though all are toxic and irritant to a greater or 
lesser degree. In North America, the Meskawi 
people used the flowers and stigma of the yellow 
water crowfoot ( R. delphinifolius ) as a snuff to 
provoke sneezing, and mixed it with other herbs  
to treat respiratory conditions such as mucus  
and nasal congestion. RCaution Do not take lesser celandine orally. Self-help Use  Hemorroids,  p. 302. Raphanus sativus  (Brassicaceae)
Radish
Description Bristly annual growing to about  
3 ft (1 m). Has a swollen taproot, deeply cut 
compound leaves, pale violet to lilac flowers, and 
cylindrical seed pods.Lesser celandine is  
used fresh in ointments  
and suppositories to  
treat hemorroids. Radish has been used since the 7th century  
to aid digestion.Rauvolfia serpentina  (Apocynaceae)
Indian Snakeroot,
Sarpagandha (Hindi)
Description Evergreen shrub growing to  
3 ft (1 m). Has whorls of elliptical leaves, tiny pink 
and white tubular flowers, and glossy red berries. Habitat & Cultivation Indian snakeroot is 
native to much of southern and southeastern  
Asia, including India, Malaysia, and Indonesia. It is 
widely cultivated for medicinal use, notably in India 
and the Philippines. The root of plants at least  
18 months old is unearthed in late winter. Part Used Root. Constituents Indian snakeroot contains a 
complex mixture of indole alkaloids, including 
reserpine, rescinnamine, ajmaline, and yohimbine. Ajmaline has been used to regulate heartbeat. History & Folklore Indian snakeroot is listed 
in the Charaka Samhita , the earliest Ayurvedic 
medical text ( c. 400 bce). The plant has been used 
since at least that time to treat mental illness and 
insomnia. Indian snakeroot’s status as a healing plant 
was first recorded in Europe in 1785, but it was not Rhamnus frangula  
syn. frangula  alnus  (Rhamnaceae)
Alder Buckthorn
Description Deciduous shrub or small tree 
growing to 16 ft (5 m). Has smooth brown bark, 
oval to elliptical leaves, white flowers in late spring, 
and small round berries ripening from yellow to black. Habitat & Cultivation Alder buckthorn grows 
in Europe (except for the Mediterranean region and 
the extreme north), and in northeastern parts  
of the U.S. It prefers marshy woodland. The bark of 
trees at least 3–4 years old is collected in late spring 
and early summer, and is dried and stored for at 
least 1 year before use. Part Used Bark. Constituents Alder buckthorn contains 3–7% 
anthraquinones (including frangulin and emodin), 
anthrones, anthranols, an alkaloid (armepavine), 
tannins and flavonoids. The anthrones and anthranols 
induce vomiting, but the severity of their effect 
lessens after long-term storage. The anthraquinones 
found in alder buckthorn and closely related species 
act on the wall of the colon, stimulating a bowel 
movement approximately 8–12 hours after ingestion. Medicinal Actions & Uses Alder buckthorn 
is a laxative and a cathartic, and is most commonly 
taken as a treatment for chronic constipation. US_246-265_Pergularia_Extensa_Salvia_Sclarea.indd   261 26/02/16   12:47 pm
262
other medicinal plantsRhus glabR a
Once dried and stored, it is significantly milder than 
senna (Cassia senna, p. 75) or common buckthorn  (R. catharticus) and may be safely used over the 
long term to treat constipation and to encourage the return of regular bowel movements. Alder buckthorn is a particularly beneficial remedy if  the muscles of the colon are weak, and if there is poor bile flow. The plant should not be used for constipation caused by excessive tension in the colon wall.acid. (However, most blackcurrant oil available on the market has been refined and will not contain these oils.) The proanthocyanidins, especially in  the fruit, are strongly antioxidant and anti-inflammatory, and like bilberry (Vaccinium myrtilis, p. 147) exert a protective activity on the capillaries. The prodelphinidins are anti-inflammatory. Medicinal Actions & Uses In Europe, 
blackcurrant leaves are used for their diuretic effect. By encouraging the elimination of fluid, the leaves help to reduce blood volume and thereby to lower blood pressure. The leaves are also used as a gargle for sore throats and mouth ulcers. According to French investigators, blackcurrant leaves increase the secretion of cortisol by the adrenal glands, and thus stimulate the activity of the sympathetic nervous system. This action may prove useful in the treatment of stress-related conditions. Blackcurrant berries and their juice are high in vitamin C. They help improve resistance to infection and make a valuable remedy for treating colds and flu. According to the herbal authority R. F . Weiss, the juice is “as good as, if not better than, lemon juice (Citrus limon) for patients with pneumonia, influenza, etc.” The juice also helps to stem diarrhea and calms indigestion. Juice that is fresh or vacuum-sealed is more effective than concentrate.boyl [the plant] in beer, and drink it for colds;  and so do the Indians, from whom the English had the medicine.”
Medicinal Actions & Uses The astringent 
root bark of smooth sumac is often used as a decoction. It is taken to alleviate diarrhea and dysentery, applied externally to treat excessive vaginal discharge and skin eruptions, and used  
as a gargle for sore throats. The berries are  
diuretic, help reduce fever, and may be of use in type 2 diabetes. The berries are also astringent and can be used as a gargle for both mouth and throat complaints. Related Species Sweet sumac (R. aromatica) 
has a similar range of uses. Poison ivy  
(R. toxicodendron) was formerly used in herbal medicine as a treatment for rheumatism, paralysis, and certain skin disorders. It is itself highly irritant to the skin, and causes severe dermatitis. Ribes nigrum (Grossulariaceae)
Blackcurrant
Description Erect deciduous shrub growing  
to 5 ft (1.5 m). Has serrated, palm-shaped lobed leaves, small greenish-white flowers, and clusters  of black berries. Related Species Cascara sagrada (R. purshiana), 
native to woodlands along the Pacific coast of North America, is used medicinally in much the same way as alder buckthorn. Common buckthorn (R. cartharticus), a European native, is today used mainly in veterinary medicine. Cautions Use only dried bark that has been 
stored for at least a year, as the fresh bark is violently purgative. The berries may also be harmful if eaten.Alder buckthorn bark is toxic when fresh but is safe to use 
once dried and stored for a year. Blackcurrant fruit is harvested in summer. The juice  is extremely rich in vitamin C.
Castor oil plant is widely cultivated for its seed  
oil, which is used medicinally, in cosmetics, and as a lubricant.Rhus glabra (Anacardiaceae)
Smooth Sumac
Description Deciduous shrub growing to a 
height of about 61⁄2 ft (2 m). Has straggling branches, 
compound leaves in pairs, large clusters of 
greenish-red flowers, and downy deep red berries. Habitat & Cultivation Native to North 
America, smooth sumac is found on the  borders of woods, along fences and roadsides, and in neglected sites. The root bark is collected  in autumn, the berries when ripe in late summer. Parts Used Root bark, berries. Constituents Smooth sumac contains tannins. Its other constituents are unknown. History & Folklore Indigenous peoples across 
North America used smooth sumac and closely related species to treat hemorroids, rectal bleeding, dysentery, venereal disease, and bleeding after childbirth. John Josselyn, a 17th-century New England naturalist, observed: “the English use to Habitat & Cultivation Blackcurrant is native 
to the temperate regions of Europe, western and central Asia, and the Himalayas. It is grown mainly  in eastern Europe for its sour-sweet fruit. The leaves are gathered in early summer, the berries when ripe in mid to late summer. Parts Used Leaves, berries. Constituents Blackcurrant leaves contain 
flavonoids, tannins, proanthocyanidins, prodelphinidins, and a volatile oil. The berries contain flavonoids, flavonols, proanthocyanidins and sugars (10–15%). The seeds contain the essential fatty acids linoleic and alpha-linolenic acids, and up to 18% gamma-linolenic acid and 9% stearidonic Ricinus communis 
(Euphorbiaceae) 
Castor Oil Plant
Description Evergreen shrub growing to  
about 33 ft (10 m) in its natural state, but a  
much smaller annual when cultivated. Has large, palm-shaped leaves, green female flowers, and prickly red seed capsules. US_246-265_Pergularia_Extensa_Salvia_Sclarea.indd   262 26/02/16   12:47 pm263 other medicinal plantsRubia tincto Rum
Habitat & Cultivation Castor oil plant is 
probably native to eastern Africa. It is cultivated in 
hot climates around the world. The seed capsules 
are gathered throughout the year when nearly ripe 
and are then put out in the sun to mature. Parts Used Seed oil, seeds. Constituents The seeds contain 45–55% fixed 
oil, which consists mainly of glycerides of ricinoleic 
acid, ricin (a highly toxic protein), ricinine (an 
alkaloid), and lectins. The seeds are highly 
poisonous—2 are sufficient to kill an adult—but the 
toxins do not pass into the expressed oil. History & Folklore Castor oil has been used 
medicinally for about 4,000 years. Until recently, it 
was a common remedy given regularly to children 
“to help keep the system clear.” Owing to its 
unpleasant taste, castor oil is remembered 
as the bane of many childhoods. Medicinal Actions & Uses Castor oil 
is well known for its strongly laxative  
(and, in higher doses, purgative) action, 
prompting a bowel movement about 
3–5 hours after ingestion. The  
oil is so effective that it is 
regularly used to clear the 
digestive tract in cases of 
poisoning. Castor oil is well 
tolerated by the skin, and it is 
sometimes used as a vehicle for medicinal 
and cosmetic preparations. In India, the oil is 
massaged into the breasts after childbirth to 
stimulate milk flow. Indian herbalism uses a poultice 
of castor oil seeds to relieve swollen and tender 
joints. In China, the crushed seeds are used to  
treat facial palsy. RCautions Do not ingest the seeds, which are 
extremely poisonous. Do not take castor oil during 
pregnancy, and do not take more often than once 
every few weeks as a treatment for constipation.as a garden escape. It has been cultivated for at least 
3,000 years. The flowers are gathered in summer. Parts Used Flowers, essential oil. Constituents Rose contains a volatile oil 
consisting of geraniol, nerol, citronellol, geranic acid 
and other terpenes, and many other substances. History & Folklore The rose comes originally 
from Iran and has been cultivated there since 
antiquity. Sappho, the 6th-century bce Greek poet, 
described the red rose as the “Queen of flowers.” 
In Rome, it was much used in festivities and the 
petals were consumed as food. Rosewater  
was prepared by the Arab physician Avicenna  
(980–1037 ce). During the Middle Ages and the 
Renaissance, the rose was esteemed as a remedy  
for depression. Medicinal Actions & Uses The rose is 
currently little used in herbal medicine, but it is 
probably time for a reevaluation of its medicinal 
benefits. The essential oil, called “attar of rose,”  
is used in aromatherapy as a mildly sedative, 
antidepressant, and anti-inflammatory remedy. Rose petals and their preparations have a similar 
action. They also reduce high cholesterol levels. Rosewater is mildly astringent and makes a valuable 
lotion for inflamed and sore eyes. Caution Do not take the essential oil internally 
without professional supervision. Rubia tinctorum (Rubiaceae)
Madder
Description Evergreen perennial growing to  
3 ft (1 m). Has whorls of finely toothed lance-
shaped leaves, greenish-white flowers, and black 
berries containing 2 seeds. Habitat & Cultivation Madder is native to 
southern Europe, western Asia, and North Africa. It flourishes in open areas and on roadsides, and 
amid rubble. The root is unearthed in autumn. Part Used Root. Constituents Madder contains anthraquinone 
derivatives (including ruberythric acid, alizarin,  
and purpurin), an iridoid (asperuloside), resin,  
and calcium. History & Folklore Throughout history, 
madder has been used principally as a red dye for  
a variety of fabrics. In the ancient world, madder 
root was taken medicinally to treat jaundice, 
sciatica, and paralysis, and it was also used as a 
diuretic. When ingested, madder imparts its 
distinctive color to bones, milk, and urine, and it 
probably owed much of its reputation as a diuretic 
to this property. Medicinal Actions & Uses Madder fell 
largely out of use in the 19th century, and is  
now only rarely employed to treat kidney and 
bladder stones.Rosa canina  (Rosaceae)
Dog Rose
Description Climbing perennial growing to a 
height of 10 ft (3 m). Has curved thorns, leaves 
with 2–3 pairs of toothed leaflets, pink or white 
flowers, and scarlet fruit (called “hips”). Habitat & Cultivation Native to Europe, 
temperate areas of Asia, and North Africa, dog  
rose grows in hedgerows and thickets and in open 
areas. The fruit is picked in autumn. Part Used Hips. Constituents Dog rose hips contain vitamins C 
(up to 1.25%), A, B1, B2, B3, and K, flavonoids, 
tannins (2–3%), invert sugar, pectin, plant acids, 
polyphenols, carotenoids, volatile oil, and vanillin. History & Folklore The hips of the dog rose 
were a popular sweetmeat in the Middle Ages. The plants were not esteemed to the same degree 
as were cultivated roses ( R. gallica, following entry ), 
but dog rose was valued as the source of a widely 
used folk remedy for chest problems. Medicinal Actions & Uses Dog rose hips 
have extremely high levels of vitamins. When 
consumed fresh, they provide vitamins and other 
nutrients in a form that is readily absorbed by the 
body. This makes rose-hip syrup a nourishing drink 
for young children. The tannin content of rose hips 
makes them a gentle remedy for diarrhea. The hips 
are mildly diuretic. Research Clinical studies investigating the use  
of rose-hip extracts for osteoarthritis, rheumatoid 
arthritis, and lower back pain have produced mixed 
results. Some have shown positive benefits, others 
none. It is likely that some people will benefit more 
than others, and given that rose-hip extracts are 
very safe, rose hips and rose-hip extract are well 
worth trying for arthritic conditions. Rosa gallica (Rosaceae)
Rose
Description Deciduous shrub growing to about 
5 ft (1.5 m). Has a smooth stem, sharp thorns, 
serrated leaves with 2–3 pairs of leaflets, semi-
double deep pink or red flowers, and scarlet hips. Habitat & Cultivation Native to the Middle 
East, the rose is not now found in the wild except Dog rose hips are an  
excellent source of  
readily absorbed vitamins.Hips
US_246-265_Pergularia_Extensa_Salvia_Sclarea.indd   263 26/02/16   12:47 pm
264
other medicinal plantsRubus fR uticosus
Rubus fruticosus (Rosaceae)
Blackberry
Description Sprawling prickly 
shrub growing to 13 ft (4 m). Has palm-shaped leaves with  3–5 lobes, white to pale pink  flowers and clusters of black berries. Habitat & Cultivation Native to  
temperate areas of Europe, blackberry is naturalized in the Americas and in Australia. It  is commonly found along roads, in open areas, and in woodlands. The leaves are gathered in summer, the berries in summer and autumn. Parts Used Leaves, berries. Constituents Blackberry leaves contain tannins, 
flavonoids, and gallic acid. The fruit contains anthocyanins, pectin, fruit acids, and vitamin C.
History & Folklore As early as the 1st century 
ce, the physician Dioscorides recommended ripe blackberries in a gargle for sore throats. In European folk medicine, blackberry leaves have long been used for washing and staunching wounds. Arching blackberry runners that had rooted at both ends were credited with magical properties. In England, for example, children with hernias were pushed under arched runners for a magical cure. Medicinal Actions & Uses Blackberry  
leaves are strongly astringent and may be used  as a mouthwash to strengthen spongy gums and ease mouth ulcers, as a gargle for sore throats,  and as a decoction to relieve diarrhea and hemorroids. Like many red or purple fruits,  such as bilberry (Vaccinium myrtillus, p. 147), blackberry fruit and juice has significant antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activity, helping to maintain  a healthy circulation. Related Species See raspberry (R. idaeus, 
following entry).History & Folklore In 1735, the Irish herbalist 
K’Eogh described uses for raspberry: “an application of the flowers bruised with honey is beneficial for inflammations of the eyes, burning fever and boils … The fruit is good for the heart and diseases of the mouth.” 
Medicinal Actions & Uses Raspberry  
leaves are mainly used to encourage easy labor. While the specific mode of action is unknown,  the leaves are thought to strengthen the longitudinal muscles of the uterus, increasing the force of contractions and thereby hastening childbirth. A decoction of raspberry leaves may be used to relieve diarrhea. The leaves also find use as an astringent external remedy—as an eyewash for conjunctivitis, a mouthwash for mouth problems,  or a lotion for ulcers, wounds, or excessive  vaginal discharge. the 20th century, after a Canadian nurse  
observed the recovery from breast cancer of  a patient who had taken the formula. Essiac has  since had a checkered history. Despite attempts  to initiate proper clinical trials, none has yet  been undertaken. Medicinal Actions & Uses Sheep’s sorrel  
is a detoxifying herb, the fresh juice having a pronounced diuretic effect. Like other members  of the dock family, sheep’s sorrel is mildly laxative, and holds potential as a long-term treatment for chronic disease, in particular that of the gastrointestinal tract. Related Species Sorrel (R. acetosa) is a 
European relative that is also taken for its detoxifying effect. See also yellow dock (R. crispus, following entry) 
and Chinese rhubarb (Rheum palmatum, p. 126). Caution Sheep’s sorrel should not be taken by 
anyone with a tendency to develop kidney stones.Fruit
Rubus idaeus (Rosaceae)
Raspberry
Description Deciduous shrub growing to  
61⁄2 ft (2 m). Has woody stems with prickles, pale 
green leaves with 3–7 leaflets, white flowers, and red berries. Habitat & Cultivation Native to Europe and 
Asia, raspberry now grows wild and is cultivated in many temperate regions. The leaves are collected in early summer, the fruit when ripe in summer. Parts Used Leaves, fruit. Constituents The fruit contains polyphenols, 
especially anthocyanins, which have antioxidant  and anti-inflammatory activity, pectin, fruit sugars, and acids. Raspberry seed oil is rich in vitamin E, carotenes, and essential fatty acids, and is increasingly used in cosmetic skin products.Research A laboratory study in 2012 found that 
a raspberry fruit extract reduced joint inflammation, cartilage damage, and bone resorption. Caution Do not take medicinally during the early 
stages of pregnancy. Self-help Use Preparing for childbirth, p. 317. Rumex acetosella (Polygonaceae)
Sheep’s Sorrel
Description Slender low-growing perennial. Has arrow-shaped leaves and terminal spikes bearing small green flowers that turn red as their seeds ripen. Habitat & Cultivation Sheep’s sorrel is found 
in most temperate regions of the world. It grows in open areas and in meadows, and is gathered in early summer. Parts Used Aerial parts. Constituents Sheep’s sorrel contains oxalates 
and anthraquinones (including chrysophanol, emodin, and physcion). History & Folklore Apart from its role as a 
salad vegetable, sheep’s sorrel is an ingredient of  an anticancer remedy known as essiac. A Native American formula, essiac also includes burdock (Arctium lappa, p. 65) and slippery elm (Ulmus rubra,  
p. 145). Western herbalists learned of it early in Raspberry leaves 
and fruit have been used since classical times as an astringent remedy.Rumex crispus (Polygonaceae)
Y ellow Dock,
Curled Dock
Description Perennial, growing to 3 ft (1 m),  
with lance-shaped leaves and many small green 
flowers arranged in whorls on the upper part  of the stem. Habitat & Cultivation A common wayside 
plant in many regions of the world, yellow dock thrives in ditches, on verges and in open areas,  and barely needs cultivation. The roots are dug  up in autumn, chopped, and dried. Parts Used Root. Constituents Y ellow dock contains 
anthraquinones (about 2.5%), tannins (3–6%), flavonoids, and oxalates. Medicinal Actions & Uses Though a 
valuable herb, yellow dock is not often used on  its own, being combined with other alterative herbs such as burdock root (Arctium lappa, p. 65) and dandelion root (Taraxacum officinale, p. 141) for long-term toxic conditions. Its gentle laxative  action makes it a valuable remedy for constipation, particularly when combined with changes to the diet such as increased bulk and fiber. By stimulating large intestine function, the feces are eliminated more efficiently, with reduced reabsorption of waste products, a form of toxicity that tends  to occur in a poorly functioning colon. Y ellow  
dock is also thought to improve the flow of  
bile, which further contributes to its detoxifying activity. It is also typically taken for skin conditions such as acne, eczema, and fungal infections, and  for arthritic problems. Research The anthraquinones are purgative  
and laxative (see Cassia senna, p. 75), but this activity is tempered by the tannins, which counter 
US_246-265_Pergularia_Extensa_Salvia_Sclarea.indd   264 07/04/16   4:37 pm265 other medicinal plantsSalvia Sclarea
the irritant effect of the anthraquinones within  
the gut. The presence of oxalates suggests that 
yellow dock is best avoided in gout and kidney 
stones. The leaf has high levels of oxalates, and 
poisoning and death have resulted from eating  
the leaves as a salad vegetable. Caution Avoid during pregnancy and while 
breastfeeding.ruta graveolens (Rutaceae)
Rue
Description Strongly aromatic evergreen 
perennial growing to 3 ft (1 m). Has fleshy 3-lobed 
leaves, yellow-green 5-petaled flowers, and round 
seed capsules.Medicinal Actions & Uses Rue is chiefly  
used to encourage the onset of menstruation. It 
stimulates the muscles of the uterus and promotes 
menstrual blood flow. In European herbal medicine, 
rue has also been taken to treat conditions as 
varied as hysteria, epilepsy, vertigo, colic, intestinal 
worms, poisoning, and eye problems. The latter 
use is well founded, as an infusion used as an 
eyewash brings quick relief to strained and tired 
eyes, and reputedly improves the eyesight. Rue 
has been used to treat many other conditions, 
including multiple sclerosis and Bell’s palsy. Research Rue is currently being investigated for 
its potential use as an anticancer treatment. Related Species The related species,  
R. chalepensis , which is also native to the 
Mediterranean region, is used to expel worms, to 
promote menstrual flow, and to soothe sore eyes. Cautions Rue is toxic in excess. Never take 
during pregnancy. The fresh plant frequently causes 
dermatitis, so wear gloves while handling it. T aken 
internally, rue may cause an allergic skin reaction  
to sunlight. Salvia sclarea (Lamiaceae)
Clary Sage
Description Square-stemmed biennial growing 
to 3 ft (1 m). Has hairy wrinkled leaves and whorls 
of pale blue flowers. Habitat & Cultivation Native to southern 
Europe and the Middle East, clary sage is now 
cultivated in France and Russia for its essential oil. It 
prefers sunny conditions and dry soil. It is gathered 
in summer, usually in its second year. Parts Used Aerial parts, seeds, and the  
essential oil. Constituents Clary sage contains 0.1% volatile 
oil (consisting mainly of linalyl acetate and linalool), 
diterpenes, and tannins. History & Folklore Clary sage has been 
perceived both as a weaker version of its close 
relative, sage ( S. officinalis , p. 131), and as a significant 
herb in its own right. Since the seeds were once 
commonly used to treat eye problems, clary sage 
was also known as “clear eye.”
Medicinal Actions & Uses An antispasmodic 
and aromatic plant, clary sage is used today mainly 
to treat digestive problems such as gas and 
indigestion. It is also regarded as a tonic, calming 
herb that helps relieve period pain and premenstrual 
problems. Owing to its estrogen-stimulating action, 
it is most effective when levels of this hormone are 
low. The plant can therefore be a valuable remedy 
for complaints that are associated with menopause, 
particularly hot flashes. Cautions Do not take clary sage essential oil 
internally. Do not use clary sage during pregnancy.Rue powerfully  
induces menstruation. Habitat & Cultivation Rue grows in the 
Mediterranean region, preferring open sunny sites. It is also cultivated in many parts of the world as 
both a garden ornamental and a medicinal plant. The aerial parts are gathered in summer. Parts Used Aerial parts. Constituents Rue contains about 0.5% volatile 
oil (including 50–90% 2-undecanone), flavonoids 
(including rutin), furanocoumarins (including 
bergapten), and about 1.4% furoquinoline alkaloids 
(including fagarine, arborinine, skimmianine,  
and others). Rutin has the effect of supporting and 
strengthening the inner lining of blood vessels  
and reducing blood pressure. History & Folklore In ancient Greece and 
Egypt, rue was employed to stimulate menstrual 
bleeding, to induce abortion, and to strengthen  
the eyesight.ruscus aculeatus (Liliaceae)
Butcher’s Broom
Description Bushy evergreen perennial growing 
to 3 ft (1 m). Has leaf-like leathery branches with  
a terminal spine, greenish-white flowers, and shiny 
red berries. Habitat & Cultivation Butcher’s broom  
is found throughout much of Europe, western  
Asia, and North Africa. It is a protected species, 
growing wild in woodland and on uncultivated 
ground. Cultivated plants are gathered in autumn 
when in fruit. Parts Used Aerial parts, rhizome. Constituents Butcher’s broom contains saponin 
glycosides, including ruscogenin and neoruscogenin. These constituents have a structure similar to that 
of diosgenin, found in wild yam ( Dioscorea villosa ,  
p. 91). They are anti-inflammatory and cause the 
contraction of blood vessels, especially veins. History & Folklore Much used in antiquity, 
butcher’s broom was described by the 1st century 
ce Greek physician Dioscorides as having the ability 
to promote urine flow and menstrual bleeding. The plant’s name comes from its use  
as a broom in butchers’ shops in Europe up until 
the 20th century. Medicinal Actions & Uses Though little  
used in Anglo-American herbal medicine, butcher’s 
broom is now a common remedy in Germany  
for venous problems. It has been shown to have  
a directly positive effect on varicose veins and 
hemorroids, preventing increased tensing of the 
veins and helping the return of excess fluid into  
the veins. Extracts can be taken orally or applied  
to affected legs. Research A growing body of research is 
demonstrating that butcher’s broom is a valuable 
medicine for venous disorders. In a clinical trial, 
patients with varicose veins who applied a 
butcher’s broom extract to their legs showed a 
contraction of 1.25 mm in their femoral artery 
within 21⁄2 hours. A paper published in the Journal 
of Complementary and Alternative Medicine  in 2000 
identifies butcher’s broom as having great potential 
as a medicine for orthostatic hypotension (a 
specific form of low blood pressure). Caution Do not take butcher’s broom if suffering 
from high blood pressure. US_246-265_Pergularia_Extensa_Salvia_Sclarea.indd   265 26/02/16   12:47 pm
266Santalum album (Santalaceae) 
Sandalwood, 
Chandan
Description  Semiparasitic evergreen tree 
growing to 33 ft (10 m). Has lance-shaped leaves, 
clusters of pale yellow to purple flowers, and small, nearly black fruit. Habitat & Cultivation  Native to eastern 
India, sandalwood is cultivated in Southeast Asia for its wood and essential oil. The trees are felled throughout the year. Parts Used  Wood, essential oil. Constituents  Sandalwood 
contains 3–6% volatile  
oil (which consists predominantly of  the sesquiterpenols alpha- and beta-santalol), resin,  and tannins. History & Folklore  
Sandalwood’s aroma has been highly esteemed in China and India for thousands of years. The  wood is often burned as incense and plays a part  in Hindu ritual. The heartwood is most often  used in perfumery, but it has also been taken  as a remedy in China since around 500 ce. Medicinal Actions & Uses  Sandalwood  
and its essential oil are used for their antiseptic properties in treating genitourinary conditions such as cystitis and gonorrhea. In Ayurvedic medicine, a paste of the wood is used to soothe rashes and itchy skin. In China, sandalwood is held to be useful for chest and abdominal pain. Caution  Do not take sandalwood essential  
oil internally.other medicinal plantsSanguinaria canadenS i S
greater burnet flourishes in damp pastures, especially in mountainous regions. It is cultivated  as a fodder crop and as a salad vegetable, and is gathered in summer. Parts Used  Aerial parts, root. Constituents  Greater burnet contains tannins, 
including sanguisorbic acid, dilactone (a phenolic acid), and gum. History & Folklore  In Europe, greater burnet 
has long been used as a fodder for animals and  as an ingredient in beer-making. As its Latin name implies, it has also been employed as a wound healer: sanguis means “blood”; sorbeo means  “I staunch.”
Medicinal Actions & Uses  Greater burnet  
is still used to slow or arrest blood flow. In both  the Chinese and European traditions, it is taken internally to treat heavy periods and uterine hemorrhage. Externally, a lotion or ointment  may be used for hemorrhoids, burns, wounds,  and eczema. Greater burnet is also a valuable astringent and is employed for a variety of  gastrointestinal problems, including diarrhea, dysentery, and ulcerative colitis, particularly if accompanied by bleeding. Research  Chinese research indicates that  
the whole herb heals burns more effectively  than the extracted tannins. Patients suffering  from eczema showed marked improvement  when treated with an ointment made from  greater burnet root and petroleum jelly. Sanicula europaea (Apiaceae) 
Sanicle
Description  Perennial growing to 16 in (40 cm). Has long-stalked, palm-shaped, shiny leaves, with clusters of pale pink to greenish-white flowers. Habitat & Cultivation  Found throughout 
most of Europe and western and central Asia, sanicle is common in woodland areas, particularly  in damp shady sites. It is collected in summer. Parts Used  Aerial parts. Constituents  Sanicle contains up to 13% 
saponins, allantoin, a volatile oil, tannins, chlorogenic and rosmarinic acid, mucilage, and vitamin C. Allantoin increases the healing rate of damaged tissue. Rosmarinic acid is anti-inflammatory. History & Folklore  Sanicle derives from sanus, 
meaning “whole” or “sound” in Latin. St. Hildegard of Bingen (1098–1179), who wrote the earliest extant description of sanicle’s use in healing wounds, states of the herb that it “is hot, and there is much purity in it, and its juice is sweet and healthful, that  
is wholesome.” During the 15th and 16th centuries sanicle became a popular herbal medicine. The 17th-century English herbalist Nicholas Culpeper praised sanicle’s ability “to heal all green wounds Sanguinaria canadensis 
(Papaveraceae)
Bloodroot
Description  Perennial plant growing to  
6 in (15 cm). Has palm-shaped leaves and solitary 
flower stems bearing attractive white flowers with 8–12 petals. Habitat & Cultivation  Native to 
northeastern North America, bloodroot grows in  shady woods. It is cultivated as a garden plant. The rhizome is unearthed in summer or autumn. Part Used  Rhizome. Constituents  Bloodroot contains isoquinoline 
alkaloids, notably sanguinarine (1%), and many others, including berberine. Sanguinarine is a strongly expectorant substance that also has antiseptic and local anaesthetic properties. History & Folklore  Bloodroot was a 
traditional remedy of Native Americans, who  used it to treat fevers and rheumatism, to induce vomiting, and as an element in divination. The rhizome’s bright red juice has been used as a  rouge. From 1820 to 1926, bloodroot was listed  as an expectorant in the Pharmacopoeia of the United States. Medicinal Actions & Uses   
In contemporary herbal medicine, bloodroot is chiefly employed  as an expectorant, promoting coughing and the clearing of mucus from the respiratory  tract. The plant is prescribed  for chronic bronchitis and— as it also has an antispasmodic effect—for asthma and whooping cough. Bloodroot may also be used as a gargle for sore throats, and as  a wash or ointment for fungal and viral skin conditions such as athlete’s foot and warts. QCautions  T ake only under professional 
supervision and do not exceed the dose. Bloodroot induces vomiting in all but very small doses, and at excessive doses it is toxic. Do not take during pregnancy, while breastfeeding, or if suffering from glaucoma.speedily, or any ulcer, imposthumes, or bleedings inwardly,” and compared its benefits to those of comfrey (Symphytum officinale, p. 138) and self-heal (Prunella vulgaris, p. 256). Medicinal Actions & Uses  With its  
longstanding reputation for healing wounds and treating internal bleeding, sanicle is a potentially valuable plant, but it is little used in contemporary herbal medicine. Sanicle may be used to treat bleeding within the stomach or intestines, the coughing up of blood, and nosebleeds. It may also be of use in treating diarrhea and dysentery, bronchial and congestive problems, and sore throats. This herb is traditionally thought to be detoxifying and has also been taken internally for skin problems. Externally, sanicle may be applied in the form of a poultice or ointment for the treatment of wounds, burns, chilblains, hemorrhoids, and inflamed skin. Blood root
Sanguisorba officinalis
syn. Poterium officinalis (Rosaceae)  
Greater Burnet
Description  Perennial herb growing to 2 ft 
(60 cm). Has long-stalked compound leaves with  
13 leaflets, and purple flowers. Habitat & Cultivation  Native to Europe, 
North Africa, and temperate regions of Asia, Sandalwood
US_266-283_Sanguinaria_Ziziphus_jujuba.indd   266 26/02/16   12:48 pm267Sau SSurea lappaother medicinal plantsand arthritic pain. A decoction of the root, and, to 
a lesser extent, an infusion of the aerial parts of 
the herb, make soothing washes for eczema and 
other itchy skin conditions. QCautions Soapwort is a potentially toxic herb. T ake internally only under professional supervision. Sargassum fusiforme  (Sargassaceae)  
Hai Zao,
Hijiki
Description  Brown seaweed (alga) with long 
thin fronds. Habitat & Cultivation  Hai zao  is found  
along the coastlines of China and Japan, where it  
is often seen floating in large masses. It is gathered 
throughout the year. Part Used  Whole plant. Constituents  Hai zao  contains polysaccharides, 
alginic acid, and significant levels of potassium  
and iodine. History & Folklore  Wang T ao, an 8th-century 
Chinese physician, recommended hai zao  for goiter 
(an enlargement of the thyroid gland due to iodine 
deficiency). Hai zao  is eaten as a vegetable in 
Chinese and Japanese cuisine. Medicinal Actions & Uses  Hai zao  is used  
in a similar way to its European counterpart, the 
seaweed bladderwrack, or kelp ( Fucus vesiculosus ,  
p. 213). In Chinese medicine, it is given principally  
to treat thyroid problems caused by low iodine levels 
within the body. The herb also helps to combat other 
thyroid conditions that produce enlargement of the 
gland, for example Hashimoto’s thyroiditis. Hai zao  is 
prescribed to treat cases of scrofula (enlargement of 
the lymph glands in the neck due to tubercular 
infection) and edema (fluid retention). Research  Chinese research indicates that hai zao  
has antifungal and immunomodulating activity. Related Species  In Chinese medicine,  
S. fusiforme  is used interchangeably with S. pallidum . QCaution  Do not take hai zao  for thyroid 
problems without professional supervision.Constituents  Winter 
savory contains about 
1.6% volatile oil, composed 
mainly of carvacrol, p-cymene, 
linalool, and thymol.
Encyclopedia_Of_Herbal_Medicine.txt
Summarize the following text section accurately and concisely. Maintain specific details and numerical information, and use anti-repetition mechanisms:

        Habitat & Cultivation Native to Europe  
and Asia, self-heal can be found in temperate regions worldwide. It is a wayside plant, growing  in meadows and by roadsides, and thrives in sunny areas. Rarely cultivated, self-heal can easily be grown from seed or by root division. The aerial parts are picked in summer when in flower. Parts Used Aerial parts. Constituents Self-heal contains 
entacyclic triterpenes, tannins, caffeic  
and rosmarinic acids, and vitamins B1,  
C, and K. History & Folklore As its name indicates, 
self-heal has been used for centuries to staunch 
bleeding and heal wounds. The 17th-century 
herbalist John Gerard wrote: “there is not a 
better wounde herbe in the world than that of selfe-heale. ”
Medicinal Actions & Uses Self-heal is  
an undervalued astringent and wound-healer with tonic activity. In common with other members  of the mint family, such as rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis, p. 128) and sage (Salvia spp. , p. 131), it has powerful antioxidant and tissue-protective activity—making it potentially of value in many chronic illnesses. Its antioxidant and astringent activity makes it beneficial in conditions such as sore throat, inflammatory bowel disease, and diarrhea, and to heal internal bleeding. Externally, a lotion can be applied to treat leukorrhea (vaginal discharge). In Chinese medicine, self-heal  is taken with ju hua (Chrysanthemum x morifolium,  p. 78) for fevers, headaches, dizziness, and vertigo,  and is thought to cool “liver fire. ”Habitat & Cultivation Cowslip grows in 
Europe and western Asia, preferring fields and pastures with chalky soils. The flowers and leaves are gathered in spring and summer, the root in autumn. This increasingly rare plant should not  be picked from the wild. Parts Used Flowers, leaves, root. Constituents Cowslip contains triterpenoid 
saponins, flavonoids, phenols, tannins, and a trace  of volatile oil. The flavonoids, mainly in the flowers, are antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and antispasmodic. The triterpenoid saponins, which are concentrated in the root (5–10%), are strongly expectorant. History & Folklore This plant is so closely 
associated with springtime that it is known as primavera (spring) in Spanish and Italian. Cowslip has long been reputed to preserve beauty. The 16th-century herbalist William Turner wrote: “Some weomen … sprinkle ye floures of cowslip with whyte wine and after … wash their faces with that water to… make them fayre in the eyes of the worlde rather than in the eyes of God, whom they are not afryd to offend. ”
Medicinal Actions & Uses Cowslip is an 
underused but valuable plant. The root is strongly expectorant, stimulating a more liquid mucus  Cowslip has  
calming properties. Primula veris (Primulaceae)
Cowslip,
Primula
Description Hairy perennial growing to 4 in  
(10 cm). Has a basal rosette of slightly rough oblong leaves. Stems bear clusters of bright yellow, bell-shaped flowers. US_246-265_Pergularia_Extensa_Salvia_Sclarea. indd   256 26/02/16   12:47 pm257 other medicinal plantsPrunus serotina
Prunus avium  & P. cerasus 
(Rosaceae)
Sweet Cherry, 
& T art Cherry
Description Deciduous shrub or tree growing 
to 26 ft (8 m). It has reddish-brown bark, oval to 
elliptical leaves, clusters of 2–6 white flowers, and 
almost spherical red fruit. Habitat & Cultivation Native to 
southwestern Asia, cherry is naturalized in Europe  
and cultivated in temperate regions around the 
world. The stems and ripe fruit are collected  
in summer. Parts Used Stems, fruit. Constituents Cherry stems contain phenols, 
including salicylic acid, and tannins. Cherry fruit 
contains anthocyanins and flavonoids, including 
quercetin, carotenoids, sugars, fruit acids, vitamin 
C, and melatonin. History & Folklore The 16th-century herbalist 
John Gerard recorded the French custom of 
hanging cherries in houses to ward off fever. Medicinal Actions & Uses In European  
herbal medicine, cherries and cherry stems have 
long been used for their diuretic and astringent 
properties. They have been prescribed for cystitis, 
nephritis, and urinary retention, and for arthritic 
problems, notably gout. Cherries and cherry juice 
can be useful in treating gout and arthritic 
problems. Their fruit sugar content makes them 
mildly laxative. concluded that the anti-inflammatory activities of 
anthocyanins within cherry fruit are comparable  
to those of ibuprofen. Caution The seeds are toxic and should not  
be consumed. Prunus armeniaca (Rosaceae)
Apricot
Description Sturdy deciduous tree growing  
to 33 ft (10 m). Has finely serrated oval leaves, 
clusters of white (or, rarely, pink) 5-petaled 
flowers, and lightly freckled pale yellow to  
deep purple fruits. Habitat & Cultivation Native to China and 
Japan, apricot is now cultivated in Asia, North 
Africa, and California. The fruit is collected when 
ripe in late summer. Apricot seeds yield laetrile, 
which has been  
used as a controversial  
treatment for cancer. Sweet cherry fruit and stems have been harvested for 
medicinal use since classical times. Parts Used Fruit, seeds, bark. Constituents Apricot fruit contains fruit  
sugars, vitamins, and iron. The seeds contain up  
to 8% amygdalin, the cyanogenic glycoside that  
yields laetrile and hydrocyanic (prussic) acid. The 
bark contains tannins. History & Folklore In India and China, the 
apricot has been appreciated for well over 2,000 
years. Dong Feng, a physician who practiced at the 
end of the 2nd century ce, is said to have asked for 
his payment in apricot trees. Medicinal Actions & Uses Apricot fruit  
is nutritious, cleansing, and mildly laxative. A 
decoction of the astringent bark soothes  
inflamed and irritated skin conditions. Though  
the seeds contain highly toxic prussic acid, they  
are prescribed in small amounts in the Chinese 
tradition as a treatment for coughs, asthma, and 
wheezing, and for excessive mucus production  
and constipation. An extract from the seeds,  
laetrile, has been used in Western medicine as a 
controversial (and illegal in the U. S. ) treatment for 
cancer. The seeds also yield a fixed oil, similar to 
almond oil (from P. amygdalus ), that is often used  
in the formulation of cosmetics. Research Chinese trials show that apricot seed 
paste helps combat vaginal infection. Caution Apricot seeds are highly toxic in  
all but the smallest amounts and should not  
be consumed. Research  In a 2012 American-Australian clinical 
study involving 633 people with gout, the risk of an 
acute gout attack was reduced by 35% for those 
taking cherry extract. One laboratory study Prunus serotina (Rosaceae)
Wild Cherry
Description Deciduous tree growing to 100 ft 
(30 m). Has elliptical to oblong leaves, white 
flowers, and purple-black fruit. Habitat & Cultivation Native to North 
America, wild cherry grows throughout much  
of the U.
Europe and Asia
Where is Self-heal native to?
Staunching bleeding and healing wounds
What is Self-heal used for in traditional medicine?
To treat muscle aches and pains, and as a treatment for hangovers
What is the primary use of Kudzu?
To treat cardiovascular problems, such as high blood pressure and congestive heart failure
What is the primary use of Pomegranate?
To treat digestive problems, such as constipation and diarrhea
What is the primary use of Castor oil?
To treat menstrual irregularities and as a treatment for menopausal symptoms
What is the primary use of Rose?