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function. New York, Springer-Verlag, 1971. X. 
Corpuscular movement and 
structural development 
Effects of molecular and electric field forces 
Part of the mutual attraction of biologic cells depends 
on the presence of electronegative and electropositive 
charges on their surfaces (12, 21, 36). Electronegati ve 
charges dominate , causing cells to move to the anode 
during electrophoresis. Mutual attractions of adjoining 
cells take place at charge sites of opposite polarity. Superimposed electric fields can influence this electro­
static adhesion in a tissue (I, 27). Red and white blood cells and platelets normally 
repel each other by their negative surface charges (20, 
37). They also arc repelled by normal vascular intima, 
which is negatively charged (28, 29). Toxic or me­
chanical injury to the intima can reverse its charge, 
leading to deposition of blood cells on the injured 
vessel wall (26, 30, 31, 32). These effects are consid· 
ered, at least in part, to result from forces of electro­
Static attraction and to constitute an important part of 
coagulation. In addition to electrostatic forces, so-called molecu­
lar attraction and repulsion forces also influence cellu­
lar adherence (as briefly surveyed in Chapter VIII). The normal forces of molecular anraction between 
blood cells are relatively weak. In organized tissues, 
such as bone and muscle, these forces are relatively 
strong (18, 35). Forces of attraction and repulsion among neoplastic cells are often abnormal and considered an important 
risk factor for tumour spread (22). This risk may even 
be enhanced by certain anions, including heparin (2, 
4, 10, 11, 13, 14, 34). The forces of attraction and 
repulsion are therefore important for the behaviour of 
cancers, e.g., metastatic seeding via the blood stream 
and local spread into the tissues surrounding a malig­
nant tumour ( 12). This and the following two chapters 
will show experimentally in vitro how the effects of 
molecular and superimposed stationaty electric field 
forces compete to produce several of the radiographi ­
cally observed modifications of structure around tu­
mours. A demonstration follows of how such effects 
can be produced in vivo in the dog (Chapters XI, XIV) 
and in man (Chapters XVI and XVII). The radiograprucally observed structural changes 
which have been described around lung masses are 
caused not only by displacement of water. Very dis­
tinct radiating structures , more or less linear, have a 
different origin. In every living tissue there are various 
kinds of nonorgan.iz.ed cells such as blood cells and 
subcellular material such as fragments of dying cells, 
macromolecules , etc. Electrical and molecular forces 
influence their movements , qualitative transforma­
tions and structural adaptation s to their environment. Molecular and electrostatic forces 93 Fig. X:/. In vitro production of radiating sLructures , arches 
and "A" and "B" zones. Light transillumination photo­
graphs of a glass jar. An aluminium ball with a slightly irregu­
lar surface (small protruding edges) is glued to the bottom 
of the inside of the jar. The ball and aluminium foil ~ning 
the inner surface of the ;ar arc each <. 'Onnected by cables to a 
Or. porenrial generatOr. J .iquid parAffin iS poured inJO the_ 
jar to the level of the nUddle of the ball. (a) Shorr circuit of 
terminals. Dielectric semolina grains sifted onto the liquid 
surface have arranged themselve s as a ring between the atu .. 
min.ium terminals. (b) Five second exposure during applica­
tion of 1.5 kV pmemial. The semolina grains have started to 
move in the clectric field. (c) Ten seconds later, the grains 
arc: arrangc..-d in radiating structu.rcs around the ball wilh 
preference for the protruding edges (electric field enhance-
94 Molecula.r and elecrrostatic forces ment). (Q) Ten seconds after c. Grain movements have 
stopped, showing radiating structures, a halo or "A" zone, a 
higher concentration of grains outside the halo (a ''B" zone) 
and small .,arches,. forming an "arcade" at the interface be· 
tween the "A" and "B" zones. Note that each "arch" is 
supported at the base by two radiating structures. (e) More 
gl"ain s-ifrt:d Uluttumlyl'ln the p~raffin (cnnrinu~rt I.~ k-V ro­
tential between ter.runals ). The local groups of grains within 
the "B" zone in d now act as concentration foci. Molecular 
forces compete with the electrostatic forces of the applied 
field and attract the new semolina grains toward the concen­
tration centra. (f) 20 seconds after e. State of equilibrium. Density of the ''8'' zone has incrc-dscd. Size of the •'A" zone 
has decrC1lsed. A. Experimental model: 
molecular forces and a 
superimposed electric field 
combine in vitro to form 
corona structures 
Radiating structures, arches and "A" and "B" zones 
can be shown in vitro as follows: a piece of aluminium 
foil was shaped into a small ball, 2.5 em in diameter. Its surface was made slightly irregular (Fig. X: 1). It 
was connected to an electric cable and glued to the 
centre of the bottom of a glass jar, II em in diameter. The inner wall of the jar was covered with a thin 
aluminium foil connected to another cable. The jar 
was filled with a layer of liquid paraffin one em deep. The cable of the aluminium ball was then connected to 
one terminal of an electric DC generator and the cable 
from the periphery of the jar to the second terminal. An electric potential ranging between zero and I. 5 k V 
could be applied between the ball and the periphery. The jar was placed over a light box, permitting transil­
lumination with cold light. A camera was mounted 
above the jar for photography. The jar (Fig. X: I a) is seen from above after both 
the periphery and the central ball have been grounded. Some semolina grains, which are dielectrics, have been 
sifted onto the surface of the paraffin. The grains all 
float on the surface and move together as a ring around 
the ball (exposure duration, 5 seconds each, Fig. X: I a-f). When a 1.5 kV positive (or negative) poten­
tial is applied between the ball and the periphery, the 
semolina grains start to move rapidly (Fig. X: I b). The movements are demonstrated by their motion 
blur. About 15 and 25 sec after the application of 1.5 
kV potential, the grains form radiating structures per­
pendicular to the ball surface (Fig. X: I c-<f). Varying 
distances separate the radiating structures of grains. Between them appear small "arches", which together 
form an "arcade". Each "arch" is supported at its 
base by radiating structures. The radiating structures 
and arches combine to give a picture similar to that of 
the flat, inner surface of a divided citrus fruit (Fig. X: I c-<f). A zone similar to the "A" zone is seen as a 
"halo" around the ball. The regions with higher con­
centration of grains correspond to the HB" z:onc. A 
new photograph (Fig. X: !e) was obtained shortly 
after some more semolina grains had been sifted un­
evenly over the surface. The potential of 1.5 kV was 
kept unchanged. Nearly all grains are seen to move 
again to achieve a new "final" equilibriu m (Fig. X: If). If the posmve 1.5 kV potential on the ball is 
switched to a 1.5 kV negative potential, the position of the structures does not change, indicating that the 
switch does not induce any mechanical moment. The structural developments in this experiment re­
sult from interaction between molecular forces of the 
semolina grains and cellular redistributions caused by 
the superimposed electric field. B. Molecular and electrostatic 
forces in the development 
of "A" and "B" zones 
Mter the central ball and periphery were given the 
same ground potential, semolina grains sifted onto the 
surface of the liquid paraffin moved together to form a 
ring between the ball and the periphery (Fig. X: I a). This movement occurs as a result of the forces of 
internal molecular anraction among grains (see Chap­
ter VII[). Localization of the grains has produced "A" 
and "B" zones around the ball. Had no metal ball 
been present in the centre of the jar, the grains would 
have produced a circular plate in the centre. The 
presence of the ball in the centre constitutes a "foreign 
body" in the system, which breaks the internal anrac­
tion forces in a radial direction. This vector of radial 
force therefore tries to make the doughnut -shaped ring 
as thin as possible. This tendency is counteracted by a 
vector of circular force. Under these circumstances a 
"noncorpuscula r" "A" zone and a "corpuscu lar" 
"B" zone must develop. From this part of the experiment it is important to 
realize that structural development creating "A" and 
"B" zones can occur in ways other than as a resu.ll of 
electroosmo tic movement of water (see Chapter IX). Actually, it is not even necessary to assume that the 
central ball (or in vivo a tumour) is polarized com­
pared to its surroundings. According to the laws of electrostatics, llux from the 
surface of a charged body is proportional to its total 
charge. Moreover, the electric field is a gradient of a 
potential which declines as the square of the distance 
from the body. The circulation of the field is zero. When the central ball and periphery arc grounded, 
the first semolina grains sifted onto the liquid paraffin 
surface move immediately together to form a ring, as 
described. When a potential difference is produced 
between the ball and the periphery of the jar, the 
location of the grains is disturbed immediate ly. Under 
the inlluence of the cr~ated electrostatic field, dipole 
moments are induced in the grains. These moments 
orient their long axes along the steepest gradient of the 
field, i.e., radially in these experiments. The tendency 
of accumulation will produce one maximum locus 
Molecular and electrostatic forces 95 close to the ball. A second maximum locus, but of 
lower magnitude, is created at t.he periphery of the jar. Initially, gr:Uns close to the charged ball will accelerate 
toward it, while simultaneously those close to the pe­
riphery will move in the opposite direction toward the 
wall of the jar. A minimum (zero) is present some­
where between the two terminals in the place where 
the grains had previously formed a "B" zone. The total electric field is therefore a plus-minus 
potential gradient with an imaginary circulation of the 
field equal to zero. In an intermediate zone adjacent to 
the zero equipotential , where the applied electrostatic 
field is weak, the attraction (concentration ) forces (IS) 
of the grains will be powerful enough to influence their 
internal arrangements. When the local concentration 
of grains is high, they will even produce dense groups 
or nuclei, which then compete with each other and the 
applied field forces. In this way the irregular "B" zone 
accumulation is created as seen in Fig. X: If. The position of the zero potential in the applied 
field is governed by the distance between the terminals 
and the magnitude of the charge per surface unit of the 
terminals. Because the ball is smaUer than the periph­
ery, the zero equipotentia l will be positioned closer to 
the periphery than to the ball. C. Edge enhancement and 
radiating structures 
The basic situation just described is modified by the 
irregular surface of the ball. Protrusion s of edges on 
the surface of a charged body will always enhance the 
electric field at such points. This fact was utilized in 
constructing the artificial "tumour". Small protruding 
edges, simulating the irregular surface of a tumour, 
were all over the surface of the crumpled piece of alu­
minium foil. A smooth, polished, spherical ball in the centre 
would present a "smooth" , "homogeneous", out­
wardly decreasing strength of the electric field. No 
cl<arly visible, linear arrangement of grains could then 
develop. The irregular surface of the central ball, how­
ever, makes linear developments possible. SmaU corpuscles, such as semolina grains, located in 
the vicinity of the charged central ball will therefore 
be attracted initially to protruding edges of the ball. Single grains touching the surface of the ball or the 
peripheral terminal will then rebound (they really 
bounce back), be reattracted, and so on in an oscilla­
tory way until they are adsorbed at the surface. Even­
tually, grains near the ball setde on its protruding 
edges. The external field of the ball now stans at the 
96 Molecular and electrostatic forces a b 
Fig. X: 2. Development of radiating structures . (a) Radial 
apposition of grains by induced dipole moments in dielectric 
corpuscular elements. Latera) repeJJent forces stabilize the 
radiating structures. (b) Lateral apposition of grains prD­
duces stabilization by both dipole-induced attraction and 
long-range forces of molecular attraction. Enhancements of 
the electric field at protruding edges determine the positions 
of the radiating structures. distal part of these grains. Deposition of gr:Uns will 
concentrate at the edges rather than between protru­
sions. This concentration of grain at the edges results 
in a growing accentuation of the edge effect (Fig. X:2a). D. Stabilizing effects on 
radiating structures 
The apposition of dipole-induced gr:Uns into radially 
directed chains is stabilized by lateral repellent forces 
between induced equipotential charges of the grains 
(Fig. X: 2a). These repellent forces counteract the 
forces of attraction . A sidewise stabilizing effect on 
radiating structures may also be produced by different 
degrees of sidewise dipole-induced forces of opposite 
polarity. Long-range molecular attraction forces even­
tually produce an additional, sidewise mechanical sta­
bilization (Fig. X: 2b). In this way linear structures are produced in the 
experimental model, forming visible "field lines" or 
''radiating structures ". E. Development of "arches" 
and "arcades" 
The peripheral ends of the radiating linear structures 
border the bulk of semolina grains by a series of small 
"arches", which are convex outward (Fig. X: 3). Adja­
cent arches originate on each side of the same radiating 
structure. The individual arches hang together in a 
row ("arcade"). Fig. X: 3. Formation of small arches. Edge enhancement of 
the irregulAr surface of the central ball creates variations in 
intensity of the electric field around the ball. Captured semo­
lina grains form radiating structures , developing from the 
edges, in turn forming supporting pillars for the small arch­
es. Anraction forces among the bulk of grains contribute to 
forming rhe arches. A c.ircumferential vector acts as a force 
of concentration t.o diminish cross-sectional diameter of rhe 
ring of grains around the ball. A radial ••ector of concentra­
tion acts to expand the ring. The presence of these structures may therefore in 
part be explained as a result of variations in intensity 
of the applied field, due ro rhe uneven surface of the 
central ball. In part the effect also is due to the com· 
petitive forces of molecular attraction among semolina 
grains. The forces of molecular attraction can be divided 
into two vectors. (Consider for a moment the experi­
ment as planar, the grains floating in one layer on the 
liquid paraffin.) One vector (Fig. X: 3) is circular and 
tries to move the grains closer to the central ball. The 
other vector is radial, acting ro expand the circle. Both 
vectors contribute to the formation of the arches. A stabilizing effect for the bulk of semolina grains 
probably can also be ascribed to the arches and radiat· 
ing structures. The main bulk of semolina grains con­
tracts as a result of their forces of internal attraction. As grains interact they obtain a position of equilibrium 
between long-range forces of attraction and short· 
range forces of repulsion. This equilibrium is modified 
at rhe i!mer edge Qf tile ciml!ar!y arranged m~» of 
grains by the attraction forces of grains localized at the 
attachments of the radiating structures . In this view the circular arrangement of the main 
bulk of semolina grains, leaving a relatively free zone 
("A" zone) around the central ball, may be looked on 
as a special case of a complete arch, i.e., a ring. The 
small arches at the inner border of the ring can be 
regarded as incomplete rings. Their appearance as 
8-814586 Nordnu.lrOm arches or semicircles depends on summations of molec· 
ular and electrostatic forces. Edge enhancements of 
the central ball not only make the surrounding electro­
static field irthomogeneous, bur also initiate the pro­
duction of radiating structures. F. Inertness and 
matrix functions 
Interacting molecular and electrostatic forces can read· 
ily and efficiently be influenced by matrix structures. The effect of an artificial matrix on corpuscular move­
ments will be illustrated in the following experiment. A plastic mosquito net stretched over a circular 
frame was placed on a surface of liquid paralfm in a 
glass jar, which in turn was placed on rop of a light 
box. An aluminium ball was placed in a hole in the 
centre of the net. The ball was connected by a wire to a 
DC generator. The grounded periphery of the jar was 
connected to the other terminal. Horse hair in pieces O.S-1.0 mm long was cut by an 
electric razor and strewn over the net and liquid sur· 
face. The ball was charged to a 0. 7 kV potential 
relative 10 the periphery. The jar was then subjected to 
vibrations from a small electric motor. The pieces of 
horse hair then oriented themselves in a pattern of 
radiating Structures within the mosquito net matrix 
Fig. X:4. Effect of a matrix on the development of radiating 
structures in an electric field. A plastic mosquito net was 
stretched over a frame and placed on a surface of liquid paraf . fm. Pieces of horse hair, cut with a razor, were sifted over 
the surface as a 0. 7 kV potential was applied between the 
cenual aluminium baH and the periphery. Momen1s of iner­
tia were overcome by subjecting the jar to vibrations . The 
hairs then oriented themselves in a radial direction in the 
squares of the matrix. Dipole induction by the applied elec· 
trical field produces this result. Molecular and electrosta tic forces 97 (Fig. X: 4). After the voltage generator was switched 
off, the pattern remained. The experiment illustrates the creation of a modified 
structural pattern by positional change of small pieces 
of horse hair under the influence of an applied electric 
field and vibration$. The latter served the purpose of 
reducing the restrictive effects of the narrow spaces of 
the matrix and the moment of inertia of the small 
horse hairs. In vivo, corresponding effects may be 
induced by different kinds of physicochemical ener­
gies, including mechanical effects by tissue matrices 
and movements of tissues. G. Energy potential of 
corpuscular distribution 
A "Type I" electroosm osis was suggested in Chapter 
IX. Its transport energy was explained partly as a 
transformation of available free energy (e.g., vibra­
tional and rotational movements of the water mole­
cules). In a static system the degree of randomness of distri­
bution of participating reactants represents one source 
of free energy (19). In the experiments with semolina 
grains this energy potential was created by sifting the 
grains onto the liquid surface. Depending on how 
evenly or unevenly the grains were distributed, differ­
ent distributions of energy and patterns of "fmal" 
equilibria were created. As an instance of matrix interference, an aluminium 
Fig. X: 5. A special case of"matrix" interference . Alumin· 
ium ball glued to the bottom of a jar and partly surrounded 
by liquid paraffin. Semolina grains were sifted as evenly as 
possible over the whole surface. After about 10 seconds and 
close to a visible cessation of movement of the grains, they 
present a .. netn -like structure (S·second exposure). The fix· 
ation of the ball constitutes a special case of matrix interfer· 
ence by restricting free participation of the ball in the reac­
tions. This restriction influences indirectly the development 
of the surrounding structural pattern. 98 Molecular and electrostatic forces ball was fiXed on the bottom of a jar filled with liquid 
paraffin up to the level of the middle of the ball (Fig. X: 5). No voltage difference was applied berween the 
ball and the periphery of the jar in this experiment. Semolina grains were then sifted as evenly as possible 
over the liquid surface:. Aftc:r about 10 sccond.s, the 
pattern of structure obtained represents a stage "close 
to equilibrium" . The ring of grains around the ball has 
here the appearance of a net. One of the interacting factors, the centrally located 
metal body, is immobile in this experiment. This fiX­
ation constitutes a mechanical restriction on free par­
ticipation of the ball and can be considered as a special 
case of matrix interference. Were the ball allowed to 
float on the surface, a completely different pattern of 
equilibrium would be created. In this and in similar 
ways, the spontaneous reactions carl be made to under­
go different experimental modulations . Depending on 
the initial energy potential, as determined by the de­
gree of randomness of distribution, the system will 
produce different patterns of equilibria in its drive to 
increase entropy. How the interacting forces deter­
mine initial motion and fmal equilibrium in these 
reactions is a problem closely related to statistical me­
chanics. An example of transient, modulated interactions 
within such a system is shown in Fig. X: 6. Saline 
solution was poured into a glass jar to a depth of 2 em. Underneath the jar a layer of air and a thick glass plate 
served as a heat protective system between the jar and 
a cold light source, which was used ortly during short 
periods of transillumination for photography. Carbon 
particles covered with dextran (Charcoal radioim­
munoassay particles, Schwarz/Mann, Orangeburg , 
New York) were distributed irregularl y on the surface. The particles of different charcoal preparations be­
haved differently on the surface of the salt solution. Some sank to the bottom, others floated as rather firm 
conglomeration s. One preparation of particles, howev­
er, floated as an evenly dispersed layer, unwened on 
the fluid surface. Such a layer of charcoal particles was 
spread on the liquid, covering about half of the total 
surface. Energy was then supplied to the system by a 
brief and rapid stirring. A shellacked aluminium ball, 
about I em in diameter, was dropped in the middle of 
the jar. The ball floated easily on the surface of the salt 
solution. A glass cover was placed on top of the jar to 
prevent disturbances by external air motion. Immediately on contact of the ball with the fluid, 
nearby particles moved away from the ball, creating a 
"halo" free of panicles around the ball. The ball then 
started to accelerate toward one of the largest concen­
trations of particles. During this movement a persist­
ing zone free of particles was present in front of the 
ball, which by its movement divided and stirred the 
grouped carbon particles. As the ball decelerated , the Fig. X: 6. Reactants mutually dchying spontaneous equilib­
rium. Dextran-coated carbon particles floating on the sur­
face of saline solution were stirred briefly, producing an un­
even distribution. A shellac-painted, light aluminium ball 
was dropped in the jar. Motion blur (5-second exposures) in­
dicates movements of the baD's motion. The drive toward 
equilibrium of the system is disturbed by continuous interac­
tions of the reactants. Areas of hi8h eonccntration of parti­
cles easily attract the ball, which then moves them apart by 
its moment of inertia. The stirring effect of the ball then cre­
ates new attraction centres of concentrated particles, and so 
particles formed new concentration centres, one of 
which was strong enough to attract the ball. The ball 
again accelerated, split this concentration centre and 
stirred the particles. In this way, eventual equilibrium 
of the system is considerably delayed. Initially, the ball mostly crossed the centre of the 
jar, tending to split the carbon layer in two parts (Fig. on. Reaching equilibrium in the system is thereby consider­
ably delayed. Figs. a and b show the ball initially ncar the 
centre of the jar. Fig. c shows the ball bumping against the 
wall ofthe jar. Figs. d-h show the ball progessively moving 
in circles at a speed of about one turn per minute. The baU 
was still mO\ring 17 hours after the start of the experiment, at 
a rate of one circular turn close to the wall of the jar in 3 min· 
utes (Fig. i). Experiments of this kind must be carefully pro­
te(;ted from interferen ces by external forces (temperature, air 
motion, etc.). X: 6a, b). The ball accelerated regularly toward the 
largest group of grains. Sometimes the baU bounced 
off the wall of the jar (Fig. X: 6c). Gradually over the 
next hour a more circular pattern of movements devel­
oped (Fig. X: 6 d-f). Splitting of the particulate groups 
decreased but considerable stirring of the carbon parti­
cles remained. Molecular and electrostatic forces 99 For the next two hours the ball circulated with a 
sp«d of about one circular turn per minute. Mter 17 
hours it still was circulating at a speed of about one 
turn in three minutes. The ball then followed rather 
closely the periphery of the jar, without touching it. The carbon particles formed a more nearly uniform 
mass than earlier (Fig. X: 61). The gradual extinction of the reaction in this experi· 
ment was thus remarkably slow compared with, for 
in$tance, the experiment illustrated in Fig. X: 5. 1\D essential point in e;periments of this type is that 
very small changes may considerabl y influence the 
reaction. In this experiment many factors are involved: 
concentration of the salt water (which influences the 
water potential), physical characteristics of the ball 
(size, weight and shape), size and shape of the glass jar 
in relation to the quantity of reactants, dielectric prop­
ertties of the materials, the initial distribution of the 
grains and positioning of the ball, etc. The seemingly simple experiment illustrated in Fig. X: 6 is in fact very complicated . If we knew the forces, 
resistances and initial particle distribution we should, 
at least theoretically, be able to determine particle 
motion and "fmal" particle distribution (which has to 
be defined). This is all in reality an extremely compli­
cated task, even if the basic principles are known. Some general remarks may, however, be offered. Consider a large number of interacting corpuscles 
(e.g., semolina grains) and assume that the force be­
tween any two of the corpuscles depends only on their 
distance of separation. As the corpuscles a.pproach 
each other, long-range attraction forces will cause 
them to accelerate, overcoming friction and moments 
of inertia. As the corpuscles become very close, e.g., 
within a few A, short-range forces will increase rapidly 
until the corpuscles repel each other and bounce at the 
collision. When many corpuscles (n) interact, the potential 
energy is the sum of all the energy pairs, which can be 
re:presented by a well-known exponential function : 
where e-BilT is the Boltzmann factor, k the Boltzmann 
constant= 8.617x 10-' electron volts/corpuscle , T = 
absolute temperature and E the energy of each corpus· 
cle (5). As corpuscles collide, energy is randomly gained or 
lo:st by individual molecules. A randomly dispersed 
large number of corpuscles therefore presents a poten­
tial of very complicated patterns of energy exchange , 
movements and "final" equilibrium. The situation is further complicated by the presence 
of one or several bodies which differ from the bulk of 
reacting elements in size, mass, degree of friction or 
fixation to the surroundings , electrical properties , 
temperature , etc. The sum of all the deviating factors 
100 Molecular and electrostatic forces of such a body makes it more or less "foreign" to its 
surroundings. These factors and the degree of initial 
randomness of corpuscular distribution will influence 
the "fmal" spatial state and the time it takes to reach 
such an equilibrium. H. Structural effects of 
molecular concentration 
forces 
To what extent do molecular forces and superimposed 
electric field forces each contribute to the development 
of experimental corona structures? What biologic con· 
ditions may be so represented? In the experiment shown in Fig. X: I a, when both 
the ball and the periphery of the jar were short circuit­
ed, an "A" zone free of semo.lina grains and a "B" 
zone with accumulated grains were produced . After 
the application of 1.5 kV between the ball and the 
periphery , a new equilibrium was created after some 
time (Fig.X: I b-f), showing permanent, radiating 
structures and small arches and arcades at the interface 
betwee.n the "An and "B" zones. At first glance, the creation of a superimposed field 
may seem to be necessary to create radiating structures 
and arcades. There is, of course, no doubt that the 
superimposed strong electric field is highly capable of 
producing these structures in a short time. However, 
energy levels of 1.5 kV are biologic rarities. In certain 
species (Electrophorus , Torpedo , Malopteru s, Raja 
and others), instantaneous levels as high as 600 V are 
known to be generated (24). Usually, however, poten­
tial differences are of the order of 0 .I V in biology 
(24). An often neglected component is time, which 
permits various small gradients to produce consider­
able effects. We will later return to this exceedingly 
important issue. As yet, however, we have not sufficiently penetrated 
the role of concentration-dispersion forces in structur· 
al development. In the experiments , let us now consid· 
er the events between the sifting of grain onto the 
liquid surface and the state of equilibrium (Fig. X: I a) 
in which the grains form a ring at a distance from the 
central ball, creating "A" and "B" zones. These 
events will be illustrated in the following experiment, 
which slightly modifies the situation in Fig. X: I a in 
-an informative way. An "inert" metal, a stainless steel razor blade, was 
used (Fig. X: 7). Because a meniscus at the liquid· 
metal interface might disturb particle distribution, a 
sharply edged object was chosen to minimize possible 
meniscus effects. The sharp edges were also chosen a I 
c 'b I 
Fig. X: 7. l'rcxluclion of radiating structures as well as "A" 
and "B" zones by concentration forces. A stainless steel ra­
zor blade was placed in a glass jar containing liquid paraffin. The edges of the blade were at the same lc\·cl as the tiquid. After the sifting of semolina grains t\'tnly over the liquid, 
tight translllummauon photographs were taken at S·.a-ond 
expOSures . (a) Motion blur of semolina grams shows "radial· 
ing structures" by radial outward movement of grains dose 
to 1 he ra.tor bludc and radial inw-ard mO\·emcnl of periphera l 
grains. (b) The razor blade breaks 1hc concentration forces of 
the grains in the centre of L.he jar. At equilibrium an "A'' 
zone free of gr.tins Is seen around the ruzor blade and a "B" 
tone us 11 surrounding ring of grains (some grain ~tructurcs 
appearing in the "A" zone represent grain> which sank to 
the bon om oft he jar). (c) After additional un«cn >ifting of 
mort semolina gnins, a new panem of grain nm\·emmts is 
C\•dent 10 """'res of high oonee:ntralton of grams. A ftw 
grains arc auracted 10 the edge of the ruor blade by cootacl 
adsorplton. Molecular and eleclrostat.ic forces 10 I because they might cause edge enhancement. To vary 
this effect locally, pan of the blade was serrated with a 
ftle. The razor blade was fixed to the top of a 2 em 
high rubber stopper in the centre of a glass jar, which 
was then filled with liquid paraffin up to the edges of 
the razor blade. By inserting wedges of wood under 
the jar and adjusting the amount of fluid, the surface 
of the fluid was brought to the horizontal plane of the 
edges of the blade. When a light beam was shined 
across the fluid-metal interface, no meniscus could be 
seen. Semolina grains were then evenly distributed 
over the liquid surface. The photographs in Fig. X: 7 were made with an 
expOsure time of 5 seconds, shown by motion blur of 
the initial movements of the distributed grains (Fig. X: 7 a). They created a radiating panem of move­
ments, some of a distance even greater than the length 
of the blade. These radiating structures are produced 
by concentric movements of peripheral grains and 
centrifugal movements of those grains which were 
dispersed close to the raror blade. Mter about 10 
seconds (Fig. X: 7 b) nearly all of the grains were 
concentrated at a certain distance from the edges of the 
razor blade, showing an equilibrium as a ring. An "A" 
zone, about one em wide and almost free of grains, is 
seen between the inside of the ring and the edges of the 
blade. A few grains adhere to the edge of the blade 
(some blurred grains can be seen in the "A" rone, but 
these are heavy grains which sank initially to the bot­
tom of the jar). Some more grains were next distributed unevenly 
on the surface. An uneven pattern of grain movements 
was then created by concentrations of focally attracting 
grains (Fig. X: 7 c). The first part of this experiment illustrates that the 
formation of a "halo" or "A" zone around the razor 
blade does not depend on a meniscus forming at the 
interface between the metallic edge and the fluid. It 
also does not depend on a superimpOsed electric field. The "rad.iatins structures" seen in Fig. X: 7 a are 
mainly produced by molecular concentration forces of 
inwardly and outwardly moving grains. The equilibri­
um distribution of the grains in Fig. X: 7 b shows an 
influence of the razor blade in the shape of the "A" 
rone, which roughly follows the shape of the blade. The razor blade acts by breaking up the attraction 
forces of the grains, which would otherwise form a 
mass without a hole in the centre. Only minimal dis­
tant electrostatic induction can take place through the 
interpOsitioned dielectric medium, the liquid paraffm. The NHE pOtential of +0.25 V of the chrome-steel is 
very weak in comparison with the long-range attrac­
tion forces of the grains. The electric field of the blade 
influences the surrounding media only within a dis­
tance of a few A. Only a few single grains are therefore 
seen adsorbed to the edge of the metal. Even the 
102 Molecular and electrostatic forces serration of pan of the metal edge does not visually 
alter the relations among the interacting forces. When the supply of grains was uneven (.hg. X: 7 c), 
local areas with high concentration of grains competed 
with each other and the metal. Altered routes of move­
ments of grains can be produced in this way. In this section we have now seen that radiating 
structures and "A" and "B" rones can be produced 
simply by concentration forces without the application 
of a superimpOsed electric field. I. Electrolytic double layers 
Molecular concentration forces have been discussed in 
this chapter only in terms of the behaviour of semolina 
grains as morphologically visible, corpuscular, dielec­
tric elements. These forces of molecular concentration 
act between charged or uncharged particles of any size. An example of these forces is the phenomenon known 
as electrostriction, which gives rise to a decreasing vol­
ume when an electrolyte solution becomes increasingly 
concentrated . ImpOrtant effects also take place at the 
interphases between a charged body and charged parti­
cles in a solution. In an ionic milieu, electrical charges 
and concentration forces interact, leading to boundary 
phenomena which have been well studied in, e.g., 
colloid chemistry (6, 16, 25, 33). We will therefore stan with a short discussion of the 
interactions between a metal surface and an electro­
lyte. Regardless of how "inert" a metal is made, pOlariza­
tion will occur at its surface when it is immersed in an 
electrolyte solution or it is implanted in living tissue. This pOlarization leads to the development of an elec­
trolytic double layer. The structure of the electrolytic 
double layer was described by Helmholtz, Ncrnst, 
Gouy, Chapman, Stem and Freundlich (3, 7, 9, 17, 
23, 33). It is now assumed , mainly on the basis of 
works by Stern (33) and Freundlich (7), that an equi­
librium is obtained under the influence of electrostatic 
forces, concentration forces and specific adsorption 
forces. The theory further assumes that thermal mo­
tion modifies an outer, so-called diffuse, layer. Briefly, 
this equilibrium is described as follows: 
Electrostatic attraction of ions in a solution at the 
surface of a charged body will create a thin, firm layer 
(Stern layer, inner Helmholtz layer) of counterions 
(Fig. X: 8). This layer balances electrostatically the 
surface charge of the body. Just outside the inner firm 
layer, a mobile layer exists which is called the outer 
Helmholtz layer. In this layer, ions of the same pOlar­
ity as those in the firm layer decrease in concentration 
(charge density) as a function of their distance from 
the particle. These ions are moving in relation to the + 
+ 
~ :_;-;--_.-::--~ -: ... -... ':'\-· 
• \ -\. -_ . \-+ 
~ (-~ +­
·_ -(---+ 
+\ + -. ~ :! '·~· 
Fig. X:8. The zeta potential of a colloid. A 
net electronegative particle in a colloid will 
attract positive ions to its surface, balancing 
the charge of the particle. The concentration 
of ions in this finn layer will attract more ions 
of the same kind. This attraction can be con· 
sidered as a specific type of adsorption which 
is stronger than the electrostatic attraction of 
countcrions. In this way a "slipping potential 
plane" will be created of an outwardly de­
creasing number of electronegative ions. The 
potential gradient of the slipping phne con· 
stitutes the zeta potential. ftrm layer due to their thermal energy. This outer part 
of the electric double layer is partly mixed with coun­
terions, which increase outwardly in concentration un­
til a zero potential region is reached where positive and 
negative ions appear in balance with each other. The 
counterions are, of course, also under the influence of 
thermal motion. The potential difference between the 
f~rm layers and the zero region constitutes the zeta 
potential of Freundlich (7). The enormous importance 
of this potential in biology and particularly for the 
stability of colloids has been stressed particularly by 
Riddick (25). The interactions are, however, even more complex 
than as thus far presented . Consider the following 
example: A silver plate is placed in a I .0 M AgN03 
solution. Ag• will be attracted to the silver plate, 
which wiU become positively charged. NO} wiU pro­
duce a negatively charged layer in the solution outside 
rhe po~ir ive layer. One may therefore anticipate that 
some specific adsorption or attraction forces exist between 
Ag and Ag•, stronger than the electrostatic forces --
Ata•O Layer 
Attached 
10 Partttlt 
(Stern Y,yt-r) 
btcnl of (ltdnc 
----~--- -POitfthll Surroundtnf 
tnt Particlt 
1----l~ --Plant ot Shur 
-~PY-...,- --4--·-Bulk or SoMion 
O.rfun laytr ---+" 
ofCounttrions ~ 
I nctnlral•on 
Pot~hvt Ions 
oncentral•on 
of Hetaflve Ions 
between Ag~ and NO). In general, related or identi­
cal kinds of matter show some kind of preference for 
themselves. Thus iron "likes" iron, carbon carbon, 
etc. Another example of preferentia l anract.ion is the 
tendency of attraction between cations and water mole­
cules, while anions do not present such tendencies. It 
is very likely that such preferences play a role in the 
formation of electrolytic double layers. Fig. X: 8 iUustrates bow a colloid particle is built up 
around an electronegative nucleus. The nucleus at­
tracts positive counterions from the surrounding medi· 
um to the extent that the particle's negative charge 
becomes neutralized. The concentration forces of the 
Stern layer then compete with the solution pressure 
and with the electrostatic attraction forces of the sur­
rounding electronegative ions. The result is an out­
wardly decreasing concentration of positive and an 
inwardly increasing concentration of negative ions. These forces create the potential gradient outside the 
Stern layer which represents rht zera pottniial. The spatial distribution of these interphase phenom-
Molecular and electrostatic forces 103 ena is only a few A, but nevertheless of considerable 
importance in the physiologic behaviour of cells and 
membranes. Consider the present study of transformations of 
tissue around a centrally necrotizing tumour. The via­
ble periphery constitutes a "tumour barrier", which is 
a special case of semipermeable "membrane". It is 
anticipated that its i.ntetceUu lar spaces function as a 
sieve for large macromolec ules, cells, cellular frag­
ments, etc. Such "corpuscular" elements, carrying 
fiXed surplus charges, are available in the surroundi ng 
tissues. Factors important to developing transmem ­
branous :potential gradients in the cell should therefore 
also be important for transbarrier potential differences 
of a necrotizing tumour. Structural changes such as 
"A" and "B" zones, radiating structures, narrowing 
and displacement of vessels, arches and arcades are 
radiographically seen in vivo around lesions in an ap­
pearance, strikingly similar to what has been shown 
experimentally in vitro in this chapter. This remark­
able similarity, however, can not be explained only as 
an effect of molecular forces. Adsorption to interposi­
tioned matrices of a biologic tissue will, of course, 
interfere with concentration forces of movable parti­
cles. We may therefore postulate that other forces also 
are involved in these structural developments. A su­
perimposed electric field is the only known force 
which can produce long distance structural effects 
through an existing tissue matrix. This possibility, 
however, requires the development of elecrm pclama­
tion of tis-sue within a closed electric circuit. From in vitro 
studies we are now ready to turn to experiments in 
vivo. References 
I. Abramson, H. A.: The cataphoretic \'Ciocit)' of mammalian red 
blood <-ells. ). (i<,n. Pby•iol. 12:711, 1929. 2. Ambrose, E. j., Easty, D. M., and jones, P. C. T.: Specific 
r~.ac tions of polyclcctrolytes with the surfaces of normal and 
tumou:r cells. Brit. j. Cancer 12:439, 1958. 3. Chapman , 0. L.: A contribution to the theory of clectrocapil­
larity. PhilosophicoJ Magazine 25:475, 1913. 4, Coman, D. R.: Mechanisms rtsponsibk for the origin and 
distributio n of blood-borne tumour metastases: A review. Can­
cer Res. 13:397, 19S3. 5. Diem, K., and Lentner, C. (~s. ): Scientific tables, 7th cd. Basic, Ciba-Gdgy, 19?1, p. 228. 6. Donnan, F. G., and Harris, A. 8.: Osmotic pressure and 
conductivity of aqueous solutions of congo-red, and reversible 
membrane equilibria. J. Chern. Soc. 99: 1554, 1911. 7. Freundlich, H.: Cited by Stern, O.ln: Zur Tbeorie dc.r elecuo-
1ytischoen Dop~lschicht. Z. Electrochemie 30:508, 1924. 8. Gileadi, E., Stanczewski , B., Parmeggiani , A., Lucas, T. R., 
R.a.ngathan, M., Srinivasan, S., and Sawytr, P. N.: Anrj. thrombogenic characteristics of cathodically polariud copper 
pros!helfeS. J. Biom<d. Mat. Res. 6:489, 1972. 9. Gouy, M.: EJectricltC . Sur Ia constitution de Ia charge (le<::trique 
a Ia su:rface d'un electrolyt e. C.R. Acad. Sci. 149:654, 1909. 10. Hag.mar, B., and Boe.ryd, B.: Disseminating effect of heparin 
on experimental tumour mctastaSC$ . Path. Europ. 4:274, 1969. 104 Molecular and electrostatic forces 11. Hagmar, B., and Norrby. K.: Evidence foreffecu of heparin on 
ceU surlactS influencing ~~rimentaJ metasrasc:s. lnt. J. Cancer 
5:72, 1970. 12. Hagmar, B.: CeU surface charge and metaswis formation. Acta 
1'1th. Microbiol. Scand. S<ct. A. 80:357, 1972. 13. Hagmar, B.: Influence of cell changes on the distribution of 
mewtascs from intra•;enously transfused tumor cells. In: Garat· 
tini, S., and Francbi, G. (eds. ): Chemotherapy of cancer dis. semination. New York, Raven Press, 1973, p. 261. 14. Kagmar, B., and NoFrby, K.: Influence of cultivation, lJ'yJ)Sini­
z:ation and aggregatio n on the tran.splanrability of melanoma 
B16cell•. Int.). Cancer 11:663,1973. 15. Hamaker, H. C.: The LondoD--Van der Waals attraction be· 
tween spherical particles. Physica 4: lOSS, 193?. 16. Haydon, 0. A.: The clec:trica.l double layer and electrokinetic 
phenomena. In: OanieUi, J. F., Pankhunt, K. G. A., and 
Riddiford, A. C. (cds. ): Recent progress ln surface science. New York/London, Academic Press 1:94, 1964. 17. Helmholtz, H.: Studien Gber clectrische G·renzschichten. Ann. Pbys. Chem. 7: 337, 1879. 18. Humphreys, T.: Chemical dissolution and in vitro reconstruc­
tion of sponge cell adhesion . Develop. Bioi. 8: 27, 1963. 19. Ingram, L. L., and Pardee, A. B.: Frtt energy and entropy in 
metabotism . ln: Greenbe.rg, D. M. (ed. ): Metabolic pathways . 3rd ed., Vol. 1. New York, Academic Pms, 1967, p. 2. 20. Mari.kovsky, Y., and Oanon. D.: Electron microsoope analysis 
of young and old r<:d blood cells stained with colloidal iron fur 
surface charge evaluation, I. Cell Bioi. 43: I, 1969. 2J. Mc:hrishi, J. N., and Seaman, G. V. F.: Temperature depen· 
dence of the elec-trophoretic mobility of cells and quartz parti· 
des. Biochim. Biophf$. Acta JI2: 154, 1966. 22. Mehrishi , I. N.: Positively charged amino-groups on the surfa« 
of normal and cancc.r cells. Europ. I. Cancer 6: 127, 1970. 23. Nernst, W.: Die c.lectromotorische Wirksamkeit dcr Jonen. Z. 
Physik. Chern. 4: 129, 1889. 24. Ottosson, D.: Ncrvsys·temets fysiologi. Stockholm, Natur och 
Kultur, 1970. 25. Ridd.i<:k, T. M.: Control of colloid stability through zera poten· 
tial. New York, Zeta-Meter Inc., 1968. 26. S•wyer, P. N. (<d. ): Biophysiffi Me~hanlsnu . In: Vistulir 
homeostasis and intravascular thrombosis. New York, Apple ~ 
ton·Century..Crafts, 1965. 27. Seaman, G. V. F., and Heard, D. H.: The: surface of 1he 
washed human e-rythrocyte as a polyanion . I. Gen. Physiol. 44:251, 1960. 28. Seaman, G. V. F., and Vassar, P. S.: Changes in the electroki­
netic properties of platelets during their aggregation . Arch. Biocbem. Biopbys. 117: 10, 1966. 29. Seaman, G. V. F.: Surface potential and platelet aggregation . In: Brink.hous, K. M., c:t aJ. (~s . ): Plate-le-ts, their role in 
hemostasis. Stungan, F. K. Schauauer Verlag, 1967, p. 53. 30. Sheppard, 8. L., and French, J. E.: Platelet adhesion in rabbit 
a.rteriet observed by scan:ning and tran&missio n electron micro­
scopy. Notur< 225: 1054, 1970. 31. Srinivasan , S., and Sawyer, P. N.: In: Silverman , H. T., 
Miller, I. F., and Salkind, A. I-(eds. ): Electrochemica l bio­
science and bioengineering . Prineetown, New Jersey, Electro­
chemical Society, 1973, p. 17. 32. Srinivasan , S .• Cahen, Jr .• G. L., and Stoner, E.: Elcctrochem· 
istry in the biomedical sc.ienca. In: Bloom, H., and Gurmann, 
F. (eds. ): ElecU"'Cheminry , the past thirty and lhe next thirty 
years. New York, Plenum Press, 1977. 33. Stem, 0.: Zur theorie d.er electrolytischen Doppelscbicht . Z. 
Elecuocbemie 30:508, 1924. 34. We-isli, L.: The cell periphery. In: The cell periphery , metasta· 
s.is and other <»ntact phenomena. Amsterdam, North-Holland 
Publ. Co., 1%7, p. 17. 35. Weiss. L.: Studies on ce31ular adhesion in tissue cuhure. Exp. CeU Res. 53:603, 1968. 36. Weiss, l., Be.llo, ]., and Cudney, T. L.: Positively eharged 
groups at te-ll surfaces. laternat. I. CanC't'.r 3:795, 1968. 37. We-is5, L., Zeigel. R., Jang, 0. S., and Bross, I. D. I.: Binding 
or pos.iri\'ely charg~d putides (0 glutarald~ h)'de-fixc:d human 
erythrocy tes. Exp. Cell Res. 70: 57, 1972. XI. Structural effects of an artificial 
tumour in dog lung 
A. Experimental studies 
To study modification of structure surrounding a tu­
mour in the lung of a living aruma!, experiments were 
performed in which an artificial "tumour" was im· 
planted in a dog. The "tumour" was constructed of 
radiographic density and internal structural appear­
ance sufficient to be identifiable in radiographs (Fig. XI: 1). Two used, small, disc-shaped, mercury batter­
ies were glued together, leaving a millimetre separat­
ing their contact surfaces. This separation made it 
possible to find comparable projections of the "tu­
mour'' in radiographs exposed during different exami­
nations. An aluminium foil was wrapped around the 
glued batteries and shaped into a ball about I em in 
diameter. The metal foil shielded completely any re­
sidual charge of the two batteries and served also as a 
support for two outer, electrically insulating layers of 
shellac. The insulating shellac thereby prevented tis­
sue fluids from corroding the aluminium . A thoracotomy, incising the right 6th intercosta l 
space, was performed on a 40 kg dog. A small incision 
was then made in the posteromedial part of the apical 
segment of the right lower lobe. A small haemostat 
was inserted 2 em into the lung tissue to create a small pocket, in which the artificial tumour was placed. No 
obvious bleeding appeared when the pocket was cre­
ated. The pocket was then closed with two silk su­
tures. After the chest was surgically closed, air was 
aspirated from the pleural space. Radiographs taken 
immediately after surgery revealed no visible structur­
al changes of the lung parenchyma lateral and anterior 
to the "tumour" (Fig. XI: 1). When the completely recovered animal was exam­
ined 17 days later, chest radiographs showed a radiolu­
cent zone around the "tumour" (Fig. XI: 2 a). Lateral 
to this zone the lung shows a zone of relative increase 
in x-ray absorption (arrow). The interface between the 
two zones shows also some arch-like formations. No 
air or increased amount of fluid was present in the 
pleural space. For comparison, the appearance of a 
uhalo" around the same utumour", examined before 
operation and surrounded by semolina grains on liquid 
paraffin, is seen in Fig. XI: 2 b. A recording of the tissue profile of electric potential 
was then made in the same dog using Ag-AgCI elec­
trodes and KCI bridges, as previously described 
(Chapter VI). The potential was recorded between a 
grounded subcutaneous electrode and the exploring 
electrode in the lung. Fig. XI: 3 shows the recording 
of potential as the exploring electrode was moved in 
Artificial tumour in dog lung 105 a b 
Fig. XI: I. Effects of implanting an artificial "tumour" in 
the apical segment of o.he right lower lobe in a dog are illus· 
t.rated in Figs. 1-8. The "'tumour" consisted of two small 
mercury batteries glued to each other, I mm apart, to make 
the in vivo orientation of the utumour" radiographically de· tectable. The baneries were wrapped in aluminium foil, 
which served as electric shielding. The surface of the foil was 
painted wirh two layers of shellac to prevent corrosion and 
insulate e-JectricaUy the "tumour" from the surrounding tis· 
sue. (a) Anteroposterior and (b) lateral radiographs. I 
I 06 Artificial tumour in dog lung Fig. XI: Z. Structural modifications around the artificial "tumour". (a) Seventtro days after implantation , the "tumour" is surrounded 
by a radiolucent "A" zone, l-l.S em broad. Laterally the interface 
is seen as a suggested arcade against a radiopaque "B" zone ( +-). The pleura also became thidcened locally after the thoracotomy , a 
finding veryfied at atuopsy. (b) A similar "A" zone around the same 
"tumour" was also demonstrated in a preceding in viuo experi· 
men! (see Chapter X, Section G) with semolina grains sifted on a 
liquid paraff1.11 surface. Note the slightly undulating edge (arcade) 
of the semolina grains at this stage of their structuring. Earlier 
ph•·~ of the same process are presented in Fig. XI: 6d, • and the 
earliest phase in Fig. XI: 7 c. I10mV F.O,S 
Lung I * .. Tumour" 
In Out 
Fig. XI: 3. Two tracings ofthe prome of electric tissue po­
tential, each with different cut-off mters. Two grounded 
Ag-AgCl electrodes with KCl bridges were employed, one 
placed in tbe subcutis. The exploring electrode was ad­
vanced to tbe artificial "tumour" and tben pulled back to 
the chest wall. The DC tracing shows a positive surface of 
the 11h_lmour" ( t) io ulation lOth~ surrounding lung. ~ in-• . the lung to the "tumour" and then away from it. A 
potential difference of 8-10 mY was found between 
the "tumour" surface and surrounding lung on each of 
many recordings. The proflle of tissue potential shows 
a pattern ratha-similar to that shown in the patient 
illustrated in Figs. VI: 20, 21. The possibility of an air pocket around the "tu­
mour" due to the operative procedure is excluded by 
these recordings. Fluoroscopic control permitted easy 
guiding of the electrode to the "tumour". If the probe 
had entered a pathologic air-filled cavity, an open 
circuit with high frequency oscillations should have 
been created. This possible finding never happened in 
any of the movements of the electrode in different 
directions to the "tumour". The electrode caused some small haemorrhages in 
the lung parenchyma. These changes were seen radio­
graphicaU y as diffuse haziness and focal patchy radio· 
pacities around the "tumour" in the parenchyma of 
the radiolucent zone (Fig. XI: 4). The animal was then allowed to live for two more 
weeks for further studies. At fluoroscopy the "tu· 
mour" was seen oscillating with a frequency of about 
100/min due to the transmission of cardiovascular 
movements. Also respiratory movements required 
some kind of control in order to avoid radiographic 
motion blur, whlch threatened to jeopardize the analy­
~ of the pulmonary structures. Motion blur in the radiographs was therefore con­
trolled by means of intravenous injections of acetyl­
choline. A single dose of 0.25 mg/kg body weight 
produced respiratory and cardiac standstill for 4 to 12 
seconds, followed by spontaneous recovery (I, 2). Fig. XI: 5 shows an ecg tracing of cardiac arrest induced for 
6 seconds after t.he intravenou s injection of 10 mg of 
acetylcholine in the dog 14 days after the experiment 
shown in Fig. XI: 3. I * Lung f 
Pleura 
I Chest wall 
dicates lhe interface between "A" and HB" zones. : indi­
cates pleura. Compare also tbe measurements of electric po­
tential shown in Figs. VI: 20, 21. The elevation of the elec­
tric potential of tbe "tumour" surface has been interpreted 
as caused 'by injured tissue adjacent to tbe "tumour" as are­
sult of the implantation. Now a well-defined arcade is seen at the interface 
between one radiolucent and one radiopaque zone, 
which can be identified as "A" and "B" zcnes (Fig. XI: 6a). The orientation of the "tumour" corresponds 
to that in the radiograph b and photograph c. For 
comparison, the preceding study with semolina grains 
(d, e)shows a clear formation of arcades and even some 
incomplete radiating structurer. Fig. X/:4. Afterinsertion oftbe electrode, hazy and patchy 
radiopac-ities appeared in the "A':zone, interpreted as local 
accumulation of blood. Artificial tumour in dog lung 107 9 sec 
! 10 mg Ac.Ch 
Fig. XI: 5. For optimal radiographic demonstration of struc· 
tures in the living dog, tempor.ary respiratory and cardiac ar· 
rest was induced in this case for 6 seconds, by intravenous 
injection of acetylcholine (0.2S mg per kilogram body 
Fig, XI: 6, Arches and arcades around an artifical tumour in 
dog lung. Rlldiographs obtained during induced temporary 
respiratory and cardiJlc arrest (Fig. XI: 5). An interface be· 
tv.•cen "A" and ''B" zones can be seen as small arches form 
an arcade (arrowheads). Figs .. band c show the actual oricn· 
ration of the artificial tumour. For comparison, a preceding 
in vitro experiment (d, e,·scc also Figs. XI: 2, 7) with a ••t'U­
mour" illustrates two phases in the formation of small arches 
and a circular arcade as an interface between the .. A .. zone 
(halo) and the "B" zone (the surrounding grains). Some faint 
linear radiating structures are also seen. a b 
I 08 Artificial tumour in dog lung 6 sec 
r 
1 Exp. weight). The simultaneous ecg tracing served as indicator of 
the period of time during which radiographic exposure 
avoided motion blur. In certain projections (Fig XI: 7 a, b) some coarse 
radiating structures could also be seen of the local 
haemorrhage in the lung tissue produced during the 
recordings of potential two weeks previously. Some of 
these coarse structures can be seen extending from the 
"tumour" in a superolateral direction toward the pleu­
ra. Figs. d and e show the actual orientation of the 
"tumour" and c the similar movements of semolina 
grains in the preceding in vitro experiment. Subsequent desanguination and necropsy of the dog 
showed a local pleural adhesion corresponding to the 
thoracotomy wound. No pleural or parenchymatous 
changes were seen corresponding to the uAu zone, as 
seen radiographically in vivo. After the lungs and the 
adherent pan of the chest wall were removed, focal 
increased opacities, corresponding to the sites of the 
bleeding, were seen in radiographs of the slightly in· 
flated lung parenchyma (Fig. XI: 8). No structural 
arrangements of the type seen in the radiograph s in 
vivo could be found. Histologic examination of the 
lung revealed only some irregular infiltrations of blood 
in the lung parenchyma. B. Discussion 
The aluminium "tumour " in the animal experiment 
was painted with shellac in order to prevent any possi· 
ble development of corrosive electric currents between 
the metal and the surrounding tissue. The metal 
itself, efficiently shielding the intemal nucleus, would 
furthermore be expected to induce only a very weak, 
static, dipole·induced electric field on the external 
surface of the shellac. Electrostatic field effects around 
the tumour can therefore be expected to produce only 
minimal effects on the surrounding tissue very clo.o;e tO Fig. XI: 7. (a, b) Coarse 
radiating strUctures, repre­
senting reanangod blood, 
extend superolattnlly 
from the "tumour'" sur· 
faa: (twO diiTon:nt nadio­
graphic projections ). (<)A 
similar phuo of radial 
movcmcm or semolina 
grains is shown in a pre­
~"3 in vitro oxperimem 
(sec: Figs. XI: 2, 6). The 
ac1ual orientation of the 
utumour" is shown in ra­
diograph d and photo­
graph •. the shellac surface. The magnitud e of such field effects 
should correspond to those produced at the edges of 
the razor blade experiment illustrated in Fig. X: 7. In 
spite of these precautions, uA" and "B'" zones, arches 
and radiating structures all developed in vivo around 
this "tumour" in the lung. ln the abse.nce of a dosed 
electric circuit (Chapte.r X), only concentration forces 
among small particles, e.g., somolina grains, can pro­
duce corona structures ("A" and "B" ;:ones, arches 
and arcades, and even to some extent radiating struc­
tures). The hydroponic "A" and hydropic "B" zones 
caused by water displacement , however, cannot be 
produced simply by concentration forces.. A closed 
electric cU"cuit, as in the case of dectroosmotic water 
transport (Chapter X), is a nocessary requirement. A closed electric circuit should also be necessary for 
the development of radiating structures extending two 
to three em into a tissue matrix. The blood corpuscles 
outside the artificial "tumour" presented radiating 
structures, oriented against the utumour".
631928626-Biologically-Closed-Electric-Ci-Bjorn-Nordenstrom-pdf.txt
Summarize the following text section accurately and concisely. Maintain specific details and numerical information, and use anti-repetition mechanisms:

        Loeb, J. ; The-reversal of the 3ign of the ch2rge of membranes 
by· hydrogen ions. j. Gen. Physiol. 2:577, 1920. 51. loeb, j. : The reversal of the sign of the: charge: of collodion 
membranes by trivaJent cations. J.
The grains move towards the charged body in the former case, but not in the latter.
What is the main difference in the behavior of the semolina grains in the presence of a charged body and in the absence of a metal ball?
The experiment demonstrates the development of "A" and "B" zones, arches, and arcades around the "tumour", which is similar to the radiographically observed modifications of structure around a malignant tumour.
What is the significance of the experiment with the artificial "tumour" in the dog lung?
To study the role of concentration forces in the development of structural patterns around a "tumour" without the influence of an external electric field.
What is the purpose of the artificial "tumour" in the experiment?
The corpuscles are attracted to the metal surface, whereas they are not in the absence of a metal ball.
What is the difference in the behavior of the corpuscles in the presence of a metal surface and in the absence of a metal ball?
To demonstrate the role of molecular and electrostatic forces in the development of structural patterns around a "tumour", which is similar to the radiographically observed modifications of structure around a malignant tumour.
What is the main purpose of the experiment with the artificial "tumour" in the dog lung?