DISCLAIMER
This book is a reference work, not intended to diagnose, prescribe
or treat. The information contained herein is in no way to be considered as a
substitute for consultation with a licensed health-care professional. Copyright © 1995 Robert Svoboda and Arnie Lade
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2nd printing 2005
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Library of Congress Catalogue Card No. 95-80859F O R E W O R D
T raditional Chinese and A yurvedic medicine constitute the two major
legacies for health and healing from the ancient world. However , one
distinction between the two is found in the fact that traditional Chinese
medicine, as introduced to the W est during the 70s and 80s represents a
more physio-materialistic focus. This is because of the ef fort that was made
to clear away its spiritualistic orientation so that it could better
accommodate th e tenets of Ch inese Communist materialism. A yurvedic
medicine—which followed Indian yoga into the W est and had n o dominant
ideology , such as Communism to modify it—maintains a closer integration
with spiritualistic yogic philosophy . As t his book so aptly points out, while there are dif ferences be tween
the t wo great sy stems, the similarities are even greater . Is it, ho wever , from
a co llective unconscious that t wo great healing arts, such as  traditional
Chinese medicin e and A yurveda arise, or is it from a primal source that
extends beyond our present geographical and archaeological understanding? V isiting a rainforest near Cairns, Australia, I was amazed to find
species of plants identical to species that only grow in one other part of the
planet, a  particu lar area of the Amazon rainforest in South Ame rica. Just as
we f ind identical or similar spec ies of plants simultaneously growing today
on dista nt and dif ferent continents throughout the world, is it not possible
that universal knowledge and  wisdom of humanity might have been
preserved and passed on from one long-for gotten prehistoric source? As with other ancient stories an d myths of the world, the story of the
Garden of Eden in the Book of Genesis of fers an insight into the origin of
consciousness. The eating of the forbidden fruit, rather than representing a
fall from  grace and innocence, signifies our innate thirst for greater
knowledge which leads us into the consciousness of relativity . Nothing escapes  the gods of relativity; there can be no absolute good
and bad , beauty and ugliness. Humankind must forever feel the innercompulsion or inspiration to find the positive in the negative and the
oftentimes more  dif ficult alternative of acknowledging the negative in the
positive. This same relativity  goes beyond the moral order , to find
expression in the T aoist Y in-Y ang philosophy and the three Doshas of
A yurveda, both of which former ly evolved and were used accord ing to their
respective cultur al contexts to determine the most balanced and appropriate
diet, herbs, exercise and lifestyle according to inherited constitution, life
work and climate. In th ese times of maximum fra gmentation, it is truly a miracl e that
the perennial truths and the healing capacities of these great ancient
philosophies can  arise. As we usher in a new planetary order , we must
proceed with both respect and c aution as we find a new integration of the
ancient wisdom and apply it to  plants, climates and circumstances around
the world. T o t his purpose, this valuable work should serve as an imp ortant
contribution. Michael T ierra, O.M.D.A C K N O W L E D G E M E N T
The auth ors wish to thank Jame s W illiams, Michael T ierra and Fred
Smith f or their gracious reviews of this book during its d evelopment. Special thanks to Diane Lade for providing the fine illustratio ns of plants
that appear in Appendix I.I N T R O D U C T I O N
C hinese and Indian medicine embody the two oldest continuously
practiced traditi ons of medicine on the planet. These traditions are oceans
of w isdom whose depth and br eadth are almost incomprehens ible to one
who sta nds on their shores. Into these oceans of healing art tr ibutaries of
thought flow , and the two seas h ave at times mingled their wate rs together . Though the origins of these m edical traditions have no fixed historical
landmarks, they seem to have ap peared at approximately the same time, yet
independently , g rown out of an understanding expounded by their sages and
rishis. C enturies passed after Chinese and Indian medicine were founded
before they first mingled to exchange ideas with each other . Why two great
systems should appear simultane ously in two vastly dif ferent corners of the
globe, ea ch a unique expression yet possessing many similar cha racteristics,
is a great myste ry . Perhaps their fundamental vision and insigh ts about life
grew out of humanity’ s collective unconscious. At t he heart of both of these gr eat healing traditions is a world view
which sees man and nature as inextricably linked. From this perspective
each elucidates its own unders tanding of health, meaning of disease and
journey from illness to health, b oth employing analogies to the forces and
manifestations of nature to express their views. These insights were
carefully refined, systematized, clinically verified, orally transmitted and
later recorded in writing. Cont ained within the written traditions of both
systems are the experiences of  countless physicians and patients which
serve today as an immense storehouse of knowledge. The goal of thi s book is to convey to the reader an introdu ctory
understanding of Indian (A yurveda) and Chinese medicine, and to compare
these understan dings. Inherent ly A yurveda and Chinese medicine both
explain, in their own terms, health and illness, and each of fers d irection for
regaining health . Since they share much common ground each c an enhance
certain themes and expand the vision of the other , and hopefully throughthis work new ideas will eme r ge which can intellectually cross-fertilize
students and practitioners of both systems. Perhaps ultimately  these two
ener getic paradigms can be reconciled, not by a wholesale incorporation of
one trad ition into the other but,  as has happened over the centuries, by an
exchange of ideas, techniques and principles. Reconciliation will require
that the propone nts of both syst ems remain open-minded, willing to reflect
objectively on the strengths and weaknesses of their respective fields. In both North America and Europe the past few years have s een a
dramatic rise of interest in Chinese medicine and A yurveda. A s these two
traditions establish niches for themselves as “alternative medical systems",
their practices will undoubtedly  be modified by their new social, economic
and med ical milieu. A thorough understanding of the Asian ro ots of these
two medical traditions is, we believe, essential to the succe ss of their
transplantation h ere. Some hybridization may well be necessary to ef fect
their suc cessful propagation in the context of our modern days , since it is
always d if ficult to transfer concepts from one culture to another , but we
have tried assiduously in this es say to maintain intact the origin al meanings
of the theories a nd practices so t hat their flavor will not suf fer . The common
tendency today in the W est is t o look at A yurveda and Chine se medicine
from a modern  biomedical approach; we suggest that there is merit in
comparing one with the other , since both are ener getic in nature. This boo k is divided into three parts. The first and second deta il the
basic the ories an d practice of Ch inese medicine and A yurveda, respectively ,
while th e third consists of a comparative study of both systems, including
an o utline of wh at we know of their historical relationship with  each other . Following the third part, a summary of our main conclusions is given. In
addition two appendices are pro vided, the first outlines the history and use
of twelve medicinal substances by both Chinese and Indian systems,
whereas the second reviews the use of vital points in Asia.P A R T  O N E
C H I N E S E  M E D I C I N E1
O r i g i n s  a n d  D e v e l o p m e n t
A  fundamental tenet of the Chinese system of medicine is that the human
body-mind-spirit continuum is an integral whole, and that the i ndividual is
linked to  a greater macrocosmic entirety through a progressive continuum
from fam ily , soc iety , environme nt and, ultimately , the universe. From this
perspective, the  manifestation of disease is viewed as the outcome of an
imbalance origi nating within oneself or in one’ s relationship to external
reality . Conversely , health is a s tate of both internal and extern al harmony . Chinese medicine has since antiquity provided a clear description of these
ideas, formulated principles f or understanding their relatio nships, and
developed unique therapies to correct imbalance. The origins of Chinese medicine are clouded by the mists of time. Descriptions of some aspects of  early medical practice in China are found
in the Historical Memoirs (Shi Ji),  w hich is the first book in a series of
dynastic records  written about 500 B.C., wherein the various forms of
diagnostic procedures of pulse study , inspection of the tongue and methods
for questioning are discussed, as well as the therapeutic modalities of
acupuncture, moxibustion, massage, remedial exercise and the use of plant
medicines. The earliest medical text extant is the Y ellow E mper or ’ s Inner Classic
(Huang Di Nei Jing)  f irs t appearing in the later part  of the W arring States
period (475–221 B.C.). The Inner Classic,  wh ich is still highly regarded
and stud ied in all the colleges t hat teach traditional Chinese medicine, is a
heterogeneous tr eatise which includes a summation of the dif fer ent medical
approaches and practices found  at that time in China. It cover s numerous
topics, in cluding the interpretati on of disease, the physiology an d pathology
of th e internal o r gans, and anatomy , including an understand ing that the
heart is the cen ter of the blood ’ s circulation. Many varied and seemingly
opposed theories and practices, such as the Y in-Y ang and Five Element
doctrines, T aoism, Confucianism and shamanic healing, are all discussed.The anc ient authors clearly felt no need to synthesize all the various
traditions, or to propagate just one doctrine. Their ef fort was rather to
attempt to reconcile opposing interpretations. This inclusion of sometimes
antagonistic view s and approaches is an early and enduring trait of Chinese
medicine. Subsequent wor ks especially of the Han Dynasty (206 B.C-220  A.D.)
laid the groundwork for the sys tem that has come down to us today . Three
texts of this per iod stand out, th e first being the Classic of Difficult Issues
(Nan Jing)  which elaborated and clarified the theories of the Inner Classic,
especially on the correspondences and uses of Five Element doc trine and on
the u se o f the wrist pulse for dia gnosis. The second major work, Discussion
of Cold Induced  Disor ders (Shan Han Lung),  summa rized th e prevention
and treatment of infectious and  febrile diseases, listing 370 prescriptions,
while the third, China’ s first ma teria medica, Shen No ng’ s Ma teria Medica
(Shen N ong Ben  Cao),  r eco rded 365 dif ferent types of medicinal substances
of plant, animal and mineral nature, noting their properties and ef fects. T oday m any such ancient texts are lost; nevertheless, there are more than
6,000 available texts recording the clinical experiences and evolving
theoretical knowledge of Chinese medicine. The Han Dynasty saw three gr eat master -physicians: Zhang Ji who
codified medica l practices and w rote the above mentioned text, Discussion
of Cold Induced Disor ders;  Chunyu Y i, a famous doctor and master of
pulse diagnosis; and Hua T uo, a remarkable sur geon, acupuncturist and
inventor of a unique gymnastic exercise. The appearance of these great c lassics occurred during the formative
period of Chinese medicine. In this period Chinese medicine was taught and
practiced systematically and was held in high esteem, gaining of ficial
sanction under various emperors. As far back as 165 B.C., the Chinese state
regulated the licensing and education of physicians. Fifty years later the
first imperial university was established, teaching such sciences as
astronomy , hydrology and medicine. By the 7th century A.D., most lar ger
provincial cities had government-run colleges of medicine. The  golden age
of C hinese medicine occurred between the 4th and 10th centuries, when
public apothecaries and hospitals were founded, an of ficial pharmacopeia
was composed, foreign ideas studied, new methods developed, and newtreatises written. It was during this colorful age that Chinese medicine
defined itself into the form in which, with only slight modification, we see
it today .2
T h e  T a o  a n d  Y i n - Y a n g  P h i l o s o p h y
A n an cient Chinese master once s aid: “W ritings do not express words clearly ,
words do not express thoughts c learly"; to which his dismayed d isciple replied:
“Then o ne cannot comprehen d the thoughts of the sages." The Master
answered: “Thus  the sages creat ed images in order to express thoughts clearly .”
This ech oes the words of Lao Zi (circa 6th century B.C. ), the  grandfather of
T aoism, in the f irst lines of the Classic of the T a o and Its V irtue  (Dao De Jing
or T ao T e Ching):  “Th e T a o that can be told is not the eternal T ao; the name that
can be told is not the eternal name." The term s T ao, Y in and Y ang are images fashioned by the ancient
Chinese sages to describe their i nsights into reality . This love of imagery with a
parallel af finity for vagueness and economy of words is reflected in all the
classics, and in the Chinese pictographic writing system. In the T aoist view the
word T a o is used to denote the all-embracing first princip le, the eternal
primordial source called also the V oid, as well as the potential from which all
things ar ise. In the passive state  the T ao is empty and non-reactive, while in its
active st ate the T ao is seen as universal progenitor which cre ates reality and
keeps it  togethe r , functioning, vitalized and constantly changi ng, though the
T ao itself remains unchanged. This is in accord with the ancient Chinese world
view that all phe nomena are interdependent. Additionally , the T ao infuses each
thing with a unique V irtue or Nature (de), composed of both quality and force. Essentially an expression of the T ao, V irtue or Nature gives rise to all
distinguishable patterns and forms. The ancient sages placed great emphasis on trying to understand reality
through the careful study of the patterns found in nature. Building upon the
concept of T ao the ancients for mulated a dualistic theory called Y in-Y ang to
describe and interpret these pat terns manifest in creation. Lao Zi states: “The
T ao bego t one, one begot two, tw o begot three and three begot the ten thousand
things; t he ten thousand things carry Y in and embrace Y ang and through their
blending of forces they achieve harmony .” This is an important  metaphor used
to describe primal images. The T ao referred to here is the passive T ao, the V oid
(wu), which gives rise to the one, the active aspect of T ao also referred to as theSupreme Ultima te (tai yi). From  oneness a dualistic tendency ar ises in the form
of Y in-Y ang  which in turn gives birth to three, the initial m anifestation of
ener gy a s a third force: Qi. Thre e also symbolizes the fields of primal activity ,
referred to as Heaven, Earth an d Man, and three is the minimum number of
lines ne cessary to enclose space (as in a triangle). The phrase “ten thousand
things” represents the diverse creation (see illustration 1). The term s Y in and Y ang, whose etymological roots refer to the dark and
lighted sides of a mountain respectively , were gradually extended to refer to the
principle of duality inherent in a ll manifestation. Y in and Y ang’ s relationship to
each other is one  of vital, not static, duality . They are seen as tw o primal forces
in a state of constant change, which the ancient divinatory tex t known as the
Classic of Changes (Y i Jing  o r I Ching)  c alls the permanent condition of the
universe. Under lying this perpetual flux and motion between the  polar forces of
Y in-Y ang, which  causing them to unite, transform, separate and regenerate, is
the potential found in T ao. Again, in the Classic of Changes  th e concept of
three, as in the triagram symbol,  is an important image to understand space and
reality . The images of Y in and Y ang have at their base Nature, which i n itself is
an ever -changing phenomenon. The recognition of the orderly patterns in the
celestial movem ents in the heavens above and in the cycles of the seasons on
earth below provided early mankind with a way to measure  and anticipate
change. In both the ancient oracle inscriptions and the Classic of Changes  the
image o f the receptive Earth below and the creative Heav en above form
primary attributes ascribed to Y in and Y ang respectively . The Inner Classic  u ses the analog ies of water an d fire to describe the
intrinsic attributes of their opposing natures, as summarized below:Practically speaking, four pri mary principles explain the dynamic
relationship between Y in and Y ang in traditional Chinese medicine:
1) All phenomena contain two innate opposing aspects. 2) Y in and Y ang are co-dependent. 3) Y in and Y ang nurture each other . 4) Between Y in-Y ang there exists a transformative potential. These b asic prin ciples governin g the relationship between Y in and  Y ang
are well illustrated by the traditional diagram of the Supreme  Ultimate. The
universe is symbolically comp osed of the primal forces of Y in and Y ang,
represented as black and white respectively , forming a unified circular whole. W ithin each colored half there  is a contrasting spot indicatin g there are no
absolutes and that both forces o nly exist in relation to each other , just as night-
time exists only in relationship to day-time. The moving interfa ce between the
two halves denotes their vital na ture and nurturing tendency , which in extremes
can cause transformations to occur . The symbol also indicates the tendency of
Y in-Y ang towards balance, for their overall appearance is one of equal strength.3
T h e  F i v e  E l e m e n t s
Z ou Y in (350-270 B.C.) is generally accepted by historians t o have first &^
formally articulated an integrated theory based upon the Five Elements (wu xing). He w as a brillia nt philosopher who combined the Y in-Y ang doc trine with the Five
Elements and is credited with developing an original method o f induction used to
interpret and predict human a nd natural af fairs in an order ly way . The Five
Element doctrine as an important secondary system of correspondences first had an
impact on Chinese medicine wi th its inclusion in the Inner Classic  and  the n more
substantially in the Classic of Difficult Issues. T he term “Five Element” is u sed
here out of con vention followi ng the usage of other English  texts on Chinese
medicine, as well as to facilitate cross reference in approaching similar concepts in
Indian m edicine, but actually the characters translate more accurately as the Five
Phases or Movements, for the Chinese were more interested in process and
patterns than in substance and structure. The five substances wood, fire, earth, metal and water specifically symbolize
the fundamental  qualities and behavioral patterns intrinsic to  the universe. The
attributes of the Five Elements are summarized as follows: W ood is characterized
by the process of germination and a spreading outward tendency; Fire is an
emblem for heat and growth with an impulse for flaring upwards; Earth represents
transformation and nourishment with a tendency towards con tainment; Metal is
characterized by  the maturing process and a concentrating influence; and W ater
represents cooln ess, decay , transmutation and storage with a downward flowing
motion. There are two o ther important patterning methods within the Five Element
model k nown as  the Generative and the Control cycles (xiang sheng & xiang ke). The Gen erative cycle describes  the inherent order of activity found amongst the
Elements i.e. germination (W ood), growth (Fire), nourishment (Earth), ripening
(Metal), and decay with the g uarding and storage of the see d-essence (W ater)
which allows for the cycle to begin again at the germination stage. The annually
repeated procession of the seasons, as found in temperate climates such as that of
China, are a natural example of this concept. The Control cycle, similarly p roceeds in a defined orderly manner , but
denotes a restraining tendency of one Element upon another . Just as in the Y in-Y ang doctrine mutual support and restraint are indispensable, so also the Control
cycle functions  as a counterbalance to the promotive tendency within the
Generative cycl e and ensures the maintenance of equilibrium. Classically the
Generative cycle is linked to Y in and the Control cycle to Y ang. In ancient texts
the follo wing sy mbolism is given to illustrate the ordering of the Control cycle:
W ood uproots and loosens Earth; Fire melts Metal; Earth con tains and obstructs
W ater; Metal penetrates and cuts W ood; and W ater extinguishes Fire (see
illustration 2). Both these cycles operate simultaneously and unidirectionally creating a
natural feedback  system. For example, W ater controls Fire, but Fire generates
Earth w hich in turn controls W ater; by promoting Earth, Fire  exerts an indirectcounter -influence on W ater . The reciprocal relationships among the Elements thus
formed, further strengthen the system’ s tendency towards harmony , though a
perniciously excessive or deficie nt condition in an Element may cause impairment
to t his self-corrective propen sity . In terms of medicine t he Five Element
philosophy provides a valuable  framework in which to describe and understand
many aspects of health and illness, particularly the dynamics of the Or gans. The Y in-Y ang and Five Eleme nt schemes can be partially co rrelated, for
example in the linking of W ood and Fire with Y ang since both these Elements are
more active as opposed to the more quiescent Y in Elements of Metal and W ater ,
while the Earth sits in neutral balance between Y in and Y ang. A selection of
traditional corr espondences related to the Elements can b e viewed in the
accompanying chart. 4
T h e  E s s e n t i a l  S u b s t a n c e s
C hinese m edicine identifies five  Substances that form the basis for the
development and maintenance of the human body . They are : Qi, Blood
(xue), Essence (jing), Spirit (shen) and Fluids (jin ye). The five Substances
have a dynamic relationship, su pporting and nurturing each other for the
benefit of the whole or ganism. The Substances are also linked with the
Elements and Or gans according to their special af finities. Although the classical texts take the concept of Qi for granted, this
idea is dif ficult for the occidental mind to grasp. Qi represents t he essential
life forc e within human beings, which is visualized as an internal rarefied
substance on the ver ge of form lessness. Qi as a substance circulates and
activates or ganic functioning, and appears in various dif ferentiated forms. Qi m ay also be used to denote a n actual functioning part of an or ganism or
a pa rticular quality of a phen omenon. Qi is responsible for warming,
invigorating and protecting the body , as well as providing orderliness and
impetus to its movements and transformations to help ensure integrity . In t he body , Q i is derived fro m three sources: 1) the Qi, called
Original Qi (yuan qi) that is tran smitted by the parents at concep tion, which
thereafter determines the basal level of vitality of the body; 2) G rain Qi (gu
qi), the nutritionally absorbed ener gy from foods and liquids; and 3) Cosmic
Qi (da qi), the vital portion of the air taken in through respiration. Basically the body’ s Qi is dif ferentiated into five major categories:
1)   Or gan Qi (zang fu qi), which animates all Or gans and individualizes
an or gan’ s functioning;
2)   Meridian Qi (jing qi) is that part of the body’ s  Qi that
circulates throughout the comprehensive system of pathways;
3)   Nutritive Qi (ying qi) is closely associated with Blood, and aids in  he
absorption of pure nutrients from digestion and its distribution
throughout the whole body;4)   Protectiv e Qi (wei qi) circulates throughout the body
(especially  supe rficially); it regulates body temperature and
perspira tion and warms the Or gans;
5)   Ancestra l Qi (zong qi) aids, regulates and harmonizes
respiratory  mov ement and heart beat. Ancestral Qi also
motivates the circulation of the Nutritive Qi and Blood. In Chine se medicine Blood denotes both the material that circ ulates
under th e guidance of the heart as well as the force closely asso ciated with
the functioning  of the sensory or gans. The general concept of Blood
parallels moder n biomedical concepts closely in that its function is to
nourish and moisten all the Or gans and tissues of the body . The relationship
between Blood and Qi is that of Y in to Y ang. The Qi is said to be the
commander of Blood, while Blood is referred to as the mother of Qi. Essence determines all human growth and development, as well as
the body’ s physical characteristics. Essence is the foundation of
reproductivity , manifesting materially in the form of sperm and ovum and
as a  force thro ugh the procreative ur ge. Essence is derived from one’ s
parents and is normally produced by the body from the Qi and Blood. The
body’ s E ssence matures and is most abundant in adulthood, after puberty . The processes of aging, sexua l activity , childbirth and severe prolonged
illnesses all lead to a decline in the body’ s reserve of Essence. Essence is
stored in the kid neys and it is distributed from there to the othe r Or gans to
form their material basis. The Spir it is thought to enter the body with the first breath and  leave
the body  with the last. While present in the body , Spirit dete rmines our
thoughts, feelin gs and imaginations, manifesting in both the waking and
dream states as consciousness. According to traditional understanding the
heart ho uses the  Spirit (i.e. the mind), wherein the integrative functions of
consciousness occur , especially during sleep. In contrast, during
wakefulness consciousness operates through the brain. The concept of Spirit in Chine se medicine embraces the occidental
notion of mind and soul, although in a more archaic sense. In classical
literature Spirit is separated int o Y in and Y ang aspects referre d to as the
Animal and Spiritual Soul (po & hun) respectively . The Y in aspect isassociated with passion, attachments and instinctual drives with a
downward earth-directed movement. After death if the aware ness of the
Spirit identifies excessively with the Animal Soul due to strong residual
earthly attachments, the being may remain as a ghost until placated. Its
counterpart, the  Y ang aspect is associated with imagination, intuition and
higher consciou sness with an u pward, heaven-directed movement. Ideally
after death if t he Spiritual Soul is totally freed from the Y in Soul’ s
influence, the being attains the mystical soul-body state of an immortal. The fifth  substan ce, Fluid, is a collective term for all the normal body
fluids other than Blood, including saliva, joint, cavity and visceral
lubricants, cerebrospinal fluid, sweat, and so on. The Fluids are derived
from the  ingeste d food and liqu ids, and are acted upon by various Or gans
which sp read th e Fluids around. The function of the Fluids is to lubricate
and moi sten all the Or gans and tissues throughout the body , including the
exterior surfaces of the hair and skin.5
T h e  O r g a n s
C hinese medicine lays paramount stress on understanding the relationship of the
Or gans (zang fu) with the various signs and symptoms manife st on the physical,
emotional and mental levels of existence. In this way Or gans are described in
terms of patterns and ef fects, no t in terms of anatomical structure. The term Or gan
Images (zang xiang) refers to this concept of an Or gan’ s externalization of
symptoms via the ener getic Me ridian system (jing mai). The development of the
Or gan Image Theory evolved gradually incorporating ancient anatomical
knowledge as well as extensive clinical experience. There is ev idence that ancient
Chinese physici ans performed dissection, although the practice fell out of of ficial
sanction quickly; thus leaving classical anatomical study incomplete. However
much va luable i nformation was  nevertheless gathered, includin g for example the
size, weight and placement of major or gans, blood vessels and bones, and the
heart’ s role in the circulation  of blood. And clinical expe rience led to the
confirmation of many postulated correspondences; as for instance, the observation
that healing of a bone fracture is hastened by tonifying the kidneys established a
positive relationship between bones and the kidneys. Chinese medicine in general recognized the functions and patterns of ten
Or gans (see illustration 4) who se relationships are based upon correspondences
with the Y in-Y ang and Five E lement theories as summarized  in the following
table:
The Y in -Y ang paired Or gans of an Element are seen as being connected
through certain internal and ex ternal Meridians. The Y in Or gans are generally
more emphasize d in Chinese medicine because their functions are closely related
to the maintenance of homeosta sis both mentally and physically . The Y in Or gans
in consequence of having a special af finity to the five Substances, absorb,transform, regul ate and store them. Y in  Or gans are perceived to  be more solid and
internally placed  in the body than Y ang Or gans, and are possessed of distinctive
Nature. Y ang Or gans, in contrast, are rather hollow and more externally situated
within t he body cavity , and dischar ge Substances more than storing them. The
Y ang Or gans deal with the reception, transmission and digestion of food and
liquids as well as the elimination of wastes. The idea of Or gan Images relies a great deal on the associ ations found
within the Five Elements. The Or gans engender the characteristics of an Element,
especially the Y in Or gans. For example, the Or gans associated with the W oodElement, liver and gallbladder , are easily af fected by influences  in resonance with
that Ele ment, su ch as the climatic condition of wind, sour food and drinks, the
planet Mercury ,  the color greenish-blue, the season Spring, or the emotion of
anger . D isturbances in either Or gan project themselves into the body as color
changes in the eyes and nails, a possible change in facial color to a greenish-blue
hue, a shouting q uality in the vo ice, or emotions such as anger and frustration. Y in-
Y ang pa ired Or gans are also mutually af fected by each other ’ s  state of health or
disorder . An Or gan’ s Elementa l correspondences can be studied by reviewing
illustration 3. Listed below are the main functions of the Or gans:
1)   The liver ’ s primary functions are to control the amount of Blood in
circulation and to engender a harmonious, unrestricted flow of Qi throughout the
system. A healthy liver facilitates sleeping rhythms, ensures proper vision and
allows the emotions to be in appropriate balance. 2)   The gallbladder aids the liv er and helps in the process of d igestion and
elimination. 3)   The heart’ s function is to circulate the Blood and contro l the Blood
V essels, as well as to regulate the mind. 4)   Classically the small intes tine is said to separate the pure from the
impure, converting food and liquids into nutrition and passing on the wastes. 5)   The spleen fu nctions are to a lchemically transform nutrients and produce
Blood, to regulate the amount o f Fluids in circulation and to prevent Blood from
hemorrhaging. Additionally the spleen sustains the flow of Qi  against gravity so
that Nutrient-Blood reaches the lung and heart and the abdominal Or gans are kept
in their proper elevated position. 6)   The stomach’ s main functi on is to receive and break down food and
liquids, then pass on the absorbed nutrients to the spleen for furt her transformation. The stomach also assumes th e role of causing Qi to descend downward to
guarantee that its contents are passed along the Intestines for further processing
and elimination. 7)   The  lung draws in Cosmic Qi and through its harmonio us rhythmic
movement disperses the Qi throughout the body and especially down to the
kidneys. In addition, since Qi le ads the Fluids, the lung is in ch ar ge of dispersing
Fluids. 8)   The lar ge int estine is responsible for the elimination and dis char ge of the
body’ s solid wastes. 9)   The kidneys are generally co nsidered to be the root of the ph ysical body ,
storing and transmuting Essenc e. The kidneys also produce m arrow , which is oftwo types: bone and spinal. Thus the kidneys influence the vibrancy of mental
functioning, sinc e the physical b rain is considered a part of the spinal marrow . The
kidneys also control the reprod uctive or gans and secretions. They regulate the
balance of Fluids, sending turb id liquids downwards and re-cycling clear Fluids
back into general circulation. F urthermore the kidneys grasp the Qi and thereby
assist th e lung in directing the  Qi downward. Finally the kidneys perform.the
function of storing the Original Qi. 10)   The bladder temporarily s tores and then dischar ges the turbid liquid
wastes in harmony with the kidneys. Apart from the above mentioned ten major Or gans and their associated
Meridians, Chin ese medicine also recognizes the T riple Burner (san jiao) and the
Heart Protector (xin bao), neither of which are Or gans  in the usual sense. The
Classic of Difficult Issues  say s that the Heart Protector and the T riple Burner
represent inside and outside, bo th having a name but no form. T he concept of ‘no
form’ is to be understood in two ways, literally in the sense of not having a defined
structure, and in the T aoist sense as denoting a char ged precursor state of
manifestation (like the cosmic, primordial V oid) of a phenomenon. Though both
Or gans are more akin to ener g y fields than to structures, they  too have specific
external Meridians associated with them; hence one speaks of twelve Meridians. The T riple Burner originates ou t of the “moving Qi between the kidneys”,
which is another name for the O riginal Qi found below the umbilicus. The T riple
Burner divides itself into distinct fields: a) Upper Burner (above the diaphragm); b)
Middle Burner (between the navel and the diaphragm); and c) Lower Burner
(below the navel). The T ri ple Burner‘s main function is to transmit the Origi nal Qi. The
kidneys store the Original Qi wh ile the T riple Burner helps distr ibute it to the other
Or gans and throughout the body . Also the T riple Burner assist s in circulating the
Ancestral, Nutri tive and the Def ensive Qi which are centered an d issue forth from
the Upper , Middle and Lower Burners, respectively . Both T riple Burner and kidneys  have an influence on the body’ s regulation
of heat through their connection to the Original Qi that forms the body’ s basal
ener gy l evel. T ri ple Burner also assists the circulation of Defen sive Qi that warms
and protects the body . From this perspective, and considering that the kidneys are
the only  or gans situated retroperitoneal (behind the abdominal lining), the T riple
Burner m ay fun ction through the fascial linings of the periton eum and pleura to
ener getically insulate and protect the Or gans.The Heart Protector is located w ithin the chest, acting as a buf fer to protect
the heart, physically and ps ychologically . Just as the T riple Burner may
ener getically function through abdominal fascial linings, the Heart Protector may
utilize th e pericardium as its me dium. Though there has been an  endless debate as
to the correspondence of the Heart Protector and T riple Burner to the Five
Elements, they clearly appear to  have a harmonizing and mediating role and are of
great clinical significance. Other or gans su ch as the brain, bones, womb and the blood vessels, though
recognized by Chinese medicin e, are formulated to exist independently of any
external Meridia n. Y et other or g ans and glands found in moder n medicine such as
the thyroid, pancreas and adrenals are not distinguished by Chinese medicine;
however , their functions do appear under the various Or gan Images.6
T h e  M e r t b t a n  S y s t e m
T he  concep t and practical use of the Meridian System distinguis hes / Chinese
medicine from other ancient h ealing traditions. The Inner Classic  states: “The
Meridians move the Qi and Blood, regulate the Y in and the Y ang, moisten the
tendons and the Bones, and benefit the joints . . . internally the Meridians connect
with the Or gans and externally with the joints, limbs and the outer surface of the
body .” T he anci ent Chinese perceived that within the body th ere exists a whole
network of subtle three-dimensional pathways linking and bal ancing the various
structures, Substances, Or gans and spheres of influence. The Meridian System has specifically four major functions:
1) T o promote communication between the internal Or gans and the exterior of
the body , and to  connect the in dividual to the rhythms of the biosphere and the
celestial ener gie s. 2) T o regulate and harmonize the Y in and Y ang as seen in the
activities of the Or gans and Substances. 3) T o distribute Qi from the Or gans to the
body . 4) T o protect the body by creating a protective shield. There are seven dif ferent types of pathways referred to in the theory of the
Meridian System. Of these, the twelve Regular Meridians (zheng jing) and the
eight Extraordin ary V essels (ba mai) are of principal importan ce. The other five
types of pathways are of lesser importance and act primaril y as supports and
extensions to the Regular Meridians and Extraordinary V essels. The tw elve Re gular Meridian s connect internally to the Or gans and
externally to the surface of the skin. Each Meridian is distributed bilaterally and
symmetrically o n the body , bein g named after its respective associated Or gan. The
twelve M eridians are divided equally into Y in or Y ang groups  according to their
pertinent Or gan’ s classification and are subdivided by their di stribution to either
the hand  or the foot. Generally  if you imagine a person standing with the hands
above the head, the Qi within t he Y in Meridians flows from the ground upward
(i.e. from foot to chest to hand); while in the Y ang Meridians, Qi flows from
ceiling downward (i.e. from hand to head to foot) (see illustration 5). The Qi of the twelve Regular Meridians travels in a fixed direction, each
Meridian transfe rring its Qi to the next Meridian where they meet. Y in Meridians
meet in  the chest, Y ang Meridians meet in the head, and  b oth Y in and Y angMeridians conjo in at the distal ends of the extremities. This fixed directional flow
takes a complete day to make one cycle and is synchronize d with the ancient
Chinese twelve hour day . According to this diurnal concept of the Meridian flow ,
which is fundamentally an ancient codification of the body’ s subtle biological
(circadian) rhyth ms, each Or gan and thus its Meridian achieve s its peak level of
vitality during an allocated h our (a roughly two-hour period in our time
reckoning), the whole cycle beginning and ending at 3 am, at th e junction of liver
and lung.When an  excess or deficient condition within an Or gan or Meridian exists,
symptoms may manifest during its specific hour within the d aily cycle. Usuallythese ar e the recurring symptoms often found in chronic disorders; for example,
patients with liver imbalance often wake up out of deep sleep between 1 and 3 am
and have dif ficulty returning to sleep. The following is a list of time relationships
within the Or gan-Meridian Qi flow:
In comp arison, the eight Extraordinary V essels function as reservoirs for the
Regular Meridians, supplementing or storing the Qi of the Meridians as needed,
contributing in this way to the o verall balance within the Meridian System. While
the Reg ular Meridians are perceived as subtle thread- like pathways, the V essels
are considered broad receptacles for the Qi. Furthermore, the Extraordinary V essels
are c onsidered a primary force in embryological development, being responsible
for the or gani zation of the embryonic terrain and early life’ s structural
development. O f the eight Extraordinary V essels, the Conception (ren), Governing
(du) and Penetrating (chong) V essels originate first. The Governing V essel is name d after its function of regulating the Y ang
Meridians by acting as their reservoir . The Conception V essel regulates the Y in
Meridians and is so named because its external pathway corre sponds to the linea
nigra, th e dark line that appears on the abdomen during pregnancy . The Penetrating
V essel is  said to regulate the twelve Regular Meridians and Blood, being so named
after its deep pa thway . Also  of i mportance is the Belt V essel wh ich, along with the
above three core V essels, forms the nucleus of the embryonic formative force. The other four V essels, known as the Y in and Y ang Heel (qiao) V essels and
the Y in and Y ang Linking (wei) V essels, are of secondary manifestation and
significance, functioning to protect, restrain and counterbalance the outwardmoving tendenc y of the three core V essels. These four secondary V essels also
provide reservoir functions for the Regular Meridians. Along t he Regular Meridians and the Conception and Governing V essels
there exist a number of Qi holes or points (xue) where the ener getic influences
found w ithin the pathway become concentrated and accessib le to manipulation
through certain therapeutic techn iques such as acupuncture and massage, or for use
in diagn osis. Th e six other V e ssels do not have independent points along their
external projections but share points found along the Regular Meridians (see
illustration 6). Archaeology of fers evidence th at there was a progressive evolution within
the Meridian System theory . The most ancient manuscripts to date that mention the
Meridians are scrolls that pre-d ate China’ s first medical canon, the Inner Classic,
by abou t two centuries. These scrolls, which were recently unearthed in the
Mawangdui tombs, mention th e practice of moxibustion, and specify eleven
Meridians whose names and trajectories in the body dif fer fro m those currently
accepted today . Nor do the Mawangdui manuscripts suggest any mutual
interconnection between the m eridians. Puncturing the body with stone needles
was documented in various texts as far back as the 8th century B.C., but the Inner
Classic  h olds the view  that the practi ces of acupuncture and moxibustion arose
separately . In fact, acupuncture is said to have come from the east, where it was
utilized to combat disorders th at arose from the frequent win ds of that region,
while m oxibustion originated in  the north (probably Mongolia) where people used
it to treat condit ions that developed from cold influences. By the time of the Inner
Classic,  however , these two modalities were already integrated into a single
system. History suggests  that the knowledge and use of these concent ration points
preceded the development of the  Meridian theory , for stone needling was practiced
even in the ancient times. In o ld China the idea of the existence of influential
points on the body was akin to the idea of influential points on the earth in the
science of geomancy (feng shui). Geomancy was the traditional science used to
determine appro priate auspicious sites for such tasks as the bu rial of the dead or
the building of a  temple. Geomancy was also used as an art of divination. Many of
the conc entration point names (for a numbering system was n ot used until quite
recently) still reflect this connection to certain landscape themes, such as rivers,
hills, pools and mounds. Othe r point names display astrological, anatomical,
animal or functional motifs. Each concentration point has its own unique therapeutic properties and
characteristics. I n course of tim e it was discovered that certain  point patterns andgroupings shared  common properties and were linked internally  to specific Or gans. Undoubtedly , th e meditative practices and insights of the sages and extensive
clinical research  by the ancient doctors provided a fertile groun d for the ener getic
mapping of the body . In consequence of these diverse inquiries , besides numerous
separate points with their individual properties, a total of 361 common
concentration points on the Meridians and V essels were recognized.7
D i s e a s e  C a u s a t i o n
P athogenic forces  disturb the body’ s equilibrium and harmony with i the
surrounding environment. In C hinese medicine, illnesses ar e classified
according to whether they originate from an internal or external cause. Once this equilibrium is lost, disease patterns become entrenched and
develop according to an intrinsic progression. Internally , the delicate
metabolic balancing process is usually disrupted by imbalanced emotions or
lifestyle habits. External factors that cause illness arise generally from two sources: a)
climatic disorde rs related to exc essive or prolonged exposure to one of the
six exogenous Pernicious Influences (liu yin): wind, summer heat,
dampness, dryness, cold and fire; b) pestilential substances in a variety of
forms. The theory of pestilenti al substances, developed during the Ming
Dynasty (1368-1644 A.D.) concerns contagious diseases  that are
transmitted thro ugh nose and mouth. Specific patterns are associated with
each pe stilence, and this idea parallels the modern concept of infectious
pathogens. The six Pernicio us Influences are individually named after the n ormal
climatic conditio n of a season that often leads to its formation. F or example
the o ver -exposu re to cold that usually occurs in winter can progress into a
pathogenic cold pattern in the body if resistance and adaptabilit y are weak. Each Pernicious Influence is also associated with Y in or Y ang according to
its ef fect; a Y in excess injures the body’ s Y ang and a Y ang excess injures
the body ’ s Y in. W ind, summerheat, dryness and fire are Y an g forms of
excess; while dampness and c old are classified as Y in. Th e af finities
between the seasons and Or gans with excess patterns follow the Five
Element theory .In Chinese medicine the symptoms that a Pernicious Influence
produces, mimic the characteri stics of its corresponding prototype in the
environment. Th is is summarized as follows: summerheat and fire both are
characterized by an increase of temperature (summerheat is specifically
related to the s ummer season, while fire is non-specific to a particular
season); cold by a decrease in te mperature; dampness is distingu ished by an
increased presen ce of water; dryness by a decreased presence of water; and
wind by a tendency for abruptness and changeability . The individual Pernicious Influences initially enter the body  through
the skin or respiratory system, and then penetrate via the Meridians into the
Or gans. These influences ma y invade the body individually or in
combination (such as Damp and Heat together). Once a climatic excess
lodges i tself within the body , i t may transform itself into another excess
pattern; for example, a cold pattern may turn into heat after some time. Generally , the body is most vul nerable to Pernicious Influences during the
transitions between the seasons if the body’ s natural ability to self-regulate
and remain harmonious with the surrounding environment is deficient. The names and characteristics of the six exogenous Pernicious
Influences are also used to descr ibe internal Or gan induced excesses. When
a deficie ncy of either Y in, Y ang , Qi or other Substance occurs in one of the
Or gans, this may produce an endogenous Pernicious Influence often
associated with their Five Element af finity (refer to illustration # 3). For
example, when the Y in aspect of the liver becomes deficient, the liver may
generate endogenous W ind excess. For the disorders  originating internally the emotions are of param ount
importance. Emotional responsiveness is considered healthy and is to a
lar ge extent socially and parentally conditioned. Specific emotions
according to Chinese medicine  are seen as extensions of, or resonations
with the Qi of an Or gan. Under circumstances such as blocked emotional
expression or abrupt, intense or prolonged emotional stimulation, all of
which exceed the capacity of th e individual to self-regulate, illness starts. The mechanism  of imbalance due to the emotions occurs th rough their
ef fect on the flow  of Qi as stated in the Inner Classic. “Anger causes the Qi
to fl ow upwards; excessive jubilance scatters and slows the Qi; sadness andgrief we akens th e Qi; fear causes the Qi to descend; fright drives  the Qi into
disorder; and worry makes the Qi stagnate." These changes in the flow of Qi not only hamper the circulation of
other Substances but also resonate with a specific Or gan’ s Qi according to
their Five Element correspondence. For example, prolonged worry will
cause th e Qi to stagnate. This  directly af fects the spleen’ s function of
transforming foo d and liquids, thus resulting in a symptomatic pattern of
indigestion, abdominal distension and pain, and may be instrumental in the
eventual formation of gastro-in testinal ulcers. Furthermore, a ccording to
Chinese circular thinking, a prolonged physical or functional imbalance
within an Or gan can further create a receptivity towards certain emotions;
for exam ple liver Qi stagnation could lead to depression, dif ficulty in
expressing frustrations and still later to angry outbursts. Additionally , the  malfunctioning body can produce two patholo gical
auto-toxins: Phlegm (tan) and Stagnant Blood (yu xue). These may appear
in various or gans or parts of the body and in turn generate othe r disorders. Phlegm origina tes from a dist urbance of water metabolism most often
associated with faulty digestion, and wherein body fluids turn morbid and
condense. Phlegm produces a wide variety of symptoms, easily causes
obstructions and can even generate lumps and other hard swelli ngs such as
tumors. Thus it may be seen that Phlegm in Chinese medicine h as a broader
meaning which is not confined to sputum alone. Stagnant Blood is caused by a number of factors: trauma or
hemorrhaging may injure the Blood causing it to coagulate. Once Stagnant
Blood fo rms, the  flow of Qi and Blood through that area becomes impeded
and the  local tissues remain  unnourished, since Stagnan t Blood is
devitalized. Stagnant Blood app ears in fixed places and produces pain and
swelling. Lifestyle, especially diet, sexual and physical activity and
disturbances of the natural rhythms of life, plays an important role in
causing illness. T raditionally each type of food and liquid acco rding to its
taste (co rresponding to the Elements ) and temperature (i.e. whether heating
or cool ing to the body) is considered to af fect specific Or gans or
Substances. Consumption of spo iled food, or overindulgence of a particular
taste or tempera ture of foods are to be avoided lest they aggrava te an Or ganor cause  susceptibility to a clim atic Pernicious Influence. The meals should
preserve the balance of tastes and temperatures, and should ideally be
partaken in moderate quantities at regular times. Moderation, regularity and
the avoi dance o f extremes is als o recommended in the traditional view for
sexuality and physical activity in China, so that the Or gans and Substances
would n ot be harmed. Overall living in accord with the laws of  nature and
to remain in tune with the seasons and celestial forces was seen as the
essence of preventative medicine. The pro gression of disease after its onset and during its course is
analyzed in light of two opposing forces: the strength of the anti -pathogenic
component, that is, the body’ s defensive capability and self-healing
mechanism as a reflection of the vitality of the body’ s Qi; and the vigor of
the path ogenic i nfluences. The struggle between these two forces follows
the laws  of Y in-Y ang producing as a result either excess or deficiency . Generally in deficient type patterns the anti-pathogenic force (i.e. the
body’ s Qi) is i mpaired while in excess patterns the pathogenic factors
predominate. In  either case the anti-pathogenic forces must prevail for the
Y in-Y ang balance to be restored to normal, and to regain health. If this is
not ach ieved, the process of a downward spiral with a progressive
weakening of the ener getic, physiological and physical structure and
increased severity of symptoms ultimately leading to a premature
termination of life, will have commenced.8
D i a g n o s i s  a n d  D i f f e r e n t i a t i o n
T he i ntent of Ch inese medical examination is to elucidate the  origin, I
location and nature of the patient’ s illness. The task then shifts to or ganizing
and dif fe rentiating the information gathered through the examina tion so that
an appropriate treatment may be prescribed. According to the concept of
human i ntegrity in Chinese medicine, a doctor can comprehend the totality
of a patient’ s imbalance through careful examination because of the body’ s
innate w holeness. For example, the interior and exterior aspects of the body
are c onsidered to be functionally  interconnected with and responsive to one
another , and so whenever an i nternal disease arises it will also manifest
some form of disturbance on or  near the body’ s surface. Likew ise, general
conditions, such  as chronic fatigue, are connected with and form the basis
of specific conditions, such as  acute headache. Therefore, general and
specific, and chronic and acute conditions are considered interdependent. Classically there  are four examinations: visual observation, liste ning-
smelling, palpat ion and inquiry . In the visual method of di agnosis the
examination concentrates on th e appearance of the person as regards to
physique, expression and complexion. Furthermore, physical changes of the
sensory orifices are noted along with any abnormal secretions or excretions. Finally and of great clinical im portance: the tongue is examined for its
mobility , shape,  color and coating. The tongue reflects the state of the
Or gans, Substan ces and the pr esence of any Pernicious Influences with
great acc uracy . T he clinical examination of the tongue and pulse  are the two
preeminent methods of diagnosis in Chinese medicine. The listening-sm elling method (these words are conjoined be cause
the Chin ese character denotes both activities) places attention on the quality
and stre ngth of the voice; the r hythm, strength and depth of th e breathing
and abnormal sounds and odors exuded by the body .The inquiry part of the examination shifts to the subjective nature of
the illness. Usually questions  can cover a wide territory from food
preferences and emotions to the regularity of bowel movements. The
following is a condensed traditional list of topics of inquiry: sensations of
heat or coldness; perspiration; pains or unusual sensations; a ppetite and
thirst; the elimination of wastes ; sleep; one’ s daily routine; prev ious health
history; reprodu ctive problems and cycles; and the onset and development
of th e pr esent ill ness. The specific questions asked are guided by the nature
of the disorder and the initial i mpressions derived from other methods of
diagnosis. Finally , in palpation, the Meridians, points and the tissues are felt to
ascertain impor tant informatio n about the nature of the illness. The
abdomen is also palpated, the Japanese having particularly refined
abdominal diagn osis. Special emphasis is placed on feeling the wrist pulse,
for here a global impression of the body can be perceived along with
specific informa tion about the Or gans and Meridians. The wrist pulse is
divided into three positions and at each position a pair of Y in-Y ang Or gans
of the same Element can be felt in the deep and superficial lo cation (see
illustration 7). At dif ferent Or gan positions the strength, depth, smoothness, rhythm,
frequency and amplitude of the pulses is carefully noted and classified
according to one or more comb inations of the classical twenty-eight types. The art of pulse diagnosis is a refined practice that requires good clinical
instruction, sensitivity and exten sive experience to master but is worth the
investment of time and ener gy in its study because of the invaluable
information it reveals. Patients in Asian countries often judge a traditional
doctor ’ s expertis e by his or her level of pulse mastery , as evide nced by the
accuracy with which the docto r interprets and recites their sy mptoms by
feeling the pulse alone. Once t he four examinations are complete the practi tioner
dif ferentiates the information into recognizable patterns. According to
dif ferent historical schools of Chinese medical thought, various ways to
categorize and or ganize patterns emer ged. The most important patterning
models are the Eight Guiding Principles (ba gang), followed by
dif ferentiation a ccording to Substance, Or gan manifestation, Meridian and
causative factor . All these mod els are further understood and integrated
with the correspondences outlin ed in the theory of the Five Elements. Each
pattern d escribes the body in its present functioning state and denotes which
stage an  illness is in. Thus patterns change as the person moves towards or
away from balance. This require s the frequent reassessment of the patient’ s
situation in anticipation of chang e from one pattern to another in the course
of a disorder . T ypically the Eight Guiding Principles are used first to classify the
signs an d symptoms and define the parameters of the illness. These
Principles consi st of four pairs  of opposites: Y in and Y ang, interior and
exterior , cold and heat, and deficiency and excess. Specifically Y in-Y ang
are used to den ote the general character of an illness; inte rior -exterior
describes the depth of disease activity in the body; cold-heat describes the
specific thermal nature of disease; while deficiency-excess describes the
state of the body’ s Qi versus the pathogenic forces within the body . In
actuality the four pairs of opposites are subdivisions of the primary Y in-
Y ang pair and help define the strength, quality and location of the disease. Following this categorization t he clinician uses other pattern models tofurther dif ferentiate and guide in the selection of the most appropriate
therapy . Substance patte rns relate to th e condition of the five fundam ental
Substances. The Qi, Blood and Fluids are usually classified according to
deficiency , stagnation or direct ionally inappropriate flow , wh ile Essence
and Spirit usually only manife st deficient patterns. Or gan patterns relate
mostly to the de ficient or excess state of Y in and Y ang, Qi and sometimes
Blood a spects within an Or gan, or if there is an endogenous Pernicious
Influence present. The Meridian patterns relate to the presence of distinctive
symptoms found along the  course of a Meridian or V essel
pathway ,  independent of an Or gan’ s disharmony . Another patterning model,
the S ix Stages ( liu jing bing), is  frequently used in Internal Me dicine. The
Six Stages is useful for assessing the depth of penetration and severity of a
Pernicious Influence (especially cold) through the Meridi an system. Patterns relating to a causative factor include primarily the six exogenous
Pernicious Influences and emo tions as well as specific patterns due to
Phlegm, Stagnant Blood, Pestilence, traumatic injuries etc. Distinct diseases are noted in Chinese medicine, such as dia betes,
depression or parasitic infestation. First however , each of these distinctive
diseases is dif ferentiated according to the above mentioned pat tern models
to deter mine the individual’ s response to that disease process before a
treatment strategy is instituted. In reverse, many times dif ferent specific
diseases may be treated by a common approach because they share a
common pattern  at their root; for example liver Qi stagnation may be the
cause of goiter , irregular menstruation, depression or abdominal pain. Thus
an im portant principle in Chinese medicine is to treat dif ferent  diseases by
the same methods and to appl y dif ferent methods to the same disease,
according to need. In addition to th e above models for pattern categorization there is the
less commonly used approach of analyzing and treating constitutional types
based up on Y in-Y ang and/or Five Element correspondence. In this mode of
assessment both the physical characteristics and emotional-mental traits are
dif ferentiated. The value of this approach is in preventative the rapy and in
understanding th e configuration  of signs and symptoms in chronic illness
by v iewing the person’ s situatio n from its long-term perspective. As in allpatterning system s of Chinese m edicine the focus is on the person, whether
one uses  the constitutional appro ach or the more “here and now” patterning
models.9
T h e r a p e u t i c  M o d a l i t i e s  a n d  I d e a s
T here are five b asic methods leading to the restoration of health that I  are
essential to the practitioner ’ s understanding. According to the Inner Classic:  the
first method is to cure the Spirit, the second gives knowledge on how to nourish
the body , the thi rd teaches the e f ficaciousness of medicines, the  fourth elucidates
the use of acu puncture-moxibustion, and the fifth gives in struction on the
examination of the Or gans, Q i and Blood. These therapeutic principles are
described in the Inner Classic  as having developed in a sequential order over
time to address the ever -deteriorating level of health in society . The Inner Classic  tea ches that in  the ancient past the sages guided the
members of the community tow ards a harmonious life in acco rd with the T ao. The Inner Classic  describ es life in that ideal age as follows- “The men in
antiquity lived among their animals. They pursued a vigorous and active life,
avoiding in this manner the ef fects of cold. They sought out the shade, thereby
avoiding the ef fects of heat. Their inner life knew no exhaustion from emotions
and thei r external life was wit hout interference from others. In that peaceful
world evil was unable to penetrate deeply into the body . Potent drugs were
unnecessary for internal treatment and acupuncture inappropriate for external
therapy . Instead, it was suf ficient to invoke the gods and ef fect cure through the
assimilation of refined essences.” Therefore, the invocation of the gods and self-
cultivation was considered suf ficient to heal the mild disorders present in that
age. The Inner Classic  further describes that when human beings lost their
original naturaln ess, and humanity became increasingly violent and selfish, more
complex disorde rs arose leading to the necessity for progressively stronger forms
of therapy . Finally , systematic forms of diagnosis and medical theory had to be
developed in order to properly comprehend illness and to categorize knowledge
of healing for the benefit of subsequent generations. Accompanying this systemization of medicine certain pri nciples of
treatment were refined and or ganized. Paramount among these principles is the
concept of Root and Branch (bao ben tong zhi). The Root refers to the primary
cause an d symptoms of a diseas e as well as to the state of the body’ s resistance.The Bra nch refe rs to the genera l nature and secondary symptoms of the disease
as also to the state of the pathogenic factors involved. In cl inical practice this treatmen t model is helpful in ascertaini ng whether
the Root or the Branch should be treated first. In acute manifestations of illness,
generally the Branch would be treated first, and once the more severe symptoms
have aba ted wil l then be follow ed by Root treatment. In chroni c cases however ,
the Root, the u nderlying cause , needs to be diagnosed and treated, often in
disregard of the Branch to ef fectuate a thorough restoration of the whole person. But for chronic situations wher e symptoms are severe and pai nful, a combined
strategy of treating Root and Branch concurrently is essential.
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        DISCLAIMER
This book is a reference work, not intended to diagnose, prescribe
or treat. The information contained herein is in no way to be considered as a
substitute for consultation with a licensed health-care professional. Copyright © 1995 Robert Svoboda and Arnie Lade
ALL RI GHTS R ESER VED. No  part of this book may be prod uced in any
form or  by any electronic or mechanical means including information
storage and retrieval systems without permission in writing from the
publisher, excep t by a reviewer who may quote brief passages in a review. For inquiries contact Lotus Press, PO Box 325, T win Lakes, WI 53181
U. S. A. www. lotuspress. com. Cover design and drawing by Navaja B. Llope
Book design by Regan C. Mitchell
First Edition 1995
2nd printing 2005
Printed in the United States of America. ISBN 13: 978-0-9149-5521-4 ISBN 10: 0-9149-5521-7
Library of Congress Catalogue Card No. 95-80859F O R E W O R D
T raditional Chinese and A yurvedic medicine constitute the two major
legacies for health and healing from the ancient world. However, one
distinction between the two is found in the fact that traditional Chinese
medicine, as introduced to the W est during the 70s and 80s represents a
more physio-materialistic focus. This is because of the ef fort that was made
to clear away its spiritualistic orientation so that it could better
accommodate th e tenets of Ch inese Communist materialism. A yurvedic
medicine—which followed Indian yoga into the W est and had n o dominant
ideology, such as Communism to modify it—maintains a closer integration
with spiritualistic yogic philosophy. As t his book so aptly points out, while there are dif ferences be tween
the t wo great sy stems, the similarities are even greater. Is it, ho wever, from
a co llective unconscious that t wo great healing arts, such as  traditional
Chinese medicin e and A yurveda arise, or is it from a primal source that
extends beyond our present geographical and archaeological understanding. V isiting a rainforest near Cairns, Australia, I was amazed to find
species of plants identical to species that only grow in one other part of the
planet, a  particu lar area of the Amazon rainforest in South Ame rica. Just as
we f ind identical or similar spec ies of plants simultaneously growing today
on dista nt and dif ferent continents throughout the world, is it not possible
that universal knowledge and  wisdom of humanity might have been
preserved and passed on from one long-for gotten prehistoric source. As with other ancient stories an d myths of the world, the story of the
Garden of Eden in the Book of Genesis of fers an insight into the origin of
consciousness. The eating of the forbidden fruit, rather than representing a
fall from  grace and innocence, signifies our innate thirst for greater
knowledge which leads us into the consciousness of relativity. Nothing escapes  the gods of relativity; there can be no absolute good
and bad, beauty and ugliness. Humankind must forever feel the innercompulsion or inspiration to find the positive in the negative and the
oftentimes more  dif ficult alternative of acknowledging the negative in the
positive. This same relativity  goes beyond the moral order, to find
expression in the T aoist Y in-Y ang philosophy and the three Doshas of
A yurveda, both of which former ly evolved and were used accord ing to their
respective cultur al contexts to determine the most balanced and appropriate
diet, herbs, exercise and lifestyle according to inherited constitution, life
work and climate. In th ese times of maximum fra gmentation, it is truly a miracl e that
the perennial truths and the healing capacities of these great ancient
philosophies can  arise. As we usher in a new planetary order, we must
proceed with both respect and c aution as we find a new integration of the
ancient wisdom and apply it to  plants, climates and circumstances around
the world. T o t his purpose, this valuable work should serve as an imp ortant
contribution. Michael T ierra, O. M. D. A C K N O W L E D G E M E N T
The auth ors wish to thank Jame s W illiams, Michael T ierra and Fred
Smith f or their gracious reviews of this book during its d evelopment. Special thanks to Diane Lade for providing the fine illustratio ns of plants
that appear in Appendix I. I N T R O D U C T I O N
C hinese and Indian medicine embody the two oldest continuously
practiced traditi ons of medicine on the planet. These traditions are oceans
of w isdom whose depth and br eadth are almost incomprehens ible to one
who sta nds on their shores. Into these oceans of healing art tr ibutaries of
thought flow, and the two seas h ave at times mingled their wate rs together. Though the origins of these m edical traditions have no fixed historical
landmarks, they seem to have ap peared at approximately the same time, yet
independently, g rown out of an understanding expounded by their sages and
rishis. C enturies passed after Chinese and Indian medicine were founded
before they first mingled to exchange ideas with each other. Why two great
systems should appear simultane ously in two vastly dif ferent corners of the
globe, ea ch a unique expression yet possessing many similar cha racteristics,
is a great myste ry. Perhaps their fundamental vision and insigh ts about life
grew out of humanity’ s collective unconscious. At t he heart of both of these gr eat healing traditions is a world view
which sees man and nature as inextricably linked. From this perspective
each elucidates its own unders tanding of health, meaning of disease and
journey from illness to health, b oth employing analogies to the forces and
manifestations of nature to express their views. These insights were
carefully refined, systematized, clinically verified, orally transmitted and
later recorded in writing. Cont ained within the written traditions of both
systems are the experiences of  countless physicians and patients which
serve today as an immense storehouse of knowledge. The goal of thi s book is to convey to the reader an introdu ctory
understanding of Indian (A yurveda) and Chinese medicine, and to compare
these understan dings. Inherent ly A yurveda and Chinese medicine both
explain, in their own terms, health and illness, and each of fers d irection for
regaining health. Since they share much common ground each c an enhance
certain themes and expand the vision of the other, and hopefully throughthis work new ideas will eme r ge which can intellectually cross-fertilize
students and practitioners of both systems. Perhaps ultimately  these two
ener getic paradigms can be reconciled, not by a wholesale incorporation of
one trad ition into the other but,  as has happened over the centuries, by an
exchange of ideas, techniques and principles. Reconciliation will require
that the propone nts of both syst ems remain open-minded, willing to reflect
objectively on the strengths and weaknesses of their respective fields. In both North America and Europe the past few years have s een a
dramatic rise of interest in Chinese medicine and A yurveda. A s these two
traditions establish niches for themselves as “alternative medical systems",
their practices will undoubtedly  be modified by their new social, economic
and med ical milieu. A thorough understanding of the Asian ro ots of these
two medical traditions is, we believe, essential to the succe ss of their
transplantation h ere. Some hybridization may well be necessary to ef fect
their suc cessful propagation in the context of our modern days, since it is
always d if ficult to transfer concepts from one culture to another, but we
have tried assiduously in this es say to maintain intact the origin al meanings
of the theories a nd practices so t hat their flavor will not suf fer. The common
tendency today in the W est is t o look at A yurveda and Chine se medicine
from a modern  biomedical approach; we suggest that there is merit in
comparing one with the other, since both are ener getic in nature. This boo k is divided into three parts. The first and second deta il the
basic the ories an d practice of Ch inese medicine and A yurveda, respectively,
while th e third consists of a comparative study of both systems, including
an o utline of wh at we know of their historical relationship with  each other. Following the third part, a summary of our main conclusions is given. In
addition two appendices are pro vided, the first outlines the history and use
of twelve medicinal substances by both Chinese and Indian systems,
whereas the second reviews the use of vital points in Asia. P A R T  O N E
C H I N E S E  M E D I C I N E1
O r i g i n s  a n d  D e v e l o p m e n t
A  fundamental tenet of the Chinese system of medicine is that the human
body-mind-spirit continuum is an integral whole, and that the i ndividual is
linked to  a greater macrocosmic entirety through a progressive continuum
from fam ily, soc iety, environme nt and, ultimately, the universe. From this
perspective, the  manifestation of disease is viewed as the outcome of an
imbalance origi nating within oneself or in one’ s relationship to external
reality. Conversely, health is a s tate of both internal and extern al harmony. Chinese medicine has since antiquity provided a clear description of these
ideas, formulated principles f or understanding their relatio nships, and
developed unique therapies to correct imbalance. The origins of Chinese medicine are clouded by the mists of time. Descriptions of some aspects of  early medical practice in China are found
in the Historical Memoirs (Shi Ji),  w hich is the first book in a series of
dynastic records  written about 500 B. C. , wherein the various forms of
diagnostic procedures of pulse study, inspection of the tongue and methods
for questioning are discussed, as well as the therapeutic modalities of
acupuncture, moxibustion, massage, remedial exercise and the use of plant
medicines. The earliest medical text extant is the Y ellow E mper or ’ s Inner Classic
(Huang Di Nei Jing)  f irs t appearing in the later part  of the W arring States
period (475–221 B.
To convey an introductory understanding of Indian (Ayurveda) and Chinese medicine, and to compare the two systems.
What is the purpose of the book?
Traditional Chinese medicine was influenced by Chinese Communist materialism, whereas Ayurvedic medicine was not influenced by any dominant ideology.
What is the fundamental difference between traditional Chinese medicine and Ayurvedic medicine?
Chinese medicine emphasizes the importance of understanding the relationship between the body, environment, and the universe, and does not recognize the concept of absolute good and evil.
What is the focus of Chinese medicine?
Qi, Blood, Essence, Spirit, and Fluids, which are interconnected and interdependent.
What are the five substances in Chinese medicine?
The primary method of diagnosis is through visual observation, listening, palpation, and inquiry, with a focus on the tongue and pulse diagnosis.
What is the primary method of diagnosis in Chinese medicine?