1 NEW TRENDS IN TOURISM RESEARCH A POLISH PERSPECTIVE EDITORS Francisco Dias Simão Oliveira Joanna Kosmaczewska Ângela Pereira AUTHORS Agata Kobyłka Agnieszka Rak Anna Para Anna Teodorowicz Bartosz Marchwacki Bartosz Prabucki Dawid Szutowski Izabela Pruska Joanna Biernacka Kamel Marta Karolina Chlebosz Magdalena Kachniewska Magdalena Kugiejko Magdalena Zdyb Malchrowicz-Mośko Ewa Małgorzata Woźniewicz Dobrzyńska Marlena A. Bednarska Michał Gazdecki Monika Kordowska Monika Wojcieszak Piasta Marek Rafał Maćkowiak Sylwia Gorecka ISBN
2 Disclaimer While all reasonable efforts have been made to gather the most current and appropriate information, the editors do not give any warranty as to the correctness, completeness or suitability of the information, and disclaims all responsibility for and shall in no event be liable for any errors or for any loss or damage that might be suffered as a consequence of any person acting or refraining from acting or otherwise relying on this information. Title New Trends in Tourism Research - A Polish Perspective Editors Francisco Dias Simão Oliveira Joanna Kosmaczewska Ângela Pereira ISBN Copyright GITUR Tourism Research Group of Polytechnic Institute of Leiria All rights reserved. Apart from fair dealing for the purposes of study, research, criticism or review as permitted under the Copyright Act, no part of this book may be eproduced by any process without written permission from the publisher. Any enquiries should be directed to First edition published in Portugal in 2014 by GITUR - Tourism Research Group of Polytechnic Institute of Leiria
3 New Trends in Tourism Research A Polish Perspective Francisco Dias Simão Oliveira Joanna Kosmaczewska Ângela Pereira
4 New Trends in Tourism Research - A Polish Perspective This Monograph is composed with selected articles of PhD students from many Polish universities. These articles are a selection of papers submitted to the II International Conference of Tourism, Hospitality and Recreation 2014 (EJTHR 2014), that took place in Poznan (Poland), on 19th -21st May, The Conference was co-organized by the following entities: GITUR Tourism Research Unit of the Polytechnic Institute of Leiria (Portugal) European Journal of Tourism, Hospitality and Recreation - EJTHR University School of Physical Education in Poznan (Poland) University of Economy in Bydgoszcz (Poland) Edited by GITUR s members Francisco Dias Simão Oliveira Joanna Kosmaczewska Ângela Pereira All selected articles were double-blind peer reviewed by the members of Editorial Board of the EJTHR - European Journal of Tourism, Hospitality and Recreation Peniche Portugal 2014
5 TABLE OF CONTENTS FOREWORD Joanna Kosmaczewska INTRODUCTION Francisco Dias Simão Oliveira 7 9 PART 1 - CULTURAL TOURISM 1.1. ACTUAL TRENDS IN TOURISM TO MUSEUMS Kamel Marta Malchrowicz-Mośko Ewa Piasta Marek 1.2. EDUCATIONAL TRAIL AS A FORM OF POPULARIZATION OF CULTURAL HERITAGE OF THE OLD TOWN AND THE NEW TOWN IN ŁÓDŹ Magdalena Zdyb 1.3. BASQUE FESTIVAL ASTE NAGUSIA AS AN INTERESTING EXAMPLE OF CULTURAL AND SPORT TOURISM ATTRACTION Bartosz Prabucki PART 2 - NATURE TOURISM AND ENVIRONMENT 2.1. SUSTAINABLE TOURISM IN GERMANY Bartosz Marchwacki 2.2. THE AREA STRUCTURE AND DYNAMICS OF DEVELOPMENT OF URBAN GREEN SPACE IN POZNAŃ, SZCZECIN AND WROCŁAW FROM 2006 TO 2010 Monika Wojcieszak Michał Gazdecki 2.3. ORNITHOLOGICAL TOURISM IN POLAND AS AN EXAMPLE OF SUSTAINABLE TOURISM Monika Kordowska PART 3 - MEETINGS, INCENTIVES, CONFERENCES AND EVENTS 3.1. DETERMINANTS OF CONVENTION & CONFERENCE SITE SELECTION: THE POLISH EVENT PLANNERS PERSPECTIVE Anna Para Magdalena Kachniewska 3.2. THE SCIENTIST AS A CONSUMER AT MEETINGS MARKET: QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS BASED ON A COMPARISON Sylwia Gorecka PART 4 - HEALTH AND MEDICAL TOURISM 4.1. DEVELOPMENT OF HEALTH TOURISM AND ITS IMPACT ON SHAPING HEALTHY LIFESTYLE BEHAVIOR Izabela Pruska 4.2. AN ANALYSIS OF INNOVATION OF MEDICAL TOURISM IN THE REGION OF WESTERN POMERANIA Joanna Biernacka
6 4.4. SHORT-TERM EFFECTS OF INNOVATIONS ON TOURISM ENTERPRISE MARKET VALUE: EVENT STUDY APPROACH Dawid Szutowski Marlena A. Bednarska 205 PART 5 - OTHER TOURISM ISSUES 5.1. TOURISM ACTIVITY AMONG STUDENTS IN POZNAŃ Magdalena Kugiejko 5.2. THE IMPORTANCE OF INDIVIDUAL COMPONENTS OF THE TOURIST ATTRACTIVENESS OF CITIES FOR STUDENTS Agata Kobyłka 5.3. THE SPECIFICITY OF THE PHENOMENON OF SECOND HOMES IN POLAND Rafał Maćkowiak PART 6 - PHYSICAL RECREATION AND SPORT 6.1. ROLE OF PHYSICAL RECREATION IN A MODERN WORLD Agnieszka Rak 6.2. TEMPERAMENTAL AND MOTIVATIONAL DETERMINANTS OF PARTICIPATION IN ADVENTURE RACING Karolina Chlebosz 6.3. SPORT AND RECREATIONAL ACTIVITY WITH A DOG: PSYCHOSOCIAL SIGNIFICANCE OF DOG OWNERSHIP Anna Teodorowicz Małgorzata Woźniewicz Dobrzyńska
7 FOREWORD Joanna Kosmaczewska University School of Physical Education in Poznan, Poland Department of Tourism Economics and Organisation According to the Polish Act of law concerning higher education dated July 27th 2005, doctoral studies are considered to be the studies of the third stage. Their main objective is not only to award a postgraduate student the title of a doctor, but also provide him with specific knowledge in particular domain and specialisation and prepare him for conducting his own independent research work. The number of postgraduate students in Poland in the academic year 2012/2013 amounted to 42, 295 people, 92% of which were carrying out their studies at state-run universities or higher schools. Obviously, universities play a dominating role in offering postgraduate studies, basically due to possessing appropriate resources of professional staff. These are the places where 48% of all Polish postgraduate students continue their postgraduate studies 1. Unfortunately, a high number of postgraduate students is not reflected by the number of already started Ph.D. courses. Moreover, mainly due to a significant baby bust, fewer and fewer people awarded a doctorate degree decide to stay in higher education sector as more and more of them find jobs in public or private enterprises. Due to the fact that in Poland tourism is not considered to be a kind of science, there is no possibility to get awarded a doctorate degree in this domain. Thus, all the researchers of tourism related topics are forced to carry out their studies within the frames of such branches of science as economy, agriculture, physical education or some humanistic ones. The main reason for this is that in Poland there exists an opinion that the basic barrier that interferes treating tourism as a kind of science is the lack of sufficient methodological base. Unfortunately, such approach, apart from its undoubtable advantages like interdisciplinary character of researches and analyses that are being conducted, shows some significant 1 Higher Education Institutions and their Finances in 2012, Central Statistical Office, Warsaw 2013, p. 157
8 disadvantages since it results in the lack of the holistic view of the causes and effects of tourism development. An excellent opportunity for exchanging opinions and information on the conducted, often in a fragmentary way, researches are scientific conferences. Thanks to the subsidy provided by the Ministry of Science and Higher Education for DUN contest - the activity popularising science - it was possible to finance the participation of 40 postgraduate students in the II International Conference of Tourism, Hospitality and Recreation organized in Poznan. As a part of the above mentioned contest it is also possible to execute the tasks supporting the development of Polish science, mainly by means of its popularization and promotion. The recruitment of potential postgraduate students (for positions offered as a part of DUN contest) was done through the conference website and mailing aimed directly at scientific environment and the conference co-organizers. The main criterion used for selecting the best possible candidates for postgraduates was the quality of the abstract they sent in and their research work done so far. The postgraduate students who got qualified to participate in the conference represented 15 Polish universities. For all the participants of the conference mentioned above, i.e. scientists, practitioners and postgraduates representing almost all areas of widely defined free time industry (tourism, recreation, hotel business), the most desired effect of the organization of this conference was the opportunity to meet and discuss important issues concerning current matters of particular areas of science and those included in the conference agenda. It was also a perfect opportunity for the Polish researchers to present the results of their research work on international forum (work took place in subgroups specially created to discuss particular topics) and give them the chance to start new relationships that might result in future scientific co-operation. The conference organizers would like to express their sincere and deep gratitude to the Ministry of Science and Higher Education for supporting the event financially, promoting young scientists (postgraduates) and helping to make a big step forward in order to internationalise our local university. We would like to direct our special thanks to the representatives of the academic staff who, participating in the conference, kindly consented to back this international initiative.
9 INTRODUCTION 9 INTRODUCTION Francisco Dias Simão Oliveira GITUR / Polytechnic Institute of Leiria, Portugal The monograph New Trends in Tourism Research - A Polish Perspective is just one of three outcomes of the II International Conference promoted in Poznan, Poland (19 th 21 st May 2014) that was organised by EJTHR - European Journal of Tourism, Hospitality and Recreation 2. The uniqueness of this publication is the fact that all the selected articles are authored by Polish Ph.D. students from many universities, choosing tourism as their main research subject. As a mechanism that works flawlessly, the international conferences organized by the EJTHR are meant to work as a leverage in promoting tourism research, particularly in the host country. This way, a significant amount of Polish young people doing their first steps in Tourism Research were challenged to present their studies in the conference and to publish 2 The other outcomes are the book Tourism Research in a Changing World (ISBN ) and a Special Issue of the European Journal of Tourism, Hospitality and Recreation. The publication in the book or in the EJTHR Special Issue was in accordance with preferences of the authors of selected papers. The book consists of 25 papers and the EJTHR Special Issue includes 19 others. In addition, the 7 best papers of the conference were selected for publishing in the current issues of EJTHR. See in EJTHR Volume 5 Issue 2, July 2014, the following articles: Tourism jobs and subjective well-being at work: a cross-national analysis, by Marlena Bednarska (from Poznan University of Economics), that was the Best Paper winner, The role of social embeddedness in tourist region cooperation, by Katarzyna Czernek (University of Economics in Katowice), and Examining the importance of culture, gender and individual differences in customers, by Scott Rood and Joanna Dziadkowiec (Grand Valley State University, USA, and Cracow University of Economics). The EJTHR Volume 5 Issue 3, November 2014, the following selected best paper of the ICTHR conference: Internationalization of tourism management in Polish cities: Strategies, marketing and structures, by Piotr Zmyślony (Poznan University of Economics), The compliance of tourism education with industry needs in Latvia, by Agita Donina and Ineta Luka (Turiba University, Latvia), and Turning satisfaction into loyalty: The case of Lithuanian tourists, by Lina Pilelienė and Viktorija Grigaliūnaitė (Vytautas Magnus University, Lithuania).
10 INTRODUCTION 10 their papers after double-blind peer review process. As a result, a total of seventeen authored by twenty four PhD students were selected for publishing in this monograph. Tourism is arguably a pervasive, global phenomenon with significant economic, sociocultural and environmental macro impacts (Papathanassis & Dias, 2014); however, it is completely absent from formal primary and secondary school curricula and is not considered a competence in the modern educational toolkit. But it is obvious and unquestionable that the significance of the holiday sector and the ubiquity of the tourism phenomenon predetermine this domain as a relevant, rich and dynamic field for scientific research. On the other, as stated by Rolf Dieter Heuer 3, science or research is always under pressure to deliver something which can be used immediately for society. In this context, an essential question arises: is it the academic research of tourism really useful for the society in general and for the tourism sector in particular? Indeed, nowadays one can find a certain criticism concerning the usefulness of tourism research that is conducted in the academic milieu. For example, according to Franklin & Crang (2001) tourism research is a mere recording of the sector s growth which essentially results to fragmented and descriptive research. Aligned with tis perspective, Page (2005) states that 75% of tourism research has negligible impact and its absence would not significantly reduce the knowledge base on the subject. More significantly, tourism scholars are often accused of a certain degree of intellectual inbreeding (Xiao & Smith, 2008) and self-referentialism (Wardle & Buckley, 2014) limiting the knowledge dissemination to the wider, social-sciences community. In spite of criticism, it is obvious that the importance of the multidisciplinary domain of tourism research is growing intensively, and the huge amount of PhD programs in Tourism offered by the most prestigious universities in all over the world is a clear proof of its maturity and consolidation. In consequence, the four mains goals of EJTHR and its international conferences (fostering the exchange of applied research results among professionals and academics throughout the world; stimulating discussion on emerging research issues; fostering networking within research community; and providing expert opinion on crucial research issues useful for the tourism industry), can be considered even more relevant in light of the 3
11 INTRODUCTION 11 above mentioned criticism, and the present monograph (that allows a significant amount of young Polish researchers to share their work with the global community) presents itself as just a modest contribution to these general goals. The articles included in this monograph can be categorized in the following subjects: (1) Cultural tourism; (2) Nature tourism and environment; (3) Meetings, Incentives, Conferences and Events (MICE); (4) Health and medical tourism; (5) Other tourism issues; (6) Physical recreation and sport. Cultural tourism The link connecting cultural tourism with education and human development is always evident, despite the economic dimension of tourism business. According to the WTO s, the understanding and promotion of the ethical values common to humanity, with an attitude of tolerance and respect for the diversity of religious, philosophical and moral beliefs, are both the foundation and the consequence of responsible tourism; stakeholders in tourism development and tourists themselves should observe the social and cultural traditions and practices of all peoples, including those of minorities and indigenous peoples and to recognize their worth 4. In this context, the relationship between museums and tourism is something that seems to need a great more consideration. The criteria of tourist attractiveness can be transferred to the field of museology and museum management, allowing to achieve the following goals: The educational role of museums in the context of modern culture; The efficient use of museum resources for stable and balanced tourism development (including ICT); Issues of upgrading of museum knowledge and collections for visitors of different age and social groups; Innovative forms of working with visitors to provide opportunities for creative involvement in knowledge and inter-cultural dialogue expansion. The first article in this chapter, titled Current trends in tourism to museums, authored by Kamel, Malchrowicz-Mośko and Piasta, sheds light on the relationship between 4 Global Code of Ethics for Tourism [WTO. Without page numbers]
12 INTRODUCTION 12 tourism and museums, describing the new trends in museology. Within this perspective, authors claim that the age of glass panels is getting more and more antique, and show how the new kind of interactive exhibitions influence on development of tourism to museums. With the customization of museums in mind, authors assess the attractiveness of the interactive museums in Poland, the advantages versus disadvantages of the interactive museums, and also rated the functionality of these museums. In the article Educational trail as a form of popularization of cultural heritage of the Old Town and the New Town in Łódź, Magdalena Zdyb proposes and discusses the importance of the educational trails. The author considers that the cultural heritage enables people to adopt the mentality of a given community, and concludes that the popularization of cultural heritage can take place through establishing educational trails embracing the chosen places in the city space. This way, the city becomes an open-air museum and these trails can be used not only in a school education, but also in tourism. However the heritage interpretation needs an adequate information system, as the author said: choosing the spots which indicate the longer trail equipped with information boards, folders, archival materials, and other means which support getting to know the city in a direct way helps one to picture the world which is gone. The last article in this chapter is titled Basque festival Aste Nagusia as an interesting example of cultural and sport tourism attraction and presents an empirical research of a Basque traditional fiesta, where a Basque sport the pelota is an inseparable component. According to the author, Bartosz Prabucki, the inclusion of Basque traditional sports in this event and the possibility of actively participating in them additionally helps to promote the Basque culture. One of the virtues of this article is to show that the sport can be considered a relevant dimensions of the culture and, as a result, the boundaries between cultural tourism and sports tourism can be seen as nothing more than an arbitrary line. Nature tourism and environment Consumers pro-environmental behaviors in the field of tourism correspond to the general trend heading for a sustainable lifestyle. Together with the public concern on climate change, there are new trends in tourism that are expressed through tourists balanced demand behaviors.
13 INTRODUCTION 13 However, the connection of environmental protection and tourism can be quite problematic, in the case the principles of sustainable tourism in large protected areas are not used as the main criteria for tourism planning and development. Tourism industry can be a solid pillar of economic stability of large protected areas, however due to the special sensitivity of these areas any business which interferes with the environment must be limited or avoided. The first paper in this chapter, titled Sustainable tourism in Germany, by Bartosz Marchwacki, is focused on the importance and functions of sustainable tourism in large protected areas, and presents the Nature Park of Island of Usedom (Germany) as an example. Two aims were set in this article: (1) to determine the dynamics of growth in tourism on the island of Usedom, and (2) to assess the level of development of eco-tourism infrastructure. The study shows that the growth of tourism on the island of Usedom proved an upward trend, and the reasons are as following: the general trend of growth of tourism in Germany, and on the other hand, the development and modernization of eco-tourism infrastructure available in the area. The concerns with the environment embraces also the urban areas, and the green spaces play a crucial role in spatial planning of the cities, allowing to keep these areas biologically active. The green spaces in the cities provide natural, recreational, aesthetic and health values. An interesting article in this chapter ( The Area Structure and Dynamics of Development of Urban Green Space in Poznań, Szczecin and Wrocław from 2006 to 2010, by Monika Wojcieszak and Michał Gazdecki) discusses the concepts of green space, urban green space and green tourism, using as case studies three important Polish cities. The third article in this chapter analyzes the phenomenon of the ornithological tourism in Poland as a good example of tourism in the context of sustainable development. Monika Kordowska, the author, has carried out field studies and participated in numerous ornithological events. The results confirmed that ornithological tourism in Poland exemplifies sustainable tourism if it follows the rules of sustainable development: it supports biodiversity protection and socio-economic development of attractive areas for tourists. Nevertheless, the ornithological tourism is growing up and the risk of some massification is present, illustrating new environmental threats. Monika Kordowska identifies that the most
14 INTRODUCTION 14 attractive areas for birdwatching in Poland as the wetlands (e.g. lakes, rivers, artificial lakes, peat bogs and the Baltic Sea shore) Meetings, Incentives, Conferences and Exhibitions Industry (MICE) The Meetings, Incentives, Conferences and Exhibitions Industry (MICE) are very important for tourism all over the world. Travelling due to business is not a new phenomenon, since people have been travelling because of their work for many centuries. However, some forms of tourism related to business, such as incentive travel, are modern innovations. Nowadays, all over the world we assist to an increasing number of meetings, conferences and events. In the era of globalization, more and more companies are trying to get international, and with the increment of air travel, the number of meetings are increasing; also the academic industry promotes conferences all over the world. From East to West, from North to South, it s easy to see the huge number of conferences nowadays, for example accessing to Regarding exhibitions, the globalization leads to exhibitions in different countries, different places, regarding a large number of themes, that lead thousands of people to travel in order to attend them. So, MICE is a big business, making this tourism product a very appellative one to the tourism strategy of many countries. In this book, the chapter related to MICE includes two contributions. The first one ( Determinants of convention & conference site selection: The Polish event planners perspective, by Anna Para and Magdalena Kachniewska) presents the results of a research on Polish event planners, regarding the main destination attribute requirements. The results will help the destination marketing organizations as well as marketing professionals in hotel meeting facilities and convention centers to better adapt their services and better understand event planners needs and requirements. The other article ( The scientist as a consumer at meetings market: Quantitative analysis based on a comparison, by Sylwia Gorecka) is an empirical study of the academic industry, focused on the behaviour of scientists as a group of consumers in the international meetings market, making an interesting comparison between the behaviour of academics from two universities in the city of Poznan.
15 INTRODUCTION 15 Health and medical tourism In the nowadays stressful society, where the consumption of anxiolytics and antidepressants increases, Health and Medical Tourism are getting very popular. However, health and medical tourism is not just related with relieving the stress; it can involve people that travel from A to B for a medical procedure or for example seeking for the cure to a disease. Two articles on this subject are included in this book. The first, authored by Izabela Pruska, Development of health tourism and its impact on shaping healthy lifestyle behavior, presents a literature review of the origin of health resorts from ancient times up to the present, concluding that attractive offers of health resorts attract more and more tourists, and that staying at a health resort does not only involve health therapy, but also rehabilitative and weight exercises, beauty treatments, among others. The second article, An analysis of innovation of medical tourism in the region of Western Pomerania, by Joanna Biernacka, also includes a review of literature about health and medical tourism, and shows us a detailed analysis of the innovation in medical tourism in West Pomeranian region, as the leading region providing such services in Poland. In this article, besides the innovations issues, we can find the new trends and the significance of the tourism for West Pomeranian region. Other tourism issues In this uncategorized section of this book, the reader can find 4 articles. One authored by Dawid Szutowski and Marlena A. Bednarska, Short-term effects of innovations on tourism enterprise market value: Event study approach, is addressed to the question What is the relationship between innovation and tourism enterprises market value?, enlightening us with the conclusion that innovations affect positively investors valuation of tourism enterprises. Other article, by Magdalena Kugiejko, called Tourism Activity Among Students in Poznan, is very innovative, focusing in what the students of Tourism and Recreation from selected higher education institutions in Poznań do in their spare time, in particular regarding tourist activities, showing us the relevance of active tourism. Another article, presented in this section, belongs to Agata Kobyłka, The Importance of Specific Component of the Tourist Attractiveness of Cities for Students. In this research,
16 INTRODUCTION 16 which involved 576 students, the author identifies, besides the basic components of tourism, the most important components, such as natural values, tourism infrastructure, accommodation, transport, among others. Finally, the article by Rafał Maćkowiak, The specificity of the phenomenon of second homes in Poland, presents also an innovative approach, because the second homes tourism (that we can call residential tourism) is normally much related with countries with Sun & Sea product development, like Portugal, Spain, Greece, Italy, among others. In this paper the author describes the specificity of the phenomenon of second residences in Poland taking into account the major scale, the conditioning and the characteristics of the owners in the light of the current literature on second homes, finding many common features related with second homes, showing also some similarities between the Polish market and the markets from counties mentioned above. Physical recreation and sport In our society, sport takes a great importance currently, especially in order to release stress and achieve wellbeing and the perfect body, but also as a tendency and a competition among people, that run and perform other physical activities, sharing them with sport apps to smartphones, challenging friends and relatives. However, for tourism, the physical recreation and sport, can be seen as an industry that leads a lot of people to travel, to practice/attend some kind of physical activity. If we think in big events like Boston Marathon, London Marathon, the Olympic Games, The FIFA World Cup, or the ASP Surf League, we will find an important tourism niche, and an industry that manages lots of money. In the above mentioned events (and others of small dimension), we find, at least, 3 different profiles of those willing to spend money while tourists. There s the athlete/the team that will compete, the spectator (fans, managers, social media, family) that travels to attend a sport event/a player/a team, and also the nostalgia traveller that visits sport museums or sport places and also participates in reunions of former players. This chapter includes three articles. The first one ( Role of physical recreation in a modern world, by Agnieszka Rak) a paper presenting functions that both leisure time and physical recreation play in lives of young people, nowadays. The paper shows how young people perceive leisure time, how they choose sports subjects (and what these subjects
17 INTRODUCTION 17 mean to them) to practice, and which of their needs are being satisfied with recreation. It s really a very actual subject. The second article ( Temperamental and Motivational determinants of participation in adventure racing ), authored by Karolina Chlebosz, is an innovative research about motivational and temperamental determinants for adventure racers compared to marathoners, featuring the preparation period before competition and training practice. The research shows important associations between temperament and motivation in sport activities. Finally, in the third article ( Sport and recreational activity with a dog: Psychosocial significance of dog ownership by Anna Teodorowicz and Małgorzata Woźniewicz Dobrzyńska ), a curious approach to sport and recreational activity is presented, based on the dog ownership. Using a questionnaire, the paper authors find that a significant number of dog owners does not take part in any other sports besides dog sports, concluding that in psychosocial perspective, the dog ownership has significant influence on owners physical activity. On behalf of the GITUR Tourism research Unit of the Polytechnic Institute of Leiria (Portugal) and as members of the EJTHR Editorial Board, we are proud to collaborate in the edition of this monograph, and we hope to meet the expectations of authors and those of readers that look for up-to-date research articles. Specially, we hope that for all Ph.D. students whose articles are published in the New Trends in Tourism Research - A Polish Perspective, this will mean just the first step of their a successful research career. REFERENCES Papathanassis, A. & Dias, F. (2014). Editor s Note. European Journal of Tourism, Hospitality and recreation, Special Issue - II International Conference of Tourism Hospitality and Recreation, Poznan 2014, pp: Franklin, A., and Crang, M. (2001). The Trouble with Tourism and Travel Theory. Tourist Studies, 1: Page, S. (2005). Academic Ranking Exercises: Do They Achieve Anything Meaningful?: A Personal View. Tourism Management, 26:
18 INTRODUCTION 18 Wardle, C. & Buckley, R. (2014). Tourism citations in other disciplines. Annals of Tourism Research, Available Online: Access Date: 27/04/2014. Xiao, H. & Smith, S. L. J. (2008). Knowledge impact. An Appraisal of Tourism Scholarship. Annals of Tourism Research, 35(1):
19 PART 1 CULTURAL TOURISM
20 PART 1 - CULTURAL TOURISM 20 ACTUAL TRENDS IN TOURISM TO MUSEUMS Kamel Marta Malchrowicz-Mośko Ewa Piasta Marek University of Physical Education in Poznań, Poland ABSTRACT Modern lifestyle force public institutions to keep up with customers needs. The changes which need to be done in museums activity were noticed also by museums employees. The age of glass panels is getting more and more antique. The future belongs to those museums, which creates clear and based on emotions information about their exhibits. The modern museum is interactive place which stimulates people to find the answers on their questions independently. The main goal of this article (based on bibliography, webpages and on our own observations) is to describe the character of interactive and virtual museums and show the differences between those two modern types and traditional ones. This should give an answer to the question about how the new kind of exhibitions influence on development of tourism to museums. The essential part of the article is result of diagnostic survey using the questionnaire. The main goal is to find the answer on the following questions: 1) Which interactive museums are most popular in Poland? 2) What are advantages and disadvantages of the interactive museums? Also the functionality of the museums will be rated. The article also describes Polish touristic potential of interactive museums. In the text we used diagnostic survey method using an interview questionnaire and theoretical analysis of available sources. Keywords: museum, tourism to museums, new trends in museology, interactive museum, virtual museum.
21 PART 1 - CULTURAL TOURISM 21 INTRODUCTION Museums as a source of knowledge about the past and the present are among the most important cultural treasures (Jędrysiak 2008, page 63). In accordance with the Polish Act on Museums of 21st November 1996, the museum is a non-profit organizational unit, whose purpose is the collection and permanent protection of cultural treasures, communication of values and contents of the collections, promotion of fundamental values of Polish and worldwide history, science and culture, shaping cognitive and aesthetic sensitivity and enabling contact with the collections through numerous activities. A similar definition has been formulated by the International Council of Museums (ICOM), which emphasizes that the museum is an institution (...) serving the society and its development (ICOM Code of Ethics for Museums, Codes/poland.pdf). The turn of the twentieth and twenty-first century was marked by two opposing trends in museology (or museum studies) the constant increase in the number of museums and museum exhibitions was accompanied by a clear decline in the total number of visitors. Museums are experiencing a crisis of identify as they compete with other attractions within a tourism industry and this industry calls adventure (Kirshenblatt-Gimblett 1998, page 7). The reasons for this are complex, but as A. Stasiak says (2006, page 33), the most important are the following external factors: Impoverishment of a large part of the population that lacks the financial resources not only for the implementation of spiritual needs, but in many cases, even for the basic life necessities; Strong competition of easy entertainment new forms of fun activities (media, especially television, multiplexes, amusement parks, shopping malls, etc.) Effectively distract potential visitors, especially those with no sophisticated needs. Among the internal factors, the most important role play: Bad economic situation of some museums, resulting from the reduction of budget subsidies and changes in the method of financing of such institutions; Maladjustment of museums to the new era clinging to the model of a museum as a temple of art, the lack of development vision in new socio-economic conditions, lack of understanding of the needs and expectations of the twenty-first century man, unwillingness (inability?) to enter the competition for attracting customers with other
22 PART 1 - CULTURAL TOURISM 22 offers of leisure activities, the lack of wider cooperation with tour operators (travel agencies). At the same time, as if in response to the crisis of attendance in museums, about thirty years ago appeared a trend referred to as the new museology (Idziak 2003). Its representatives challenged the traditional form of museums the so called sanctuaries of culture. They emphasized that changes in the world had to be accompanied with a change in the role of museums and the way of presentation of their resources. Therefore, it is necessary to introduce modern, innovative museum products, changes in ways of exhibiting and the development of new forms of attracting potential recipients. Such actions may cause that museums will become modern and attractive facilities for visitors/tourists. The pervasive consumption embracing the society has led to the emergence of a commercial centre of cultural heritage. Modern museums are trying to catch up with shopping centres that attract crowds of people with attractions, events, various services. Nowadays, visitors coming to a museum no longer want to just watch its exhibits, works of art, but they want to have a good time while enriching their knowledge. This broadens the museum s activities, in the buildings of museums appear restaurants, auditoriums, and even theatres museums become classic, as defined by G. Ritzer, temples of consumption (Ritzer 2001). Actual trends in a tourism to museums the era of interactive museums Museums are one of the major attractions in cultural tourism now (Richards 2001, page 24). The term tourism to museums refers to a tourism where museum is the major reception area of a tourist and the purpose of his/her visit to the specific locality (Buczkowska 2008, page 49). With the increasing popularity of the phenomenon of a cultural tourism at the turn of the twentieth and twenty-first centuries, one of its most important forms tourism to museums has also gained importance. The scale of the phenomenon in Europe can be proved by the fact that only in Denmark in 1992 were recorded nearly 3.5 million foreign tourists visit in the local museums (Richards 2005, page 100). Also today we can see new ways to attract visitors to museums, which sometimes changes their character. Each of us opting for visiting the exposition hopes to obtain certain benefits in the field of psychology. Of course, every visitor s motivation is slightly different, and to a large
23 PART 1 - CULTURAL TOURISM 23 extent it also depends on the type of a museum. But the most important reasons to visit museums include: Need for aesthetic experiences, contact with beauty, works of art; Need to satisfy curiosity, to complement and deepen their knowledge; Need to shape a worldview, seeking life ideals and patterns of behaviour; Need for a pleasant and valuable leisure time, relaxation, fun. The possibility to stay in the museum is, therefore, only a means to satisfy internal needs (usually of a higher order) (Stasiak 2006). Museums have been for many years considered to be temples of high culture and the way of presentation of the exhibition did not encourage to visit them frequently. Especially for young people visiting museums was associated with boredom and their staying in them resulted from the need to complete a mandatory point in the school trips. Cultural heritage presented in a static way is not too interesting to a dynamic youth, willing to explore the world. Trips to museums organized in such a way are interesting for young people rather from the point of view of school absence than for communing with the values of cultural heritage (Alejziak 2011, page 12). In the past, a museum was visited in order to see the exhibition (or specific exhibits), where different collections were usually separated from each other (eg. artefacts from natural history collections and works of art), as well as scientific knowledge was separated from aesthetic experiences, therefore, on such exhibition the spectator was only instructed (informed) about the achievements of science or art, and he or she could only passively watch it (Popczyk 2010, page 45). However, as we can read in the Report on the State of Culture (2008, page 35), after a period of stagnation and discussion on the future of museums, a clear direction of changes was outlined we can speak of a renaissance of museums. In fact, the image of a museum as a passive form of gathering collections is replaced by the image of a creative institution that in the specific location/region/country stimulates the creation of new forms of culture and science, combining education and entertainment, conducts research and scientific activities in relevant areas, and stimulates the development of cultural and scientific tourism. W. Idziak in his work Modern trends in museology (2003) points out that in view of the transformation taking place in the world, the role of a museum is changing and it is opening
24 PART 1 - CULTURAL TOURISM 24 to the viewer. He indicates some changes that can be observed in the so-called new museology. One of them is the transition from orientation on museum objects to orientation on the society/viewer. The former activities of museums, which were aimed at protection, presentation and education, have been extended with a market activity and focus on recipients of a museum offer. The directors of museums know that museum collections are valuable exhibits that must be protected and examined, and on the other hand, they realize the fact that these are the objects on which the museum should also make money, making them more accessible to the public because people do not want to just watch the exhibits, but also to touch and use them. An important trend which can be easily observed in recent times, and which is pointed out by Idziak is musealisation of commercial and cultural facilities. A museum is no longer the sole object for storing and exposing exhibits. Shopping malls increasingly organize various types of exhibitions of museum objects, works of art 5. There is also a perceptible change in the way of managing museums. A museum out of the institution subsidized by the state or other sponsors turned into a venture of a quasi commercial character. Almost every museum has a marketing and public relations department. The orientation on the audience was rather turned into the orientation on a consumer we can talk about rationalizing of the management of museums. The fact that museums have to move with the times, be alive institutions and principally adapted to the needs and expectations of today's visitors (especially young people, raised on computer novelties) had been discussed for a long time. Some museum professionals, beyond discussions on this topic, has also taken actions in this regard, turning centres managed by them in modern interactive museums. As a result, in addition to traditional museums full of glass cases with the words Don t touch, where the rooms are more and more often empty, all over the world there are also a lot of modern highlysuccessful museums (Stefanik, Kamel 2013). The power of attraction and impact of interactive museums (exhibitions) on the audience lies in a novel way to create exhibitions, which we can observe in these institutions. The innovativeness of interactive museum exhibitions consists of many 5 An example of such a musealisation of the commercial space can be a Mobile Museum of Greater Poland Uprising, the exhibition of which was opened in the commercial mall in Poznan Poznan City Center. Thanks to the direct vicinity of the railway station, the exhibition was seen by many travellers as well as visitors to gallery in Poznan.
25 PART 1 - CULTURAL TOURISM 25 elements. First of all, focus on the viewer. Previously, when creating exhibitions, the most important was the exhibit. It was the centre of attention and the whole exhibition was developed so as to present it in the best way. Today, the most important is a viewer and the exhibition is created for the viewer. Therefore, the way of presentation of museum exhibits has changed. In an interactive museum collections are no longer arranged chronologically in glass cases or according to the types of collected objects. Now exhibits create spaces telling and imparting a specific idea, they immerse viewers in a particular story or phenomenon. In addition, thanks to new forms of presentation (virtual animations) and replicas of valuable or easily damageable objects, a museum has became more friendly. In the museum interiors there are no longer so many women vigilantly tracking our movements and actions, ready to shout at any time: Don t touch the exhibits! or Don t stand too close to the cabinets because the alarm will be activated!. There are no more bans on taking photos and loud conversations. Today, going to an interactive museum we can easily traverse the museum interiors, take as many pictures as we like (but without flash) and boldly share with other visitors our feelings and impressions from a visit to the museum of the twenty-first century alive and open to a viewer (http://muzhp.pl/artykuly/). The second novelty is the narration, which is the creation of the exhibition by appropriately selected exhibits and other elements (multimedia effects, interactive devices), coherent and logical story about a specific event, phenomenon or problem that the museum want to present. The exhibition is to provide both information and experience, awaken emotions and invite to a dialogue. And the selection of exhibits that are to illustrate the phenomenon, issue is subject to that specific story. And the whole arrangement is to allow the public to transfer to past events in some way. In the interactive museum the story is more important than the exhibits, the story that is represented by them and which shall be literally felt by visitors through different senses (sight, touch, hearing). As can be seen in the museum exhibitions there are plenty of means for its creation (Jędrysiak 2009, pages 52-53; One of the most important elements making exhibitions in interactive museums distinctive and giving them a new character is the emphasis on education. Museums has always been institutions that educated, but it was rather done by museum lessons or workshops. In interactive museums through the exhibition in which the viewer becomes
26 PART 1 - CULTURAL TOURISM 26 involved the education takes place automatically. Exhibitions of interactive museums have developed different scenarios for particular stories and in these museums visitors depending on which group they belong to: children and youth, adults, professionals, foreign tourists or people with disabilities they make use of different visiting routes, or the exhibition sort of itself adapts to them. The latter situation can be found, among other things, in the Chopin Museum in Warsaw, where with the use of electronic tickets with the encoded languages and visitor s profile, as well as sensors installed in the halls (for detection of the ticket and information encoded on it) in individual spaces of a museum, illuminated are those parts of the exhibition that are appropriate for particular groups of visitors. All of this to make every visitor be it an elementary school student not having too extensive knowledge or a university professor having a wide knowledge obtain due to providing some information that is useful and interesting for them. Educational purpose is also met in a museum by different layers of a narrative. Some of them give the viewer the opportunity to visit the exhibition in an hour and there are profound layers (with drawers, multimedia kiosks, touch screens revealing to the visitors more facts and information) for those who can and want to spend more time in the museum (http://muzhp.pl/artykuly/). Exhibitions in interactive museums are modern and innovative also because of its interactivity. That interactivity should not be, however, confused with a multimediality. When we say that exhibitions are interactive, it means that they form (and at different levels) interactions between the viewer and the narrated story, activate it and draw the viewer into a discussion, asking questions and self-seeking of answers. Nowadays, the viewer does not want to be any longer only a passive recipient, he wants to act, to create, to be active in the museum. But this is not an easy task for the organizers of the exhibition. Making an interactive exhibition takes place at several levels. The easiest way to activate the viewer is by forcing him to some physical effort, such as looking for something in a drawer of a cabinet or desk or to bend (which is sometimes necessary, for example, when viewing images through peepshow). There are also used such multimedia solutions as multimedia kiosks, touch screens or even projectors and many other modern devices (http://muzhp.pl/artykuly/). What makes exhibitions in interactive museums novel (especially in museums related to history), it is also freedom of interpretation and multiple perspective. A big emphasis in presenting the history and heritage is placed today on such presentation of museum objects
27 PART 1 - CULTURAL TOURISM 27 that will allow more for their interpretation, rather than presenting the individual exhibits as exceptional objects. It is because the presented exhibitions are supposed to help visitors to understand the past, to make them familiar with the phenomenon. They are to arouse feelings and associations, to constitute the foundations of the knowledge, the base to create your own opinion about something, interpretation of events, and not to impose the old truth, predetermined conclusions that the viewer is to passively accept and support. Hence, interactive facilities, when creating exhibitions that present such past events, try to present the facts without revealing their own or commonly ingested evaluation of events, on the other hand they try to present it from the perspective of the narrative and the various parties participating in them. In these exhibitions, the idea is to maintain and cherish the memory of phenomena, events that are presented in the exhibition, to encourage discussion about them and to argue for their interpretation (http://muzhp.pl/artykuly/). A differentiator and characteristics of an exhibition in interactive museums is also a variety of means of expression used by museum curators to transmit the idea, the story behind the particular exhibition. Means of expression and the elements used to create these exhibitions are presented in Table 1 (http://muzhp.pl/artykuly/). Table 1. Elements used to create exhibitions in interactive museums Elements not related to modern technology monuments, replicas, reconstructions, models, Kaiserpanorama, scenography, recreated partisan dugouts or barricades, plastic maps, large photos, mannequins, showcases Elements associated with modern technologies and multimedia LED displays (LCD), plasma displays, video walls, interactive floors or tables, projectors, lights, information kiosks, 3M foil or glass projectors, 3D effects, 3D models, interactive models or mock-ups, multimedia presentations, film screenings, visualizations, 3D digital reconstructions, electronic mapping of monuments, digital cameras, steam screens, players, signal converters, multimedia projectors, touch screens, projection screens, holograms Source: own study based on: projekty_unijne Elements described above constitute the idea of what is an interactive museum. Due to the absence of a definition of this type of a museum, M. Stefanik (2012, pages 54-55) for the purposes of her thesis written at the Department of Tourism and Recreation at the University of Physical Education in Poznan, was forced to formulate it by herself (based on above elements). This definition seems to aptly characterize a modern interactive museum an interactive museum can be understood as localized in a real space (i.e., in a specific
28 PART 1 - CULTURAL TOURISM 28 building or room) modern museum, whose main task is transmission to visitors of some ideas, events and issues from many perspectives, making use for that purpose of exhibitions created with different media, such as multimedia (video, music, multimedia presentations, visualizations), original exhibits and photographs, and interactive forms of presentation (scenography, replicas, models, each of which can be touched). What characterizes interactive museums, it is also a direct contact (interaction) between the viewer and the exhibition that affects different senses of the visitor (sight, hearing, smell, fragrance, taste), engages him or her to actively explore the exhibition and leads to inquiry, questioning and self-seeking of answers. Interactive Museums in Poland a touristic potential The essence of exhibitions in interactive museums is their multimedia character. The point of the existence of museums is and will continue to be collecting authentic objects, because all the functions of a museum are centred around the authentic and original exhibit. However, the museums of glass showcases belong to the past. The future belongs to establishments that on the basis of collected exhibits will build a clear, legible and marked by emotions transmission of information. Table 2 contains interactive museums operating in Poland. Of course, interactive exhibitions can be found in many museum facilities. The article, however, describes the examples of museums that are intended to be interactive as a whole structure. In Poland, for several years have been created museums, which since its inception want to play the role of an interactive facility. They often enrich their offer with virtual materials (an example of the Museum of the History of Polish Jews, which is currently still developing its exhibition). Although Poland is trying to draw from the European standards, yet a significant part of museums is still traditional, which probably stems from the lack of funds for modernization or unwillingness of museologists to change anything. One of the most frequently visited interactive museums in the country is the Warsaw Uprising Museum. For nearly ten years of the Museum s existence, it has been visited by more than 3,500,000 visitors and more than 150,000 students from all types of schools has participated in the museum lessons (http://1944.pl/). These statistics prove that interactive museums are undoubtedly very popular and can promote the development of tourism to museums.
29 PART 1 - CULTURAL TOURISM 29 Table 2. Interactive Museums in Poland Museum Location Issue Factory Emalia of Oskar Schindler Museum of the Home Army Museum of Zywiec Brewery Cracow Cracow Zywiec The exhibition Cracow under the Occupation takes visitors to the city during the occupation, tells the story of the ancient inhabitants of Cracow the Poles and the Jews. It presents the history of the factory and its owner Oskar Schindler, who saved thousands of Jews from extermination. The exhibition shows the history of the Home Army and the Polish Underground State in the context of the national liberation struggle of Poles from the late nineteenth century. Zywiec Brewery is one of the earliest and most famous ones in the country. The exhibition shows the history of the Zywiec brewery and its present day the processes and mechanisms for creating beer. Museum of Chopin Warsaw A biographical museum depicting the history of one of the greatest Polish composers. The exhibition shows the composer's life from birth through the artistic activities the stage in Warsaw and Paris after his death. Factory Museum Lodz The museum is housed in a former industrial-residential complex of Izrael Poznanski the exhibition tells the story of a factory and its employees. The main part of the exhibition is devoted to the process of spinning, weaving, bleaching and printing the pattern on the fabric. Palmiry National Memorial Museum Museum of the Teutonic Order Museum of the Market Square Underground in Cracow Palmiry next to Warsaw Dzialdowo Cracow Palmiry are considered to be the Warsaw equivalent of Katyn. The exhibition is devoted to the events of the World War II the mass murders committed by the Germans. The exhibition illustrates the history of the creation and activities of the State of the Teutonic Knights on the Polish territory. The title of the exhibition In the Footsteps of the European Identity of Cracow brings visitors to the realities of the medieval Krakow revealing a panorama of the city's history by introducing its topography and atmosphere, indicating the political and commercial role of the city in Europe at that time. Warsaw Uprising Museum Warsaw Source: own study based on the websites of museums The exhibition presents the story of the insurgent reality fought battles, every day of the uprising, complex international situation, as well as an extremely difficult post-war situation and the fate of the insurgents. Virtual tourism a tour of museum exhibitions without leaving your home The word that has been recently often appearing in the public sphere is virtualization. As it is pointed out by D. Folga-Januszewska (2008) in relation to the concept of a museum, it receives the sense that we shall think over. Because Museums were for decades associated with the notion of a materially existing original or a physical copy. They were given the special status through maintenance, research, presentation.
30 PART 1 - CULTURAL TOURISM 30 However, the rapid development of information technology has contributed to the emergence of a new way of presenting historical monuments, namely exhibitions (and virtual museums), which consist of the presentation of exhibits in the form of electronic images, available in the on-line form or on media such as CDs. In this case, however, the term electronic image should be understood a bit wider than just as digital photographs but also as digital movies, music files and other more advanced forms of presentation. Interestingly, virtual museums and exhibitions are not necessarily museum exhibitions because for their creation it is not necessary to have physical historic artefacts, it is enough to have their electronic counterparts. Virtual museums can create for the network users a unique, unrepeatable opportunities to enjoy the exhibitions consisting of exhibits normally held at the premises of various museums, exhibitions that in the real world probably would not be feasible (Jędrysiak 2009, pages 55-56) 6. D. Folga-Januszewska, however, expresses concern about the fate of traditional museums in connection with virtualization of a significant number of collections whether they will become the object of artistic activities, whether will create myths, or maybe they will only become commercial institutions governed only by laws of the market (2008, page 203). Virtual museums can exist in two forms: as part and complement of a traditional museum (eg. in the form of a website), or as a completely virtual museum an independent entity, not having a permanent, physical location, functioning only in cyberspace (Jędrysiak 2009, page 55). It is also worth mentioning that virtual museums can play a number of important functions. For those who have physically visited the specific museum (existing in a real space), a virtual museum can be an excellent complement to their visit in the facility, so that in the comfort of their own homes, the visitors can further deepen their knowledge, or even once more (maybe from a different perspective, maybe with a greater accuracy and detail) look at the exhibits without worrying about their destruction. Promotion and sharing of collections in the network (to a potentially wider audience) can awaken the imagination and inspire, be an incentive to visit the facility by people who perhaps have not planned a real visit to the museum s seat. Therefore, virtual sharing of exhibits can lead to an increase in 6 An example might be a museum of the Poznan football club KKS Lech, which exists only on the Internet and not in reality.
31 PART 1 - CULTURAL TOURISM 31 the number of traditional visits to the museum, and thereby promote the development of tourism to museums. Certainly, another advantage of having exhibitions and museums in virtual space is that such exhibition can be watched by people with physical disabilities, which, due to the lack of adaptation of a large part of museums to their needs, often do not have the possibility of visiting them. Virtualization of museums also makes it possible to explore the museums for people living far from the seat of a museum or who do not have the financial resources to travel to the selected facility (Jędrysiak 2009, page 48). On-line exhibitions are available in an easy way with one click 24 hours a day, from anywhere in the world, with no need to book tickets or choose a specific date for visiting the museum, which will not interfere with work, school. Digitization also allows us to preserve valuable and fragile objects, which, despite the technological advances in maintenance, are exposed to irretrievable degradation over time. Encouragingly, more and more websites of the biggest museums in the world out of semi-amateur electronic brochures turn into very computationally advanced sites offering huge databases, hundreds and thousands of reproductions and works of art, as well as a lot of another valuable information. The first world-class museum that initiated the virtual functioning of these institutions was the Louvre in Paris. Today, almost all the great museums of the world and also a significant part of the smaller and lesser-known ones operates in the network. On-line museums allow for creative leisure by: videos on the exhibit with expert commentary available at the website, creating private collections of art, role-playing games, or use of gamification 7. All these virtual attractions contribute to the creation of innovative and attractive forms of contact of users with culture. In Poland, we can observe the emergence of a growing number of virtual museums. We can mention the following: the Virtual Museum of the Warsaw Uprising, the Castle Museum in Pszczyna, the Malbork Castle Museum, the Royal Baths Museum in Warsaw, the Polish Aviation Museum in Cracow, the Museum of the Origins of the Polish State. But there are doubts about the sense of transferring the cultural life into the virtual world, such as whether digitization will not restrict contact with the real museum 7 The use of elements from the world of video games, such as badges, points, rankings, virtual currency and other mechanisms creating sensations similar to those of video games. This method allows its users to undertake tasks that are interesting, rewarding them for the conducted operations, while telling an interesting story. Virtual Museums of Lesser Poland (http://muzea.malopolska.pl/) used this method as the first museum port in Poland.
32 PART 1 - CULTURAL TOURISM 32 institutions, and consequently to the disappearance of existing facilities due to the lack of interest in traditional forms of participation in culture? This could inhibit the growth of tourism to museums in a traditional sense. The downside of virtual museums can also be a lack of contact with the original/tangible exhibit, and thus the impossibility of contemplation of a particular work or an entire exhibition. A significant drawback is also the lack of spirit/climate in on-line museums that is characteristic of traditional museums. Most of the virtual visits is often free and it can result in reducing the budget of museums. It, therefore, should be reconsidered whether entering the page of virtual museums shall not be payable even if with a symbolic amount. Some researchers, however, are optimistic. J. Mosz (2006, page 48) is in favour of virtual museums and he is not afraid about the future of traditional outlets, writing: it does not seem possible that sharing collections in the Internet will eradicate the need for their actual experience, changing the art in the area of virtual experiences. Mona Lisa, in spite of its specific over-representation in the media, continues to be one of the most important tourist attractions of Paris. Therefore, the future of museums in the optimal version should consist in a wise complementarity of virtual actions and activities in the real world a virtual presentation gives us the opportunity to build learning phases. It allows us to get ready via the virtual pre-visit for a direct experience, preceded by the phase of building knowledge on this subject, in order to clear the field of perception for sensations. The visit in the Louvre provides an opportunity of a direct touching of the work, however, because of the tourist reality, it is a doubtful pleasure. Mass tourism kills any privacy and there is no possibility for the emergence of a contemplative attitude. This highlights the cognitive advantages of a virtual tourism. It is also worth noting that probably most of culture tourists will not end their adventures with art just in front of a computer screen. Museums see an opportunity in creating virtual walks through their facilities. Museologists think that this will attract tourists to their real seat. Creating of virtual exhibitions is cheaper, and not all institutions can afford a thorough exchange of exhibitions using multimedia. Moreover, according to K. Message (2006), the traditional tasks of museums should also include a creative activity the creation of culture, reality currently implemented in the digital virtual area the so-called, making culture.
33 PART 1 - CULTURAL TOURISM 33 It is also important, as noted by E. Malchrowicz-Mośko, that mass tourism over the word has often a negative impact on the monuments and works of art (unconscious destruction of historical objects, light of flashes badly affecting the paintings, leaving litter and many others). The managers of monuments or museums try to prevent such a state of things, among others, by introducing visits with a limited number of people. A virtual museum could, therefore, be an alternative for those who failed to admire works of art with their own eyes. Perhaps this would also contribute to a longer survival of the heritage of mankind, its better protection against invasions of tourists, and thus also our children could admire these works in the future. E. Malchrowicz-Mośko expresses concern, however, that such a situation would lead to lose the whole point of travelling (Malchrowicz-Mośko 2014, pages ). The results of the survey for the assessment of the attractiveness and usefulness of interactive and virtual museums in the opinion of Polish students The research conducted for the purposes of this article was made with use of a diagnostic survey using an interview questionnaire. The study group consisted of 108 students of the Faculty of Tourism and Recreation from the Academy of Physical Education in Poznan. The age of respondents ranged between years. Women accounted for 69% and men for 31% of respondents. In the first question, respondents had to indicate which aspects (maximum of 3) they take into account when choosing a museum (Figure 1). The most common response was the subject of the collection (69%). In the second place was the originality and uniqueness of the collection (57%). The way of the collection presentation was indicated by 45% of respondents, while multimedia and new technologies and ticket price were respectively pointed by 26% and 25% of respondents. The least important aspect for that study group is the size of the collection (7%). The obtained results testify in favour of interactive museums. If for the visitors quite an important element inducing them to visit a museum is the way of presentation of collections, as well as multimedia and the latest technologies used to create exhibition, it is possible that in the future they will be more inclined to visit interactive museums rather than traditional ones.
34 PART 1 - CULTURAL TOURISM % subject of the collection originality and uniqueness of the collection way of the collection presentation multimedia and new technologies ticket price location of the museum events temporary exhibitions size of the collection Figure 1. Aspects that respondents take into account when choosing a museum Source: own study based on the results of research The second question asked respondents to indicate what Polish interactive museums they visited (Figure 2). By far the most popular interactive museum among the respondents turned out to be the Warsaw Uprising Museum (40%). In the first four of the most popular museums were indicated the Market Square Underground Museum in Cracow (24%), Museum of Chopin in Warsaw (18%), Museum Factory Emalia of Oskar Schindler in Cracow (16%).
35 PART 1 - CULTURAL TOURISM % Warsaw Uprising Museum 24 Market Square Underground Museum in Cracow Museum of Chopin Factory Emalia of Oskar Schindler 6 Factory Museum 5 Museum of the Teutonic Order 1 Palmiry National Memorial Museum Figure 2. Polish interactive museums visited by respondents Source: own study based on the results of research In the next question, the respondents were asked to indicate the advantages and disadvantages of interactive museums perceived by them (Table 3). According to the respondents, interactive museums have definitely more advantages than disadvantages, but they also identified some disadvantages of this type of museums, the most serious of allegations rightly included issues like: creating difficulties in reception to older people who are not up to date with the latest technology. In the last question the respondents were asked to indicate whether they find a virtual museum to be a good solution. 67% of respondents answered yes and 33% no. They also pointed up to 3 justifications for the answer yes or no. Respondents who believe that virtual museums are a good solution, most often pointed out that the virtual museum can inspire and prepare for visits to the museum facility (72%). Slightly more than the half (53%) believe that the advantage of virtual museums is the ability to visit these museums by people who live far away from the seat of a museum or do not have the financial resources to travel to the selected facility. Over 40% of indications (respectively 47% and 43%) were given to: reply 2 a virtual museum can be a complement to a visit to the facility, allowing the visitor to deepen his or her knowledge in the comfort of their home and reply 4 a virtual museum gives us the opportunity to watch collections by persons with disabilities.
36 PART 1 - CULTURAL TOURISM 36 Table 3. Advantages and disadvantages of interactive museums in the opinion of the respondents Advantages of interactive museums They stimulate all human senses; able to intrigue and involve in the exhibition, so it is better to be visited; the use of multimedia that make the message more attractive; they allow us to participate in the exhibition (feel it), and not just watch; their attractive form attracts the younger generation to the museum; we can move in time and feel the atmosphere of the presented topics; they allow visitors to experience something by themselves, to touch everything; affect the emotions; are easier to read information; are multithreaded, show various shots of the presented topic; allow for better understanding of the presented topics and exhibits; capture the imagination; are more interesting than the traditional museums; are attractive for visitors of all ages; combine fun and learning; transmit the theory, but also demonstrate its application in practice Source: own study based on the results of research Disadvantages of interactive museums are more difficult in the receipt for the elderly because of the extensive use of multimedia; a small number of original exhibits; lack of spirit, climate characteristic of the museums; they are crowded (for example, if they are located in a shopping mall - a museum is not a shop!; they use too much of the latest technologies; they may cause a collapse of traditional museums % reply 3 reply 5 reply 2 reply 4 reply 1 reply 7 reply 6 Figure 3. Advantages of virtual museums in the opinion of the respondents Source: own study based on the results of research reply 1 - to create virtual museums it is not necessary to have a physical historic artefacts (it is enough to have their digital counterparts); reply 2 - a virtual museum can be a complement to a visit to the facility, allowing the visitor to deepen his or her knowledge or have a look at exhibit; reply 3 - a virtual museum can inspire and prepare (providing knowledge about the artefacts the museum collect ) for visits to the real museum; reply 4 - a virtual museum gives us the opportunity to watch collections by persons with disabilities; reply 5 - a virtual museum can be visited by people who live far away from the seat of a museum or do not have the financial resources to travel to the selected facility; reply 6 - websites of the biggest museums in the world out of semiamateur electronic brochures turn into very computationally advanced sites offering huge databases; reply 7 - a virtual museum allows us to avoid the crowds, which often occurs in large and very popular museums
37 PART 1 - CULTURAL TOURISM 37 33% of the respondents, however, sees the negative aspects associated with the emergence of virtual museums. Nearly three-quarters of the respondents (72%) believe that virtual museums lack the spirit/climate that is characteristic of a museum. 61% of the respondents indicates the absence in this type of a museum of original/tangible exhibits, while the half of the respondents believe that the growing multimedia development may lead to the disappearance of traditional museums (which could inhibit the development of tourism to museums in its traditional form) % reply 2 reply 1 reply 5 reply 4 reply 3 Figure 4. Disadvantages of virtual museums in the opinion of the respondents Source: own study based on the results of research reply 1 - no original/tangible exhibits in virtual museums; reply 2 - no spirit/climate characteristic of a museum; reply 3 - virtual museums prevent the contemplation of a particular work/the whole exhibition; reply 4 - such museums limit the contact with real museum institutions - cultural institutions; reply 5 - the growing multimedia development may lead to the disappearance of traditional museums CONCLUSIONS According to respondents, the most popular Polish interactive museums turned out to be: Warsaw Uprising Museum, Market Square Underground Museum in Cracow, Museum of Chopin in Warsaw, Museum Factory Emalia of Oskar Schindler in Cracow. The majority of the respondents think that interactive museums have a number of advantages. A small part of the visitors sees disadvantages of interactive museums. Based on the findings, the review of the literature and our own observations we can say that interactive museums will encourage the development of tourism to museums and will increase turnout in the Polish
38 PART 1 - CULTURAL TOURISM 38 museums. The use of multimedia to illustrate the history is in fact an attractive form of visiting the museum. As emphasized by the respondents, this type of facilities are particularly interesting for young people they can encourage to visiting such places. In the case of virtual museums, 33% of the respondents believe that such museums are not a good solution they prevent the perception of a characteristic climate of the museum. The respondents also see a risk in this type of museums for development of tourism to museums the lack of a direct contact with the culture can lead to the disappearance of traditional museums. 67% of the respondents, however, believe differently, so probably this phenomenon will not inhibit the development of traditional tourism to museums. SUMMARY In a relatively short period of time, the museum has become a key element of the tourism sector and an important contributor to the urban economy (van Aalst 2012, page 1). Probably, because of that, in recent years we can observe a revolution that has been spreading over the functioning of museums. Museologists noticed (in accordance with the demands advocated by the proponents of the new museology ) that the essence of museum s activities is not only an exhibit, a collection or the museum itself, but the people their needs, expectations, benefits that a visit to the museum will bring to them. The focus should be, therefore, placed not in a museum, but in the recipient of the museum offer (Kowalczyk 1995). There are created new types of museums, which are connected with trade, entertainment and spectacle. Tourism to museums of the twenty-first century is not only education but also entertainment for tourists (Buczkowska 2011, page 45). It can be said that a new type of museums interactive museums are derived from the changing expectations of visitors and referring new trends in museology and all the rime richer museum offer that is struggling to meet the demands of the public. The public changes into active consumers looking at exhibitions not only for knowledge, but also for entertainment and experience. Certainly, in Poland there should be more such museums, since they fulfil their educational role, make us appreciate presented events or persons, and they restore to museums their former glory and popularity, especially among the younger generation. Use of modern exhibition methods that have an exceptional strength of transmission and the application of multimedia technologies promote a better understanding. And virtual
39 PART 1 - CULTURAL TOURISM 39 museums have a similar goal they are to encourage to visit traditional museums. On-line museums are a long-standing example of an actual reality being replaced with a virtual reality. And those changes are undoubtedly accepted. Interactive museums, and more recently virtual ones, gain a success in terms of attendance. However, does the future of tourism to museums lies only in cyberspace travels to museums? Therefore, with shall be moderate in applying all the multimedia gadgets, so as not to allow that the museum lost its original character and has become one of the many commercial centres of entertainment or a virtual game. It is also important that museologists kept a moderation in topics of exhibitions. As commented by E. Malchrowicz-Mośko today, in order to attract customers and tourists to any place we need to surprise them, and sometimes even shock. That is why more and more frequently appear exhibitions with very unusual topics for example Tsunami Museum, Museum of Sex or Exhibition of von Hagens Plastinates (which are often focused on economic profit and not educational activities). It is, therefore, important that prior to a visit, the tourist reconsidered if it is really ethical and if so that he or she at least tried to properly behave in these places, knowing what story is told by these exhibits (Malchrowicz-Mośko 2014, page 16-22). REFERENCES Alejziak B. (2011), Innowacyjność oferty muzealnej w edukacji kulturowej dzieci i młodzieży na przykładzie wybranych obiektów muzealnych w Krakowie, Zeszyty Naukowe Małopolskiej Wyższej Szkoły Ekonomicznej w Tarnowie, t. 19, nr 2, ss Buczkowska K. (2008), Turystyka kulturowa. Przewodnik metodyczny, AWF Poznań Buczkowska K., (2011), Cultural Tourism Heritage, Arts and Creativity, AWF Poznań Folga-Januszewska D. (2008), Muzeum: definicja i pojęcie. Czym jest muzeum dzisiaj?, Muzealnictwo, nr 49, ss Graburn N., The museum and the visitor experience, Roundtable Reports Idziak W. (2003), Współczesne tendencje w muzealnictwie, doc. on-line ( ) Jędrysiak T. (2008), Turystyka kulturowa, Polskie Wyd. Ekonomiczne, Warszawa Jędrysiak T. (2009), Turystyka muzealna, (in:) K. Buczkowska, A. Mikos v. Rohrscheidt (red.), Współczesne formy turystyki kulturowej, AWF Poznań, ss Kaczmarek J., Stasiak A., Włodarczyk B. (2005), Produkt turystyczny, Polskie Wyd. Ekonomiczne, Warszawa
40 PART 1 - CULTURAL TOURISM 40 Kirshenblatt-Gimblett B., (1998), Destination Culture: Tourism, museums and heritage, University of California Press Kodeks etyki ICOM dla muzeów, (2007), transl. S. Waltoś, Muzealnictwo, nr 48, 35-50, ( ) Kowalczyk W. (1995), Marketing w muzeum, Muzealnictwo, nr 37, ss Malchrowicz-Mośko E. (2014), Turystyka kultury wysokiej w świetle dylematów etycznych, Turystyka i Rekreacja 2 (1), ss Malchrowicz-Mośko E. (2014), Turysta kulturowy wpływ na otoczenie, Gnieźnieńskie Forum Ekspertów Turystyki Kulturowej, Turystyka Kulturowa nr 1/2014, ss Matyschok-Nyckowska A. (2011), Innowacyjne formy zwiedzania muzeum, (in:) Muzeum otwarte na edukację, Kraków Medlik S. (1995), Leksykon podróży, turystyki i hotelarstwa, PWN Message K. (2006), New Museums and the Making Culture, Oxford-New York Mikos v. Rohrscheidt A. (2008), Turystyka kulturowa. Fenomen, potencjał, perspektywy, GWSHM Milenium, Gniezno Mosz J. (2006), Muzeum sztuki jako turystyczna atrakcja cywilizacji ponowoczesnej, (in:) A. Toczewski (red.), Rola muzeów w turystyce i krajoznawstwie, Zielona Góra Popczyk M. (2010), Autorytet muzeum w dobie muzeum otwartego, (in:) A. Rottermund (red.), Muzeum przestrzeń otwarta, Arx Regia Ośrodek Wyd. Zamku Królewskiego, Warszawa Raport o Muzeach (2008), (in:) Raport o Stanie Kultury, Ministerstwo Kultury i Dziedzictwa Narodowego, Warszawa Richards G., (2001), Cultural attractions and European Tourism, CABI Richards G. (2005), Cultural Tourism in Europe, ATLAS, Wallingford Ritzer G., (2001), Enchanting a disenchanted world. Revolutionizing the Means of Consumption, SAGE Publications Stasiak A. (2006), Muzea wobec wyzwań współczesnej turystyki, (in:) A. Toczewski (red.), Rola muzeów w turystyce i krajoznawstwie, Zielona Góra Stefanik M. (2012), Muzea i wystawy interaktywne w Polsce współczesna atrakcja turystyczna, AWF Poznań Stefanik M., Kamel. M. (2013), Muzea i wystawy interaktywne w Polsce współczesna atrakcja turystyczna, Turystyka kulturowa, nr 8, ss. 5-23
41 PART 1 - CULTURAL TOURISM 41 van Aalst I., (2012), From Museum to Mass Entertainment The Evolution of the Role of Museums in Cities, Utrecht University Acts: Ustawa z dnia 21 listopada 1996 r. o muzeach, Dz. U. z 1997 r. nr 5, poz. 24, z późn. zm. ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
42 PART 1 - CULTURAL TOURISM 42 EDUCATIONAL TRAIL AS A FORM OF POPULARIZATION OF CULTURAL HERITAGE OF THE OLD TOWN AND THE NEW TOWN IN ŁÓDŹ Magdalena Zdyb University of Lodz, Poland ABSTRACT Łódź is a city with a rich history, a city which from a small village transformed into a thriving industrial centre. Łódź developed at a dizzying pace, none of the European cities achieved so much in such a short time. Without a doubt, this phenomenon has an important place in the city s heritage. After being granted the municipal rights, the settlement for a long time remained an agricultural town whose life concentrated around today s Old Town. It only flourished in the first decade of the 19 th century, when it was decided to delimit a new square (now Liberty Square), and with the rise of the New Town. An educational trail can constitute an interesting form of popularization of cultural heritage of The Old Town and The New Town in Łodź. Locally, one learns the crucial elements of architecture and interesting, historically important places, which has an influence on the possibility of deepening one s regional knowledge. By means of the educational trail one can become acquainted with the basic terminology, discover the relations and links between the occurring phenomena, and get to know the typical features of the area which is explored. The primary task is to observe various elements of the environment. Consequently, the field being analyzed should serve as a starting point for learning about the development of Łódź. Keywords: educational trail, cultural heritage, The Old Town in Łódź, The New Town in Łódź
43 PART 1 - CULTURAL TOURISM 43 INTRODUCTION Educational Trails as a Type of Field Studies Educational trails become more and more popular type of the classes whose purpose is to integrate the didactic and pedagogical questions into school work. The classes conducted with the usage of educational trail enables one to take advantage of more techniques and study aids, which is also related to the possible choice of school curriculum (Wójtowicz B. 2008). An educational trail is a trail that consists of particular sites, described as stations or spots. Usually they are marked with so-called information boards. A description of a particular educational trail is also available in the form of various folders which one can get in tourist information offices, municipal offices, and educational departments (Angiel J. 2008). The scope of this work is restricted to the presentation of The Old and The New Town in Łódź. This area, with its history and cultural heritage, can surely constitute the basis for a new educational trail. Such a research, based on the background geographical information and the historical framework, enables one to fully understand the past of the analyzed region. The aim of this work is to show the region as a space which can be used as a basis for a new educational trail, popularizing the cultural heritage and the history of the city. The chosen area is directly connected with the development of Łódź (The Old Town rural Łódź, The New Town the development of industrial Łódź) and might become a starting point for further discussions about the city s past. The scope of this study encompasses the presentation of the Old and the New Town in Łódź. This area, in view of its history and cultural heritage, may contribute to a broader discussion on the city s past. The objective of this study is to propose an educational trail in the area directly related to the development of Łódź, the Old Town agricultural Łódź, the New Town - the development of industrial Łódź. One important objective is to familiarise participants with the city and its assets, and to create the conditions to change the perception of Łódź as a gray and unattractive city. The educational trail integrates interdisciplinary knowledge. Before choosing concrete sites, one should make themselves familiar with the entire territory. For this part a teacher is responsible. What the fundamental purpose should be is
44 PART 1 - CULTURAL TOURISM 44 to achieve a geodiversity. The elements of natural environment cannot be depicted without any reference to the elements of anthropogenic origins. Considering the landscape, one should give a special attention to the distinctive places which are significant in the context of a particular educational trail. A subject of educational trails embraces the fragments of space which consists of natural, social, and economical elements undergoing spatial and temporal changes. The choice of subject is strictly related to the necessity of responding to the needs and expectations of both students and teachers, and pointing out the basic criteria that would be helpful during the creation of particular elements of an educational trail (Cichoń M. 2009). Transmitted information is connected with the concrete type of an educational trail. There is a possibility of combining the contents depending on one s needs and willingness to convey various aspects of knowledge. A trail s name refers to the dominant questions. It results from the creative thinking of a trails author. An appropriate choice of territory on which an educational trail will be developed is a very important matter. In case of a trail in the city space, it is advisable to include the elements referring to the reading of the city. Acquiring this skill, students learn the cityscape, spatial settings, and places which are historically or culturally valuable (Angiel J. 2008). An idea of educational trail can be put into action in the form of a few hour long classes during which a student becomes acquainted with the basic terminology, discovers the relations and links between particular phenomena, and gets to know the typical features of a given region. The primary task is to observe various elements of the environment. The influence on the attitudes of students who, during learning, gain experiences that form their skills is a matter of great importance (Augustyniak M. 2008). The Historical Framework The Old and The New Town in Łódź The presentation of the historic nature of the Old Town and the New Town aims to clarify the development of Łódź and to show the city s specificity. Coupled with the projected educational trail it will help make the picture of the changes in the urban space. The trail cannot be viewed in isolation from the history of the area. Popularisation of the cultural heritage should be parallel to the historical background. Educational trails enable active sightseeing by tourists and residents alike. They build a sense of regional identity,
45 PART 1 - CULTURAL TOURISM 45 enable active sightseeing by both locals and tourists. They facilitate regional education in schools. The Old Town The first written mentions of Łódź come from the 14 th century. At the time it was a small settlement of agricultural character, whose morphological system did not differ from other towns established at the time. The main square, lozenge-shaped and located in the central part of the Old Town, had a surface area of about 105m x 85m. What was primarily developed was the area located in the northwest part of the region. The streets were not cobbled, and the domesticated area covered about 0,2 km2 (Baranowski B., Fijałek J. 1980). The oldest buildings were concentrated around the squares, The Old Square and Kościelny Square, and the block between them. Podrzeczna Street was formerly known as Nad Rzeką or Nadrzeczna Street. Drewna or Drewnowska Street was probably named after the family of Drewnowie or Drewnowiczowie. Wójtowska Street was also called Dworska, Starowiejska, or Ostojska Street it was the result of the fact that a few houses were occupied by the townsmen called Ostojowie (it is Wolborska Street at present). The street showed a southeast direction and it ran to Wójtostwo, the residential estates built in the vicinity of Stara Wieś, and the village itself. It led around the pond located between Stara Wieś and a dyke, and that is why in the 18 th century it was being called Nadstawna Street. The region separating Kościelny Square from The Old Square probably began to be developed in the 16th century, as the information about Kościelna Street dates back to that period. Apart from the town hall, which has been built in this street in 1585, there were also a church, a presbytery, and a cemetery. Due to the fact that Kościelna Street led to the school in the curate s flat, it was also called Szkolna Street. The barns were located in the western part of the city, outside the sprawl in order to prevent a fire. One could get there going down Stodolniana Street (Baranowski B., Fijałek J. 1980). In 1809 the first synagogue was built in Łódź. It was located on Dworska Street (Wolborska Street at present). The wooden structure of the synagogue was covered with shingles.
46 PART 1 - CULTURAL TOURISM 46 At the end of 1820, probably nearby Kościelny Square, a town hall and a shack were built. Later on, the magistracy s offices, police custody, and some housing facilities belonging to a burgomaster were placed there. The route from Łęczyca to Piotrków was conducted in the city in such a way that it could go straight on from a dyke and the bridge on the Łódka river to the bridge on the Jasień river, near which a tavern in the Wólka village was placed. The process of building the route lasted from 1818 to The decision to conduct the route in such a way resulted in the necessity of changing the location of some buildings situated within the western frontage of the square and removing some buildings situated in the urban area between the squares. In 1832, as a result of a decision made by Rejmund Rembieliński (more comprehensive information about it can be found in the section about The New Town) both The Old Square and Kościelny Square got more regular shape. The regulations also concerned the streets. In effect, Brzezińka Street was set (Wojska Polskiego Street at present), Kościelna Street was straightened, Wolborska Street was widened and flattened, and Drewnowska Street was lengthened. The fragment of the route, leading from Kościelny Square to the very border of Łódź, was called Nowa Street, which next was changed into Zgierska Street. The street ended up with Cygańska Street which was eventually removed. All the efforts aiming at the regulation of the old town region did not have any significant influence on the medieval urban setting (Illustrated Encyclopaedia of the History of Łódź... Volume 3). The area of The Old Town was mainly occupied by the people of Jewish origin. In 1825, within the southern frontages of Wolborska and Podrzeczna Street, and The Old Square, the beat for the adherents of Judaism was set (Kulesza M., Rykała A. 2006). A decree according to which the Jewish beat was set in this place was delivered by Józef Zajączek the steward of Congress Kingdom of Poland. It came into practice on 1 July From then on all the people of Jewish origin had to live in the determined area. The Jewish beat was abolished in 1962 (Podolska J. 2009). At the beginning of 1940 the edict concerning the creation of ghetto was released. The ghetto covered the surface area of 4,13 km2, and after 30 June 1942 it was reduced by 0,31 km2 (Kulesza M., Rykała A [after:] ed. Fijałek J., Galiński A. 1988).
47 PART 1 - CULTURAL TOURISM 47 Yet in the first months of occupation, the racial harassment of Jewish people began. The Jews were seen by the German authorities as a problem which should be removed (Baranowski J. 1999). From 30 April 1940 the ghetto was a peculiar closed area. Along the main arteries the barbed wire fences appeared. Due to the fact that the main streets (Nowomiejska, Zgierska, and Limanowskiego Street) were excepted from its area, the ghetto was divided into three parts (Baranowski J. 1999). The conditions in the ghetto were difficult. The people living there were being deprived of their dignity, exploited as a workforce, and blackmailed. They were ensnared. At first, the ghetto aimed at plundering more valuable possessions belonging to the people. Under the pretext of searching for weapons, the Jewish properties were being stolen. The jewelry, clothes, and radio sets were being bought in, but no due payments were made. The people were blackmailed with the possibility of cutting combat rations. Getting rid of furs, coats, and other warm clothes, together with undernourishment, resulted in the increase of a prevalence rate, and, consequently, a number of deaths. The people were receiving special ration cards which enabled them to buy bread and some other products. In the streets of the ghetto many people were dying of starvation; death was becoming more and more common. A daily food ration was scrupulously defined. At first, in 1940, it amounted to 1800 kcal, and two years later it was about 600 kcal. The people were extremely malnourished (Baranowski J. 1999). On 10 May 1940 an ordinance permitting shooting on sight at the Jews who try to escape from the ghetto was passed. It allowed for the unjustified use of weapon against the people moving around the border. Also, there was so-called human hunting. The Jews were obliged to obliterate their windows. This fact became a new pretext for shooting at people, this time through the window panes. It was considered justified, with an explanation that people do not adhere to the regulation and let the light in. According to the documents, there were both people who got injured and who were fatally shot (Baranowski J. 1999).
48 PART 1 - CULTURAL TOURISM 48 Table 1: Number of people who got shot in Litzmannstadt Getto Year Number of people who were fatally shot Source: Own elaboration based on: Baranowski J. (1999) Referring to the executive board and administration of the ghetto, the following names should be mentioned: Hans Biebow and Chaim Mordechaj Rumkowski. Owing to Hans Biebow, Litzmannstadt Getto became financially self-sufficient. The people living in the ghetto were being ruthlessly exploited as a workforce. The Jews were being employed in the departments working on the production of the products of different kinds. The product orders came both from the authorities (over 90%) and private trader and merchant houses. As a qualified merchant, he was dispensing the confiscated Jewish properties. Precious things very often went for nothing. Striving for a prized position, he used to give offerings to the figures that were considered important. He was a front man of the executive board of the ghetto, which, due to his efforts, was getting more and more numerous. At first, in May 1940, it amounted to 24 employed workers, and two years later there were already 216 of them. Chaim Mordechaj Rumkowski stood at the front of the Jewish administration. He was the warden of Jewish Seniority and his occupation consisted in mediating between the Jewish administration and German authorities. He was responsible for the economic and administrative activity of the ghetto. He had the right to speak on the police and juridical matters. On his initiative, many offices, work departments, and other institutions were created. He directed so-called Centrala, Central Secretariat located at Bałucki Market. It was supervising, among others, Presidium Department, which was also called Presidium Secretariat. At first its legal address was Kościelny Square 4, and later on it changed into Dworska Street 1. He was dealing with reporting and notifying people of new circular letters and Rumkowski s decisions. The duties of Secretariat included giving out the passes, ration cards, and indentity cards (Baranowski J. 1999).
49 PART 1 - CULTURAL TOURISM 49 The ghetto possessed its own currency, Markquittungen, emitted by Bank Emisyjny established on 26 June This money was commonly known as rumki, it had the value only in the territory of the ghetto, and since the beginning of July it became the only medium of exchange. Thereby, the authorities made a trade with people from outside the ghetto totally impossible (Baranowski J. 1999). Litzmannstadt Ghetto was the first ghetto in the occupied part of Poland. Its existence continued for the longest period of time, and it was abolished as the last one. The Jews of Polish, Czech, German, Austrian, and Luxembourgian origins were kept here. Considering its number, it was the second ghetto after the one located in Warsaw, and when it comes to the size, including the territories integrated into the German Reich, it was the biggest one (Kulesza M., Rykała A. 2006). The ghetto functioned until August 1944, holding about 72,000 people in that time. According to Szmuel Krakowski 5,000 7,000 of those people might have survived, however Arnold Mostowicz claims that there might have been about 12,000 15,000 survivors (Baranowski J. 1999). The population density in the ghetto was high. Two years after its founding, averagely there were 6-7 people in a room, the human population density increased to 42,587 per km2 (Kulesza M., Rykała A [after:] Prekierowa T. 1992). Photo 1. The border of the ghetto in the pavement Source: Zdyb M. 2014
50 PART 1 - CULTURAL TOURISM 50 In the south side of The Old Square Staromiejski Park emerged. Within its range there was a region formerly known for its pond and the mill called Grobelny. The pond gradually disappeared in the interwar period. This region, in the time of the Jewish beat, was full of the buildings. It was the center of Jewish social life (Kulesza M., Rykała A. 2006). Table 1 Buildings dating back to the time of the ghetto Street Brzezińska (Wojska Polskiego at present) Numbers of the remaining buildings 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 9, 10, 11, 13, 16, 17, 19, 24, 30, 40, 41, 42, 47, 48, 54, 56, 78, 82, 84, 88, 90 Jakuba 10 Kościelna 2, 3, 4, 6, 8 Kościelny Square 1, 4, 5, 6, 8, 10 Podrzeczna 14, 15, 17, 19, 21, 23, 27 Zgierska 3, 5, 7, 11, 14, 16, 17, 19, 21, 24, 26, 28, 30, 31, 32, 33, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 47, 51, 56, 63, 64, 68, 70, 74 Żydowska (Bojowników Getta Warszawskiego at present) 3 a, 14 Source: Kulesza M., Rykała A str [after:] Baranowski J A tram terminus which is located among Północna, Wschodnia, and Wolborska Street and contemporarily remains unused was built in It served both urban and suburban trams (Kulesza M., Rykała A. 2006). The increase of the awareness of the cultural and spiritual heritage left by our ancestors affects one s sense of responsibility for these values. It helps one to form a bond with the city and evokes the willingness to promote and be proud of the rich past created by the previous generations (Pawlak C. 2007). The New Town The first initiatives related to the idea of changing the town into the industrial center appeared among the residents of Łódź. The authorities were informed about those projects by the burgomaster, Szymon Szczawiński, already in The concrete decisions were
51 PART 1 - CULTURAL TOURISM 51 made only on 18 September 1820, after the visit of Rajmund Rembieliński (Illustrated Encyclopaedia of the History of Łódź... Volume 3). What was made as a result of this visit was the report informing about the factors which had a crucial influence on locating a textile industry in Łódź. These were for example: - Numerous governmental territories located outside the city. - Good hydrographical conditions, the occurrence of the rivers, the existence of mills and devices allowing for damming up the water. Consequently, there was a possibility of turning them into fulling mills, calenders, and devices for fabric dyeing. - Easy access to the building materials such as wood and brick. - Closeness to a newly built route. - The local populace among which there were also glassmakers, wool merchants, and other craftsmen. - The willingness to brighten these regions. (Illustrated Encyclopaedia of the History of Łódź... Volume 3). (...) I went to the city of Łódź, situated amid the forests on the route to Piotrków, like Zgierz, but by another river: due to this the place can partly become a parvenu. It was three years ago when the water in the local river swelled and completely destroyed the governmental mill, which was standing at the very edge of the city; a good fulling mill or a brickfield can therefore be built in this place, and the wood from the governmental coniferous forest can be given for free to the handicraftsmen (...) Rajmund Rembieliński wrote about the region contemporarily belonging to Łódź after his visit there (Illustrated Encyclopaedia of the History of Łódź... Volume 3 p. 70, Translation mine). The industrial development started due to the appropriate politics of some prominent figures, the following names should be mentioned: Duke Ksawery Drucki-Lubecki, who was a treasury minister; Stanisław Staszic, a minister of state in the Kingdom, and Rejmund Rembieliński, a chairman of Masovian Voivodeship Commission. The laws defined by the constitution binding on the territory of the Kingdom of Poland were effectively applied. Numerous privileges for he people coming here were introduced. The settlers were given land and materials needed for building and domesticating the ground. The abundant rivers became a driving force for industrial workshops. The settlers used to get long-term loans very easily. Considering the economical aspect, the existence of a route going from
52 PART 1 - CULTURAL TOURISM 52 Łęczyca to Piotrków was pretty meaningful. Owing to the route, the rural town quickly transformed into the dynamically functioning industrial center (Pawlak C. 2007). Some settlers from German-speaking countries were coming to the city. Their real asset was that they were unquestionably familiar with the secrets of textile craftsmanship, which for Poles and Jews was something to be learned. That is why they constituted the economically strongest nation. The intellectual and technical elite of the city consisted of Germans and Jews, and after November Insurrection and the January Uprising, the administration belonged to Russians. The proportion of Russian population was not high. Assuming the mantle of power, they had mainly an influence on the political matters, which remains still visible on the streets of Łódź, at least in the form of the lettering on the houses. The division of Łódź population placed the Poles at the lower spoke of a social ladder. Due to the contribution of so many various cultures, a simple rural village turned into the dynamically prospering industrial center (Pawlak C. 2007). The plans for a spatial land use were divided into two steps. The first one lasted from 1821 to 1823 and concerned the regulation of The Old Town and framing The New Town, the so-called wool merchants village. Next, in a cotton-linen village, Łódka, and four colonies were formed (Illustrated Encyclopaedia of the History of Łódź... Volume 3). An act related to the spatial development of the city was signed on 12 June It included the process of combining the public squares with gardens. During the realization of this plan two streets (Pomorska and Rewolucji 1905r. Street at present) were extended. With the increase of population, the city was spatially developing. Łódź, due to the politics of developing as an industrial center, and due to its unique character resulting from being a cultural melting pot, was attracting and effectively encouraging the newcomers to settle in. Rajmund Rembieliński had also an influence on delineatining the boundaries of the streets, which coincided with the routes leading to Zgierz, Piotrków, Lutomiersk, and Mileszki. The plans also included damming up the water and building a new fulling mill in the place of the former Grobelny mill (Ilustrowana Encyklopedia Historii Łodzi... Zeszyt 3). The first building in The New Town was a wooden public house with an inn. It was founded at the right corner of Nowomiejska Street, formerly Piotrkowska Street, by Jan
53 PART 1 - CULTURAL TOURISM 53 Adamowski in One could buy vodka, alcohol imported from abroad, and other colonial products. Table 2 The population of the city, Year The number of residents Source: Elaboration by Bandurka M. (1990) Akta Miasta Łodzi  . Przewodnik po zespole. Państwowe Wydawnictwo Naukowe. Warszawa- Łódź, p. 11. In 1827 at the market of The New Town a town hall was built. After the hasty building, it was opened on Midsummer Day. Unfortunately, the short time of building resulted in a bad quality, which was being improved by Trautman, a carpenter, and Sellin, a toolmaker. Already in 1830 a general renovation of the town hall was necessary (Illustrated Encyclopaedia of the History of Łódź... Volume 3) In 1829 at The New Town Market 2, Wolności Square 7 at present, the first open pharmacy in Łódź was opened. It found its place in the first townhouse located at the market. It was a one-story building made of brick, Antoni Bittdorf s place of residence. Karol Ketschon was its owner. When he died in 1830, his wife, Julia Ketschon, put the pharmacy out to lease, and next, in 1830, it was bought by Stanisław Kamiński. 10 years later it was taken over by Bogumił Zimmerman, who built a single-story building at The New Town Market 7, Wolności Square 2 at present, and delocalized the pharmacy to the vicinity of the town hall. At the turn of the decades 1830s/40s the first public wells, in the form of pumps equipped with wooden buckets, were built in Łódź. They appeared at the squares of The Old and The New Town. There is still one of them at Wolności Square. The first mention of cake shops in Łódź comes from One of them was situated at New Town Market 2, Wolności Square 7 at present, and the second one in Piotrkowska Street 5. One year later, a new one was built at New Town Market 4, Wolności Sqaure 5 at
54 PART 1 - CULTURAL TOURISM 54 present. None of them functioned too long (Illustrated Encyclopaedia of the History of Łódź... Volume 4). With the quick development of the city, there was a need for the development of education. The residents wanted to open a Realschule. It was founded in 1845 in the purposely rented house of Jakub Peters. In the four classroom school, so-called German- Russian, nine tutors were teaching 160 pupils, all of them being boys (Illustrated Encyclopaedia of the History of Łódź... Volume 5). Considering the economy of Łódź, the fairs which took place there were significant. In there were 12 fairs per year, and from 1850s to the end of the 19th century there were 6 fairs per year. The trade flourished also at the markets, both at the market of The Old and The New Town, every Sunday and on holy days. Products such as hay, straw, grain, groceries, everyday objects, and household goods were put on the tables and stands of different kinds. The Old Town Market and Nowomiejska Street was the center of the trade. In 1840s there were 40 shops in which one could get textile, iron, and glass commodities, dyestuff, roots, candles, soap, herrings, salt, food, home and foreign liquors (Illustrated Encyclopaedia of the History of Łódź... Volume 5 p. 138, Translation mine). It happened sometimes that a passageway was stocked with clay pots (Illustrated Encyclopaedia of the History of Łódź... Volume 5). The public housing in Łódź was developing rapidly. In 1793 there were about 50 wooden buildings in the city, and in 1810 the number increased doubly to about 110. Perhaps those were one-story houses, usually covered with straw. The only building that remembers those times is historic St. Joseph's Church in Ogrodowa Street (Illustrated Encyclopaedia of the History of Łódź... Volume 3). Until the 19th century, the streets were not paved in Łódź. This task was undertaken only in 1830s, when the short fragments of Piotrkowska and Nowomiejska Street were covered with cobblestone. The Old and The New Town Market were cobbled in 1840s. What became paved were mostly well-travelled places. To achieve so, the local materials were used, namely sand and fieldstone (Illustrated Encyclopaedia of the History of Łódź... Volume 4).
55 PART 1 - CULTURAL TOURISM 55 EDUCATIONAL TRAIL PROPOSAL SIGHTS SELECTION The following is a description of selected sights. The Old Town Sight 1. Church of St Joseph the Bethroted The church of St Joseph the Bethroted is a temple that has been moved from the present-day Church Square. It was disassembled and relocated in the years The building was perched on a foundation of brick and timbered inside and outside, i.e. its walls were cladded with planks by way of reinforcement. The roof was covered with roofing paper. The church, formerly dedicated to the Assumption of the Blessed Virgin Mary, became a branch of the church in Zgierska Street. Since 1910 it has been a parish church. Originally, the temple was located on the watershed separating the valleys of the River Ostroga (current name: the Łódka) and the River Bałutka. Within the church site also coincided important communication, trade, and war routes. The temple had a fairly sizeable courtyard near which was the presbytery and a small building of the parish school. The building was three times larger than the previous mass of the church. The roof was covered with shingles. The interior and walls of the church were whitewashed. Built in the years , until 1888 it remained the only parish church in the city. The construction costs were covered by the bishop of Kujawy, Antoni Kazimierz Ostrowski. In the 17 th century it gave room to the picture of Our Lady of Łódź, modelled on the image of Our Lady of Ostra Brama in Vilnius. Currently it is in the south chapel altar in relation to the presbytery in the red-brick church that stands in the Church Square, too (Pietrzak, M. 2000). The plot, which today encompasses the park named after the patron saint of the parish, was purchased from the Evangelical community. In the central part situated was a figurine of St. Joseph (Grzegorczyk A. ed. Year of publication unknown). The building remembers the times when Łódź was an agricultural settlement. Originally it was located on the Parson s Hills, now the Church Square. At the time it was the parish church of the Assumption of the Blessed Virgin Mary. As the city developed and its population increased, a need arose to build a larger church. This one, despite its extension, was insufficient to accommodate the growing number of the faithful. The Catholic church was moved into the old cemetery in Ogrodowa Street which had been closed down since
56 PART 1 - CULTURAL TOURISM The early 20 th century was the time when the church was redeveloped. Inside it was divided into naves. Its external appearance has not changed (Stefański K. 2008). The church was built of larch wood. In those days it was a commonly used building material (Pietrzak M. 2000). Legend has it that the temple was moved by workers employed by Izrael Kalmanowicz Poznański s factory in just one day. Next to the church is a park with a statue of St Joseph (Grzegorczyk A. ed. Year of publication unknown). Sight 2. The Church Square The church now located in the Church Square is the third consecutive church built in this place. This is the oldest parish in Łódź, probably erected around The first two church buildings were wooden. One of them has already been presented - the church of St Joseph the Bethroted. The last one, built of red brick, stands in this place today. The architectural style in which it was built was the Neo-Gothic. Its characteristic features include, e.g. its soaring nature, soaring towers, arched window openings. The Church of the Assumption of the Blessed Virgin Mary was built of red brick. The church is located on a hill at 213 meters above sea level, so that it is visible from a distance. Currently, with the existing higher buildings, the hill is no longer so easily discernible. The areas near the church used to be called the Church Hills or Parson s Hills. It is believed that the first church was located slightly to the west of today's Church Square. Today these areas are crossed by the following streets: Drewnowska, Lutomierska and Zachodnia. Near the church was a Catholic cemetery. Its remnants include M. Wyszynski s headstone made of sandstone (Pietrzak M. 2000).
57 PART 1 - CULTURAL TOURISM 57 Photo 2. The Church of the Assumption of the Blessed Virgin Mary Source: Zdyb M Sight 3. The Church of the Assumption of the Blessed Virgin Mary The first church of the Assumption of the Blessed Virgin Mary may have been built in the late 1380s or shortly after Then the property in Łódź was placed under the
58 PART 1 - CULTURAL TOURISM 58 management of the Włocławek-based chapter. The latter was to fit out the church, as evidenced by a document dating from The church was built of larch wood on a trapezoid-shaped site. The temple in the Church Square was built in the second half of the 18 th century. At the time it was the site of the parish cemetery which adhered to the first church in this area. Within the cemetery also was a wooden bell tower with a hipped roof. The cemetery was closed down in 1821, when a new cemetery at today's 22 Ogrodowa Street was launched, which operated as a burial place until Presently, the Church Square has a stone church in neo-gothic style. Its construction took place between , the church was built thanks to the work and commitment of the people working in Poznański s factories. They built the church after a hard day s work, often at night. The wooden church was moved into the old cemetery - now at 22 Ogrodowa Street. The building was designed by Konstanty Wojciechowski. It is an example of the socalled Vistula Gothic. It is oriented and located on the plan of the Latin cross. On the outside the walls are strengthened with buttresses and recesses crowned with an openwork balustrade and spires. Facing Zgierska Street are three entrances, enriched with ogival portals. The windows are of stained glass. The church's interior is rich in numerous reliefs and paintings. The main altar presents the Assumption of the Blessed Virgin Mary, on its sides are the mysteries of the Holy Rosary. In the crypt of the church placed was the coffin of Stanisława Leszczyńska, who came from Łódź. Thanks to her, many children were saved from death in Auschwitz (Pietrzak, M. 2000). Sight 4. No. 4 Church Square The offices of the Population Registry Department were located at no. 4 Church Square (Population Registry, Registry Office, Statistics and Archives Division), and so was the Rabbinical College and the Ghetto Post. This is where the Chronicles of the Litzmannstadt Ghetto were written. Contacts with the world outside the ghetto were possible by sending legibly written cards in the German language. Their content could not relate to anything other than personal affairs. On a post office was established at no. 4/6 Church Square. Twenty-one days later, opened was its branch office at no. 1 Dworska Street, as well as a parcels division at the post office at no. 4/6 Church Square. It provided the opportunity, for
59 PART 1 - CULTURAL TOURISM 59 some time of course, to contact family members who lived outside the ghetto. At the same time numerous restrictions and censorship were in place, too. The post also had stamps which were used within the ghetto. The phone was available to the administration only for service purposes (Bonisławski R. 2009). Sight 5. No. 8 Kościelna Street. Rote Haus The so-called Red House at nos. 8 and 10 Kościelna Street, on the site of the parish, was the seat of the Kripo a criminal police station (Kriminalkommissariat Ghetto). This is where the people living in the ghetto were persecuted and tortured (Bonisławski R. 2009). The police was tasked to eliminate smuggling and illegal trade. Also, the police dealt with Jewish property, its tracing and confiscation. The Red House had no positive connotations, people feared tortures used on interviewees for the purpose of obtaining testimonies that were to the police s satisfaction. Many people lost their lives in the basement of the building, for others the interrogations ended with various disabilities. The ghetto was also policed by public order police (Schupo) which was headquartered in the building located at the intersection of Limanowskiego Street and Zgierska Street. The Schupo s task was to protect the borders of the ghetto. Police checkpoints were located 50 to 100 m. from one another. At the key spots additional checkpoints were located, where sentries, so-called Getto-Wache, stood watch. The police was tasked to keep the situation inside the ghetto stable. The key role in controlling the ghetto was played by the Gestapo. Starting from the end of 1941 the Gestapo implemented the Reich Security Main Office (RSHA) policy regarding the solution to the problem of the Jewish population (Baranowski J. 1999).
60 PART 1 - CULTURAL TOURISM 60 Photo 3. Rote Haus Source: Zdyb M Sight 6. The Old Town s Market Square The name of the city, Łódź, may come from the osier (Polish: łoza) which overgrew the banks of the river. The osier, today called the willow, had long slender branches which were named likewise and served for weaving boats. This version was presented in the article The rise of our Łódź by Andrzej Zanda, published in the periodical The Truth No. 17/1928. Some argue that the area of today s Łódź was visited by Włodzisław and the name of the city comes from his name. Initially it was called Włodzia, later in verbal communications the letter W disappeared and the ensuing name was Łodzia (Illustrated Encyclopaedia of the History of Łódź... Volume 1). The settlement of this name was granted municipal rights in 1423 by Władysław Jagiełło in the town of Przedbórz. This fact is commemorated by a marble plaque placed on the west wall of the Przedbórz town hall. The houses in the Old Town s Market Square were built in the mid-20 th century in neo- Renaissance style with characteristic arcades (Gałecki A. 2008).
61 PART 1 - CULTURAL TOURISM 61 One thing is certain, Łódź did not borrow its name from the River Łódka. The name of the river in its present form only emerged in the 19 th century. Previously, the river had been called the Ostroga and, as it flowed in the direction of Stara Wieś (Old Village), it had also been called Starowiejska (The Old Village River), or Stara (the Old River) (Illustrated Encyclopaedia of the History of Łódź... Volume 1). Photo 4. The Old Town s Market Square Source: Zdyb M Even though that small farming settlement was granted municipal rights, it did not transform into an industrial city right away. Life went on here as it had so far, with no major changes, apart from having the municipal rights. It only developed once the decision was taken to establish the New Town. The Old Town was mostly settled by Jewish population. In 1825 Józef Zajączek, governor of the Kingdom of Poland, signed a decree establishing the Jewish quarter. These people had to live within the designated area. As of 1 July, 1827, when the decree came into force, the Jews had to move to the Jewish quarter (Podolska J. 2009).
62 PART 1 - CULTURAL TOURISM 62 World War II materially imprinted itself in the history of the city. The city was seized by the Germans on At the same time enforced were the Nuremberg Laws of , which had previously taken effect on the Jewish population of German, Austrian, and Czech origins. Officially the Nuremberg Laws were introduced in the territories incorporated into the Reich as of , so they were legalised after the fact. However, what was done to the Jews, was not based on these laws. The civil authorities, the military and the police relied on secret directives and regulations of special and confidential nature. The Jewish residents of Łódź were restricted by a whole series of legal acts. All the orders or prohibitions, previously in force in other countries (Germany, Austria, Czech Republic), were much more stringent here. Also, new regulations were enacted. Originally the ghetto was 4, 13 km 2 in area. From the end of June, this area was reduced to 3, 82 km 2 (Baranowski J. 1999). In Łódź, the preparations to establish the ghetto started in October of A secret circular on the establishment of the ghetto, issued on 10 December, 1939 in the German language, provides that it was established provisionally. The policy of the Nazi authorities in respect of the Jewish population was clearly defined. On September 21 issued was a document constituting the basis for the establishment of the Jewish quarters. It defined two stages, namely the gathering of the Jews and their settlement within a pre-designated area, and then the final solution, i.e. the physical extermination of the Jewish population. In the territory of Łódź, despite the early preparations, the ghetto was established in February of Initially, the ghetto was not a closed district. People could move beyond the delineated area. It was closed completely on Starting from 1.05 the borders were closely guarded (Singer O. 2002). Excluded from the ghetto were major transport thoroughfares Nowomiejska Street - Zgierska Street, and Limanowskiego Street. As a result, the ghetto was divided into three parts. Initially, given that the population could move within the ghetto, at certain times the gates were opened. This proved to be impractical, because it hindered free traffic in those streets. In the summer months of 1940 wooden footbridges were built. One of them was over Zgierska Street, the second over Masarska Street, and the third one was located near Podrzeczna Street, Lutomierska Street, and Limanowskiego Street (Singer O. 2002).
63 PART 1 - CULTURAL TOURISM 63 One important figure in the ghetto was Chaim Mordechai Rumkowski, Chairman of the so-called Jewish self-government, the Judenrat. He was responsible for the organisation and daily life of the ghetto s inhabitants who were his subordinates. He had full control of the internal functioning of the ghetto, e.g. on his suggestions established were the various ministries, agencies, departments, i.e. all types of institutions. He held the authority of both the police and the judiciary. He could make arrests and issue judgements. Also, he was empowered to solemnise marriages. Ch. M. Rumkowski is undoubtedly quite a controversial figure. The idea of the value of work he propagated and the life for work agreement he concluded with the Germans, enabled 12 to 15 thousand Litzmannstadt Ghetto inhabitants to survive until the end of the war. On the other hand, in other accounts Rumkowski is defined as the person responsible for offering illusory hope of survival and for the harsh conditions prevailing in the ghetto, e.g. work up to 14 hours a day. Also, he failed to stop Jews being sent to death camps (Singer O.2002). Soon after their establishment their founders themselves referred to the ghettos as dying camps (Todeskiste). In the Warsaw ghetto, within only two years and seven months of its operation, over 100,000 people died of starvation and disease, which accounted for 27% of all its inhabitants, and in the Litzmannstadt ghetto in 4 years and 8 months died more than 45,000, i.e. over 24% of its overall population "(Singer O. 2002, p. 142/143). The authorities' actions were intended to lead to the exclusion of Jews from economic and social life. With the restricted access to cash and trade, commercial activities were eliminated. A ban on the purchase and sale of leather and textile products was enacted. Also, the Jewish community did not have full access to the funds deposited in banks or safes. Withdrawals over PLZ 500 from accounts were prohibited, and from saving accounts only PLZ 250 could be withdrawn (Baranowski J. 1999). Sight 7. The Old Town Park Park Śledzia (Herring Park) The Old Town Park is commonly called the Herring Park. This name probably comes from the fair that used to take place in this area and where herring was sold. It was a widely available product, as herring was very cheap. This district was the poorest area of the city. In the basements of the buildings people kept, e.g. barrels of herring.
64 PART 1 - CULTURAL TOURISM 64 Another story concerning the common name for the park refers to the alleged smell of the herring pickle in the air on the site after the demolition of the buildings located here. In the 19 th century this area was predominantly occupied by the Jewish population. Herrings, for being kosher, were a common element of the diet. This was linked to the culture and beliefs of the population. The park is delimited by the following streets (Olaczek R. ed. 2010): - in the south Ogrodowa Street and Północna Street, - in the north - Podrzeczna Street and Wolborska Street, - in the west Zachodnia Street, - in the east Franciszkańska Street On Łódź was liberated from the Nazi occupation. The Old Town area, which had previously featured residents tenements and houses, was turned into rubble. As regards the area of today s park, at the time it contained the remains of the buildings of the brothers Gehlig s brewery at the corner of Ogrodowa Street and Zachodnia Street. These buildings were not been completely destroyed by the Germans. Another remnant of the district once inhabited by the community were several buildings located along Wolborska Street. Preserved was the church in the Church Square, which was used as a warehouse (Olaczek R. ed. 2010). The Old Town Park was designed by Kazimierz Chrabelski and arranged between The ruins of old buildings were covered with new soil (Olaczek R. ed. 2010). The trees growing in the Old Town Park were planted at the turn of (Gałecki A. 2008). The park marks the division between the two oldest phases of Łódź s urban development, the Old Town and the New Town, highlights the panorama of the Old Town and Poznański s factory and palace, and at the same time it is a green belt link on the axis of the Łódka River valley (Olaczek R. ed [quote:] Olaczek R. 1980, p. 47 to 60). The Old Town Park was the first municipal park accessible to all residents. The idea of developing the park is associated with folk parks and the concept of their formation. The Park is an example of this type of park in its downtown variant. Never before had such a park been established. It complemented the empty urban space formed after the demolition of the old buildings, introducing cultural elements. It was intended to satisfy the needs of the community. Residents willingly supported its establishment (Olaczek R. ed. 2010).
65 PART 1 - CULTURAL TOURISM 65 Sight 8. Water reservoir on the River Łódka- the pond The water reservoir in the Old Town Park is a reminder of the pond that used to be here until World War I. It was a natural body of water located on the River Łódka (Gałecki A. 2008). Photo 5. Water reservoir on the River Łódka- the pond Source: Zdyb M By the dyke located was a mill owned by Bishop J. Gruszczyński. Probably, it was the oldest mill in Łódź. In the 18 th century it was called a Dyke Mill, earlier the locals had referred to it due to its location as suburban or near urban, or simply Łódź-based. The owner sold the mill to Paweł of Łódź in The miller also owned the meadows, farmland and garden (Baranowski, B., Fijałek J. 1980). Sight 9. Progressive Altshtot synagogue The progressive Altshtot synagogue was located in Wolborska Street. Despite the surrounding two or three floor buildings, the mass of the synagogue well demonstrated its superiority in relation to the nearby tenements. About 200 metres further to the southwest
66 PART 1 - CULTURAL TOURISM 66 relative to the synagogue was a marketplace that can be seen in the photographs from that period, which also had an impact on the favourable location and visibility of the building from a distance. Given its characteristic Moorish architectural style, it was well recognised outside the city limits (Stefański K., Szrajber R. 2009). Photo 6. The Altshtot synagogue Source: Stefański K., Szrajber R The Altshtot synagogue was built between 1881 and Four years later, redevelopment plans were proposed and the city authorities were requested for permission to renovate the building, which renovation was to cost 10 thousand roubles. The design was to be prepared by Adolf Zeligson. Very soon the visions involved broader changes and as a result in October of 1895 the new design came into light and the cost of the project was assessed at 60,506 roubles. In addition to the extension, the decorations were changed, both inside and outside the building. It was given its Moorish character. It is worth mentioning that not far from the municipal synagogue built was a building called the Small synagogue, home of study, or home of science. Its location is
67 PART 1 - CULTURAL TOURISM 67 evidenced by A. Zeligson s plans of Five years later, he included the renovation of this building in the planned projects. The building was located on a rectangular plan with elongated shape (Stefański K., Szrajber R. 2009). Sight 10. The Decalogue Monument The Decalogue Monument shows the figure of Moses with the Ten Commandments tablet. The monument was placed in the Old Town Park in Moses was situated on a granite pedestal with the height of 3.5 m, together with the sculpture the monument measures 7.5 m. The monument base contains an urn with Jerusalem soil. The sculpture is to prove continuous remembrance of the Jewish people who used to live here, it is intended as a token of respect (Podolska J. 2004). On the reverse side of the monument is a plaque with the following inscription: The Decalogue SCULPTURE BY GUSTAW ZEMŁA GIFTED TO THE CITY OF ŁÓDŹ BY THE KARTA DZIEJÓW, A FOUNDATION FOR COMMEMORATION OF THE PRESENCE OF JEWS IN THE POLISH HISTORY NOVEMBER 1995 The monument was unveiled on What we want to show is just the shreds, shards of the culture that have remained after one of the largest Jewish communities on Polish soil that Łódź once had - the above quote comes from a booklet published by the Łódź Association of Social Initiatives. The sculpture was created at the initiative of the Karta Dziejów Foundation which undertook to finance the design, sculpting, and delivery of the monument to the city. Łódź s authorities committed themselves to prepare the site where the Moses of Łódź was to stand. It is the work by Prof. Gustaw Zemła, who comes from Łódź. The bronze monument features a fourmetre tall figure of Moses. Since the Renaissance (the church of S. Petro in Vincoli in Rome - sculpture by Michelangelo) this is the only representation of the Prophet of the People of Israel set out in open air not in a church area (Jaworska- Maćkowiak C. 2000).
68 PART 1 - CULTURAL TOURISM 68 Photo 7. The Decalogue Monument Source: Zdyb M. 2014
69 PART 1 - CULTURAL TOURISM 69 THE NEW TOWN Sight 1. The New Town The decision to establish the New Town was taken after Raymond Rembieliński s visit to these areas. He assessed the area in terms of its assets conducive to industrial development. The construction works took place between New settlers were granted land and materials necessary for construction and development. They were offered easy-to-get long-term loans. The driving force of the industrial plants were the rivers abundant in water (Pawlak C. 2007). The New Town Market was laid out in the middle of the quadrangle limited by the streets whose names refer to the directions of the world: Północna (North), Południowa (South) (now 1905 Revolution Street), Zachodnia (West) and Wschodnia (East). Dzielna Street (now Narutowicza Street) was the southern limit of the newly formed district. (Illustrated Encyclopaedia of the History of Łódź... Volume 3). In 1838 the New Town Market saw the first butcher s and baker s shops. These were located in the corners of the square at Średnia Street, now Pomorska Street. In the northern corners there were 15 butcheries, while in the southern corner sites there were 15 bakeries. The shops were built of wood, partly of brick. In 1841 further shops were built in Nowomiejska Street, since the people who lived in the Old Town and the southern section of Piotrowska Street complained that they had to walk too far to buy bread or meat. Unfortunately, these shops were destroyed after World War II. The shops were designed by a famous architect Henryk Marconi. They were characterised by the presence of arcades and ornaments (Illustrated Encyclopaedia of the History of Łódź... Volume 4). Sight 2. The monument in the New Town Market In 1930 the central part of the Liberty Square was occupied by the statue of Tadeusz Kosciuszko. Following the relevant contest, the winning author was Mieczysław Lubelski. The sculpture s symbolism was to refer to the national patriotism. For this reason, during the Second World War, precisely on Poland s Independence Day - on November 11, it was demolished by the occupation authorities. It returned to its place in 1960.
70 PART 1 - CULTURAL TOURISM 70 Photo 8. The statue of Tadeusz Kosciuszko Source: Zdyb M The figure looks from the over 8m-tall pedestal, with a sword by his side, in the left hand holds the Połaniec Manifesto. Next to it is the armour. With his right hand Kościuszko touches a young oak tree, symbol of freedom. At the bottom of the pedestal of the monument placed are the plaques presenting selected scenes from the life of Tadeusz Kosciuszko: - Commander s Oath,
71 PART 1 - CULTURAL TOURISM 71 - Połaniec Manifesto, - Tadeusz Kościuszko and George Washington, - Tadeusz Kościuszko and Bartosz Głowacki (Podolska J. 2004). Sight 3. The Town Hall The Town Hall building is the seat of the municipal authorities. Initially, the Łódź town hall was in the Old Town Square. It was a wooden building, like the other buildings in the agricultural town. In the 19 th century the traditional location was changed to the area located in Kościelna Street stretching between the Old Town Square and the Church Square. Once the New Town had been established, it was decided to have a new stately town hall built. The two-storey building of brick was built on the plot located in the octagonal market during Piotrkowski Route. Piotrkowska Street was the main axis of the new fragment of the city (Stefański K. 2000). The tender for construction works was announced in May 1826, while the town hall, in all its glory, could be seen in June of the following year. The town hall was erected in a hurry, which resulted in many shortcomings and the ensuing repairs. These were done by carpenter Trautman and locksmith Sellin. Notwithstanding the repairs, already in 1830 the building required a complete renovation. The municipal offices of the city of Łódź took over the town hall building after its completion. The ground floor was occupied by the city s cashier s offices, archive, and police arrest. The basement was used as the city s first prison. The first floor was occupied by the mayor, his office and living spaces (Illustrated Encyclopaedia of the History of Łódź... Volume 3). On the town hall tower mounted was a clock, first ever in the city and donated by Frederick Schloese, an Ozorków-based industrialist. It was connected with the church bells (Podolska J. 2004). The said industrialist purchased the clock in Berlin in As there was no one who could mount and start the clock, it only found its destination (Stefański K. 2000). The Town Hall in its original form the building did not differ much from what it looks like today. One characteristic feature of the town hall s facade is symmetry. In the central part of the building visible are two Ionic columns embracing the main entrance to the building. The sides of the facade are added variety by rectangular-shaped windows located in semi-circular panels. The ground floor has a characteristic rustication. The attic window
72 PART 1 - CULTURAL TOURISM 72 with semi-circular shape has been closed in the central part of the attic. The building is crowned with a hipped-roofed tower. Photo 9. The Town Hall Source: Zdyb M Despite the not very high capital expenditures allocated for its construction, the Town Hall was elegant and stately. Its mass is characteristic of late classicism typical of the period of the Kingdom of Poland, with visible empire elements the Empire style. When the town hall building was commissioned for use, it was occupied by the then mayor Antoni Czarkowski. The first changes to the structure of the building were made in It was then that the side wing facing Piotrowska Street was added together with the gate that allows entry into the town hall s courtyard. This was done to the design of Jan Karol Mertsching- official architect of the Łęczyca District. Further changes took place in 1888, when the town hall s interior was redeveloped. The urban builder Hilary Majewski contributed to these changes. Changed was the hall decor and the city council s assembly room, both were given the neo-
73 PART 1 - CULTURAL TOURISM 73 Renaissance character. The interior was also enriched with a marble staircase. It was then that the side staircase was built by the courtyard, as well as a triangular-shaped connector between the body of the town hall and Leinweber s house located nearby. This image of the Łódź Town Hall is as we know it today (Stefański K. 2000). Sight 4. St Trinity Church The church, now dedicated to the Visitation of a Holy Spirit, was built between Originally a Lutheran church, it presented itself as a classicist- empire style building designed by Bonifacy Witkowski. Its appearance corresponded with the town hall standing on the opposite side. This church was demolished and in the years a new neobaroque building was built to the design by Otto Gehlig. It was modelled on Berlin's Protestant cathedral. The Lutheran church was built on the plan of the Greek cross. Since 1945, it has been a Roman Catholic church. It was blessed by Prelate Jan Zdziowski. The parish was erected by Bishop Michał Klepacz on 16 January (Budziarek M. 2005). Photo 10. St Trinity Church Source: Zdyb M. 2014
74 PART 1 - CULTURAL TOURISM 74 Sight 5. The building of the Archaeological and Ethnographic Museum. The building of what today is the Archaeological and Ethnographic Museum originally housed the German-Russian Realschule. It was the first school building in the new industrial settlement. The building housed a male school relocated from Warsaw. Technical education was provided on four levels. Later on, the building gave room to the Łódź Higher School of Crafts. Contrary to its name, the school did not offer higher education. The graduates boasted secondary education only. Photo 11. The Archaeological and Ethnographic Museum Source: Zdyb M In the period when Łódź was under German occupation, in 1915 the city authorities were moved from the town hall to the building of the Higher School of Crafts located at no. 14 New Market. However, the building was not suitable for the seat of the local government. In the years , already in independent Poland, the building was extended to the design by the city architect Wiesław Lisowski. Added was another floor above the central
75 PART 1 - CULTURAL TOURISM 75 part of the building, as well as two floors located above the side wings. As a result built was a three-storey building with a characteristic attic with the inscription: TOWN HALL. When the building was being refurbished the traces of the inscription were painted over. One can only see the place where the inscription used to be. The Archaeological and Ethnographic Museum took over the building in (Stefański K. 2000). The Role of Culturally Valuable Places in the Process of Raising One s Consciousness of the Region and Forming a Bond with It Fostering and forming the positive visions of our little motherland should motivate teachers and constitute an important element of family upbringing (Szkurłat E. 2004). A city such as Łódź would never have a soul. Any efforts aiming at making this place spirited or magic would misfire, because the contemporary culture is not able to generate any tradition. The only salvation of the city is its extreme reinvention 8 (Szkurłat E. 2004, p. 101, Translation mine). In order to prevent the statement above from finding its practical confirmation in the consciousness of young people, one should try, by following the tracks of old Łódź for example, spread the idea of the city which is culturally and traditionally rich. Through the prism of The Old and The New Town one can smoothly go on to the notion of the development of the city. Referring to the factor having an influence on the bonds with the particular elements of space, it can be said that, in the process of education, the role of school and properly chosen curriculum is significant. From the educational and pedagogical factors, the role of family and the media should be definitely highlighted. The existing level of knowledge about one s place of living is not meaningless. The acquired information about one s own city has an important influence on the sense of belonging to one s place of living. Both the historical and geographical knowledge and being acquainted with the places symbolically important for the residents are the basis for the awakening of the socio-cultural identity. The reliability of this knowledge is an important element affecting the attitude toward and opinion about the given region. What also has an influence on forming a bond with the place is the 8 The statement made by one of the students taking part in the research whose results were published in the following book Szkurłat E. (2004) Więzi terytorialne młodzieży z miastem. Uwarunkowania. Przemiany. Łódź, Wyd. UŁ
76 PART 1 - CULTURAL TOURISM 76 patriotic education in peacetime. In schools the local and regional education is being provided, offering not only educational programs, but also field studies. A proper preparation and consciousness of teachers is really substantial (Szkurłat E. 2004). The education connected with the cultural heritage is an indispensable aspect of a young generation s upbringing. Culture, as an intergenerational transmission of values, ideals, and models of social behavior, having its resemblance also in material objects, should be the basis for education (Pola- Dymek A. 2001, p. 17, Translation mine). Teachers, participating in the process of upbringing their students, have to pass the proper values and shape the identity of the young generation. The expected results can be achieved only though pointing out the proper models of behavior, taken from the world of values i which they have been formed. It needs to be highlighted that the cultural heritage enables one to adopt the mentality of a given community. Taking under consideration the ethical and cultural aspects of a particular environment, one should take an advantage of these models of behavior during the realization of educational trails promoting the cultural heritage of the region. Paying special attention to the local tradition and bounds with the place of ubringing, one can refer to the sense of national belonging (The Ministry of National Education about the regional education and the cultural heritage of a region, 2000). CONCLUSION The popularization of cultural heritage can take place through establishing educational trails embracing the chosen places in the city space. Choosing the spots which indicate the longer trail equipped with information boards, folders, archival materials, and other means which support getting to know the city in a direct way helps one picture the world which is gone. What is more, it enables the comparison between the present and the past. The trail can be used not only in a school education. It makes the acquaintanceship with the city possible for a wide range of recipients. Establishing educational trails allows for the more comprehensive depiction of both the past and all the changes in the socio-cultural sphere throughout the time. Educational trails can take up the great variety of questions, which might result in the conscious perception of the cityscape. Combining knowledge from many different fields of study one can form a holistic image of a given fragment of reality. The distances are also meaningful. Crossing the way should not take more than two hours. After this time participants may get bored or tired. What seems important is the diversified
77 PART 1 - CULTURAL TOURISM 77 difficulty of information. Taking the age of participants under consideration, the difficulty should be adjusted to various age groups so that both the young and the old may have an opportunity to fully enjoy the new region. It is advisable to equip a trail with the folders and publications related to the details of the trail, such as the course itself, its length, and its main spots with their descriptions. Thus, the participants, before starting off, can choose which elements are the most interesting to them. The territory of The Old Town and The New Town in Łódź is a convenient space for the creation of educational trails. Although there is not much left of the former character of this place, by means of the properly chosen materials one can learn the past and the historical development of the city, from the rural village to the great industrial phenomenon. One can follow the paths trod by the erstwhile inhabitants and imaginably move to theirs reality, so different from what The Old and The New Town represent nowadays. These areas used to pulsate with life; they encouraged trade, everyday prayers, and intense social life. That is precisely the place in which starting the journey to the better understanding of Łódź is definitely worth trying. REFERENCES Angiel J. (2008) Edukacja geograficzna poprzez czytanie i percepcję miasta. Miejskie ścieżki dydaktyczne [in:] red. Plit F. Geografia w szkole nr 4 lipiec/ sierpień 2008, 310 (LXI) Augustyniak M. (2008) Rola ścieżek dydaktycznych w integracji dziecka z ludźmi i światem przyrody [in:] red. Hibszer A. Polska dydaktyka geografii. Idee- tradycjewyzwania. Wydział Nauk o Ziemi Uniwersytetu Śląskiego. Sosnowiec Bandurka M. (1990) Akta Miasta Łodzi  . Przewodnik po zespole Państwowe Wydawnictwo Naukowe. Warszawa- Łódź Baranowski B., Fijałek J. (1980) Łódź. Dzieje miasta Państwowe Wydawnictwo Naukowe. Tom I do 1918 r. Warszawa Łódź Baranowski J. (1999) Łódzkie Getto Vademecum Archiwum Państwowe w Łodzi & Bilbo. Łódź Baranowski J. (2003) Łódzkie getto , Łódź: Archiwum Państwowe [in:] Fijałek J., Galiński A. red. (1988) Getto w Łodzi materiały z sesji naukowej, 9 VIII 1984 Łódź: OK. BZH.
78 PART 1 - CULTURAL TOURISM 78 Bonisławski R (2009) Szlak Litzmannstadt Ghetto [in:] Wędrownik Rok XLIII, I (399) Kwartalnik Krajoznawczy RPK PTTK w Łodzi Budziarek M. (2005) Świątynie Łodzi Wyd. Piątek Trzynastego. Łódź Cichoń M. (2009) Ocena i wybór terenu w projektowaniu geograficznych ścieżek dydaktycznych- na przykładzie Zbiornika Gosławice (Pojezierze Gnieźnieńskie) [in:] red. F. Plit Geografia w szkole nr 1 styczeń/luty (LXII) Fijałek J., Galiński A. red. (1988) Getto w Łodzi materiały z sesji naukowej, 9 VIII Łódź: OK. BZH Gałecki A. (2008) Staromiejski spacer [in:] Wędrownik Rok LII, I (395) Kwartalnik Krajoznawczy RPK PTTK w Łodzi Ginsbert A. (1962) Łódź. Studium monograficzne Wydawnictwo Łódzkie, Łódź Grzegorczyk A. red. (Year of publication unknown) Skarby Łodzi. Szlakiem tradycji i kultury miasta Urząd Miasta Łodzi. Biuro Analiz Medialnych i Wydawnictw UMŁ. Łódź Ilustrowana Encyklopedia Historii Łodzi. Suplement historyczny miesięcznika Piotrkowska 104 Zeszyt 1 (Illustrated Encyclopaedia of the History of Łódź... Volume 1) Ilustrowana Encyklopedia Historii Łodzi. Suplement historyczny miesięcznika Piotrkowska 104 Zeszyt 3 Ilustrowana Encyklopedia Historii Łodzi. Suplement historyczny miesięcznika Piotrkowska 104 Zeszyt 5 Ilustrowana Encyklopedia Historii Łodzi. Suplement historyczny miesięcznika Piotrkowska 104 Zeszyt 4 Jaworska- Maćkowiak C. (2000) Łódzki Mojżesz - pomnikiem Dekalogu [in:] Wędrownik Rok XLIV, II (364) Kwartalnik Krajoznawczy RPK PTTK w Łodzi Kulesza M., Rykała A. (2006) Zmiany użytkowania przestrzeni Starego Miasta w Łodzi w ostatnich dziesięcioleciach XX w. na przykładzie obszaru dawnego Getta Żydowskiego [in:] red. Marszał T. Łódź. Wybrane zagadnienia zagospodarowania przestrzennego Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Łódzkiego. Łódź Ministerstwo Edukacji Narodowej- o edukacji regionalnej- dziedzictwie kulturowym w regionie (2000) Wyd. Biblioteczka reformy. Warszawa Olaczek R red. (2010) Parki i ogrody Łodzi. Ogrody nad Łódką Stowarzyszenie Film- Przyroda- Kultura. Łódź
79 PART 1 - CULTURAL TOURISM 79 Olaczek R Zieleń miejska składnikiem dziedzictwa kulturowego Łodzi Przegląd Ekon.- Społ. M. Łodzi, 6 (1979) Pawlak C. (2007) Fenomen historii Łodzi wobec zadań edukacji regionalnej [in:] red Muras B. Łódź nasza mała ojczyzna (promocja Łodzi poprzez edukację regionalną, czyli diagnoza- problem i rozwiązania) Łódź Pietrzak M. (2000) Pierwsze świątynie dawnej Łodzi [in:] Wędrownik Rok XLIV, I (363) Kwartalnik Krajoznawczy RPK PTTK w Łodzi Podolska J. (2004) Złota Księga Łódź Wyd. Casa Editrice Bonechi- Galaktyka Podolska J. (2009) Spacerownik: Łódź żydowska Wyd. Agora. Łódź Pola- Dymek A. (2001) Kulturowe aspekty edukacji regionalnej [in:] red. Angiel J. Edukacja regionalna. Poradnik dla nauczycieli Centralny Ośrodek Doskonalenia Nauczycieli. Wydanie I. Warszawa Prekierowa T. (1992) Zarys dziejów Żydów w Polsce w latach Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Warszawskiego, Warszawa Singer O. (2002) Przemierzając szybkim krokiem getto... Reportaże i eseje z getta łódzkiego Wyd. Oficyna Bibliofilów. Łódź Stefański K. (1999) Bałuty, czyli klęska socrealizmu [in:] Tygiel Kultury, nr 4-6 Stefański K. (2000) Gmachy użyteczności publicznej dawnej Łodzi. Banki, hotele, szpitale, szkoły, teatry... Towarzystwo Opieki nad zabytkami w Łodzi. Wyd. ZORA. Łódź Stefański K. (2008) Atlas Architektury dawnej Łodzi do 1939 r. Archidiecezjalne Wydawnictwo Łódzkie, Łódź Stefański K., Szrajber R. (2009) Łódzkie synagogi : wirtualne dziedzictwo "zaginionej dzielnicy" Wyd. Księży Młyn. Łódź Szkurłat E. (2004) Więzi terytorialne młodzieży z miastem. Uwarunkowania. Przemiany. Łódź, Wyd. UŁ Wójtowicz B. (2008) Postawy i oczekiwania uczniów gimnazjum wobec realizacji ścieżek dydaktycznych. [in:] Hibszer A. red. Polska dydaktyka geografii. Idee- tradycjewyzwania. Wydział Nauk o Ziemi Uniwersytetu Śląskiego. Sosnowiec
80 PART 1 - CULTURAL TOURISM 80 BASQUE FESTIVAL ASTE NAGUSIA AS AN INTERESTING EXAMPLE OF CULTURAL AND SPORT TOURISM ATTRACTION Bartosz Prabucki 9 University School of Physical Education, Poznań, Poland ABSTRACT The aim of this paper is to indicate how a festival of Basque culture Aste Nagusia can be viewed as a living example of attraction of cultural and sport tourism two domains of tourism that are becoming more and more important nowadays. To answer this question, the author conducted research by actively participating in this festival in He used the method of active observation and asked local people about the event. He took part in Basque sport pelota which is an inseparable part of this fiesta. The author states that this festival helps the Basques to promote their culture and to commoditize it by selling culturerelated goods in stores. The existence of Basque traditional sports during this event and the possibility of actively participating in them additionally helps to promote Basque culture. This kind of festival can be viewed both as an example of cultural and sport tourism attraction. Keywords: cultural festival, traditional sports, cultural tourism, sport tourism. 9 Corresponding Author:
81 PART 1 - CULTURAL TOURISM 81 INTRODUCTION Cultural tourism is becoming more and more popular in the contemporary world. As Karolina Buczkowska claims cultural tourism and other kinds of tourism with elements of culture in them, have been developing very intensively in the recent years, which has been proven by scientific and statistical research data (Buczkowska, 2011: 5). I think that this process is strongly associated with the more general changes that we have witnessed in the recent years. Nowadays culture, cultural identity and cultural heritage have become newly rediscovered values, actively promoted all over the world. The so-called post-modern world with the consequences of globalization has led to the increased need for rediscovering collective identification, maintaining and promoting collective identity and appreciating culture by people, including tourists (Castells, 1997). The need for travelling, meeting other people, getting to know better their way of lives and some attributes that construct their cultural identities dates back to the ancient times (Lipoński, 2012: 151-2). Nowadays, culture is frequently an inseparable part of many touristic travels. Tourism is solely created by culture, and culture, to a large extend, is created and shaped by and through tourism (Buczkowska, 2011: 8). Cultural tourism is difficult to define. For the purpose of this paper I can accept a valuable definition proposed by Greg Richards, who claims that cultural tourism covers not just the consumption of the cultural products of the past but also of contemporary culture or the way of life of a people or region. Cultural tourism can therefore be seen as covering both heritage tourism and arts tourism (Richards, 2001: 7). Moreover, cultural tourism can be divided into many forms, which can be seen as such due to the fact that the most important objective of travelling is one of the domains usually treated as cultural. Buczkowska distinguished many forms of cultural tourism, including, among others, culinary/food tourism, event, ethnic, museum and fan tourism (Buczkowska, 2011: 51-61). The latter, also called sport tourism, is a specific form of tourism. In my opinion, it can be viewed both as an interesting form of cultural tourism (sport is indeed an element of culture) as well as a valuable, independent form of tourism. Just as cultural tourism, sport tourism is difficult to define too. As Charles Piggeassou claims: sports tourism only takes certain aspects of sport: sportive or playful movements and cultural elements by replacing them out of a familiar context and thus creating a different context: that of travel (Piggeassou, 2008: 28). Its history traces back to the ancient
82 PART 1 - CULTURAL TOURISM 82 times when millions of tourists travelled to visit Olympic and other Greek Games sacred rituals with a huge significance to the ancient culture (Malchrowicz-Mośko, Buczkowska, 2013: 399). Nowadays, sport tourism is becoming more and more popular. In the contemporary world sport events, which are important destinations of such form of tourism, attract thousands of fans: In recent years we can see a growing interest of tourists in taking part in sport events (Malchrowicz-Mośko, Buczkowska, 2013: 397). This kind of tourists can be defined as sport tourists because the most important aim of their travels is participation in sport events as fans. Nevertheless, many sport events, especially those of huge popularity, have one common characteristic that is confining for fans: they are events in which only professional sportsmen can take part actively. For viewers, fans or supporters only passive participation is possible. This participation is of course usually full of emotions, feelings, unforgettable experiences etc. But it is still only passive. Many of these fans and viewers, I guess, would like to take part in some sports, trying to become players, at least for a while. Charles Piggeassou distinguished several forms of participation of sport tourists in sport events. They are the following: spectator (mainly observing the event), visitor (with more cognitive approach to sports culture), activist (who works for sporting activities) and finally actor (who take actively part in play). The last one is associated with the specific form of active sport tourism (Piggeassou, 2008: 29). This form of sport tourism seems to be especially interesting and valuable. Broadly speaking, it can be said that cultural tourism in general and sport tourism in particular are huge and constantly developing branches of tourism, having great cultural, economic and social influences on the contemporary world and contemporary tourists. CULTURAL EVENTS AS AN ELEMENT OF CULTURAL AND SPORT TOURISM There are plenty of very interesting cultural events all over the world. Karolina Buczkowska, after J. Jafari, listed two types of events which are particularly focused on culture: cultural celebrations, e.g. festivals, carnivals, religious ceremonies, parades, heritage commemoration etc. and art and environment: concerts and other performances, exhibits, award ceremonies (Buczkowska, 2011: 96). One of the most interesting of them is festival. According to this author festivals are events where there is particular concentration of activities over a short period of time (mainly during the weekend, but there are also oneweek or longer festivals) (Buczkowska, 2011: 96). Almost 20 years ago Greg Richards stated
83 PART 1 - CULTURAL TOURISM 83 that: festivals were not considered as tourist events until recently, but festivals are slowly turning into tourist products organized and sold to specific market segments (Richards, 1996: 117). Nowadays, they seem to be more and more popular. There are plenty of various festivals in many regions of the world. Krzysztof Sawala, Wojciech Krawczyk and Jacek Bednarski listed and described many festivals (and other cultural events) taking place in Europe. From great carnival and Regata Storica in Venetia, festival of Saint Patrick in Ireland, Oktoberfest in Munich, Grunwald battlefield festival in Poland to famous Highland Games and Gatherings in Scotland (and many others), there are plenty of such cultural events scattered throughout the Old Continent. The authors claim that they are all associated with the form of tourism which can be called ethnic tourism. Its popularity is constantly growing converting passive tourists into active travellers wishing not only to rest in some attractive places, but also to get to know with its history, traditions and customs (Sawala, Krawczyk, Bednarski, 2005: 9). When it comes to some of these events, they contain elements, being more or less important part of these festivals that are associated with sport. In Florence, for instance, there is a tournament of Calcio Storico a type of football derived from the times of Roman Empire; in Turkey there is a festival called Kirkpinar during which traditional Turkish wrestling is performed (Sawala, Krawczyk, Bednarski, 2005: 86-95). Highland Games and Gatherings is a Scottish festival at which traditional Scottish timber sports are the main attraction (Jarvie, 1994). Sport tourists have many opportunities to visit these places and realize their sport tourism. METHODOLOGICAL APPROACH The aim of this paper is to indicate how a festival Aste Nagusia in Basque Country can be viewed as a living attraction of cultural and sport tourism two domains of tourism that are becoming more and more important nowadays. To answer this question, I conducted research by actively participating in this festival from 19 to 25 of August I used scientific methods of ethnology (Willis, 2005: ): active observation and participation in the event, being the subject of study, and asking the local people about the meaning of this event in general and some elements, which are parts of it, in particular, including sports. I also took actively part in Basque sport la pelota vasca which is an inseparable part of this festival. Moreover, I visited other culture- and sport-
84 PART 1 - CULTURAL TOURISM 84 related places in Bilbao where Aste Nagusia took place to better understand the significance of Basque culture and their collective identity. The results of this research are described below. ASTE NAGUSIA: Great festival of Basque culture as an example of cultural tourism attraction Bilbao interesting city when the festival takes place Aste Nagusia (Eng. Great Week), one of the most interesting, in my opinion, cultural festival in Europe, takes place every year in Bilbao in Basque Country. In the past, Bilbao (the capital of Bizkaia one of the provinces of Basque Country) was almost unknown place. The city suffered an extremely high unemployment rate, up to 25 percent. ( ) Other troubles included violence from extremist Basque separatists, urban deterioration, pollution and a poor public transport system (Plaza, 2007: 2). The situation has changed when the authorities of the city decided to invest in building a famous Guggenheim Museum (based on the plans of well-known architect Frank Gehry). It was a risky investment but the result is promising. While the Guggenheim Museum in Bilbao was a costly venture, its return on investment (not including the value of the permanent art collection) was complete as early as seven years after opening (Plaza, 2007: 4). I visited this museum during my research in Bilbao. The entrance fee was 11 euro. In my opinion, it was worthy to spend this money. There were many attractions in this museum, including a room dedicated to Pablo Picasso works; some projects connected with modern arts, video clips, photography and many others. The external shape of this museum was astonishing too. Its location near the river was attractive. A huge figure of dog made of flowers was situated next to the museum. I think that this is one of the most attractive places to visit in Bilbao for cultural tourists. Nevertheless, Bilbao is full of other attractions making this city more and more attractive from cultural tourism perspective. That explains the so called Bilbao effect, described by some authors (Plaza, 2007; Rybczyński, 2002), relating mainly to Guggenheim Museum. This is definitely interesting for cultural tourists. But I think that one of the most interesting attractions for culture-oriented tourists in Bilbao is also a festival called Aste Nagusia.
85 PART 1 - CULTURAL TOURISM 85 Aste Nagusia from culture-oriented tourist perspective Aste Nagusia is celebrated every August in Bilbao. It is a really important event for the Basques. As one of the Basques, I spoke with, Josu Torre Altonaga said: during Aste Nagusia over one million people pass through Bilbao in 8 days, the majority of them come from Basque Country. For them this festival is very important. It is even a benchmark worldwide. At Aste Nagusia there are more than 200 concerts and cultural events celebrated, all of them are for free and it does not exist anything that can be compared to this fiesta in other cities. As I have already mentioned, I visited Bilbao in 2013 to actively participate in Aste Nagusia that took place from 17 to 25 of August this year. The atmosphere during this festival was outstanding. The entire city was totally crowded and full of tourists from all over the world. This festival was organized very well. Police was present, but the policemen were more for helping than for controlling or repressing anybody. I have to admit that I was surprised by a really peaceful atmosphere of this festival. Even at night, when I was walking through the city, full of different people, I didn t experience or even notice any incident connected with any forms of discrimination, abuse or aggression. After the event I could read in the newspaper El Correo (edited in Basque Country) that, although there were very few some people arrested for aggression, devastation etc., in general, the atmosphere during this festival was friendly. The author of the article on Aste Nagusia entitled it La Semana Tranquila (A Calm Week) (El Correo, 2013: 2). The tranquil celebration of the fiesta is important. But it is not enough to state that this festival can be viewed as an example of cultural event. The most decisive are cultural attractions that I met during Aste Nagusia. Below I described the selected examples of such attractions, making this festival an interesting cultural event. One of the most important aims of Aste Nagusia is to promote Basque culture and their collective identity. In consequence, some of the most important attractions during this festival were related to culture, being genuine examples of cultural tourism attractions. Aste Nagusia started with welcome of Marijaia the most important goddess in Basque mythology. As mayor of Bilbao Inaki Azkuna said: as usual in August, Marijaia comes back to Bilbao with her festive spirit, the very one we need today more than ever to face each and every difficulty that we are going through (Azkuna, 2013: 2). In 2013 this festival was especially important due to the economic crisis that touched every region of Spain, including
86 PART 1 - CULTURAL TOURISM 86 Basque Country. During the following days of this fiesta other important, from the cultural point of view, events took place. On Monday (19 of August) there was a great procession of so called Los Gigantes y Cabezudas (Giants and Big Heads). They are some kind of huge dolls, each symbolizing one of the Basque Country provinces. One of them, called el Pichichi and dressed in white and red colours, symbolize one of the most popular symbols of Basque identity football club Athletic Bilbao. The dolls, controlled by people being inside them, went through the city with the accompaniment of bagpipes, flautists and the crowd of enthusiasts (including me). Dolls were dancing and swirling around with music. At the end of the procession there was an opportunity to take a photo with them. It is important to add that the tradition of Los Gigantes y Cabezudas traces back to the medieval times and were associated with the activity of Christian church and religious feasts. Contemporary giants were fabricated in 1988 (Martinez Rivas, 2013). After the procession (performed every morning from la calle de la Cruz (Cross Street) situated in beautiful district of Bilbao, called Casco Viejo (Old City)), dolls were transported back to the Basque Museum (El Museo Vasco) another cultural attraction of Bilbao and Basque Country. As Greg Richards noticed, there has been a great boom of museums in the last 25 years, especially in Europe which produced an unprecedented increase in museum supply from an already high base (Richards, 1996: 15). I have already mentioned a famous Guggenheim Museum which is one of the most interesting cultural attractions in Bilbao. Another one is abovementioned Basque Museum. Obviously, these both museums are not a strictly festival attraction because they are open all year long. But during Aste Nagusia they were inscribed into cultural attractions of the festival being put into the official Programme of Aste Nagusia which I received at arrival from the owner of the guest house I checked in. This brochure was written in English and French and was especially dedicated to the tourists from abroad who visited this festival numerously in Returning to the Basque Museum there were many attractions for culture-oriented tourists there, including exhibitions which in general form the boundary between urban cultural leisure activities and cultural tourism, attracting local residents and foreign tourists alike (Bauer, 1996: 117). There were two main exhibitions there the exhibition of already mentioned giants and big heads and folk dances of Bizkaia. Moreover, the visitor could see many other elements of Basque traditional culture. I was a little bit surprised, to be honest, that I found only few
87 PART 1 - CULTURAL TOURISM 87 elements connected with Basque traditional sports. One of them was old balls to Basque national sport, la pelota vasca, which will be described later. Nevertheless, Basque Museum was one of the most interesting attractions of Bilbao and Aste Nagusia for culture-oriented tourists. Another interesting, cultural element of Aste Nagusia was a competition of so called Bertsolaris (Poetic Basque Singers). As one Basque, I spoke with, Josu Torre Altonaga said: There should be distinguished los Bertsolaris, who meet each other every day at la Plaza Santiago in front of 200 or 300 spectators. During 8 days of fiesta more than 2000 people go to see every day three or four improvisers ringside. Bertsolaris are singers who create improvised poems spontaneously in respond to text earlier sung by other singer. I think it can be compared to freestyle typical for hip-hop or rap. In general, Bertsolaris sing about very important things for Basque people, such as history, legends, mithology, but also contemporary issues, including politics and sport. There are also local competitions at which some singers compete with each other in the abovementioned matter (Garzia, 2007). I was a wittness of such competitions during Aste Nagusia. They were performed every day of the festival at 1 p.m. at La Plaza Santiago (Santiago square). Each time 2-4 Bertsolaris were involded. One of them started the competition with improvised phrases and second one spontanously responded to that. Many tourists were watching these performances regardless of the fact that they propably didn t understand nothing because this contest was perfomed in euskara (Basque, ethnic language), one of the most important elements of Basque identity. Neverthelles, this kind of Basque poetry was an interesting attraction for cultural tourists. Cultural tourism is par excellence connected with culture and cultural identity of local communities. In the contemporary world, where globalisation is considered as a threat for local cultures, their members try to maintain and actively promote their collective identities. To do that, they need some elements, markers, spaces, dimensions etc. One of them is still politics. Nowadays, the Basques have an autonomy which give them rather high level of freedom and self-governance. Nevertheless they still are not fully independent. When I am writing these words, the city of Bilbao is crowded by the protestants who demand to release Basque political prisoners the members of Basque organization called ETA (Eng. Basque Country and Freedom). Aste Nagusia, as a famous Basque festival, is a suitable place for political manifestations. I was a witness of such manifestation at one of the main squares in
88 PART 1 - CULTURAL TOURISM 88 Bilbao Arriaga Square. There was a crowd of people who hosted the Ikurrina Basque flag created by Sabino Arana, the founder of Basque nationalism (Mirgos, 2005: 176). Afterwards they marched through the city holding green flags with the inscription in Basque language Independentzia (Independency). It was a protest against Spanish government that still rules over Basque Country. It is important to consider whether this kind of political protest can be seen as a touristic, cultural attraction. For the Basques involded in it, it was definitely a serious manifestation against some kind of administrative and political repressions. I think that for tourists (including me, being at the same time a researcher and a cultural tourist) this can be viewed as a cultural element or even an attraction, since if cultural tourists seek for culture-related elements, this manifestation was something like that, because it was directly associated with Basque collective identity as a constitutive element of Basque culture. During Aste Nagusia, there were many other attractions (as the organizers claim over 300). It was a festival of culture, especially Basque s. But they were also many events the actors of which were people from other countries, nations and/or regions. I think that this is associated with more inclusive type of Basque idenity. In the past, Basque identity was more exclusive. The most important elements of the Basqueness were catholic religion and race (Beck, 2005: 127-8). Nowadays, in more inclusive, globalised world, in which cultural differences did not disappear and intercultural relations among people are commonplace, the situation with Basque identity seems to be different. One of the most important elements of Basque identity are language, culture and especially the subjective feeling of being Basque (Goiriena, 2008: 21). The Basques cooperate now more with other nations. The example is a cooperation with Catalans on the artistic basis (Linda, 2008). During Aste Nagusia there were many concerts, street theaters, gastronomic contests, dance and drums performances, musicians and many others from all over the world. The examples are artists from such countries as Australia, France, Belgium, Italy, Mexico and other regions of Spain (e.g. Catalonia, Andalusia, etc). This multicultural atmosphere of artists was obviously reinforced by the multicultural attendance of tourists from all over the world. For those who were truly interested in widely understood culture, it was a genuine, cultural festival. It is important to emphasize that cultural tourism, cultural identity and their promotion is frequently based on practical aims. Jean and John L. Comaroff in their valuable
89 PART 1 - CULTURAL TOURISM 89 book entitled Ethnicity, Inc described a phenomenon of creation, maintaining and promotion of identity for the particular reason. They claim that current identity, based on ethnicity, is often created for something and is treated as a product for sale (Comaroff, 2009). As far as the Basques are concerned, I have already mentioned the example of building a famous Guggenheim Museum to increase the popularity of the city and atrract tourists who, what is obvious, leave plenty of money in the places they visit. Aste Nagusia is also a festival that help the Basques not only to promote their culture, but also to earn some money thanks to selling culture-related goods in stores. This is a so called commodification of culture. This phenomenon is sometimes viewed as something wrong for cultural tourism only on the threat of giving the priority to economics over culture as the most important benefits from tourism. But whether it is always wrong? I think that in the case of the Basque culture and its promotion thanks to such festivals as Aste Nagusia, it depends not only on the Basques attitudes towards selling culture-related goods, but also on the attitudes of tourists who wish to buy these things. If the latter are only focused on chasing souvenirs, it can be harmful for their genuine experiencing of other cultures. But if they just want to buy something that reminds them later about the place they visited and attractions they saw, it can bring a mutual satisfaction for both sellers and buyers. During my personal visit in Bilbao at Aste Nagusia I visited many local shops. They were obviously full of culture-related souvenirs. T-shirts, mugs, lighters, scarfs, figures, jewellery, cups, blouses and many other things the majority of them with motifs of Basque national flag, festival Aste Nagusia, Basque football club Athletic Bilbao, Guggenheim Museum, Bilbao city etc. I personally bought a couple of things paying special attention to that they must have had some motif associated with Basque culture (e.g. t-shirt with Basque flag and Basque Country map, scarf with the signature Aste Nagusia Bilbo 2013 and other souvenirs for my family). I think that if the Basques earn some money from cultural tourism and I, as a cultural tourist, am satisfied both sides are the winners. I must admit that I would be even disappointed if I have not had found any shop with cultural souvenirs. Nevertheless, it is important to emphasize that it has to be only an additional attraction and not the main object of tourism. Otherwise, it will not be a cultural tourism.
90 PART 1 - CULTURAL TOURISM 90 ASTE NAGUSIA AS AN EXAMPLE OF SPORT TOURISM ATTRACTION As I have already mentioned, there were plenty of various cultural attractions at Aste Nagusia festival. One of them was sport. The Basques as a nation have preserved their local sports making them one of the most important elements of their collective identity (Prabucki, 2012). One of such Basque sport is la pelota vasca Basque pelota. It is impossible to describe this sport here in details. In general, it is quite similar to English squash the main aim is to hit the ball at the wall so as your opponent cannot hit it again. There are plenty of different types of pelota. The most popular are: la pelota a mano (played with bare hands), pala (wooden rackets are used to play) or jai alai (with special racket called chistera, widely popularised in South America) and others (Lipoński, 2008: ). In Basque Country pelota is still considered as national, traditional sport. Each Basque I spoke with, even if he or she wasn t interested in sport at all, knew what is pelota. During Aste Nagusia pelota is an inseparable part of this festival. From second to the last day of this festival there is a tournament of this sport called Pelota Tournament Aste Nagusia. The matches are played at a special type of court called fronton. In 2013 this tournament took place at La Fronton de Esperanza in Bilbao. I visited it to see how important it is for the Basques. The players who took part in the matches were professional but the tournament, as Basque journalist Juan Luis Ibarretxe Marcos told me, was friendly and unofficial. The stands were crowded. I was a little bit late for the first time and I was forced to stand in the crowd instead of sitting. People were really focused on the game. They commented, cheered and were engaged in the process of play. They were mostly older men, but there were also many women, youngsters and even children. I asked one of the spectators in Spanish why does pelota is interesting for him. He answered: this is a part of our own culture. I have been interested in it since my childhood. I was playing pelota and treating it as a part of my life. This is a cultural root. I also asked the abovementioned Basque journalist Juan Luis Ibarretxe Marcos about the significance of this tournament. He admitted that regarding to sports, there is a pelota mano (hand-ball) tournament, but it is not official, and in summertime, the tournaments of Logroño, Vitoria and Pamplona are more important. That is true. As I have already mentioned, professional players took part in this sport event, but this tournament is of a friendly character. Moreover, as this journalist also claims, the existence of pelota at Aste Nagusia is not the most important part of this fiesta. Nevertheless, for cultural tourists in general and sport tourists in particular pelota
91 PART 1 - CULTURAL TOURISM 91 tournament at Aste Nagusia is something really valuable to see. It is an interesting, very dynamic sport discipline with a great cultural significance for the Basques (Prabucki, 2012). What is really important for culture- and sport-oriented tourists is the possibility of taking actively part in some sport disciplines. As far as pelota is concerned, there was a great opportunity to do so, being a Pigeassou s actor of sport tourism, thanks to the workshops on pelota game organised almost every day at aforementioned La Fronton de Esperanza. I took actively part in them. At fronton there were several instructors associated with pelota (professional and amateur players) who were showing how to play different types of pelota. One of the most interesting things for me was trying to throw the ball using a special kind of racket used to one of the types of pelota called chistera (a curved basket-shaped racket with a hole in which the ball is caught and thrown). You have to have a really flexible wrist to throw the ball from chistera in the right way. When the instructors noticed that I was really interested in this game, one of them offered me a friendly match between him and me in one of the most demanding types of pelota aforementioned pelota a mano, played with bare hands. It is important to point out, as a Basque Josu Torre Altonaga told me, that at Aste Nagusia the presence of la pelota a mano is residual (very small). I think that this is due to the fact that playing this kind of pelota is really demanding. During my match in this type of pelota, I realized how the ball is hard for unaccustomed laic like me. Due to that it was really difficult to play. Nevertheless it was an unforgettable experience, especially precious for sport- and culture-oriented tourist like me. Except the possibility of playing different types of pelota, there was also a presentation of equipment used to play (rackets, chisteras, balls, helmets etc.). Here again the commodification of culture occurred. You could buy a book on pelota game written in Spanish (what I actually did), T-shirts with jai alai motif and other things. In general, workshops on pelota game were really interesting. They attracted many tourists (men, women, children, youngsters and people in middle age). It was a genuine example of active attraction both for cultural tourists in general as well as for sport tourists in particular. Another sport attraction during this festival was a competition in Basque timber sports called herri kirolak (rural sports). All over the world there are plenty of traditional sports which origins can be derived from work. In the past, such rural activities as hay tossing, wood chopping, bale tossing and many others were very important in everyday work on
92 PART 1 - CULTURAL TOURISM 92 fields, in forests etc. But the world is constantly changing. Increased level of technology, automation of work, industry and services, which are replacing agriculture in many places of the world, and other complicated processes have led to conversion of these work-related, rural activities into sport competitions (Lipoński, 2004: 123-4; Bronikowska, 2013: 163-4). Many communities all over the world have preserved them as important elements of their collective identities. As far as the Basques are concerned, there are many examples of Basque rural sports. One of the most interesting are: aizkolariak the competition in chopping the wood or bale using axes; arrija soketa lifting stones over a head or on the shoulders; or gizon probak pulling stones on distance (Aguirre Franco, 1983: 32-65; Sawala, Krawczyk, Bednarski, 2005: 155). During Aste Nagusia in 2013 competitions in Basque rural sports took place almost every day at Arenal one of the main squares in the centre of Bilbao. They were really popular among tourists. The most interesting were contests in aforementioned chopping the wood, lifting the stones, tossing hay over the bar and carrying weights on distance. It was also an exhibition of shepherd dogs which were supervised by their owner to control sheeps and force them to go to the circle. I noticed that those contestants, Basque strongmen who took part in these competitions, were treated as local heroes and sport stars by the spectators. Local, Basque television broadcasted this event. Players were interviewed after the competitions by the journalists. They were giving autographs and letting tourists to take photos with them. I also took a photo with one of them. What was really important, everyone could touch the equipment used to the competitions and even try, for instance, to toss hay or lift a stone. It was impossible (the weight of them were between 100 and over 200 kilograms). Nevertheless, for cultural and especially sport tourists it was a pleasure to watch an interesting, unusual contest and to experience the contestants, equipment and context of this sport event more personally. It is something I can call an added value to the more passive participation in many sport events. As my Basque friend Amaia Dones Mendia said: during the fiesta herri kirolak, such as stone lifting etc. are certainly important. In general, during such fiestas these sports have the widest audience. What is also important is the fact, as my Basque interlocutor Josu Torre Altonaga said, that almost all figures of all specialities of herri kirolak are presented during this festival at El Arenal and, although there is no special competition there, contestants present many form of rural sports, including the oldest ones, that are not presented in any other place.
93 PART 1 - CULTURAL TOURISM 93 There were also other sport events at Aste Nagusia. According to Basque journalist Juan Luis Ibarretxe Marcos: the most popular events of Aste Nagusia are bullfighters (corridas de toros). It is a tradition of Andalucia, in the South of Spain, but in this fiesta, the most popular bullfighters come to Bilbao and these events are successful. Leaving the question whether bullfighting can be considered as sport or not (because there are different opinions), I was trying to see this event. I visited Arena the Torros (Arena of Bulls) when this event was supposed to be performed. Unfortunately I couldn t come in because it was only for earlier registered subscribers. Nevertheless, I have to admit that the crowd coming to the arena was impressing. I think this kind of sport is popular among the Basques. On the other hand, during Aste Nagusia it was also a protest against bullfighting as a bloody, unethical performance. Among other sport attractions I can list the following: a tournament of basketball for people on wheelchairs, a game of chess, a tournament of 3 players football for kinds (organised by the Foundation Athletic Bilbao) and others. Although my Basque interlocutor Juan Luis Ibarretxe Marcos states that sports are not important part of this fiesta, I think that thanks to all these attractions festival Aste Nagusia can be viewed as an example of sport tourism attraction and can be appreciated by sport tourists, especially those cultureand tradition-oriented. DISCUSSION As I indicated earlier, cultural events, including festivals, are considered by some authors (Buczkowska; Sawala, Krawczyk and Bednarski and others) as interesting and valuable examples of attractions associated with ethno- or cultural tourism. Aste Nagusia, a great festival of Basque culture, is such an attraction. It is inclusive, letting people from other nations taking part in it not only as tourists but also as singers, poets and other artists. As a Basque journalist Juan Luis Ibarretxe Marcos said: relating to the most popular artistic events at this festival, theatre is very important, because there are many sessions every day in many places (Euskalduna, Arriaga...) and there you can see the best actors of Spain. Music is also a big part of Aste Nagusia and there are many concerts, some of them of international artists. Nevertheless, the main aims of this festival are promotion of distinctive, Basque culture among tourists and social satisfaction of the inhabitants of Basque Country. As my Basque friend Amaia Dones Mendia said: relating to the fiestas they are important. First
94 PART 1 - CULTURAL TOURISM 94 of all, people wait for them to have fun. They feel that these feasts are dedicated to their fun. Second of all, they can t be cancelled, these are our fiestas, they have always been organised in the Basque Country, and people still want to have these traditional fiestas. So this is important to maintain them. They are also important for the promotion of culture because there are various concerts, theatres etc. This is all for free and you have an access to plenty of activities. For cultural tourists Aste Nagusia is very attractive too. If they are culture-oriented, everyone can find here something interesting. The specific atmosphere of cultural festival is difficult to describe. You have to be inside, surrounded by international crowd and also by many Basques and countless tangible and intangible symbols of their culture. Moreover, Aste Nagusia helps the Basques to commoditize their culture by selling culture-related goods in stores. Obviously, not for everyone cultural attractions were the most important things. When I went out of my room to take the bus to San Sebastian early morning, I noticed some drunken people staggering on the street. I suppose they weren t really interested in Basque culture (at least not at this moment). Nevertheless, I think that this festival is one of the many events all over the world that can be viewed as a living and interesting example of cultural tourism attraction. The inseparable parts of this fiesta are also traditional (and not only) sports. The majority of sport attractions available to see and experience during this fiesta are traditional, which means that they are directly associated with local culture and ethnicity. They are competitive and physical, but less aggressive and achievement-oriented then modern sports and they have more ritual elements, are less professional, more recreational etc. (Blanchard, 1995: 248). It is important to admit that for tourists associated with fun tourism (Buczkowska, 2011: 55), who are interested in taking part in great, sport events, such as Olympic Games or World Championships in most popular sports, visiting and watching traditional, timber sports or even a friendly tournament in Basque pelota can be viewed a little bit boring and not exciting enough. But for cultural tourists, who are strongly motivated by widely understood culture and at the same time sport, visiting Aste Nagusia and experiencing its sport attractions theoretically and, what is even more important, practically seem to be really valuable. Moreover, the existence of Basque traditional sports during this event and the possibility of participating in them additionally help to promote Basque culture. I think that, due to that reasons, Aste Nagusia can viewed as an interesting example of sport tourism attraction.
95 PART 1 - CULTURAL TOURISM 95 CONCLUSION Cultural tourism in general is becoming more and more popular due to the fact, as some authors claim, that is valuable, which means that encourage people to participate in other cultures, get to know with other way of lives better and have close contact with something different (Przecławski, 1998; Urry, 2002). This possibility is widely given by taking part in such cultural festivals as Aste Nagusia in Bilbao. Moreover, there are many forms of cultural tourism. One of them is sport tourism, which makes the tourist more active. Culture tourism can be realized in combination with any kinds of qualified/sportrelated tourism (Buczkowska, 2011: 27). Thanks to the constant existence of sport attractions at such festivals as Aste Nagusia and the opportunity to take actively part in sports like Basque pelota, realising a combination of cultural and sport tourism is possible and attractive. Cultural and sport tourism are these domains of tourism that seem to be in process of constant growing due to the fact, I think, that the more general interest in culture and sport is also becoming more and more visible in the contemporary world (Castells, 1997; MacClancy, 1996). In this context cultural festivals such as Aste Nagusia attract millions of culture- and sport-oriented tourists (Aste Nagusia itself attracts, according to one of my Basque interlocutors, over 1 million of tourists a year). There is a need for further, in-depth research on the role of such cultural and sport events in developing cultural and sport tourism. They should be focused on discovering many cultural and sport attractions that can be little-known but they are of significant importance not only for local people involved in some festivals, but also for tourists from all over the world. The examples of Basque Country can be poetic singers (Bertsolaris) or Basque, rural sports (herri kirolak). As far as Aste Nagusia is concerned, I state that, due to the findings of my research presented in this paper, this Basque festival can be viewed both as a living attraction of cultural tourism in general and sport tourism in particular. REFERENCES Aguirre Franco, R. (1983). Deporte rural vasco. San Sebastian: Editorial Txertoa. Azkuna, I. (2013). Inaugural Speech. Bilbao: Udala Ayuntamiento. Bauer M. (1996). Cultural tourism in France In G. Richards (Ed.) Cultural tourism in Europe (pp ), Wallingford: Cabi.
96 PART 1 - CULTURAL TOURISM 96 Beck, J. M. (2005). Terriotory and terror. Conflicting nationalisms in the Basque Country. New York: Routledge. Blanchard, K. (1995). The Anthropology of sport. An introduction. Westport, Connecticut London: Bergin and Garvey. Bronikowska, M. (2013). Słowiańskie tradycje ludowych form kultury fizycznej na przykładzie wybranych narodów. Poznań: Akademia Wychowania Fizycznego. Buczkowska, K. (2011). Cultural tourism heritage, arts and creativity. Poznań: Akademia Wychowania Fizycznego. Castells, M. (1997). The power of identity. Oxford: Blackwell Publishers. Comaroff, J., J. L. (2009). Ethnicity, Inc. Chicago & London: Chicago Press. El Correo Espanol-El Pueblo Basco, Bizkaia, No , Garzia, B. (2007). The Bilbao Effect Guggenheim Museum Bilbao. Museum News. American Association of Museums, Vol. 86, No. 5, 1-6. Goiriena I. (2008). O Kraju Basków. In K. Mirgos (Red.), Przezwyciężanie niemożliwego. Baskowie i ich język (pp ). Poznań-Wielichowo: TIPI. Jarvie, G. (1994). Royal Games, sport and politics of the environment. In G. Jarvie, G. Walker (Eds.), Scottish sport in the making of the nation (pp ). London: Leicester University Press Linda, K. (2008). Kantatzen i cantant: z pieśnią na ustach w obronie języka. Baskijski ruch Nowej Pieśni, jego katalońskie korzenie i wzajemne inspiracje. In K. Mirgos (Red.), Przezwyciężanie niemożliwego. Baskowie i ich język (pp ). Poznań-Wielichowo: TIPI. Lipoński, W. (2004). Rochwist i palant. Poznań: Akademia Wychowania Fizycznego. Lipoński, W. (2008). Encyklopedia Sportów Świata, t. 9. Poznań: Oficyna Wydawnicza Atena. Lipoński, W. (2012). Historia sportu. Warszawa: Państwowe Wydawnictwo Naukowe. MacClancy, J. (1996). Sport, Identity, and Ethnicity. Oxford: Berg. Malchrowicz-Mośko, E., Buczkowska, K. (2013). Widowisko sportowe na przestrzeni dziejów jako potencjalny czynnik rozwoju turystyki sportowej. In M. Kazimierczak, J. Kosiewicz (Red.), Sport i turystyka. Uwarunkowania historyczne i wyzwania współczesności (pp ). Poznań: Akademia Wychowania Fizycznego.
97 PART 1 - CULTURAL TOURISM 97 Martinez Rivas L. (2013, January 28), Los gigantes y cabezudos, tradicion medieval recuperada en los ochenta. Retrieved from paisvasco/ _ html/ Mirgos, K. (2005). Archipelag baskijskiego nacjonalizmu. Sprawy narodowościowe, 27, Piggeassou, Ch. (2008). For the sustainable development of sports tourism: an analytical outline and operational tools conception. In M. Louis, Ch. Piggeassou (Eds.), Current issues on sport and tourism development (pp ). Louvain: EIMAPS. Plaza, J. (2007). History of Improvised Bertsolaritza: A Proposal. Oral Tradition, 22/2, Prabucki, B. (2012). Gry sportowe jako element wzmacniający współczesne tożsamości etniczne. Analiza na przykładzie Basków. Homo Ludens, 1 (4), Przecławski, K. (1998). Turystyka a wartości. Problemy turystyki, nº 4 (42)-X, Richards, G. (1996), Culture and tourism in Europe. In G. Richards (Ed.), Cultural tourism in Europe (pp ). Wallingford: Cabi. Richards, G. (2001). The development of Cultural Tourism in Europe. In G. Richards (Ed.), Cultural Attraction and European Tourism (pp. 3-30). Cambridge: Cabi. Sawala, K., Krawczyk W., Bednarski, J. (2005). Wielkie fiesty Europy. Poznań: Oficyna Wydawnicza Atena. Rybczyński, W. (2002, September), The Bilbao Effect, The Atlantic Monthly, vol. 290, no. 2, Retrieved from Urry, J. (2002). The Tourist Gaze: Leisure and Travel in Contemporary Societies. London: Sage. Willis, P. (2005). Wyobraźnia etnograficzna. Kraków: Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Jagiellońskiego.
98 PART 2 NATURE TOURISM AND ENVIRONMENT
99 PART 2 - NATURE TOURISM AND ENVIRONMENT 99 SUSTAINABLE TOURISM IN GERMANY Bartosz Marchwacki 10 University of Life Sciences in Poznań, Poland ABSTRACT The importance and functions of sustainable tourism focused in large protected areas were presented in this paper. National parks are defined in literature as large protected areas. The Nature Park of island of Usedom was given as an example. Two aims were set in this paper. The first is to determine the dynamics of growth in tourism on the island of Usedom, and the second aim is to introduce the level of development of eco-tourism infrastructure. Aims designated in this paper were achieved through the use of the synthesis method of description, method of diagnostic survey and the application of statistical methods to present the most important connections. The study shows that the growth of tourism on the island of Usedom proved an upward trend up till The increasing number of tourists visiting the island and the number of rented accommodation confirm the situation every year. On the one hand, this describing situation is justified because of the general trend of growth of tourism in Germany, and on the other hand, because of the development and modernization of eco-tourism infrastructure available in the analyzed area. Keywords: sustainable tourism, protected areas, tourism infrastructure 10 Author s
100 PART 2 - NATURE TOURISM AND ENVIRONMENT 100 INTRODUCTION From sustainable development to sustainable tourism During the first United Nations Conference on the Human Environment, that was held in Stockholm, the discussion concerning the depletion of natural resources which constitute the foundations of life and economy was launched (Rogall, 2008, p ). The concept of sustainable development was first used in the course of the conference while discussing the topic of business activity and its influence on the environment. In 1987, the United Nations World Commission on Environment and Development published the report called Our Common Future, also known as the Brundtland Report, in which the concept of sustainable development was first defined. In June 1992, 180 governments participated in the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development in Rio de Janeiro and signed the Rio Declaration. The first principle of sustainable development contained in the declaration defines the roles and rights of the people to have a healthy and productive life in harmony with nature. The role of justice between generations in terms of satisfying needs by future generations was also emphasised in the declaration (Rogall, 2010, p. 39). The sustainable development has been defined in literature as a doctrine that derives from political economy and assumes such a quality of life that is currently allowed by the progress of civilization. The concept of sustainable development has been described in the first sentence of the report published by the United Nations World Commission on Environment and Development: Development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs (World Commission on Environment and Development, 1987). According to Jäger, the sustainable development prevents the natural basis of life from destruction and enables all people to have relatively peaceful and prosperous life. What is more, the sustainable development takes care of equalization of social inequalities and prevents resources from being wasted (Jäger, 2008). J. R. Engel describes the sustainable development in a broader context. According to Engel, it is a type of human activity which nourishes and consolidates the historical fulfilment of the whole community living on Earth (Engel, 1990, p ). As reported by Dresner, the concept of sustainable development covers postmodern pessimism that results interchangeably from the domination of nature over human civilisation, and enlightenment optimism which derives from the belief in possibilities of reforming social
101 PART 2 - NATURE TOURISM AND ENVIRONMENT 101 institutions (Dresner, 2002, p. 164). Actions planned to achieve the sustainable development should be concentrated in three aspects that interpenetrate one another. Ecological and sociocultural dimension of the development of future society should also be taken care of besides ecological aspect (Rogall, 2010, p ). Balancing the use of envionmental resources and the economic benefits of tourism Environment Sustainable tourism Balancing the use of environmental resources and changes to the social/community values of those environmental resources Economic Balancing economic growth and development and the impacts of development on community/social values Social Figure 1: Model of sustainable tourism Source: UNO (2013). United Nations Environmental Program The whole concept of sustainable tourism is based on this kind of model of development. Synonymous phrases such as environmentally friendly tourism or tourism that is consistent with eco-development rules can be found in source literature. According to EUROPARC Federation, the sustainable tourism is defined as every form of tourist development, management and tourist activity that maintains environmental, economic and social area integrity. It also keeps natural and cultural resources without deterioration for future generations. Achieving harmony between the needs of tourists, natural environment and local communities is fundamental in the concept of sustainable tourism (IUNC, 1994, p 38).
102 PART 2 - NATURE TOURISM AND ENVIRONMENT 102 According to UNWTO, the sustainable tourism is defined as a proper conception of the development of tourist industry in the scale of the world. It applies not only to mass, but also to niche forms of tourism that take place in every part of the world. As reported by World Travel and Tourism Council, sustainable tourism is based on public-private partnership and not only concentrates on both local community and tourists profits, but also respects social, natural and cultural environment at the same time (UNO, 2013, p. 266). In 1995, the two most significant tourist organizations in the world (WTTC and UNWTO) together with the Earth Council prepared some general principles of sustainable tourism development entitled Agenda 21 for the Travel and Tourism Industry. The priority goals which should bring tourism economy and the theory of sustainable development closer together are (Council of Europe, 1997, p ): Tourism should promote healthy and productive way of life in harmony with nature, bring people of different nationalities closer together, create candor and tolerance. The development of tourism is to contribute to preserving natural resources and protecting the culture of local communities. The development of tourism in regions should occur through the participation of local people from the planning stage, it should also create new sources of income for local people. Tertiary and productive activity of the tourist branch should head for decreasing the quantity of waste products and saving water energy, eliminate harmful environmental substances from the general use, stimulate and encourage the staff, clients and local communities to pro-ecological behaviors. The countries should promote the politics of open market system in tourism; free exchange of tourist services which is subordinated to the principles of sustainable development and respects international environmental law. The most significant event in the process of implementing the sustainable tourism assumptions in Europe was signing the Berlin Declaration in which the countries committed themselves to introduce given priorities of sustainable tourism to national economic policy in all of the countries. From the beginning of the twenty-first century, including the sustainable tourism in declarations, plans and strategies of various actions became a standard (Zaręba, 2010, p ).
103 PART 2 - NATURE TOURISM AND ENVIRONMENT 103 Table 3. Historical outline of the origin of sustainable tourism 1950s 1970s First discussions about a negative influence of tourism on natural and sociocultural environment Escalating international criticism concerning the negative influence of tourism on natural environment, searching for alternative distillation 1992 the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development in Rio de Janeiro first actions for sustainable tourism 1995 Third Ministerial Conference "Environment for Europe" in Sofia, signing the Pan- European Biological and Landscape Diversity Strategy 1995 Agenda 21 for the Travel and Tourism Industry, the preparation of first principles of sustainable development of tourism by WTTC and UNWTO together with the Earth Council 1997 The Meeting of the Environment Ministers in Berlin, signing the Berlin Declaration 2002 International Year of Ecotourism declared by UNEP and UNWTO 2008 Global Sustainable Tourism Criteria prepared by UNEP, UNWTO and Rainforest Alliance during World Conservation Congress in Barcelona Source: Zaręba, D. (2010). Ekoturystyka. Wyd. PWN, Tourism in Germany In Germany one can distinguish regions, in which tourism concentrates. It focuses mostly on regions which are characterized by cultural, historical, recreational and natural values. The leisure-recreational and spa towns play the most important role in national tourism. The places with high tourism concentration in Germany are closely linked to the climate of the area, which is mild and moderate in most parts of the country. The winters in the country are characterized by frequent thaws, though the summers are hot though. Due to natural conditions in Germany we can differentiate four major geographical regions: North German Plain, German highland and Bavarian Alps. The share of the forests in the country's surface is over 30%, additionally large areas of mixed beech-birch forests remain. Different types of environmental protection, such as national parks or reserves, occupy about 35% of the country's surface. On the territory of Germany we can distinguish 13
104 PART 2 - NATURE TOURISM AND ENVIRONMENT 104 tourist regions, which include: Bavaria (the area of greatest tourist potential due to, numerous sports centres located in the Bavarian Alps), Thuringia (belongs to the historical regions with lots of medieval cities with mining traditions, from among which the most worth noticing is Weimar considered the cradle of German literature), Rhineland-Palatinate (it has good conditions for the development of tourism, the valley of the Rhine is one of the most well-known and respected distillation in the region), Mecklenburg-Vorpommern (includes the Mecklenburg Lake District and the Baltic coast), islands such as Rügen and Usedom are of great importance for leisure tourism and sightseeing in Germany. The vacation destinations of the Germans are in 37,4% concentrated within Germany itself. From among the many attractive tourist sites in Germany, the most frequently chosen are two directions: Bavaria (8.6% in 2012) and the coast of the Baltic Sea (8.6% in 2012). Spain (12.1% in 2012), Italy (8.7% in 2012) and Turkey (6.9% in 2012) remain the most popular foreign tourism destinations. The intensity with which the Germans travel from the beginning of the so called tourism boom is still increasing. The largest increase in intensity of travel in Germany was observed in the fifties and sixties, and since the mid-nineties the stability was observed in the vacational intensity of the German. According to the data gathered by the Forschungsgemeinschaft Urlaub und Reisen (FUR) in 2011 up to 76% of Germans over 14 years of age have spent a minimum of four days travelling. 90% 80% 70% 60% 50% 40% 30% 20% 10% 0% 78% 69% 76% 74% 76% 76% 56% 56% 55% 45% 42% 24% 28% Figure 2: The intensity of holiday trips in Germany Source: Own study based on data from: FUR Deutschland 2012, 2013, When looking on the average length of the main leave of the Germans it can be noticed that contrary to the intensity of the trips it has a falling tendency. In the years the
105 PART 2 - NATURE TOURISM AND ENVIRONMENT 105 average length of the main leave decreased by more than 6 days. The biggest fall was observed in the eighties, nineties and in the beginning of the XXI century ,2 16,3 14,8 13,3 13, ,4 12,3 12, Figure 3: The average length of the main leave in Germany [in days] Source: Own study based on data from: FUR Deutschland 2012, 2013, One of the reasons for which the average main leave in Germany is reduced is the increasingly popular form of short holiday trips. As the data from FUR shows us, the number of short holiday trips since 1972, when it amounted to 25 million, was tripled to almost 80 million in The highest rate of growth of the number of their short holiday trips were recorded in the years (46%) and (48%) ,8 48,2 53,8 36, Figure 4: Number of short holiday trips in Germany [in millions] Source: Own study based on data from: FUR Deutschland 2012, 2013, With the growing demand for tourist services among Germans, an increased interest in specific types of tourism can also be observed. One of the most popular forms of tourism
106 PART 2 - NATURE TOURISM AND ENVIRONMENT 106 practiced by the Germans is sustainable tourism, so the demand for activities related to nature in Germany in terms of the holiday season increases. The cyclical studies conducted by FUR shows that for 78% of the Germans the main reason for undertaking the trip is the encounter with nature. 90% 80% 70% 60% 50% 40% 30% 20% 10% 0% 78% 77% 78% 78% 70% 59% 57% 59% 45% 47% Figure 5: The development of the travel theme meeting with nature. Source: own study based on data from: FUR Deutschland 2010 Since the early eighties, the importance of this theme has grown by 30%, as it would not be an exaggeration to say that with the ongoing implementation of theories and principles of sustainable development, the pro-environmental behaviour of the Germans also developed. The other motives of Germans trips in 2010 connected with the environment were the climate which is more conducive for health (80%), and walking away from polluted environment (53%) (FUR, 2010). Large protected areas, especially national parks, became holiday destinations for Germans because of attractive landscapes and direct experiences with nature. Discussed phenomenon was confirmed by the research on Germans environmental awareness conducted in The results show that the beauty and diversity of landscapes as well as aspects of environmental protection are of great importance to 50% of travelling Germans. It can be said that together with an ongoing global discussion on climate change, there are new trend in tourism that are expressed through tourists balanced demand behaviors. Consumers pro-environmental behaviors in the range of tourism (the so-called reasonable travelling) correspond with the general trend heading for a sustainable way of life called Lifestyle of Health and Sustainability. According to Schmid, the high potential of possibilities
107 PART 2 - NATURE TOURISM AND ENVIRONMENT 107 offered in the range of sustainable tourism in Germany accords with the current trend (Siegrist; Schmid, 2009, p. 211). In 2004 in Germany, the research group on tourism and development confirmed that the majority of German people going on a leave is focused on the environmental aspect of relaxation. What is more, more than half of examined people stated that environmentally friendly places of leisure and accommodation are very important. 36% of them are ready to pay 1 euro extra a day to protect the environment of the place of their destination. The research also shows that there are some target groups which are very flexible in terms of sustainable tourism products. According to examiners, the level of flexibility was determined mainly by tourists age and level of education (Kösterke; Lassberg, 2005). Quantitative depiction of effective demand in terms of sustainable tourism was presented as part of Tourism Barometer of thrift institutions in Germany in This depiction shows that the potential of effective demand in the range of sustainable tourism in Germany was 13% of population which amounted to almost nine million people. Each of those people declared readiness to pay 20 Euros extra a day for a holiday offer which is contained as part of sustainable tourism (DSuG, 2010, p. 107). Presented research results clearly point at Germans high sensitivity in terms of sustainable tourism which is proved by growing number of people for whom the meeting with nature is the most important motive while choosing the form of holidays, and who are ready to pay extra money for spending holidays in environmentally friendly resort. According to Kirstges, the tendency will be continued together with further changes of social development and previous development of pro-environmental behaviors in the range of tourism is dictated mainly by growing level of people s education (Kirstges, 2003, p. 98). In Germany the potential of sustainable tourism in terms of growing sensitivity of the society towards the environment is very big. It is very significant to join the aspects of sustainability with such qualities as emotionality, satisfaction and quality in holiday resorts offering this kind of tourism. A tailored sustainable tourist offer should include ecological aspects having regard to the needs of potential customers (Hartmann; Job, 2003, p. 6-17).
108 PART 2 - NATURE TOURISM AND ENVIRONMENT 108 The research in the range of consumer behaviors of sustainable tourism are partial and refer in most cases to relatively small areas characterized by specific qualities. The example of Usedom island which is presented in this paper is also special because of its natural, climatic and infrastructural qualities. Large protected areas Large protected areas are popular tourist places which are also valuable areas of environmental protection. The cooperation of environmental protection and tourism in a reliable and sustainable form challenges interested parties. The legal framework of tourist functioning and using large protected areas should take the dangers connected with it into consideration and minimize them while using the chances offered by this type of tourism for the region (Eagles; McCool; Haynes, 2002, p ). The area of more than 10 thousand ha which is geographically divided is called a large protected area. It is created on the land with valuable landscape and great natural values and it also comes under legal protection. In Germany there are 101 large protected areas which occupy 26% of the whole area. According to the Act on Nature Protection and Landscape Conservation, large protected areas without environmental protection are also focused on the protection of cultural landscape which is very important in the context of recreational and cognitive function of tourism. At first sight the connection of environmental protection and tourism seems not to be particularly possible, however by the analysis of chances and dangers of this connection, the impression changes. The use of principles of sustainable tourism in large protected areas offers the range of changes for the regional development. In view of special sensitivity of large protected areas, running own business which interferes with the environment is impossible. Tourism industry on these areas can be a solid pillar of economic stability. An appropriate management concentrated on the control which is tailored to current regulations and limitations is indispensable for achieving positive effects in this area. Local authorities can also direct in some way the tourism that takes place in large protected areas through introducing additional regulations which is possible in the aspect of federal politics of Germany (Revermann; Petermann, 2003, p. 98).
109 PART 2 - NATURE TOURISM AND ENVIRONMENT 109 Figure 6. Large protected areas in Germany. Source: USEDOM ISLAND Usedom is a coastal island on the border between Poland and Germany. This island is characterized by a strong fragmentation and numerous peninsulas. The area of the island is 445 km 2, from which 373km 2 lie in Germany, and 72 km 2 in Poland. The island s population is about 76,5 thousand (from which 45 thousand people live on the Polish side and 31,5
110 PART 2 - NATURE TOURISM AND ENVIRONMENT 110 thousand on the German side). Due to the unique landscape and natural conditions the German part of the island up till the border with Poland is a protected area. The Usedom Island Nature Park (Naturpark Insel Usedom) comprises the entire island of Usedom in the district of Vorpommern-Greifswald in the German state of Mecklenburg- Vorpommern on its border with Poland. Even in East German days several parts of Usedom had been declared nature reserves, and they were gradually expanded. It was designated a protected area in 1966 and, in 1993, expanded to the area of the present-day nature park. In December 1999 the entire region was officially designated a nature park in the sense of being a large-scale cultural landscape. The park is bounded by the Baltic Sea on the Bay of Greifswald (Greifswalder Bodden), the Peenestrom, the Achterwasser and the Oder Lagoon (Stettiner Haff). The total area of the park is 632 square kilometers (244 sq mi). Roughly 30% of this area is covered by forest, about 50% by lakes and the bay, 15% is moorland and the remaining area is a cultural landscape. A special feature of the nature park is the great diversity of landscapes within a small area. These include beach and littoral, lakes and marshes, dunes, pine and beech forests mixed with small villages and fields. The island of Usedom is one of the richest bird areas in Germany. Osprey, White Stork, Crane and Heron all breed in the nature reserve. Activities in the field of sustainable tourism on the island of Usedom, in the Usedom Island Nature Park to be more precise, were written in a form o a plan, which main aim is to integrate the general concept of sustainable development with sustainable growth of the socio-economic area, taking into account the wellness of the nature and the landscape.. On the basis of extensive research guidelines have been developed.. In the main point of the plan the aim of protecting nature and the measures to achieve them in the field of: environmental protection, land use and tourism, transport, business and housing. Given the crucial economic importance of tourism on the island it constituted in this plan one of the most important items. In terms of important touristic aim the plan mentions, among others, informing and educating the visitors. Implementation of this point is possible through the close cooperation of many organizations with managing units of tourist type in the island. The development of the plan for the island of Usedom was made for the first time when joining the European Charter for Sustainable Tourism in Protected Areas (VDN, 2002, p. 22).
111 PART 2 - NATURE TOURISM AND ENVIRONMENT 111 The tourist movement on the island of Usedom in the analyzed period, since the year 2006, shows an increase. The number of incoming tourists to the island each year in the period increased by almost 300 thousand, which was influenced by a number of factors. Growth of tourism on the island, which is one of the most important tourist centres in Germany, also fits into the nationwide trend in the growth of tourism Figure 7. Number of arrivals on the island of Usedom in the years [in thousands] Source: Own study based on data from: With the rapidly increasing number of tourist arrivals to the island of Usedom also changed the number of sold accommodations. In the analyzed period, the quantitative increase from its beginning till its end has changed by more than 1.2 million, and by 2012 the number of nights sold was less than five million Figure 8. Number of sold accomodations on the island of Usedom in the years [in thousands] Source: Own study based on the data from:
112 PART 2 - NATURE TOURISM AND ENVIRONMENT 112 The average length of stay of tourists on the island in the analyzed period has also changed. The highest value was recorded in 2010 and amounted to 5.36 day. Since the beginning of the analyzed period, the average length of stay on the island, however, decreased by more than 0.25 day. Changes in the length of leave to be completed on the island of Usedom also part of a nationwide trend. 5,40 5,34 5,33 5,36 5,30 5,25 5,26 5,20 5,10 5,10 5,02 5,07 5,00 4,90 4, Figure 9. Average lenght of stay on the island of Usedom in the years [in days] Source: Own study based on data from: The increasing demand for hotel services on the island of Usedom had an impact on the development of the available number of accommodations. In the years , the total number of available accommodations increased by almost 15.5 thousand., and the highest value was reached in 2012, when on the island was available more than 44.5 thousand. accommodations. Worth mentioning are large variations offered on the island accommodations, which consequently does not restrict access to the rest in this place for consumers with lower incomes Figure 10. Development of the number of accomodations on the island of Usedom in the years Source: Own study based on data from:
113 PART 2 - NATURE TOURISM AND ENVIRONMENT 113 The average rate of change of sales volume of accommodation and of arrivals on the island during the analyzed period amounted to 6 and 5%. The biggest changes were observed between 2009 and 2010 (respectively 12 and 14%). Te amplitude of the fluctuations of dynamics value in the analyzed period for the arrivals was 12% and for the sold accommodations 14%. From interviews conducted with managers of units offering accommodation the negative changes in the number of sold accommodations are due to the fluctuations and uncertainties of the weather during the holidays while positive changes due to, among others, the decreasing confidence in the number of foreign tourist centres because of the precarious socio-political situation and the improvement of tourism infrastructure in the analyzed region, as well as changes in the age structure of the Germans. 120% 115% 114% 110% 105% 100% 95% 107% 107% 106% 104% 100% 100% 112% 105% 100% 106% 104% 90% Dynamics of arrivals Dynamics of accommodation Figure 11. The Dynamics of arrivals and sold accommodations on the island of Usedom in the years Source: Own study. According to the managers of the hotel and gastronomic units dynamic development of tourist infrastructure available on the island of Usedom began with the political changes that occurred in Germany in Since the early nineties a lot of investments aiming at improving available tourist conditions on the island have been realized. These investments had state and private character. In this paper, the tourist infrastructure on the island of Usedom is divided into six parts.
114 PART 2 - NATURE TOURISM AND ENVIRONMENT 114 NATURE ACCOMMODATION GASTRONOMY USEDOM TRANSPORT SPORT AND RECREATION CULTURE Figure 12. The distribution of tourist infrastructure on the island of Usedom Source: Own study. The first and also the most important part is protected nature. Island of Usedom as a protected area has also eleven nature reserves (Fig. 12). Flora and fauna on the island are very varied. Sea coastal landscape in the north of the island with beaches, cliffs and charming villages is one of the most important holiday destinations in Germany from more than 170 years, while the south part of the island with numerous bays is a paradise for lovers of sailing. Peenemuender Haken 7824 ha Peninsula Gnitz 61 ha Wochninsee 50 ha Muemmelkensee 6 ha Peninsula Cosim 85 ha Birds-Island Boehmke 118 ha Gothensee 800 ha Golm 25 ha Zerninzee 365 ha Mellenthiner Os 65 ha Krebsee 45 ha Figure 13. Nature reserves In the Island of Usedom Source: own study
115 PART 2 - NATURE TOURISM AND ENVIRONMENT 115 Topography and environmental conditions on the island are an ideal base necessary for the development of tourist infrastructure, which offers active recreation in harmony with nature. Qualitative development of tourist infrastructure after 1990 affected not only accommodation and catering buildings, but also sports and leisure facilities. Numerous possibilities for active rest such as: 15 hiking trails, 6 trails for horseback riding, two golf courses, 14 bike trails are available on the island and surprise users with varied landscape. Cycling is, without doubt, the most common form of active rest on the island. According to managers of bike rental companies demand for such services is growing from year to year. 50 bike rentals are currently working on the island and they are offering the total of over 10 thousand bicycles. According to the data from Usedom Island GmbH bike rentals on the island of Usedom during the main tourist season (the main tourist season on the island of Usedom lasts from to 30.09) lend about 3 thousand bikes daily. The island implemented also a program to promote this way of moving and exploring the island, which finally led to the opening of many new bike rentals, lower prices and increase of demand. On the island of Usedom dining places specialize mainly in regional dishes which main ingredients are fish. Despite the fact that most of the fish sold under a different figure on the island does not come from the Baltic sea, they still enjoy a considerable interest because of their traditional character. The most common and also the easiest snack to prepare on the island is a piece of bread with herring or salmon and onions. Accommodation forms on the island are very varied, so that all the tourists with different preferences in terms of accommodation can find something for themselves. On the island there are different kinds of hotels, apartments and campsites. According to the obtained information popularity of the type of accommodation depends mainly on the age. Aspect of transportation on the island of Usedom should be emphasized. Besides above discussed example of cycling, a special railway line is also working on the island. This line is available for residents and tourists throughout the whole year and it connects the main towns located from the area of Island of Usedom Nature Park to Świnoujście in Poland. At the beginning (since 1992) this line served 250 thousand passengers a year, nowadays it is used by over 3 million passengers per year. The development of sport and recreation, catering and accommodation infrastructure resulted in a large increase in employment in the tourism sector on the island. However, due to the seasonal nature of tourism outside the main tourist season a large number of
116 PART 2 - NATURE TOURISM AND ENVIRONMENT 116 residents of the island is not employed. Thus the current activities of local authorities seeking to maintain sustainable development should aim at using a lot of tourist attractions of the island with the aim of maintaining a relatively constant level of employment. CONCLUSION The intensity of tourist traffic in Germany in the examined period showed a tendency to increase. The changes taking place in terms of motives for which Germany decided to travel had pro-environmental character, which was related to the increasing environmental awareness and the kind of work they did. Change in traveling motives resulted in the increasing popularity of sustainable tourism, which can be realized in many ways. Large protected areas make one of the possibilities, where effective management of sustainable tourism can lead to achievement of positive effects in all its three aspects, that was born by the example of the island of Usedom presented in this paper. Tourist traffic in the analyzed region recorded an annual growth, as evidence of the increasing number of arrivals and nights sold. The size of the growth is influenced by many factors in the micro and macro scale. In the micro scale the main factor of the increase of development of tourism is considered a rapidly developing tourist infrastructure, which is adapted to the current needs of tourists, which are focused on non-invasive contact with nature. REFERENCES Bundesamt für Naturschutz (2010). Tourismus und nachhaltige Entwicklung. Grundlage und praktische Ansatze für den mitteleuropäischen Raum, Council of Europe (1997). Tourism and Environment. Questions and Answers, 3, Deutscher Sparkassen- und Giroverband (2010). Sparkassen-Tourismusbarometr, 107. Dresner, S. (2002). The principles of sustainability. Earthscan, 164. Eagles, P., McCool S., Haynes Ch. (2002). Sustainable Tourism in Protected Areas, Best Practice Protected Area Guidelines Series No. 8. IUCN, Engel, J. R. (1990), Ethics of environment and development: Global challenge, international response. Belhaven Press and Tucson,
117 PART 2 - NATURE TOURISM AND ENVIRONMENT 117 Forschungsgemeinschaft Urlaub und Reisen (2010). Die Urlaubsreisen der Deutschen: Kurzfassung der Reisenanalyse Hertmann, T., Job, H. (2003). Destination Deutsche Nationalparke als touristische Marke. In Tourism Review Band 58, Jäger, J. (2008). Was verträgt unsere Erde noch?. S. Fischer Verlag, Kirstges, T. (2003), Sanfter Tourismus. Chancen und Probleme der Realisierung eines ökologieorientiertes und sozialvertraglichen Tourismus durch deutsche Reiseveranstalter, 98. Kösterke, A., Lassberg, D. (2005). Urlaubreisen und Umwelt: eine Untersuchung über die Ansprechbarkeit der Bundesburger auf Natur- und Umweltaspekte im Zusammenhang mit Urlaubreisen, Revermann C., Petermann T. (2003). Tourismus in Großschutzgebieten. Impulse für eine nachhaltige Regionalentwicklung, 98. Rogall, H. (2010). Ekonomia zrównoważonego rozwoju: teoria i praktyka, Zysk i S-ka, Rogall H. (2008). Ökologische Ökonomie: Eine Einführung. Verlag für Sozialwissenschaften, Siegrist, D., Schmid, J. (2009). Landschaft Erlebnis Reisen. Naturnaher Tourismus in Parken und UNESCO-Gebieten, 211. The IUCN Commision on Natural Parks and Protected Areas (1994). Parks for Life. Action for Protected Areas in Europe. The World Conservation Union, 38. Cambridge. UNO (2013). United Nations Envionmental Programm, 266. Verband Deutscher Naturparke (2002). Nachhaltiger Tourismus in Naturparken. VDN, 22. World Comission on Environment and Development (1987). Our Common Future. Oxford University Press. Oxford, New York. Zaręba, D. (2010). Ekoturystyka. Wyd. PWN,
118 PART 2 - NATURE TOURISM AND ENVIRONMENT 118 THE AREA STRUCTURE AND DYNAMICS OF DEVELOPMENT OF URBAN GREEN SPACE IN POZNAŃ, SZCZECIN AND WROCŁAW FROM 2006 TO 2010 Monika Wojcieszak 11 Michał Gazdecki 12 Poznań University of Life Sciences ABSTRACT In order to guarantee appropriate functioning of urban areas it is important to make rational use of biologically active areas. Green space plays a significant role in spatial planning. It favours the development of recreation and it may be the fundament of tourist activity based on natural values. The aim of green space is to provide natural, recreational, aesthetic and health values. In spite of expansive urban industrialisation it is necessary to provide a sufficient area of urban green space, because it caters for people s basic needs. It is significant that the awareness of societies is growing. Apart from the residential comfort they also search for the places with lush vegetation. The article discusses the concepts of green space, urban green space andgreentourism. It characterises greenspace in the cities of Poznań, Szczecin and Wrocław. Keywords: urban green space, green tourism, urban natural system, urban green space 11 Author s / 12 Author s
119 PART 2 - NATURE TOURISM AND ENVIRONMENT 119 INTRODUCTION The urban ecosystem is a complex system, which is determined by the elements of compact development and technical infrastructure, which considerably transform the original natural environment. The concept of urban ecosystem (Zimny 1997, Szulczewska& Kaftan et al.1996) as a structural and functional unit is moving towards treating the abiotic infrastructure, cultural environment, elements of living nature as well as people and their needs as a whole (Świerszcz 2010). Aim The aim of the article is to analyse greenspace in the cities of Poznań, Szczecin and Wrocław. The article uses materials from statistical yearbooks and data collected in the Local Data Bank. The authors of the article made a structure analysis. The areas of recreational parks, lawns and green space located along streets and in housing estates in the selected cities were chosen for the analysis of green space. Urban green space It is characteristic of each city to have a natural system. According to the definition, the natural system of the cityis a purposefully separated part of the city with specific natural functions, i.e. climatic, hydrological and biological functions (Szulczewska, Kaftan et al. 1996, Mackenzie 1993, Bull 2009, Gras 1992). Apart from basic natural functionsthe natural systemof the city also fulfils other functions related with tourism, leisure, recreation and health. In built-up areas the natural system of the city chiefly consists of arranged green space, parks, lawns, squares, cemeteries, forest complexes, leisure and recreational areas,green space located along streets and in housing estates, allotment gardens as well as grassland and water reservoirs (Stanisławska-Zietek&Szczepańska, 2009). In general, the term green space is understood as open space covered with vegetation, which primarily fulfils thefunctions of leisure and recreation, aesthetic functionor healthfunction. According to the Nature Conservation Act of 16April 2004, Article 5 defines urban green space as an areawith technical infrastructure and buildings which are functionally related with it, where the area is covered with vegetation and it is located within the limits of a village with compact development or in a town, where it fulfils aesthetic, recreational, health or protective functions.according to the definition, the following areas can be classified as
120 PART 2 - NATURE TOURISM AND ENVIRONMENT 120 urban green space: parks, lawns, promenades, boulevards, botanic gardens, zoological gardens, playgrounds, historic parks, cemeteries and the greeneries situated along streets, squares, historic fortifications, buildings, landfills, airports, railway facilities and industrial structures. URBAN GREEN SPACE Accompanying green space Green space for educational and tourist purposes Green space for leisure and recreation near airports railways car parks tramways industrial structures botanic zoological gardens playground gardens s natural monuments parks lawns promenades green space in housing estates green space in streets squares cemeteries Figure 1. The components of urban green space Source:The authors compilation based on the Nature Conservation Act of 16 April 2004 Urban green space is a very broad term, which encompasses facilities with different natural traits and areas (Czarnecki 1968 and Kepel 2002). According to Kepel (2002), urban green space is made up of the following components: parks, lawns, forests, squares, parklike facilities, allotment gardens, backyard gardens. The literature provides a wide range of definitions of the term urban green space. Urban green space is usually generally understood as open space without buildings (Ptaszycka 1950,Czerwieniec&Lewińska 2000, Oleynik & Iaromenko 2010). Green space is a highly valued part of urbanised areas. It is also noteworthy that urban green space is not a functional system that is isolated from the surrounding space, but it is a component of the entire urban space system with the infrastructure, cultural environment resources, inhabitants, etc. (Lorenz &Martyniuk-Pęczek 2010).
121 PART 2 - NATURE TOURISM AND ENVIRONMENT 121 The functions of urban green space There are a few functions ofurban green space, i.e. the leisure and health function, recreational function, representative function, ecological function and technical function. Theassumption of the leisure and health function is that the presence of urban green space improves not only the hygienic and health conditions but it also provides the inhabitants with direct contact with the natural environment (Węcławowicz-Bilska, 2008). Therecreational functionof urban green space develops favourable health conditions for society. It also creates different forms of use of green space for the community. It enriches the development of culture, education, science and ecological education in society (The Green Space Development Programme, 2004). According to Zimny (1978)and Hejmanowski (1989), theecological function ofurban green space is understood as the regulation of the ecological conditions in the city by reducing the air pollution, noise and production of oxygen (Szumacher, 2008). Thetechnical functionofurban green space remains in close relationship with the city transport system. It filters the air, providesgas exchange and makes the microclimate of the city. Other technical functionsofurban green space include: Noise attenuation, Prevention of snowdrifts on transport routes, Cover from light (The Green Space Development Programme, 2004). The structure of green space presented in the three selected cities lets us suppose that such areas enable different forms of activities. They also favour the improvement of city inhabitants living standard. When nature conservation is accentuated, publications in German and English use the termsnaturnäherandnature-basedtomark the development of tourism based on natural resources(schmitet al. 1999). The drawback of such development of tourism is the fact that its values are often perceived only as individual natural attractions that can be found in a particular area (Lorenz&Martyniuk-Pęczek, 2010). The contemporary literature uses a new term - green tourism.green tourism is defined as an activity practised in rural tourism. At present green tourism is practised in the rural areas which are within or near national parks, scenic parks and reserves (Ogârlacet al. 2010).Green tourism or ecotourism is a strategic tool of tourism management, which consists in the use of natural resources to generate income and to retain biodiversity (Lertwannawit&Anuwichanont 2011). Thus, urban green space can be used for recreation and sometimes it may be used as
122 PART 2 - NATURE TOURISM AND ENVIRONMENT 122 the basis for tourist activity. At present green tourism is often identified with nature tourism,ecotourism or ruraltourism. It is primarily based on natural values. Apart from that, it may also include attractive areas with a specific cultural, educational, aesthetic and cognitive character.green tourism consists of ruraltourism,nature tourism andecotourism (Gazdecki, 2012). Its main goal is to provide the tourist with direct contact with nature.green tourism expresses respect for nature and local inhabitants culture and above all, expenses on tourism provide funds for local economy. Green areas are a key element which people may use to practise different forms of tourist activity. Apart from that, they provide direct contact with nature. They encourage people to exercise, do leisure activities and they provide them with healthy lifestyles. A characterisation of green space in Poznań, Szczecin and Wrocław In all of the cities under study recreational parks are an important element of urban green space. Table 1. The number and area of recreational parks inthe cities under study Source:The authors calculations based onthe Local DataBank Wrocław is the city with the largest number and area of recreational parks. This results from the structure of the city s spatial development, geographical and natural conditions.wrocław has an abundant base of natural resources. Undoubtedly, the large number of park facilities favours green tourism and recreation, activates society and facilitates contact with nature and culture. As far as Szczecin is concerned, the number and area of parks is the smallest, but it remains at a steady level. This situation results from the following factors: strong spatial urbanisation in Szczecin, high concentration of holiday, gastronomic and leisure centres. The emphasis on providing appropriate accommodations to tourists involves the building of specialised, modern holidayand gastronomic centres to satisfy the needs of the most
123 PART 2 - NATURE TOURISM AND ENVIRONMENT 123 demanding consumers. Apart from that, group accommodation facilities are located in the city centre. The geographical conditions are another cause of the small number and area of parks. As far as Poznań is concerned, the number and area of recreational parks is at a steady high level. The analysis of the area of recreational parks reveals that in Wrocław the area of recreational parks ranges from 1.01 ha to 1.33 haper 1000 inhabitants. These are the highest values among the three cities under study. In Szczecin the same ratio ranges from 0.40 ha to 0.41 haper 1000 inhabitants, whereas in Poznańthere were from 0.63 ha to 0.92 haof parks per 1000 inhabitants during the period under analysis. Lawns are another significant component of urban green space. Table 2. The number and area of lawns inthe cities under study City Number of lawns incities(pcs) Areaof lawnsin cities (ha) Poznań Szczecin Wrocław Source:The authors calculations based onthe Local Data Bank As can be concluded from the data in Table 2, Wrocław is the city with the largest number and area of lawns. However, it is necessary to note the fact that there is a decreasing tendency. The area of lawns in Poznań increased from 74.6 ha in 2006 to 90.3 ha in This situation was caused by the fact that new estates built in Poznań have a specific base of green space resulting from designs or spatial development plans. Developers building residential complexes must provide appropriate amounts ofurban green space. Szczecin was the next city under study, where lawns occupied an area of 48.5 ha and that area remained at the same level. The analysis of thearea of lawnsper 1000 inhabitants reveals that Wrocław has the highest ratio, whereas in Szczecin the ratio is the lowest. The next element under study was green space located along streets. Table 3 shows the values for green space located along streets. Areaof lawnsper 1,000 inhabitants (ha/1000 inhabitants)
124 PART 2 - NATURE TOURISM AND ENVIRONMENT 124 Table 3. The area of green space located along streets inthe cities under study Areaof green space located along streetsin cities Areaof green space located along streetsper 1,000 City (ha) inhabitants (ha/1000 inhabitants) Poznań Szczecin Wrocław Source:The authors calculations based onthe Local Data Bank The analysis of Table 3 reveals that both in Poznań and Wrocław the area ofgreen space located along streets was large. This situation was caused by the fact that the cities made key investments, reconstructing the roads or building bypasses, etc. before the UEFA European Championshipin The agglomerations of Poznań and Wrocław were developing spatially and required numerous investments, which resulted in the development of green space along streets. In those cities there was the highest ratio of green space along streets per 1000 inhabitants. In Poznań the area of green space per1000 inhabitants ranged from 0.54 ha to 0.66 ha, whereas in Wrocław this value ranged from 0.78 ha to 0.80 haper 1000 inhabitants. In Szczecin the absolute value of the area of green spacealong streets and the ratio per 1000 inhabitants were low. This situation resulted from the structure of spatial development of the city. Table 4. The area of green space in housing estates inthe cities under study Total areaof green space in housing estates per 1,000 Areaof green space in housing estates in cities (ha) City inhabitants (ha/1000 inhabitants) Poznań Szczecin Wrocław Source:The authors calculations based onthe Local Data Bank The next element under study was green space in housing estates. Table 4 shows the results. Poznań is the city with the largest resources ofgreen space in housing estates. The area of green space in housing estates was also large in Wrocław. This results from the location of housing estates within the areas of natural value. In Szczecin the area of green space in housing estates ranged from ha to ha.this resulted from the spatial development structure. Similarly to other components of urban green space, the area of green space in housing estates per 1000 inhabitants was the lowest inszczecin. In Poznań and Wrocław the ratio was high. It ranged from 0.83 ha to 1.16 ha in Poznań and from 0.65 ha to 1.17 ha in Wrocław.
125 PART 2 - NATURE TOURISM AND ENVIRONMENT 125 The structure of urban green space in the selected cities The authors of the article chose the following elements to study the structure of urban green space: recreational parks, lawns, green space located in housing estates and along streets. Figure 2 shows the share of recreational parks in the totalurban green space from 2006 to Poznań Szczecin Wrocław % Year Figure 2. The share of recreational parks in the structure ofurban green space Source:The authors compilation As results from the data shown in Figure 2, Wrocław was the city with the highest share of parks in the structure of urban green space, i.e. from over 40% in 2007 to 39.4 % in The share of parks in Poznań ranged from 30% in 2006to 20.7 % in 2010, whereas in Szczecin theshare of parks ranged from 19.1% in 2010to 23.1 % in In the cities under study some parks provide not only natural values but also educational, aesthetic values, etc. The next element described in the study is lawns. Figure 3 shows the share of lawns in the totalgreen space structure. Poznań Szczecin Wrocław % Year Figure 3. The share of lawns in the structure of urbangreen space Source:The authors compilation
126 PART 2 - NATURE TOURISM AND ENVIRONMENT 126 As results from the data shown in Figure 3, Wrocław was the city with the highest share of lawns inurbangreen space, i.e. more than 10% between 2006 and In the consecutive years the share of lawns decreased and did not exceed 7%. The shareof lawns inpoznań ranged from about 5.3 % in 2008 to about 4.5 % in On the other hand, in Szczecin the shareof lawnsin urbangreen spaceranged from about6% in 2006 to about 7% in 2007 and In all of the cities under study the share of lawns was low and it did not exceed 11%.The next element under study is green space in housing estates. Figure 4 shows the results. 50 Poznań Szczecin Wrocław % Year Figure 4. The share of green space in housing estatesin the structure of urban green space Source:The authors compilation As results from the data shown in Figure 4, in comparison with the other cities Poznań had the highest share of green spacein housing estates, i.e. about 30%. There is also a considerable share of green spacein housing estates in the structure ofurbangreen space in Szczecin and Wrocław.
127 PART 2 - NATURE TOURISM AND ENVIRONMENT 127 % Poznań Szczecin Wrocław Year Figure 5. The share of green space along streetsin the structure of urban green space Source:The authors compilation The next element under study was green space located along streets. All of the cities under study had a high share of green space located along streets in the structure of urbangreen space. Wrocław is the dominant city in this category. Theshare of green space located along the streets of Wrocław amounts to more than 23%. In the other citiestheshare of green space located along streets was more than 17%. SUMMARY At present each form of urbangreen space is a key element of urban development and it encourages active leisure and recreation. As results from the study, Wrocław and Poznań had abundant resources of green space.szczecin was characterised by a low share of green space in the spatial development structure. Wrocław was the city with thehighest share of individual components (i.e. recreational parks, lawns, green space located along streets) in the structureof urbangreen space. In Poznań green spacelocated in housing estates was the main component of green space.
128 PART 2 - NATURE TOURISM AND ENVIRONMENT 128 REFERENCES Bull A. (2009). The economics of Ravel and tourism. Addison Wesley Longman Australia. Australia. Czarnecki, B., Siemiński, W., (2004). Ład przestrzenny sprzyja integracji społecznej. Kształtowanie bezpiecznej przestrzeni publicznej. Warsaw: Wydawnictwo Difin, p Czarnecki, W. (1968). Planowanie miast i osiedli, (v. 3, Krajobraz i tereny zielone., p. 5). Warsaw-Poznań: Wydawnictwo PWN. Czerwiec, M., Lewińska, J., (2000). Zieleń w mieście. Kraków: Wydawnictwo Instytut Gospodarki Przestrzennej i komunalnej. Gaczek, W. (2010). Metropolia jako źródło przewagi konkurencyjnej gospodarki regionu. Łódź: Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Łódzkiego. Gazdecki, M. (2012). Materials from the presentation Turystyka przyrodnicza, ekoturystyka, turystyka wiejska, agroturystyka i turystyka kulinarna (NERAF), Poznań. Gras N.S.B. (1992). The Development of metropolitan Economy in Europe and America, American Historical Review 1992(27). Georgantopoulos A.G. (2012). Forecasting Tourism Expenditure and Growth: AVAR/VECM Analysis for Greece at both Aggregated and Disaggregated Levels.International Research Journal of Finance and Economics, Issue 96. Hejmanowski, S. (1989). Zieleń a ochrona środowiska człowieka.warsaw: Wydawnictwo Ludowa Spółdzielnia Wydawnicza. Kepel, A. (2002). Czasopismo Poznańskie tereny zieleni,kronika miasta Poznania: Wśród zwierząt i roślin, 3(2002). Poznań: Wydawnictwo miejskie. Lertwannawit, A., Anuwichanont, J. (2011). Tourist s expectation and perception towards environmental issue management for green tourism of KhaoYoi National Park. International Business & Economics research Journal, 10(9), 42. Lorenz, L., Martyniuk-Pęczek J. (2010). Problemy kształtowania przestrzeni publicznych. Gdańsk: Wydawnictwo Urbanistyka Gdańsk,133. Ładysz, I. (2009). Konkurencyjność obszarów metropolitalnych w Polsce.Warsaw: Wydawnictwo CEDeWu. Mackenzie R.D. (1993) The metropolitan Community. New York. Ogârlac, M.,Popa M. (2010). Sustainable development in rural tourism dezvoltareadurabila in turismul rural, LucrariStiintifice. seria 1, vol. XIII (4), 57.
129 PART 2 - NATURE TOURISM AND ENVIRONMENT 129 Oleynik V., Iaromenko S. (2010). Problems and prospects of development of green rural tourism in Ukraine. Regional Formation and Development Studies, 1 (6). Ptaszycka, A. (1950). Przestrzenie zielone w miastach.poznań: Wydawnictwo Ludowa Spółdzielnia Wydawnicza. Paquot T. (1996). Le monde des Villes, Edition complexe, Paris. Program rozwoju terenów zieleni, Program realizacyjny polityki utrzymania i rozwoju terenów zieleni przyjęty uchwałą nr XXVI/525/04 z dnia 20 września 2004r., p. 3.(Green Space Development Programme, Programme of Green Space Maintenance and Development Policy accepted in Resolution No. XXVI/525/04 of 20 September 2004, p. 3). Rocznik Statystyczny Miasta Wrocławia 2010,177.(Statistical Yearbook of the City of Wrocław). Saldatos P. (1987). La nouvelle generation des Villas international es, Montreal. Stanisławska-Zietek, W., Szczepańska, M. (2009). Struktura zieleni małych miast Wielkopolski, Nauka Przyroda Technologie. Poznań: Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Przyrodniczego w Poznaniu. (vol. 3, book 1, 2). Szulczewska, B., Kaftan J.(1996). Kształtowanie systemu przyrodniczego miasta. Warszawa: Wydawnictwo Instytut Gospodarki PrzestrzennejiKomunalnej. Szumacher, I. (2008). Funkcje terenów zieleni miejskiej a świadczenia ekosystemów. PraceiStudiaGeograficznet.46. Warszawa: WydawnictwoUniwersytet Warszawski,170. Świerszcz, A. (2010). Zieleń miejska w systemie przyrodniczym Kielc kształtowanie. Kielce; WydawnictwoKielce, 173. Ustawa o ochronie przyrody z dnia 16 kwietnia 2004 roku art. 5(Nature Conservation Act of 16 April 2004,Art. 5). Węcławowicz-Bilska E. (2008). Tereny zieleni o funkcji wypoczynku i lecznictwa uzdrowiskowego w obszarach metropolitarnych. Czasopismo Techniczne, Z5-A/2008, Kraków: Wydawnictwo Politechniki Krakowskiej,37. Zimny, H.(1997). Wybrane zagadnienia z ekologii. Warsaw: Wydawnictwo SGGW. Zimny, R.(1988). Czym naprawdę oddychamy. Warsaw: Wydawnictwo KIW.
130 PART 2 - NATURE TOURISM AND ENVIRONMENT 130 ORNITHOLOGICAL TOURISM IN POLAND AS AN EXAMPLE OF SUSTAINABLE TOURISM Monika Kordowska 13 University of Warsaw, Poland ABSTRACT The harmony between the natural environment and development of tourism is the basis of sustainable tourism. A good example of tourism realized in accord with the principles of sustainable development is the ornithological tourism. The most attractive areas for birdwatching in Poland are wetlands (e.g. lakes, rivers, artificial lakes, peat bogs and the Baltic Sea shore), hence it is them that I have taken particular interest in. The main purpose of this article is to analyze the phenomenon of ornithological tourism in Poland in the context of sustainable development. The article presents conditions, determiners and prospects of the development. In order to achieve that goal a reserch has been conducted among bird lovers in Poland, based on a questionnaire filled in by 230 people. Besides, the author of this article has carried out field study and participated in numerous ornithological events. The results confirmed that ornithological tourism in Poland exemplifies sustainable tourism if it follows the rules of sustainable development. Birdwatching can support biodiversity protection and socio-economic development of areas attractive for tourists. Nevertheless, some environmental threats are also associated with mass ornithological tourism. Keywords: ornithological tourism, sustainable tourism, wetlands, Poland 13 Author s
131 PART 2 - NATURE TOURISM AND ENVIRONMENT 131 INTRODUCTION Fundamentals of sustainable tourism The natural consequence of respecting the right of others to lead a decent life is the need to resign from certain things one finds convenient, favourable or profitable. Settling conflicts between humans and the rest of the world belongs to the principles of sustainable development (Sawicki 2003). Whereas many definitions of sustainable development were made in Polish and international literature, it would be hard to objectively distinguish the one that is or could become universal. The concept regards attaining the best possible balance of three areas: economy, society and ecology. In Poland sustainable development is recognized as a constitutional principle. The article 5 of the Constitution of the Republic of Poland of 2 nd April 1997 reads as follows: The Republic of Poland shall safeguard the independence and integrity of its territory and ensure the people's freedoms and rights as well as their security, it shall safeguard the national heritage and ensure protection of the natural environment pursuant to the principles of sustainable development. The latter is also defined in the Environmental Protection Law Act of 27 th April 2001 (Czarski 2011). The principles of sustainable development became the basis of the concept of sustainable tourism whose detailed goals were defined in 1995 in the Declaration on Sustainable Tourism. The definition was formulated by the World Tourism Organisation in Apart from the aforementioned definitions, subject literature offers many other descriptions of sustainable tourism, some very different from one another. Sustainable tourism should take into account the durability and flexibility of natural environment which depends in considerable part on the intensity of human activities (Poskrobko 2005). It should be tied to economies and fit the ethical norms of a given community (Dudek, Kowalczyk 2003). The local population should actively participate in the development of the area by establishing brands and products based on local natural values (Miedziańska 2008). The term in question should not be identified with a certain form of tourist movement, but it needs to correspond with the way the tourism sector is organized and how it operates as a whole, to establish boundaries for tourist movement growth level that would not harm the environment (Kowalczyk 2010). To ensure safety of natural environment
132 PART 2 - NATURE TOURISM AND ENVIRONMENT 132 and inhabitants of the areas especially popular among tourists, while still developing the tourist traffic, connections between economy, society and environment must be watched and examined. Integration of different forms of human activity is a basic and crucial requirement to achieve stable and sustainable development of each area (Poskrobko 2005). Birdwatching Birdwatching is one of the most popular forms of nature tourism. It is based on the observation of birds in their natural habitats, using optical devices, e.g. binoculars or telescopes. It is an active form of leisure, but also an intimate form of recreation, requiring knowledge of birds and their habitats (Janeczko, Anderwald 2011). According to the Polish Society for the Protection of Birds currently there are ca active birdwatchers in Poland. There are varius reasons why birds have become such a graceful aim for the observers. Kellert (1985) distinguished the following approaches of tourists to the animal world: naturalistic, ecological, humanistic, moral, scientific, aesthetic, utilitarian, dominant and negative. According to Kowalczyk (2010), people can sometimes be motivated by even several purposes at a time. Kurek (2007) believes that such behaviour is embedded in the very nature of a human being. People have been interested in birds from time immemorial because those were always hunted for by them. Nowadays the tourists take up interest in birdwatching owing to an easy access to information (books, Internet, scientific journals, TV and radio) (Campbell, Lack 1999). Birds are so attractive for the watchers because of the features of their bodies (sizes, silhouettes and colouration) as well as their various specific behaviour patterns. Moreover, the birds can inhabit almost any environment, be it near or far from human settlements. For all the reasons mentioned above the number of birdwatchers has been on the increase. The more closely the tourists will follow ethical standards and basic ornithological principles, the better example of sustainable tourism birdwatching will become. PURPOSE, RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND METHODOLOGY The main purpose of this work is to track the impact of birdwatching on functioning of the natural environment and to determine the potential socio-economic development through ornithological tourism. The subject of this article is the phenomenon of
133 PART 2 - NATURE TOURISM AND ENVIRONMENT 133 ornithological tourism in Poland in the context of sustainable development. The following research questions one general and two detailed have been raised: How can birdwatchers achieve purposes of sustainable tourism: ecological, social and economic? What personality traits should a birdwatcher have? What are the characteristics of birdwatching in the context of sustainable tourism? The following hypothesis has been put based on the questions: Birdwatching will become a perfect example of sustainable tourism if it follows the principles of sustainable development. Field research The study focuses on wetlands the inland surface waters on the area of the Republic of Poland since due to the highest bird species diversity they are the most attractive observation areas in Poland. Here we can distinguish: freshwater habitats, i.e. lakes, ponds, artificial water reservoirs, rivers, salt-water ecosystems of the Baltic Sea coastal zone, inland areas of water and marsh including peat bogs and other types of water and marsh areas (Swianiewicz 2006). The aforementioned wetlands owe their birdwatching attractiveness to a wide variety of local ornithofauna. There are 413 species of birds in Poland and over a half of them reside in wetlands (Dobrowolski, Jabłoński 2000). Moreover, many areas feature large concentrations of wetland birds, which exceed specimens nearby Szczecin Lagoon, Lower Odra River valley, Warta River mouth, Puck Bay and Biebrza Valley. Poland is also an important stopover for various migrating birds, e.g. cranes, bean goose and little gull (Wilk and others 2010). Quantitative research methods Using two types of methods allowed reaching different interest groups associated with ornithology tourism, namely those birdwatching in Polish wetlands or professional organizers of ornithological tourism activities as well as representatives of nongovernmental organizations with a respective focus. Surveys were conducted from September 2011 to August 2012 whose target group was people interested in birdwatching, those travelling for birding and all fans of this
134 PART 2 - NATURE TOURISM AND ENVIRONMENT 134 activity. Open and closed questions were asked. Respondents had been found personally or via the Internet. Qualitative research methods The second group consists of literature research, field observations, author s participation in ornithological events and free-form interviews. Surveys were conducted from October 2010 to November Moreover, informal interviews were done with birdwatchers with questionnaires filled in. There were discussions at different ornithology meetings, e.g. at meetings of the Polish Society for the Protection of Birds, also with leaders and guides, that the author participated in. The talks focused on the behaviour of tourists during the trips. Apart from surveys and interviews, literature research was necessary to reach the set goals. Information was gathered from internet publications, leaflets and folders distributed by tourist information centres and ornithological associations. RESULTS The environmental aspect Surveys, field observations, participation in ornithological events and literature research enabled the author to describe the phenomenon of ornithological tourism in Poland in the context of sustainable development. I focused specifically on the environmental objective of sustainable tourism. The ecological objective includes: respecting the natural variety of the region, monitoring impact of tourism activities on local flora and fauna, monitoring the environment while the tourism develops, promoting pro-ecological conduct and presenting achieved results of environmental protection for both tourists and locals. Bird lovers pursue these goals by participation in the events described below. Bird counting campaigns Birdwatchers willingly participate in different undertakings of environmental and ornithological associations. More than 30% of respondents have attended such events. The most popular initiatives among bird lovers are bird counting campaigns (Fig. 1), both local or national. They are organized by environmental associations and research units.
135 PART 2 - NATURE TOURISM AND ENVIRONMENT 135 The biggest and widely recognized action of this type in Poland is the winter bird counting campaign: Winter Birdcount (formerly called Winter Birdcount in Parks and Gardens). It is based on the annual campaign Big Garden Birdwatch which takes place in the British Isles (Ogólnopolskie Towarzystwo Ochrony Ptaków, website). Birds are counted in the last week of January. Contributing to the campaign is a great way to actively spend one's free time while being in close contact with nature. Any birdwatchers possessing the knowledge of bird species can take part. Counting may be done on one s own, in a group of friends, or with a guide during organized trip. The participants should only have a special observation card (Ogólnopolskie Towarzystwo Ochrony Ptaków, website). The counts are usually conducted along the largest Polish rivers (Vistula, Odra, Narew and others) and around water basins. The collected data allows to compare numbers of bird species in subsequent years. The ornithologists also may assess the impact of different factors, e.g. human activities (Salamandra Magazyn Przyrodniczy, website). Apart from the Winter Birdcount, environmental and ornithological associations in Poland organize small counts throughout the country. There are important city bird counts organized by the Warsaw Society for the Protection of Birds or Association for the Study and Conservation of Nature in Kielce. At the Całowanie Swamps in the Mazovian Voivodeship there is a popular annual bird counting campaign undertaken to estimate the size of the local population of corn crake. It is run every year by the Swamp Conservation Centre, the Polish Society for the Protection of Birds and Celestynów Forest Division. Apart for the counts of selected bird species (corn crakes and others), the organizers have been trying to popularize ornithology studies and nature conservation (Informacyjny Serwis Mokradłowy, website).
136 PART 2 - NATURE TOURISM AND ENVIRONMENT 136 Figure 1. Monitoring of birds during migratory seasons (autumn 2012) in the area of the Bug River - the Convention of members and well-wishers of Bocian Nature Society Photo by M. Kordowska Bird ringing Other interesting initiatives of the NGOs are bird ringing courses and camps. The courses are often connected with, often being among the highlights of, other environmental or ornithology events, e.g. with the European Bird Day. There the bird ringers teach how to properly read the rings so that everyone could report to proper authorities about the found ringed birds. Environmental associations organize ringing camps that may last from a few days to even a few weeks. A good example is the annual ringing camp in Kiszków (Będzino commune). Participants are expected to catch birds, help with putting the rings on and learn to recognize the species. These participants are usually, but not exclusively, university students and teenage pupils. The birdwatchers come from different parts of Poland (Nakło, Krakow, Warsaw, Piła, Poznań). The camp also serves educational purposes. The bird lovers, depending on their skills, participate in lectures and meetings concerning breeding periods, habitats, spring and autumn migrations (Salamandra Magazyn Przyrodniczy, website). Since January 2014 a new project has been implemented at the Kiszkowskie Ponds. It is called Birds from net birds in hand and financed by the Act Locally VIII Programme of the Polish-American Freedom Foundation. Several meetings with birds have been organized
137 PART 2 - NATURE TOURISM AND ENVIRONMENT 137 within the project, resembling the former ornithological camp in a nutshell (Związek Międzygminny Puszcza Zielonka, website). Bird ringing courses are made also for the most advanced birdwatchers by the Bird Observatory of the Museum and The Institute of Zoology of the National Academy of Sciences in Gdańsk. The main purpose of these is training and examining candidates for obtaining bird ringing permits. Apart from practical skills, theoretical knowledge is checked of the EURING system of coding age, of the Ringing Instruction and correctness of drawn documents. The permits are granted for specific species, groups of birds, or only for nestlings (Stacja Ornitologiczna Muzeum i Instytutu Zoologii Państwowej Akademii Nauk w Gdańsku, website). Conservation Bird lovers actively participate in nature conservation, too, which means direct aid for the birds and their habitats. It includes such activities as removing bushes and plants from peat bogs, water basins and other open areas inhabited or frequented by endangered species of birds as brooding areas (fig. 2). Such scientifically grounded actions can be performed on a regular basis or periodically, depending on conditions and needs. The conservation actions are organized, among others, by the Polish Society for the Protection of Birds, Swamp Conservation Centre and Bocian ( Stork ) Environmental association. Also birdlife is preserved or restored in ornithologically valuable areas utilized by men, e.g. for recreation (bathing places). There the birdwatchers e.g. clean the areas around water basins. Protection of their nesting places is crucial for the birds' well-being. Qualified birdwatchers install artificial nesting spaces, e.g. wicker baskets for long-eared owls, nest boxes for wild geese and platforms for ospreys, white-tailed eagles and golden eagles. Stable constructions on tree tops prevent the nests from falling or the birds falling out of them. Furthermore, the birdwatchers take part in cataloguing of populated nests and, after the brooding season, help clean and renovate them. Another activity concerning conservation of the nesting places is finding and protecting the nests of strictly protected species, like montagu's harrier. This bird makes nests directly on the ground, often on mowed meadows or farm fields. Associations members and bird fans search for such nests, meet with the owners and make agreements that the area within 15 metres from them will not be mowed. Such actions save lives of numerous birds.
138 PART 2 - NATURE TOURISM AND ENVIRONMENT 138 Members and helpers of environmental NGOs join programmes and projects aimed at preservation of seriously endangered species of birds. Such projects concern establishing bird protection zones, small nature reserves (e.g. protection zone of the Owczary Environmentalists Club in the Warta River Mouth National Park) or even introducing law changes. Often after an activity in its main course comes to an end, volunteers still monitor the birds and the areas covered by the project. The Polish Society for the Protection of Birds performs many different conservation campaigns, e.g. promotes the sustainable development of Podlasie and Nature Friendly Agriculture (Ogólnopolskie Towarzystwo Ochrony Ptaków, website). Figure 2. Conservation in the area of the Middle Vistula River Valley organized by Wetland Conservation Centre Photo by M.Kordowska Educational Activities Apart from practical activities for the conservation of birds and their nesting places, birdwatchers propagate knowledge on ecology among children, teenagers and adults. Ecological education is connected with obtaining information and skills concerning the natural environment in its components, in this case with a stress on ornithofauna. It is realized by ecology-oriented NGOs and includes events, competitions, screenings of nature
139 PART 2 - NATURE TOURISM AND ENVIRONMENT 139 documentaries and trips. Bird lovers willingly participate in such undertakings, which is depicted in the Figure 3. Publishing activities thrive as well: folders, environmental and ornithological path guides, maps of environmentally valuable areas are published in decent quantities. Popularization of environmental protection is taken care of by many different educational centres located, among others, in nature reserves. They organize lectures and meetings concerning the environment, fieldwork (including bird marking workshops) and environmental photography contests. The Słowiński National Park and its Museum of Nature in Smołdzino are notably active in this field. On the occasion of annual European Birds Day workshops are made for children and teenagers under the banner of Winged Citizens of Earth (Słowiński Park Narodowy, website). Th Wolin National Park hosts Environmental Photography Workshops (Woliński Park Narodowy, website). 35,0% 30,0% 30,7% n=267 25,0% 20,0% 18,8% 15,0% 14,9% 14,2% 10,0% 5,0% 6,3% 3,3% 0,0% Regional European Days events of Birds organized by nature societies Wirld Bird Day Bird Rally World Wetland Citizens Day meeting of the Bird Republic Figure 3. Participation of birdwatchers in ornithology events Self elaboration
140 PART 2 - NATURE TOURISM AND ENVIRONMENT 140 The environmental aspect threats The other side of ornithological tourism is the harmful impact the birdwatchers have on the natural environment, birds and their nesting or foraging places. There is no doubt mass ornithological tourism can damage the natural environment, nevertheless birdwatching on a much smaller scale (both quantitative and territorial) also has a negative impact on birds. Whether performed alone or in small groups in the natural environment, the ornithology tourism can become a potential local threat. The most serious threat to the environment and birds are novice tourists. Those fascinated with the natural beauty of the surroundings and impatiently looking for more bird species tend to become forgetful and trample the bird habitats, destroying plants around the nest, which in turn puts the nestlings in danger of being attacked by predators. Photographing birds Taking photos is the most harmful form of birdwatching. Nature photographers often breach the ethical norms of a birdwatcher for the sake of making a good picture. They get too close to the nests, scaring and disturbing the birds. Sometimes they take the nestlings out of their nests, which may even lead to destroying the brood. Such behaviour is not only illegal, but also inhumane. Contact with nestlings can take place only on the occasion of scientific research and even then an approval from the Ministry of the Environment must be obtained. Pictures using flash must not be taken if there is a risk of blinding the bird. Rearranging or cleaning the area for the sake of making pictures is also prohibited. Rules of photographing birds in Poland are regulated by the Environmental Protection Law Act of 16 th April Voice stimulation Voice stimulation also has a negative impact on the life cycle of birds. The problem is belittled by inexperienced birdwatchers. Such cases are especially dangerous in the breeding season. A male pygmy owl, for instance, provoked with recorded voice can sometimes end up being shocked to death. He would nervously fly around its territory looking for his rival, abandoning the female and the nestlings without enough food (Anderwald 2007). Similar behaviour can be observed in case of other species like corn crakes, nightjars and all owls.
141 PART 2 - NATURE TOURISM AND ENVIRONMENT 141 Economic and social aspects Apart from the advantages it brings for the natural environment, ornithology tourism has great social and economic potential: employment for people in rural areas, boosted promotion and sales of local products, e.g. food, development of trade in the region (shops with specialized equipment like portable bird lookout sets, camouflage clothing, waterproof clothing, rubber boots). The social objective consists of: conservation of cultural identity of local populations, increase the latter's importance in terms of the tourism policy and establishing personal contacts between people from ornithologically attractive areas and birdwatchers. These goals may be reached along with identification of the birdwatchers' needs and selection of the most valuable and accessible birdwatching areas. One of the most important effects of ornithological tourism is stopping the outflow of people from rural areas. The development of local entrepreneurship brings more workplaces, increase in demand for workers in accommodation, catering, public transport, transportation of canoes and bikes, tourist guiding, servicing of water equipment, bike and specialized equipment rentals, ecology education, workshops for children, teenagers and adults. 60% of respondents declared the need for such development, whereas 75% were convinced that one can earn a living on creation and maintenance of tourism infrastructure for observation of birds. Tourism services require a number of young, well-educated people. Farmers find it easy to move from agriculture to tourism sector, too. Work in tourism is specific. A notable problem for people working in tourism is the seasonal employment. It is a form of temporary work. The basic profit for the entrepreneur utilizing seasonal employment is an increase in competitiveness through lowering the work costs and easier accommodation to the fluctuating demand for goods and services. The most troubling for those employed seasonally is the fact that Polish regulations contain almost no provisions concerning the seasonal employment. The only base normative act concerning seasonal employment is the Act of 9 th July 2003 on employing the temporary workers. Moreover, a seasonal employer, interested only in employees for the given season, is becoming more and more common. It is not infrequent that owners of canoes and specialized equipment (binoculars, rubber boots) or travel agencies operate only throughout a single season. The season itself varies in length.
142 PART 2 - NATURE TOURISM AND ENVIRONMENT 142 In some regions, local governments or NGOs hold advisory meetings for farmers, their household members and unemployed that would be able to work in the tourism sector. These entities often provide vocational trainings for such people. A good example is Lower Silesia Eco Development Foundation which carried out an advisory and training project Green Workplaces in the area of the Barycz Valley. The project was co-financed by the European Union from the Regional Development Operational Programme. Main goal of the project was development of economic activities of farming families, to provide them additional sources of income. Within the project the Foundation provided cost-free trainings, advisory meetings for farmers ready to develop the economic activity of their farms and aid in drawing up applications. The training courses concerned e.g. birdwatching (guide services), learning the natural and cultural values of the region and its history (Fundacja Ekorozwoju, website). Such activities are seen as prestigious for the NGOs that take them up. Local governments also provide training courses and all necessary information. Finding employment by people living in ornithologically attractive areas raises their income and consequently improves their life conditions. Tourism can also indirectly impact the areas in terms of technical and economic infrastructure, road network and communication amenities. Changes in the demographic structure follow (slowing down the outflow of young people), as well as the locals' learning, mainly through raising or obtaining vocational qualifications. Yet in Poland ornithology tourism is a very young and poorly developed type of tourist activity and thus the scale of the expected changes is vague. Improvements can be noted by watching the already existing entities, such as environmental associations or local governments, or recognizing the creation of the large number of new ones. Apart from the mentioned Lower Silesia Eco Development Foundation, a local organization Wetland s Gate operates in and around Biebrza National Park. It involves local communes (Zawady, Rutki and Kołaki Kościelne) and NGOs: the Association for Sustainable Development "Agro-Group" in Białystok, Association of Rural Development Enthusiasts in Targonie Wielkie, Eco Tourism Association Biebrza for Connoisseurs, Integra Alternative Sports, Recreation and Tourism Association, and companies: Biebrza Eco-Travel, Bogusława Laskowska's Trainings. The aforementioned NGOs, companies and agencies provide workplaces. They organize various kinds of training courses for unemployed and
143 PART 2 - NATURE TOURISM AND ENVIRONMENT 143 establish advisory centres that help to obtain co-financing for tourism from the European Funds (Lokalna Organizacja Turystyczna Brama na Bagna, website). Ornithology tourism on a regional scale has a small impact on the development of the local industry (agriculture, food processing). Tourists willingly visits grocery shops to buy food for long trips, but there are not many of them, as birdwatching is by principle not a mass activity in Poland. On the other hand, locals can promote their own food (cheese, meats, sausages, alcohols, etc.) which are, according to the author s own experience, eagerly bought by tourists. One of the principles of sustainable development is the direct contact between locals and tourists. The former should not only prepare, but actively participate in events organized for the latter who in turn should be certain that the locals perceive them as friends. Therefore tourism affects both the guests and their hosts. It influences the social environment as well. Development of tourism should also be integrated with planning on different levels of the economy. Birdwatching can contribute to financial stability of families living in ornithologically attractive areas, if properly planned and managed, respectful for all the areas: ecology, culture, economy and social issues. Regional development strategies, operational programmes and environmental protection programmes are helpful to achieve this goal. In the Sarnaki Commune Development Strategy, for instance, owing to the value of the fauna especially birds of the Bug river there are provisions concerning the development of environmental tourism (including ornithological tourism). According to the authors of the strategy, the largest attraction for birdwatchers is the ornithological reserve Kózki to which ornithology trips are organized in the spring-summer season (Strategia Rozwoju Gminy Sarnaki, e-document). Entries concerning the development of birdwatching in the area can be found also in the Smołdzino Commune Development Strategy. A brand Birds Heaven is developed there. The project assumes establishing the National Ornithology Centre operating all year long, trips for bird lovers with professional guides, photography contests (e.g. Optics Gets Us Closer to Nature ), special events (e.g. Greetings and Farewell to Cranes ), a bird marathon and installing internet cameras in nests (Strategia Rozwoju Turystyki i Promocji Gminy Smołdzino część II Strategiczna, e-document).
144 PART 2 - NATURE TOURISM AND ENVIRONMENT 144 Birdwatcher profile Studies show that birdwatching tourists are people with ecological awareness. Bird lovers understand that their activities are not neutral for the birds and natural environment. 36% of respondents claimed that their impact on the life of birds (scaring off, disturbing) is average (fig. 4). As far as natural environment on the whole, 27% of bird lovers claim that their impact is large (fig. 4). The quoted reasons are mostly trampling bird reserves and other ornithologically attractive places, often also littering and noisy behaviour. 40% 35% 36% n=228 30% 27% 25% 20% 15% 12% 14% 17% 19% 24% 21% 12% 14% 10% 5% 0% 2% 2% none marginal small average large very large life of bird natural environment Figure 4. Birdwatchers opinion on the impact of birdwatching on the life of birds and their natural environment Source: own study Polish birdwatchers mostly received higher (73%) or secondary education (20%). Studies revealed that few tourists have elementary education (2%), lower secondary education (3%) or basic vocational education (3%), whereas representatives of the first two groups are exclusively teenage students. Respondents who received higher education have a degree in natural science (60%), humanities (14%), other (13%), technical degree (9%) or a degree in economics (5%). More than a half (60%) declare that their learning and/or work has been related to ornithology, environmental protection, natural science etc., which may explain their knowledge of the subject. Most bird lovers live in large cities with populations
145 PART 2 - NATURE TOURISM AND ENVIRONMENT 145 exceeding people (43%), like Warsaw or Poznań, where they have an easy access to ecological education. It should also be mentioned that birdwatchers are a specific group of tourists as far as their psychological profiles. Depending on the form of observation they choose (recording bird voices, photographing, filming) they usually are characterized by: 1. Patience and perseverance vital for bird voice recorders and photographers; achieving even modest successes may take several days or weeks 2. Self-reliance deciding where and when to go, good timing 3. Creativity crucial for building shelters and luring birds 4. Ability to work in a group and cooperate with other tourists A birdwatcher should be fit in order to be able to walk sometimes long distances to meet a particular species or specimen of bird or to mount a fake nest on a treetop. Features of ornithology tourism Ornithological tourism can contribute to sustainable development in the following ways: 1. Educating tourists, tourist sector employees and locals in ecology and ornithology; one should mention participation of museums (lessons, courses, trips, fieldwork) in environmental education 2. Infrastructure, e.g. watchtowers and footbridges made for observations and scientific studies, built mostly of wood, reed or cane; 3. Travelling undertaken individually or in small groups (family or friends), preceded by choosing tourism goals and directions 4. Own decisions, flexibility, effort and activities depending on the form of ornithology tourism (watching birds behaviour, making photos, recording voices); 5. Activation of local labour markets, unemployment reduction, development of entrepreneurship
146 PART 2 - NATURE TOURISM AND ENVIRONMENT 146 CONCLUSIONS Tourism as a sector of the economy is still perceived mainly as a way of achieving economic profits (both private and for communities), not as a form of activity according to the principles of sustainable development (Warszyńska 2006). In Poland it can contribute to natural and social environment preservation. Based on experiences of other countries it can make a great opportunity to create a form of tourism being source of satisfaction and benefiting from nature on the one hand and contributing to prosperity of the local communities on the other. Bird lovers, owing to their knowledge of and both interest and involvement in environmental protection, generally have a positive impact on Polish ornithofauna. They participate in various undertakings for the sake of saving birds and their habitats, e.g. in bird counting, ringing campaigns and field work aimed at nature preservation. Certainly these are not all the activities the birdwatchers are involved in. In order to integrate the members of environmental and ornithology associations, such works are often performed with participation of local communities. Nevertheless, ornithology tourism has its drawbacks as well. Despite their apparent or assumed ecological awareness the tourists can cause serious harm to the environment. Coming too close to the nests, brooding colonies, breeding locations, places of night rest or foraging, they disturb the birds natural life cycles, sometimes even scare a bird off its nest. They may lure the animals using a recorder. The especially unethical behaviour is photographing birds by their nests, destroying the brood. Ornithological tourism has some limitations, too. Birdwatching in a group of people or in places commonly visited by bird enthusiasts and tourists (e.g. in national parks or areas close or immediately adjacent to big cities), one should take special precautions. It is forbidden to make noise near the birds, especially in case of exceptionally timid species like calidrids, galliformes and predatory birds. Apart from its ecological aspect, ornithology tourism is connected with social and economical development of ornithologically attractive areas. People looking for employment opportunities or already employed in the tourism sector try to improve their vocational qualifications by learning foreign languages. This area requires cooperation on different organisational levels (local governments, local action groups, non-governmental
147 PART 2 - NATURE TOURISM AND ENVIRONMENT 147 organisations). This allows organising trainings and courses for future employees of the tourist services sector. Improving or obtaining new skills and jobs has a positive impact on the comfort of life in local communities, slows down the outflow of people to the cities and raises their selfesteem. By being in a direct contact with tourists, inhabitants of rural areas learn how to become more tolerant towards other people and their customs. It is also connected with adapting customs and patterns of behaviour from people leading different lives. Common sense of ornithology tourism organizers (travel agencies, environmental associations including the ornithological ones, local authorities) is a factor one must not overlook. Boundaries for development should be set, so that the tourism does not have a negative impact on a given area and does not cause any social conflicts. Thus, there is a clear need to perform scientific research in the field, to make it a springboard for future actions to adapt selected areas to birdwatching and to make them available for people sensitive to their importance and beauty. REFERENCES Anderwald D Turystyka ornitologiczna co to takiego? Turystyka w obszarach Natura Wnuk Z., Ziaja M. (ed.). Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Rzeszowskiego, Rzeszów. Butler R.W Alternative tourism: pious hope of Trojan Horse. Journal of Travel Research 28/3. Butler R.W Sustainable tourism: a state-of-the-art review. Tourism Geographies 1/1. Czarski E Wskaźniki zrównoważonego rozwoju Polski [e-document], Główny Urząd Statystyczny, Urząd Statystyczny w Katowicach, Warszawa. Dobrowolski K.A., Jabłoński B Ptaki Europy. Przewodnik terenowy. Wydawnictwo Naukowe Państwowej Akademii Nauk, Warszawa. Dudek A., Kowalczyk A Turystyka na obszarach chronionych szanse i zagrożenia. Prace i studia geograficzne, Warszawa, vol. 32. Fundacja Ekorozwoju, portal internetowy o ptakach, entry date:
148 PART 2 - NATURE TOURISM AND ENVIRONMENT 148 Janeczko E., Anderwald D Birdwatching jako nowa forma turystyki na obszarach leśnych i przyrodniczo cennych w Polsce, Studia i Materiały CEPL w Rogowie, Zeszyt 2 (27), Rogów. Kellert S.R Birdwatching in American society. Leisure Sciences 7/3. Kowalczyk A Turystyka zrównoważona. Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN, Warszawa. Kurek W Turystyka. Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN, Warszawa. Lokalna Organizacja Turystyczna "Brama na Bagna", entry date: Ogólnopolskie Towarzystwo Ochrony Ptaków, entry date: Poskrobko B Zarządzanie turystyką na obszarach przyrodniczo cennych. Wydawnictwo Wyższej Szkoły Ekonomicznej w Białymstoku, Białystok. Salamandra Magazyn Przyrodniczy, entry date: Sawicki G Ostoje Ptaków Ujście Wisły. Wydawnictwo AKSON, Warszawa. Słowiński Park Narodowy, entry date: Stacja Ornitologiczna Muzeum i Instytutu Zoologii Państwowej Akademii Nauk, entry date: Strategia Rozwoju Turystyki i Promocji Gminy Smołdzino cz. II Strategiczna [e-document], Landbrand s.c., pod redakcją Gonary H. Warszyńska J Turystyka zrównoważona na obszarze Beskidów Zachodnich. Studium uwarunkowań i barier rozwoju. Wydawnictwo IGSMiE, Kraków. Wilk T., Jujka M., Krogulec J., Chlarecki P Ostoje ptaków o znaczeniu międzynarodowym. Ogólnopolskie Towarzystwo Ochrony Ptaków, Marki. Woliński Park Narodowy, entry date: Związek Międzygminny Puszcza Zielonka, entry date:
149 PART 3 MEETINGS, INCENTIVES, CONFERENCES AND EVENTS
150 PART 3 MEETINGS, INCENTIVES, CONFERENCES AND EVENTS 150 DETERMINANTS OF CONVENTION & CONFERENCE SITE SELECTION: THE POLISH EVENT PLANNERS PERSPECTIVE Anna Para 14 Magdalena Kachniewska 15 Szkoła Główna Handlowa w Warszawie, Poland ABSTRACT The paper presents results of research on Polish event planners. The overall purpose of the study is to investigate main destination selection variables Polish event planners consider important in destination selection process. The current research focused on the destination selection variables that event planners used for events they held in The research was based on structured interviews carried on in February The research group consisted of members of four leading MICE associations. Questions created for the survey were based on an extensive literature review and previous studies which concerned main destination attribute requirements. The findings of the study suggest that overall cost is important or extremely important for 81,8%, accessibility by air and by roads is important or extremely important for 87.4% respondents whereas 98,3% event planners find support services for events very important. The results of the study will help the destination marketing organizations as well as marketing professionals in hotel meeting facilities and convention centres better position their services and better understand event planners needs and requirements. Keywords: convention site selection, requirements of event planners, MICE 14 Author s 15 Author s
151 PART 3 MEETINGS, INCENTIVES, CONFERENCES AND EVENTS 151 INTRODUCTION The meetings, incentives, conventions and events (MICE) industry has shown tremendous growth in the past two decades (Braun, 1992; Dwyer et al., 2000; Chacko & Fenich, 2000; Weber & Roehl, 2001; Kim et al., 2003; McCartney, 2008; Rogerson, 2012; Janakiraman, 2012). The growth of the industry can be attributed to various factors including the globalization, growth of business and technological advancements. The MICE industry is characterized by three highs (high growth potential, high added values and highly beneficial innovations), three larges (large output, large opportunities for employment and large industry associations) and finally by three advantages (the efficient utilization of human resources, technological know-how and assets). The MICE industry is one of the most crucial drivers of tourism destination development as well as an essential generator of employment, income and foreign investment. The event tourism represents non-leisure and leisure form of tourism, and event tourists are usually recognized as the highest-spending category of travellers (Holloway et al., 2009). Countries and destinations are vying with each other to promote themselves as a popular MICE destination, but the distributional potential of the MICE sector is highly dependent on the activities of professional conference organisers, event planners and their willingness to discover and market new destinations. One of the most important decisions that event planners have to make is selecting an appropriate site for an event (Vogt et al., 1994). The decision they make influences the number of attendees and determines how successful the outcome of the meeting will be (Lee & Back, 2005). The subject of this study is to identify the determinants of event site selection process. LITERATURE REVIEW The studies of the economic impact of MICE tourism have been undertaken with respect to particular countries (national economies), destinations or events (Peters & Jones, 1996; Dwyer&Forsyth, 1997; Lee & Back 2005) including the distribution of economic impacts of MICE tourism throughout nations (de Kadt, 1979; Archer&Cooper, 1994) as well as between the gateway cities and regional areas (Mistilis&Dwyer, 1999). Understanding event planners and the criteria they take into account is crucial for both meeting buyers and meeting suppliers (Comas and Moscardo, 2005; Vogt et al., 1994). The following literature review helps to look at site selection factors so far studied in the literature.
152 PART 3 MEETINGS, INCENTIVES, CONFERENCES AND EVENTS 152 The event planners decision making process has been present in many studies conducted since the early 1990 s, as starting from that time the MICE sector occurred to be one of the fastest growing segments of world tourism with an extremely distributional impact. Clark and McCleary (1995) revealed that understanding risk factors facing event planners and reducing those factors will improve a site s chances at being selected. Clark et al. (1996) argued that meeting planners for associations have different selection criteria for choosing convention sites. Organisers look for venues that will fit the theme of their event (Whitfield, 2009). Associations planning and site-selection processes vary according to the size and budget of the association (Kim et al., 2003). The vast majority of early research on planners decision making process has focused on physical facilities, equipment, attributes and amenities (Renaghan&Kay, 1987; Lowe, 1984; Wright, 1982; Hosansky, 1982), however Stavro and Beggs (1986) as well as Rutherford and Umbreit (1993) found that although the most important factors during site selection were meeting-room configuration and hotel location, the greatest concern during the meeting was hotel personnel. Lee and Hiemstra (2001) argued that many business possibilities lie in creating long lasting relationships between the salesperson of a hotel and the meeting planner. Also Lee et al. (2005) examined event planners perceptions of the hotel sales personnel. Certain characteristics of salespeople (expertise, power, willingness) could be a determining factor in building a lasting relationship between event planners and salespeople. Two studies on marketing to event planners (Bloom, 1981; Lowe, 1984) showed that recommendations by others and post-event reports were three of the top five factors influencing the choice of a hotel as a meeting site. Oppermann (1996) and Day et al. (2002) found that previous experience with a destination city influences the perception that event planners have when choosing destinations for their future events. His findings revealed that meeting planners with previous experience perceived destinations as better than those without previous experience with the given cities. However the findings of the study by Baloglu and Love (2005) were contrary to the findings in studies by Lowe (1984), Vogt et al. (1994) and Oppermann (1996): while examining 21 attributes to assess meeting planners selection criteria they showed that there was no connection between previous experience and image of the destination.
153 PART 3 MEETINGS, INCENTIVES, CONFERENCES AND EVENTS 153 Grant and Weaver (1996) shed more insight on what the attendees of conferences considered when selecting a meeting (networking, education, leadership and destination attractiveness and recreation/social programme). Oppermann and Chon (1997) studied the decision making process from the perspective of the main three players: the association, the destination and the potential delegates, where most emphasis was put on the last group. The authors identified four sets of variables influencing the participant decision process: the association/conference factors, locational factors, personal/business factors and intervening opportunities. Crouch and Ritchie (1998) developed a descriptive model to explain the variables involved in the site selection process important to event planners. The model covered six site selection factors (accessibility, local support, extra-conference opportunities, accommodation facilities, information and site environment). Another research (Upchurch et al., 1999) revealed the following attributes: availability of meeting room facilities, hotel room availability, hotel service quality, ease of transportation access and safety/security. Quite a few researchers investigated the importance of destination attributes which had to do with an overall destination image as a convention host city. However Getz (2008) determined: Planned events are spatial temporal phenomenon, and each is unique because of interactions among the setting, people and management systems including design elements and the program. Much of the appeal of events is that they are never the same and you have to be there to enjoy the unique experience fully; if you miss it, it s a lost opportunity. Fenich (2001) and Crouch & Louviere (2004) developed a scale to evaluate the most important characteristics which influence the choice of picking major cities as convention sites. The authors argued that despite convention facilities and the availability of rooms destinations must offer additional features to successfully compete. Meetings Market Report (2009) suggested that the most important factors for convention planners evaluating a destination were: availability of hotels or other facilities suitable for meetings, affordability of the destination, safety and security of the destination, ease of transporting attendees to the location, and distance travelled by attendees. Sometimes the perception of conventions attendees differ from those of meeting planners. Oppermann & Chon (1997) and Jago et al. (2003) studied factors influencing convention decision making and the relationship between the three main players identified
154 PART 3 MEETINGS, INCENTIVES, CONFERENCES AND EVENTS 154 in the model (international convention associations, international attendees and professional conference planners). The findings of the former study suggested that the first model should cover more players such as the local government organizations, convention centres and bureaus. Hinkin and Tracey (2003) indicated that similar factors were of importance to both event planners and the meeting participants. Security was ranked as the most important factor while other variables included: staff, meeting rooms-sensory, guest rooms, pricing and billing, food and beverage, public areas, recreational amenities and convenience. This study and its results could be compared with the results gained through similar studies conducted in different market segments in the US and the United Kingdom (Breiter & Milman, 2005). Jago and Deery (2005) examined the key factors for a successful convention and indicated some new emerging trends in the convention sector: the increasing number of female conference delegates, the increased need for internet facilities for conventions and the high priority placed by convention participants on the safety of the convention destination. New media seem to be underrepresented in the event planners decision making process. Kim et al. (2004) investigated the role of web-based marketing in the site selection process and argued that web-based marketing is not used to its full potential by convention sites. Bartfai (2011) gave an overview of conference facilities in three capital cities in the Central European area, along the Danube (Budapest, Bratislava and Vienna), analysing and comparing their possibilities and venues. At the end of his study the writer makes recommendations for the place of the mega-conference centre. Three major research areas were identified by conducting the literature review on site selection criteria. The first area of research explores the destination and venue attributes, the second area investigates the event attendee motivation, and the third area deals with destination/venue salesperson and event planner relationship. In a review of literature on site selection criteria there were nine destination selection factors most frequently identified in the studies: accessibility, availability of facilities (conference rooms, exhibit space, hotels, restaurantns etc.), service quality, affordability, destination image and reputation, attractions, safety/security, previous experience with a destination and overall cost (Oppermann, 1996; Oppermann & Chon, 1997; Crouch & Ritchie, 1998; Chacko & Fenich,
155 PART 3 MEETINGS, INCENTIVES, CONFERENCES AND EVENTS ; Getz, 2003; Taylor & Shortland-Webb, 2003; Comas & Moscardo, 2005). They were used as a basis for conducting the present study. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY There is a need for research which will help to identify the specific sets of variables that meeting planners perceive as the most important in selecting destinations for events. This study investigates the perceptions of Polish MICE associations members as well as nonattached event planners regarding destination selection criteria. There are four main organizations in Poland, which were established to provide member services such as education, networking opportunities, research reports and information on the trends in the MICE industry. One of them constitutes the Polish branch of an international association (MPI Poland Club, 59 members), the other being of regional character: Event Industry Association (Stowarzyszenie Branży Eventowej SBE), the Conferences and Congresses in Poland Association (Stowarzyszenie Konferencje i Kongresy w Polsce SKKP, 85 members) and Incentive Travel Operators Society (Stowarzyszenie Organizatorów Incentive Travel SOIT, 21 members). The members of those associations conduct most of their work in four areas: corporate events (including incentive meetings); conferences and conventions, sales meetings and training meetings. The primary objective of the following study is to determine how members of Polish event industry associations rate destination selection variables in comparison with attributes most commonly enumerated in international literature. The research method used structured interviews with Polish meeting and conference planners. The aim of this research approach is to ensure that each interview is presented with exactly the same questions in the same order, what ensures that answers can be reliably aggregated. In-depth telephone interviews were conducted with representatives of four event planners associations and forty five PCOs in the areas of destination selection and event planning. The survey was conducted in February Respondents were asked to provide details on events they held in The survey was pre-tested for face validity with a president of one of the four event professional associations in Poland. The questions created for the survey were based on an extensive literature review. The set of site selection variables investigated in the study includes: (1) accessibility by air and by roads, (2) number of first class hotel rooms or brand name hotels, (3) amount of dedicated exhibit space, (4)
156 PART 3 MEETINGS, INCENTIVES, CONFERENCES AND EVENTS 156 choice of restaurants, (5) image as a desirable place to visit, (6) reputation for hosting successful events, (7) previous experience with a destination, (8) safety and security, (9) support services for events, (10) overall cost. The respondents were asked to rate the level of importance at the time of destination selection of ten attributes. A Likert type 1-5 scale was used, where 1 represented Not at all important and 5 represented Extremely Important. FINDINGS OF THE STUDY When describing the largest events held in 2013, respondents indicated that they organise events in all of the four categories with the predominant majority indicating annual conference or convention (Table 1). Table 1: The largest events held in 2013 corporate events conferences and conventions sales meetings training meetings MPI 12.8% 84.2% 18.8% 23.4% Poland SBE 17.4% 56.7% 26.3% 32.5% SKKP 16.7% 78.3% 12.5% 43.8% SOIT 19.1% 45.9% 15.6% 15.9% The respondents were asked to rate the level of importance at the time of destination selection of ten attributes (Table 2). The ease of accessibility by air and by roads was indicated as important and extremely important factor by more than 87% of respondents in each of the associations. Only 3.2 % of them indicated the ease of accessibility was not at all important. The number of first class hotel rooms and brand name hotels in the destination was indicated as important and extremely important by over 68% of respondents, however almost 20% of respondents indicated that it was not at all important to them. On the other side 32% of respondents declared that when organising international conventions and conferences they start the planning process with the decision on the proper hotel brand and then start looking for the appropriate destination.
157 PART 3 MEETINGS, INCENTIVES, CONFERENCES AND EVENTS 157 The respondents rated the variable called amount of dedicated exhibit space as important and extremely important aspect with over 80% of responses. Only 1.8% of respondents stated that it was not at all important at the time the destination selection was made. Table 2: Factors influencing convention site decisions of Polish event planners Level of importance at the time of destination selection not at all important somewhat important neutral important extremely important accessibility by air and by roads 3.2% % 46.3% 41.1% number of first class hotel rooms or brand name hotels amount of dedicated exhibit space 19.1% 6.6% % 29.8% 1.8% % 40.1% 42.3% choice of restaurants 22.9% 23.9% 20.3% 30.3% 2.6% image as a desirable place to visit 32.3% 30.1% 24.2% 8.1% 5.3% reputation for hosting successful events previous experience with a destination 2.2% 14.3.% 35.6% 29.7% 18.4% - 9.2% 12,3% 32.2% 46.3% safety and security 3.3% 36.7% 44.8% 15.2% - support services for events % 91.1% overall cost 4.3% 2.6% 11.1% 51.2% 30.8% The choice of restaurant was one of the variables that seemed to show the most difference in the results of the study of the Polish event planners and those presented in the literature. The choice of restaurant was a neutral factor to 20% of the respondents and an important aspect to only 30% of the respondents. Only 2.6% participants declared that the choice of restaurants was extremely important, while 23% of them thought that it was not at all important at the time of destination selection. Close to 24% of them responded that it was only somewhat important. The destination image as desirable place to visit factor was rated as important or extremely important with only 13% of the respondents. This aspect was another variable that showed the difference in the results of this study and the literature review. 32% of
158 PART 3 MEETINGS, INCENTIVES, CONFERENCES AND EVENTS 158 respondents stated that a destination image factor was not at all important as a variable when selecting an event site and 30% declared it as only somewhat important. Reputation for hosting successful events was important or extremely important for only 48% of respondents, while similar study of international association members indicated almost twice bigger result. On the other hand the previous experience with a destination was ranked as extremely important by 46% of respondents and important by the next 32% confirming the similar observations made by Oppermann (1996) and Vogt et al. (1994). Polish event planners varied from the foreign ones in how they rated the safety and security variable. This factor was important for only 15% of respondents and indifferent for almost 45%. No one declared it to be of utmost importance. The variable of support services for events seemed to be most important to over 91% of respondents while the overall cost factor was important or extremely important for over 80% of respondents. Over 4% of respondents indicated this variable as not at all important. CONCLUSIONS As the competition grows it will become more important to destinations and conference facilities to identify factors influencing the event planners site selection decisions and appropriately position their services in the market. To have a chance of being selected as the host for a meeting, a hotel, city or destination must be included in the initial set of potential sites for the event. The results of the research could help determine what are the most important variables that Polish event planners consider when selecting destinations for different types of events. The results of the study indicated that in some aspects significant differences exist in how Polish and foreign meeting planners rate the importance of site selection factors. A significant difference was found in how event planners rate three destination selection variables: the choice of restaurants, safety and security, destination image as desirable place to visit and its reputation for hosting successful events. No significant difference was found in how Polish and foreign meeting planners rate other destination selection variables. The study provides more understanding in the search of an optimal combination of destination selection criteria. From a practical standpoint it could help marketing
159 PART 3 MEETINGS, INCENTIVES, CONFERENCES AND EVENTS 159 professionals in destination marketing organisations, hotel meeting facilities and convention centres become successful in attracting more events. As with all research, this study has some limitations, which must be acknowledged. The set of site selection variables investigated in the study is limited and can be broadened in the future research. However, the results presented in the paper are still broadly reflective and deliver crucial information for events' planners and managers. The area of MICE industry, event policy and planning as well as event logistics and staging will still represent a fruitful area for events researchers as in this area more work remains to be done. REFERENCES Archer, B., Cooper, C. (1994). The positive and negative impacts of tourism, in Theobald W. (ed.) Global tourism the next decade, Butterworth-Heinemann Ltd., Oxford, pp Baloglu, S., Love, C. (2001). Association meeting planners perceptions of five major convention cities, Journal of Convention & Exhibition Management, 3(1), Bartfai, e. g. (2011), Budapest, Bratislava and Vienna conference facilities, comparative analysis, Tourism and Hospitality Management, Vol. 17, No. 1, pp Bloom, H. (1981) Marketing to Meeting Planners: What Works, The Cornell Hotel and Restaurant Administration Quarterly, 22, No 2, pp Braun, B. M. (1992) The Economic Contribution of conventions: the case of Orlando, Florida, Journal of Travel Research, Vol. 30 No.3, pp Breiter, D., Milman, A. (2006). Attendees needs and service priorities in a large convention center: Application of the importance-performance theory. Tourism Management, 27( ), Chacko, H.E., Fenich, G.G. (2000). Determining the importance of US convention destination attributes. Journal of Vacation Marketing, 6(3), Clark, J.D., McCleary, K.W. (1995). Influencing associations site-selection process. Cornell Hotel and Restaurant Administration Quarterly, 36(2), Clark, J.D., Price, C. H., Murrmann, S.K. (1996). Buying Centers: Who chooses convention sites? Cornell Hotel and Restaurant Administration Quarterly, 37 (4), Comas, M., Moscardo, G. (2005). Understanding associations and their conference decision-making processes. Journal of Convention & Event Tourism, 7(3/4),
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162 PART 3 MEETINGS, INCENTIVES, CONFERENCES AND EVENTS 162 Rogerson, C. M. (2012) Urban Tourism Economic Regeneration and Inclusion: Evidence from South Africa, Local Economy 28 (2), Rutherford, D. G., Umbreit, W. T. (1993) Improving interactions between meeting planners and hotel employees, Cornell Hotel and Restaurant Administration Quarterly; Vol. 34, No 1; 68. Stavro, L., Beggs T. J. (1986) Buyer Behaviour and the Meeting Planner: An Exploratory Study [in:] The Practice of Hospitality Management II, eds. R. C. Lewis, T. J. Beggs, M. Shaw, S. A. Croffoot, Westport C.T.: AVI Publishing Company, 521. Taylor, R., Shortland-Webb, G.A. (2003). A delegate evaluation of conference satisfaction. In Proceedings of the Convention & Expo Summit Hong Kong: The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Upchurch, R.S., Jeong, G.-H., Clements, C., Jung, I. (1999). Meeting planners perceptions of site selection characteristics: The case of Seoul, Korea. Journal of Convention & Exhibition Management, 2(1), Vogt, C., Roehl, W.S., & Fesenmaier, D.R. (1994). Understanding planners use of meeting facility information. Hospitality Research Journal, 17(3), Weber, K., Roehl, W.S. (2001). Service quality issues for convention and visitor bureaus. Journal of Convention & Exhibition Management, 3(1), Whitfield, J. E. (2009), Why and how uk visitor attractions diversify their product to offer, Conference and Event Facilities in Journal of Convention & Event Tourism, 10: Wright, R. (1982) Adjusting Acoustics to the Meeting, Meetings and Conventions, July, Wu, A., Weber, K. (2005). Convention center facilities, attributes and services: The delegates perspective. Asia Pacific Journal of Tourism Research, 10(4),
163 PART 3 MEETINGS, INCENTIVES, CONFERENCES AND EVENTS 163 THE SCIENTIST AS A CONSUMER AT MEETINGS MARKET: QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS BASED ON A COMPARISON Sylwia Gorecka 16 Poznan University of Economics, Poland ABSTRACT The subject of this publication is in the area of business tourism, more specifically - individual business travels of university employees. A scientist is a person looking for answers to the questions that so far no one answered. Discussions, scientific cooperation, lectures and conferences, allows to experience a different way of thinking, sometimes different than in the native university, thus allowing the researcher to discuss the point of view or meet with experts in the field of interests. The article discusses the behaviour of scientists as a group of consumers in the international meetings market. In order to demonstrate this phenomenon using the method of potentials, also called the indicator method. Its main variables were: number of conferences, the number of researchers, the number of rooms and the number of chairs in the organizational structure of the university. The main purpose of this article is the attempt to answer the following question: what is the share of researchers in the international meetings market on the example of two universities in Poznan. The time is 2009 to Keywords: Conferences, university, meetings industry, indicator method, meetings market, scientists 16 Anthor s
164 PART 3 MEETINGS, INCENTIVES, CONFERENCES AND EVENTS 164 INTRODUCTION Universities employees belong to the group of business travelers. Business travel means all travel, that objectives of which are related to work or the interests of the traveler. Thus, employees of universities are traveling on business. On the other hand, universities in the meetings market act as suppliers of space. They have classrooms, technical infrastructure as well as "learning space". The primary objective of this publication is to determine what is the participation of scientists in the international meetings market by the method of potentials (also called indicator). The first part discusses the basic needs and requirements of business meetings, while the second shows the size of the market. In the third a typology of scientists was presented. The next section presents the research methodology, together with the results. The final conclusions are presented along with a summary. The needs and requirements of business meetings Researchers at the meetings market are treated as business tourists, because they are participants in the individual missions pursued in order to come to a conference, congress or seminar (Davidson, 2003). These trips are not directly related to the business, but are included in the activities of this branch of tourism in accordance with the recommendation of the UNWTO (UNWTO, 2008). The requirements for business travel of university employees are the same as other tourists who beyond basic needs such as accommodation, transport and meals pays their attention to the (Wroblewski, 1999): Availability of meeting rooms, High quality of hotel service, The protection and safety at the meeting, Attractive location and the cleanliness of the place of destination, Easy access by plane, Costs associated with food and accommodation (Malachowski, 2004). Sometimes it happens that a project like conference is entrusted to a professional tourism companies who negotiates with hotels, carriers and the organizers of the
165 PART 3 MEETINGS, INCENTIVES, CONFERENCES AND EVENTS 165 conference. In order to attract the largest number of professional customers, travel agency proposes an improving individual travel arrangements. Size of meetings market Industry meetings in Poland is a broad socio-economic phenomenon, describing it shortly is not easy (Meetings Week Poland, 2014). Therefore, any statistical data indicating the size and number of meetings are only an attempt to grasp the scale of the phenomenon. According to recent studies conducted in the country by the Polish Tourist Organization in the past year, the number of business meetings can be found in a range between and (Meetings Week Poland, 2014). In Poland, took place from 100 to 200 international meetings (according to the terminology proposed by ICCA and UIA). However, in the same conferences attended from 4.5 to 5.5 million people. A detailed analysis of the conference and congress industry in Poland have been taken in the "Industry meetings and events in Poland", assuming sample size of more than meetings and events. Data were obtained through the cooperation of Poland Convention Bureau, Polish Tourist Organisation, together with the regional Convention Bureaux across the country. The above analysis also involved recommended congress organizers and universities. Through a survey among conference participants that their average length of stay in the visited towns (Gdansk and Warsaw) was 3 days. Moreover, in this period, they released an average of 791 PLN per person, not including the amount of the fee for the organizer. At the same time, respondents were tested on average while participating in meetings benefited from the 2.5 rate. In 2012, according to the PCB POT data contained in the report "Meetings and events industry in Poland" in Poznan took place 1974 conferences and congresses - 70% of the business tourism sector. Kinds of meetings participants A scientist is a person looking for answers to the questions that so far no one has answered using methods to confirm their answers (Mazur, 1970). As detailed in the article meeting with the participation of academics, as well as the organization of events by these people, it is therefore clear that it is a term of employment applicable to academic institutions for certain types of positions. At the same time it is not the same as a scientist,
166 PART 3 MEETINGS, INCENTIVES, CONFERENCES AND EVENTS 166 as a fundamental difference between the "competition" is to conduct research that are not mandatory in the case of a researcher. In this case the answer to the question of who is a scientist does not seem easy because mosaic of different personality types are innumerable and difficult to identify one specific intellectual type. The literature classified them into different groups in order of decreasing degree of creativity: Scientists pioneers, adventurers, daredevils, artists - make new laws and scientific theories, breaking the commonly accepted; Scientists classics - who are also masters of the craft of scientific, corporate behaving in science; Scientists stimulators, postulators, called methodologist, directors - who are themselves not attempt to solve the problems, but they have the ability to search, ask questions and nudging them to others; Scientists scholars, compilers, critics - gather, confront and transform people's ideas in order to present them in a systematic and critical way; Scientists contractors - they carry out activities involving the collection of statistical data, taking measurements, making calculations according to specified formulas; Scientists educators (teachers) - they deal with the transfer of existing knowledge to others through teaching in college or in the form of a work of popular science Administrators - this group manages the work of scientists; Almost scientist - they are given by unproven beliefs in a way that give the impression as if they were scientifically proven; Career - not having the proper qualifications to practice the profession of researcher, and academic titles acquired by non-scientific considerations (Mazur, 1970). METHODOLOGY As already mentioned when discussing the size of the meetings arket, trying to estimate its multiplicity and quantities are extremely difficult, even with widely felt the lack of reliable and comparable statistical data, as well as regular testing, which may allow the delivery of knowledge of that same sector.
167 PART 3 MEETINGS, INCENTIVES, CONFERENCES AND EVENTS 167 As one of the main reasons is the lack of widely accepted and uniform terminology for business tourism (Rockett; Smillie, 1994). Among professionals, the term raises many objections, because this group uses two terms: "the meetings industry" or "industry conference". It should also be noted that an additional difficulty in estimating the size of this phenomenon is the large diversity of the sector, both from the demand and supply side. In particular, business trips, where participants are scientists it is difficult to measure. In view of the above problems, the researchers involved in the meetings it was decided to present by means of the indicator method. It is based on identifying market opportunities, two universities with the potential: Poznan University of Economics and Department of Geography and Geology at the Adam Mickiewicz University in Poznan. This method was developed in a way to make a thorough analysis of both the demand side and the supply side of the market scientific meetings. This analysis also will be a comparison between the two universities. Through the supply side will be understood all the conferences organized at universities in buildings in which researchers operate on a daily basis, and therefore within the institution as a meeting place, but not as actors. Another one-way trips employees make for congresses, conferences and seminars, for example, out of the country. In the methodology, a number of such phenomena will be understood by the demand side. The applied potential variables that allow the calculation of market potentials of both academic units are: The number of conferences organized by the institution within it, The number of international conferences, in which employees were participants The number of employed researchers, The number of rooms available to institutions (assumed here a minimum of 50 seats) The number of departments or establishments in the organizational structure of the university or faculty.
168 PART 3 MEETINGS, INCENTIVES, CONFERENCES AND EVENTS 168 Based on the above variables indicators that were used to extract the following potentials were created: Potential demand per employee - is an indicator of talking about the number of exit conference on the international level by the number of employees; o Formula: number of international conferences exit / Number of employees. Potential demand cathedral or faculty - is the quotient of the number of conferences outside of research centers, in which employees were participants by the number of faculties or departments for the university; o Formula: number of conferences away in the cathedral, plant / workers Cathedral. Potential demand international cathedrals - is a factor of talking about the number of international conferences away by the number of departments; o Formula: number of international conferences exit / Number of departments. Potential demand (entrance) employees - expressed as the ratio of the number of conferences has been away in the cathedral by the number of employed researchers; o Formula: number of international conferences / number of employees. International purchasing power (the share of trips to international conferences) - is the ratio of talking about the number of international conferences away to all conference outside the university; o Formula: number of international conferences exit / number of conferences outside the university. Potential organizational researchers - a factor determining the ratio of the conference for the cathedral by the number of researchers employed in these units, respectively; o Formula: number of conferences in the unit / faculty unit. Potential organization or institute Cathedral - is a pointer pointing to the quotient of the number of conferences in the cathedral or the institute by the number of departments, the faculty; o Formula: number of conferences (or department chair) / number of cathedrals. Potential organization (supply-side) overall - this ratio is the quotient of the number of conferences organized at the universities by the number of academic staff employed there; o Formula: Number of conference / total number of academic staff.
169 PART 3 MEETINGS, INCENTIVES, CONFERENCES AND EVENTS 169 Potential international organization - is the ratio of talking about the number of international conferences in relation to all organized by the institution within it; o Formula: number of international conferences / number. Conference on the spot. Potential international organization employees - is an indicator expressing the ratio of conferences with international scope by the number of employees; o Formula: number of international conferences / number of employees. Potential international organization cathedrals, the plant - is the ratio of talking about the number of international conferences organized by the number of businesses or departments; o Formula: number of international conferences / number of departments, businesses. Potential Operating institution - is the quotient of the number of conferences taking place within the institution by the number of rooms, which can accommodate a minimum of 50 people; o Formula: Number of conference / meeting number. Potential Operating Entities - an indicator for the number of rooms per cathedral or facility; o Formula: Number of rooms / unit (plant, cathedral, department). Potential Operating faculty - is the ratio of the number of rooms per one researcher; o Formula: Number of rooms / academics. RESEARCH RESULTS The research was conducted in October 2011 and July Their aim is to measure the potential market researchers of UEP and FOGAG using the indicator method. Compiled results of the research have been developed through the analysis of the content and existing statistical data. The source of the data acquisition were UEP Information Bulletins. The journal was the only, albeit not entirely reliable source because the information contained therein (which report on the activities of departments) were submitted voluntarily. Through the demand side will be understood all researchers trips to the conferences. In order to describe this phenomenon, indicator method was used and the potentials
170 PART 3 MEETINGS, INCENTIVES, CONFERENCES AND EVENTS 170 method was applied. When scientists create a demand for conferences they are in the role of buyers in the meetings market. In Table 1 data on the number of conferences that were leaving researchers in was prepared. On their basis, a rate that has been expressed product of the number of conferences away by the number of workers employed at the university or faculty. Table 1. Overall demand potential UEP and FOGAG. UEP FOGAG Years Number of Potential Number of Potential conferences conferences ,20 2 0, ,16 5 0, ,21 7 0,03 total: 302 0, ,05 Source: Own calculations based on the research. Supreme purchasing potential of UEP employees reported in 2009, then one employee left an average of 0.21 conference. The lowest was in 2010, as it stood at In contrast, purchasing potential for FOGAG in the years showed a downward trend. On average, in 2009, the faculty researcher left at 0.03 conferences, and in 2011 only to This means that the faculty of the University of Economics in Poznan take an active part in the meetings market as participants (Table 1). Table 2 summarizes the overall demand potential for UEP and FOGAG. It is the ratio of the number of speakers of the conference, which took part in the institution's staff out of the area by the number of departments or establishments in the organizational structure of the university. In the years the highest rate was recorded in 2009 for the university, the cathedral there were 1.95 conference. By contrast, in 2010 this ratio was the lowest since the employees from all departments went on 1,49 conference. On the faculty in One researcher at the institute went on an average of 0.28 meetings. Then, the rate was the highest. Putting together UEP and FOGAG higher potential demand for units (organizational structure), was recorded for both the university departments for each year separately and together. It can therefore be concluded that scientists in these departments are more active in the meetings market in the acquisition process than comparably faculty of institutes (Table 2).
171 PART 3 MEETINGS, INCENTIVES, CONFERENCES AND EVENTS 171 Table 2. The potential demand of UEP departments and FOGAG. Years UEP Number of elsewhere conferences Potential FOGAG Number of elsewhere conferences Potential ,85 2 0, ,49 5 0, ,95 7 0,28 Total: 302 5, ,56 Source: Own calculations based on the research. Detailed analyses were also made on number of international conferences in which employees of UEP and FOGAG participated. Therefore, all indicators will include this variable. In Table 3, were placed overall results of the international demand potential. Through this index all international conferences, in which university faculty or department participated, will be described. In an average of one UEP researcher went on a 0.28 international conference, the employee of FOGAG only at 0.16 this kind of meeting (Table 3). Table 3. International overall potential of UEP and FOGAG Years Number of international conferences UEP Number of local conferences Potential Number of international conferences FOGAG Number of local conferences Potential , , , , ,35 total: , ,16 Source: Own calculations based on the research. Comparing the results of international potential demand for workers of FOGAG and departments of UEP, higher values were obtained for the university, rather than faculty. On average, a scientist employed at the UEP Cathedral went at 0.16 meeting, the employee of the institute went at Thus, the higher activity to participate in conferences with an international reach outside the institution observed for UEP employees (Table 4).
172 PART 3 MEETINGS, INCENTIVES, CONFERENCES AND EVENTS 172 Table 4. International potential of UEP departments and FOGAG Years Number of conferences UEP Number of employees Potential Number of conferences FOGAG Number of employees Potential , , , ,01 total: , ,02 Source: Own calculations based on the research. According to the adopted methodology, organizational capacity (supply-side) expressed a general indicator of the number of conferences organized by a number of academics. For the Poznan University of Economics and the Faculty of Geographical and Geological Sciences in Poznan, the results are presented in Table 5 This potential in the years showed an upward trend. This trend is inextricably linked with a number of conferences, which number from year to year increased. In this period the number of employees has not changed. In total, the university has organized 114 meetings, and its overall organizational capacity was approximately This means that the average worker accounted for 0.22 UEP conference. The potential for this department showed a downward trend. In 2009 and 2010 remained at the same level, then per FOGAG employee accounted for 0.05 of the conference, and in 2011 its value had fallen to This change was caused by a smaller number of conferences. Comparing the overall organizational capabilities UEP with FOGAG pull out following the request, and so ratios for individual years for UEP are higher than for a single department of other scientific centre (Table 5). Table 5. Organizational potential of UEP and FOGAG Years UEP Number of conferences Number of employees Potential /years FOGAG Number of conferences Number of employees Potential , , , , , ,03 Total , ,13 Source: Own calculations based on the research.
173 PART 3 MEETINGS, INCENTIVES, CONFERENCES AND EVENTS 173 Another potential organization for which the research was conducted is the factor of the number of conferences per cathedral or institute in the department. Table 6 shows the potential of organizational departments and institutes. For the University of Economics in Poznan the highest potential equal to 0.82 was obtained in In contrast, the lowest rate was recorded in Then, approximately one cathedral accounted for 0.53 of the conference. In the years the overall potential organizational departments showed an upward trend. At the Faculty of Geography and Geology in 2009 and 2010 worker organized 0.56 conference. A year later, only 0,32 meetings per researcher working at the institute (Table 6). Table 7 presents the results of research on international organizational capacity for UEP and FOGAG. With this kind of potential will be described all the conferences held within the institution, having international importance. An average researcher at the university during this period held about 0.16 meeting at the international level, while an average of one faculty member was the organizer of an 0.28 international range conference (Table 7). Table 6. The organizational potential departments UEP and FOGAG Years Number of conferences UEP Number of departments Potential Number of conferences FOGAG Number of institutes Potential , , , , , ,32 Total , ,48 Source: Own calculations based on the research. Table 7. International organizational potential of UEP and FOGAG UEP FOGAG Years Number of Number of Potential Number of Number of Potential international conferences conferences total international conferences conferences total , , , , , ,36 Total , ,28 Source: Own calculations based on the research.
174 PART 3 MEETINGS, INCENTIVES, CONFERENCES AND EVENTS 174 Table 8 presents the results of an international organizational capacity for departments and institutes of UEP and FOGAG in Definitely a higher score was recorded for researchers of the FOGAG than for employees of UEP cathedrals. This means that on average one person from the FOGAG organized 0.4 conference on the international level, while for the scientist of UEP only 0.1 events (Table 8). Table 8. International organizational potential of UEP departments and FOGAG Years Number of international conferences Number of departments Potential Number of international conferences Number of institutes Potential , , , , , ,2 Total , ,4 Source: Own calculations based on the research. CONCLUSIONS After analysing the meetings market, researchers in both centres on the demand side, overall demand potential faculty for UEP was higher than FOGAG. Thus, they create a greater demand for conferences in which they are participants. In 2009, an average of one university employee went to the 0,21 conference. It should also be noted that to a large extent were foreign trips to neighbouring countries, but the staff also travelled to more distant countries like South Africa, USA, Taiwan and China. In addition the UEP reported higher demand potential units (average 0.28 for an academic conference) than FOGAG (one employee went to the 0.16 meetings ). In practice, this means that the cathedral are more active in the process of acquiring the conference. After analysing the research, results of general meeting market demand proved to be greater for the UEP. However, keep in mind that it can directly affect the number of the conference, in which employees take part, along with a number of departments. The last parts of the meetings market, for which researcher study was carried out is the international supply. Developed indicators express the amount of conferences on the international level by the number of employees, departments or businesses. It turned out that the international organizational potential is higher at the Department of Geography and Geology (one researcher has organized an average 0.28 conferences) than UEP. Therefore, it
175 PART 3 MEETINGS, INCENTIVES, CONFERENCES AND EVENTS 175 is concluded that the faculty members as well as plants show greater activity for conferences at international level, and thus they produce more international supply of UEP. Limitations This study presents an objective limit to which, inter alia, include data submitted voluntarily to the Information Bulletin by researchers at the University of Economics in Poznan. Retrieved though only, it is not fully reliable. Another problem is the lack of similar studies in other universities, the results of which could be used to compare the UEP with another comparable academic centre. Also, the researcher considerable limitation is the lack of literature in the field of conference and congress tourism. However, to accurately determine the international meetings market researchers at Poznan universities should make in-depth analysis involving the examination of all colleges (public and private) in the organization of conferences, and participation in them. This would provide complete information in this regard. Currently tested was only a small area of the university meetings market, giving an incomplete picture of suppliers and buyers. Thus, in the above considerations, this study can be application to the institution or conference centres interested in the study of their potential for the wider conference tourism. REFERENCES Celuch K., Dziedzic E., (2013). Report: Meetings and event markets in Poland 2013, Retrieved from: Davidson R., Cope B., (2003). Business Tourism, Polska Organizacja Turystyczna (Polish Travel Organization), Warsaw. Malachowski K., (2004). The role and importance of tourism congress, W: Szczecin University no 383 Economic problems of tourism no 4. Mazur M., (1970). The natural history of Polish scientist, State Publishing Institute, Warsaw, Poland. Mazurek K., A. Stys, (2000). Marketing through centuries", Wroclaw, pp Meetings Week Poland, (2014). Conference materials, Warsaw, from:
176 PART 3 MEETINGS, INCENTIVES, CONFERENCES AND EVENTS 176 Ministry of Economy, Labour and Social Policy, (2003). The methodology of research and pilot studies of business tourism, Tourism Institute, Warsaw, Poland, pp. 31. International Recommendations for Tourism Statistics (2008). Madrid New York, World Tourism Organization pp. 23; 29; 106. Tourism market, (2001). It is still an attractive market segment, no 13-14, pp. 19. Rockett G., Smillie G., (1994). The European Conference and Meeting Market, Travel&Tourism Analyst. Wroblewski S., (1999). Association Conferences and Congresses in Poland. "Problems of tourism" no 1., pp. 88.
177 PART 4 HEALTH AND MEDICAL TOURISM
178 PART 4 HEALTH AND MEDICAL TOURISM 178 DEVELOPMENT OF HEALTH TOURISM AND ITS IMPACT ON SHAPING HEALTHY LIFESTYLE BEHAVIOR Izabela Pruska 17 Academy of Physical Education in Poznań ABSTRACT Description: the paper is a review of the origin of health resorts dating from ancient times up to the present day. It also allows for legal regulations of health resorts and their functioning in Poland, as well as their location throughout the country. The main dimension of the paper is the idea of taking up health tourism as a way of keeping healthy lifestyle in the days of hard work, excessive stress and the threats of civilization diseases. The aim is the analysis of health tourism across centuries and the idea of healthy lifestyle based on physical activity Methodology: the paper is a review of literature relating to health tourism, its history and modern state, health tourism and physical education, as well as physical activity. Conclusion: Nowadays, attractive offers of health resorts draw more and more tourists. A stay at a health resort does not only involve health therapy, but also rehabilitative and weight exercises, beauty treatments aimed at keeping fit and providing for overall wellbeing. Keywords: Tourism, health resort, physical activity, stress 17 Author s
179 PART 4 HEALTH AND MEDICAL TOURISM 179 INTRODUCTION Health is placed at the top of the value system. In the Roman Empire, wealthy citizens benefited from trips to the health resorts within the scope of health boost and leisure (Jędrzejewski 2012). The first physician who appreciated the nature influence on the human body was Hippocrates (Trzeciak 1997). World Health Organization (WHO) defines health as the complete physical, psychological and sociological condition of wellbeing. In the research proved that the most effective, health improving measure of an individual as well as the population is physical activity. The asset of sport shall be perceived as an overall human lifecycle since childhood up to the old age (Toczek-Werner 2002). Health boost and physical activity can be aimed at in the health resorts (with the exclusion of medical treatment) together with specialized tourism (Gaworecki 2003).The tourist while being in the health resort is cured with the natural treatment based on water, climate with the use of the medical equipment and acquire the knowledge concerning healthy lifestyle. Nowadays, health tourism is one of the fastest developing branches of tourism and health resort is both place to improve wellbeing through relaxation and the so called academy of health education. The periods of the health tourism development In the ancient times during the Roman Empire thermal water that is hot springs was used at the beginning for the hygienic purposes, further recreational and social and finally medical. Numerous thermal water sources located in Apennines, Pyrenees and Alps enabled the nobility and army to bathe during of which various discussions were conducted, flirts took place and the body boosted. Some of the sources (especially sulfide and of volcanic origin) were used in order to undergo medical treatment (Krasiński 2001). Places of hot springs were called terms. Those times terms were comprised of magnificent buildings with marvelous architecture designed to bathe, exercise, leisure and jointly free time spending some of them designed to the treatment with the use of mineral water. Hot springs in the Thermopolis were of high popularity as well as the ruins of baths of Caracalla in Rome. The reference to the Latin proverb orandum est ut sit sana in corpore Sano ( a sound mind in a sound body ) as the ancient Romans used to say should be made here because in Rome during the Caracalla Emperor times magnificent baths were built. These were of typical construction for the times of the Roman Empire. These baths were located on an enormous
180 PART 4 HEALTH AND MEDICAL TOURISM 180 area (11acres) and comprised of numerous rooms such as the following: cloakroom, various gym rooms, massage rooms, break-out rooms, sauna, swimming pools with both hot and cold water and the space for sports competitions. The rich decorations were complemented with greenery and different monuments. The ruins still exist and constitute the tourist attraction. Picture 1.The Ruins of Baths of Caracalla in Rome Source: Termy Karakalii. (n.d). Retrieved June 25, 2014, from Till the present times, the ruins exist in the following places: Baden-Baden (Germany), Vichy, Monte Dore (France), Bath (Great Britain), Aquincum Budapest, St. Moritz (Switzerland), Trencianskie Teplice (Slovakia) and in Italy. Picture 2. Ancient Roman baths in Bath ( Great Britain) Source: Ancient Roman baths in Bath (Great Britain). (n.d.). Retrieved June 25, 2014, form
181 PART 4 HEALTH AND MEDICAL TOURISM 181 In the ancient times, godliness and the deeds of the body mortification were the main aims and suffering was the measure which leaded to salvation. It were not the baths, however, water from little springs that had the healing power. Health Resorts were not important then. In the XVII Century, the healing power of thermal water and hot springs started to be considered. Every disease such as follows: consumption, bone aching, deafness were treated in the baths with the use of water, goat s milk and leeches. Those times people trusted more in the nature s healing power and there was the lack in an appropriate medical knowledge. The XIX century was the time of health resorts development placed in beautiful buildings with vast parks, ballrooms, theater rooms which were to be the exquisite places designed for the meetings of the intellectual elite, artists and nobility which were attracted in huge number to the health resorts including mineral water pump rooms. These were the places to meet, gossip, dance, play tennis, satisfying mainly entertainment needs with the opportunity to health boost, however, commonly making it worst because of the pleasures (Krasiński 2001). Picture 3. Health resort in Baden (Austria) Source: Health resort in Baden (Austria). (n.d.). Retrieved June 25, 2014, from In the XX century, health resorts aimed only at medical treatment. Healthcare protective needs overcame the other requirements and the entertaining needs were not important any more. Snobbish trips to health resorts came into being after the crisis years in the thirties of the XX century, however, for the very short period of time (Krasiński 2001).
182 PART 4 HEALTH AND MEDICAL TOURISM 182 Health tourism in Poland Similar to Europe, in Poland health tourism was a luxury for the small group of people in the past. Nobility, rich people, buyers benefited from health resorts. Hot springs located at the Lower Silesia were of high popularity in the XVI century. In the second decade of the XX century Polish health resorts became available for everyone. The biggest and the most famous located at the seaside or in the mountains such as follows: Kołobrzeg, Kudowa Zdrój are no longer only the health resorts but the most popular tourist destinations in Poland (Jędrzejewski 2012). Polish health resorts are connected with centuries-old tradition of trips to thermal waters, tourist attractions in the health resorts( museums, parks, holly sites, mansions) and events, especially musical with the international range. According to the Ministry of Health there are 45 Statutory Health Resorts in Poland (pursuant to the state of September 2012). With reference to the geographical location these can be divided into the following: seaside -located 3 km from the seashore, lowland- located up to the 200 meters above sea level and mountainous located from 400 to 800 meters above sea level. Moreover, there is a health resort in Wieliczka Salt Mine. The division of the health resorts depending on location is illustrated through the table presented below: Table 1. The division depending on the geographical location Health Resort type depending on the geographical location Lowland Seaside Mountain-foot Places Augustów, Krasnobród, Busko Zdrój, Nałęczów, Ciechocinek, Połczyn Zdrój, Goczałkowice Zdrój, Przerzeczyn Zdrój, Gołdap, Solec Zdrój, Uniejów, Horyniec Zdrój, Supraśl, Inowrocław, Swoszowice, Konstancin, Wieniec Zdrój Kamień Pomorski, Świnoujście, Kołobrzeg, Ustka, Sopot, Dąbki Cieplice Zdrój, Piwniczna Zdrój, Czerniawa Zdrój, Polanica Zdrój, Długopole Zdrój, Polańczyk, Duszniki Zdrój, Rymanów Zdrój, Iwonicz Zdrój, Szczawno Zdrój, Kudowa Zdrój, Ustroń, Muszyna Zdrój, Wapienne Mountainous Jedlina Zdrój, Szczawnica, Krynica Zdrój, Świeradów Zdrój, Lądek Zdrój, Wysowa Zdrój, Rabka Zdrój, Żegiestów Zdrój Source: According to the data provided by the Ministry of Health (www2.mz.gov.pl)
183 PART 4 HEALTH AND MEDICAL TOURISM 183 Polish health resorts are the most beautiful regions of Poland. However, their geographical locations are irregular. The majority of health resorts are situated at the Southern part of Poland. It is connected with the natural resources such as follows: mineral waters, peloids which enrich the above mentioned locations and make it more privileged (Krupa, Wołowiec 2010). The highest significance for the health tourism has the Kłodzki district of which within its area 5 health resorts are located such as the following: Długopole Zdrój, Duszniki Zdrój, Lądek Zdrój, Polanica Zdrój i Kudowa Zdrój. Kłodzki district is characterized with its tourist attractions and environmental assets- the national park of the table mountains, two landscape parks (Snieżnicki and Sowie (the Owl) Mountains), the preserved landscape areas (Bystrzyckie and Orlickie Mountains, Sowie (the Owl) Mountains), 9 sanctuaries and inanimate nature reserve (Jaskinia Niedźwiedzia), landscape reserve (Wilczki Waterfall) and landscape-stone reserve (Szczeliniec Wielki, Błędne Skały). Some resorts have highly developed sport and recreational infrastructure through which they constitute popular hubs for specialized tourism, winter sport centers, mountain specialized tourism bases. Picture 4. Health Resort in Duszniki Zdrój Source : Health Resort in Duszniki Zdrój. (n.d.). Retrieved June 25, 2014, from The pearl of Polish health resorts is Krynica Zdrój. It is the most popular health tourism destination in Poland. In 1807 Krynica was given the name of the health resort by the Authorities. The real flourish of Krynica is dedicated to the professor of the Jagiellonian University Józef Dietl who is called the father of the Polish balneology (Jędzrejewski 2012).
184 PART 4 HEALTH AND MEDICAL TOURISM 184 The important attraction of the health resorts is the SPA and healing infrastructure which is not common in other tourist destinations. In the health resorts there are: mineral water pump rooms, natural treatment, SPA resorts, swimming pools, graduation towers, SPA parks, and terrains for walks performed widely by the patients. The most typical for health tourism are graduation towers. These are dedicated to inhalation with the generated Areosola medicamentosa. The microclimate around the graduation towers is used in the prophylaxis and treatment of the respiratory system, sinusitis, emphysema, arterial hypertension, allergy, psychosomatic disorders and the complete exhaust. Along the graduation towers, there are paths with banks. The oldest graduation tower in Poland is located in Ciechocinek around of which there are drops of sodium chloride in the air with the addition of iodine and bromine constituting areosola similar to the one occurring at the seaside. Smaller graduation towers are located in Konstancin-Jeziorna near Warszawa and in Inowrocław (Kasprzak, Mańkowska 2008). Picture 5. Graduation Towers in Ciechocinek Source: Graduation Towers in Ciechocinek. (n.d.). Retrieved June 25, 2014, from The most important branch of health tourism is balneotherapy based on the use of mineral waters and mudbaths. In the health resort therapy, the natural energy is also used in the following ways: electrical driven power, light, magnetic field, ultrasounds and others. Of high importance are as well: climate, landform, plants, leisure and health treatment, so that, health tourism is a complicated process. Legal measures in Poland are regulated by the Act of 28th July 2005 concerning the health resort treatment and the health resort protection areas (Dz.U.- Journal of Laws 2005, Nr 167, item. 1399). According to the Act, health resort is
185 PART 4 HEALTH AND MEDICAL TOURISM 185 a place performing treatment with the use of natural resources. The condition required to benefit from natural resources is to get the status of the health resort. The health resort status is given to the area which meets particular requirements: possesses natural resources, specific climate, establishments providing health treatment, and technical infrastructure within the waste water management and energetic management, transport and sustainability. Pursuant to the Act 28 July 2005, the health resort status is granted to the particular area by the Council of Ministers upon a motion of the Minister of Health. The Council of Ministers determine the name of the Health Resort, the area of the Health Resort, treatment on the basis of medicinal raw materials and the climate (Section. 42, Subsection. 2 Act of 28 July 2005). Furthermore, the Act regulates in detail the rules and financing of health treatment, kinds of treatment, the rules of granting the status of health resort or health resort protection area and the tasks need to be performed by the health resorts. It also introduces restrictions concerning the business activity for health resorts revealing them in the form of orders and bans of the business activity in the three protective divisions within the area of the health resort. Places and health resorts in order to be competitive should offer wide range of complemented services within the health prophylaxis, tourism and recreation. However, it is connected with rich tourist and recreation infrastructure such as: tourist trails, pitches, sport centers and swimming pools (Krupa, Wołowiec 2010). Health resort is a place for shaping healthy lifestyle Nowadays, health resort is not a place for treatment and leisure, but it is also the so called Academy of a healthy lifestyle. Then, what constitutes a healthy lifestyle-is it only the health treatment? World Health Organization (WHO) proves that in a 50% health is determined by the healthy lifestyle, in a 20% the influence of genetic predispositions, also 20% depends on the influence of the social environment and 10% from medical treatment (Wieczorek, Penkala, Więcek, Skonieczna, 2011). As numerous researchers claim regular exercises prevent heart disease, stroke, hypertension, obesity, diabetes, some tumors and osteoporosis. Crucial is the positive impact of physical activity in the older age and the state of normal aging (Drygas 2005). According to Physical Activity and Health issued by the experts Burchard, Blair and Haskell, moderate physical activity up to 30 minutes 5 or more days in a week causes the decrease of various diseases risk and morbidity (Osiński 2011). However, the Japanese researchers think
186 PART 4 HEALTH AND MEDICAL TOURISM 186 that minimum physical activity constitutes thousands steps made on a daily basis in the form of an intensive stroll (Toczek-Werner 2002). The results of the all-poland research concerning the risk factors circular system diseases NATPOL conducted in the 2011 are extremely overwhelming because more than half number of Poles adults (approx.16 mln.) do not exercise at all in their leisure time or rarely perform physical exercises (the research was performed on the number of 2418 Poles in the age between 18-79). Extremely touching is also the fact that regular physical activity was estimated the lowest in the youngest age groups years old (www.rynekzdrowia.pl). and the highest in the age between years old 18%; Lifestyle ( Including physical activity); 50,00% 18%; Genetic predispositions; 20,00% 18%; The influence of the social environment; 20,00% 18%; Medical treatment; 10,00% Picture 6. What constitutes health according to WHO Source: author s analysis on the basis of WHO The lack of systematically practiced sport among Poles is also reported by the Eurobarometer called Sport and Physical Activity approved by the General Management Board for the European Culture and Education performed in the form of 27 thousand interviews with the citizens of the European Union. The results of these researches prove that the most active are Irish and citizens of Scandinavia. 23% of Irish practice sport at least 5 times in a week and in Sweden, Finland and Denmark people practice sport regularly (at least once in a week). Only 3 % of Bulgarians, Greeks and Italians report on regular sport practicing. The statistics for Poland are in the middle of the scale, however, not that satisfying as for Ireland or Scandinavia (http:/msport.gov.pl).
187 PART 4 HEALTH AND MEDICAL TOURISM 187 Table 2. The frequency of physical activities or sport in the UE Medium Physical activity 5 Regular physical activity at The lowest times a week least one time a week physical activity Medium UE 27 9% 31% 60% POLAND 6% 45% 49% IRELAND 24% 50% 26% FINLAND 17% 76% 7% GREECE 3% 30% 67% Source: (Eurobarometer 2010, The inspiration to popularize health of societies are the notes, both from government of Poland and European Union. In the National Health Program for the years (http://www.mz.gov.pl/) under the name the increase of physical activity sentences aimed at local societies, age groups, healthy lifestyle providers can be found. A significant role is taken by the health resorts in this case. Health tourism (including health resorts) is one of the most developing branches of tourism. The particular significance is focused on prophylaxis (being healthy) and healthy body supported by physical training (Wellness). The need to take care of health is considered by the young as well as older people. It results from the general awareness of being healthy. So that, two groups of health resorts patients can be enumerated and these are as follows: elderly people and young people professionally active. The concern about health and good look are the main incentives for the trip to the health resorts (Krupa, Wołowiec 2010). Because of the job, young people would prefer shorter visits, more intense and possibly in a health resorts situated close to their place of residence. Health resort in order to satisfy such visitor needs to acknowledge his/her requirements for leisure, treatment and entertainment with the opportunity of health boost and regeneration. Kinesitherapy, based on the various types of physical exercises (physical training, walks, cycling), is valuable. Physical effort is beneficial for cardiological diseases, diabetes, obesity, osteoporosis and pulmonological diseases. Outdoor activities (walks, runs, jogtrot ski runs, cycling, and various exercises) connected with going distance are of high importance. Kinesitherapy and outdoor activities are in the form of physical education through practicing them by the patients in their everyday life after the staying in the health resort is finished. The integral part of the health resort treatment, especially concerning digestive system, is diet.
188 PART 4 HEALTH AND MEDICAL TOURISM 188 Picture 7. Outdoor activities Source: Outdoor activities, (n.d.). Retrieved June 25, from https://www.google.pl/search?q=terenoterapia&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa In sanatorium, apart from various treatment, there is the possibility to acquire necessary knowledge in order to eliminate wrongful habits and familiarize with the appropriate diet. It is also a chance to get to know with the kinesitherapy for the particular disease and introduction to the everyday outdoor activities (e.g. jogging, etc.) (Kasprzak, Mańskowska, 2008). CONCLUSION In the Polish health resorts in accordance with their geographical location (mountains, highland, lowland, seaside areas) everyone finds something for himself/herself. Health tourism constitutes one of the Polish brand priorities. The attractiveness of the Polish health resorts is influenced by the transport availability of Poland. Foreign tourists are more and more common in Polish health resorts. Moreover, together with the pro- healthy awareness and health prophylaxis, patients are in a huge number young people. The stereotype of the elderly suffering from different diseases visiting health resorts is being overcome. The staying in such place is connected with the tourist attractions as well focusing on the health promotion and taking care of the silhouette. More commonly the offer of SPA and Wellness is faced in the health resorts.
189 PART 4 HEALTH AND MEDICAL TOURISM 189 REFERENCES Drygas, W., Kwaśniewska, M., Szcześnikowska, D., Kozakiewicz, K., Głuszek, J.,Wiercińska, E. Wyrzykowski, B., & Kurjata, P. (2005). Ocena poziomu aktywności fizycznej dorosłej populacji Polski. Wyniki programu WOBASZ, UM Łódź: Kardiologia Polska 63 (6), (supl.4) Gaworecki, W. (2003). Turystyka. Warszawa: Polskie Wydawnictwo Ekonomiczne Jędrzejewski, D. (2012). 20 najpiękniejszych uzdrowisk w Polsce. Warszawa: National Geographic Karaś, J. (2011). Istota i znaczenie turystyki uzdrowiskowej. Rzeszów: Seminare 29/2011, Kasprzak,W., & Mańkowska, A. (2008). Fizykoterapia, medycyna uzdrowiskowa i SPA. Warszawa: Wydawnictwo Lekarskie PAWL Krasiński, Z. (2001). Rynek usług uzdrowiskowych w Polsce. Poznań: Wyższa Szkoła Zarządzania i Bankowości Krupa, J., & Wołowiec, T. (2010). Uzdrowiska Polski Wschodniej wobec wyzwań rozwojowych-turystyka zrównoważona. (In) Hermnaiuk, J. Krupa, J. (ed.), Współczesne trendy funkcjonowania uzdrowisk. Rzeszów: Instytut Gospodarki Wyższej Szkoły Informatyki i Zarządzania, Ministerstwo Zdrowia (2012). Narodowy Program Zdrowia na lata Retrieved from p.pdf Ministerstwo Zdrowia (2014). Podział uzdrowisk ze względu na położenie. Retrieved from Toczek Werner, S. (2002). Podstawy rekreacji i turystyki. Wrocław: AWF Osiński, W. (2011). Teoria Wychowania Fizycznego. Poznań: AWF Skonieczna, M. (2010). Rodzinne uwarunkowania aktywności fizycznej w przeglądzie piśmiennictwa. Rocznik Naukowy, AWFiS Gdańsk, t. XXI, Trzeciak, B. (1997). Leczenie uzdrowiskowe (in) Encyklopedia Zdrowia. Kraków: PWN Ustawa z dnia 28 lipca 2005 roku o lecznictwie uzdrowiskowym, uzdrowiskach i obszarach ochrony uzdrowiskowej oraz gminach uzdrowiskowych - Dz.U.2005, Nr 167, poz Ministerstwo Sportu (2010). Sport i aktywność fizyczna - Badanie Eurobarometru. Retrieved from https://d1dmfej9n5lgmh.cloudfront.net/msport/article_attachments/
190 PART 4 HEALTH AND MEDICAL TOURISM 190 attachments/10347/originl/eurobarometr_pl.pdf? l/eurobarometr_pl.pdf? (2012, July 8). rynek zdrowia.pl : NATPOL 2011: ponad połowa dorosłych Polaków jest nieaktywna fizycznie. Retrieved from
191 PART 4 HEALTH AND MEDICAL TOURISM 191 AN ANALYSIS OF INNOVATION OF MEDICAL TOURISM IN THE REGION OF WESTERN POMERANIA Joanna Biernacka 18 West Pomeranian University of Technology in Szczecin, Poland ABSTRACT This paper addresses the subject of innovation in medical tourism services. It defines the concept of medical tourism and places it as one of the forms of health tourism. The paper presents the general concept and importance of innovation in tourism services, especially in the context of medical tourism. A detailed analysis of the innovation of medical tourism covers the West Pomeranian region, as the leading region providing such services in Poland. The influence of medical tourism on the possibility of the development of the West Pomeranian region is also defined. Keywords: Tourism, medicine, innovation, services, West Pomeranian region. 18 Author s
192 PART 4 HEALTH AND MEDICAL TOURISM 192 INTRODUCTION Medical tourism is a global trend and an increasing number of people planning a vacation combine it with a variety of health and beauty treatments. Health tourism, including medical tourism has over two hundred years old tradition in Poland and is developing rapidly. The Polish medical tourism sector is currently worth several hundred of millions of zloty. This fact has been recognised by the Ministry of Economy, which is intensively promoting Polish medical services. The secret of the success of Polish medical tourism is its innovation. Four separate areas of innovation in medical tourism have been distinguished: product, organisational, process (technological) and marketing. The effect of innovation is an attractive medical offer, which in combination with attractive pricing, the richness of the landscape and a positive image of Polish medicine in the eyes of foreign tourists proof the success and dynamic development of this sector. According to a review of medical tourism by Medi-Tour, the West Pomeranian province is the most popular region in Poland. It therefore holds a leading position among the regions where the medical services for foreign tourists are provided. This paper introduces the subject of innovation influence for medical tourism on the possibility of the development of the West Pomeranian region. The concept of medical tourism Medical tourism is one of three forms of health tourism, next to Health Resort tourism and Spa and Wellness. It is also an element of national, international, and domestic tourism. In literature, medical tourism is, defined as: An obligatory element of any vacation (Rab-Przybyłowicz, 2010); A term synonymous to global health care (Lunt, Carrera, 2010). So far, the most research in the field of medical tourism has been mainly the domain of economists. For example, M. Prochorowicz (2008), concludes that medical tourism is nothing else than combining medical treatment with tourism. While analysing the scope of medical services it should be noted that medical tourism is not always related only to restoration of health to a patient. M. Sztorc (2008) uses the term medical tourism as a synonym of health tourism, health resorts as well as spas and wellness clinics, identifying people participating in health tourism as medical tourists.
193 PART 4 HEALTH AND MEDICAL TOURISM 193 A. Białk-Wolf (2010) claims that medical tourism consists of voluntary travel to another country, in order to undergo planned treatment there, in order to either save health, improve the quality of life, or improve the appearance, also for financial reasons, qualitative or due to the unavailability of the benefits in patient s home jurisdiction, which is often combined with the actual tour of the place visited. According to the author of this paper, as the most accurate definition of medical tourism to be considered is the one proposed by J.Rab-Przybyłowicz (2010) which indicates that medical tourism refers to travel outside of one s home region or country, intending to stay at a doctor's office, clinic or hospital in order to improve health or beauty under the care of local medical specialists. The term "medical tourism", is commonly used by patients to describe travel outside their regular place of health care. The purpose of such trips is access to a broad variety of medical services offered abroad, and for which the patients usually pay from their own funds. From an economic point of view, there are two forms of medical tourism (Białk-Wolf, 2010): Orientation on quality, with regard to medical tourists from economically underdeveloped countries, who intend to travel abroad where the medical services are provided at the highest level or intend to emphasize their high economic and social status. Orientation on the savings, which is a form of tourism focused on such medical tourists, who come from countries with a high level of medical innovation and economic prosperity, as well as those, who for the sake of a reduced costs, travel to countries where medical services are cheaper. The range of medical services is quite wide, as health needs and expectations of today's consumers are becoming increasingly individualized. The scope of medical tourism services includes diagnostic tests, plastic and reconstructive surgery - also in the form of body and facial remodelling, corrections of birth defects, gynecomastia, liposuction of adipose tissue, injection lipolysis or intra-lipotherapy, bariatric surgery, medicine and dermatology, orthopaedics, opthalmology, laryngology, dentistry and gynaecology (Bukowska-Piestrzyńska, 2008).
194 PART 4 HEALTH AND MEDICAL TOURISM 194 The concept of innovation of tourism services Nowadays the innovation of tourist services is seen, as one of the primary sources of competitive advantage. This concept is related to the introduction of something new, with innovation, advancement, and reform. According to a classic definition, the innovation is "a significant change of the production function, which is different than previously combined factors of production" (Gaworecki, 2010). Currently, the importance of innovation is recognised in, both tourism and medical services. Innovation in the area of tourism means changes in the methods of production and in the process of the provision of services, which employ new knowledge that has not been used previously. The most important element of innovation in services is the contact with customer of the service provider, which is the essence of the service and an important source of innovation (Boruszczak, 2011). In the case of medical tourism, the innovation is not only everything the patient understands within this angle, but also everything the patient usually does not see. This kind of innovation affects the functioning of healthcare units, e.g. the circulation of medical documentation in a hospitals. Innovation noticed by patients relate to the services offered, as well as their management and promotion. According to estimates, the value of the medical tourism segment in Poland in 2011 was close to 800 million zloty with the number of foreign patients close to 300,000. The data of the Institute of Tourism indicate that about 3 million of foreigners come to Poland every year for medical purposes. The reason for such an interest in Polish medicine, apart from the high-quality of services, are the differences in prices, which are about 20% lower in comparison to the UK, Germany or United States of America. The number of participants in such forms of tourism continually increases, as well as in the area of regular tourism, which fact is confirmed by the analysis of the Institute of Tourism. Considering the nature and types of innovation implemented in the area of medical tourism, they can be grouped into: product innovation, organisational innovation, legal and marketing innovation. Examples of such innovations are, shown in Table 1. It should be recognized that organisational and marketing innovations are of particular importance. The latest project of the Ministry of the Economy, which has allocated 4 million zloty to promote the Polish medical tourism sector of high export potential in the world, has been particularly useful in the achieving of these goals.
195 PART 4 HEALTH AND MEDICAL TOURISM 195 The importance of innovation in medical tourism is visible in MedCluster, which is a unique nationwide medical cluster. A cooperation network was established in 2007 under the name of "Medical Cluster Poland South-East". This is the initiative of the representatives of healthcare facilities. It brings together, clinics, health resorts and spas, scientific research and consultancy firms. Some of the most important results of its activity indicate the rise of modern medical care, provision of comprehensive medical services and medical tourism services, which use the most modern methods and innovative technologies. The Cluster s mission is to develop cooperation as well as the integration of the organizations that operate in the field of innovative solutions in the area of health protection. The main purpose of such activities is to generate more innovative solutions. Table 1. Innovations in medical tourism. Innovations Product Processes Organizational Examples of actual or proposed changes - collagen dressing (Baczko, 2011); - the use of regional products and components for the production of cosmetics; - offering less invasive, innovative treatments, in place of traditional; - access to modern drugs; - advancing knowledge by professionals in training courses and medical seminars; - consultations with the best specialists, including those from abroad; - efforts to shorten the recovery process - new medical apparatus and equipment; - new software; - technological innovation in medical tourism offers, mainly for people with disabilities; - shortening the treatment process; - shorter waiting times - changes related to the privatisation of clinics and doctor s surgeries; - electronic document circulation; - electronic database of patients and electronic appointment booking; - electronic transmission of research for further analysis Marketing - combining aesthetic medicine with art; - to participate in non-governmental organisations and clusters in order to search for new patients (Żołnierski, 2010); - loyalty programs Source: on the basis of data collected by the author.
196 PART 4 HEALTH AND MEDICAL TOURISM 196 Analysis of the innovation of medical tourism in Western Pomerania The West Pomeranian region is famous for the best climatic conditions on the Baltic Sea. High humidity levels are the result of its close proximity to large areas of water, and very large areas of forests. In this region, there is a definitely a mild climate. The tourists visit this area attracted by the advantages of iodine rich air and warmer waters. Dental services are the most popular with foreign tourists, with close to 8,000 visitors coming for these purposes in There has not been a significant change in the number of tourists in comparison to Other areas that attract visitors from all over Europe are plastic and cosmetic surgery, cardiology and cardiac surgery, holiday health, spa & wellness, as well as rehabilitation, bariatrics, ophthalmology and trauma. In 2012, more than 5,000 tourists came to take advantage of aesthetic medicine services. In 2011, this value was larger and exceeded by 5,500. In the case of other medical tourism services, their share in the total value is much smaller. The scope of the biggest benefits that development of medical tourism brings to the West Pomeranian Voivodeship includes the adaptation of the clinics and hospitals to function as international institutions. The comfort of staying in such facilities is regularly increased, as well as investment in state-of-the-art equipment technology are made. The value of investments in this field for period is estimated at 7.5 million zloty and increases every year. These investments were mainly in specialized diagnostic equipment and equipment of hospital wards. The medical institutions of the West Pomeranian Voivodeship have successfully executed all the investments in innovation indicated in Table 1. For example, in the field of plastic and aesthetic surgery, modern methods of treatment have been introduced, which completely eliminate the risk of scarring, and was also enriched with additional cosmetic treatments based on natural products, that even further shorten the recovery time necessary. In the case of cardiology and cardiac surgery the medical facilities located in this region have highly qualified teams and modern research equipment. As a result, diagnosis and examinations are very accurate, therefore the ability to fail to recognize any disease or other medical conditions in this respect, is almost completely eliminated. Additionally, these establishments benefit from the most modern implants used in heart operations.
197 PART 4 HEALTH AND MEDICAL TOURISM 197 Referring to the dentistry, painless treatment is a standard. In addition, there are many dental laboratories that produce the crowns for implants from the latest and very high strong materials. All treatments are performed by using the most modern equipment. In the remaining branches of medicine that also attract tourists to the region, latest technology equipment and solutions have been introduced, in order improve the comfort of patients and reduce the risk of complications. Investments in this area have been carried out, at among others, at Celcus Bis s.c. clinic in Sarbinowo, NZOZ clinic in Zegrze Pomorskie as well as in the hospital in Kamień Pomorski. It is not possible to mention all the medical facilities that implement various innovations into their services. The few of them aforementioned, are therefore given as examples, which are characterized by the greatest innovation. The second direction relates to generally understood touristic infrastructure. Hotels and guest-houses hosting the foreign patients, care about ensuring them convenience and access to local attractions. In this case, the value of the investment remains unknown. The West Pomeranian Voivodeship is the most popular region in Poland in this area. Medical clinics are introducing ever newer and more advanced services, which aim to increase innovation. The services offered to patients are also modified and variegated. Market research regarding medical services is often carried out on overseas markets and prospects. This is mainly done by the Institute of Tourism and the managers of large hospital establishments. On this basis, the valuable information is gathered regarding the new possibilities, which are then put into practice. In many places, quality management strategies and marketing measures have been undertaken, with a goal of increasing the number of patients coming to the region. The availability of various information channels, especially the Internet, has also been expanded. The medical clinics offering medical tourism, product innovation has been introduced, with reference to the local and regional elements of the West Pomeranian region. A good example is the use of sea water and purified sea sand for various skin treatments or the use of the prevailing microclimate in the treatment of lung diseases. Often there are cases of cosmetics production from with natural resources. These activities also have a marketing aim, which is to encourage tourists to use the offered services in this regard. Most of the establishments in the West Pomeranian Voivodeship offer an array of treatments focused on treating a specific medical condition. Medical institutions are
198 PART 4 HEALTH AND MEDICAL TOURISM 198 therefore not limited to the services provided. For example, skin treatments are complemented by cosmetic rehabilitation, focused on skin care treatment with the use of natural products. For a detailed analysis of the problem of innovation in medical tourism in the West Pomeranian region, a short comparison has been carried out with the region of the Lower Silesian Voivodeship. The medical staff of Wroclaw has the greatest recognition among foreign tourists. Dental clinics from this region are increasingly visited by foreign patients. The best example may be the Clinident Centre, which every year treats several thousand medical tourists, including many from abroad. This region is also visited by patients needing cosmetic surgery and aesthetic gynaecology. The most popular are the Optimus and Medic- Beauty clinics. The aforementioned medical establishments are considered to be some of the most innovative in Poland. Their annual investments in this branch of medicine are even up to few million. As a result, these private institutions introduce many popular innovations not only in the field of organisation but mainly in the provision of new medical services. Examples include aesthetic laser treatments or replacement of invasive treatments with non-invasive laser-based therapies or the less invasive laparoscopy treatments. As indicated by IMTJ, India was one of the first countries that recognised the potential of medical tourism and has utilised it to attract tourists. However, the world leader in medical tourism is Singapore. The equipment used in local clinics, as well as the skills and knowledge of its medical professionals are considered to be the best in Asia. Thailand also holds a prominent place in the ranking of the most often visited countries. Malaysia is yet another popular destination for foreigners seeking medical treatment. A significant impact on the growing interest in Malaysian medical services, have been multiple government programs promoting medical tourism abroad. Turkey, Hungary and the Czech Republic are the most frequently visited countries in Europe. A key reason for these trips is a significant price difference in relation to the cost of treatment, compared with those for example in the UK or Germany. Medicine in these countries is very highly developed. They utilise the latest inventions and solutions that significantly reduce the risk of side effects and also the risk of failures. In addition, tourists are more likely to get medical treatment abroad faster than in their own
199 PART 4 HEALTH AND MEDICAL TOURISM 199 country. This, along with the innovation of medical services and the relatively low prices of treatments creates the conditions for high growth potential of medical tourism in the world. The West Pomeranian region is significantly far from global standards, however in comparison to the rest of Poland, it i, considered to be the best course for medical tourism. The influence of medical tourism innovation on the development of Western Pomerania Medical tourism in West Pomerania is considered innovative. Therefore it has a great chance to gain the vast attention of patients. Due to the implementation of all sorts of innovative solutions, medical tourism positively affects the development of the whole region. The most important aspect in this area, is that tourism in general is an important factor in the development of each region. Medical tourism has therefore its significant share in this regard, and its high potential for development is an element that is vital in the growth of the region as a tourist destination, not only in the field of medicine. Thanks to the considerable interest of patients coming to West Pomerania, as well as actions aimed at promoting this goal, the whole region is also a great beneficiary. The providers of accommodation are the ones who benefit the most, for which the anticipated revenue growth may be as high as 45-50% for Not all the medical facilities offer accommodation, and patients themselves often decide to stay in another location. This way the available tourist accommodation base is better used, which increases the income of such facilities. Another beneficiary here is the catering and the transport infrastructure. Its use is most often also an integral part of the implementation of tourism as well as of medical tourism. The patients often travel to other parts of the region, where they can enjoy the local cuisine and at the same time, they visit many tourist attractions. The increasing interest in medical tourism in the region determines the need for the further development of the whole tourist infrastructure. In this way, its quality increases, which is reflected in the interest of all types of tourists. Every year an increasing number of tourists visit West Pomerania. However, in the case of medical tourism, the situation varies. For example in 2012, the region was visited by nearly 15,000 polish tourists for medical purposes, however in 2011, the number was significantly larger and was close to 20,000 (GUS, 2013). The number of foreign tourists
200 PART 4 HEALTH AND MEDICAL TOURISM 200 coming to the region for medical purposes was about 25,000 in This is a decrease in comparison to 2011, when the number of medical tourists was close to 50,000. In conclusion, it is necessary to make SWOT analysis for medical tourism in the West Pomeranian, which is shown in Table 2. Table 2. SWOT analysis for medical tourism in the West Pomeranian. Strengths - attractive location - good transport links - high innovation of provided medical services - investing significant financial resources in medical innovation - highly developed economic region - favourable climate - the availability of an infrastructure Opportunites - the development of medicine in Poland - investing in the development of medicine - continuous further training of doctors and participation in international events Source: on the basis of data collected by the author. Weaknesses - high competitiveness of other regions and countries - the high price of medical benefits - often low qualifications of medical staff - low standard of hospitals - lack of knowledge of a foreign language by medical personnel - a small proportion of natural products in medicine Threats - competition from other regions - low interest in Poland as a tourist destination. All the innovations introduced into the offer of medical tourism facilities are intended to increase their attractiveness in the minds of both existing and potential patients. As a result, the presumed increase in the number of visitors to the region is expected to be from 30,000 people in 2015 to 35,000 in In this way, the development of the metical tourism facilities is provided, which in turn, increases their market position in the world. SUMMARY Recently the medical tourism is considered to be one of the fastest growing areas of tourism. It is realised mostly in connection with taking medical treatments outside the place of residence. The realization of medical tourism is primarily determined by its greater availability and innovation. The provision of the latest, highly advanced equipment as well as high standards in all private clinics and hospitals, encourages foreign patients to take
201 PART 4 HEALTH AND MEDICAL TOURISM 201 advantage of their services. Therapeutic activities related to medical tourism are offered not only the residents of Poland, but also to the entire world. Foreign patients usually finance their treatments themselves, however they are still willing to come to Poland. In the case of Western Pomerania, its medical centres are most frequently visited by tourists from Germany. The main incentive is lower price line of the services provided, in comparison to those in force in Germany, as well as the high quality of the services provided. Many tourists from all over Europe also visit the medical centres of Western Pomerania. They most commonly make use of the services of plastic surgery and aesthetic medicine, cardiology and cardiac surgery and rehabilitation, bariatrics, ophthalmology and traumatology. Due to the high interest in the medical market of the West Pomeranian Voivodeship, this area is also greatly recognised as a place of tourism generally. The most important benefit of innovation in medical tourism products are financial considerations. A large volume of inbound visitors generates large profits, which are then invested in further development. According to the estimates of the Marshal of the West Pomeranian region, as much as 65% of profits is designated for the further development of medical institutions. The value of such proceeds, however is not entirely calculable, nevertheless various sources indicate the amount can even reach several million zloty annually. In this way is a kind of spiral is created, that conditions the development of the region. As a conclusion, it should be noted that this paper has not analysed the exhaustive list of issues connected with innovation in medical tourism. The resulting argument was limited to information commonly available and related to the attractiveness of the region for medical tourist patients. The implication for the further consideration of this topic is to carry out detailed research on tourists benefiting from medical services, as well as on the directors of individual medical centres. REFERENCES Audyt Turystyczny Województwa Zachodniopomorskiego, Strategia rozwoju turystyki w Województwie Zachodniopomorskim do 2015 roku. (2005). Zachodniopomorska Regionalna Organizacja Turystyczna Baczko T. (2011). Raport i innowacyjności gospodarki Polski w 2010 roku. Instytut Nauk Ekonomicznych Polskiej Akademii Nauk
202 PART 4 HEALTH AND MEDICAL TOURISM 202 Białk-Wolf A. (2010). Potencjał rozwojowy turystyki medycznej. Panasiuk A. Potencjał turystyczny zagadnienia ekonomiczne. Ekonomiczne Problemy Usług. Vol Bukowska-Piestrzyńska A. (2008). Marketing usług zdrowotnych. Od budowania wizerunku placówki do zadowolenia klientów. CeDeWu. Boruszczak M. (2011). Turystyka zdrowotna i uzdrowiskowa. Wyższa Szkoła Turystyki i Hotelarstwa w Gdańsku Gaworecki W. (2010). Turystyka. PWE Gaworecki W., Mroczyński Z. (2008). Turystyka i sport dla wszystkich w promocji zdrowego stylu życia. WSTiH. Lunt N., Carrera P. (2010). Medical tourism: Assessing the evidence on treatment abroad. Vol. 66 (1).28. Panasiuk A. Potencjał turystyczny zagadnienia ekonomiczne. Ekonomiczne Problemy Usług Vol Polska Agencja Informacji i Inwestycji Zagranicznych. ( 2010). Trendbook Poland Prochorowicz M. (2008).Turystyka medyczna nową perspektywą dla polskich placówek służby zdrowia. Grzywacz R. Turystyka i rekreacja szansą rozwoju aktywności społecznej. WSIiZ.133 Rab-Przybyłowicz J. (2010). Tworzenie produktu dla turystyki medycznej w Szczecinie. Panasiuk A. Potencjał turystyczny zagadnienia ekonomiczne. Ekonomiczne Problemy Usług Vol Sztorc M. (2008). Podróże turystyczne obcokrajowców w celach zdrowotnych do Polski. Gaworecki W., Mroczyński Z. Turystyka i sport dla wszystkich w promocji zdrowego stylu życia. WSTiH Trendbook Poland (2010). Polska Agencja Informacji i Inwestycji Zagranicznych Turystyka w województwie zachodniopomorskim w 2012 roku.(2013). Urząd Statystyczny w Szczecinie. 10. Żołnierski A. (2011). Koncepcja popytowego podejścia do innowacji w produkcji aparatury medycznej w świetle badań jakościowych. Baczko T. Raport i innowacyjności gospodarki Polski w 2010 roku. Instytut Nauk Ekonomicznych Polskiej Akademii Nauk. 190.
203 PART 4 HEALTH AND MEDICAL TOURISM 203 Internet sources: Retrieved November 09, Retrieved November 15, Retrieved December 16, turystyki-medycznej. Retrieved November 15, Retrieved November 15, , November
204 PART 5 OTHER TOURISM ISSUES
205 PART 5 OTHER TOURISM ISSUES 205 SHORT-TERM EFFECTS OF INNOVATIONS ON TOURISM ENTERPRISE MARKET VALUE: EVENT STUDY APPROACH Dawid Szutowski 19 Marlena A. Bednarska 20 Poznan University of Economics, Poland ABSTRACT: Innovations seem crucial for contemporaneous tourism enterprises willing to achieve the objective of increasing firm s value. The research problem addressed in present paper is expressed in the following question: what is the relationship between innovations and tourism enterprises market value? The aim of this paper is to examine, conceptually and empirically, how innovations lift tourism enterprises stock returns by improving the view on future cash flows. Tourism sector was taken into consideration in order to fulfil the abovementioned research gap. This focused paper was based on relevant market data. Event study approach was chosen to test investors responses to innovation announcements. All tourism companies listed on Warsaw Stock Exchange were examined within the six years research period. Polish Press Agency database and Warsaw Stock Exchange databases were used to collect data. Results indicate that innovations affected positively investors valuation of tourism enterprises. Investors reacted the most to marketing, distributional and external collaborations innovations and most of their reactions occurred within five days from the innovation announcement. Key words: innovation, market value, event study, tourism enterprise 19 Author s 20 Author s
206 PART 5 OTHER TOURISM ISSUES 206 INTRODUCTION There is only one thing that is constant nowadays, that is constant change (Gunday, Ulusoy, Kilic, & Alpkan, 2011). Issues concerning innovations are strongly related to current worldwide scientific discussion, and stem from such domains as: innovation driven economy, knowledge economy and neo-schumpeterian economics. They are also key factors in OECD and EU policies. Moreover innovations are crucial at the enterprise level (Janasz & Kozioł, 2007) as all enterprises operating in a contemporary market expose themselves to innovations (Ciborowski, 2003, Gunday et al., 2011). All these characteristics of innovations apply also to tourism enterprises. In this context research concerning innovations with respect to tourism enterprises remain crucial. At the same time market value increase seems to be the most important goal for every company (Copeland, Koller, & Murrin, 1997). Growing companies stimulate employment, are able to discharge liabilities, and offer trade credit to its customers (Rappaport, 1998). Company s value is also the best measure of its performance (Szablewski & Tuzimka, 2004). That is especially important in the case of big companies that distinguish owners from managers. Establishing value increase as company s goal allows their aims to overlap (Szczepankowski, 2007). The issue of market value is vital for listed companies as they commonly deal with stock prices. The increase in value is decided on the market and reflected through investors offerings. Most bids take place on stock exchanges. In the light of above discussion what seems especially important is the relationship between innovations and market value of tourism companies listed on European exchanges. This issue will constitute the axis of the present paper, which is structured as follows. The first section discusses innovations in the tourism industry and delivers research hypotheses. Then methodology and data sources are presented. Findings of the study on short-term effects of innovations in tourism enterprises are presented in the third section of the paper. Finally, implications and recommendations for future research are proposed and main conclusions are summarised. THEORETICAL BACKGROUND AND RESEARCH HYPOTHESES The growing recognition of services as the core of the process of structural change in modern economy has resulted in a proliferation of research on innovations in this sector. As noted by Carlborg, Kindström and Kowalkowski (2014) service innovation is no longer
207 PART 5 OTHER TOURISM ISSUES 207 considered a side activity to product innovation; it constitutes a research field in its own right. However, the progress made by investigators regarding innovative practices and their consequences for firm performance in the service context has not been transferred with equal intensity to the tourism sector (Camisón & Monfort-Mir, 2012; Williams & Shaw, 2011). The present study, therefore, aims to address this gap and seeks to contribute by recognizing effects of innovations on tourism companies market value. In the present study the broad concept of innovation is applied, which is consistent with Schumpeterian perspective. Innovation refers to the process of generation, development and implementation of ideas or behaviours new to adopting organisation. Innovations can take a wide variety of forms and can be classified in different ways. Perhaps the most common approach to categorisation of innovations steams from Oslo Manual (OECD & Eurostat, 2005). It defines four types of innovations at the level of the firm that encompass a wide range of changes involving new or significantly improved solutions: product, process, organisational, and marketing innovations. In tourism research Hjalager (2010) applies a categorisation close to Schumpeter s original one and analyses five types of innovations: product (service), process, managerial (organisational), management (marketing), and institutional innovations. Distributional innovations can be considered as a part of process innovations (Weiermair, 2004), however given the critical role of distribution channels in tourism marketing it seems suitable to classify them as a separate category (Nicolau & Santa-María, 2013). Due to the complex and networked characteristics of the tourism product (Pikkemaat & Peters, 2005) and growing recognition of the significance of external knowledge in developing innovative capabilities (Saunila & Ukko, 2012) it seems essential to include inter-organisational relations in innovation analysis. Based upon the above arguments a modified typology of innovations has been proposed in the paper: 1. Product (PROD) components, user friendliness, functional characteristics, technical specifications etc. 2. Process (PROC) equipment, software, techniques etc. 3. Management (MGMT) staff empowerment, job profiles, authority systems, collaborative structures etc. 4. Marketing (MKTG) promotion, pricing, design, packaging etc. 5. Distribution (DISTR) intermediaries, distribution channels etc.
208 PART 5 OTHER TOURISM ISSUES External relations (EXT COLLAB) collaboration with research organizations, relations with other firms and institutions, integration with suppliers etc. 7. Institutional (INST) destination management systems, financing accessibility, control over the access to vulnerable areas etc. In recent years innovative practices in tourism have received an increasing attention in academic literature. Although it is generally recognised that tourism organisations function in an extremely competitive sector, which causes the innovative activity to be a prerequisite for their successful operation and survival, empirical evidence of effects of innovation has been marginal (Hjalager, 2010). Furthermore, only a handful of research has linked innovations to objective business performance measures. Researchers identified positive relationship between innovation behaviour in the tourism industry and firm s growth prospects (Petrou & Daskalopoulou, 2009), employee and customer relationship enhancement (Ottenbacher, 2007), financial performance, customer retention, and reputation (Grissemann, Plank, & Brunner-Sperdin, 2013), all dimensions being subjectively evaluated by managers. As for objective measures, Orfila- Sintes and Mattsson (2009) reported the effect of innovations in hotels on the average occupancy rate and Nicolau and Santa-María (2013) found innovation-related increase in stock exchange returns. Overall, empirical research adopts either a subjective or an objective approach towards measuring effects of innovations in the tourism industry, the latter being less frequently used. For that reason the present study concentrates on enterprise market value. For listed companies it is reflected through stock prices determined in investors sell and buy offers. Among other qualities market value is the most up-to-date and precise measure of company performance (Milburn, 2008). Firstly, it changes every time new information hits the market. Secondly, it represents a market consensus of multiple investors valuations that is especially important while single investor valuation undergoes erroneous beliefs and tastes for assets as consumption goods biases (Fama & French, 2007). Innovations are presumed to have positive influence on tourism enterprises market value. Potential benefits from innovations implementation change investors predictions of future cash flows resulting in stock price increase. Thus the first hypothesis is stated as follows:
209 PART 5 OTHER TOURISM ISSUES 209 H1: Innovations influence positively investors perception of future company s cash flows. Investors perceive different innovation types differently. It s because they influence different fields of companies operations and differ in costs and potential profits. Therefore second hypothesis is expressed in the following statement: H2: Different types of innovations influence tourism companies market value differently. DATA AND METHODOLOGY To test proposed hypotheses empirically data on tourism enterprises listed on Warsaw Stock Exchange WSE was used. Polish exchange holds the regional dominant position by slightly outranking Central and Eastern Europe Stock Exchange Group CEESEG (Szutowski, 2014). It trades eight tourism companies among which there are: three gastronomic ones Amrest holding, Mex Polska and Sfinx Polska; two hotel companies Interferie and Orbis; and one of each: casino Olympic Entertainment Group, touroperator Rainbow Tours, ski operator Tatry Mountain Resort. MEX Polska and Tatry Mountain Resort undertook theirs IPOs in May and October 2012 and due to insufficient data they will be excluded from further research. All companies chose Main List (instead of MTF platform - NewConnect). In order to study the relationship between innovations and tourism enterprise market value event study approach was applied. Event study method is used to measure financial effects of unanticipated events and it allows assessing whether there are abnormal stock price changes associated with them (McWilliams & Siegel, 1997). Thus, the abnormal return provides an estimate of the future earnings generated by the event (Geyskens, Gielens, & Dekimpe, 2002). In the present study the event of interest is publicly available innovation announcement made by companies under investigation. All information was gathered through electronic research of Polish Press Agency Database and of companies websites. Assessment of the event s effect requires a measurement of the abnormal (excess) return over the event window the period over which the stock price fluctuations will be examined. In the present study eleven windows were examined ranging from 1 to 21 days (10 pre-event days, the event day and 10 post-event days). In line with McWilliams and Siegel (1997) every event window was checked for confounding announcements such as: declaration of dividends or earnings, mergers and
210 PART 5 OTHER TOURISM ISSUES 210 acquisitions, equity offering, change in key executives. Such financially relevant events unrelated to innovation could seriously reduce validity of the empirical results, as it would be difficult to isolate the impact of one particular event. Due to the procedure no announcements were eliminated. Central to event study approach is calculating abnormal returns, which are assumed to reflect the stock market's reaction to new information arrival (McWilliams & Siegel, 1997). The abnormal return is the difference between the actual return and the expected return that would have occurred if the event had not taken place: AR it = R it E(R it ), where AR it, R it and E(R it ) are abnormal, actual and expected returns respectively for firm i on day t. Expected returns were computed using market model, which assumes a linear relation between the security return and the market return: E(R it ) = +β R mt, where R mt is the return on the stock market index on day t (in the present study WIG, Warsaw Stock Exchange Index) and α and β are the parameters estimated from a least squares regression of R it on R mt over the estimation period of 250 days before the announcement. The daily abnormal returns were aggregated over the event window and cumulative abnormal returns were calculated as follows: CAR i(f,l) = l f AR it, where CAR i(f,l) is cumulative abnormal return for firm i over the event window L (horizon length) equalling l f +1 (Eckbo 2007) and f and l are first and last days of the event window respectively. Lastly, to obtain a single CAR for different innovation types and for the whole sample an average of all event-specific CARs was computed: ACAR (f,l) = 1 N N i=1 CAR i(f,l), where ACAR (f,l) is average cumulative abnormal return over the event window and N is a number of observations (in the present study a number of innovation announcements). In order to verify the results statistical significance the J test was used (Szyszka, 2003). The test is based on standardised cumulative abnormal returns. In the present study the null
211 PART 5 OTHER TOURISM ISSUES 211 hypothesis, that an event doesn t influence stock prices, was tested through the following statistic: J = ( N (L 4) L 2 N i=1, σ i ) 1 N CAR i(f,l) where σ i is estimate of standard deviation of firm s i CAR calculated over the event window. Statistical significance was tested for 0,05 and 0,1 -values. RESULTS The results of the analysis are reported in Table 1, which presents cumulative abnormal returns averaged across 34 observations for multiple periods. In general, the investigation revealed that investors reactions to innovation announcements made by tourism enterprises were mostly positive. In eight out of eleven event windows under consideration actual returns were greater than expected returns; in three remaining windows the opposite was the case. Further analysis showed that abnormal returns were significantly different from zero at the 5% significance level in half of examined intervals; in most cases the differences were positive. It appears that, on average, the stock market recognized innovation announcement value, thus hypothesis 1 can be confirmed. Table 1: Average cumulative abnormal returns over event windows under study Windows ACARs J-values Event day 0.63% 1,96** +/ % 1,06 +/ % 4,33** +/ % 5,60** +/ % 3,19** +/ % -0,48 0/ % 0,23 0/ % 4,83** 0/ % 4,48** 0/ % 0,56 0/ % -2,16 * significant at the 0.1 level; ** significant at the 0.05 level Source: own development
212 PART 5 OTHER TOURISM ISSUES 212 The findings indicate that firms developing innovations experienced 0.63% abnormal returns on the event day. Of all windows surrounding the event day, the one from -5 to +5 showed the highest (and statistically significant) ACAR, with a value of 2.00%. Figure 1 presents average cumulative abnormal returns from -10th to +10th day. The peak of cumulative abnormal returns averaged for all 34 announcements surpassing 3.5% occurs right in the event day. Results suggest that investors were able to anticipate to some extent future innovation announcements. They included new information in stock price valuation in periods preceding official announcement itself. This could be based on innovation preannouncements, related announcements, reports, financial reports, informal information etc. This kind of reaction refers to well known, old trading rule buy the rumour, sell the fact. 4,00% 3,50% 3,00% 2,50% 2,00% 1,50% 1,00% 0,50% 0,00% -0,50% Figure 1. Average cumulative abnormal returns over +/-10 days event window Source: own development Table 2 provides an overview of the results disaggregated along innovation types; all of which follow a different pattern of stock price fluctuations. In most windows stock prices increased and among all the statistically significant results all were positive. Product and process innovation announcements produced the strongest investors reaction during the event day, while longer windows surrounding the event (+/-1, +/-2, +/-3, +/-5 and +/-10) were dominated by marketing, distribution and external collaboration ones. In the period following the event investors reacted the most to external collaboration innovation announcements, which produced statistically significant, positive returns in four windows
213 PART 5 OTHER TOURISM ISSUES 213 (0/+2, 0/+3, 0/+5, 0/+10). The only innovation announcement type for which no statistically significant results were observed is management one. Table 2. Average cumulative abnormal returns for innovation types Source: own development In order to test the differences between abnormal returns resulting from innovation announcement of particular innovation types the one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) followed by Games-Howell post hoc tests was employed. There was a statistically significant difference between groups as determined by ANOVA. Post-hoc comparisons revealed that the mean excess returns for product and process innovations were significantly lower than for distribution innovations. The data support hypothesis 2. IMPLICATIONS AND FURTHER RESEARCH Despite the growing interest in innovative practices in the tourism industry, relatively few studies to date have focused on the issue of financial effects of innovations. The main objective of this investigation was to examine the relationship between innovations and tourism enterprise market value in the short run. The results allow inferring that innovation
214 PART 5 OTHER TOURISM ISSUES 214 announcements do convey information useful for the valuation of tourism firms and that, on average, in investors opinion the performance-enhancing factors related to innovation announced outweighed the performance-destroying factors. The findings have important implications for practice and research. Firstly, the relation between the flow of information concerning innovations and share price was confirmed. Therefore effective company value management can rely on announcement policy. Secondly, innovations were confirmed to be a highly diversified category, as their different types produce different investors reactions. The findings of this study should be considered in light of its limitations. The sample consisted only of 34 innovation announcements issued by 6 enterprises. It is a regret that more data were not collected, as this would have facilitated a more rigorous analysis. Thus, replication using a larger sample would be beneficial. Another important avenue for further research would be to conduct a more detailed analysis of variables moderating the strength of a relationship between innovations and tourism enterprise market value. It would be of value to examine the role organisational characteristics and external factors play in the process of investors updating their expectations about future cash flows due to innovation implementation. Investigations should also address the issue of long-term effects of innovative activities undertaken by tourism companies. Future research should seek for insights into these areas. CONCLUSIONS Due to a great level of uncertainty coming from growing competition and increasingly demanding customers, tourism enterprises need to put more effort into developing and implementing innovations. Event study methodology was employed to verify two initial hypotheses. The research performed on six tourism enterprises listed on Warsaw Stock Exchange, showed that, on average, stock market investors judged that the expected gains steaming from innovations outweigh the expected costs. The abnormal return on the event day equalled 0,63% and the one on the +/- 5 days event window surrounding the event matched 2,00%. The cumulative abnormal return during +/-10 days event window peaked during the event day and slightly decreased after it, which proved leakage and dissemination effects. Investors perceived marketing, distribution and external collaboration innovations as the most beneficial. These three categories produced most of the statistically significant,
215 PART 5 OTHER TOURISM ISSUES 215 positive abnormal returns. The highest one surpassing 17% was calculated for +/-10 days event window for distributional innovations. In the period following the event most statistically significant results were calculated for external collaboration innovations. Investors slightly recognized product and process innovations while omitting management ones. One-way analysis of variance allowed indicating that mean abnormal returns for product and process innovations were significantly lower than for distributional ones. REFERENCES Camisón, C., & Monfort-Mir, V.M. (2012). Measuring Innovation in Tourism from the Schumpeterian and the Dynamic-Capabilities Perspectives. Tourism Management, 33(4), Carlborg, P., Kindström, D., & Kowalkowski, C. (2014). The Evolution of Service Innovation Research: A Critical Review and Synthesis. Service Industries Journal, 34(5), Ciborowski, R. (2003). Procesy innowacyjne w warunkach globalizacji, in: Bocian, A. (Ed.). Ekonomia, polityka, etyka. Białystok: Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu w Białymstoku. Copeland, T., Koller, T., & Murrin, J. (1997). Wycena: mierzenie i kształtowanie wartości firmy. Warszawa: WIG-Press. Eckbo, E. (Ed.). (2007). Handbook of corporate finance. Hanover: Elsevier. Fama, E., & French, K. (2007). Disagreements, tastes, and asset prices. Journal of Financial Economics, 83, Geyskens, I., Gielens, K., & Dekimpe, M.G. (2002). The Market Valuation of Internet Channel Additions. Journal of Marketing, 66 (2), Grissemann, U., Plank, A., & Brunner-Sperdin, A. (2013). Enhancing Business Performance of Hotels: The Role of Innovation and Customer Orientation. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 33, Gunday, G., Ulusoy, G., Kilic, K., & Alpkan, L. (2011). Effects of Innovation Types on Firm Performance. International Journal of Production Economics, 133(2), Hjalager, A.-M. (2010). A Review of Innovation Research in Tourism. Tourism Management, 31(1), Janasz, W., & Kozioł, K. (2007). Determinanty działalności innowacyjnej przedsiębiorstw, Warszawa: PWE.
216 PART 5 OTHER TOURISM ISSUES 216 McWilliams, A., & Siegel, D (1997). Event Studies in Management Research: Theoretical and Empirical Issues. Academy of Management Journal, 40(3), Milburn, J. (2008) The Relationship between Fair Value, Market Value, and Efficient Markets. Accounting Prespectives, 7(4), Nicolau, J.L., & Santa-María, M.J. (2013). The Effect of Innovation on Hotel Market Value, International Journal of Hospitality Management, 32, OECD, & Eurostat (2005). Oslo Manual: Guidelines for Collecting and Interpreting Innovation Data, 3rd Edition. The Measurement of Scientific and Technological Activities, OECD Publishing. Orfila-Sintes, F., & Mattsson, J. (2009). Innovation Behavior in the Hotel Industry. Omega, 37(2), Ottenbacher, M.C. (2007). Innovation Management in the Hospitality Industry: Different Strategies for Achieving Success. Journal of Hospitality & Tourism Research, 31(4), Petrou, A., & Daskalopoulou, I. (2009). Innovation and Small Firms Growth Prospects: Relational Proximity and Knowledge Dynamics in a Low-Tech Industry. European Planning Studies, 17(11), Pikkemaat, B., & Peters, M. (2005). Towards the Measurement of Innovation A Pilot Study in the Small and Medium Sized Hotel Industry. Journal of Quality Assurance in Hospitality & Tourism, 6(3/4), Rappaport, A. (1998). Creating Shareholder Value: A Guide for Managers and Investors. New York: The free press. Saunila, M., & Ukko, J. (2012). A conceptual framework for the measurement of innovation capability and its effects. Baltic Journal of Management, 7(4), Szablewski, A., & Tuzimka, R. (Eds.). (2004). Wycena i zarządzanie wartością firmy. Warszawa: Poltext. Szczepankowski, P. (2007). Wycena i zarządzanie wartością przedsiębiorstwa. Warszawa: Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN. Szutowski, D. (2014). Unification of Capital Markets. Example of Tourism Companies, in: Isolation and Unification Vectors in the Social Development Coordinate System Conference, March 21-26, London, England, [access: ]
217 PART 5 OTHER TOURISM ISSUES 217 Szyszka, A. (2003). Efektywność giełdy papierów wartościowych w Warszawie na tle rynków dojrzałych, Poznań: Wydawnictwo Akademii Ekonomicznej w Poznaniu. Weiermair, K. (2004). Product Improvement or Innovation: What is the Key to Success in Tourism?. in: Innovation and Growth in Tourism Conference, September 18-19, Lugano, Switzerland, [access: ]. Williams, A.M., & Shaw, G. (2011). Internationalization and Innovation in Tourism. Annals of Tourism Research, 38(1),
218 PART 5 OTHER TOURISM ISSUES 218 TOURISM ACTIVITY AMONG STUDENTS IN POZNAŃ Magdalena Kugiejko 21 Adam Mickiewicz University in Poznań ABSTRACT The present article constitutes a review of the results of a study concerning spare-time tourism activity conducted on a group of students of Tourism and Recreation from selected higher education institutions in Poznań. The content of this work focuses on several important issues associated with effective or passive ways of spending spare time utilized by young people. A classification of socially accepted activities was prepared, and the level of involvement in sports and physical recreation among students was analyzed. Emphasis was put on the opportunities for personal development that may currently be associated with devoting spare time to active tourism. Keywords: tourism activity, tourism, spare time, motives for undertaking tourism activity 21 Author s
219 PART 5 OTHER TOURISM ISSUES 219 INTRODUCTION University students are usually considered to be active tourists, but scientific studies concerned with their actual tourism activity are relatively rare. Human actions are largely dependent on the amount of time available. The way in which this time is spent also reflects the culture of the society in which a given individual functions. Most studies concerned with this issue are usually focused on the preferences of tourists and the types of activities they engage in, rarely touching upon the conditioning of these individuals. The tourism activity of students, who will become directors, managers, teachers, trainers, and, of course, parents in the future, constitutes an important stage in their self-education and self-improvement. Getting used to active leisure and creating opportunities to infect future co-workers or students may have significant influence on their further development. Active tourism should play a role in shaping the personalities of students as well as other directly affected individuals. Another crucial factor are the characteristics of the examined group which falls under the criteria of Generation Y. Today s young Poles are certainly more pro-social and community-wise. It is a more expressive generation, greedier for life, which expect a lot, but are not too demanding. They represent new post-modern trends, such as gap year and internet couch surfing portals, which are becoming increasingly popular new forms of independent travel, driven by youthful curiosity of the world, as well as openness to diversity, and a good command of foreign languages. On the other hand, it is easy to notice Generation Y s consumption habits the appreciation of comfort and entertainment, as well as an orientation towards friends and family, who are frequently travel companions. Respondents from Generation Y rarely travel alone (less than 7%); they choose much more often to travel in the company of friends (nearly 70%) than other, especially older, generations. This is another feature clearly distinguishing Y s as tourists. Yet the most distinctive of the features is their active way of spending time during trips (83%) and the search for entertainment (74%) Two, seemingly contradictory groups of responses looking for contact with nature (79%) and authenticity of the visited sites (69%), versus the appreciation of comfort (77%), are extremely significant. Preferences regarding travel with friends and family are an important signal for tourism products suppliers. It will be interesting to see whether Y s will change these preferences when they enter the next stages of life (Kowalczyk-Anioł, 2012)
220 PART 5 OTHER TOURISM ISSUES 220 Worth mentioning are also the global trends in tourism among European youth. The fact is that ca. 60 % of all EU citizens participate in sporting activities (Eurobarometer), but young people who are most likely to practice sport are in 22% between 15 and 24 years old, and prefer to practice physical activity outside the organized sport system (Eurobarometer survey,2009). Ageing in Europe will therefore reduce the number of potential sport activity. Yet the two main barriers to sport participation are the lack of time and cost (the cost for the participant is perceived to be the main barrier). Further analyses in this study confirm that insufficient infrastructures and human resources represent barriers to the development of sport participation across the EU. The possible solution might be an integration of grassroots sport into other policy areas, recognising sport as being of public interest. By educating youth through sport, would create incentives for public authorities at every level (Member States, local authorities and EU) to take the social benefits into account to further develop incentives for sport (e.g. tax benefits). Therefore one can reasonably assume that the sport movement is best positioned to measure and publicise the benefits of its activities to society. The European Union also has a role to play, i.e by promoting the whole range of its funding programmes (Structural funds, Progress, Lifelong Learning, Youth, Europe for Citizens, Health, etc.). In fact it is already happening The Europe 2020 Strategy named the following themes as priority (realization up mid-2014): integrity of sport, in particular the fight against doping; match-fixing and the promotion of good governance; social values of sport, in particular health, social inclusion, education and volunteering (Official Journal of the European Union, June 2011). Among many initiatives, Erasmus+ is one of the most active ones, and between provides opportunities for over 4 million Europeans to study, train, gain work experience and volunteer abroad. It will also support national efforts to modernise Education, Training, and Youth systems. In the field of Sport, there will be support for grassroots projects and cross-border challenges such as combating match-fixing, doping, violence and racism (www.ec.europa./programmes/erasmusplus/discover/index_en.htm) SUBJECT OF STUDY The main subjects of the present research included the analysis of the occurrence of motivation for engaging in tourism as well as the diversity of spare time activities undertaken by students. This stage of human life is characterized by decreasing amounts of
221 PART 5 OTHER TOURISM ISSUES 221 available spare time, which is associated with the adoption of new social roles. Therefore, the proper organization of this time is crucial for the development of the discussed individuals and their environment. Spending spare time in creative and active ways requires appropriate preparation, consisting in the development of specific skills and habits, stimulating interests, and implementing them into a specific way of life (Denek K., 2002). The development and adaptation of cultural, social, and self-improvement spare time activities boils down to answering the following questions: how much spare time do students from Poznań have?, what value and function do they attribute to it?, and, most importantly, what part of their spare time is devoted to the studied tourism and recreational activities. According to the definitions provided by experts of the field, spare time is the time devoted to leisure and other activities undertaken by individuals to reach satisfaction after completing their daily duties (Kamiński A., 1965). Spare time takes up a small, but important, part of the entire time budget available to people. In the general social consciousness, spare time is often considered to be focused on having fun, but more and more individuals also tend to engage in actions that lead to the development of their interests, passion, and personality. The organization of spare time is related to a certain level of human activity. This activity may be mental, physical, social, cultural, as well as associated with tourism, which is the subject of the present study. In order to analyze tourism among the students of Tourism and Recreation in Poznań, an attempt was made to identify the occurrence and frequency of various forms of tourism activity. The study sample was selected to intentionally draw attention to the premises and specificity of the above-mentioned major, which requires young people to possess wide knowledge of geography, good physical shape, and experience as a tourist. As graduates, these students should be able to organize and conduct tourism/recreational events and courses on their own. The curriculum guidelines of selected high education institutions portray Tourism and Recreation as an interdisciplinary major. Such programs include courses from various disciplines: culture, environment, economics, or physical culture (turystyka.amu.edu.pl/kierunki). Moreover, sports/recreation camps and professional trainings are organized as well. These actions require versatility and facilitate tourism and physical activity among young people. The present work puts forward a hypothesis that the students of Tourism and Recreation from Poznań engage in tourism activity in their spare time.
222 PART 5 OTHER TOURISM ISSUES 222 Each of the previously mentioned activities has a significant influence on the personal growth of an individual. These activities enable one to develop in various aspects of spiritual and material culture as well as to improve physically and socially (Kamiński A., 1965). Moreover, self-development influences socialization, i.e. the process of entering or growing into a culture. It helps individuals accept tradition and cultural models which later on define their behavior, gradually shaping habits, routines, and conduct (Znaniecki F., Szczepański J.,1973). The activities performed in spare time help in the process of learning specific social roles. All actions should be aimed at developing one s individuality. They express the need for self-development (social, physical, and intellectual) in different areas of self-education. As R. Łazarek (1999) pointed out, tourism, as a form of satisfying human needs, is usually associated with the needs of higher order on the Maslow's pyramid, especially the highest order - self-actualization. The features of active tourism Humans have always traveled. Tourism in general constitutes the modern form of travel. Traveling is a more or less conscious method of getting to know the world, people, and ourselves. Tourism and recreation coherently characterize the phenomenon referred to as leisure. It constitutes a part of spare time which is left after the reduction of the total time budget by the time devoted to other types of needs, i.e. biological, professional, social, or family. Leisure enables one to reduce mental and physical fatigue. When classifying activities as recreational, one has to remember that it is not their form, but the subjective assessment that makes them recreational in nature. The same activity may constitute a form of recreation when performed willingly or be considered work when obligatory. A proposed classification of different forms of recreation is presented below. These forms include (Winiarski R., 2011): a) Sports forms, i.e. recreational sports (e.g. golf, tennis, aerobics, horse riding, swimming, beach ball), b) Tourism forms, i.e. active tourism (e.g. walking, lowland and mountain hiking, cycling, skiing, sailing, kayaking), c) Hobby forms, i.e. amateur manufacturing (e.g. fishing, hunting, weaving, mushroom picking), d) Social forms, i.e. dancing and parlor games (e.g. disco dancing, billiards, bowing),
223 PART 5 OTHER TOURISM ISSUES 223 e) Cultural entertainment forms, i.e. amateur artistic activity (e.g. visiting theme parks or amusement parks), f) Virtual forms, i.e. interactive games (e.g. computer games, console games - Play Station). Motives for undertaking tourism activity. The motivation behind tourism is inseparably associated with the desire to undertake such actions. Human behavior is governed by psychology as well as by strong physiological conditioning. Certain influence is also exerted by the society and personal activity. The values shaping motivation influence creative actions, expressing individuals readiness to satisfy their personal needs. It is important to emphasize that one of the key factors determining the behavior and decisions of tourists are their motives for practicing tourism. A motive can be understood as a psychological factor determining behavior in a given situation. When making a connection between motives and human needs, it can be assumed that a motive is a mechanism or a system of internal mechanisms driving and organizing human actions in order to satisfy one s needs (Przecławski K., 1996). Motivation is a system of mechanisms which initiates and organizes human actions and is aimed at the satisfaction of needs (Przecławski K., 1979). Humans are not always aware of their own motivation. Among the listed motivations for tourism activity, it is also possible to distinguish common motives listed by selected specialists of the area. V.T.C. Middleton (1996) touches upon the issue of the motives related to the need for temporary abandonment of one s daily environment, social environment, family environment, or work environment. The author also discusses the motives associated with the desire to visit places. Main emphasis is put on the motives of familiarizing oneself with the environment, the broadly defined culture, and the life adaptations of the visited societies. Cultural motivations are also discussed by R. W. McIntosh and C. Kaspar as well as by I. Jędrzejczyk (Różycki P., 2006), and are considered among the six most important motivations. While being mainly focused on the willingness to visit new places or countries and learn about customs, they also facilitate interest in art. However, such actions require a strong initiating factor, such as previous knowledge or experience in undertaking similar activities. Undertaking an action and setting a goal results in the appearance of tension, which may prove to be a strong driving force for further initiatives.
224 PART 5 OTHER TOURISM ISSUES 224 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY In order to acquire preliminary information about the spare time and its organization in the study group, we utilized a diagnostic survey. This method enables one to verify the legitimacy of the subject selected for an experiment (the presence of tourism activity and its intensity) and the achieved results. The questionnaire of the survey, a written interview used for own research, was composed of 21 questions and divided into two parts, which included several possible answers. Part I served as an introduction, containing information about the age, education, and place of residence of the participants. Part II contained the questions related to the subject matter of the present study. The last two questions in the questionnaire required the participants to provide a written answer on their own. This enabled the acquisition of comprehensive answers and allowed the surveyed individuals to freely express their opinions on the provided topic. The survey conducted among the students was anonymous. RESEARCH RESULTS The research was being conducted from September to December 2012 on a random sample of students of Tourism and Recreation studying at higher education institutions in Poznań. The study included 200 students in total. The verification of the respondents confirmed that all the individuals share a similar curriculum in the area of Tourism and Recreation. Tourism and Recreation is an interdisciplinary major and this is why its curriculum contains subjects from many fields. The curricula include five main areas: environment, culture, humanities, economics and law, and practical classes. This emphasizes the importance of the psychological and physical development of students. The study group included individuals between the ages of 19 and 30. When it comes to the mode of studying in the research group, 51.67% of participants studied full-time, while 48.33% studied extramurally. The study included both BA and MA students. The data collected among the studied individuals suggests that 57.67% of them live permanently in cities with populations below , while 32% live permanently in cities with populations exceeding respondents live in rural areas, which constituted 7.5% of the studied individuals. Only 3.33% of all respondents live in cities with populations exceeding The percentage of newcomers to Poznań, who rent flats or live in dormitories, was 69%, while the percentage
225 PART 5 OTHER TOURISM ISSUES 225 of individuals living in the vicinity of Poznań and commuting on daily basis to get to their classes was 31%. The activities performed in spare time serve specific functions. The literature available on the subject considers the function of spare time in relation to the quality of the actions undertaken. Every action performed in spare time should be voluntary. It is also important to mention that the key factors differentiating the ways of spending spare time are: education, sex (to a significantly lower degree), status (studying individuals, working individuals, non-studying individuals), and local environment (Przecławski K., 1993). Kamiński A. (1965) listed 11 socially accepted groups when trying to systematize spare time activities. The respondents of the present study had 10 possible answers available when answering their questions associated with the ways of spending spare time. The surveyed individuals could choose among several possibilities. The total number of chosen answers was 586, which indicates that a single individual from the study group selected 4 methods of spending spare time on average. Before analyzing the results, it needs to be mentioned that, according to the students opinions, 53% have 1-3 hours of spare time a day, 17% have more than 3 hours, while 30% claim that they have no time for themselves at all. The amounts of available spare time are further diversified by the place of residence, the work performed, the mode of study, and the fact of having a family. The students who both work and study extramurally have the least amount of spare time available. Next, there are young mothers who continue their education and full-time students working off and on. The commuters, living in the vicinity of Poznań (34%), also have less spare time than the individuals living in the city itself. According to many questionnaires, work is a factor that, in the opinion of the surveyed individuals, significantly reduces the time that can be spent on leisure and recreation. The conducted research and the diagram presented below point to an alarming increase in the passivity of the activities performed in spare time, which is relatively scarce according to the respondents. As suggested by the analysis of the students behavior (Fig. 1.), half of them devote a significant portion of their spare time to watching television, meeting with friends, or doing nothing in particular (idleness).
226 PART 5 OTHER TOURISM ISSUES 226 The ways of spending spare time among students. ARTISTIC THEATER/EXHIBITIONS SOCIAL ACTIVITY SELF-EDUCATION DIY 0% 1% 2% 2% 3% TOURISM SPORTS 13% 14% PASSIVE 18% SOCIAL CONTACTS 21% TV 23% 0% 5% 10% 15% 20% 25% Figure 1. The ways of spending spare time among students Source - own work In order to verify the role of tourism in spare time activity, the respondents were asked to answer 3 questions concerning the time that they devote to tourist trips. The questions concerned the distribution of trips within a calendar year, the duration of the last tourist trip, and the percentage of spare time devoted by the surveyed students to tourism activity. When it comes to the time devoted to tourist trips within a year, the respondents declared that these are mainly week-long trips (as many as 48.4% of respondents). Trips lasting a single weekend or four days are also becoming popular (26.33%). The period of 2 weeks was chosen by 20.33% of respondents, while only 5% of the studied individuals take trips lasting 1 month. The surveyed group did not contain any individuals who would go away for more than a month. The analysis also revealed that the trips are usually concentrated around days that are free from classes or work, such as summer vacation, mid-semester breaks, leaves, and weekends. Mostly respondents enjoy trips organized by friends (45%), significant group prefers to travel alone (38,34%), and the remaining part (16.66%) books holidays organized by travel
227 PART 5 OTHER TOURISM ISSUES 227 agencies. Not one person identified any other form of organization of tourist activity. Respondents also highlighted that their tourism activity largely depends on their economic situation Technical factors also play a significant role in performing tourism activities. The Internet is now an inherent tool in decision making process of holiday destination and specific travel services (ordering tickets, accommodation reservations and payments) (Fig 2.) Forms of organizing students tourist trips BY FRIENDS TRAVEL ALONE TRAVEL AGENCIES Figure 2. Forms of organizing students tourist trips Source - own work Excluding tourism activity, which constitutes only 13%, the dominant conduct consists of passive or social activities. The percentage of students engaging in social activities is higher, but it is also proportional to the individuals responsibilities (work, family) and the amount of spare time available. The students who work are relatively more likely to engage in stationary activities, e.g. watching TV, playing games, or reading books. The sports activity mentioned by the respondents (14%) is also dependent on several factors. The students who have obligatory sports classes more often undertake this type of activity in their spare time to continue their training. Social awareness with regard to healthy lifestyle also affects the popularization of sports among young people. Outdoor gyms and bicycle lanes are created; studying individuals receive special discounts, which also encourages them to practice sports. Continuing the research of motor activity, if present, the preferences of young people concerning different types of activities were studied. The respondents were asked to point two main areas of activity out of 9 available answers.
228 PART 5 OTHER TOURISM ISSUES 228 Declared forms of tourism activity KAYAKING PAINTBALL HORSE RIDING SAILING JOGGING SKIING TREKKING SWIMMING CYCLING 1% 2% 3% 3% 11% 12% 13% 21% 34% 0% 5% 10% 15% 20% 25% 30% 35% 40% Figure 3. Declared forms of tourism activity Source - own work The survey results point to the main five groups among the most frequently chosen sports and tourism activities. It is also important to mention that only 27% of the persons included in the study devote their spare time to sports or tourism. The most popular and most frequently practiced disciplines among students are the easiest available and least expensive ones. This data is also supported by the survey of the Center for Public Opinion Research of September 2013 (BS/129/2013) concerning the physical activity of Poles. In both research samples, the most popular sport was cycling (34% - the surveyed students, 51% - Poles in general), while the second most frequently practiced discipline was swimming (21% - students, 27% Poles). Other relatively popular forms of recreation include: hiking (13%), skiing (12%), and jogging (11%). The chosen forms of activity are most likely dependent on the individual skills of the respondents or the skills which they can easily acquire. Cycling and swimming are common skills as, according the survey of the Center for Public Opinion Research (2013), cycling is very popular among Poles (97%). Most of the study participants could also swim, which makes practicing this form of physical activity easier as it does not require any additional qualifications. It should also be mentioned that bicycles are often used as an alternative to public transportation. The research among students was performed with reference to a calendar year, during ¾ of which cycling remains possible (excluding winter months). It was assumed (Fig. 3.) that the selection of this activity by 32% of
229 PART 5 OTHER TOURISM ISSUES 229 respondents also resulted from the use of bicycles as a form of transportation. The City of Poznań also contributes to the popularization of cycling by implementing the PRM program (Poznański Rower Miejski - Poznan City Bike). When it comes to the use of sports centers (swimming pools), 23% of the surveyed individuals declare attending such facilities. In order to practice skiing, one has to possess certain knowledge, previous training, and minimum technical skills. Winter sports, including skiing and snowboarding, are becoming more and more popular, despite the required financial expenditures. It should also be pointed out that these disciplines are seasonal and the activity of the respondents within these forms of recreation is not continuous. The analyses also indicate that men, as opposed to women, practice sports more frequently. They are also interested in other, more specialized forms of tourism and sports activities, which is presented in the diagram below (Fig. 4.). The ration of the sexes was comparable (women - 48%, men - 52%). The disciplines that are preferred more frequently by women include (Figure 3.) jogging and cycling; men were characterized by a higher diversity of preferred disciplines, which included swimming, cycling, skiing (snowboarding), paintball, trekking, and sailing. Every type of activity, sports or tourism, requires time and, as the respondents pointed out, money. The conducted analysis also shows the versatility of young people, as smaller groups of enthusiasts practice kayaking, paintball, or other less popular disciplines. However, the most popular disciplines are the ones that are widely available; a bicycle, a pool, or a path in the woods - everything that is needed for basic personal growth. Apart from the mentioned dominant skills, such as cycling and swimming, the remaining preferences for recreation and sports activities to some degree depend on such factors as qualifications, income level, or place of residence.
230 PART 5 OTHER TOURISM ISSUES 230 Figure 4. Declared forms of tourism activity among men and women Source - own work When analyzing the motivation behind the actions of students, three main motives were found. The main motive for practicing tourism activities, if present, is the motive of leisure (38.93% of the respondents selected this answer), with learning occupying the second place (20.61%). Self-actualization was the motive selected by 14.50%, while the motives of health and participation were less common. Among the determinants for undertaking tourism activities, the respondents listed three main factors. The social factor % of the surveyed individuals point to a high level of travel culture and high social awareness of active leisure. The decisions concerning the selection of a place for spending spare time or using other tourist services depend on tradition, which is deeply rooted in a society. Another determinant indicated by the respondents was the economic factor. The tourism activity of an individual is mainly dependent on his or her economic status. As many as 29% of the study participants selected the above-mentioned factor as crucial. The technical factor also plays a significant role. This includes both the condition of technical infrastructure, e.g. the development of transportation (freeways, airports, railway lines), and the availability of information technology, which became a tool for the selection of tourist destinations; this answer was given by 21.30% of all respondents.
231 PART 5 OTHER TOURISM ISSUES 231 CONCLUSION Tourism activity is a result of human interests and needs. According to the definition provided by the United Nations World Tourism Organization (UNWTO) tourism comprises the activities of persons traveling to and staying in places outside their usual environment for not more than one consecutive year for leisure, business, and other purposes. The encyclopedia of the Polish Scientific Publishers PWN defines tourism as all changes of the place of stay, if they are not related to work or changing the place of residence, in one s homeland and abroad. Tourism is a form of active leisure. It should also be added that this activity is socially accepted and should, therefore, contribute to the development of the personalities of both students and other individuals. The acquired research results do not confirm this hypothesis. The amount of spare time available to student does not, unfortunately, proportionally translate into increased activity. The analyses conducted among the students of tourism from Poznań do not concur with the research performed by the Center for Public Opinion Research (2013), which suggests that practicing sports and tourism activities is widespread especially among young, well-educated people who live in cities and are satisfied with their financial status. The place of residence and higher education are the matching factors in the two above-mentioned analyses. The main discrepancy, however, is associated with financial problems, which limit the mobility of young people and reduce the time available for recreation and tourism activities. Such ways of spending spare time as cycling, swimming, or jogging are probably so popular because of the economic factor. According to the conducted research, the most frequent reason for giving up leisure and tourist trips is the lack of money. It is, however, important to emphasize that almost half of the respondents go on week-long trips, while about 30% - on two-day-long trips. This shows that difficult economic situation enables short leisure trips, which may take place several times within one year. Weekend trips are also influenced by the educational system - the use of days free from classes and long weekends. Moreover, longer trips among the respondents cause larger disproportions in the number of trips taken (one longer trip with a shorter one or several two-day-long trips). According to the conducted research, mass culture, which is provided to the widest possible group of viewers with the use of mass media, facilitates the passive acceptance of the entertainment that it offers (Kamiński A., 1965). This trend is also visible among students from Poznań, whose forms of recreation became uniform because of mass culture. Research shows that many
232 PART 5 OTHER TOURISM ISSUES 232 young people do not seek creative and pro-growth ways of spending spare time, enjoying the widely available mass entertainment. It may seem that students, as young and passionate people, should need and search for active leisure apart from education. As may be inferred from the conducted analyses, such activities usually disappear when an individual has to do something, go somewhere, and exhibit a bit of involvement instead of just sitting in an armchair and traveling the world through a TV screen. It has to be kept in mind that the study focused on the students of Tourism and Recreation, a major which is associated with activeness by its very name. Apart from wide knowledge, sightseeing and travel require young people to be active, both in terms of tourism and sports. In such a situation, it is important to directly point to the correct models of behavior and replace the previous passive existence with positive activeness. From a simple stroll (nordic walking), through cycling, to a kayaking trip. Each of the mentioned forms joins the premises of tourism and sightseeing with general physical development. Such actions should not only be associated with costly trips or buying new equipment, but also with active participation in the tourism activity of the nearest environment, gaining new knowledge about the closest neighborhood, as well as identifying and sharing passion with others. It also needs to be mentioned that various forms of tourism activity have a positive influence on interpersonal contacts and further socialization with a group or community. The conducted research focused on the occurrence of tourism activity as well as its expression. The majority of the surveyed individuals were subjected to a one-sided problem analysis. This constitutes an introduction to the research of this issue, which indicated that the individuals choosing Tourism and Recreation as their major do not exhibit the activeness that should be associated with their future education. Research in this field should be continued with a higher number of students for several reasons, the most important one being that high participation of young people and the general public in tourism activities is desirable from the point of view of the Wielkopolskie Voivodeship, the entire country, and the tourism industry itself. Apart from its economic function, it also serves many other roles: leisure, health, educational, etc. Unfortunately, the collected data shows that the first two functions significantly dominate over the rest. Due to these reasons, tourism activity long ago ceased to be a personal matter and became a significant social issue, which more and more often is the subject of Public Opinion Research in order to compile a future tourism policy for individual regions and the entire country. Tourism is a type of school without any desks or
233 PART 5 OTHER TOURISM ISSUES 233 handbooks, which educates, enriches, and develops norms without textbook platitudes. Thanks to this type of learning, the human race managed to gather the vast knowledge that is now documented in books, movies, photos, etc. Moreover, it enables people to gather their own observations, self-develop and educate, as well as increase their accumulated experience. REFERENCES Centrum Badania Opinii Społecznej. (2013) Aktualne problemy i wydarzenia (279), Denek, K. (2002) Poza ławką szkolną, Eruditius. Kamiński, A. (1965) Czas wolny i jego problematyka społeczno-wychowawcza, Zakład Narodowy im. Ossolińskich. Joanna Kowalczyk-Anioł, J. (2012) Tourism trends among Generation Y in Poland, Tourism, 22/2, DOI /v y 54. Middleton V.T.C. (1996) Marketing w turystyce, PART. Łazarek, R. (1999) Ekonomika turystyki. Wybrane zagadnienia. Official Journal of the European Union, Information and Notices, (2011) C 162, Volume Przecławski, K. (1996) Człowiek a turystyka zarys socjologii turystyki, Albis. Przecławski, K. (1979) Socjologiczne problemy turystyki, Instytut Wydawniczy CRZZ. Przecławski, K. (1993) Czas wolny dzieci i młodzieży. W: W. Pomykało (red.): Encyklopedia pedagogiczna. Różycki, P.(2006) Zarys wiedzy o turystyce, Proksenia. turystyka.amu.edu.pl/kierunki/ogolny.html Winiarski, R. (2011) Rekreacja i czas wolny, Oficyna Wydawnicza ŁośGraf. Znaniecki, F. (1973) Szczepański J., Socjologia wychowania, PWN. Internet sources
234 PART 5 OTHER TOURISM ISSUES 234 THE IMPORTANCE OF INDIVIDUAL COMPONENTS OF THE TOURIST ATTRACTIVENESS OF CITIES FOR STUDENTS Agata Kobyłka 22 University of Life Sciences in Lublin, Poland ABSTRACT The aim of the study was to determine importance of individual components of attractiveness while student when to the cites for tourism purposes. In Poland students are a very large group and they travel willingly. It is important to take into account their preferences while during the organization of urban space and when creating promotional campaigns. In the study have been used a method of diagnostic survey. In the questionnaire survey four aspects of the tourist attractiveness of cities was isolated (anthropogenic adventages, recurring events, natural values, tourism infrastructure). They were divided into groups and subgroups. For measuring the importance of specific aspects of attractiveness the 6-point scale have been used (0 not important, 5 most important). The study involved 576 students. The survey was conducted from January to April 2014 in a randomly selected adolescents studying at universities in Lublin 81.25% women and 18.75% men. Statistica 8.1 PL was used for statistical research. Among basic components of tourism the most important of them turned to be natural values (average response of 4,11), in particular the presence of green areas (4,19). Next was tourism infrastructure (3,95) the most important were the availability of accommodation and transport accessibility (both of 4,51). Anthropogenic advantages proved to be the least important (3,64) followed by recurring events (3,58). Hardly important was the availability of philharmonics, art galleries, bowling, golf courses, tennis courts and availability of car rental. While creating promotional campaigns of cities (mainly university cities) or during city spatial organization preferences of students should be taken into account by local governments or investors. Keywords: tourist attractiveness of cities, tourist management, students 22 Author s
235 PART 5 OTHER TOURISM ISSUES 235 INTRODUCTION Tourist attractiveness is a complex concept and difficult to unambiguously assessment (Warszyńska, 1970; Warszyńska, Jackowski, 1978). It may be universal or relative. When the area is attractive for all tourists we speak then about the universality. The nature of the relative concerns specific forms of tourism, such as attractiveness suitability for cycling tourism or water tourism (Kurek, 2007). Literature draws attention to the three meanings of tourist attractiveness (Page, 1995; Seweryn, 2003): Attractiveness as a result of various types of classifications, categorizations. Attractiveness as a result of the use of specific assessment techniques (eg the attractiveness of the area determined by the method of grading score (Sołowiej, 192a, 192b; Kistowski, 1993), by the mathematical and statistical methods, eg modeling method (Tomczyk 2005). Attractiveness as a result of the subjective perception. The attractiveness of cities depends on the number of existing tourism resources, but also how these resources are evaluated and perceived by tourists. Thus, attractiveness of some resources depends not only on their inherently value, but also on the perceptions that tourists have about them. Not all destinations that have major attractions are seen as attractive by tourists (Gârbea, 2014). M. Nowacki (2003) emphasizes that assessment of the attractiveness from the perspective of experiences tourists may provide an alternative to the methods currently dominant. Methods in which the criteria are determined subjectively often don t have connection with the preferences of visitors. Attractiveness is very important to tourist city and knowing what is the most attractive factor in tourist city is the key to improve the tourist city competitiveness (Hong-mei, Wei, Shu-fen, 2007). In the modern world spending free time for recreation or tourism has become the norm (Niezgoda, Zmyślony, 2003). The most important of its functions is to provide mental and physical relaxation, health improvement, entertainment, develop skills and interests. They evoke pleasant emotions. They allow closer contact with friends and family. They help to establish deeper relationships. Free-temporary behaviors are a source of positive experiences (Mucha-Szajek, Zaremba, 2005). Urban tourism is one of the oldest forms of tourism. It has cultivated since the Middle Ages Its flourish took place in the early 80's. Its characteristic features include (Jędrysiak,
236 PART 5 OTHER TOURISM ISSUES ; Kowalczyk, 2008; Marciszewska, 2002; Pawlicz, 2008): short period of stay, high average tourist expenditure, small role of natural attractions, lower level of seasonality, a high proportion of business visitors. Tourism and recreational infrastructure of the city is its biggest attraction. Primary attractions greatly influence the choice of the city as a tourist destination (Formica, 2000; Matczak, Płoński, 2008). Secondary attractions determine the success of the village as tourist centers. They generate large employment of workers and they are also the most important factor for economy. Additional attractions make urban spaces more attractive. They serve both tourists and residents (Matczak, 2008). Properly filled leisure time gives positive effects not only to the individual person. The development of tourism and recreation brings a number of benefits for both the reception site, which is often a city and its inhabitants (Pawlicz, 2008). The decision to develop the tourism function in a particular location is often undertaken in hope that it will bring economic activation of the region. Most of local governments in Poland sees tourism and recreation, as the basic direction of region development (Pawlikowska-Piechotka, 2010). RESEARCH METHODOLOGY The aim of the study was to determine importance of individual components of attractiveness when students come to the cites for tourism purposes. In Poland students are a very large group and they travel willingly. It is important to take into account their preferences during the organization of urban space and when creating promotional campaigns. In the study the method of diagnostic survey with surveying technique has been used. Author s questionnaire consisted of specifications containing 4 questions (gender, age, year of study, place of origin) and 5 question questionnaire. In the second part of the questionnaire survey four aspects of city attractiveness were isolated (anthropogenic values, recurring events, natural values, tourism infrastructure). They were divided into groups and subgroups (Tab. 1). For measuring the importance of specific aspects of attractiveness the 6- point scale have been used (where 0 is the lowest and 5 is the highest rating). The survey
237 PART 5 OTHER TOURISM ISSUES 237 was conducted from January to April Research questionnaire was distributed at universities in Lublin and posted on social networks. Adopted independent variables are: gender: women W, man M, year of study: I V, place of origin: city < habitants C1, city > habitants C2, village Vi. Statistica 8.1 PL was used for statistical research chi-square test. Table 1: Components of the tourist attractiveness of cities Natural values Groups Green areas Fauna attractions Water attractions Subgroups Botanical garden, urban park ZOO, another zoo (eg. aviary) Urban pond Watering place in the city or in the near distances River flowing through the city or in the near distanc Tourism infrastructure Accommodation Accessibility Tourism information Categorized facilities and Uncategorized facilities Railway station, Bus station, Public transport, Radio Taxi, Car rental, Hiking trails and Bike trails Antropogenic values Monuments Cultural institutions Entertainment facilities Recreational facilities Secular objects, Sacral objects Philharmonic, Art galleries, Theatre, Urban trails, Museums Shoping and entertainment centers, Bowling, Modern cinema Swiming pools, Rope parks, Golf courses, Tennis courts Recurring events The number of cultural events (eg. theater events, music events) The number of tourist events (eg. marathons, bicycle rallies) Source: own elaboration based on Crouch, Ritchie, 1999; Dwyer, Kim, 2003; Formica, 2002; Gonia, 2008; Gunn, 1988; Haihong, 2003; Jin-ming, 2005; Kušen, 2003; Kruczek, 2011; Leask, Yeoman, 2004; Lew, 1987; Matczak, 2008; Middleton, 1996; Mill, Morrison, 1992; Nowacki, 2012; Prentice, 1993; Richards, 2003; Shoval, Raveh, 2004; Swarbrooke, 1995; Yanying, 2004; Ying, 2004; Ziółkowska-Weiss, 2014.
238 PART 5 OTHER TOURISM ISSUES 238 CHARACTERISTIC OF THE REASERCH SAMPLE The survey was conducted in a randomly selected adolescents studying at universities in Lublin. The study involved 576 responders. Group was dominated by women (468 respondents). Amount of people from the countryside (287 respondents) was the same as people from cities (289 respondents). The largest percentage of student were first-year 153 and II-grade students 124 and the lowest V-year 87 respondents (Fig. 1). Respondents were aged between years old (average age 21,7 years). The largest group consisted of 20-year-olds 137 and 21-year-olds 114. Gender Year of study Orgin F M 18,75% 81,25% I II III IV V 26,56% 21,53% 18,58% 18,23% 15,10% Vi 49,83% C1 33,16% C2 17,01% 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% Figure 1: Demographic profile of respondents (n=576) Source: Own elaboration based on the results of research RESULTS Among basic components of tourism the most important of them turned to be natural values (average response of 4,11). Next was tourism infrastructure (3,95). Anthropogenic advantages proved to be the least important (3,64) followed by regular events (3,58). Natural values were more important for women and people coming from the village than for men and respondents from the city. Women found above each component of the tourist attractiveness of cities. Natural values, tourism infrastructure and anthropogenic values were more important for students from fourth and fifth year than their younger colleagues.
239 PART 5 OTHER TOURISM ISSUES 239 Only recurring events were an exception. The statistically significant didn t occur between the variables and the answer to the questions (Table 1). Table 1: The importance of components of the tourist attractiveness of cities Natural values Tourism infrastructure Anthropogenic values Recurring events N Gender Year of study Orgin W M I II III IV V Vi C1 C2 4,11 4,15 3,96 4,09 4,09 4,08 4,16 4,17 4,15 4,07 4,07 X 2 3,146 16,434 6,626 p 0,678 0,689 0,760 3,95 3,99 3,83 3,97 3,89 3,87 4,04 4,08 4,04 3,89 3,88 X 2 4,103 12,512 12,284 p 0,535 0,897 0,266 3,63 3,67 3,46 3,50 3,75 3,58 3,63 3,77 3,63 3,58 3,67 X 2 2,480 17,712 6,578 p 0,779 0,606 0,765 3,58 3,60 3,53 3,63 3,75 3,53 3,40 3,58 3,63 3,63 3,50 X 2 1,303 21,887 3,540 p 0,935 0,347 0,966 (0 not important, 5 most important), X 2 Chi square, p<0,050 significance level Source: own elaboration based on the results of research For respondents while exploring cities most important was the presence of green areas. Women evaluated higher all categories than men except river flowing through the city or in the near distance. People from the small city evaluated higher water attractions. People from the village higher evaluate other components. Students from first year rated higher most components of the natural values. The statistically significant didn t occur between the variables and the answer to the questions about the importance of components of the natural values (Tab. 2). Among the tourist infrastructure the most important for responders turned out to be the availability of accommodation, in particular cheap uncategorized objects. Equally important was transport accessibility: access and the ability to move around the city by public transport or designated trails. For responders while exploring cities least important were the presence of car rental and Radio Taxi. More important for men than for women was the availability of rental cars, Radio Taxi and categorized facilities. Students from fourth year rated higher most components of the tourism infrastructure. Year of study influenced the answers on uncategorized facilities (p=0,000) (Tab. 3).
240 PART 5 OTHER TOURISM ISSUES 240 Table 2: The importance of components of the natural values Green areas (total) 1 Botanical garden 2 Urban park Fauna attractions (total) 1 ZOO 2 Another zoo (eg. aviary) Water attractions (total) 1 Urban pond 2 Watering place in the city or in the near distances N Gender Year of study Orgin W M I II III IV V Vi C1 C2 4,19 4,25 3,98 4,30 4,13 4,20 4,19 4,14 4,25 4,12 4,17 X 2 5,839 18,651 5,468 p 0,322 0,545 0,858 3,39 3,46 3,16 3,46 3,25 3,26 3,51 3,49 3,58 3,37 3,16 X 2 6,182 10,720 9,555 p 0,289 0,953 0,480 3,95 4,03 3,69 4,07 3,94 3,93 3,99 3,85 3,50 3,26 3,48 X 2 8,890 21,544 4,313 p 0,114 0,366 0,932 3,45 3,52 3,18 3,55 3,40 3,29 3,46 3,55 3,50 3,26 3,45 X 2 5,384 12,408 11,460 p 0,371 0,901 0,323 3,17 3,22 2,94 2,99 3,15 3,08 3,28 3,47 3,21 3,01 3,19 X 2 9,702 18,151 12,372 p 0,084 0,577 0,261 2,58 2,62 2,43 2,41 2,59 2,39 2,59 3,10 2,62 2,51 2,56 X 2 4,978 22,828 3,997 p 0,419 0,297 0,947 3,56 3,60 3,40 3,61 3,56 3,52 3,50 3,62 3,59 3,68 3,46 X 2 2,206 12,827 11,761 p 0,820 0,885 0,301 3,07 3,11 2,91 3,20 3,06 2,96 3,04 3,06 3,12 3,16 2,96 X 2 3,228 11,821 5,462 p 0,665 0,922 0,858 3,52 3,53 3,42 3,57 3,48 3,53 3,53 3,38 3,56 3,67 3,34 X 2 1,078 7,198 14,159 p 0,956 0,992 0,166 River flowing 3,08 3,06 3,15 3,29 2,93 2,96 3,19 2,93 3,14 3,21 2,92 through the city 3 X 2 8,140 16,666 7,058 or in the near distance p 0,149 0,675 0,720 (0 not important, 5 most important), X 2 Chi square, p<0,050 significance level Source: own elaboration based on the results of research
241 PART 5 OTHER TOURISM ISSUES 241 Table 3: The importance of components of the tourism infrastructure Accommodation (total) 1 2 Categorized facilities Uncategorized facilities Accessibility 1 Railway station 2 Bus station 3 Public transport 4 Radio Taxi 5 Car rental 6 Hiking trails 7 Bike trails Tourism information N Gender Year of study Orgin W M I II III IV V Vi C1 C2 4,51 4,55 4,34 4,49 4,48 4,50 4,72 4,45 4,51 4,51 4,52 X 2 7,323 24,396 9,014 p 0,198 0,226 0,531 3,11 3,08 3,26 3,22 2,99 3,01 3,19 3,10 3,09 3,18 3,10 X 2 1,735 11,177 6,749 p 0,885 0,942 0,749 3,52 3,54 3,47 3,30 3,71 3,53 3,61 3,55 3,53 3,44 3,57 X 2 7, ,323 1,032 p 0,190 0,000 1,000 4,51 4,55 4,32 4,55 4,32 4,51 4,71 4,32 4,50 4,49 4,53 X 2 6,446 21,900 10,150 p 0,265 0,346 0,427 4,13 4,16 4,05 4,01 4,18 4,23 4,17 4,14 4,12 3,98 4,24 X 2 4,750 13,959 13,413 p 0,447 0,833 0,201 4,28 4,35 3,98 4,22 4,26 4,30 4,48 4,16 4,34 4,19 4,24 X 2 7,127 15,829 7,226 p 0,211 0,727 0,704 4,30 4,33 4,17 4,26 4,25 4,34 4,49 4,15 4,37 4,07 4,31 X 2 6,649 16,840 10,643 p 0,248 0,663 0,386 2,55 2,54 2,61 2,52 2,44 2,60 2,68 2,58 2,53 2,53 2,59 X 2 1,382 14,158 8,485 p 0,926 0,822 0,582 1,44 1,39 1,62 1,62 1,34 1,42 1,38 1,32 1,43 1,38 1,48 X 2 3,205 25,122 7,086 p 0,668 0,197 0,717 3,31 3,37 3,06 3,20 3,39 3,33 3,45 3,23 3,32 3,32 3,31 X 2 7,988 24,668 7,714 p 0,157 0,214 0,657 3,23 3,24 3,17 3,33 3,19 3,09 3,31 3,16 3,18 3,47 3,17 X 2 2,456 23,114 3,449 p 0,783 0,283 0,969 3,91 3,93 3,78 3,91 3,85 3,79 4,00 3,97 3,93 3,82 3,90 X 2 1,950 14,893 5,699 p 0,856 0,783 0,840 (0 not important, 5 most important), X 2 Chi square, p<0,050 significance level Source: own elaboration based on the results of research In this section the most important for students were entertainment facilities. Hardly important was the availability of philharmonics, art galleries, bowling, golf courses, tennis
242 PART 5 OTHER TOURISM ISSUES 242 courts and availability of car rental. For women cultural facilitie was more important than it was for men. Gender influenced the response on theaters (p=0,034). Students from first year rated higher most components of the anthropogenic values, especially entertainment facilities and recreational facilities. Year of study influenced the answers on sacral objects (p=0,032), shoping and entertainment centers (p=0,000) and modern cinemas (0,009). Respondents from the city (> habitants) rated higher most components of the monuments and cultural infrastructure. Whole respondents from the village rated higher most components of the recreational facilities. Orgin influenced the response on swimming pools (p=0,004) and tennis courts (p=0,014) (Table 4). Table 4: The importance of components of the anthropogenic values Monuments (total) 1 Secular objects 2 Sacral objects Cultural institutions 1 Philharmonic 2 Art galleries 3 Theatres 4 Urban trails N Gender Year of study Orgin W M I II III IV V Vi C1 C2 3,73 3,78 3,57 3,50 3,69 3,73 3,96 3,97 3,75 3,60 3,79 X 2 7,043 25,643 8,263 p 0,217 0,178 0,603 3,27 3,31 3,11 2,97 3,33 3,32 3,39 3,53 3,28 3,12 3,35 X 2 8,442 22,918 11,201 p 0,134 0,293 0,342 2,46 2,49 2,38 2,31 2,66 2,20 2,62 2,66 2,61 2,25 2,38 X 2 1,771 33,248 12,160 p 0,880 0,032 0,274 3,32 3,41 2,99 3,26 3,23 3,49 3,46 3,15 3,32 3,33 3,34 X 2 10,466 17,986 6,650 p 0,063 0,588 0,758 1,48 1,52 1,33 1,52 1,39 1,43 1,54 1,54 1,40 1,49 1,59 X 2 2,698 6,660 12,309 p 0,746 0,998 0,265 1,86 1,91 1,56 1,92 1,82 1,77 1,89 1,79 1,75 1,95 1,93 X 2 7,345 15,171 2,659 p 0,196 0,767 0,988 2,19 2,27 1,82 2,33 2,14 2,23 2,21 1,93 2,12 2,22 2,27 X 2 12,073 13,832 4,178 p 0,034 0,839 0,939 3,33 3,39 3,07 3,31 3,13 3,43 3,48 3,36 3,27 3,32 3,43 X 2 2,512 17,569 8,621 p 0,775 0,616 0,568
243 PART 5 OTHER TOURISM ISSUES 243 2,94 2,94 2,94 2,83 2,68 3,00 3,27 3,05 2,80 3,03 3,11 5 Museums Entertainment facilities 1 Shoping and entertainment centers 2 Bowlings 3 Modern cinemas X 2 2,798 24,451 14,363 p 0,731 0,223 0,157 3,91 3,95 3,75 4,09 3,63 4,10 3,98 3,69 3,95 3,90 3,86 X 2 4,101 31,096 4,165 p 0,535 0,054 0,940 3,10 3,14 2,94 3,43 3,07 3,05 3,08 2,64 3,19 3,25 2,89 X 2 4,907 52,486 10,872 p 0,427 0,000 0,368 1,91 1,91 1,85 2,31 1,74 1,92 1,80 1,48 2,03 1,95 1,67 X 2 2,469 20,844 12,492 p 0,781 0,406 0,254 2,61 2,61 2,56 2,92 2,58 2,61 2,75 1,87 2,71 2,90 2,29 X 2 2,882 38,020 18,044 p 0,718 0,009 0,054 Recreational facilities 1 Swiming pools 2 Rope parks 3 Golf courses 4 Tennis courts 3,68 3,72 3,56 3,99 3,55 3,60 3,75 3,38 3,71 3,82 3,58 X 2 6,496 26,947 4,122 p 0,261 0,137 0,942 2,62 2,61 2,63 2,83 2,61 2,61 2,69 2,16 2,61 2,93 2,47 X 2 3,306 15,282 25,689 p 0,653 0,760 0,004 2,36 2,39 2,27 2,65 2,32 2,23 2,40 2,06 2,39 2,45 2,29 X 2 4,115 15,857 2,762 p 0,533 0,725 0,986 1,04 1,00 1,19 1,33 0,91 0,93 1,04 0,83 0,97 1,06 1,12 X 2 3,959 25,510 4,986 p 0,555 0,183 0,892 1,40 1,35 1,58 1,78 1,23 1,26 1,42 1,06 1,34 1,72 1,29 X 2 6,838 15,945 22,128 p 0,233 0,720 0,014 (0 not important, 5 most important), X 2 Chi square, p<0,050 significance level Source: own elaboration based on the results of research During the tourist tours, cultural events are important for students. Gender influenced thee response on the number of cultural events (p=0,050). Women more preferred cultural events, while men more preferred tourist events. Respondents from the village higher evaluate other components of the recurring events (Table 5).
244 PART 5 OTHER TOURISM ISSUES 244 Table 5: The importance of components of the recurring events N Gender Year of study Orgin W M I II III IV V Vi C1 C2 The number of 3,79 3,86 3,47 3,74 3,98 3,73 3,65 3,82 3,87 3,79 3,65 cultural events (eg. X 2 10,688 13,788 4,540 theater events, music events) p 0,050 0,841 0,920 The number of 3,01 2,99 3,05 3,18 3,10 2,93 2,73 2,95 3,13 3,06 2,78 tourist events (eg. X 2 04,87 10,305 8,393 marathons, bicycle rallies) p 0,972 0,962 0,591 (0 not important, 5 most important), X 2 Chi square, p<0,050 significance level Source: own elaboration based on the results of research CONCLUSIONS The natural qualities and tourism infrastructure were the most important components of the tourist attractiveness of cities for students. Women rated higher most components. Younger respondents rated higher most components of the natural values, entertainment and recreational facilities. While older students more preferred fauna attractions, monuments and most components of the tourism infrastructure. While creating promotional campaigns of cities (mainly university cities) or during city spatial organization preferences of students should be taken into account. As a result, local governments or investors will be able to adapt possibilities to expectations. During the development of promotional activities, modernization or infrastructure construction it is worth paying attention to: Well groomed urban green areas, Aesthetics of public places, Availability of cheap accommodation base, Marked out urban roads, Good transport accessibility, Welcoming public transport, Presence of entertainment facilities, Bike rental, The promotion of entertainment tourism, hiking tourism, cycling tourism.
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248 PART 5 OTHER TOURISM ISSUES 248 THE SPECIFICITY OF THE PHENOMENON OF SECOND HOMES IN POLAND Rafał Maćkowiak 23 University of Szczecin, Poland ABSTRACT Second homes constitute a significant segment of the accommodation in various countries across the world. They bring development of individual tourism in attractive natural areas in many countryside villages. The article describes the specificity of the phenomenon of second residences in Poland taking into account the major scale, the conditioning and the characteristics of the owners in the light of the current literature on second homes. The next section identifies common features of the phenomenon of second homes in Poland and compares them to selected statistical data from a few countries in Europe drawn from the existing literature. Based on the empirical evidence of the phenomenon of second homes in Poland, certain similarities and differences can be emphasized in comparison to some other countries in Europe (e.g. Portugal, Spain, Germany, Netherlands, Switzerland). The following findings suggest that holiday homes have many common features which include the location of second homes in countryside areas, attractive nature, use - mainly on weekends and holidays and only a short distance from the residence. The paper also describes distinct characteristics that create development of the phenomenon of second homes in the area of Poland, e.g. a diverse age range of users, maintaining ties and neighborly relationships, and allocating a second home for rent. The article refers to the problem of individual tourism and more attention should be paid to it in the context of tourist research. Keywords: second homes, tourism, personal tourism, rural tourism 23 Author s
249 PART 5 OTHER TOURISM ISSUES 249 INTRODUCTION Leisure plays an important role in human lives. Most of the people that live and work in cities need a short escape to countryside areas in order to regenerate physical and mental health. Hence, it is more and more common to have a second home near the place of residence for the weekend, festive and holiday gateways. This is a consequence of both fashion and nuisance conditions of urban life. Trips to second homes bring tourists living in urban centers the possibility of vast changes in the environment on days off from work. In many countries, the movement associated with the acquisition, construction and visiting a second home is the subject of discussion between experts in tourism, real estate market and politicians (Mika, 2007). Therefore, it is worthwhile undertaking research on the individual segment of tourist accommodation which are second homes. The aim of this study is to identify development of the second homes phenomenon in Poland. Furthermore, the author intends to determine whether the described phenomenon in Poland has common and distinctive features in relation to some other selected European countries. In order to determine the purpose of work, the following hypothesis was formulated: the phenomenon of second homes in Poland has similar and distinctive features to the phenomenon of second homes in other areas in Europe. In order to verify the hypothesis, both domestic and foreign literature on second home topic was thoroughly examined. The author has analyzed in detail the phenomenon of second homes in selected European countries based on the statistical data from the extant literature. Finally, those findings were compared to the results drawn from author s own empirical research conducted in the coastal area of Rewal, Western Pomerania, Poland. The essence of the phenomenon of second homes The current literature on the subject area has indicated a twofold approach to the issue of second homes. Firstly, this phenomenon is considered in terms of independent forms of tourism, so-called second homes tourism (Hall and Müller, 2004). Secondly, the use of private recreational homes is described in the context of traditional forms of leisure tourism - including weekend tourism, rural tourism, mountain and the seaside tourism - especially noticeable in a number of Polish journal publications (Mika, 2007, Faracik, 2006, Medlik, 1995, Matczak, 1986, Gołembski, 2002, Gaworecki, 2007).
250 PART 5 OTHER TOURISM ISSUES 250 There is no clear definition of second homes. Many of the concepts encountered in the literature are close to each other, however they have a slightly different substantive content. Heffner and Czarnecki (2011) argue that the term second home is derived from the Englishlanguage wording. Other related words commonly used in the literature for this term are e.g. the second apartment, holiday house, cottage, chalet. On one hand, Medlik (1995) points out that the term "second home" means a building used during holidays and other stays by the owners who normally live elsewhere. These homes can often be used by relatives and friends of the owners and sometimes also rented out to others. On the other hand, Faracik (2007) describes a second home as a holiday home that is a characteristic feature of the development of suburban areas and, unlike mainstream collective accommodation, serves recreational purposes of their respective owners. Furthermore, Matczak (1986) adds that a second home is a place of residence outside the permanent home. Thus, it is used by the owner and his relatives in selected periods mainly to spend weekly, festive or yearly leisure. A second home can be used as an object of three different categories (Hall and Müller, 2004). First, there are stationary objects which include apartments, single huts and houses, and villages, forming holiday home estates. Second, seats are also partially movable objects or recreational vehicles (caravans), tents. Moving objects are also considered, such as sailing boats. In the UK, different kinds can be distinguished: the appropriate second homes (second homes), folding houses (chalets), fixed mobile homes (static caravans) and moving mobile homes (touring caravans) (Medlik, 1995). In Czech Republic and Slovakia, the term "second home" means the types of objects such as hut - building erected for recreational purposes (in open areas up to 50 sq.m., while in urban areas up to 80 sq.m.), cottage - a building having a different purpose originally and later adopted by the owners in order to rest recreational house - building with an area of 30 sq.m., built for recreational purposes (Kowalczyk, 1994b). Summarizing the existing literature, it should be noted that the term "second home" is a collective concept, under which various objects are recognized. Second homes are located mainly in countryside areas which explains the concept of "rural tourism". Mika (2007) describes countryside tourism as general tourist phenomena occurring in functionally rural areas, where agricultural activity is conducted. Meyer and Bott-Alama (2004) define this concept as a form of recreation that takes place in the areas of 'real' village and is distinguished by a low level of urbanization measured by functional
251 PART 5 OTHER TOURISM ISSUES 251 indicators, dominance of agricultural activity and low industrialization. The condition for the functioning of rural tourism is the use of natural, cultural and tourism resources of the reception village by visiting the area. According to Gołembski (2002), dissemination of rural tourism is associated with the development of agglomerations and urban communities rising desire to rest outside the city. Examples of villages developing rural tourism are tourist villages. It is a unit of rural settlements having good recreational values, good transport accessibility and fitted with basic equipment of catering and accompanying infrastructure, which predominantly stays on a farm and second homes (Warszyńska and Jackowski, 1998). Nowadays, holidays in the countryside constitute about 25% of organized forms of recreation in Europe (Gaworecki, 2007). Emphasizing the location of second homes in rural areas and distance from the permanent place of residence is also highly significant. Lack of time prevents longer holiday stays that are replaced with short trips - often to second homes located in close proximity to the main place of owner s residence, e.g. the so-called suburban area (Gołembski, 2002). This is an area located outside the city limits but functionally related to it. Various facilities that serve the city are located in that area (Faracik, 2007). Suburban areas are attractive for housing and recreational purposes. Depending on the size and impact of the city, size of suburban areas can range from 1 to 80 km. Tourist traffic has a one-day or weekend character. The main form of spending free time in the suburban areas are holiday stays in second homes. According to Coppock (1977), getting to the second homes from permanent residence should not take longer than about 90 minutes. If the owner possesses their own second home, not only the distance from the primary place of residence is important, but also the need and motivation of having a second home. Due to this aspect, the current literature has distinguished three types of owners (Dijst, Lazendorf, Barendregt and Smit, 2004): - Holidayers - have a caravan or holiday apartment and use it to spend a long or short holiday with family or partners. Owners usually do not live permanently in the countryside and do not complain about their first home or neighborhood. Their main goal is to stay away from the usual place of residence where they can find various other ways of spending their time;
252 PART 5 OTHER TOURISM ISSUES Escapers - have their own place of leisure which is used to escape from their hectic lifestyle. Typically, they are not satisfied with their main place of residence. Most of them are childless couples who prefer a short gateway in a quiet summer resort. They choose a location not too far from their main home that is located in urban areas with high population density. Most of them spend their holidays abroad and their own recreational places are used on weekends and other days off from work. Escapers want to relax away from the usual place of residence. This group works and spends their free time in both main and second homes; - Enjoyers - have their own houses in the largest cities. They bought recreation land for many reasons, such as the need to establish social contacts or having their own garden. Similar to escapers, they also complain about their permanent place of residence or neighborhood. Many of them feel the need to make social contacts and have friends or family living in the same place, where they have a second home. They often use their own recreation facilities and some of them live there practically all the time. Most of the enjoyers are now retired and spend up to ⅓ year in second homes. Due to the fact the enjoyers do not have to work, it is not necessary for recreational places to be located in small distance from their main apartments. Aging of population may lead to a steady increase in this category. A significant number of pensioners may buy recreational facilities abroad in the future. The scale of the phenomenon of second homes in Poland and in selected countries in Europe There is an intensive development of the phenomenon of second homes in Poland and many other countries in Europe as well as other continents, in particular in regions attractive to tourists. The countries with the largest role of recreational houses meeting the holiday needs of society are the Scandinavian countries, the Netherlands, Czech Republic, Slovakia, France, Italy and Spain (Kowalczyk, 1994). In turn, in Portugal the demand for second homes have appeared relatively recently (Nazare-Roca and Roca, 2007). In the period of , there was a 40% increase of this phenomenon in this country. In 2001, there were nearly second homes, which represented up to 20% of all dwellings. In the Iberian Peninsula, private holiday properties have a larger share of housing market than in other parts of Europe. Foreign investments in Spain, about second homes, reached the value of 5.7
253 PART 5 OTHER TOURISM ISSUES 253 billion EUR in 2002 (Pedro, 2006). The study indicates that the highest level of foreign investment comes from the UK (35%), Germany (31%), France (7%), Italy (5%) and the Netherlands (3.1%). Analyzing the scale of the phenomenon directly in these countries, it should be emphasized that in the UK (mainly in Wales) at the end of the twentieth century, the number of second homes was estimated at (Dijst et al., 2004). In the Netherlands, second homes represent less than 5% of all households. Moreover, in Germany data are estimated at approximately (less than 1% of all households). Recreational and holiday homes are also very popular in Switzerland. According to statistics, this sector consists of about flats - which means that nearly one out of nine possessions in this country is used temporarily as a second home. Considering the spatial scale of the phenomenon of second homes, described type of accommodation works not only in Europe, but also in the islands of the Caribbean, Asia, South America and Australia. Recreational properties located on other continents can be placed in two categories such as objects that are owned by nationals of the given country and the property belonging to foreigners - mostly wealthy residents of Europe (Kowalczyk, 1994). The first category can be found in Thailand and in the most developed countries of Latin America. These houses are located around the urban agglomeration or near the sea or the ocean. The second of the indicated types is widespread in the Caribbean Sea area and on the islands and shores of the Gulf of Mexico. Fashion of having a second home is also observed in the largest countries in the world. In Australia, growing importance of recreational property is a reason to buy a second home. In fact, it has greatly influenced development of rural areas as well as the construction sector (Atkinson et al., 2009). When identifying the scale of the phenomenon of second homes in Poland, it is worth noting that there are dense areas with high values of this index countrywide. These are: Central and Eastern Poland with the exception of Subcarpathian region, major cities suburban areas and coastal zone (actually narrowed only to municipalities with access to the sea), areas of Pomeranian and Masurian lake districts and tourism areas located in the mountain range and foothills (Kłodzko Valley, Izera Foothills, Beskid Śląski, Beskid Żywiec, Beskid Makowski, Beskid Wyspowy and the Tatra Mountains). According to the Institute of Tourism data, in Poland in 2010 there were at least second homes (Jagusiewicz and Dawidek, 2010). They involved a total of 17.7 thousand
254 PART 5 OTHER TOURISM ISSUES 254 ha which accounted for a significant segment of individual accommodation with a capacity of at least beds. When analyzing the distribution of second homes in Poland according to their share in the general resources of the country, most of the second residence were reported in Mazowieckie region (34.1% of the total nearly second homes) implying this area to be a true leader in this field. Retreat homes are an increasingly common element of the rural landscape and develop mainly in the suburban areas of Warsaw, where already in year 1985 nearly 11.5% of families from the capital had a second home (Kowalczyk, 1994). The highest ranks in terms of number of second homes also include regions: Pomeranian (11.1% of second residences in Poland ), Warmia and Mazury (8.1% ), Silesia (7.9% ) and region of Wielkopolska (7.2% ), and the lowest result appeared in: Opolskie voivodeship (0.2% - 280), Lower Silesia (0.8% ), Lubusz Land (1% ) and Subcarpathian (1.2% ) (Jagusiewicz and Dawidek, 2010). Common characteristics of the phenomenon of second homes in Poland Over the recent years, the subject of second homes has become an increasingly popular topic for both foreign and Polish academics. Having confronted the results of this research with the findings of other authors (Andriotis, 2006; Dijst et al. 2004; Jakóbczyk- Gryszkiewicz, 2011; Mika, 2007; Nazare Roca et al., 2009; Pitkanen, 2008), many features were found in common, which are certain universal characteristics of the phenomenon of second homes, independent of their location. First of all, it is important to highlight the fact that individual recreation facilities owners live in large cities and agglomerations. According to Kowalczyk (1994), as a result of continued urbanization and nuisance of daily life in large dense areas, the need to rest is felt much more often in urban population than amongst rural residents. Andriotis (2006) approves this hypothesis, suggesting that investors from the cities often build second homes just to relax outside of the urban environment. Jakóbczyk- Gryszkiewicz (2011) has also stated that the majority of the owners of second homes are residents of large cities. Mika (2007) also emphasizes that nowadays resting on own retreat premises becomes one of the most popular and fastest growing form of spending free time among the urban population.
255 PART 5 OTHER TOURISM ISSUES 255 METHOD These findings drawn from the existing literature on the key theme have also been enriched and confirmed by semi-structured interviews followed by surveys, conducted by the author of this article in the area of the coastal municipality Rewal in Poland in The mix-method approach has been chosen as appropriate for this particular research in order to increase the validity and reliability of data. First, 20 semi-structured interviews (each 40 mins 1 hour) have been conducted with local village administrators to gather general data and assumptions on second home in the Rewal area. Subsequently, a pilot survey has been presented to those 20 respondents. Having amended minor mistakes and additional suggestions from 4 of the respondents, the final version has been directly distributed to 120 participants in other seaside resorts all over Poland. Based on the surveys, 99,2% of respondents declared to live in cities, including about 75% in agglomerations of more than habitants (Maćkowiak, 2012). Another important common feature is the location of recreational houses in rural areas and naturally attractive areas. In fact, this factor is greatly emphasized by all academics involved in this second home research in Europe (Andriotis, 2006, Dijst et. al., 2004, Heffner, Czarnecki, 2011, Jagusiewicz and Dawidek, 2010, Jakóbczyk-Gryszkiewicz, 2011, Mika, 2007, Nazare Roca et. al., 2009, Opacic, 2009, Pitkanen, 2008). The exception is Switzerland, where over 50% of homes are located in cities. Their conurbations and the main residences are located in rural areas due to lower taxes and less burdensome way of life (Roth and Braun, 2005). The importance of location of second homes of rural areas is supported by data derived from the Institute of Tourism (2010). According to IoT, in Poland in 2010 they were at least second homes in rural areas (Jagusiewicz and Dawidek, 2010). Similar data is indicated by the National Census (2002), stressing that as many as second homes in Poland were in the countryside, accounting for 3.6% of all dwellings in these areas (Frenkler, 2011). Rural communities and urban-rural include 98.5% of all parcels with buildings and in urban-rural units this sector is also located primarily in rural areas (Jagusiewicz and Dawidek, 2010). In Poland, a large concentration of second homes in rural areas of the Baltic coast, lake districts, the Carpathians and the Sudetes is mainly caused by a high and stable tourist attractiveness of regions with this type of environmental features (Heffner, 2011). Back in
256 PART 5 OTHER TOURISM ISSUES 256 the 19th century, the estates of second homes concentrated in the areas favourable for health microclimate and high landscape values (Kowalczyk, 1994b). Referring to the European literature on the location of second homes in Europe, Andriotis (2006) stresses that they generally appear in rural areas, easily accessible for residents of large cities and in coastal and mountainous areas. Nazare Roca et al. (2009) point out that in Portugal recreational properties are located mainly in areas with attractive, natural flora and cultural landscapes, especially in the coastal range and in rural areas. Similar suggestions are presented by Pitkanen (2008) when characterizing second homes in Finland. Pitkanen (2008) has emphasized that the unique natural landscape has impact on the development of this sector. In Finland, second homes are acquired usually in close proximity to lakes and forests. Moreover, Opacić (2009) has observed since several years in the island of Dalmatia a process of depopulation and production-residential features conversion into tourism and recreation. The findings of the above mentioned authors seems to be confirmed by Mika (2007), who has stressed that second homes are usually constructed in areas of the greatest recreational value, e.g. in the proximity of forests, lakes, mountains and seashores. Therefore, urban dwellers aim to build their own possessions outside the permanent residential areas in close contact with nature. By identifying similarities of second homes in Poland to other areas in Europe, it is highly significant to mention the intensity and the frequency of use of these facilities by their owners. Many authors (Dijst et. al., 2004, Gaworecki, 2007, Gołembski, 2002, Jakóbczyk- Gryszkiewicz, 2011, Medlik 1995) emphasize that individual tourists come to their own properties mainly on days off from work, especially during holidays and weekends. In addition, this recreation is the most prevalent in the summer and spring, and in particular from May to September. For example, Gaworecki (2007), and Gołembski (2002) note that private recreational properties largely contribute to the successful development of weekend tourism, and Jakóbczyk-Gryszkiewicz (2011) emphasizes that the peak of the use of second homes in all tested areas in Poland falls in the holiday period and on weekends and holidays. Similarly, when defining the concept of second homes, Medlik (1995) pays particular attention to the fact that these homes are used by their owners during the holidays and other holiday stays. Likewise, characterizing the types of owners of second homes in Germany and the Netherlands, Dijst et al. (2004) indicates that these people come to their own possessions mainly on weekends and holidays.
257 PART 5 OTHER TOURISM ISSUES 257 Significantly, author s own empirical research seems to fully confirm this recognized pattern in the literature. In fact, almost 100% of the owners of second homes in the community Rewal come to their second home in the summer, and more than 75% in the spring. For a majority of them, the length of stay takes up to two/three-day or a week/fortnight. Therefore, it can confirms that the second homes are mostly utilized by their owners during weekends and holiday leave. Despite many differences in socio-demographic characteristics of owners of second homes in different regions in Europe, it is confirmed that they are usually wealthy individuals, forming a group with the highest income. According to a study of Tombaugh (Kowalczyk, 1994), the annual income of the U.S. second home's owner is more than USD. Also in Europe, second homes mainly belong to wealthy residents. The situation of Germany confirms this and the number of households with double income is increasing (Dijst et al., 2004). This affects the growth of wealth of the society so that there is a greater possibility of buying the recreation land. Andriotis (2006) even states that second homes are very often treated by their owners as capital investment and as a symbol of social status. According to a study of Twardzik (2011), the average owner of a second home in Poland has a monthly household income of about 3600 PLN. The data are consistent with the findings derived from the author's research, according to which nearly ⅔ respondents declare income over 2000 PLN. Specificity of the Polish second homes compared to the other European countries Certain characteristics of the phenomenon of second homes seem to be more typical for Poland than for other countries in Europe. A number of factors have been distinguished and analyzed in the Polish literature or observed nationwide. Yet, to the best of author s knowledge, some factors have not been explicitly discussed in the foreign publications. Thus, this may mean that these characteristics are not common in these countries or did not occur at all. One of these factors is certainly the age structure of the users of second homes. According to Tombaugh (Kowalczyk, 1994b), the age of the average owner of a second home is typically between 55 and 64 years. Interestingly, the research conducted by Jakóbczyk- Gryszkiewicz (2011) does not confirm previous findings. In fact, she has shown in her work that the age of users of second homes in Poland varies greatly between 20 and 80 years; the
258 PART 5 OTHER TOURISM ISSUES 258 largest group being people aged years, followed by years, and years being the smallest group. In addition, the author s own empirical study has also not determined the exact age range. The age spread has been shown on a similar scale between years (33% out of all surveyed respondents), years (25%) and above 60 years (24%). It can be thus assumed that there is a significantly higher age diversity of owners of second homes in Poland. Importantly, overall a much larger group of users of second homes in Poland can be classified between 30 and 55 years, accounting for the working class age. The specificity of the development of second homes in Poland can also be seen by analyzing recreational users preferences in terms of accepted forms of spending free time. Jakóbczyk-Gryszkiewicz (2011) emphasizes that the owners of second homes in Poland prefer to spend free time and rest with their closest family, only then with friends. The author s empirical findings have shown that 40% of the holders of recreational homes is a group of people with dependent children, where a large number of respondents indicated active recreation and integration with the family. It is also important to establish multiple neighborly relations between the owners of second homes and local residents (Twardzik, 2011). Similarly, based on the observations derived from 20 semi-structured interviews with second home owners in Rewal area, integration and engaging in social interactions between neighbors and other owners of recreational houses have been explicitly mentioned by a vast majority of respondents. Therefore, it can be understood that positive relations with neighbours play much more significant role for second homes rather than in the permanent place of residence. As such, this may indicate a specific mentality of Poles who mostly do not express too favorably on their neighbors in the primary place of residence. In the second home, due to the relatively short stay, the owners are more willing to establish positive neighborly relationships, often leading to mutual friendship. Typically, they present a similar lifestyle, financial status, and exhibit similar preferences in terms of ways of spending free time. It can be concluded that this is a feature typical for Poland, as foreign researchers do not pay special attention in that matter in their studies. The current literature indicates a very characteristic occurrence of three types of owners in Poland, which are holidayers, escapers and enjoyers. Taking into account the different tastes and styles of leisure in the recreation home, it should be noted that there is no dominant group. In addition, many users cannot be clearly classified as any type because they have certain characteristics that are specific to each of these groups. In contrast to
259 PART 5 OTHER TOURISM ISSUES 259 Poland, in many European countries more uniform preferences of the owners have been established. This involves the occurrence or clear dominance of one type of owners of second homes. For example, Dijst et al. (2004) have pointed out an outstanding number of holidayers in Germany. In turn, Kowalczyk (1994b) notes that the Antilles for many years formed residences of wealthy people from France, the UK and the U.S., The owners who have a second home in this area can classified as escapers. It is caused by the fact that they desire vacation on an exotic island so much and away from the usual place of residence, thousands of kilometers away, and the cost associated with the project is not an obstacle for them. Another feature proving the specificity of second homes in Poland compared to other European countries is much more popular intended use of second homes renting them to tourists. This phenomenon is more often discussed in Polish literature rather than in studies abroad. It appears that Medlik (1995), referring to the definition of second homes, wanted to stress the fact that sometimes they are also rented out to others. This opinion coincides with observations of Jagusiewicz and Byszewska-Dawidek (2010). In their research of the Institute of Tourism, they emphasize that paid-for, temporary hiring of such buildings becomes commonly available directly from the owners or through travel agencies or internet, for leisure to third parties. These conclusions are confirmed by Mika (1997) that there is noticeable phenomenon of renting second homes not only as holiday homes, but also as private accommodation, guest rooms or even land for camping. This certainly does not bring the income to the local population but to outside investors. It is worth noting that Jakóbczyk-Gryszkiewicz (2011) indicates that recreational properties nationwide are often hired during the holiday season, in the most attractive coastal municipalities. That rental is carried out by 26% of the owners there. This is confirmed by author's own research, where as many as 72% of the respondents partially purposed their second home for rent. It can be concluded that the issue of renting second homes is an essential element of Polish characteristic of the phenomenon.
260 PART 5 OTHER TOURISM ISSUES 260 CONCLUSION Summing up the development of the phenomenon of second homes in Poland, some common features and differences can be found in comparison to other European countries. Based on the review of the existing literature, the observed regularities of common features can be summarized as follows: 1. A vast majority of owners of second homes live in cities; these are usually the largest cities in the region; 2. Attractive natural areas are the most encouraging for the location of second homes; 3. Recreational properties arise mainly in rural areas; 4. Owners of second homes come to their house on days off from work, especially during the weekends and during leave; 5. Resting in second homes is the most common activity during holiday season; 6. Most of the owners belong to a social group with the highest income. In turn, analyzing the specificity of the sector of second homes in Poland based on the empirical evidence derived from 120 surveys conducted in Poland, the following differences can be distinguished compared to other regions in Europe: 1. The age structure of owners of second homes is much more diversified, especially there is a much larger group of users in working age than in other European countries; 2. Family recreation and social relationships with other owners of second homes and local residents are very important; 3. There are three types of owners: holidayers, escapers and enjoyers and neither of these categories constitute a dominant group; many users of second homes possess the characteristics of each of these types and cannot be unambiguously classified into a specific group; 4. There is a widespread practice of renting second homes during the holiday season for a profit. RECOMMENDATIONS Therefore, it can be noticed that the phenomenon of second homes in Poland is in a way similar to other European countries, but only in some respects. The literature clearly indicates that some features such as the purpose of the building for use by the owner and their family for leisure, seasonality of use, location in a relatively short distance from the
261 PART 5 OTHER TOURISM ISSUES 261 place of main residence of the owners as well as the location of the areas of high natural and landscape values and convenient communication infrastructure are common elements that contribute significantly to the functioning of the phenomenon of second homes. However, due to a different standard of living, customs and tourist values typical for a given region, each country may have some indicators, demonstrating the specificity of holiday residences. Thus, it should lead to wider research on the subject of second homes, especially since the phenomenon is very important for the development of more and more universal individual tourism. REFERENCES Atkinson, R., Picken, F., & Tranter, B. (2009). Home and away from home: the urbanregional dynamics of second home ownership in Australia. Urban Research & Practice, 2(1), Coppock, J. T. (1977). Second homes, curse or blessing? Oxford: Oxford Press. Czarnecki, A., Heffner, K. (2008). Second homes and steady development of rural areas. Village and Agriculture, 4(141), Dijst, M., Lanzendorf, M., Barendregt, A., & Smit, L. (2004). Second homes in Germany and the Netherlands: Ownership and Ravel impact explained. Utrecht University, Leipzig, Faracik, R. (2007). Suburbs tourism. In W. Kurek (Eds.), Turystyka (pp ), Warsaw: PWN. Frenkel, I. (2011). Second homes in GUS research. In K. Heffner & A. Czarnecki (Eds.), Second homes in development of rural areas (pp ). Warsaw, Institute for Agriculture and Rural Development: PAN. Gaworecki, W. W. (2007). Tourism. Warsaw: Polish Economic Publishing. Gołembski, G. (2002). A compendium of knowledge about tourism. Warsaw-Poznan: PWN. Hall, C. M., Müller, D. K. (2004). Introduction: Second Homes, Curse or Blessing? In C. M. Hall & D. K. Müller, (Eds.), Tourism, mobility, and second homes: between elite landscape and common ground (pp. 3-14). Clevedon: Channel View Publications. Heffner, K., Czarnecki, A. (2011). The phenomenon of second homes in theoretical terms. In K. Heffner & A. Czarnecki (Eds.), Second homes in rural development (pp ). Warsaw, Institute for Agriculture and Rural Development: PAN.
262 PART 5 OTHER TOURISM ISSUES 262 Jagusiewicz, A., Byszewska-Dawidek, M. (2010). Rural tourism in 2010 and the establishment of its development. Institute of Tourism, Jakóbczyk-Gryszkiewicz J. (2011). Characteristics of second homes. In K. Heffner & A. Czarnecki (Eds.), Second homes in development of rural areas, (pp ). Warsaw, Institute for Agriculture and Rural Development: PAN. Kowalczyk, A. (1994). Geographical conditions of the location of second homes in the suburban area of Warsaw. Institute of Social, Economic and Regional Geography University of Warsaw. Kowalczyk, A. (1994). Geographical and social problems of the phenomenon of second homes. Warsaw: University of Warsaw. Maćkowiak R. (2012). Second homes as a form of utilising tourism's potential of the municipality Rewal. Thesis, Szczecin: University of Szczecin. Matczak, A. (1986). Construction of recreation homes in a suburban area of Lodz. Acta Universitatis Lodzienis, Folia Geographica, 7, Medlik, S. (1995). Travel, tourism and hospitality lexicon. Warsaw: PWN. Meyer, B., Bott-Alama, A. (2004). Some aspects of tourist services. The Foundation for the University of Szczecin, 69. Mika, M. (1997). Second homes in the Silesian Beskid. Tourism, 7(1), Mika M. (2007). Transformation of the tourist reception areas under the influence of tourism. In W. Cock & Mika M. (Eds.), Tourism (pp ). Warsaw: PWN.. Nazare Roca, M., Oliveira, J. A., & Roca, Z. (2009). Second homes and second Home tourism in Portugal. II Turismo Sostenbile: Turisti Comunita Ospitanti, Ambiente Societa (IV Edizone), Opacić, V. T. (2009). Recent Characteristics of the Second Home Phenomenon in the Croatian Littoral. Hrvastki Geografski Glasnik, 71(1), Pedro, A. (2006). Urbanization and Second-Home Tourism. In D. Buhalis & C. Costa (Eds.), Tourism Business Frontiers: Consumers, Products and Industry (pp ). Oxford: Elsevier Butterworth-Heinemann. Pitkanen, K. (2008). Second-home Landscape: The Meaning(s) of Landscape for Second-home Tourism in Finnish Lakeland. Tourism Geographies, 169. Roth, P., Braun, U. (2005). Spotlight Second Homes and Vacation Homes in Switzerland. Economic Research, 3, 1-5.
263 PART 5 OTHER TOURISM ISSUES 263 Twardzik M. (2011). Types of relations between the owners of second homes and of the village habitants. In K. Heffner & A. Czarnecki (Eds.), Second homes in rural development (pp ). Warsaw, Institute for Agriculture and Rural Development: PAN. Warszyńska J., Jackowski, A. (1988). Fundamentals of tourism geography. Warsaw: PWN.
264 PART 6 PHYSICAL RECREATION AND SPORT
265 PART 6 PHYSICAL RECREATION AND SPORT 265 ROLE OF PHYSICAL RECREATION IN A MODERN WORLD Agnieszka Rak 24 Wrocław University of Economics, Poland ABSTRACT The purpose of this paper is to present functions that both leisure time and physical recreation play in lives of young people, nowadays. It is interesting whether the consuming lifestyle has influenced the role of leisure time and redefined it, or not. It can be observed that mental or physical satisfaction purposes of recreation have been replaced with the need of satisfying society s expectations, standing out or impressing an entourage. Also, there might be a pressure (created with advertisers) making people believe that leisure time itself should be deliberately managed, exciting and sometimes even spectacular. The objectives of this paper are: analysis of opinions, visions, functions and images of both leisure time and physical recreation among young people and classification of recreational or sport activities undertaken by them along with roles plays in those people lives. For purpose of this paper reports on physical activity, recreation and leisure time among polish people published by governmental institutions were analysed. Qualitative data has been collected during focus groups (people between years old, declaring physical activity in their leisure time at least once a week). Findings of the research show how young people perceive leisure time, how they choose sport disciplines (and what those disciplines mean to them) to practice, and which of their needs are being satisfied with recreation. Keywords: recreation, physical recreation, leisure, quality of life, sport, 24 Author s /
266 PART 6 PHYSICAL RECREATION AND SPORT 266 INTRODUCTION The modern and visible trends in a consumption are a proof that people focus more nowadays on quality of life, happiness, inner peace, healthy lifestyle and joy of life which balance the stressful work or rising demands coming from society. People achieve those aims often through various types of recreation (from sleeping and napping to adrenaline and high risk sports or hobbies) also those supported by nationwide or international programs (WHO, 2009). They may also feel the pressure (from media, friends, family) to fulfil their leisure time with specific and planned activities. Recreation nowadays becomes necessity that was supposed to be a spontaneous activity depending on persons desires or will. It is also important that recreation and tourism play an important role in social development because participation of citizens in recreation is typical for developing and developed countries where people focus more on widening interest, quality of life, spiritual life, health and personal wellbeing. United Nations report confirms how leisure and recreation are important in lives of people with findings of a research that are (UN, 2003, p. 222): - It influences social and emotional development and engagement (coping with different situations, physical wellbeing, caring friendships and relationships with others) - Vocational development and engagement (practising and gaining functional and organizational skills necessary for employment through play and team games) - Physical development and engagement (healthy lifestyle, healthy eating, condition of a body, future physical health) - Cognitive development and engagement (gaining basic knowledge through games and play, to learn in school and outside it, gaining skills of critical thinking, problem-solving, creativity, expressing feeling, independence) - Civic development and engagement (understanding persons impact on his/hers surroundings, responsibility to others, ability to focus on common goals, teamwork). The aim of this paper is to analyse the functions and roles of recreation, and especially its active form to than understand which of them are important for young Poles, and what are their feelings (also fears) towards recreational activities. Leisure and recreational activities in a modern world It is up to a persons will and desire how to spend their free time. It may include activities such as: resting or relaxing, entertainment, self-development, participation in
267 PART 6 PHYSICAL RECREATION AND SPORT 267 social life or deepening creativity and artistic skills (Panasiuk, 2011, p. 27). There are three primary ways of understanding and defying leisure (Hurd and Anderson, 2011, as cited in: Human Kinetics): 1) Leisure as time - Leisure is time free from obligations, work (paid and unpaid), and tasks requires for existing (sleeping, eating) 2) Leisure as activity - Leisure is a set of activities that people engage in during their free time-activities that are not work oriented or that do not involve life maintenance tasks such as housecleaning or sleeping 3) Leisure as state of mind - Leisure depends on a participant s perception. Perceived freedom, instincts motivation, perceived competence, and positive effect are critical to the determination of an experience as leisure or not leisure. Leisure plays three basic roles in a modern society where work in one of the most important areas of life. Those are (Sikora 1999, p. 45 as cited in: Jankowski et al. 2013, p. 14): (1) regeneration of human forces used during operation (it determines the growth of labour productivity and its economic efficiency), (2) recuperation the capacity of a person in a healthy and natural or social environment, (3) entertainment, that aims to regenerate the psychic powers of the individual (cultural development of the employee). One of the ways of spending leisure time is recreation. The term "recreation" has its roots in Latin language and stands for create something new, restoring to life or gaining (Kopaliński, 1989). It is often perceived as an activity, which is focused on spending leisure time, development of interests and recuperation of psychophysical abilities at home or outside (Bielawska, 2001, p. 19, as cited in: Szczepańska-Góra, 2011, p. 2). Recreation is defined as set of different activities, undertaken during leisure time, which are voluntarily, and focused on pleasure, self-expression, personal growth, renewal and keeping mental health. It helps to improve or achieve a state of well-being and satisfaction in life (Wellness Tourism Worlwide, 2011, p. 8). The psychological context determines if a given activity is perceived as a recreation. The positive impact on a person frame of mind, pleasure, freedom, and fulfilment of desires not a way of doing it, is important (Siwiński and Tauber 2008, p. 143). Recreation is an activity that people engage during their free time, that people enjoy, and that people recognize as having socially redeeming values. The activity performed is less important than the reason for performing the activity, which is the
268 PART 6 PHYSICAL RECREATION AND SPORT 268 outcome (Hurd and Anderson, 2011, as cited in: Human Kinetics). Recreation services are offered to both customers and enterprises, and are related to: parks, recreation, tourism, commercial recreation, outdoors, education, sports, therapeutic recreation (Henderson and Bialeschki 2010, p. 2). It covers a wide range of activities, from resting (lying on the couch, watching TV, sunbathing) to amateur sports, in a natural environment or through participation in cultural life and entertainment. Recreation, as a term, may be used in three basic meanings (Toczek- Werner 2005, p. 11): 1. As a set of different activities undertaken by a person in his or hers spare (leisure) time that a person performs in his spare time, 2. As a process of resting which is focused on biological rejuvenation and renewal of productivity and creation of capacity due to increase of life intensity, 3. As a dynamically developing socio-economic phenomenon, which is a result of growth of income on labour market, increased leisure time and changes and development of different activities undertaken by people. There are two basic kinds of recreational activities: active and passive. Active recreational activities are individual or team and require using special equipment, facilities, courses or fields, or equipment (eg. swimming, football, climbing, cycling). The passive recreation places minimal stress on a site s resources (walking, sightseeing, relaxing in a park, sunbathing) (UEPA 2003, p. 2). As presented in the Table 1, the activities in an everyday life of a person can be divided into work (paid work and unpaid work like household duties) and non-work related (recreation in a leisure time) and they can be active (gardening, cleaning, volunteering) or passive (sleeping, family gatherings, business meetings, bird watching), and can even be related to tourism (business trips, family gatherings abroad, SPA in the mountains, sightseeing abroad).
269 PART 6 PHYSICAL RECREATION AND SPORT 269 Table 1. Activities in a work and free time Work time Free (leisure) time Paid work Unpaid work Passive Recreation Active Recreation Working and activities related to work (participation in courses, trainings, conferences, business trips), learning (studying) Household duties (cleaning, washing, ironing, cooking) and social work (volunteering), family gatherings or for example family celebrations abroad. Source: based on (Bielec et al. 2011, p. 53) Leisure and relaxing while watching TV, traveling abroad, SPA, meditating, bird watching, meeting friends, sunbathing, yoga practising. Jogging, cycling, rollerblading, skiing, horse riding, rock climbing, surfing, swimming, trekking, nordicwalking, games, gardening. The area of recreation that becomes more and more important nowadays is its active firm which may be called not only active recreation but also physical recreation, mass sports, "sport for all" or mass physical culture (Toczek-Werner 1999, p. 11). It stands for movement and exercises and is supposed to maintain biological wellbeing of the body, and improving the mental functioning of the person with expanding the sphere of interests and abilities at the same time (Toczek-Werner 1999, p. 11). Role of physical recreation in a modern society Nowadays, recreation is not only a form of leisure but most importantly, it allows people to develop their interests and talents in the field of sport (recreational practicing new disciplines, grassroots sport, gaining experience, acquiring certificates and licenses), tourism (visiting new places by hiking, biking, mountain, riding, sailing, hitchhiking or running marathons in different parts of the world) and culture (visiting new places and meeting new cultures, exploring their own), to shape attitudes, manners, character and personalities (prosocial, pro-health), fulfil their dreams and aspirations, gain confidence in each other, to find the meaning of life (Winiarski 2011, p. 24). As Dr Jacques Rogge, IOC Honorary President (IOC, p. 2) stated The ability to practise sport is a basic human right for all individuals. It not only enables people to live more active and fulfilling lives, but can also teach vital life skills and values, making a contribution to improving the quality of people s lives. The needs and desires that are satisfied with recreation are (Winiarski 2011, p. 23): - Resting and relaxing (from work, household duties, problems)
270 PART 6 PHYSICAL RECREATION AND SPORT Psychophysical activity (motion, discharging an excess energy) - Changing life and the environment - Contact with nature - Emotional and pleasant experiences - Reducing self-control (spontaneity, freedom, carefree, fun) - Contacts (especially informal) with other people - Achievements and goals (recognition, appreciation of, stand out) - New experiences, knowledge, skills, competencies The physical recreation satisfies all those needs presented above but also with its specific form it also helps people achieve goals of (Winiarski 2005, p. 7-8): - Accomplishments (social recognition, value, domination, standing out) by improving efficiency, fitness, body shape, sports scores, (beating own record, overcoming climbing routes with greater difficulty) - Competition (competing, discharge of aggression), the effect of which may be earned medals, defeating a rival) - New experiences, knowledge, skills, through courses, gaining certificates and licenses (sailing, diving, horseback riding, rock climbing etc.) Considering all the roles, functions and benefits the physical recreation offers it is important to analyse what kind of activities people choose and why, and also to find out what are the difficulties they face (lack knowledge, fears, and problems) to provide a healthy lifestyle. The report Participation of Poles in sport and physical recreation prepared by Central Statistical Office in Poland in 2008 proves that (GUS 2009): - The most popular forms of recreation activities are cycling, swimming and marches, - For more than half of participants of physical recreation and sports - recreational sport is associated with pleasure and entertainment that comes from these activities, - The desire to preserve the health and maintain mobility and fitness is a motivator to participate in recreation for more than one third respondents who engage in physical activities. The Special Eurobarometer 334 / Wave 72.3 published in 2010 proves that Poland is characterised with one of the participation in physical activity rates in EU and people are not
271 PART 6 PHYSICAL RECREATION AND SPORT 271 well enough aware of recreational possibilities and opportunities offered (Opinion & Social 2010). The report has proved that (TNS Opinion & Social 2010, p. 24,30, 31, 36, 58) : - The majority of Poles are not members of any sport or fitness, and do not or at least once a moth participates in physical activity. Almost one fifth of respondents exercises to improve looks and body shape appearance (17%), - Weight control or weight loss is a motivation for physical activity for one tenth of Poles. - Polish people are the least likely in the EU to agree that exercise is a way of spending free time with friends. - In Poland, the physical activity with a competition character is positive perceived. - For half of Poles local clubs are sufficient, and for most of the infrastructure is not a problem. The results of another research conducted in 2010 show that 30% of Poles participate in physical recreation at least once a week (ARC Rynek i Opinia, 2010). Analysis of findings of the researches and reports presented above shows that the situation in Poland in area of physical recreation in comparison to the EU is not good. Such a low rates of participation in physical activities may be a result of low awareness, insufficient promotion of health among people, no health oriented and proactive behaviours (build and created at school, at home, or with government programs). It is also important to mention that the level of participation in recreation is different in a life time (children play often, young people care about they looks and spending time with friends, older people focus more on work, while elderly people not feel well or do not have a budget for recreation). What is important, is that the culture of health is a set of behaviours focused on way of thinking (pro health) and actions, that all together create a compact and coherent lifestyle, in which physical activity plays the main role (Gröβing 1997, as cited in: Nowak 2011, p. 21). What influences peoples choices of which physical or recreational activities to choose are (Toczek- Werner 2008, p. 64, as cited in Milewski and Orfin 2011, p. 158): - Trends in consumption, choices of society, friends or family that are focused on health and wellbeing, - Types of activities, trends on the market, western trends, fashion, fashionable recreational activities influences and creates needs and desires, - The availability, diversity, and range of recreational, sports and tourism services as a
272 PART 6 PHYSICAL RECREATION AND SPORT 272 response to the diverse needs of people, - Development of sport centres, clubs, franchises, and increase of recreational services serving professionalism. Those areas of influence show that government (programs, delivery of free services, building new sport for all facilities, social campaigns), celebrities (promotion of healthy lifestyles, sport discipline), as well as media (news, channels, sport programs, news, soap operas, series), sportsmen, teachers can change attitudes of Poles (both younger and older generation) towards physical recreation. On the other in theory of recreation for adults there are two most important factors influencing their choices and these are: attractiveness and feasibility (Siwiński and Tauber 2004, p. 124). What is visible nowadays is that the factors of uniqueness and snobbery also influence people s choices and in some social groups play are extremely important. Recreation may play a role for social recognition especially among people on managerial positions who focus on their looks, opinions and being a member of a specific or even closed and social group. Modern sport disciplines and trends in recreational activities may became a tool for selfexpressing, making a statement about believes, social status (because they often require expensive and special equipment, free time for travels, what limits its availability to everyone) (Lenartowicz 2012, p. 57). The example of those activities are diving, surfing, kite surfing, rock climbing. That way of perceiving recreation is an example of how it may influence people, also promote health and help to provide a healthy life. The lifestyle, in which is participation in physical recreation is important, may be characterized by the dynamic changes and greater ability of a person to adapt in changing life environment and better effectiveness in self-realization in terms of threats and challenges of civilization" (Nowak 2008). That is why that way of thinking and behaviour is important for people and governments, because it brings many benefits to both citizens and the country. The social importance of recreation (and tourism, too, because it is often related to physical recreation, relaxing, widening knowledge, changing personality and attitudes) is related to (Toczek-Werner 1999, p. 18): - Facilitating process of socialization of a person, in which he or she acquisitions experience and knowledge of how to adjust to norms, rules and standards of social behaviour, which are desired and acceptable, while creating his own role in the group with the right to self-determination,
273 PART 6 PHYSICAL RECREATION AND SPORT Building ways instruments of human communication. The contacts in formal or informal groups during recreational or touristic activities allow an exchange of views, information flow, which shape attitudes and persons hierarchy of values, - Integrating people and supporting interaction processes that affect the level of individual personality, peer groups and local communities. There are known examples of the reconstruction and restoring of family ties and friendly relationship through recreational activities or even establishing strong and long-lasting bonds and emotional relationships through tourism or recreation, - Democratizing human communities through recreation activities during which differences between people are not important. Recreation may become a tool for sociotherapy or reclamation, education and adapting to the social environment. METHOD AND PROCEDURE The purpose of this exploratory and preliminary study was to investigate what kinds of recreational activities are chosen by young people (between 20 and 30 years old) and what are their feelings (how they perceive the desire for physical activity, how they perceive leisure time) toward them. The research approach included a qualitative method. The data were gathered through focus groups and this data, and together with information gathered from the literature review may be a foundation for designing a main and final research. The data collected through focus group was related to mostly feelings of interviewees (their opinions, thoughts, needs and desires). The aim was to understand how young people perceive leisure time, how they spend and manage it, and if the free time is still free in their lives. The method chosen for collecting data was focus group. Two separate focus group session were conducted. Each involved 6 members who were part-time students who s major was sport management. Those people knew the theoretical aspects of leisure, classification of recreation, influence of physical activity and healthy lifestyles on human s well-being. The recruitment of the sample was organised at the university. The subjects of the study were 12 male and female respondents who were between 20 and 30 years old, aiming to work in sports industry in the future (or already doing so). They were divided into two groups. One group was represented with people who had experience in amateur sports so were practicing sports very often, with a professional coach. The second group was
274 PART 6 PHYSICAL RECREATION AND SPORT 274 represented by inexperienced students. Respondents from both group were asked what leisure and recreation mean to them, what do they do in their free time (also what kinds of physical recreation they choose), and if their feel social pressure to plan, manage and organize free time (especially in area of physical recreation). RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Two groups of students, each of 6 people were surveyed. Their basic demographics were as following: 4 females and 8 males aged from 20 to 30. Half of them were people with experience in amateur sports. There were 3 females and 3 males in the first group, and the average age was 23 years. In the second group was one female and five males, with average age 25 years. They were all part-time students, active on the labour market, from different areas of Poland. First group represented people who did not have any amateur or professional sports experience. For them the leisure time was a time free from duties when they could what they want. The most common answer to a question about how they were spending the time was doing nothing, or often lying in bed, watching TV, partying, meeting with friends. They usually did not mention any household duties or self-development (like studying what they do at the weekends at the university, when the weekend for a working person means free time). When asked what kinds of physical activity they choose during their free time female respondents answered with jogging, dancing or fitness Mostly aerobics), while males often chose football with friends and also jogging. The respondents where also asked if they felt a pressure from society or media that physical activity is mandatory. They said that they feel the pressure, which lowers their motivation so they choose to do nothing. On the other hand they admitted that they try new sport disciplines (however they do not feel comfortable with that) in their free time, only if they have a friends who already does it. The respondents also said that they are not sure where they can learn or practise specific, not popular sport disciplines. The second group represented with students with professional or amateur sport experience showed a bigger openness and willingness toward trying new disciplines. The respondents had bigger knowledge of recreational activities, and their roles in providing healthy lifestyle. They did not feel a strong pressure from society, probably because they got use to frequent and regular exercising and sport practising or they had a wider experience in
275 PART 6 PHYSICAL RECREATION AND SPORT 275 time management. As well as first group s members, they also have the feeling that nowadays everything has to be planed, has an aim, a goal and something special that may distinguish someone from others. They admitted that in a free time they often do nothing because they are tired, but also they focus on meeting with friends, social life and also caring about their physical condition. They often chose playing football or basketball with friends (if they were football players already they still would choose playing football with friends), jogging or fitness gym (for strength). The research revealed that young people who are aware of positive impact of physical recreation on their health and quality of life they still are not aware where to practise or try new disciplines (what is surprising in an internet era), they often prefer to rest and relax or what TV (so the easiest ways to spend free time), and the physical activities chosen by them are those most important among Poles and their friends (football, jogging, fitness). It is interesting that the researches conducted in Poland prove the very low rates of physical activity, and there are many governmental programs in Poland promoting sports (not only recreational, but also amateur and professional) people feel the social pressure to organise their leisure time and fill it up with physical activity. It is possible that the desire for physical recreation cannot be raised from external sources easily (government, media) but it should be a lifestyle that the person grows with, that is a culture, part of everyday life that brings joy and satisfaction. The results from the focus group research should be depends in a main research when more detailed information would be gathered and feelings towards physical education would be analysed closely. SUMMARY Recreation is a way of spending free time that a person has available without any responsibilities. If in a recreational activity the physical factors dominate in its essence, that activity is called physical recreation. It can be said this popular nowadays recreational lifestyle is available everyone who takes responsibility for their health and quality of life. That kind of highly health-promoting behaviour became a philosophy, especially in developed western counties, nowadays. That kind of attitude may be created or even destroyed at school, at home, through media, friends, family, or even government. The priority of recreation should be not the body shaping but the education of how to care about the body (exercises, diet) (Nowak 2008, p. 64). It is important to analyse people s awareness
276 PART 6 PHYSICAL RECREATION AND SPORT 276 of why physical recreation is good for a persons life and health, where to practise it, what kinds of activities are good for them and which of them are available for free. That kind of information may become useful in the future to not only rise awareness but to also build pro-active behaviours in a way where people do not perceive physical recreation as a another duty (like work or housekeeping). Nowadays when free time becomes more and more precious for people, they should also know how to full fill it so it helps them recover better (also feel better spiritually and physically) and is not only a way of expressing good time management. The success of social campaigns and health promotion will be the satisfaction, desire and honest willingness for physical recreation, and not the feeling of pressure (duty, obligation, something desired by society or government) or just a knowledge of the rules, guidelines and service range on the market. This way it will bring benefits for society and every citizen. REFERENCES ARC Rynek i Opinia, retrieved from Bielawska I. (2001): Podstawy turystyki i rekreacji w ekosystemach Politechnika Białostocka, Białystok Bielec G, Półtorak W., Warchoł K. (2011): Aktywności jednostki w czasie wolnymi zajętym, Zarys teorii i metodyki rekreacji ruchowej. Proksenia i Uniwersytet Rzeszowski, Kraków Gröβing S. (1997): Kultura zdrowotna jako cel zintegrowanego wychowania dla ruchu. Wychowanie Fizyczne i Zdrowotne GUS (2009): Uczestnictwo Polaków w sporcie i rekreacji ruchowej w 2008 r, Warszawa, retrieved from Henderson K. A., Bialeschki M. D. (2010): Evaluating Leisure Services. Making Enlightened Decisions, Third edition.,venture Publishing, State College, PA, USA Human Kinetics, Definitions of leisure, play, and recreation, retrieved from Hurd A.R., Anderson D.M. (2011): The Park and Recreation Professional s Handbook, Human Kinetics, Champaign, IL
277 PART 6 PHYSICAL RECREATION AND SPORT 277 IOC (International Olympic Committee), Get Moving! The Ioc Guide To Managing Sport For All Programmes, Lausanne, Switzerland, retrieved from: Olympic.org Jankowski K., Sosnowski J., Wiśniewska-Kadżajan B., Truba M., Herda (2013): Organizacja wypoczynku i rekreacji na terenach zieleni miejskiej, In. Zeszyty Naukowe Uniwersytetu Przyrodniczo-Humanistycznego w Siedlcach, Nr 98, Kopaliński K. (1989): Słownik wyrazów obcych i zwrotów obcojęzycznych. Państwowe Wydawnictwo Wiedza Powszechna, Warszawa Lenartowicz M. (2012) Klasowe uwarunkowania sportu z perspektywy teoretycznej Pierre a Bourdieu, Kultura i społeczeństwo, nr 3, 2012, Milewski D., Orfin K., (2011): Popyt turystyczny i rekreacyjny. In. Ekonomika turystyki i rekreacji, A. Panasiuk (ed.), , Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN, Warszawa Nowak P. F, (2008): Rola treningu rekreacyjno-zdrowotnego na tle wzorców zachowań we współczesnej kulturze, In. Wzory kultury somatycznej a styl życia, Studia i Monografie - Politechnika Opolska, S. Zagórny (rd.), zeszyt 227 Nowak, P.F. (2011): Aktywność fizyczna oraz inne zachowania zdrowotne w stylu życia menedżerów, Politechnika Opolska, Opole Panasiuk A. (2011): Ekonomika turystyki i rekreacji w systemie nauk ekonomicznych, In. Ekonomika turystyki i rekreacji, A. Panasiuk (red.), 15-26, Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN, Warszawa Panasiuk A. (ed.), (2011): Ekonomika turystyki i rekreacji, Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN, Warszawa Sikora J. (1999): Organizacja ruchu turystycznego na wsi, WSiP Siwiński, W., Tauber R. D. (2004): Rekreacja ruchowa. Zagadnienia teoretycznometodologiczne, Wydawnictwo Naukowe Wyższej Szkoły Hotelarstwa i Gastronomii w Poznaniu, Poznań Siwiński, W., Tauber R. D. (2008): Leksykon turystyki i rekreacji Polskie Stowarzyszenie Naukowe Animacji Rekreacji i Turystyki w Poznaniu, Poznań Szczepańska-Góra A. (2011): Długoterminowe wyzwania wynikające z nowych form rekreacji wymuszających nowe formy użytkowania terenu. Wyzwania zrównoważonego użytkowania terenu na przykładzie województwa śląskiego - scenariusze 2050 Kwiecień, Katowice
278 PART 6 PHYSICAL RECREATION AND SPORT 278 TNS Opinion & Social (2010): Special Eurobarometer 334 / Wave 72.3 TNS Opinion & Social: Sport and Physical Activity, retrieved from /sport/library/documents/d/ebs_334_en.pdf Toczek-Werner S. (2008): Podstawy turystyki i rekreacji, pod red, WAWF we Wrocławiu, Wrocław 2008, s. 64 Toczek-Werner S. (ed.) (1999): Podstawy rekreacji i turystyki, Akademia Wychowania Fizycznego we Wrocławiu, Wrocław Toczek-Werner S. (ed.) (2005): Podstawy rekreacji i turystyki, pod red. S. Toczek- Werner Wydawnictwo AWF Wrocław, Wrocław UEPA (United States Environmental Protection Agency) (2003):, Meeting Community Needs, Protecting Human Health and the Environment: Active and Passive Recreational Opportunities at Abandoned Mine Land, retrieved from: UEPA Meeting Community Needs, Protecting Human Health and the Environment: UN (2003): Rethinking Leisure Time - World YOUTH Report, retrieved from Wellness Tourism Worlwide in cooperation with the Hungarian National Tourism Plc. (2011) 4WR: Wellness for Whom, Where and What? Wellness Tourism 2020 Full Research Report, Hungary, retrieved from board%5catachments_1%5c2012%5c4wr_wellnesstourism_2020_fullreport_14328.pdf Winiarski R, (2011): Rekreacja i czas wolny pod red. R. Winiarski, Oficyna Wydawnicza Łośgraf, Warszawa Winiarski W. (2005): Psychospołeczne aspekty rekreacji ruchowej, In. Sport dla wszystkich. Rekreacja dla każdego Cz. 2, Towarzystwo Krzewienia Kultury Fizycznej Zarząd Główny, Warszawa World Health Organisation, (2009): Milestones in Health Promotion. Statements from Global Conferences. Health promotion. retrieved from healthpromotion/milestones_health_promotion_ pdf Żukowska Z. (1995). Potrzeby i styl życia człowieka wobec zagrożeń cywilizacyjnych jego zdrowia. Wychowanie Fizyczne i Zdrowotne, 3,
279 PART 6 PHYSICAL RECREATION AND SPORT 279 TEMPERAMENTAL AND MOTIVATIONAL DETERMINANTS OF PARTICIPATION IN ADVENTURE RACING Karolina Chlebosz 25 University of Physical Education in Poznań, Poland ABSTRACT The goal of this work was to investigate the motivational and temperamental determinants for adventure racers compared to marathoners, features of preparation period before competition, training practice. Demographic data was also included. Research was gathered on a group of 56 people, men and women of different ages. Temperament Questionnaire (FCZ-KT) and Sport Motivation Scale (SMS) were used as instruments. The analysis showed associations between temperament and motivation in sport activities. Key words: Temperament, motivation, adventure races, marathons 25 Author s
280 PART 6 PHYSICAL RECREATION AND SPORT 280 INTRODUCTION A peculiar form of human physicality, sports activity requires processing the stimulation of maintaining a high physical and psychological endurance. In the social area of achievement in sport, influence has a lot of factors. These factors include intrinsic and extrinsic conditioning, which are individual characteristics of athletes. Adventure races and marathons are forms of (the) physical activity with elements of seeking experience and excitement and the demand for the high stimulation of the participants. Seeking stimulation is seeking intense experience and the readiness to take a risk in action (Zuckerman, 1983) Adventure race is a high risk sport which constitutes of: orienteering, rock climbing, survival sports. In marathons, it is also possible to find elements of the risk such as fighting against own weaknesses, often going out of a comfort zone. Adventure races and marathons are forms of the activity marked with aspiration to increase burdens and raise the effectiveness of action. The participation gives the seeker the possibility to receive personal achievements, work and reach the desired level of stimulation. Participants in these activities seek high excitement associated with the self-improvement, competition and taking a risk. It involves challenging themselves by increasing effort or taking such initiatives which lead to excitement. (Malkin, Rabinowicz, 1998) The present study, therefore, aims to understand the temperament and motivation properties of athletes who perform the sports activities mentioned above - adventure races and marathons, based on a personal analysis of their individual temperament and connection with motivation for engaging in the determined physical activity. The practical purpose of the work is closely associated with expanding knowledge in a field of the sport psychology, which can provide new opportunities to the aspect of scientific activity, as well as practical applications amongst many athletes in the sports situation. Analysis of the temperament and motivation can facilitate the process of the self-realization of active professionals as well as amateurs. The paper begins with reviewing the literature on temperament and motivation in sport, and then explores the methodology and findings of the study on differential effects of individual factors on engaging in the determined physical activity. The last section concludes by summarizing the most important findings and suggesting directions for future research.
281 PART 6 PHYSICAL RECREATION AND SPORT 281 LITERATURE REVIEW Temperament A number of studies have investigated the relationship between personality and temperament traits and participation in high-risk physical sports; sensation-seeking is by far the most consistently studied personality factor in the literature. Most of these studies have found that participants in high-risk sports tend to score higher on Zuckerman s Sensation Seeking Scale compared to low risk sports participants and control groups. Zuckerman (1983) defines sensation seeking as the need for varied, novel and complex sensations and experiences and the willingness to take physical and social risks for the sake of such experience. In addition, a smaller number of studies have also considered other personality variables. Castanier et al. (2010) investigated men involved in high-risk sports and found that personality types with a configuration of low conscientiousness combined with high neuroticism and extraversion were greater risk-takers. What the majority of research studies examining relationships between extreme sports and personality have done is investigate the role of sensation seeking. On the others view the research carried out to date is far too narrow as it only provides information about one aspect of personality and ignores other important personality factors that may contribute to participation in extreme sports and help to understand the motivation for sports (Monasterio, 2008). Therefore, the aim of others study was to explore the possible psychobiological contribution to extreme sports using the temperament and character inventory (TCI). In current study we are focused on temperamental determinants of participation in adventure racing. Robert McCall shared a definition of temperament that attempted to integrate the four approaches: Temperament consists of relatively consistent, basic dispositions inherent in the person that underlie and modulate the expression of activity, reactivity, emotionality, and sociability. Major elements of temperament are present early in life, and those elements are likely to be strongly influenced by biological factors. As development proceeds, the expression of temperament increasingly becomes more influenced by experience and context (Goldsmith, 1987). However, new findings and approaches have offered new perspectives on many of these guiding assumptions. In short, temperament researchers recognize now that affective and cognitive processing are highly integrated systems (Derryberry & Tucker, 2006; Forgas, 2008) and that, therefore, some
282 PART 6 PHYSICAL RECREATION AND SPORT 282 aspects of temperament such as attention and executive control involve individual differences in domains traditionally considered more cognitive in nature. The newest work on temperament suggests an alternative definition: Temperament traits are early emerging basic dispositions in the domains of activity, affectivity, attention, and self-regulation, and these dispositions are the product of complex interactions among genetic, biological, and environmental factors across time. The following definition of temperament and character is taken verbatim from the paper: Temperament refers to the automatic emotional responses that are thought to be moderately heritable, independent, genetically homogenous and stable over time (Cloninger, 1994) Motivation There has been little research done on extreme sport participants. In specific, the reason why consumers participate in extreme sports has not yet been investigated, although the number of participants and spectators of extreme sports is rapidly growing. Since motivation is a significant factor of sport participation behavior, it is essential for the sport marketer to understand psychological needs and motivations of extreme sport participants. The motivational factors that influence a person s desire to participate in extreme sports have not yet been identified. Lyng (1990) acknowledged that we do not fully understand what motivates individuals to partake in high-risk behavior. Lupton & Tulloch (2002) have echoed this concern by recognizing that little empirical research has strived to examine the meanings attributed to high-risk behavior. Previous research has focused on some high-risk subcultures, but not on extreme sport subcultures (Katz, 1988; Lois, 2005; Lyng & Snow, 1986; Lyng, 1990). For instance, Lyng (1990) re-analyzed a 5-year ethnographic study of skydivers (Lyng & Snow, 1986), operationalizing the concept of edgework. With the research on high-risk subcultures, researchers continue to be perplexed, because extreme athletes often claim that the experience is essentially ineffable and can be fully understood only by actually participating in it (Lyng, 1990, p. 862). Extreme sport experiences are so deep and meaningful, they are beyond words, and leave a person mystified. Lupton & Tulloch (2002) found that the general Australian population views risk as positive, steering away from the traditional, risk-aversive portrayal, identifying three derivatives: self-improvement, emotional engagement, and control. A brief discussion of the edgework literature, will be
283 PART 6 PHYSICAL RECREATION AND SPORT 283 followed by a discussion of Self Determination Theory( Deci & Ryan, 2000) provides a framework for examining the outcomes that individuals associate with an activity. Consequently, it provides an effective lens through which to consider the motivations for participation in the extreme sport of Adventure Racing. Self-Determination Theory (SDT; Deci & Ryan, 2000) is a theoretical approach that could explain the implications of the social environment (lack of psychosocial support in sport) on the well-being of young athletes. Deci and Ryan (2000) have postulated the existence of a continuum of self-determination going from intrinsic motivation, which is the most self-determined motivation, to extrinsic motivation (i.e., integrated, identified, introjected and extrinsic regulations) and amotivation. Intrinsic motivation means that individuals perform the activity for the pleasure and satisfaction it provides them and for the pleasure of learning something new. Integrated regulation means that individuals joined the activity, in which they are able to fulfill important personal aims; as something consistent with their values and needs. Identified regulation applies to individuals who have identified why they are doing the activity even if it is not interesting in itself: They work for the benefits they may reap from it, they also perceive that the action is initiated by themselves, they do it by choice. Introjected regulation deals with individuals who are doing the activity due to intrinsic pressure such as guilt. Extrinsic regulation represents behavior regulated by extrinsic factors such as rewards and constraints. Amotivation refers to the case of individuals who do not perceive the links between their behavior and its consequences. It corresponds to a lack of autonomous and controlled motivation, and results of nonrewarding activities, and of feelings of incompetence in the activity. Deci (1985) suggested that intrinsically motivated behaviors are based on individual needs to feel competent and self-determined. This means that the satisfaction of basic needs leads individuals to experience intrinsic motivation. An individual feeling autonomous, connected to others and competent in a given context is expected to have a more intrinsicized motivation Moreover, SDT states that intrinsic motivation and more self-determined forms of extrinsic motivation (i.e., identified and integrated regulations) are associated with adapted consequences (emotional, cognitive and behavioral), while the non self-determined forms of motivation (i.e., introjected and extrinsic regulations) and amotivation are related to maladaptive consequences (Deci & Ryan, 2000)
284 PART 6 PHYSICAL RECREATION AND SPORT 284 DATA AND METHODS In this study, a quantative methodology for data collection and analysis was utilized, as it represented the most appropriate method to achieve the aim of the research. Based on literature review, were used research model, which aims to reproduce the relationship between temperament and motivation of participation in adventure racing. Were used research methods, based on data collection to, answer questions relevant to the study objective. The presented results refer to the carried out statistical analysis based on the collected data. Main purpose of the work is to show which temperamental and motivational factors affecting participation in extreme sports on the example of adventure races. The following research questions were: 1. Do athletes who participate in adventure races differ in straining individual temperament features from marathon runners? 2. Do adventure races athletes are displaying the highest level of extrinsic motivation, than marathon runners? 3. Do adventure races athletes have higher amotivation, than marathon runners? 4. Is there a correlation between the temperament and motivation in the taken sports? 5. Is the temperament of athletes participating in adventure races and marathons is being diversified or is it correlating with an incidental operands, so as sex, age, education, occupational activity, marital status, length of the training? 6. Is motivation for adventure races and marathons diversified or does it correlate with an incidental operands, so as sex, age, education, occupational activity, marital status, length of the training? As an incidental variable (X): sex (Xu1), age (Xu2), education (Xu3), occupational activity (Xu4), marital status (Xu5), training internship (Xu6), quantity of completed races (Xu7), Dependent variable (Xg) is extrinsic motivation- regulation (Xg1), extrinsic motivationintrojection (Xg2), extrinsic motivation identification (Xg3), self-motivation knowledge (Xg4), self-motivation improving (Xg5), self-motivation experiencing the stimulation (Xg6), amotivation (Xg7). Trying to define "motivation", we should consider the fact that each of theoretical systems describing it differently and every of psychological theories has an own
285 PART 6 PHYSICAL RECREATION AND SPORT 285 conception of motivation. Authors of the "Psychology" (Strelau, Doliński, 2008) are using notions motivation "both in taking back to states, in which the organism is taking action directed at getting some essential element for the normal functioning, as well as then, when of nothing, what essential to living, he isn't lacking. In this second accident the individual is putting new objectives for itself and wants to achieve the state subjectively better than existing 56 athletes constituted the examined group. Data collected from all 56 athletes was used for further analyses. They were athletes participating in 10 Poznań marathon and athletes being involved in adventure expeditions in the Poland and in the World. Examined age was located within the limits of from 19 the arithmetic mean of the age took out into 76 year-s 47.5 of years. The examined group was uneven in terms of the sex, participated in examinations of 23 women and as many as 34 men. 39 athletes out of everyone examined had a university degree, 18 person-s averages. In the moment of the examination exclusively 27 athletes took the occupational activity. Examinations were based on the correlative regressive model. They covered two fundamental stages: 1. Pilot researches and 2. Due examinations. To collected results MS programs, Excel and SPSS version 17 were applied. Analysis techniques included general descriptive statistics and correlation coefficients to portray the main features of variables under study and relations between them. The t-test for independent samples or the r Pearsona coefficient of correlation, the rate of the reliability, as well as the regression analysis were employes to examine the differences in means between the investigated groups of respondents. For the measurement of variables were used two questionnaires: Temperament Questionnaire (FCZ-KT), the Sport Motivation Scale SMS and survey for athletes participating in adventure races and marathons. Temperament Questionnaire (FCZ-KT) contains 100 positions forming 6 features: Brisknesss, Perseverance, Sensory Sensitivity, Emotional Reactivity, Endurance, Activity. Six traits with a status of first-order factors represent the structure of temperament as referring to the energetic and temporal characteristics of behaviour. Their description given below reflects a high position on each of the traits.
286 PART 6 PHYSICAL RECREATION AND SPORT 286 Briskness: tendency to react quickly, to keep a high tempo of performing activities, and to shift easily in response to changes in the surroundings from one behavior (reaction) to another. Perseverance: tendency to continue and to repeat behavior after cessation of stimuli (situations) evoking this. Sensory Sensitivity: ability to react to sensory stimuli of low stimulative value Emotional Reactivity: tendency to react intensively to emotion- generating stimuli, expressed in high emotional sensitivity and in low emotional endurance Endurance: ability to react adequately in situations demanding long-lasting or high stimulative activity and under intensive extrinsic stimulation Activity: tendency to undertake behavior of high stimulative value or to supply by means of behavior strong stimulation from the surroundings FCZ-KT is used for a career counselling and education. Intended for athletes from 15 to 80 of year of age. Respondent should answer every question depending on the statement given to approval: yes or not. Results are being assessed according to the key; a substantial amount of points corresponds to higher straining given feature. Reverence of questions, denoted in the key, is undergoing turning away. Sport Motivation Scale (SMS); the polish version of the Sport Motivation Scale; Briere, Vallerand, Blais & Pelletier, 1995), to assess participants motivation toward marathons and adventure races. Athletes were asked Why do you practice your sport? 28 items were provided to answer to that question. These items assessed the constructs of amotivation, three types of extrinsic motivation (extrinsic, introjected, identified regulations), and three types of intrinsic motivation (i.e., to know, toward accomplishment, to experience stimulation). Cronbach alphas of the six subscales ranged from.66 to.85. Previous studies (Vallerand & Losier, 1999, for a review) confirmed the factor structure of the scale and revealed satisfactory level of intrinsic consistency as well as adequate test retest reliability. Survey remained by the author of examinations in order to collect data: being characteristic of a group of people examined and constituting incidental- operands the sex, the age, the education, the occupational activity, the marital status, the training, the number of completed races or marathons. In first part of questionnaire form examined supplemented
287 PART 6 PHYSICAL RECREATION AND SPORT 287 data concerning sex, age, education, profession as well as whether currently are taking the occupational activity, as well as granted the answer to a question, what their marital status is. The second part concerned starts in adventure races and marathons. The selection of athletes for the examination was conducted on the principle of the intentional selection. Criterion selections there was a completion to the examined group, at least one adventure races or the marathon, the age of athletes and the sex. RESULTS Basic statistic for the study variables are reported in tables (Table1, Table 2, Table 3, Table 4), they presents the descriptive statistics and the correlations between all the indicators used In the objective of verification constructed hypotheses appropriate co-efficients of correlation were calculated. Results show connection between motivation and temperament which can affect participation in physical activity. Results show link between individual forms of intrinsic motivation (knowledge, improving, sustaining the stimulation), extrinsic motivation (identification, introjection, extrinsic regulation) and motivation with elements of the temperament (Briskness, Perseverance, Sensory Sensitivity, Emotional Reactivity, Endurance, Activity) Associations were the strongest between self-motivation and the emotional reactivity (negative); negative correlation between amotivation and emotional reactivity, activity, and perseverance. During marathons runners' strongest negative correlation appeared between the self-in the objective of verification constructed hypotheses. Consequently, appropriate coefficients of correlation were calculated. Results show connection between motivation and temperament which can affect participation in physical activity. Results of the objective of verification constructed hypotheses appropriate coefficients of correlation were calculated. Results show connection between motivation and temperament which can affect participation in physical activity. Results also shows link between individual forms of intrinsic motivation (knowledge, improving, sustaining the stimulation), extrinsic motivation (identification, introjection, outside regulation) and amotivation, and with elements of the temperament (Briskness, Perseverance, Sensory Sensitivity, Emotional Reactivity, Endurance, Activity). Associations were the strongest between self-motivation and the emotional reactivity (negative), negative
288 PART 6 PHYSICAL RECREATION AND SPORT 288 correlation between amotivation and emotional reactivity, activity, and perseverance. During marathons runners the strongest negative correlation appeared between the self-motivation and perseverance whereas amongst athletes being involved in adventure expeditions correlation between the self-motivation and perseverance and with sensory sensitivity and negative correlation between extrinsic motivation and the endurance shows the link between individual forms of intrinsic motivation (knowledge, improving, sustaining the stimulation), extrinsic motivation (identification, introjection, outside regulation) and amotivation with elements of temperament (Briskness, Perseverance, Sensory Sensitivity, Emotional Reactivity, Endurance, Activity). Correlations were the strongest between selfmotivation and the emotional reactivity (negative), negative correlation between amotivation and emotional reactivity, activity, and perseverance. During marathon runners the strongest negative correlation appeared between the self-motivation and perseverance whereas amongst athletes being involved in adventure expeditions correlation between the self-motivation and perseverance and with sensory sensitivity and negative correlation between extrinsic motivation and endurance.motivation and perseverance whereas amongst athletes being involved in adventure expeditions correlation between the selfmotivation and perseverance and with sensory sensitivity and negative correlation between extrinsic motivation and endurance. Tables below show results of research. Table 1- Analysis of correlation - motivation and temperament. Adventure Races Adventure race athletes are presenting the highest level of sensory sensitivity. Feeling even slight stimuli of the environment is also correlating with intrinsic motivation. It means that such athletes have pleasure and satisfaction from many diverse situations during the
289 PART 6 PHYSICAL RECREATION AND SPORT 289 race. It can be change of the activity from the run to the climbing, finding a landmark or the ride on rolls on the ocean. For them less competitors withstood (susceptible to tiring out) it is the highest level of extrinsic motivation. When we have extreme physical effort like adventure race, perhaps the only motivation for competitors can be avoiding punishment or reaching the award. Also fear or the pressure of surroundings can be a stimulus to continue effort The highest level of perseverance at marathon runners, i.e. mechanical repeating determined reaction if the factor already stopped existing is correlating with self-motivation, i.e. oneself concentration on attaining pleasure experienced during the learning, of understanding new issues, are becoming involved in an activity in order to experience stimulating experience. Runners are involving in the activity for pure pleasure. Marathon runners are repeating the determined activity on account of pleasant experience as a result of this activity Table 2- Analysis of correlation - motivation and temperament. Marathons
290 PART 6 PHYSICAL RECREATION AND SPORT 290 Table 3 - Analysis of correlation - motivation and temperament. General Analysing correlation between variables we can conclude, that the highest level of perseverance, emotional reactivity and the activity caused the lowest level of amotivation. Among marathon runners the highest level of perseverance caused the highest level of the self-motivation, whereas at adventure races athletes- overcome perseverance and sensory sensitivities than highest level of the self-motivation and the lowest level of endurance than the highest level of extrinsic motivation. The proposed model turned out to be linear to data, but negligible. With the F whole = 0.56; p > 0.01, at F marathon runners = 0.89; p > 0.01, whereas about athletes participating in adventure races F = 0.45; p > The variable "temperament" is explaining 0.02 % variance of a dependent variable. Relation between predictor is strong and negative in general (beta = -0.47), at marathon runners weak and positive (beta = -0.17) whereas in adventure racers weak and negative (beta = 0.13). What is showing, that the temperament doesn't have a significant influence on motivation of competitors for the participation in marathons or adventure races. The directional coefficient value took out -0.25; t (29) = -0.23; p > 0.05, and permanent 135.7; t = 1.91; p < 0.05 in general. Table 4 - Regression analysis Marathon runners Adventure racers Both Regression analysis F= 0,89;p> 0,01 beta=-0,17 F= 0,45; p>0,01 beta=0,13 F = 0,56; p>0,01 beta= -0,47
291 PART 6 PHYSICAL RECREATION AND SPORT 291 CONCLUSION AND IMPLICATIONS Despite the proliferation of research on motivation and temperament in sport area, relatively few studies have focused on extreme sports. The main objective of this investigation was to analyse temperament and motivation determinants among adventure recares compare to marathon competitors. The results revealed that individual characteristics of participants had a significant effect on taking part in physical activity. According to the research, marathon runners display higher rate of endurance and emotional reactivity than adventure runners. Although, cross runners present higher rate of activity, sensoric sensivity and briskness. People taking part in the adventure races, show an ability of fast react but do not tolerate monotony. They are stimulated by the impulses from the extrinsic. The finding of the analysis suggest that marathon runners comparing to adventure runners are more susceptible to stress but they are more resistant to a monotonous effort. The research may contribute to existing knowledge of people who train relatively short, have more intrinsic motivation. Outside motivation increases with the length of training and education. It also shows that women are better motivated than men. The motivation is also higher to people who train longer. In all, marathon runners have intrinsic motivation more developed than adventure runners also they have higher rate of amotivation. It means that marathon runners concentrate more on the pleasure experienced during the run. During the runs, they focus on knowledge and they endeavor to discover new techniques and tactics. Moreover, marathon runners practice to experience more stimulation. In this kind of motivation, it is important to feel the excitation. The analysis showed that marathon runners run to feel excitement and for real pleasure they experience from mastering their physical condition and new skills. Higher rate of amotivation, which is a difficulty in noticing the relation between an act and its result, underestimation and luck of control. It can come from the fact that adventure running is a team discipline, where each member of the team works for a result of a whole team. Marathon runners are individuals who can be helpless at the defeat than adventure runners. The latter, train to receive material reward or do it under the outside pressure. The activity is strengthened by guilt, fear and shame. The analysis showed that competitors who experience this kind of motivation feel the pressure from the outside to train their discipline, feel shame when they do not fulfill the expectations. Moreover, runners who take part in the races show high rate
292 PART 6 PHYSICAL RECREATION AND SPORT 292 of estimating their acts as important. An activity which still has an outside source is regulated from the inside. Taking into consideration side variables, analysis presents that the shorter training, the highest rate of intrinsic motivation. The reason for this dependence perhaps comes from the fact that marathon runners and adventure runners are not professional sportsmen and they do not run to earn for a living. People, who train for a short time, start often for pleasure and receiving new skills. The research may contribute to existing knowledge of that high rate of extrinsic motivation appears among competitors who train long. It may be caused by the fear of defeat, conscious and experience. Those people have different priorities during the competitions that pure happiness from doing sport. Also, men and people who train less have higher rate of amotivation. It probably appears due to cultural patterns which force men to be winners. Weaknesses are treated like a defeat. That is why they may not see the relation between an act and a result. They stop practicing given discipline when they do not receive success. The situation is guite similar to people who train less. They are not experienced enough to achieve spectacular success and its luck may cause helplessness and resignation from practicing a discipline. To verify above hypothesis appropriate factors of correlation were counted. Given results display that there is a relation between runner s motivation and his temperament which may influence on starting a physical activity. The strongest relations appeared between intrinsic motivation and emotional reactivity and its perseverance. When it comes to marathon runners the strongest negative relation appeared between intrinsic motivation and perseverance. The finding of the analysis suggest whereas between people who start in adventure races, the relation between intrinsic motivation, perseverance and sensory sensitivity. And the strongest negative relation was observed between extrinsic motivation and endurance. People who take part in adventure races present high rate of sensory sensitivity, meaning a degree of sensing even the slightest impulses from the outside, which also correlates with the intrinsic motivation. Runners of low endurance tend to have high extrinsic motivation. When people experience so intense physical effort only way to motivate them is to let them win or let them go unpunished. Another impulses to motivate competitors are fear and an outside pressure. Higher rate of perseverance among marathon runners, meaning mechanical repetition of given situation when a factor which stimulates it disappeared, correlates with intrinsic motivation. Therefore, competitors focus on pleasure experienced during training, understanding new aspects; engage in activity to stimulate new experiences. The finding of
293 PART 6 PHYSICAL RECREATION AND SPORT 293 the analysis suggests that runners engage in activity for pure pleasure which comes from mastering the abilities and gaining new skills. Marathon runners repeat certain activity because of pleasant experiences which comes from it. Analyzing relations between variables, it must be mentioned that the higher rate of perseverance, emotional reactivity and activity, the lower rate of amotivation. Among marathon runners the higher rate of perseverance the higher rate of intrinsic motivation, whereas among people who take part in adventure races: the higher rate of perseverance and sensory sensitivity the lower rate of intrinsic motivation and the lower rate of endurance, the higher rate of extrinsic motivation. People who are active need strong stimulation and those who badly tolerate monotony are susceptible to stress show lower rate of amotivation so they do not see a relation between their act and a result of it and feeling worse than others. The present study has some limitations that need to be taken into consideration when interpreting the findings. First of all, it draws upon secondary source of information the analysis is limited to available data, thus it is possible that other factors have some bearing on Despite the limitations, the study is the first of its kind and provides a benchmark on which other studies can build. Engagement in extreme sports is likely to continue despite the high risk of injury or death. Knowing as much as we can about why people engage in such risky behaviour is clearly of great value psychologically. REFERENCES Caldwell, L., Skiff, B. (2001) Adventure Racing: The Ultimate Guide. VeloPress, CO, USA Castanier, C., Le Scanff, C., & Woodman, T. (2010). Who takes risks in high-risk sports? A typological personality approach. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 81, Cloninger, C. R., Przybeck, T. R., Svrakic, D. M., & Wetzel, R. D. (1994a). Basic description of the personality scales. In C. R. Cloninger (Ed.), The Temperament and Character Inventory (TCI): A guide to its development and use (pp ). St Louis, MO: Center for Psychobiology of Personality, Washington University. Deci E.L., Ryan R.M., (1985) Instrinsic motivation and self-determination [In]: Human behavior. Plenum, New York Deci E.L., Ryan R.M., (2000). The what and why of goal pusuits: Human Leeds and self- determination of behavior. Psychological Inquiry, 11, Deci, E.L. (1975). Intrinsic motivation. New York: Plenum
294 PART 6 PHYSICAL RECREATION AND SPORT 294 Deci, E.L., & Ryan, R.M. (1980). The empirical exploration of intrinsic motivational processes. In L. Berkowitz (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 13, pp ). New York: Academic. Derryberry, D., & Tucker, D. M. (2006). Motivation, self-regulation, andselforganization. In D. Cicchetti & D. J. Cohen (Eds), Developmental Psychopathology: Developmental neuroscience (2nd edition) (Vol.2, pp ). Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons. Douillard J. (1994). Ciało, umysł i sport. New York: Three Rivers Press. Forgas, J.P. (2008). The role of affect in attitudes and attitude change. In: W. Crano & J. Prislin (Eds.) Attitudes and attitude change. (pp ). Psychology Press, New York Goldsmith, H. H., Buss, A. H., Plomin, R., Rothbart, M. K., Thomas, A., Chess, S., et al. (1987). Roundtable: What is temperament? Four approaches. Child Development, 58, Lois, J. (2005). Gender and emotion management in the stages of edgework. In S. Lyng (Ed.), Edgework: the sociology of risk taking, pp New York: Routledge. Lupton, D., & Tulloch, J. (2002). Life would be pretty dull without risk : voluntary risk taking and its pleasure. Health, Risk, and Society, 4(2), Lyng, S. (1990). Edgework: a social psychological analysis of voluntary risk taking. The American Journal of Sociology, 95(4), Lyng, S., & Snow, D.A. (1986). Vocabularies of motive and high risk behavior: the case of skydiving. Advances in Group Processes, 3, Katz, J. (1988). Seductions of crime: moral and sensual attractions in doing evil. New York: Basic Books. Malkin, M.J., Rabinowicz, E Sensation Seeking and High-Risk Recreation. Parks & Recreation, Vol. 33, No. 7 Monasterio, E., & Mei-Dan, O. (2008). Risk and severity of injury in a population of BASE jumpers. New Zealand Medical Journal, 121, Monasterio, E., Mulder, R., Frampton, C., & Mei-Dan, O. (2012). Personality characteristics of BASE jumpers. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 24, Pain, M.T., & Pain, M.A. (2005). Essay: Risk taking in sport. Lancet, 366, Suppl 1, S33 34.
295 PART 6 PHYSICAL RECREATION AND SPORT 295 Pelletier, L.G., Brifere, N.M., Blais, M.R., & Vallerand, R.J. (1988). Persisting vs dropping out: A test of Deci and Ryan s theory. Canadian Psychology, 29,600. Reber A.S. (2000) Słownik psychologiczny. Scholar, Warszawa. Seligmann M.E.P. (2005) Prawdziwe szczęście. Psychologia pozytywna a urzeczywistnienie naszych możliwości trwałego spełnienia, Wydawnictwo Media Rodzina. Wilson, P.M., Longley, K., Muon, S., Rodgers, W.M., & Murray, T.C. (2006). Examining the contributions of perceived psychological need satisfaction to well-being in exercise. Journal of Applied Biobehavioral Research, 11, Vallerand, R.J., & Bissonette, R. (1992) Instrinsic, extrinsic, and amotivational styles as predictors of behavior: A prospective study. Journal of Personality, 60, Zuckerman, M. (1983) Sensation seeking and sports. Personality and Individual Differences. Zuckerman, M., & Cloninger, C. R. (1996). Relationship between Cloninger s, Zuckerman s and Eysenck s dimensions of personality. Personality and Individual Differences, 21,
296 PART 6 PHYSICAL RECREATION AND SPORT 296 SPORT AND RECREATIONAL ACTIVITY WITH A DOG: PSYCHOSOCIAL SIGNIFICANCE OF DOG OWNERSHIP Anna Teodorowicz 26 Małgorzata Woźniewicz Dobrzyńska 27 Eugeniusz Piasecki University School of Physical Education in Poznan, Poland ABSTRACT Background: The article concerns psychosocial significance of dog ownership in owners daily sport and recreational activity. It also points out the lack of necessary infrastructure to practice dog sports, according to opinion of Warsaw and Poznan citizens. Material and methods: The research covered 120 inhabitants of Poland, dog owners. Presented results are based on research carried out at the turn of In the study a questionnaire poll was used. The age of respondents ranged from 11 to 50 years. Results: Analysis of the results shows that significant number of dog owners does not take part in any other sports besides dog sports. Friendship and emotional link between dog and its owner are the most important aspects of their relationship. Dogs presence in household stimulates its inhabitants and their friends to physical activity. According to value judgment of respondents, activity with dog increases their daily physical activity, improves their physical fitness and reduces their stress level. Conclusion: Based on conducted research, it can be assumed, in psychosocial perspective, that dog ownership has significant influence on owners physical activity. Noteworthy, infrastructure for dog sports is inadequate, regarding the number of dog owners in Poland. Keywords: physical activity, health, dog owners, animal sports, recreation. 26 Author s 27 Author s
297 PART 6 PHYSICAL RECREATION AND SPORT 297 INTRODUCTION Over the past 50 years, multiple studies have been carried out to investigate association between pet ownership and diverse aspects of human life or health. Most of those research concern influence of pet ownership on level of physical activity of dog owners. Scientists from UK, USA, Australia, Canada, Japan and others proved that dog owners spend more time on recreational walking, their activity is regular and frequent, therefore they reach recommended time of daily physical activity (Oka and Shibata, 2009; Owen et al., 2010; Thorpe Jr et al., 2006; Yabrof, Troiano and Berrigan, 2008; Yam et al., 2012). Physiological health outcomes are strongly proved, especially cardiovascular benefits, like lower triglyceride level, lower systolic blood pressure (Anderson, Reid and Jennings 1992; Dembicki and Anderson 1996). According to those factors, Allen, Blascovich and Mendes (2002) claimed, that presence of a pet is more effective in reducing negative cardiovascular effects of stress than presence of the friend, spouse or other family member. Positive health influence includes decreasing risk of myocardial infraction, lower plasma cholesterol, greater survival chances of coronary patients they live at least 1 year longer than patients without pet, more effective fight against adults and children s obesity and II type diabetes (Allen, Shykoff and Izzo Jr, 2001; Anderson at al., 1992; Friedmann and Thomas, 1998; Siegel, 1990). Most of those factors are connected to more frequent walks and more regular moderate physical activity, however so simple action as stroking a pet also relax, both the owner and the pet that significantly lowers blood pressure and by increasing neurochemicals in human body improves functioning of human immune system (Charnetsky, Riggers and Brennan, 2004). Influence of dog ownership on humans health goes far beyond physical benefits. Many research indicates that having a pet (especially a dog) improves human s psychological health and psychical well-being (McNicholas and Collis, 2000). As write Cutt, Giles-Corti, Wood, Knuiman and Burke (2008, p.118): Dogs provide their owners with companionship, unconditional affection and friendship, a sense of security, and improved physical, mental and emotional health. Pet owners have been reported to have ( ) less feelings of loneliness and depression and higher self-esteem. Very significant is unique bond between dog and its owner. Walsh (2009a, p. 471) writes: Pets greet their human companions enthusiastically on the worst days; they do not notice bad hair; they forgive mistakes; and they do not need to talk things through. Not only adults benefit from dog ownership.
298 PART 6 PHYSICAL RECREATION AND SPORT 298 According to Melson (2003), pets have very positive influence on psychosocial development of children. Companionship of pet teach them empathy, responsibility, raise self-esteem, force to more frequent participation in social and physical activities (Melson, 2003). Pets are catalysis for social interaction between people, not only those who own the same pet, but also with strangers and passers-by. Messent (1983) and later McNicholas and Collis (2000) proved, that while walking their dogs in park, dog owners had more conversations with other park users, than while they would walk without dog. Both research result indicates that conversation were longer if dog was present, as well as in both, dog was named an ice breaker for human-human interactions. Moreover, Guéguen and Ciccotti (2008) pointed out, that conversations are not only social interaction between dog owners and other people. Nonverbal behavior such as smiling, kind gazing or pointing out dog with interest to a companion, is also a sign of positive interaction, which have an effect in increasing dog owners self-esteem and social grace. Not only by talking with other people but also by expressing own feelings to a dog, dog owners can satisfy their social and behavioral needs (Pawłucki, 2002). From psychosocial aspect it is not far from family life. Many people treat their pets as a family member, no less important than any other member (Walsh, 2009b). For some, sometimes pet is more important than anyone else. In USA, 57% respondents of national survey said that they would choose their family pet as a companion on a desert island (Walsh, 2009b). People find it very important, that they can rely on their pets in most hard times in life. Pets offers socioemotional support in time of loss, highly stress situations or recovering(cain, 1985). Welsh (2009b) states: When members [of family] are feeling vulnerable, lonely, or depressed, other may be preoccupied, distant or uncomfortable in relating. Bonds with pets offer comfort, affection, and a sense of security. Very significant is fact that pets are like glue for family (Cain, 1985). All members take care of their family pet and this is what brings them together. They are learning coexistence, splitting duties, cooperation, how to make compromises, agreed and help one another (Walsh, 2009b). Pets decrease family tensions, helps to manage with negative emotions by stroking, walking or generating playful interactions (Walsh, 2009a). This article concerns about psychosocial significance of dog ownership. There are approximately 8mln pet dogs in Poland (Euromonitor, 2013) service dogs as well as homeless are not legally considered as pets. Dog in house activates whole family to more or
299 PART 6 PHYSICAL RECREATION AND SPORT 299 less regular physical activity. This aspect provides opportunity to promote spending leisure time actively and with the closest ones (Yam et al., 2012, Walsh, 2009a). Unfortunately, influence of dog ownership on dog owners life is still neglected and avoided among Polish scientist from all disciplines. METHOD Research covered 150 inhabitants of Poland, all respondents were dog owners. Number of research respondents is not representative in comparison to overall number of dog owners in Poland. Basic statistic technics were used to present results because the main point of this research was to show the scale of dog ownership phenomena, therefore more advanced statistical tests (e.g. chi-square test) could not be used. This study is only an introduction to the main process of research. Collected data are qualitative which are used in educational processes of societies and help us to show the essence of phenomenon and relation between cause and effect in the studied problem. In this analysis researchers use the system of notion and statement. Like Guilford said, each researcher realizes and interprets collected data and uses them to illustrate main thesis, because one would like to create the type of fact which appear/exist in studied population (Guilford, 1960). Such (1973, p. 16) states that each researcher tries to get at truth in one s area of expertise in order to reveal some real facts about studied problem. To achieve such result one must start with general and simple statements. To collect data a special type of opinion poll method was used. Computer-Assisted Web Interview (CAWI) is an online research in which data is obtained electronically using online questionnaires. Although, this technique is sometimes considered as inaccurate, it gives better access to diffused target group. Links to questionnaire were placed on topic related Internet forums/message boards used by dog owners to share their experience and knowledge. Applied questionnaire was prepared personally due to lack of proven and standardized research methods and tools for this science area. Another reason was an intention to collect subjective opinions of respondents concerning various aspects of their relationship with their dogs. Questions used in questionnaire were carefully worked out from specified research problem. For analyze were used 120 properly filled questionnaires. Research sample, due to subject of study, is very diverse especially in regard of age. The youngest respondent was 11
300 PART 6 PHYSICAL RECREATION AND SPORT 300 years old, the eldest one 55 years. Exactly 65% of the sample were women. Almost half of respondents declared secondary education status and on that base we can assume that half of the sample were college or university students and/or working people (Table 1). Additionally, most of respondents were from Greater Poland (20,00%) and Masovian (15,83%) Voivodeships. The fewest respondents were from Świętokrzyskie (1,67%) and Warmian-Masurian (1,67%) Voivodeships. Table 1: Basic characteristics of study participants (N = 120) Gender Female Male Age Educational status Primary Vocational Secondary University Participants n % ,0 35,0 18,3 52,5 18,3 9,2 1,7 27,5 0,8 44,2 27,5 RESULTS Results selected for this article show mainly subjective opinions or feelings of respondents that concern some aspects of relationship with their dogs. It was crucial to get subjective answers to investigate psychological influence of dog ownership on dog owners. Respondents impressions and feelings can show how they experience presence of animal companion. Their positive attitude proves that their psychological well-being is improved, even if in reality they are not so much more active or healthier. Psychological health is inseparable with social life, which improves as well, especially in dog owner s family. Table 2 presents how much time respondents spend on activity with their dog/-s during a week time. Question exclude usual dog walks and concerns other sport and recreational activities, e.g. canicross, dogtrekking, skijöring, Agility, dog Frisbee, bikejöring, Nordic Dogging, dog dancing, simple play and many others. More than half of the sample
301 PART 6 PHYSICAL RECREATION AND SPORT 301 stated, they spend approximately 1 to 6 hours per week on other activity with the dog. Only 11 respondents spend less or equal 1 hour per week on activity with a dog, and those were respondents below 15 year of age. About 33% of the sample spends more than 6 hours per week on activity with a dog, and most of them on training a specific discipline they are taking part in with their dog/-s. As it was said before, results are subjective, not supported with measurements, but it is save to state that dog owners are aware of their dogs need for exercise and of many attractive forms of sport and recreation they can practice with their animal companion. There is no much difference in time dedicated for dog between women and men. Inequality in numbers can be easily covered by inequality of the size of both groups. As comes to motivators for spending this couple of hours every week on activity with a dog, again women and men agreed almost completely (Table 3). Interests or hobby motivates better than other factors (85 respondents). Dog owners are very interested in topics correlated with dog ownership and ways of creative and innovative spending time with their animal companions. As confirmed another, not presented here question, dog owners seek information about possible activity with a dog in every accessible source they can find. Most of the respondents (71) are also aware of their dogs aptitude for specific forms of activity and that knowledge is second strongest motivator for practicing a sport with a dog. With this knowledge comes another motive - necessity to relieve dog s energy tension. Wise dog owners know, that busy and active dog is happier and additionally calmer. It is a good thing that dog owners do not lean on fashion if it is about their animal companions. That proves respondents are wary of the need for security and proper selection of activity fitted to dog and owner possibilities. More women (21) than man (4) chose to spend time actively with their dog/-s because of boredom. In others appeared answers like: deepen human-dog bond, improving cooperation with dog or simple pleasure from a play with a dog.
302 PART 6 PHYSICAL RECREATION AND SPORT 302 Table 2: Time per week that respondents spend on activity with their dog (excluding walks) Time/week W (n= 78) M (n= 42) Total 1 hour to 3 hours to 6 hours to 9 hours hours Table 3: Motivators/facilitators for spending time with a dog actively W (n= 78) M (n= 42) Total Accessible infrastructure (dog parks, parklands, etc.) Interests/hobby Suggestion/advice from friends Doctor s or vet s recommendation Fashion Dog s aptitude Boredom Necessity of relieve dog s energy tension Others Table 4: People who take part in sport and recreational activity with a dog along dog owner W (n= 78) M (n= 42) Total Life partner Spouse Parents Children Siblings Neighbours Friends n/a* * not applicable As said in introduction, it is well known already that dog ownership can activate closest family and friends to participate in physical activity. In Table 4, who takes part in sport and recreational activity with a dog along dog owner is presented. The most activated groups are respondents friends (38), siblings (37) and parents (34). Not far behind are life partners (26) but it is clear that spouse more rarely take part in this physical activity than life partners.
303 PART 6 PHYSICAL RECREATION AND SPORT 303 Interesting is the fact that men are more likely to spend that time alone (n/a) than women. Although, results prove that dog ownership activates owners nearest and dearest. Dogs often are the closest companion to its owners (Table 5). That is why for respondents the most important aspect of human-animal relationship is friendship (42) and emotional bond (39). Very few respondents said that obedience or trust are important. Those results show that relation between human and a dog changed from owner animal to partnership. Nowadays, in social media era, it is harder for people to share genuine emotions with other humans and that disorder of human-human relation is replaced with human-animal relation, which is more and more important in psychological and social life. Among others women mentioned answers like: mutual understanding and sympathy or being a leader. Table 5: Most important aspects of human-dog relationship W (n= 78) M (n= 42) Total Friendship Obedience Trust Feeling of security Emotional bond Others It was very important to get value judgment of respondents that concerns influence of activity with a dog on their health and psychical well-being. Study participants could select more than one answer. Those result show how they feel about themselves during and after this particular activity and how in their opinions dog ownership affects their family or social life (Table 6). Their most obvious impression is increased frequency of physical activity (92) and improved physical condition (88). Additionally, most of the respondents noticed significant stress reduction (87) that simultaneously improved their standard of living. Almost half of the sample pointed out improved interpersonal and communication skills (59). Respondents claim that they more often meet and strike up an acquaintance with other people, not only dog owners. Respondents also indicated calmer and happier family life (50) which is succession of stress reduction and decreased tensions between family members. Presented results agree with other research. Dog ownership has great influence on dog owners health and life or psychical well-being. Value judgment show psychical attitude
304 PART 6 PHYSICAL RECREATION AND SPORT 304 towards dog ownership. Psychical well-being is important for encouraging owners and their families to take part in physical activity, stay more fit and take care of health. Even if people have a feeling of overall health improvement that exceeds their actual results, they feel better, healthier and happier. It is always a first good step in direction of health improvement. Table 6: Value judgment of respondents about influence of activity with dog on dog owners health and psychical well-being W (n= 78) M (n= 42) Total Improved physical condition Improved blood circulation Increased frequency of physical activity Reduction of small aches and pains Improved resistance to infections Reduction of stress level Increased feeling of security Improved interpersonal and communication skills Calmer and happier family life Increased buoyancy through difficult times Other n/a* * not applicable DISCUSSION Influence of the animal-human bond on psychical well-being was first indicated in research of Friedmann, Katcher, Lynch and Thomas (1980). Their study pointed out that coronary patients with animal companion had significantly lower mortality during first year after discharge. Any other aspect, e.g. gender, social support or economic status did not matter as much as pet ownership. That discovery started new direction of research in this particular science section. Results presented in this article indicate that dog ownership improves social life of dog owner even in own opinion. Virues-Ortega and Buela-Casals (2006, in Walsh, 2009a) found positive connection between ongoing animal-human relationship and psychological processes in human as an effect of relaxation and soothing contact in stroking and holding pets. As pointed out Walsh (2009a): Pets also provide stress-buffering effects in pleasurable
305 PART 6 PHYSICAL RECREATION AND SPORT 305 interactions and noncritical social support. Additionally, they provide indirect benefits, for instance, in strengthening health by maintaining exercise. Walking a dog or having casual conversation about pets also catalyzes social interactions, reducing isolation and loneliness. Results showed that dog ownership activates families to physical activity. Many respondents did take part in those activities with their senior parents. It is great when elder people have a pet on their own. According to other research, seniors with pets are healthier, have fewer doctor visits and their health care costs are much lower (Friedmann and Tsai, 2006, in Walsh, 2009a). Pets help elder to maintain daily schedule, to keep exercise by walking, to preserve their mobility and overall well-being (Dembicki and Anderson, 1996, Walsh, 2009a,). Owning a pet is also connected with decreasing and helping elders with dementia (Filan and Llewellyn-Jones, 2006, in Walsh, 2009a). Some respondents are accompanied by their life partner or spouse which is good for their family life. Allen (1995, in Walsh, 2009b) found that couples owning a dog had greater well-being. Additionally, couples with the highest attachment to their dogs fared the best, had greater life and marital satisfaction and better physical and emotional health. Pet in family teaches very well basic family organization, e.g. authority, boundaries, roles, rules or simple communication clarity. One of dog ownership benefits chosen by respondents was improved interpersonal and communication skills. They admitted to meet new people and to having a spontaneous conversations with other dog owners or park users. Deeper research in this direction conducted McNicholas and Collis (2000). They carried out two experiments to find a connection between dog ownership and number and character of social interactions. Their first experiment demonstrated that person accompanied by the dog had more interactions during walk than without it. Dog acted as catalysis for conversation. Results show also that interactions were longest with strangers and shortest with friends. Second experiment proved surprisingly, that appearance of dog ( rough or nice ) does not matter as much as his handlers clothing. Passersby were more likely to have a chat with person smartly dressed even with rough looking dog, than to person dressed sloppy. Similar research conducted Guéguen and Ciccotti (2008). They carried out 4 experiments to explore if dogs can facilitate closer relationships between dog owner and met stranger. First experiment, in which initiated man (with or without dog) solicited people for money in the street. Passersby were more likely to give money and simultaneously give higher amount of money if man was accompanied by a dog. Second study was the same, except man was replaced with woman.
306 PART 6 PHYSICAL RECREATION AND SPORT 306 Results did not differ from the first ones. During third experiment man (as earlier with or without dog) accidentally dropped some coins on the ground. Study meant to check if passersby are willing to help him pick them up. Guéguen and Ciccotti (2008) found it very interesting that people were more likely to help if dog was present, because this situation was more spontaneous and no previous interaction occurred. Fourth experiment consists on approaching to randomly chosen young woman and ask her for phone number. Again man with dog achieved better results than when he was not accompanied by a dog. Guéguen and Ciccotti (2008, p.342) claim: These effects show that altruism is strongly connected with the presence of a domestic dog. Additionally, they state that (2008, p. 345): ( ) Domestic dog is really a facilitator of social interaction that not only encourages social behaviors such as smiles or greeting, but also a different range of social behaviors such as helping. Subjective feeling of increased physical activity has positive influence on motivation for spending more leisure time actively. According to Cutt, Knuiman and Giles-Corti (2008) regular walking with a dog is the easiest way to stay healthy. Walking easily fits into daily life, it is enjoyable and its intensity is moderate. Additional contact with nature and relaxation during this activity can encourage other family members to join. It is also a great way to promote moderate daily activity among children, who learn to spend more time in the fresh air and to instill them that leisure time is the best to spend actively (Melson, 2003, Yam et al., 2012). Infrastructure problem It cannot be denied that dog ownership has a significant and positive influence not only on owner s life and health but also on owner s family members and friends. Polish dog owners try to spend time with their dogs actively and according to their interests. However, sport and recreational forms of activity with a dog are not lacking of barriers and obstacles, which significantly can discourage to take part in some activity. Half of respondents (61) claim that they do not have enough of free time to spend it more actively than just walk (Table 7). Life is fulfilled with too many other obligations and it is hard to find enough free time for regular activity. Some of respondents rather spend their left free time in passive way but better promotion of physical activity is slowly starting to prevent such habits. With lack of free time connected inseparable is lack of infrastructure (42). When dog owner have to travel an hour to club or properly prepared park to practice
307 PART 6 PHYSICAL RECREATION AND SPORT 307 specific form of activity with dog it is not encouraging. Furthermore, that situation causes discouragement. Other barriers like to high costs of specialist equipment, poor accessibility to dog exercise areas, parklands, dog parks or simple lack of acceptance (no entry to some parks with dog etc.) is not encouraging at all. Respondents were asked about expectances they have towards their places of living according to necessary infrastructure for activities with a dog. Only 11 out of the whole study sample do not have any expectations or claim that present state of infrastructure meets their expectances. From among all research participants, two groups from two Polish cities were distinguished with the highest number of respondents (Table 8). Grouped answers of Poznan and Warsaw inhabitants show that both cities lack proper infrastructure for activities with a dog (e.g. obstacles, prepared sport tracks, pools for dog diving and others) as well as dog parks and parklands destined for dog owners or at least with marked places for dogs only. Those two barriers were most often pointed out by Warsaw inhabitants. On the other hand, Poznan citizens most often pointed out lack of dog courses, playgrounds etc. Table 7: Dog-related and environmental barriers to practice sport and recreational activities with dog W (n= 78) M (n= 42) Total Costs Lack of infrastructure Respondent s or dog s poor health status Lack of free time Inability to train dog for specific activity Lack of social acceptance (dogs on leash only etc.) Poor accessibility to dog exercise areas, parklands etc Others Table 8: Inhabitants expectances towards Poznan and Warsaw local government regarding necessary infrastructure for activities with dog Poznan (n= 17) Warsaw (n= 16) Total Agility tracks Infrastructure for activities with dog Dog courses, playgrounds etc Dog parks, parklands Propagation of dog sports Nothing 3 1 4
308 PART 6 PHYSICAL RECREATION AND SPORT 308 According to number of dogs in Poland and rising awareness and possibilities for spending time with a dog in active and interesting way, it is crucial for government to ensure at least basic infrastructure. Dog owners in Poland are quite numerous group and their needs and expectations should be taken into consideration. Parklands, dog parks, places for activities are not so big cost for the cities but will promote physical activity with a dog better than any social action. If dog owners would be encouraged to spend their leisure time actively together with their dogs it will not only improve their health or standard of living but also will activate their family and friends for physical activity. CONCLUSIONS In summary, dog ownership and research connected with it give a great deal of opportunity in health and physical activity promotion. Simplicity of most activities with dog could easily convince whole families for active life style (Yam et al., 2012). Dog owners can satisfy their sense of responsibility and at the same time take care of their own health. Additionally, social interactions caused by presence of the dog cannot be underestimated. Present life style, when people lock themselves in virtual world and reduce meetings with others, it is crucial to bring them back, to socialize them again and dog gives easy opportunity to change that life style for better (Walsh, 2009a, Yam et al., 2012). Yet although almost 50 years of research, dog ownership and its influence on owners health, life style, psychological and psychical well-being is avoided and unmentioned by other scientists (Walsh, 2009a). Dogs are and will always be by humans side that is why it is time to stop underestimating this science direction. Notice worthy, studies presented in this article can be a part of initial studies for a greater scale that aim to determine interactions and motivations in decision processes regarding undertaking physical activity for a dog, because of a dog, for own benefits or for acquainting other dog owners. Through increasing the size of research sample and by using more specified methods and techniques, studies can evolve and implicate from generality and simplicity to certainty and accuracy statements (Such, 1973).
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