The seeds help in the treatment of kidney stones, and, combined with urinary antiseptics such as uva-ursi (Arctostaphylos uva-ursi,  p. 170), make an effective treatment for cystitis. An infusion of the seeds may be taken as a gargle for sore throats and as a mild expectorant. Fennel is safe for children when taken at a low dose and,  as an infusion or syrup, can be given for colic and painful teething in babies. Fennel increases breast-milk production and the herb is still used as an 
Fragaria vesca (Rosaceae)
Wild Strawberry
Description Low-growing perennial herb 
spread by runners. Has 3-lobed leaves, white flowers, and small red berries.Ficus religiosa (Moraceae)
Peepal
Description Tree growing to around 26 ft (8 m) 
with large, leathery, heart-shaped leaves and purple fruit growing in pairs. Habitat & Cultivation Peepal grows in 
northern and central India, in forests, and alongside water. It is also widely cultivated throughout the subcontinent and southern Asia. The fruit is gathered when ripe. Parts Used Fruit, leaves, bark, latex. Constituents The fruit contains fruit sugars, 
flavonoids, and enzymes. History & Folklore Sacred to Hindus and 
Buddhists, the peepal is the tree under which the Buddha attained enlightenment. It is a long-living tree; a peepal in Sri Lanka is thought to be over 2,000 years old. Medicinal Actions & Uses Peepal’s uses  
are similar to those of the banyan (F. benghalensis,  p. 211). Its astringent bark and leaves are taken for diarrhea and dysentery, whereas the leaves alone are used for constipation. The leaves are applied with ghee (clarified butter) as a poultice to boils and to swollen salivary glands in mumps. The powdered fruit may be taken for asthma and  the latex is used to treat warts. Related Species See preceding entries, fig  
(F. carica) and banyan tree (F. benghalensis). US_202-223_Digitalis_lutea_Iris_versicolor.indd   212 26/02/16   12:47 pm213 other medicinal plantsFumaria o FFicinalis
Habitat & Cultivation Wild strawberry is 
native to Europe and temperate regions of Asia. The leaves and fruit are gathered in early summer. Parts Used Leaves, fruit. Constituents The leaves contain flavonoids, 
tannins, and a volatile oil. The fruit contains fruit acids 
and a volatile oil with methyl salicylate and borneol. History & Folklore Wild strawberry appears 
to have been little used medicinally until the Middle 
Ages. Writing in 1652, Nicholas Culpeper listed its 
benefits: “the berries are excellent good to cool 
the liver, the blood, and the spleen, or a hot 
cholerick stomach … the leaves and roots thereof 
[are] also good to fasten loose teeth and to heal 
spongy foul gums.”
Medicinal Actions & Uses Wild strawberry 
leaves are mildly astringent and diuretic. The plant 
is little used medicinally today, but it can be taken  
to treat diarrhea and dysentery. The leaves were 
used as a gargle for sore throats, and in a lotion  
for minor burns and grazes. In Europe, the fruit  
is considered to have cooling and diuretic 
properties, and has been prescribed as part of  
a diet in cases of tuberculosis, gout, arthritis,  
and rheumatism.Habitat & Cultivation Common in Europe, 
ash thrives in lowland and moorland. The leaves 
are gathered in summer, but the bark is gathered  
in spring. Parts Used Leaves, bark, seeds. Constituents Ash leaves contain flavonoids, 
tannins, mucilage, triterpenes, and iridoids. History & Folklore The ash was the “world-
tree” of Norse mythology, its roots spreading to 
the domain of the gods, and its branches extending 
to the remotest corners of the universe. In Norse 
myth, the first man was carved from a piece of ash 
wood. In parts of Europe, ash bark was used as  
a cost-free substitute for quinine in the home 
treatment of malaria. Such use probably continued 
in rural areas into the 20th century. Medicinal Actions & Uses Ash bark is tonic 
and astringent. Little used in herbal medicine today, 
it is occasionally taken for fever. The leaves are also 
astringent, and they have a laxative and diuretic 
effect. They have been used as a mild substitute  
for senna ( Cassia senna , p. 75). Related Species The bark of the American 
white ash ( F. americana ) has been used as a bitter 
tonic and astringent. Several ash species exude a 
nutritious sap, called “manna,” which is used as  
a laxative for children. In particular, the manna ash  
(F. ornus ), which has antioxidant activity, has been 
cultivated in southern Europe for its high yield of 
manna sap.Research In one clinical trial (Italy 1976), patients 
taking bladderwrack lost much more weight than 
the control group. In more recent German 
research, the polyphenols and polysaccharides 
appeared to have antiviral and anti-HIV activity. Cautions Do not take if pregnant or 
breastfeeding. If suffering from a thyroid illness or 
taking insulin, take only under professional advice. Fumaria officinalis (Fumariaceae)
Fumitory
Description Climbing annual growing to 1 ft  
(30 cm). Has compound leaves and maroon-tipped 
pink tubular flowers. Habitat & Cultivation Native to Europe and 
North Africa, fumitory also grows in Asia, North 
America, and Australia. Parts Used Flowering aerial parts. Constituents Fumitory contains isoquinoline 
alkaloids and flavonoids. Medicinal Actions & Uses A notably  
bitter-tasting herb, fumitory has a stimulant and 
cleansing action on the liver and gallbladder,  
and is principally used to treat chronic itchy skin 
problems such as eczema. It is also diuretic and 
mildly laxative. Related Species Fumitory is related to 
corydalis ( Corydalis yanhusuo , p. 86), and  
F. parviflora from central Asia. The latter, like 
fumitory, is used as a detoxifying, laxative,  
and diuretic herb. Caution Fumitory is toxic in excessive doses. Use only with professional advice.Wild strawberry was said 
to “comfort fainting spirits.”
Fumitory may be applied externally as a treatment  
for eczema.Fucus vesiculosus (Fucaceae)
Bladderwrack, 
Kelp
Description Brownish-green alga growing  
to 3 ft (1 m) in length. Has flat, usually forked, 
fronds containing air bladders. Habitat & Cultivation Bladderwrack is  
native to the North Atlantic shores and western 
Mediterranean, and is harvested all year. Part Used Whole plant. Constituents Bladderwrack contains polyphenols, 
polysaccharides, and minerals, especially iodine  
(up to 0.1%). The polysaccharides are 
immunostimulant. The iodine may stimulate the  
thyroid gland. History & Folklore Bladderwrack has been 
employed as a fuel, as a winter feed for cattle, and 
as a source of iodine and potash. Medicinal Actions & Uses Due to its iodine 
content, bladderwrack is taken as an antigoiter 
remedy. The plant appears to raise the metabolic 
rate by increasing hormone production by the 
thyroid gland, though this increase may be limited 
to poorly functioning thyroids. Bladderwrack is 
reputedly helpful in rheumatic conditions.Fraxinus excelsior (Oleaceae)
Ash
Description Deciduous tree growing to 130 ft 
(40 m). Has pale grey bark, black conical leaf buds, 
and bright green leaves with 7–13 oval leaflets. US_202-223_Digitalis_lutea_Iris_versicolor.indd   213 26/02/16   12:47 pm
214Gale Ga officinalisother medicinal plantsPart Used Bark. Constituents Angostura bark contains bitter 
principles, quinoline alkaloids including cusparine, 
and 1–2% volatile oil. The alkaloids have antimicrobial activity against the tuberculosis bacillus. History & Folklore Angostura is a traditional 
tonic and fever remedy in South America, used chiefly for digestive infections. Native Amazonians also use the plant as a fish poison. Angostura has been used as a source of “bitters,” although it is unknown whether it is an ingredient of the cocktail flavoring bearing its name as the drink’s composition is a trade secret. Medicinal Actions & Uses A strong bitter 
with tonic properties, angostura stimulates  the stomach and digestive tract as a whole. It is antispasmodic and is reported to act on the spinal nerves, helping in paralytic conditions. Angostura is typically given for weak digestion, and is considered valuable as a remedy for diarrhea and dysentery. In South America, it is sometimes used as a substitute for cinchona (Cinchona spp., p. 80)  
to control fevers. QCaution Use under professional guidance only.Medicinal Actions & Uses A valuable 
diuretic, cleavers is often taken for skin diseases such as seborrhea, eczema, and psoriasis; for swollen lymph glands; and as a general detoxifying agent in serious illnesses such as cancer. The plant is commonly prepared in the form of an infusion, but for conditions such as cancer, it is best taken as a juice, which is strongly diuretic. The juice and the infusion are also taken for kidney stones and other urinary problems. Research According to French research (1947), an 
extract of the plant appears to lower blood pressure. Related Species The Mexican G. orizabense is 
used by the Mazatecs to treat intestinal parasites  and to relieve fever. G. umbrosum from New Zealand has been used to treat gonorrhea. See also lady’s bedstraw (G. verum, following entry). Galium verum (Rubiaceae)
Lady’s Bedstraw
Description Short, sprawling perennial growing 
to 32 in (80 cm). Has whorls of narrow dark green leaves and tufts of very small bright yellow flowers. Habitat & Cultivation Found throughout 
Europe and western Asia, and naturalized in North America, lady’s bedstraw thrives in dry meadows, along roadsides, and in wayside places. It is gathered when in flower in summer. Parts Used Aerial parts. Constituents Lady’s bedstraw contains iridoids 
(including asperuloside), flavonoids, anthraquinones, alkanes, and rennin. History & Folklore The name of this 
pleasant-scented herb derives from its traditional use as a stuffing for mattresses. In medieval times, it was used as a “strewing” herb on floors. Lady’s bedstraw curdles milk and gives a yellow color to cheese produced from the curd. In his Irish Herbal (1735), K’Eogh states, “when applied to burns, the crushed flowers alleviate inflammation, and when applied to wounds, they can heal them.”Galega officinalis (Fabaceae)
Goat’s Rue
Description Bushy perennial growing to about  
3 ft (1 m) in height. Goat’s rue has compound leaves with lance-shaped leaflets and delicate pink pea-type flowers on terminal spikes, and produces red-brown seed pods in autumn. Habitat & Cultivation Native to Asia and 
continental Europe, and naturalized in Britain, goat’s rue grows in damp and low-lying areas. It is harvested in summer. Goat’s rue was once taken to treat the plague. Parts Used Aerial parts. Constituents Goat’s rue contains alkaloids 
(including galegine), lectins, flavonoids, and tannins. Galegine strongly reduces blood-sugar levels. History & Folklore Formerly used as a 
treatment for the plague, goat’s rue has been widely cultivated as a cattle feed. Medicinal Actions & Uses Today, goat’s rue 
is chiefly used as an anti-diabetic herb, having the ability to reduce blood-sugar levels. It is not a substitute for conventional drugs, but can be valuable in the early stages of type 2 diabetes and is best used as an infusion. The herb has the effect of increasing breast-milk production. It is also a useful diuretic. Caution Use as part of the treatment of 
diabetes only under professional supervision.Galium aparine (Rubiaceae)
Cleavers, 
Goose Grass
Description Straggling, square-stemmed  
annual growing to a height of 4 ft (1.2 m) with whorls of lance-shaped leaves, clusters of small white flowers, and small, round, green fruit with hooked prickles. Habitat & Cultivation Common throughout 
Europe and North America, cleavers is found  in many other temperate regions, including in Australia. It grows prolifically in gardens and along roadsides, and is gathered when just about to flower in late spring. Parts Used Aerial parts. Constituents Cleavers contains iridoids 
(including asperuloside), polyphenolic acids, anthraquinones (only in the root), alkanes, flavonoids, and tannins. Asperuloside is a  mild laxative. History & Folklore The name cleavers  
refers to the plant’s ability to cling (or cleave)  to fur or clothing. Dioscorides,  a Greek physician of  the 1st century ce,  considered it useful for countering weariness,  and described how shepherds used the  stems to make sieves  for straining milk. Dried aerial partsGalipea officinalis  
syn. G. cusparia (Rutaceae)
Angostura
Description Evergreen tree growing to  
49 ft (15 m) with grey bark, shiny bright green 
leaflets, and foul-smelling flowers. Habitat & Cultivation Angostura is native  
to some Caribbean islands and to tropical South America. The bark is gathered throughout the year. Lady’s bedstraw is used as a diuretic. US_202-223_Digitalis_lutea_Iris_versicolor.indd   214 26/02/16   12:47 pm215 other medicinal plantsGelidium amansii
cold” herb used mostly to relieve symptoms 
associated with heat. These include fever, irritability, 
restlessness, insomnia, cystitis, painful urination, and 
jaundice. The fruit staunches bleeding and  
is taken for nosebleeds, and urinary and rectal 
bleeding. The essential oil is an antiseptic and has  
a reputation for being an aphrodisiac. Related Species The fruit of the northern 
Indian G. campanulata  is cathartic and used to 
expel worms. G. gummifera , from eastern India,  
is antiseptic and digestive. The Pacific region  
G. taitensis  relieves headaches. The African  
G. thunbergia  is used to relieve constipation. Cautions Avoid in diarrhea. Do not take if taking 
prescribed medication for high blood pressure.nor applied (even well diluted) to the skin of 
children under the age of 12 unless with 
professional supervision. Gardenia plays a 
significant role in 
Chinese herbalism. Wintergreen makes an 
effective liniment for 
sore muscles and joints.Medicinal Actions & Uses A slightly bitter-
tasting remedy, lady’s bedstraw is used mainly as a 
diuretic and for skin problems. Like its close relative, 
cleavers ( G. aparine , preceding entry ), the herb is  
given for kidney stones, bladder stones, and other 
urinary conditions, including cystitis. It is occasionally 
used as a means to relieve chronic skin problems 
such as psoriasis, but, in general, cleavers is preferred 
as a treatment for this condition. Lady’s bedstraw 
has had a longstanding reputation, especially in 
France, of being a valuable remedy for epilepsy, 
though it is rarely used for this purpose today. Related Species G. elatum  has also been 
considered a remedy for epilepsy in France. (See also G. aparine, preceding entry .) Gardenia jasminoides syn. G. augusta, G. florida (Rubiaceae)
Gardenia, 
Zhi Zi (Chinese)
Description Evergreen shrub growing to 61⁄2 ft 
(2 m). Has green leaves, scented double flowers, 
and orange-red fruit.Gelidium amansii (Rhodophyceae)
Agar
Description Seaweed with red-brown, 
translucent, multi-branched ribbons and fronds 
growing to about 3 ft (1 m) in length. It has spherical 
fruit that appears in late autumn and winter. Habitat & Cultivation Agar is native to the 
Pacific coasts of China and Japan and the coast of 
South Africa. It grows to a depth of 100 ft (30 m) 
below sea level. Commercial harvesters rake plants 
off banks and rocks. The cleaned seaweed, after 
being boiled with sulphuric acid for 6 hours, yields 
agar, which sets to form a jelly. Around 6,500 tons 
of processed agar are produced each year. Part Used Seaweed extract (agar). Constituents Agar contains polysaccharides, 
mainly agarose and agaropectin (up to 90%), which 
are very mucilaginous. History & Folklore Agar is commonly used  
as a thickening agent in food preparation, but its 
most widespread application is in scientific research, 
where it is used as a culture medium for growing 
micro-organisms in petri dishes. Medicinal Actions & Uses Like most 
seaweeds and their derivatives, agar is nutritious 
and contains large amounts of mucilage. Its chief 
medicinal use is as a bulk laxative. In the intestines, 
agar absorbs water and swells, stimulating bowel 
activity and the subsequent elimination of feces. Related Species While G. amansii  is the main 
agar-producing species, G. cartilagineum  (found  
on the Pacific coast of North America) and other 
closely related species around the world are being 
used as alternative sources.Habitat & Cultivation Native to 
southeastern provinces of China, gardenia prefers 
humid, tropical climates. The fruit is gathered  
when it turns reddish-yellow. Part Used Fruit. Constituents Gardenia fruit contains iridoid 
glycosides. The flowers are the source of the 
essential oil. History & Folklore Gardenia has been used in 
Chinese medicine for at least 2,000 years. It provides 
an important essential oil used to flavor teas. The oil 
is also used to make perfumes. Gardenia perfumes 
often blend gardenia, jasmine, and tuberose. Medicinal Actions & Uses In the Chinese 
herbal tradition (pp. 40–43), gardenia is a “bitter, Gaultheria procumbens 
(Ericaceae)
Wintergreen
Description Aromatic low-lying shrub growing to 
6 in (15 cm). Has leathery, oval leaves, small white or 
pale pink bell-shaped flowers, and brilliant red fruit. Habitat & Cultivation Native to North 
America, wintergreen is found in woodland and 
exposed mountainous areas. The leaves and fruit 
are gathered in summer. Parts Used Leaves, fruit, essential oil. Constituents Wintergreen contains phenols 
(including gaultherin and salicylic acid), 0.8% volatile 
oil (up to 98% methyl salicylate), mucilage, resin, 
and tannins. History & Folklore Wintergreen was popular 
with Native Americans, who used it for treating back 
pain, rheumatism, fever, headaches, sore throats, and 
many other conditions. Samuel Thomson, founder 
of the 19th-century Physiomedicalist movement, 
combined it with hemlock ( Conium maculatum , p. 
193) to treat severe fluid retention. The leaves have 
been used as a substitute for tea ( Camellia sinensis , p. 
181), for example during the American 
Revolutionary War (1776–1784). Medicinal Actions & Uses Wintergreen is 
strongly anti-inflammatory, antiseptic, and soothing to 
the digestive system. It is an effective remedy for 
rheumatic and arthritic problems, and, taken as a tea, 
it relieves flatulence and colic. The essential oil, in the 
form of a liniment or ointment, brings relief to 
inflamed, swollen, or sore muscles, ligaments, and 
joints, and can also prove valuable in treating 
neurological conditions such as sciatica (pain resulting 
from pressure on a nerve in the lower spine) and 
trigeminal neuralgia (pain affecting a facial nerve). The oil is sometimes used to treat cellulitis, a bacterial 
infection causing the skin to become inflamed. Cautions People who are sensitive to aspirin 
should not take wintergreen internally. Oil of 
wintergreen should never be taken internally,  
US_202-223_Digitalis_lutea_Iris_versicolor.indd   215 26/02/16   12:47 pm
216Gelsemium sempervirens  other medicinal plantsGelsemium sempervirens 
(Loganiaceae)
Y ellow Jasmine,
Gelsemium
Description Evergreen woody climber growing 
to 20 ft (6 m). Has shiny, dark green leaves and 
clusters of fragrant, trumpet-shaped yellow flowers. Habitat & Cultivation Native to the 
southern U.S. and Central America, yellow jasmine prefers damp sites. The rootstock is unearthed in autumn. Part Used Rootstock. Constituents Y ellow 
jasmine contains indole alkaloids (including gelsemine and gelsedine), iridoids, coumarins, and tannins. The alkaloids are toxic and act as a depressant to the central nervous system. History & Folklore It is unclear whether 
yellow jasmine was used in Native American medicine. The plant came into regular use only  in the middle of the 19th century. It was first employed by followers of the Eclectic herbal movement, and then later became an official medicine, listed in the Pharmacopoeia of the  United States from 1863 to 1926. Medicinal Actions & Uses A potent medicinal 
herb, yellow jasmine is prescribed in small doses  as a sedative and antispasmodic, most commonly for neuralgia (pain caused by nerve irritation or damage). Y ellow jasmine is often given for nerve pain affecting the face. The herb is also applied externally to treat intercostal neuralgia (nerve pain between the ribs) and sciatica (pain resulting from pressure on a nerve in the lower spine). Y ellow jasmine’s antispasmodic property is used in treating whooping cough and asthma. The herb is occasionally taken for migraine, insomnia, and bowel problems, and also to reduce blood pressure. Y ellow jasmine is also used in homeopathic medicine. RQ Cautions Y ellow jasmine is an extremely 
toxic plant that should be used only under professional supervision. The plant is subject to legal restrictions in some countries.Parts Used Root, aerial parts. Constituents Wild geranium contains up to 
30% tannins. History & Folklore Native American peoples 
used wild geranium for sore throats, mouth ulcers, infected gums, and oral thrush. The herb was later used by European settlers for diarrhea, internal bleeding, cholera, and venereal diseases. Medicinal Actions & Uses An astringent and 
clotting agent, wild geranium is used today much as in earlier times. The herb is often prescribed for irritable bowel syndrome and hemorrhoids, and it is used to staunch wounds. It may also be used to treat heavy menstrual bleeding and excessive vaginal discharge. Related Species See herb robert  
(G. robertianum, following entry). Caution Wild geranium should only be taken for 
a few weeks at a time. Geranium robertianum 
(Geraniaceae)
Herb Robert
Description Strong-smelling annual or biennial 
herb growing to 20 in (50 cm). Has deeply cleft 
red-green leaves, bright pink flowers, and pointed seed capsules. Habitat & Cultivation Native to Europe and 
Asia, herb robert is naturalized in North America. It is gathered in summer. Parts Used Aerial parts, root. Constituents Herb robert contains tannins, a 
bitter principle (geraniin), traces of volatile oil, and citric acid. History & Folklore Herb robert’s unpleasant 
odor has earned it the name “stinking Bob” in parts of England. Medicinal Actions & Uses Herb robert  
is little used in contemporary European herbal medicine. It is occasionally employed in much the same way as Wild geranium (G. maculatum, preceding entry), as an astringent and wound healer. The herb bears closer investigation as a remedy. According to one authority it is effective against stomach ulcers and inflammation of the uterus, and it holds some potential as a treatment for cancer.Habitat & Cultivation Native to Europe and 
central Asia, avens is a common wayside plant. The root is dug up in spring, and the aerial parts are picked in summer. Parts Used Aerial parts, root. Constituents Avens contains phenolic 
glycosides (including eugenol), tannins, a volatile  oil, and possibly a sesquiterpene lactone (cnicin). History & Folklore Once known as herba 
benedicta (blessed herb), avens was credited with significant magical powers in the Middle Ages. A German text of 1493 states that if avens root is in the house, the devil is powerless. According to tradition, the root should be unearthed on March 25th. Medicinal Actions & Uses Avens is an 
astringent herb, used principally for problems affecting the mouth, throat, and gastrointestinal tract. The herb tightens up soft gums, heals mouth ulcers, makes a good gargle for infections of the pharynx and larynx, and reduces irritation of the stomach and gut. It may be taken for peptic ulcers, irritable bowel syndrome, diarrhea, and dysentery. Avens has been used in a lotion or ointment as a soothing remedy for hemorrhoids. The herb may also be used as a douche for treating excessive vaginal discharge. Avens reputedly has a mild quinine-type action in lowering fever. Dried rootstock
Geranium maculatum (Geraniaceae)
Wild Geranium
Description Perennial growing to 2 ft (60 cm). Has deeply cleft leaves, pink-purple flowers, and beak-shaped fruit. Habitat & Cultivation Native to woodlands 
of eastern and central North America, the root  is dug up in early spring, and the aerial parts are gathered in summer.Geum urbanum (Rosaceae)
Avens
Description Downy perennial growing to  
60 cm (2 ft). Has wiry stems, compound leaves, small, yellow 5-petaled flowers, and fruit covered with hooks.Glechoma hederacea  
syn. nepeta glechoma (Lamiaceae)
Ground Ivy,
Alehoof
Description Creeping perennial herb growing 
to 15 cm (6 in). Has long rooting runners, notched 
kidney-shaped leaves, and purple-blue flowers  in whorls. Habitat & Cultivation Native to Europe and 
western Asia, ground ivy is now naturalized in other temperate regions, including North America. It thrives on the outskirts of woods and alongside paths and hedges. It is gathered in summer. Parts Used Aerial parts. Constituents Ground ivy contains 
sesquiterpenes, flavonoids, a volatile oil, a bitter principle (glechomine), caffeic acids, and tannins. History & Folklore Known in parts of  
England as “alehoof,” ground ivy was used to flavor and clarify ale, the traditional drink of  the Anglo-Saxons. In Medieval times, it was recommended for fever, and was a popular treatment for chronic coughs. The 16th-century herbalist John Gerard considered it a valuable remedy for tinnitus. Medicinal Actions & Uses Ground ivy  
is tonic, diuretic, and decongestant, and is used  to treat many problems involving the mucous 
US_202-223_Digitalis_lutea_Iris_versicolor.indd   216 26/02/16   12:47 pm217 other medicinal plantsGossypium herbaceum
membranes of the ear, nose, throat, and digestive 
system. A well-tolerated herb, it can be given  
to children to clear lingering congestion and to 
treat chronic conditions such as “glue ear” and 
sinusitis. Throat and chest problems, especially 
those due to excess mucus, also benefit from this 
remedy. Ground ivy is also a valuable treatment for 
gastritis and acid indigestion. Further along the 
gastrointestinal tract, its binding nature helps to 
counter diarrhea and to dry up watery and mucoid 
secretions. Ground ivy has been employed to 
prevent scurvy and as a spring tonic, and is 
considered beneficial in kidney disorders.History & Folklore A staple food in much of 
Asia, soy has been used in China for at least 5,000 
years. Soy was introduced in the United States in 
1804 and has become a major crop in the South 
and Midwest. It is now one of the world’s most 
important food crops. Medicinal Actions & Uses Although 
soybeans and soy produce have little direct 
medicinal value, they are highly important as foods, 
providing unusually high levels of protein, lecithin, 
and essential fatty acids. However, the beans may 
have a protective role against cancer, notably 
breast cancer. Their significant estrogenic activity 
makes them a particularly good medicinal food for 
women going through menopause, helping  
to relieve symptoms such as hot flashes, and to 
protect against osteoporosis. In Chinese medicine, 
soybean sprouts (also highly nutritious) are 
thought to help relieve “summer heat” and fever. Research Soybean is a remarkable nutrient, rich 
in protein, fats, and estrogenic substances, all of 
which make it an excellent food. The isoflavones, 
sterols, saponins, and fiber contribute to soy’s 
protective activity against cancer, and countries such 
as Japan are thought to have lower levels of cancer 
because of the great quantity of soy produce eaten 
there. The isoflavones, coumestrol, and sterols are 
all phytoestrogens. These appear to inhibit estrogen 
within the body when estrogen levels are too high 
(for example, in menstrual disorders), and to 
compensate when estrogen levels are low (such as 
during menopause). Unrefined soybean oil 
contains high levels of lecithin and polyunsaturated 
essential fatty acids, which support healthy levels of 
blood fat such as cholesterol. Ground ivy is useful  
for many disorders of  
the digestive system. Marsh cudweed is commonly found in damp areas  
in Europe, North America, and Asia. Gossypium herbaceum (Malvaceae)
Cotton
Description Biennial or perennial growing to 
about 8 ft (2.5 m). Has lobed leaves, large white  
or pink flowers, and seed capsules surrounded by 
fluffy white tufts. Habitat & Cultivation Native to the 
Americas, Africa, and Asia, cotton thrives in warm 
temperate and tropical climates. It is widely 
cultivated for its fiber. The root and seeds of the 
plant are harvested in autumn. Parts Used Root bark, seed oil. Constituents Cotton root bark contains 
gossypol (a sesquiterpene) and flavonoids. Cotton 
seed contains a fixed oil, which is about 2% gossypol, 
and flavonoids. Gossypol causes infertility in men. History & Folklore In India and the Middle 
East, cotton has been cultivated since the earliest 
times for its fiber and medicinal properties. The 
plant was particularly valued for its ability to induce 
menstruation. Cotton seed oil’s contraceptive effect 
in men was first discovered in China when men 
became infertile after eating food cooked in the oil. Medicinal Actions & Uses Cotton root  
bark is rarely used medicinally today. It was once 
employed as a substitute for ergot ( Claviceps 
purpurea ), the widely used labor-inducing herb. Cotton root bark is both milder-acting and safer  
in effect, stimulating uterine contractions and 
hastening a difficult labor. It also promotes 
abortion or the onset of a period, and reduces 
menstrual flow. Cotton root bark encourages  
the blood to clot and the secretion of breastmilk. Cotton seed oil is used to treat heavy menstrual 
bleeding and endometriosis.Glycine max (Fabaceae)
Soy
Description Annual growing to 61⁄2 ft (2 m). Has leaves with 3 leaflets, white or purple flowers, 
and pods with 2–4 beans. Habitat & Cultivation Soy is native to south -
western Asia, and is cultivated in warm temperate 
regions. The pods are gathered when ripe. Parts Used Beans, sprouts. Constituents Soy contains protein (about  
30%), fixed oil (about 17%), including lecithin  
(2% or more), linoleic acid, and alpha-linolenic acid, 
isoflavones, coumestrol, sterols, saponins, vitamins, 
and minerals. Coumestrol and the isoflavones 
closely mimic estrogen within the body.Related Species A North American relative,  
G. polycephalum , was used to treat respiratory and 
intestinal congestion, and was applied as a poultice 
for bruises. G. keriense , native to New Zealand, is 
also considered a remedy for bruises. Gnaphalium uliginosum 
(Asteraceae)
Marsh Cudweed
Description Annual plant growing to 8 in  
(20 cm). Has narrow silver-grey leaves and tiny 
yellow flower heads. Habitat & Cultivation Marsh cudweed is 
native to Europe, the Caucasus, and western Asia, 
and is naturalized in North America. It prefers damp 
areas, and is gathered in summer when in flower. Parts Used Aerial parts. Constituents Marsh cudweed contains a volatile 
oil and tannins. Medicinal Actions & Uses While little used 
medicinally today, marsh cudweed has astringent, 
antiseptic, and decongestant properties. In British 
herbal medicine, it is occasionally taken for tonsillitis, 
sore throat, and hoarseness, and for mucus in the 
throat, nasal passages, and sinuses. Marsh cudweed 
is used in Russia to reduce high blood pressure. It is 
thought to be antidepressant and aphrodisiac. US_202-223_Digitalis_lutea_Iris_versicolor.indd   217 26/02/16   12:47 pm
218
other medicinal plantsGrindelia camporum
Research Cotton seeds and seed oil cause 
infertility in men, and have been tested as a male 
contraceptive in China. However, in addition to lowering sperm count, cotton seed oil causes the degeneration of sperm-producing cells. Related Species The American species  
G. hirsutum was used extensively as a medicinal herb by the Maya and Aztecs, and was also cultivated for its fiber. Columbus carried samples of this species back to Europe from his first voyage. Native American people used the bark to ease the pain  of childbirth, and by the 19th century it was used as an inducer of menstruation and abortion. RQ Cautions Cotton root bark and seed  
oil are potentially toxic and should only be used under professional supervision. Do not use  during pregnancy.Guaiacum officinale 
(Zygophyllaceae)
Lignum Vitae, 
Guayacan (Spanish)
Description Evergreen tree growing to 10 m 
(33 ft). Has compound oval leaves, small, deep blue 
star-shaped flowers, and heart-shaped seed capsules. Habitat & Cultivation Lignum vitae is native 
to South America and the Caribbean islands. It grows in tropical rainforests. The tree is felled for its timber, and resin is extracted from the heartwood. Parts Used Wood, resin. Constituents Lignum vitae contains lignans 
(furoguaiacidin, guaiacin, and others), triterpene saponins, 18–25% resin, and volatile oil.friction rub on rheumatic areas. Absorbent cotton moistened with the resin may be applied to aching teeth. A decoction of the woodchips acts as a local anesthetic, and is used to treat rheumatic joints and herpes blisters. Related Species G. sanctum, which grows  
in Central America and parts of Florida, and  G. coulteri, native to Mexico, are used in the  same manner as lignum vitae. Caution Lignum vitae is subject to legal 
restrictions in some countries and is endangered. Guarea rusbyi syn . G. guidonia 
(Meliaceae)
Cocillana, 
Guapi Bark
Description Evergreen tree growing to 150 ft 
(45 m) with pale grey bark, compound lance-shaped leaves, and green-white flowers. Habitat & Cultivation Cocillana is native  
to the eastern Andes. The bark is gathered throughout the year. Part Used Bark. Constituents Cocillana contains anthraquinones, 
proanthocyanids, and a volatile oil. History & Folklore Cocillana has been used 
as an emetic in traditional South American and Caribbean medicine, probably for many centuries. The plant was first introduced to Western medicine by H. H. Rusby, who collected samples in Bolivia  in 1886. Medicinal Actions & Uses Cocillana is used 
in cough mixtures, being an even more powerful expectorant than ipecac (Cephaelis ipecacuanha,  p. 186). Cocillana is taken as a treatment for coughs, excessive mucus production in the throat and chest, and bronchitis. At a high dosage, the plant induces vomiting. Related Species A gum resin derived from  
the Caribbean G. guara is used as a clotting agent, and a decoction of the leaves is taken as a treatment for internal bleeding. QCaution Use cocillana only under  
professional supervision.Lignum vitae was once in high demand in Europe as  
a purported cure for syphilis.Grindelia camporum syn . G. robusta var. rigida (Asteraceae)
Gumplant
Description Perennial herb growing to 3 ft  
(1 m). Has triangular leaves and yellow-orange 
daisy-type flowers. Habitat & Cultivation Native to the 
southwestern U.S. and Mexico, gumplant grows in arid and saline soil. It is harvested in late summer when in flower. Parts Used Leaves, flowering tops. Constituents Gumplant contains diterpenes 
(including grindelic acid), resins, and flavonoids. History & Folklore Gumplant was used by 
Native Americans to treat bronchial problems and skin afflictions. Gumplant was officially recognized in the Pharmacopoeia of the United States from 1882 to 1926. Medicinal Actions & Uses Gumplant is  
a valuable remedy for bronchial asthma, and for states where phlegm in the airways impedes respiration. Both antispasmodic and expectorant, gumplant helps to relax the muscles of the smaller bronchial passages and to clear congested mucus. Additionally, it is thought to desensitize the nerve endings in the bronchial tree and to slow the heart rate, both leading to easier breathing. Gumplant is also taken for bronchitis and emphysema, and to clear mucus buildup in the throat and nose. It has been employed in the treatment of whooping cough, hay fever, and cystitis, and externally to help speed the healing of skin irritation and burns. Related Species G. squarrosa, a North American 
species used interchangeably with G. camporum, was taken by Native Americans to treat respiratory problems such as colds, coughs, and tuberculosis. RQ Cautions Toxic in excessive doses. Only 
take under professional supervision. Do not take if suffering from kidney or heart problems.History & Folklore In 1519, Ulrich von Hutten, 
a German satirist, was said to have cured himself  of syphilis after a 40-day regimen involving fasting, profuse sweating, and drinking decoctions of lignum vitae. Furthermore, in 1526, Oviedo, one of the earliest chroniclers of American natural history, wrote that “Caribbean Indians cure themselves very easily” of venereal disease with this plant. For some years, lignum vitae was in great demand in Europe but it slowly fell into disrepute, its use as a cure for syphilis being seen as a long-lasting hoax. However, it is possible that the herb might have some effect if combined with an intensive naturopathic regimen. Medicinal Actions & Uses Used in Europe, 
especially in Britain, as a remedy for arthritic and rheumatic conditions, lignum vitae has anti-inflammatory properties that help to reduce joint pain and swelling. It is also diuretic, laxative, and sweat-inducing and speeds the elimination of toxins, which makes it valuable for treating gout. Tincture of lignum vitae is commonly used as a Gymnema sylvestre 
(Asclepiadaceae)
Gymnema, 
Gurmar (Hindi)
Description Large, evergreen, twining plant, 
climbing up through forest trees, sometimes to a 
considerable height. Has dull green leaves about  2 in (5 cm) long, and umbels of small yellow flowers. US_202-223_Digitalis_lutea_Iris_versicolor.indd   218 26/02/16   12:47 pm219Hibiscus sabdariffaother medicinal plantsHabitat & Cultivation Gymnema is native  
to forests of central and southern India, Southeast 
Asia, and as far south as northern Australia. It 
prefers loamy soil. Parts Used Leaves. Constituents Gymnema contains saponins 
(gymnemic acids) and a polypeptide (gurmarin). History & Folklore Gymnema has long been 
used in Indian domestic medicine as a remedy for 
sugar cravings and diabetes. Its Hindi name means 
“sugar destroyer.”
Medicinal Actions & Uses Gymnema has 
real value in treating diabetes, especially in the  
early stages of type 2 diabetes, which develops  
in middle to old age. If taken consistently for a  
year or more, it will help to prevent the condition 
deteriorating. Gymnema may help to regenerate 
cells in the pancreas that secrete insulin, so  
it may be possible to control or reverse mild  
diabetes with diet and gymnema. The plant’s 
remarkable ability to block sweet tastes means  
that it can reduce sugar cravings and contribute  
to weight-loss programs. Research In recent research in India and  
Japan, gymnema has shown promise as a safe  
and effective natural treatment for diabetes. In  
two clinical trials in India, patients with diabetes 
needed less insulin or other treatments to lower 
blood-sugar levels. There is an indication that 
gymnema may encourage repair of the islet cells  
of the pancreas, responsible for insulin secretion. The leaves have been shown to anesthetize the 
sweet taste buds of the tongue, and temporarily 
reduce appetite. Medicinal Actions & Uses Thought to 
stimulate bile secretion, haronga is used in European 
herbal medicine to treat indigestion and poor 
pancreatic function. In African herbal medicine, 
haronga is chiefly employed as an astringent and 
mild laxative, and is also given for digestive system 
ailments such as diarrhea and dysentery. Hedera helix (Araliaceae)
Ivy, 
English Ivy
Description A woody climber up to 100 ft  
(30 m) with leathery, dark green leaves, clusters of 
greenish-yellow flowers and black or orange berries. Habitat & Cultivation Native to Europe and 
northern and central Asia, ivy has been introduced, 
often as a garden climber, in many parts of the world. In the wild, it typically grows on trees and in hedges. Parts Used Leaves, berries. Constituents Ivy contains saponins, sterols, 
polyacetylenes, a volatile oil, and flavonoids. The saponins are expectorant, amebicidal, and 
antifungal, and kill liver flukes. History & Folklore In the classical world, 
common ivy was dedicated to Dionysus, the god  
of wine making and intoxication. Ivy was thought  
to be able to prevent or undo drunkenness. The 
leaf was traditionally used in England to treat corns 
and warts—it was soaked in vinegar and bound  
on as a poultice, or placed inside a sock, overlying  
the corn. Medicinal Actions & Uses Ivy is chiefly  
used for congestion of the ear, nose, and  
throat, as well as for bronchitis. It acts as  an expectorant, stimulating the coughing up  
and clearance of phlegm. It has a beneficial effect 
on mucous membranes and is generally combined 
with tonic herbs, especially thyme ( Thymus vulgaris , 
p. 143). Ivy extracts are common ingredients in 
cosmetic formulations for cellulite. Caution Fresh leaves can irritate the skin. Herniaria glabra 
(Caryophyllaceae)
Rupturewort
Description Prostrate annual or perennial  
with bright green oval leaves and clusters of  
green flowers. Habitat & Cultivation Rupturewort is found 
throughout Europe and western Asia. It thrives in 
barren areas, in lime and sandy soils. It is gathered 
when in flower. Parts Used Aerial parts. Constituents Rupturewort contains coumarins 
(including 3% herniarin and scopoletin), flavonoids, 
phenolic acids, and saponins. History & Folklore Rupturewort was first 
documented in European herbals of the 16th 
century. Its genus name, Herniaria , refers to its 
reputed ability to heal hernias. Medicinal Actions & Uses Rupturewort is  
of value chiefly as a diuretic herb. The fresh plant 
treats urinary problems such as cystitis, irritable 
bladder, and kidney stones. It is also astringent, and 
has been applied as a poultice to speed the healing 
of ulcers. The whole plant appears to have an 
antispasmodic effect on the bladder. Ivy was thought, in the classical world, to undo drunkenness.Haronga madagascariensis  
(Guttiferae)
Haronga
Description Small evergreen tree growing  
to 26 ft (8 m). Has black-dotted leaves with  
a dark green upper surface and red-brown  
hairs underneath, and clusters of creamy-  
white flowers. Habitat & Cultivation Haronga is native  
to Madagascar and East Africa, and grows in  
tropical areas. The leaves and bark are collected 
throughout the year. Parts Used Leaves, bark. Constituents Haronga bark contains phenolic 
pigments, triterpenes, anthraquinones, and tannins. The leaves contain phenolic pigments, the diterpene 
hypericin, flavonoids, and tannins. Hypericin, which 
is also found in St. John’s wort ( Hypericum 
perforatum , p. 106), has antiviral properties. History & Folklore Haronga resin has 
traditionally been used in Africa to secure 
arrowheads onto shafts.Hibiscus sabdariffa (Malvaceae)
Hibiscus, 
Jamaica
Description Shrub growing to 61⁄2 ft (2 m)  
in height. Habitat & Cultivation Native to North 
Africa and Southeast Asia, hibiscus grows in tropical 
regions around the world. It is primarily cultivated 
across Africa and in Thailand, China, and Mexico. Parts Used Calyx (the outer base of the flower), 
flowers, leaves. Constituents The calyx and flowers contain 
flavonoids, including anthocyanins. History & Folklore “Hibiscus” means “plant 
that is consecrated to the ibis,” a bird held sacred in 
ancient Egypt. Medicinal Actions & Uses Hibiscus makes  
a refreshing, pleasant-tasting tea that is cooling  
and mildly sedative, soothing hot and feverish 
US_202-223_Digitalis_lutea_Iris_versicolor.indd   219 26/02/16   12:47 pm
220
other medicinal plantsHieracium pilosella
conditions. The calyces are gently tonic and will  
ease colds, coughs, and chest problems. They also aid digestion and gently stimulate appetite. Both the calyces and flowers act to reduce cholesterol levels. All parts of hibiscus are demulcent, mildly soothing sore or inflamed mucous membranes within the digestive and respiratory tracts. Research Various clinical studies have shown  
that hibiscus helps to lower high blood pressure. Hieracium pilosella syn . pilosella 
officinarum (Asteraceae)
Mouse-ear 
Hawkweed
Description Perennial herb growing to a height 
of 8 in (20 cm) from a rosette of basal leaves. Stems 
bear single bright yellow flower heads. Habitat & Cultivation Mouse-ear hawkweed 
is common throughout much of Europe and temperate regions of Asia and North America. Found growing in dry pastures and on sandy soil,  it is collected when in flower in summer. Parts Used Aerial parts. Constituents Mouse-ear hawkweed contains  
a coumarin (umbelliferone), flavonoids, and caffeic acid. It is thought to be mildly antifungal. History & Folklore In his Irish Herbal (1735), 
K’Eogh summarizes mouse-ear hawkweed’s medicinal benefits: “good against the spitting of blood, all kinds of flow, coughs, ulcers of the lungs, mouth and eyes, and shingles.”
Medicinal Actions & Uses Mouse-ear 
hawkweed relaxes the muscles of the bronchial tubes, stimulates the cough reflex, and reduces  the production of mucus. This combination of actions makes the herb effective in respiratory problems, including asthma and wheeziness, whooping cough, bronchitis, and other chronic  and congested coughs. The herb is used to  control heavy menstrual bleeding, and to ease  the coughing up of blood. It may be applied as  a poultice to heal wounds.Parts Used The peeled stem. Constituents Hoodia contains a steroidal 
glycoside, which is thought to act as an appetite suppressant. History & Folklore The San people of the 
Kalahari traditionally used this plant to suppress sensations of thirst and hunger, when on journeys through the desert. Such use was first recorded  in 1937. Medicinal Actions & Uses Hoodia  
provides a cautionary tale for herbal medicines  and supplements in the 21st century. There is  little evidence that taking it leads to weight loss other than the plant’s traditional use as an appetite suppressant, while its safety profile is unknown. Despite this, after media coverage by the BBC  in 2003, sales of hoodia supplements rocketed, with prices in the LA Times reaching $40 per  ounce (30 g) in 2006. At such a price, it is not  hard to see why hoodia’s survival in the wild is severely threatened. It would seem sensible to  opt instead for herbs that are endorsed for their  use for weight loss by scientific studies and  where there is no risk of the herb disappearing from the wild, such as Gymnema (Gymnema sylvestre, p. 218). QCautions Seek professional advice before 
taking hoodia products, especially if taking prescribed blood-thinning medication for conditions such as diabetes or high blood pressure. Hordeum vulgare (Poaceae)
Barley
Description Annual grass growing to about  
3 ft (1 m). Has an erect hollow stem, lance-
shaped leaves, and ears bearing twin rows 
of seeds and long bristles. Habitat & Cultivation Barley is 
cultivated in temperate regions 
worldwide. It is harvested when the 
seeds are mature. Parts Used Seeds. Constituents Barley contains 
polysaccharides, proteins, 
sugars, fats, and vitamins B and 
E. The young seedlings also 
contain the amines tyramine 
and gramine.Sea buckthorn is distinguished by its thorny stems  
and narrow silvery leaves. The berries help improve  the body’s resistance to infection. Parts Used Berries. Constituents The fruit contains flavonoids, 
flavones, carotenoids, vitamins A, C (present in 
very high quantities), and E, and high levels of minerals including sulphur, selenium, zinc, and copper. The seeds contain appreciable levels of alpha-linolenic acid. History & Folklore The sour-tasting berries 
have traditionally been eaten with milk and cheese by Siberians and T artars, who also used them to make a pleasant-tasting jelly. Medicinal Actions & Uses Sea buckthorn 
berries are very high in vitamin C. They have principally been used to help improve resistance to infection. The berries are mildly astringent, and a decoction of them has been used as a wash to treat skin irritation and eruptions, and to promote healing. Research Research into sea buckthorn fruit, 
seed, and seed oil indicates that they have definite therapeutic value. The fruit especially supports heart and circulatory health and is useful in treating conditions such as capillary fragility, arteriosclerosis, and a weak heart. The seed oil nourishes the skin, promotes tissue healing, and will often prove useful in treating eczema. Hoodia gordonii (Apocynaceae)
Hoodia
Description Unusual-looking succulent growing 
to 3 ft (1 m), hoodia has multiple spiny, grey-green stems and light purple flowers. Habitat & Cultivation Native to the Kalahari 
desert, hoodia is now extensively cultivated in Namibia and South Africa. The plant is grown from seed or cuttings. Trade in the hoodia plant is legally restricted due to its threatened survival in the wild.Barley has been  
eaten since  Neolithic times.Hippophae rhamnoides 
(Elaeagnaceae)
Sea Buckthorn
Description Thorny deciduous shrub growing to 
16 ft (5 m). Has narrow silvery leaves, male or female 
flowers, and clusters of brownish-orange berries. Habitat & Cultivation Native to Europe and 
Asia, sea buckthorn grows mainly in sandy coastal areas and in dry riverbeds in mountainous regions. The berries are harvested in the autumn. US_202-223_Digitalis_lutea_Iris_versicolor.indd   220 26/02/16   12:47 pm221 other medicinal plantsHyoscyamus niger
History & Folklore The Cherokee used 
hydrangea as a remedy for kidney and bladder 
stones. The 19th-century Physiomedicalist  
herbal movement used a formula comprising 
hydrangea, couch grass ( Agropyron repens , p. 162), 
and hollyhock ( Althaea rosea ) to treat serious 
kidney disorders, including nephritis. Medicinal Actions & Uses Western  
herbal medicine considers the diuretic  
hydrangea as being particularly helpful in  
the treatment of kidney and bladder stones. It is thought both to encourage the expulsion  
of stones and to help dissolve those that  
remain. The herb is given for many other  
troubles affecting the genitourinary system, 
including cystitis, urethritis, enlarged prostate,  
and prostatitis. Cautions Do not take during pregnancy or  
while breastfeeding. Wild hydrangea is best taken 
on professional advice. Hygrophila spinosa  
(Acanthaceae)
Gokulakanta
Description Thorny, red-stemmed annual 
growing to 2 ft (60 cm). Has bright blue flowers 
and small, flat, dark red seeds. Habitat & Cultivation Native to India, 
gokulakanta is now widely distributed throughout 
tropical regions. It is gathered when in flower. Parts Used Aerial parts, root. Constituents Gokulakanta contains mucilage, 
fixed and volatile oils, and an alkaloid. Medicinal Actions & Uses Commonly used 
as a remedy in India, gokulakanta is taken chiefly  
for its reputed aphrodisiac properties. Both the 
aerial parts and ash of the burned plant are strongly 
diuretic, and are used to flush water from the body 
in cases of excess fluid retention. Related Species The South American  
H. guayensis  is bactericidal and has been used as a 
local treatment for the tropical disease, leishmaniasis. History & Folklore Barley has been 
consumed for many thousands of years. Dioscorides (1st century ce) recommended  
it “to weaken and restrain all sharp and subtle 
humours, and sore and ulcerated throats.”
Medicinal Actions & Uses An excellent  
food for convalescence in the form of porridge  
or barley water, barley is soothing to the throat 
and provides easily assimilated nutrients. It can  
also be taken to clear mucus. Its demulcent quality 
soothes inflammation of the gut and urinary tract. Barley aids in the digestion of milk and is given to 
babies to prevent the development of curds within 
the stomach. It is commonly given to children 
suffering from minor infections or diarrhea, and it 
is particularly recommended as a treatment for 
feverish states. Made into a poultice, barley is an 
effective remedy for soothing and reducing 
inflammation in sores and swellings. Research The fiber in barley, like that in oats,  
has an established action in reducing fat absorption 
from the gut, aiding lower cholesterol levels. In 
common with other fiber foods, it may also help  
to stabilize blood sugar levels and to prevent  
bowel cancer.therapeutic use in parts of Europe, including 
England, and in North America. The leaves and 
flowers are picked just after the plant has 
flowered, in the first year for the annual variety 
and in the second year for the biennial. Parts Used Leaves, flowering tops. Constituents Henbane contains 0.045–0.14% 
tropane alkaloids, especially hyoscyamine and 
hyoscine, and flavonoids. Hyoscyamine and hyoscine 
are common to other members of the Solanaceae  
family, but henbane’s relatively high hyoscine content 
gives it a more specifically sedative action than its 
relatives thornapple ( Datura stramonium , p. 200) 
and deadly nightshade ( Atropa belladonna , p. 69). History & Folklore Henbane has been used 
as a medicinal herb for thousands of years. Babylonian accounts and the Egyptian Ebers papyrus 
(c. 1500 bce) record that henbane was smoked to 
relieve toothache. In Greek myth, the dead were 
adorned with henbane when they arrived in Hades. Writing in the 1st century ce, Dioscorides 
recommended henbane for insomnia, coughs, 
congestion, heavy menstrual bleeding, eye pain, 
gout, and as a general pain reliever, and advised 
that the herb should be used within a year as it 
deteriorates quickly. In the Middle Ages, henbane 
had the Latin name dentaria , denoting its use as a 
remedy against toothache. Henbane reputedly 
produces a sensation of lightness, as though one 
were flying, and it was one of the chief 
components of witches’ “flying ointments.”Hydrangea arborescens 
(Hydrangeaceae)
Wild Hydrangea
Description Woody-stemmed deciduous shrub 
growing to a height of about 10 ft (3 m). Has oval 
leaves and clusters of small, creamy-white flowers. Habitat & Cultivation Native to the eastern  
U.S. from New Y ork to Florida, wild hydrangea 
grows in woodlands and on riverbanks. The root  
is dug up in autumn. Part Used Root. Constituents Hydrangea is thought to contain 
flavonoids, a cyanogenic glycoside (hydrangein), 
saponins, and a volatile oil. Wild hydrangea  is used to treat kidney and bladder stones.Hyoscyamus niger (Solanaceae)
Henbane
Description Annual or biennial herb growing 
to 3 ft (1 m). Has delicate, slightly lobed leaves 
and bell-shaped flowers, pale yellow in color  
with fine purple veining. Habitat & Cultivation Native to western 
Asia and southern Europe, henbane is now 
found across much of western and 
central Europe, and North and 
South America. It is cultivated for Henbane has distinctive 
yellow flowers veined with 
purple. The plant was 
used in classical times  
as a general painkiller. US_202-223_Digitalis_lutea_Iris_versicolor.indd   221 17/03/16   4:01 pm
222Hyssopus officinalisother medicinal plantsMedicinal Actions & Uses Henbane is  
used extensively in herbal medicine as a sedative 
and painkiller. Its specific use is for pain affecting  the urinary tract, especially pain due to kidney stones, though it is also given for abdominal cramping. Its sedative and antispasmodic effect makes it a valuable treatment for the symptoms  of Parkinson’s disease, relieving tremor and rigidity during the early stages of the illness. Henbane  has also been used to treat asthma and bronchitis, usually as a “burning powder” or in the form  of a cigarette. Applied externally as an oil, it can relieve painful conditions such as neuralgia, sciatica, and rheumatism. Henbane reduces mucus secretions, as well as saliva and other digestive juices. Like its cousin deadly nightshade, it dilates  the pupils. Hyoscine is commonly employed as  a pre-operative anesthetic and in motion  sickness formulations. Related Species Other Hyoscyamus species  
are used in a similar way. The North African  H. muticus is traditionally smoked by Bedouins  to relieve toothache. See also deadly nightshade (Atropa belladonna, p. 69). RQ Cautions Use only under professional 
supervision. Potentially toxic in overdose,  
henbane is subject to legal restrictions in  
some countries. Hyssopus officinalis (Lamiaceae)
Hyssop
Description Semi-evergreen shrub growing  
to 2 ft (60 cm). Has narrow leaves and clusters  of blue double-lipped flowers. Habitat & Cultivation Native to southern 
Europe, hyssop grows freely in Mediterranean countries, especially in the Balkans and Turkey. wood fire, ground, and then stored in sacks for  a year before being sold. Parts Used Leaves. Constituents Maté contains xanthine 
derivatives, including about 1.5% caffeine, about 0.2% theobromine, theophylline, and up to 16% tannins. The high tannin content means that maté should not be consumed with meals, as tannins impair the absorption of nutrients. Medicinal Actions & Uses Maté is a 
Maté makes a pleasant-tasting tea that has a stimulant, 
mildly analgesic, and diuretic effect.It prefers sunny, dry sites and is a common garden 
herb. The flowering tops are harvested when  the plant is in flower in summer. Parts Used Flowering tops, essential oil. Constituents Contains terpenes (including 
marubiin, a diterpene), a volatile oil (consisting mainly of camphor, pinocamphone, and beta-pinene), flavonoids, tannins, and resin. Marubiin is a strong expectorant. Pinocamphone is toxic, and the volatile oil can cause epileptic seizures. History & Folklore In the past, hyssop  
was so highly esteemed it was regarded as a  virtual cure-all. An old saying went, “Whoever rivals hyssop’s virtues, knows too much.” In the  1st century ce, Dioscorides recommended  a recipe containing a mixture of hyssop, figs  (Ficus carica, p. 211), rue (Ruta graveolens,  p. 265), honey, and water for treating a  
number of conditions, including pleurisy,  
asthma, tight-chestedness, respiratory congestion,  and chronic coughs. Medicinal Actions & Uses Currently  
an undervalued medicinal herb, hyssop is potentially useful as it is both calming and tonic. It has a positive effect when used to treat bronchitis and respiratory infections, especially where there is excessive mucus production. Hyssop appears to encourage the production  of a more liquid mucus, and at the same time gently stimulates expectoration. This combined action clears thick and congested phlegm. Hyssop can irritate the mucous membranes, so it is best given after an infection has peaked, when the herb’s tonic action encourages a general recovery. As a sedative, hyssop is a useful remedy against asthma in both children and adults, especially where the condition is exacerbated by mucus congestion. Like many herbs with a strong  
volatile oil, it soothes the digestive tract and can  be an effective remedy against indigestion, gas, bloating, and colic. Cautions Hyssop essential oil can induce 
epileptic seizures. It should only be used under professional supervision. Hyssop essential oil is subject to legal restrictions in some countries. Hyssop has a positive effect on respiratory infections.traditional South American tea that increases short-term physical and mental energy levels. It  
is taken as a fortifying beverage in much the same way as tea (Camellia sinensis, p. 181) is consumed throughout Asia and Europe. Maté has properties similar to those of tea and coffee (Coffea arabica,  p. 192). It stimulates the nervous system and is mildly analgesic and diuretic. As a medicinal herb, maté is used to treat headaches, migraine, neuralgic and rheumatic pain, fatigue, and mild depression. It has also been used in the treatment of diabetes. Related Species I. guayusa, from Ecuador, is 
used in much the same way as maté but is also employed medicinally to treat malaria, liver pain, and syphilis. It is thought to aid digestion and cleanse the digestive tract. illicium verum (Schisandaceae)
Star Anise, 
Ba Jiao Hui Xian (Chinese)
Description Evergreen tree growing to 59 ft 
(18 m). Has tapering leaves, pale greenish-yellow flowers and star-shaped segmented fruit (seed pods). Habitat & Cultivation Native to China, India 
and Vietnam, star anise grows in tropical regions across the world. The fruit is harvested when ripe. Parts Used Fruit and seeds.ilex paraguariensis  
syn. i. paraguensis (Aquifoliaceae)
Maté
Description Evergreen shrub or small tree 
growing to 20 ft (6 m). Has large leaves, white 
flowers, and small reddish fruit. Habitat & Cultivation Maté grows wild  
in northern Argentina, Paraguay, Uruguay, and southern Brazil, and is widely cultivated in Argentina, Spain, and Portugal. The leaves are picked when the berries are ripe, heated over a 
US_202-223_Digitalis_lutea_Iris_versicolor.indd   222 26/02/16   12:47 pm223 other medicinal plantsIrIs vers Icolor
Constituents Star anise contains a volatile  
oil (mostly anethole), sesquiterpenoids, and 
flavonoids, including quercetin. Anethole calms  
the digestive system and relieves gas. The 
sesquiterpenoids have analgesic activity. Shikimic 
acid, found in the seed pods, was until recently  
used as the main source for the production of 
T amiflu, a prescribed anti-viral medicine. History & Folklore Due to its high anethole 
content, star anise has a similar taste to anise 
(Pipinella anisum , p. 248), and both are used 
principally as spices. The herb’s Chinese name,  
ba jiao hui xian , means “8-horned fennel.” 
Medicinal Actions & Uses Used in  
Chinese herbal medicine as a remedy for 
rheumaism, back pain, and hernias, star anise  
has stimulant, diuretic, and digestive properties. It makes an effective remedy for gas and 
indigestion—especially colic—and can safely  
be given to children. To treat hernias of the 
intestine or bladder, star anise is often mixed  
with fennel ( Foeniculum vulgare , p. 212). Both  
herbs help to relax the organ’s muscles and  
relieve spasm. Star anise is also used for toothache. Caution Japanese star anise ( Illicium anisatum ), 
which is very similar to star anise, contains a toxic 
compound and can cause serious side effects. Imperatoria ostruthium, syn. Peucedanum ostruthium
Masterwort
Description Perennial growing to 2 ft (60 cm) 
with green leaves divided into 3 leaflets with 3 lobes, 
white flowers on large umbels, and winged seeds. Habitat & Cultivation Native to central and 
southern Europe and Asia, most often found in the 
wild. The root is unearthed in autumn or spring. Part Used Root. Constituents Masterwort contains a 
camphoraceous volatile oil (including limonene, 
phellandrene, alpha-pinene, and a sesquiterpene), 
peucadanin, oxipeucadanin, and ostrutol. History & Folklore From the late Middle 
Ages onward, masterwort was held in high regard by herbalists. Pierandrea Matteoli’s Materia  
Medica  of 1548 explains: “Masterwort powerfully  
resolves all flatulence in the body, stimulates  
urine and menstruation, is an admirable remedy 
for paralysis and cold conditions of the brain, and 
helps against pestilence and the bites of rabid 
dogs.” A century later, Nicholas Culpeper was  
no less fulsome in recommending masterwort  
for rheumatic conditions, shortness of breath, 
kidney and bladder stones, water retention,  
“falling sickness,” and wounds. Medicinal Actions & Uses Masterwort  
is little used today, but it may well be an herb that 
bears further investigation. The root is aromatic, 
warms central areas of the body, and is a bitter 
tonic. It has a strong action within the stomach  
and gut, settling indigestion and relieving gas  
and cramping. Masterwort is also beneficial for  
chest conditions, and is used for colds, asthma,  
and bronchitis. It can also be helpful for  
menstrual problems. Caution If applied to the skin, masterwort  
may cause an allergic reaction to sunlight.Dried star anise fruit is  
a digestive, stimulant,  
and diuretic remedy. Blue flag was very widely used by Native Americans 
to treat wounds and sores.Iris versicolor (Iridaceae)
Blue Flag, 
Wild Iris
Description Perennial growing to about 3 ft  
(1 m). Has erect stems and long sword-shaped 
leaves. Each stem bears 3–5 resplendent blue  
to violet flowers with white-veined areas on  
the petals. Habitat & Cultivation Blue flag is native to 
North America. Preferring damp and marshy areas 
in the wild, it is also widely cultivated as a garden 
plant. The rhizome is unearthed in autumn. Part Used Rhizome. Constituents Blue flag contains triterpenoids, 
salicylic, and isophthalic acids, a very small amount 
of volatile oil, starch, resin, an oleoresin, and tannins. History & Folklore Blue flag was one of the 
medicinal plants most frequently used by Native 
Americans. Different tribes made use of it variously 
as an emetic, cathartic, and diuretic, to treat wounds, 
and for colds, earache, and cholera. In the Anglo-
American Physiomedicalist tradition, blue flag was 
used as a glandular and liver remedy. Blue flag is 
Quebec’s provincial flower. Medicinal Actions & Uses Blue flag is 
currently used mainly to detoxify the body. It 
increases urination and bile production, and has  
a mild laxative effect. This combination of cleansing 
actions makes it a useful herb for chronic skin 
diseases such as acne and eczema, especially where 
gallbladder problems or constipation contribute to 
the condition. Blue flag is also given for biliousness 
and indigestion. However, in large doses blue flag 
will itself cause vomiting.
Encyclopedia_Of_Herbal_Medicine.txt
Summarize the following text section accurately and concisely. Maintain specific details and numerical information, and use anti-repetition mechanisms:

        The seeds help in the treatment of kidney stones, and, combined with urinary antiseptics such as uva-ursi (Arctostaphylos uva-ursi,  p. 170), make an effective treatment for cystitis. An infusion of the seeds may be taken as a gargle for sore throats and as a mild expectorant. Fennel is safe for children when taken at a low dose and,  as an infusion or syrup, can be given for colic and painful teething in babies. Fennel increases breast-milk production and the herb is still used as an 
Fragaria vesca (Rosaceae)
Wild Strawberry
Description Low-growing perennial herb 
spread by runners. Has 3-lobed leaves, white flowers, and small red berries. Ficus religiosa (Moraceae)
Peepal
Description Tree growing to around 26 ft (8 m) 
with large, leathery, heart-shaped leaves and purple fruit growing in pairs. Habitat & Cultivation Peepal grows in 
northern and central India, in forests, and alongside water. It is also widely cultivated throughout the subcontinent and southern Asia. The fruit is gathered when ripe. Parts Used Fruit, leaves, bark, latex. Constituents The fruit contains fruit sugars, 
flavonoids, and enzymes. History & Folklore Sacred to Hindus and 
Buddhists, the peepal is the tree under which the Buddha attained enlightenment. It is a long-living tree; a peepal in Sri Lanka is thought to be over 2,000 years old. Medicinal Actions & Uses Peepal’s uses  
are similar to those of the banyan (F. benghalensis,  p. 211). Its astringent bark and leaves are taken for diarrhea and dysentery, whereas the leaves alone are used for constipation. The leaves are applied with ghee (clarified butter) as a poultice to boils and to swollen salivary glands in mumps. The powdered fruit may be taken for asthma and  the latex is used to treat warts. Related Species See preceding entries, fig  
(F. carica) and banyan tree (F. benghalensis). US_202-223_Digitalis_lutea_Iris_versicolor. indd   212 26/02/16   12:47 pm213 other medicinal plantsFumaria o FFicinalis
Habitat & Cultivation Wild strawberry is 
native to Europe and temperate regions of Asia. The leaves and fruit are gathered in early summer. Parts Used Leaves, fruit. Constituents The leaves contain flavonoids, 
tannins, and a volatile oil. The fruit contains fruit acids 
and a volatile oil with methyl salicylate and borneol. History & Folklore Wild strawberry appears 
to have been little used medicinally until the Middle 
Ages. Writing in 1652, Nicholas Culpeper listed its 
benefits: “the berries are excellent good to cool 
the liver, the blood, and the spleen, or a hot 
cholerick stomach … the leaves and roots thereof 
[are] also good to fasten loose teeth and to heal 
spongy foul gums. ”
Medicinal Actions & Uses Wild strawberry 
leaves are mildly astringent and diuretic. The plant 
is little used medicinally today, but it can be taken  
to treat diarrhea and dysentery. The leaves were 
used as a gargle for sore throats, and in a lotion  
for minor burns and grazes. In Europe, the fruit  
is considered to have cooling and diuretic 
properties, and has been prescribed as part of  
a diet in cases of tuberculosis, gout, arthritis,  
and rheumatism. Habitat & Cultivation Common in Europe, 
ash thrives in lowland and moorland. The leaves 
are gathered in summer, but the bark is gathered  
in spring. Parts Used Leaves, bark, seeds. Constituents Ash leaves contain flavonoids, 
tannins, mucilage, triterpenes, and iridoids. History & Folklore The ash was the “world-
tree” of Norse mythology, its roots spreading to 
the domain of the gods, and its branches extending 
to the remotest corners of the universe. In Norse 
myth, the first man was carved from a piece of ash 
wood. In parts of Europe, ash bark was used as  
a cost-free substitute for quinine in the home 
treatment of malaria. Such use probably continued 
in rural areas into the 20th century. Medicinal Actions & Uses Ash bark is tonic 
and astringent. Little used in herbal medicine today, 
it is occasionally taken for fever. The leaves are also 
astringent, and they have a laxative and diuretic 
effect. They have been used as a mild substitute  
for senna ( Cassia senna, p. 75). Related Species The bark of the American 
white ash ( F. americana ) has been used as a bitter 
tonic and astringent. Several ash species exude a 
nutritious sap, called “manna,” which is used as  
a laxative for children. In particular, the manna ash  
(F. ornus ), which has antioxidant activity, has been 
cultivated in southern Europe for its high yield of 
manna sap. Research In one clinical trial (Italy 1976), patients 
taking bladderwrack lost much more weight than 
the control group. In more recent German 
research, the polyphenols and polysaccharides 
appeared to have antiviral and anti-HIV activity. Cautions Do not take if pregnant or 
breastfeeding. If suffering from a thyroid illness or 
taking insulin, take only under professional advice. Fumaria officinalis (Fumariaceae)
Fumitory
Description Climbing annual growing to 1 ft  
(30 cm). Has compound leaves and maroon-tipped 
pink tubular flowers. Habitat & Cultivation Native to Europe and 
North Africa, fumitory also grows in Asia, North 
America, and Australia. Parts Used Flowering aerial parts. Constituents Fumitory contains isoquinoline 
alkaloids and flavonoids. Medicinal Actions & Uses A notably  
bitter-tasting herb, fumitory has a stimulant and 
cleansing action on the liver and gallbladder,  
and is principally used to treat chronic itchy skin 
problems such as eczema. It is also diuretic and 
mildly laxative. Related Species Fumitory is related to 
corydalis ( Corydalis yanhusuo, p. 86), and  
F. parviflora from central Asia. The latter, like 
fumitory, is used as a detoxifying, laxative,  
and diuretic herb. Caution Fumitory is toxic in excessive doses. Use only with professional advice. Wild strawberry was said 
to “comfort fainting spirits. ”
Fumitory may be applied externally as a treatment  
for eczema. Fucus vesiculosus (Fucaceae)
Bladderwrack, 
Kelp
Description Brownish-green alga growing  
to 3 ft (1 m) in length. Has flat, usually forked, 
fronds containing air bladders. Habitat & Cultivation Bladderwrack is  
native to the North Atlantic shores and western 
Mediterranean, and is harvested all year. Part Used Whole plant. Constituents Bladderwrack contains polyphenols, 
polysaccharides, and minerals, especially iodine  
(up to 0. 1%). The polysaccharides are 
immunostimulant. The iodine may stimulate the  
thyroid gland. History & Folklore Bladderwrack has been 
employed as a fuel, as a winter feed for cattle, and 
as a source of iodine and potash. Medicinal Actions & Uses Due to its iodine 
content, bladderwrack is taken as an antigoiter 
remedy. The plant appears to raise the metabolic 
rate by increasing hormone production by the 
thyroid gland, though this increase may be limited 
to poorly functioning thyroids. Bladderwrack is 
reputedly helpful in rheumatic conditions. Fraxinus excelsior (Oleaceae)
Ash
Description Deciduous tree growing to 130 ft 
(40 m). Has pale grey bark, black conical leaf buds, 
and bright green leaves with 7–13 oval leaflets.
Fumitory has a stimulant and cleansing action on the liver and gallbladder, and is used to treat chronic itchy skin problems.
What is the medicinal use of Fumitory?
Wintergreen is strongly anti-inflammatory, antiseptic, and soothing to the digestive system. It is an effective remedy for rheumatic and arthritic problems, and, taken as a tea, it relieves flatulence and colic.
What is the medicinal use of Wintergreen?
Barley has been consumed for many thousands of years. It is an excellent food for convalescence, and can be taken to clear mucus.
What is the medicinal use of Barley?
Lignum vitae has anti-inflammatory properties that help to reduce joint pain and swelling. It is also diuretic and laxative.
What is the medicinal use of Lignum Vitae?
Wild geranium is a valuable remedy for bronchial asthma, and for states where there is excessive mucus production.
What is the medicinal use of Wild Geranium?