Airplane Flying Handbook/Basic flight maneuvers
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AirplaneFlyingHandbook/Contents
1 THE FOUR FUNDAMENTALS
2 EFFECTS AND USE OF THE CONTROLS
3 FEEL OF THE AIRPLANE
4 ATTITUDE FLYING
5 INTEGRATED FLIGHT INSTRUCTION
6 STRAIGHT-AND-LEVEL FLIGHT
7 TRIM CONTROL
8 LEVEL TURNS
9 CLIMBS AND CLIMBING TURNS
10 DESCENTS AND DESCENDING TURNS
11 PITCH AND POWER
THE FOUR FUNDAMENTALS[edit]
There are four fundamental basic flight maneuvers upon which all flying tasks are based:
straight-and-level flight,
turns,
climbs, and
descents.
All controlled flight consists of one or a combination of these basic maneuvers.
If a student pilot is able to perform these maneuvers well, and the student's proficiency is based on accurate "feel" and control analysis rather than mechanical movements, the ability to perform any assigned maneuver will only be a matter of obtaining a clear visual and mental conception of it.
The flight instructor must impart a good knowledge of these basic elements to the student, and must combine them and plan their practice so that perfect performance of each is instinctive without conscious effort. The importance of this to the success of flight training cannot be overemphasized. As the student progresses to more complex maneuvers, discounting any difficulties in visualizing the maneuvers, most student difficulties will be caused by a lack of training, practice, or understanding of the principles of one or more of these fundamentals. l
EFFECTS AND USE OF THE CONTROLS[edit]
In explaining the functions of the controls, the instructor should emphasize that the controls never change in the results produced in relation to the pilot.
The pilot should always be considered the center of movement of the airplane, or the reference point from which the movements of the airplane are judged and described. The following will always be true, regardless of the airplane's attitude in relation to the Earth.
When back pressure is applied to the elevator control, the airplane's nose rises in relation to the pilot.
When forward pressure is applied to the elevator control, the airplane's nose lowers in relation to the pilot.
When right pressure is applied to the aileron control, the airplane's right wing lowers in relation to the pilot.
When left pressure is applied to the aileron control, the airplane's left wing lowers in relation to the pilot.
When pressure is applied to the right rudder pedal, the airplane's nose moves (yaws) to the right in relation to the pilot.
When pressure is applied to the left rudder pedal, the airplane's nose moves (yaws) to the left in relation to the pilot.
The preceding explanations should prevent the beginning pilot from thinking in terms of "up" or "down" in respect to the Earth, which is only a relative state to the pilot. It will also make understanding of the functions of the controls much easier, particularly when performing steep banked turns and the more advanced maneuvers. Consequently, the pilot must be able to properly determine the control application required to place the airplane in any attitude or flight condition that is desired.
The flight instructor should explain that the controls will have a natural "live pressure" while in flight and that they will remain in neutral position of their own accord, if the airplane is trimmed properly.
With this in mind, the pilot should be cautioned never to think of movement of the controls, but of exerting a force on them against this live pressure or resistance. Movement of the controls should not be emphasized; it is the duration and amount of the force exerted on them that effects the displacement of the control surfaces and maneuvers the airplane.
The amount of force the airflow exerts on a control surface is governed by the airspeed and the degree that the surface is moved out of its neutral or streamlined position. Since the airspeed will not be the same in all maneuvers, the actual amount the control surfaces are moved is of little importance; but it is important that the pilot maneuver the airplane by applying sufficient control pressure to obtain a desired result, regardless of how far the control surfaces are actually moved.
The controls should be held lightly, with the fingers, not grabbed and squeezed. Pressure should be exerted on the control yoke with the fingers. A common error in beginning pilots is a tendency to "choke the stick." This tendency should be avoided as it prevents the development of "feel," which is an important part of aircraft control.
The pilot's feet should rest comfortably against the rudder pedals. Both heels should support the weight of the feet on the cockpit floor with the ball of each foot touching the individual rudder pedals. The legs and feet should not be tense; they must be relaxed just as when driving an automobile.
When using the rudder pedals, pressure should be applied smoothly and evenly by pressing with the ball of one foot. Since the rudder pedals are interconnected, and act in opposite directions, when pressure is applied to one pedal, pressure on the other must be relaxed proportionately.
When the rudder pedal must be moved significantly, heavy pressure changes should be made by applying the pressure with the ball of the foot while the heels slide along the cockpit floor. Remember, the ball of each foot must rest comfortably on the rudder pedals so that even slight pressure changes can be felt.
In summary, during flight, it is the pressure the pilot exerts on the control yoke and rudder pedals that causes the airplane to move about its axes. When a control surface is moved out of its streamlined position (even slightly), the air flowing past it will exert a force against it and will try to return it to its streamlined position. It is this force that the pilot feels as pressure on the control yoke and the rudder pedals.
FEEL OF THE AIRPLANE[edit]
The ability to sense a flight condition, without relying on cockpit instrumentation, is often called "feel of the airplane," but senses in addition to "feel" are involved.
Sounds inherent to flight are an important sense in developing "feel." The air that rushes past the modern light plane cockpit/cabin is often masked by soundproofing, but it can still be heard. When the level of sound increases, it indicates that airspeed is increasing. Also, the powerplant emits distinctive sound patterns in different conditions of flight. The sound of the engine in cruise flight may be different from that in a climb, and different again from that in a dive. When power is used in fixed-pitch propeller airplanes, the loss of r.p.m. is particularly noticeable. The amount of noise that can be heard will depend on how much the slipstream masks it out. But the relationship between slipstream noise and powerplant noise aids the pilot in estimating not only the present airspeed but the trend of the airspeed.
There are three sources of actual "feel" that are very important to the pilot. One is the pilot's own body as it responds to forces of acceleration. The "G" loads imposed on the airframe are also felt by the pilot. Centripetal accelerations force the pilot down into the seat or raise the pilot against the seat belt. Radial accelerations, as they produce slips or skids of the airframe, shift the pilot from side to side in the seat. These forces need not be strong, only perceptible by the pilot to be useful. An accomplished pilot who has excellent "feel" for the airplane will be able to detect even the minutest change.
The response of the aileron and rudder controls to the pilot's touch is another element of "feel," and is one that provides direct information concerning airspeed. As previously stated, control surfaces move in the airstream and meet resistance proportional to the speed of the airstream. When the airstream is fast, the controls are stiff and hard to move. When the airstream is slow, the controls move easily, but must be deflected a greater distance. The pressure that must be exerted on the controls to effect a desired result, and the lag between their movement and the response of the airplane, becomes greater as airspeed decreases.
Another type of "feel" comes to the pilot through the airframe. It consists mainly of vibration. An example is the aerodynamic buffeting and shaking that precedes a stall.
Kinesthesia, or the sensing of changes in direction or speed of motion, is one of the most important senses a pilot can develop. When properly developed, kinesthesia can warn the pilot of changes in speed and/or the beginning of a settling or mushing of the airplane.
The senses that contribute to "feel" of the airplane are inherent in every person. However, "feel" must be developed. The flight instructor should direct the beginning pilot to be attuned to these senses and teach an awareness of their meaning as it relates to various conditions of flight. To do this effectively, the flight instructor must fully understand the difference between perceiving something and merely noticing it. It is a well established fact that the pilot who develops a "feel" for the airplane early in flight training will have little difficulty with advanced flight maneuvers.
ATTITUDE FLYING[edit]
In contact (VFR) flying, flying by attitude means visually establishing the airplane's attitude with reference to the natural horizon. [Figure 3-1] Attitude is the angular difference measured between an airplane's axis and the line of the Earth's horizon. Pitch attitude is the angle formed by the longitudinal axis, and bank attitude is the angle formed by the lateral axis.
Figure 3-1. Airplane attitude is based on relative positions of the nose and wings on the natural horizon.
Rotation about the airplane's vertical axis (yaw) is termed an attitude relative to the airplane's flightpath, but not relative to the natural horizon.
In attitude flying, airplane control is composed of four components: pitch control, bank control, power control, and trim.
Pitch control is the control of the airplane about the lateral axis by using the elevator to raise and lower the nose in relation to the natural horizon.
Bank control is control of the airplane about the longitudinal axis by use of the ailerons to attain a desired bank angle in relation to the natural horizon.
Power control is used when the flight situation indicates a need for a change in thrust.
Trim is used to relieve all possible control pressures held after a desired attitude has been attained.
The primary rule of attitude flying is:
ATTITUDE + POWER = PERFORMANCE
INTEGRATED FLIGHT INSTRUCTION[edit]
When introducing basic flight maneuvers to a beginning pilot, it is recommended that the "Integrated" or "Composite" method of flight instruction be used.
This means the use of outside references and flight instruments to establish and maintain desired flight attitudes and airplane performance.
Figure 3-2. Integrated or composite method of flight instruction.
[Figure 3-2] When beginning pilots use this technique, they achieve a more precise and competent overall piloting ability. Although this method of airplane control may become second nature with experience, the beginning pilot must make a determined effort to master the technique. The basic elements of which are as follows.
The airplane's attitude is established and maintained by positioning the airplane in relation to the natural horizon. At least 90 percent of the pilot's attention should be devoted to this end, along with scanning for other airplanes. If, during a recheck of the pitch and/or bank, either or both are found to be other than desired, an immediate correction is made to return the airplane to the proper attitude
Continuous checks and immediate corrections will allow little chance for the airplane to deviate from the desired heading, altitude, and flightpath.
The airplane's attitude is confirmed by referring to flight instruments, and its performance checked. If airplane performance, as indicated by flight instruments, indicates a need for correction, a specific amount of correction must be determined, then applied with reference to the natural horizon. The airplane's attitude and performance are then rechecked by referring to flight instruments. The pilot then maintains the corrected attitude by reference to the natural horizon.
The pilot should monitor the airplane's performance by making numerous quick glances at the flight instruments. No more than 10 percent of the pilot's attention should be inside the cockpit. The pilot must develop the skill to instantly focus on the appropriate flight instrument, and then immediately return to outside reference to control the airplane's attitude.
The pilot should become familiar with the relationship between outside references to the natural horizon and the corresponding indications on flight instruments inside the cockpit. For example, a pitch attitude adjustment may require a movement of the pilot's reference point on the airplane of several inches in relation to the natural horizon, but correspond to a small fraction of an inch movement of the reference bar on the airplane's attitude indicator. Similarly, a deviation from desired bank, which is very obvious when referencing the wingtip's position relative to the natural horizon, may be nearly imperceptible on the airplane's attitude indicator to the beginning pilot.
The use of integrated flight instruction does not, and is not intended to prepare pilots for flight in instrument weather conditions. The most common error made by the beginning student is to make pitch or bank corrections while still looking inside the cockpit. Control pressure is applied, but the beginning pilot, not being familiar with the intricacies of flight by references to instruments, including such things as instrument lag and gyroscopic precession, will invariably make excessive attitude corrections and end up "chasing the instruments." Airplane attitude by reference to the natural horizon, however, is immediate in its indications, accurate, and presented many times larger than any instrument could be. Also, the beginning pilot must be made aware that anytime, for whatever reason, airplane attitude by reference to the natural horizon cannot be established and/or maintained, the situation should be considered a bona fide emergency.
STRAIGHT-AND-LEVEL FLIGHT[edit]
It is impossible to emphasize too strongly the necessity for forming correct habits in flying straight and level. All other flight maneuvers are in essence a deviation from this fundamental flight maneuver.
Many flight instructors and students are prone to believe that perfection in straight-and-level flight will come of itself, but such is not the case. It is not uncommon to find a pilot whose basic flying ability consistently falls just short of minimum expected standards, and upon analyzing the reasons for the shortcomings to discover that the cause is the inability to fly straight and level properly.
Straight-and-level flight is flight in which a constant heading and altitude are maintained. It is accomplished by making immediate and measured corrections for deviations in direction and altitude from unintentional slight turns, descents, and climbs. Level flight, at first, is a matter of consciously fixing the relationship of the position of some portion of the airplane, used as a reference point, with the horizon. In establishing the reference points, the instructor should place the airplane in the desired position and aid the student in selecting reference points. The instructor should be aware that no two pilots see this relationship exactly the same. The references will depend on where the pilot is sitting, the pilot's height (whether short or tall), and the pilot's manner of sitting. It is, therefore, important that during the fixing of this relationship, the pilot sit in a normal manner; otherwise the points will not be the same when the normal position is resumed.
In learning to control the airplane in level flight, it is important that the student be taught to maintain a light grip on the flight controls, and that the control forces desired be exerted lightly and just enough to produce the desired result. The student should learn to associate the apparent movement of the references with the forces which produce it. In this way, the student can develop the ability to regulate the change desired in the airplane's attitude by the amount and direction of forces applied to the controls without the necessity of referring to instrument or outside references for each minor correction.
The pitch attitude for level flight (constant altitude) is usually obtained by selecting some portion of the airplane's nose as a reference point, and then keeping that point in a fixed position relative to the horizon.
 3-3.jpg
Figure 3-3. Nose reference for straight-and-level flight.
[Figure 3-3] Using the principles of attitude flying, that position should be cross-checked occasionally against the altimeter to determine whether or not the pitch attitude is correct. If altitude is being gained or lost, the pitch attitude should be readjusted in relation to the horizon and then the altimeter rechecked to determine if altitude is now being maintained. The application of forward or back-elevator pressure is used to control this attitude.
The pitch information obtained from the attitude indicator also will show the position of the nose relative to the horizon and will indicate whether elevator pressure is necessary to change the pitch attitude to return to level flight. However, the primary reference source is the natural horizon.
In all normal maneuvers, the term "increase the pitch attitude" implies raising the nose in relation to the horizon; the term "decreasing the pitch attitude" means lowering the nose.
Straight flight (laterally level flight) is accomplished by visually checking the relationship of the airplane's wingtips with the horizon. Both wingtips should be equidistant above or below the horizon (depending on whether the airplane is a high-wing or low-wing type), and any necessary adjustments should be made with the ailerons, noting the relationship of control pressure and the airplane's attitude.