Liao, Dengqun; Wang, Pengfei; Jia, Chan; Sun, Peng; Qi, Jianjun; Zhou, Lili; Li, Xian'en
Alkaloids in bulbs of Corydalis (C.) yanhusuo are the major pharmacologically active compounds in treatment of blood vessel diseases, tumors and various pains. However, due to the absence of gene sequences in C. yanhusuo, the genes involved in alkaloid biosynthesis and their expression during bulb development remain unknown. We therefore established the first transcriptome database of C. yanhusuo via Illumina mRNA-Sequencing of a RNA composite sample collected at Bulb initiation (Day 0), early enlargement (Day 10) and maturation (Day 30). 25,013,630 clean 90 bp paired-end reads were de novo assembled into 47,081 unigenes with an average length of 489 bp, among which 30,868 unigenes (65.56%) were annotated in four protein databases. Of 526 putative unigenes involved in biosynthesis o f various alkaloids, 187 were identified as the candidate genes involved in the biosynthesis of benzylisoquinoline alkaloids (BIAs), the only alkaloid type reported in C. yanhusuo untill now. BIAs biosynthetic genes were highly upregulated in the overall pathway during bulb development. Identification of alkaloid biosynthetic genes in C. yanhusuo provide insights on pathways and molecular regulation of alkaloid biosynthesis, to initiate metabolic engineering in order to improve the yield of interesting alkaloids and to identify potentially new alkaloids predicted from the transcriptomic information.
Liao, Dengqun; Wang, Pengfei; Jia, Chan; Sun, Peng; Qi, Jianjun; Zhou, Lili; Li, Xian’en
Alkaloids in bulbs of Corydalis (C.) yanhusuo are the major pharmacologically active compounds in treatment of blood vessel diseases, tumors and various pains. However, due to the absence of gene sequences in C. yanhusuo, the genes involved in alkaloid biosynthesis and their expression during bulb development remain unknown. We therefore established the first transcriptome database of C. yanhusuo via Illumina mRNA-Sequencing of a RNA composite sample collected at Bulb initiation (Day 0), early enlargement (Day 10) and maturation (Day 30). 25,013,630 clean 90 bp paired-end reads were de novo assembled into 47,081 unigenes with an average length of 489 bp, among which 30,868 unigenes (65.56%) were annotated in four protein databases. Of 526 putative unigenes involved in biosynthesis o f various alkaloids, 187 were identified as the candidate genes involved in the biosynthesis of benzylisoquinoline alkaloids (BIAs), the only alkaloid type reported in C. yanhusuo untill now. BIAs biosynthetic genes were highly upregulated in the overall pathway during bulb development. Identification of alkaloid biosynthetic genes in C. yanhusuo provide insights on pathways and molecular regulation of alkaloid biosynthesis, to initiate metabolic engineering in order to improve the yield of interesting alkaloids and to identify potentially new alkaloids predicted from the transcriptomic information. PMID:26777987
Gerhards, Nina; Neubauer, Lisa; Tudzynski, Paul; Li, Shu-Ming
Ergot alkaloids are nitrogen-containing natural products belonging to indole alkaloids. The best known producers are fungi of the phylum Ascomycota, e.g., Claviceps, Epichloë, Penicillium and Aspergillus species. According to their structures, ergot alkaloids can be divided into three groups: clavines, lysergic acid amides and peptides (ergopeptines). All of them share the first biosynthetic steps, which lead to the formation of the tetracyclic ergoline ring system (except the simplest, tricyclic compound: chanoclavine). Different modifications on the ergoline ring by specific enzymes result in an abundance of bioactive natural products, which are used as pharmaceutical drugs or precursors thereof. From the 1950s through to recent years, most of the biosynthetic pathways have been elucidated. Gene clusters from several ergot alkaloid producers have been identified by genome mining and the functions of many of those genes have been demonstrated by knock-out experiments or biochemical investigations of the overproduced enzymes. PMID:25513893
Desgagné-Penix, Isabel; Facchini, Peter J
Papaverine, a major benzylisoquinoline alkaloid in opium poppy (Papaver somniferum), is used as a vasodilator and antispasmodic. Conversion of the initial intermediate (S)-norcoclaurine to papaverine involves 3'-hydroxylation, four O-methylations and dehydrogenation. However, our understanding of papaverine biosynthesis remains controversial more than a century after an initial scheme was proposed. In vitro assays and in vivo labeling studies have been insufficient to establish the sequence of conversions, the potential role of the intermediate (S)-reticuline, and the enzymes involved. We used virus-induced gene silencing in opium poppy to individually suppress the expression of six genes with putative roles in papaverine biosynthesis. Suppression of the gene encoding coclaurine N-methyltransferase dramatically increased papaverine levels at the expense of N-methylated alkaloids, indicating that the main biosynthetic route to papaverine proceeds via N-desmethylated compounds rather than through (S)-reticuline. Suppression of genes encoding (S)-3'-hydroxy-N-methylcoclaurine 4-O-methyltransferase and norreticuline 7-O-methyltransferase, which accept certain N-desmethylated alkaloids, reduced papaverine content. In contrast, suppression of genes encoding N-methylcoclaurine 3'-hydroxylase or reticuline 7-O-methyltransferase, which are specific for N-methylated alkaloids, did not affect papaverine levels. Suppression of norcoclaurine 6-O-methyltransferase transcript levels significantly suppressed total alkaloid accumulation, implicating (S)-coclaurine as a key branch-point intermediate. The differential detection of N-desmethylated compounds in response to suppression of specific genes highlights the primary route to papaverine.
Li, Chun Yao; Leopold, Alex L.; Sander, Guy W.; Shanks, Jacqueline V.; Zhao, Le; Gibson, Susan I.
Terpenoid indole alkaloid (TIA) biosynthesis in Catharanthus roseus is a complex and highly regulated process. Understanding the biochemistry and regulation of the TIA pathway is of particular interest as it may allow the engineering of plants to accumulate higher levels of pharmaceutically important alkaloids. Toward this end, we generated a transgenic C. roseus hairy root line that overexpresses the CrBPF1 transcriptional activator under the control of a β-estradiol inducible promoter. CrBPF1 is a MYB-like protein that was previously postulated to help regulate the expression of the TIA biosynthetic gene STR. However, the role of CrBPF1 in regulation of the TIA and related pathways had not been previously characterized. In this study, transcriptional profiling revealed that overexpression of CrBPF1 results in increased transcript levels for genes from both the indole and terpenoid biosynthetic pathways that provide precursors for TIA biosynthesis, as well as for genes in the TIA biosynthetic pathway. In addition, overexpression of CrBPF1 causes increases in the transcript levels for 11 out of 13 genes postulated to act as transcriptional regulators of genes from the TIA and TIA feeder pathways. Interestingly, overexpression of CrBPF1 causes increased transcript levels for both TIA transcriptional activators and repressors. Despite the fact that CrBPF1 overexpression affects transcript levels of a large percentage of TIA biosynthetic and regulatory genes, CrBPF1 overexpression has only very modest effects on the levels of the TIA metabolites analyzed. This finding may be due, at least in part, to the up-regulation of both transcriptional activators and repressors in response to CrBPF1 overexpression, suggesting that CrBPF1 may serve as a “fine-tune” regulator for TIA biosynthesis, acting to help regulate the timing and amplitude of TIA gene expression. PMID:26483828
Taneja, Jyoti; Jaggi, Monika; Wankhede, Dhammaprakash Pandhari; Sinha, Alok Krishna
Hairy roots are generated by integration of T-DNA in host plant genome from root inducing (Ri) plasmid of Agrobacterium rhizogenes and have been utilized for production of secondary metabolites in different plant systems. In Catharanthus roseus, hairy roots are known to show different morphologies, growth patterns, and alkaloid contents. It is also known that during transformation, there is a differential loss of a few T-DNA genes. To decipher the effect of loss of T-DNA genes on the various aspects of hairy roots, ten hairy root clones were analyzed for the presence or absence of T-DNA genes and its implications. It was found that the loss of a few ORFs drastically affects the growth and morphological patterns of hairy roots. The absence of T(R)-DNA from hairy roots revealed increased transcript accumulation and higher alkaloid concentrations, whereas callusing among hairy root lines led to decreased transcript and alkaloid accumulation. Significantly higher expression of MIA biosynthetic pathway genes and low abundance of regulator transcripts in hairy root clones in comparison with non-transformed control roots were also observed. This study indicates that it is not only the integration of T-DNA at certain region of host plant genome but also the presence or absence of important ORFs that affects the expression patterns of MIA biosynthetic pathway genes, regulators, and accumulation of specific alkaloids.
Wang, Xiao; Ma, Zhiqiang; Wang, Xiaolei; De, Saptarshi; Ma, Yuyong; Chen, Chuo
The pyrrole-imidazole alkaloids are a group of structurally unique and biologically interesting marine sponge metabolites. Among them, the cyclic dimers have caught synthetic chemists' attention particularly. Numerous synthetic strategies have been developed and various biosynthetic hypotheses have been proposed for these fascinating natural products. We discuss herein the synthetic approaches and the biosynthetic insights obtained from these studies.
Koswatta, Panduka B; Das, Jayanta; Yousufuddin, Muhammed; Lovely, Carl J
An exploration of an abiotic approach to spirocalcaridines A and B is described centered on electrophile-induced dearomatizing spirocyclization of aryl enyne derivatives. Elaboration of the α-iodoenone via an Ullmann-like, copper-catalyzed amidation provided a formamide which upon treatment with methylamine undergoes a dienol-arene rearrangement, providing the corresponding kealiinine-like framework. This observation suggests a possible biosynthetic links between the spirocalcaridines and the naphthimidazole group of Leucetta alkaloids.
Koswatta, Panduka B.; Das, Jayanta; Yousufuddin, Muhammed; Lovely, Carl J.
An exploration of an abiotic approach to spirocalcaridines A and B is described centered on electrophile-induced dearomatizing spirocyclization of aryl enyne derivatives. Elaboration of the α–iodoenone via an Ullmann-like, copper-catalyzed amidation provided a formamide which upon treatment with methylamine undergoes a dienol-arene rearrangement, providing the corresponding kealiinine-like framework. This observation suggests a possible biosynthetic links between the spirocalcaridines and the naphthimidazole group of Leucetta alkaloids. PMID:26257576
ABSTRACT We recently described 13-deoxytetrodecamycin, a new member of the tetrodecamycin family of antibiotics. A defining feature of these molecules is the presence of a five-membered lactone called a tetronate ring. By sequencing the genome of a producer strain, Streptomyces sp. strain WAC04657, and searching for a gene previously implicated in tetronate ring formation, we identified the biosynthetic genes responsible for producing 13-deoxytetrodecamycin (the ted genes). Using the ted cluster in WAC04657 as a reference, we found related clusters in three other organisms: Streptomyces atroolivaceus ATCC 19725, Streptomyces globisporus NRRL B-2293, and Streptomyces sp. strain LaPpAH-202. Comparing the four clusters allowed us to identify the cluster boundaries. Genetic manipulation of the cluster confirmed the involvement of the ted genes in 13-deoxytetrodecamycin biosynthesis and revealed several additional molecules produced through the ted biosynthetic pathway, including tetrodecamycin, dihydrotetrodecamycin, and another, W5.9, a novel molecule. Comparison of the bioactivities of these four molecules suggests that they may act through the covalent modification of their target(s). IMPORTANCE The tetrodecamycins are a distinct subgroup of the tetronate family of secondary metabolites. Little is known about their biosynthesis or mechanisms of action, making them an attractive subject for investigation. In this paper we present the biosynthetic gene cluster for 13-deoxytetrodecamycin in Streptomyces sp. strain WAC04657. We identify related clusters in several other organisms and show that they produce related molecules. PMID:27137499
Yamada, Yasuyuki; Yoshimoto, Tadashi; Yoshida, Sayumi T.; Sato, Fumihiko
The presence of alkaloids is rather specific to certain plant species. However, berberine, an isoquinoline alkaloid, is relatively broadly distributed in the plant kingdom. Thus, berberine biosynthesis has been intensively investigated, especially using Coptis japonica cell cultures. Almost all biosynthetic enzyme genes have already been characterized at the molecular level. Particularly, two transcription factors (TFs), a plant-specific WRKY-type TF, CjWRKY1, and a basic helix-loop-helix TF, CjbHLH1, were shown to comprehensively regulate berberine biosynthesis in C. japonica cells. In this study, we characterized the promoter region of some biosynthetic enzyme genes and associated cis-acting elements involved in the transcriptional regulation via two TFs. The promoter regions of three berberine biosynthetic enzyme genes (CYP80B2, 4′OMT and CYP719A1) were isolated, and their promoter activities were dissected by a transient assay involving the sequentially truncated promoter::luciferase (LUC) reporter constructs. Furthermore, transactivation activities of CjWRKY1 were determined using the truncated promoter::LUC reporter constructs or constructs with mutated cis-elements. These results suggest the involvement of a putative W-box in the regulation of biosynthetic enzyme genes. Direct binding of CjWRKY1 to the W-box DNA sequence was also confirmed by an electrophoresis mobility shift assay and by a chromatin immunoprecipitation assay. In addition, CjbHLH1 also activated transcription from truncated 4′OMT and CYP719A1 promoters independently of CjWRKY1, suggesting the involvement of a putative E-box. Unexpected transcriptional activation of biosynthetic enzyme genes via a non-W-box sequence and by CjWRKY1 as well as the possible involvement of a GCC-box in berberine biosynthesis in C. japonica are discussed. PMID:27642289
Winzer, Thilo; Gazda, Valeria; He, Zhesi; Kaminski, Filip; Kern, Marcelo; Larson, Tony R; Li, Yi; Meade, Fergus; Teodor, Roxana; Vaistij, Fabián E; Walker, Carol; Bowser, Tim A; Graham, Ian A
Noscapine is an antitumor alkaloid from opium poppy that binds tubulin, arrests metaphase, and induces apoptosis in dividing human cells. Elucidation of the biosynthetic pathway will enable improvement in the commercial production of noscapine and related bioactive molecules. Transcriptomic analysis revealed the exclusive expression of 10 genes encoding five distinct enzyme classes in a high noscapine-producing poppy variety, HN1. Analysis of an F(2) mapping population indicated that these genes are tightly linked in HN1, and bacterial artificial chromosome sequencing confirmed that they exist as a complex gene cluster for plant alkaloids. Virus-induced gene silencing resulted in accumulation of pathway intermediates, allowing gene function to be linked to noscapine synthesis and a novel biosynthetic pathway to be proposed.
In Fusarium/Gibberella, secondary metabolite biosynthetic (SMB) genes that have a narrow distribution within the genus can have complex evolutionary histories. Whether more widely distributed SMB genes have similarly complex histories is not known. Genes responsible for production of fusarin mycot...
Kingsbury, Joanne M.; McCusker, John H.
Summary We identified and attempted to disrupt the Cryptococcus neoformans homoserine and/or threonine biosynthetic genes encoding aspartate kinase (HOM3), homoserine kinase (THR1), and threonine synthase (THR4), however, each gene proved recalcitrant to disruption. By replacing the endogenous promoters of HOM3 and THR1 with the copper-repressible CTR4-1 promoter, we showed that HOM3 and THR1 were essential for the growth of C. neoformans in rich media, when ammonium was the nitrogen source, or when threonine was supplied as an amino acid instead of a dipeptide. Moreover, the severity of the growth defect associated with HOM3- or THR1-repression increased with increasing incubation temperature. This study comprises the first demonstration of threonine biosynthetic genes being essential in a fungus. The necessity of these genes for C. neoformans growth, particularly at physiologically relevant temperatures, makes threonine biosynthetic genes ideal anti-cryptococcal drug targets. PMID:18757810
Yang, Mei; Zhu, Lingping; Li, Ling; Li, Juanjuan; Xu, Liming; Feng, Ji; Liu, Yanling
The predominant alkaloids in lotus leaves are aporphine alkaloids. These are the most important active components and have many pharmacological properties, but little is known about their biosynthesis. We used digital gene expression (DGE) technology to identify differentially-expressed genes (DEGs) between two lotus cultivars with different alkaloid contents at four leaf development stages. We also predicted potential genes involved in aporphine alkaloid biosynthesis by weighted gene co-expression network analysis (WGCNA). Approximately 335 billion nucleotides were generated; and 94% of which were aligned against the reference genome. Of 22 thousand expressed genes, 19,000 were differentially expressed between the two cultivars at the four stages. Gene Ontology (GO) enrichment analysis revealed that catalytic activity and oxidoreductase activity were enriched significantly in most pairwise comparisons. In Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) analysis, dozens of DEGs were assigned to the categories of biosynthesis of secondary metabolites, isoquinoline alkaloid biosynthesis, and flavonoid biosynthesis. The genes encoding norcoclaurine synthase (NCS), norcoclaurine 6-O-methyltransferase (6OMT), coclaurine N-methyltransferase (CNMT), N-methylcoclaurine 3′-hydroxylase (NMCH), and 3′-hydroxy-N-methylcoclaurine 4′-O-methyltransferase (4′OMT) in the common pathways of benzylisoquinoline alkaloid biosynthesis and the ones encoding corytuberine synthase (CTS) in aporphine alkaloid biosynthetic pathway, which have been characterized in other plants, were identified in lotus. These genes had positive effects on alkaloid content, albeit with phenotypic lag. The WGCNA of DEGs revealed that one network module was associated with the dynamic change of alkaloid content. Eleven genes encoding proteins with methyltransferase, oxidoreductase and CYP450 activities were identified. These were surmised to be genes involved in aporphine alkaloid biosynthesis. This
Kubasek, WL; Shirley, BW; McKillop, A; Goodman, HM; Briggs, W; Ausubel, FM
Many higher plants, including Arabidopsis, transiently display purple anthocyanin pigments just after seed germination. We observed that steady state levels of mRNAs encoded by four flavonoid biosynthetic genes, PAL1 (encoding phenylalanine ammonia-lyase 1), CHS (encoding chalcone synthase), CHI (encoding chalcone isomerase), and DFR (encoding dihydroflavonol reductase), were temporally regulated, peaking in 3-day-old seedlings grown in continuous white light. Except for the case of PAL1 mRNA, mRNA levels for these flavonoid genes were very low in seedlings grown in darkness. Light induction studies using seedlings grown in darkness showed that PAL1 mRNA began to accumulate before CHS and CHI mRNAs, which, in turn, began to accumulate before DFR mRNA. This order of induction is the same as the order of the biosynthetic steps in flavonoid biosynthesis. Our results suggest that the flavonoid biosynthetic pathway is coordinately regulated by a developmental timing mechanism during germination. Blue light and UVB light induction experiments using red light- and dark-grown seedlings showed that the flavonoid biosynthetic genes are induced most effectively by UVB light and that blue light induction is mediated by a specific blue light receptor. PMID:12297632
Müller-Moulé, Patricia; Nozue, Kazunari; Pytlak, Melissa L; Palmer, Christine M; Covington, Michael F; Wallace, Andreah D; Harmer, Stacey L; Maloof, Julin N
Plants respond to neighbor shade by increasing stem and petiole elongation. Shade, sensed by phytochrome photoreceptors, causes stabilization of PHYTOCHROME INTERACTING FACTOR proteins and subsequent induction of YUCCA auxin biosynthetic genes. To investigate the role of YUCCA genes in phytochrome-mediated elongation, we examined auxin signaling kinetics after an end-of-day far-red (EOD-FR) light treatment, and found that an auxin responsive reporter is rapidly induced within 2 hours of far-red exposure. YUCCA2, 5, 8, and 9 are all induced with similar kinetics suggesting that they could act redundantly to control shade-mediated elongation. To test this hypothesis we constructed a yucca2, 5, 8, 9 quadruple mutant and found that the hypocotyl and petiole EOD-FR and shade avoidance responses are completely disrupted. This work shows that YUCCA auxin biosynthetic genes are essential for detectable shade avoidance and that YUCCA genes are important for petiole shade avoidance.
Müller-Moulé, Patricia; Nozue, Kazunari; Pytlak, Melissa L.; Palmer, Christine M.; Covington, Michael F.; Wallace, Andreah D.; Harmer, Stacey L.
Plants respond to neighbor shade by increasing stem and petiole elongation. Shade, sensed by phytochrome photoreceptors, causes stabilization of PHYTOCHROME INTERACTING FACTOR proteins and subsequent induction of YUCCA auxin biosynthetic genes. To investigate the role of YUCCA genes in phytochrome-mediated elongation, we examined auxin signaling kinetics after an end-of-day far-red (EOD-FR) light treatment, and found that an auxin responsive reporter is rapidly induced within 2 hours of far-red exposure. YUCCA2, 5, 8, and 9 are all induced with similar kinetics suggesting that they could act redundantly to control shade-mediated elongation. To test this hypothesis we constructed a yucca2, 5, 8, 9 quadruple mutant and found that the hypocotyl and petiole EOD-FR and shade avoidance responses are completely disrupted. This work shows that YUCCA auxin biosynthetic genes are essential for detectable shade avoidance and that YUCCA genes are important for petiole shade avoidance. PMID:27761349
Cherney, Emily C.; Baran, Phil S.
Terpenes and alkaloids are ever-growing classes of natural products that provide new molecular structures which inspire chemists and possess a broad range of biological activity. Terpenoid-alkaloids originate from the same prenyl units that construct terpene skeletons. However, during biosynthesis, a nitrogen atom (or atoms) is introduced in the form of β-aminoethanol, ethylamine, or methylamine. Nitrogen incorporation can occur either before, during, or after the cyclase phase. The outcome of this unique biosynthesis is the formation of natural products containing unprecedented structures. These complex structural motifs expose current limitations in organic chemistry, thus providing opportunities for invention. This review focuses on total syntheses of terpenoid-alkaloids and unique issues presented by this class of natural products. More specifically, it examines how these syntheses relate to the way terpenoid-alkaloids are made in Nature. Developments in chemistry that have facilitated these syntheses are emphasized, as well as chemical technology needed to conquer those that evade synthesis. PMID:26207071
Dangel, Volker; Härle, Johannes; Goerke, Christiane; Wolz, Christiane; Gust, Bertolt; Pernodet, Jean-Luc; Heide, Lutz
The aminocoumarin antibiotic novobiocin is a gyrase inhibitor formed by a Streptomyces strain. The biosynthetic gene cluster of novobiocin spans 23.4 kb and contains 20 coding sequences, among them the two regulatory genes novE and novG. We investigated the location of transcriptional promoters within this cluster by insertion of transcriptional terminator cassettes and RT-PCR analysis of the resulting mutants. The cluster was found to contain eight DNA regions with promoter activity. The regulatory protein NovG binds to a previously identified binding site within the promoter region located upstream of novH, but apparently not to any of the other seven promoters. Quantitative real-time PCR was used to compare the number of transcripts in a strain carrying an intact novobiocin cluster with strains carrying mutated clusters. Both in-frame deletion of the regulatory gene novG and insertion of a terminator cassette into the biosynthetic gene novH led to a strong reduction of the number of transcripts of the genes located between novH and novW. This suggested that these 16 biosynthetic genes form a single operon. Three internal promoters are located within this operon but appear to be of minor importance, if any, under our experimental conditions. Transcription of novG was found to depend on the presence of NovE, suggesting that the two regulatory genes, novE and novG, act in a cascade-like mechanism. The resistance gene gyrB(R), encoding an aminocoumarin-resistant gyrase B subunit, may initially be co-transcribed with the genes from novH to novW. However, when the gyrase inhibitor novobiocin accumulates in the cultures, gyrB(R) is transcribed from its own promoter. Previous work has suggested that this promoter is controlled by the superhelical density of chromosomal DNA.
Yu, Xiaomin; Doroghazi, James R.; Janga, Sarath C.; Zhang, Jun Kai; Circello, Benjamin; Griffin, Benjamin M.; Labeda, David P.; Metcalf, William W.
Phosphonates, molecules containing direct carbon–phosphorus bonds, compose a structurally diverse class of natural products with interesting and useful biological properties. Although their synthesis in protozoa was discovered more than 50 y ago, the extent and diversity of phosphonate production in nature remains poorly characterized. The rearrangement of phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP) to phosphonopyruvate, catalyzed by the enzyme PEP mutase (PepM), is shared by the vast majority of known phosphonate biosynthetic pathways. Thus, the pepM gene can be used as a molecular marker to examine the occurrence and abundance of phosphonate-producing organisms. Based on the presence of this gene, phosphonate biosynthesis is common in microbes, with ∼5% of sequenced bacterial genomes and 7% of genome equivalents in metagenomic datasets carrying pepM homologs. Similarly, we detected the pepM gene in ∼5% of random actinomycete isolates. The pepM-containing gene neighborhoods from 25 of these isolates were cloned, sequenced, and compared with those found in sequenced genomes. PEP mutase sequence conservation is strongly correlated with conservation of other nearby genes, suggesting that the diversity of phosphonate biosynthetic pathways can be predicted by examining PEP mutase diversity. We used this approach to estimate the range of phosphonate biosynthetic pathways in nature, revealing dozens of discrete groups in pepM amplicons from local soils, whereas hundreds were observed in metagenomic datasets. Collectively, our analyses show that phosphonate biosynthesis is both diverse and relatively common in nature, suggesting that the role of phosphonate molecules in the biosphere may be more important than is often recognized. PMID:24297932
Zhang, Zi-Xin; Zhao, Shu-Niu; Liu, Gao-Feng; Huang, Zu-Mei; Cao, Zhen-Mu; Cheng, Shan-Han; Lin, Shi-Sen
The Indian pepper 'Guijiangwang' (Capsicum frutescens L.), one of the world's hottest chili peppers, is rich in capsaicinoids. The accumulation of the alkaloid capsaicin and its analogs in the epidermal cells of the placenta contribute to the pungency of Capsicum fruits. To identify putative genes involved in capsaicin biosynthesis, RNA-Seq was used to analyze the pepper's expression profiles over five developmental stages. Five cDNA libraries were constructed from the total RNA of placental tissue and sequenced using an Illumina HiSeq 2000. More than 19 million clean reads were obtained from each library, and greater than 50% of the reads were assignable to reference genes. Digital gene expression (DGE) profile analysis using Solexa sequencing was performed at five fruit developmental stages and resulted in the identification of 135 genes of known function; their expression patterns were compared to the capsaicin accumulation pattern. Ten genes of known function were identified as most likely to be involved in regulating capsaicin synthesis. Additionally, 20 new candidate genes were identified related to capsaicin synthesis. We use a combination of RNA-Seq and DGE analyses to contribute to the understanding of the biosynthetic regulatory mechanism(s) of secondary metabolites in a nonmodel plant and to identify candidate enzyme-encoding genes.
Zhang, Zi-Xin; Zhao, Shu-Niu; Liu, Gao-Feng; Huang, Zu-Mei; Cao, Zhen-Mu; Cheng, Shan-Han; Lin, Shi-Sen
The Indian pepper ‘Guijiangwang’ (Capsicum frutescens L.), one of the world’s hottest chili peppers, is rich in capsaicinoids. The accumulation of the alkaloid capsaicin and its analogs in the epidermal cells of the placenta contribute to the pungency of Capsicum fruits. To identify putative genes involved in capsaicin biosynthesis, RNA-Seq was used to analyze the pepper’s expression profiles over five developmental stages. Five cDNA libraries were constructed from the total RNA of placental tissue and sequenced using an Illumina HiSeq 2000. More than 19 million clean reads were obtained from each library, and greater than 50% of the reads were assignable to reference genes. Digital gene expression (DGE) profile analysis using Solexa sequencing was performed at five fruit developmental stages and resulted in the identification of 135 genes of known function; their expression patterns were compared to the capsaicin accumulation pattern. Ten genes of known function were identified as most likely to be involved in regulating capsaicin synthesis. Additionally, 20 new candidate genes were identified related to capsaicin synthesis. We use a combination of RNA-Seq and DGE analyses to contribute to the understanding of the biosynthetic regulatory mechanism(s) of secondary metabolites in a nonmodel plant and to identify candidate enzyme-encoding genes. PMID:27756914
Bilyk, Oksana; Sekurova, Olga N.; Zotchev, Sergey B.; Luzhetskyy, Andriy
Transformation-associated recombination (TAR) in yeast is a rapid and inexpensive method for cloning and assembly of large DNA fragments, which relies on natural homologous recombination. Two vectors, based on p15a and F-factor replicons that can be maintained in yeast, E. coli and streptomycetes have been constructed. These vectors have been successfully employed for assembly of the grecocycline biosynthetic gene cluster from Streptomyces sp. Acta 1362. Fragments of the cluster were obtained by PCR and transformed together with the “capture” vector into the yeast cells, yielding a construct carrying the entire gene cluster. The obtained construct was heterologously expressed in S. albus J1074, yielding several grecocycline congeners. Grecocyclines have unique structural moieties such as a dissacharide side chain, an additional amino sugar at the C-5 position and a thiol group. Enzymes from this pathway may be used for the derivatization of known active angucyclines in order to improve their desired biological properties. PMID:27410036
Baumann, Sascha; Sander, Adrianne; Gurnon, James R.; Yanai-Balser, Giane; VanEtten, James L.; Piotrowski, Markus
Two genes encoding the putative polyamine biosynthetic enzymes agmatine iminohydrolase (AIH) and N-carbamoylputrescine amidohydrolase (CPA) were cloned from the chloroviruses PBCV-1, NY-2A and MT325. They were expressed in Escherichia coli to form C-terminal (His)6-tagged proteins and the recombinant proteins were purified by Ni2+- binding affinity chromatography. The biochemical properties of the two enzymes are similar to AIH and CPA enzymes from Arabidopsis thaliana and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Together with the previously known virus genes encoding ornithine/arginine decarboxlyase (ODC/ADC) and homospermidine synthase, the chloroviruses have genes that encode a complete set of functional enzymes that synthesize the rare polyamine homospermidine from arginine via agmatine, N-carbamoylputrescine and putrescine. The PBCV-1 aih and cpa genes are expressed early during virus infection together with the odc/adc gene, suggesting that biosynthesis of putrescine is important in early stages of viral replication. The aih and cpa genes are widespread in the chlorella viruses. PMID:17101165
Eustáquio, Alessandra S.; Gust, Bertolt; Galm, Ute; Li, Shu-Ming; Chater, Keith F.; Heide, Lutz
A method was developed for the heterologous expression of biosynthetic gene clusters in different Streptomyces strains and for the modification of these clusters by single or multiple gene replacements or gene deletions with unprecedented speed and versatility. λ-Red-mediated homologous recombination was used for genetic modification of the gene clusters, and the attachment site and integrase of phage φC31 were employed for the integration of these clusters into the heterologous hosts. This method was used to express the gene clusters of the aminocoumarin antibiotics novobiocin and clorobiocin in the well-studied strains Streptomyces coelicolor and Streptomyces lividans, which, in contrast to the natural producers, can be easily genetically manipulated. S. coelicolor M512 derivatives produced the respective antibiotic in yields comparable to those of natural producer strains, whereas S. lividans TK24 derivatives were at least five times less productive. This method could also be used to carry out functional investigations. Shortening of the cosmids' inserts showed which genes are essential for antibiotic production. PMID:15870333
Lee, Shaun W.; Mitchell, Douglas A.; Markley, Andrew L.; Hensler, Mary E.; Gonzalez, David; Wohlrab, Aaron; Dorrestein, Pieter C.; Nizet, Victor; Dixon, Jack E.
Bacteriocins represent a large family of ribosomally produced peptide antibiotics. Here we describe the discovery of a widely conserved biosynthetic gene cluster for the synthesis of thiazole and oxazole heterocycles on ribosomally produced peptides. These clusters encode a toxin precursor and all necessary proteins for toxin maturation and export. Using the toxin precursor peptide and heterocycle-forming synthetase proteins from the human pathogen Streptococcus pyogenes, we demonstrate the in vitro reconstitution of streptolysin S activity. We provide evidence that the synthetase enzymes, as predicted from our bioinformatics analysis, introduce heterocycles onto precursor peptides, thereby providing molecular insight into the chemical structure of streptolysin S. Furthermore, our studies reveal that the synthetase exhibits relaxed substrate specificity and modifies toxin precursors from both related and distant species. Given our findings, it is likely that the discovery of similar peptidic toxins will rapidly expand to existing and emerging genomes. PMID:18375757
Gärdes, Astrid; Triana, Christopher; Amin, Shady A; Green, David H; Romano, Ariel; Trimble, Lyndsay; Carrano, Carl J
Iron is an essential element for oceanic microbial life but its low bioavailability limits microorganisms in large areas of the oceans. To acquire this metal many marine bacteria produce organic chelates that bind and transport iron (siderophores). While it has been hypothesized that the global production of siderophores by heterotrophic bacteria and some cyanobacteria constitutes the bulk of organic ligands binding iron in the ocean because stability constants of siderophores and these organic ligands are similar, and because ligand concentrations rise sharply in response to iron fertilization events, direct evidence for this proposal is lacking. This lack is due to the difficulty in characterizing these ligands due both to their extremely low concentrations and their highly heterogeneous nature. The situation for characterizing photoactive siderophores in situ is more problematic because of their expected short lifetimes in the photic zone. An alternative approach is to make use of high sensitivity molecular technology (qPCR) to search for siderophore biosynthesis genes related to the production of photoactive siderophores. In this way one can access their "biochemical potential" and utilize this information as a proxy for the presence of these siderophores in the marine environment. Here we show, using qPCR primers designed to detect biosynthetic genes for the siderophores vibrioferrin, petrobactin and aerobactin that such genes are widespread and based on their abundance, the "biochemical potential" for photoactive siderophore production is significant. Concurrently we also briefly examine the microbial biodiversity responsible for such production as a function of depth and location across a North Atlantic transect.
Chen, Xiaoqiong; Itani, Tomio; Wu, Xianjun; Chikawa, Yuuki; Irifune, Kohei
Flavonoids play an important role in the grain color and flavor of rice. Since their characterization in maize, the flavonoid biosynthetic genes have been extensively studied in grape, Arabidopsis, and Petunia. However, we are still a long way from understanding the molecular features and mechanisms underlying the flavonoid biosynthetic pathway. The present study was undertaken to understand the physiological factors affecting the transcription and regulation of these genes. We report that the expression of CHI, CHS, DFR, LAR, and ANS, the 5 flavonoid biosynthetic genes in different rice varieties, differ dramatically with respect to the stage of development, white light, and sugar concentrations. We further demonstrate that white light could induce the transcription of the entire flavonoid biosynthetic gene pathway; however, differences were observed in the degrees of sensitivity and the required illumination time. Our study provides valuable insights into understanding the regulation of the flavonoid biosynthetic pathway.
Violet to black pigmentation of eggplant (Solanum melongena) fruit is attributed to anthocyanin accumulation. Model systems support the interaction of biosynthetic and regulatory genes for anthocyanin biosynthesis. Anthocyanin structural gene transcription requires the expression of at least one m...
van Der Heijden, Robert; Jacobs, Denise I; Snoeijer, Wim; Hallard, Didier; Verpoorte, Robert
The Catharanthus (or Vinca) alkaloids comprise a group of about 130 terpenoid indole alkaloids. Vinblastine is now marketed for more than 40 years as an anticancer drug and became a true lead compound for drug development. Due to the pharmaceutical importance and the low content in the plant of vinblastine and the related alkaloid vincristine, Catharanthus roseus became one of the best-studied medicinal plants. Consequently it developed as a model system for biotechnological studies on plant secondary metabolism. The aim of this review is to acquaint a broader audience with the recent progress in this research and with its exciting perspectives. The pharmacognostical aspects of the Catharanthus alkaloids cover botanical (including some historical), phytochemical and analytical data. An up-to-date view on the biosynthesis of the alkaloids is given. The pharmacological aspects of these alkaloids and their semi-synthetic derivatives are only discussed briefly. The biotechnological part focuses on alternative production systems for these alkaloids, for example by in vitro culture of C. roseus cells. Subsequently it will be discussed to what extent the alkaloid biosynthetic pathway can be manipulated genetically ("metabolic engineering"), aiming at higher production levels of the alkaloids. Another approach is to produce the alkaloids (or their precursors) in other organisms such as yeast. Despite the availability of only a limited number of biosynthetic genes, the research on C. roseus has already led to a broad scientific spin-off. It is clear that many interesting results can be expected when more genes become available.
Facchini, P. J.; De Luca, V.
Tyrosine/dopa decarboxylase (TYDC) catalyzes the formation of tyramine and dopamine and represents the first steps in the biosynthesis of the large and diverse group of tetrahydroisoquinoline alkaloids. Opium poppy accumulates morphine in aerial organs and roots, whereas sanguinarine, which is derived from a distinct branch pathway, accumulates only in roots. Expression of the TYDC gene family in opium poppy was investigated in relation to the organ-specific biosynthesis of these different types of alkaloids. Members of the TYDC gene family are classified into two groups (represented by TYDC1 and TYDC2) and are differentially expressed. In the mature plant, TYDC2-like transcripts are predominant in stems and are also present in roots, whereas TYDC1-like transcripts are abundant only in roots. In situ hybridization analysis revealed that the expression of TYDC genes is developmentally regulated. TYDC transcripts are associated with vascular tissue in mature roots and stems but are also expressed in cortical tissues at earlier stages of development. Expression of TYDC genes is restricted to metaphloem and to protoxylem in the vascular bundles of mature aerial organs. Localization of TYDC transcripts in the phloem is consistent with the expected developmental origin of laticifers, which are specialized internal secretory cells that accompany vascular tissues in all organs of select species and that contain the alkaloid-rich latex in aerial organs. The differential expression of TYDC genes and the organ-dependent accumulation of different alkaloids suggest a coordinated regulation of specific alkaloid biosynthetic genes that are ultimately controlled by specific developmental programs. PMID:12242361
Genes in the patulin biosynthetic pathway are likely to be arranged in a cluster as has been found for biosynthetic pathways of other mycotoxins. The mycotoxin patulin, common in apples and apple juice, is most often associated with Penicillium expansum. However, of 15 fungal species capable of sy...
Keller, Nancy P
Filamentous fungi are renowned for the production of a diverse array of secondary metabolites (SMs) where the genetic material required for synthesis of a SM is typically arrayed in a biosynthetic gene cluster (BGC). These natural products are valued for their bioactive properties stemming from their functions in fungal biology, key among those protection from abiotic and biotic stress and establishment of a secure niche. The producing fungus must not only avoid self-harm from endogenous SMs but also deliver specific SMs at the right time to the right tissue requiring biochemical aid. This review highlights functions of BGCs beyond the enzymatic assembly of SMs, considering the timing and location of SM production and other proteins in the clusters that control SM activity. Specifically, self-protection is provided by both BGC-encoded mechanisms and non-BGC subcellular containment of toxic SM precursors; delivery and timing is orchestrated through cellular trafficking patterns and stress- and developmental-responsive transcriptional programs. PMID:26284674
The maize pathogen Fusarium verticillioides produces a group of polyketide derived secondary metabolites called fumonisins. Fumonisins can cause diseases in animals, and have been correlated epidemiologically with esophageal cancer and birth defects in humans. The fumonisin biosynthetic gene clust...
Fusarium species are known for their ability to produce secondary metabolites (SMs), including plant hormones, pigments, mycotoxins, and other compounds with potential agricultural, pharmaceutical, and biotechnological impact. Understanding the distribution of SM biosynthetic gene clusters across th...
Carotenoid accumulation and biosynthetic gene expression levels during fruit maturation were compared between ordinary Valencia (VAL) and its more deeply colored mutant Rohde Red Valencia orange (RRV). The two cultivars exhibited different carotenoid profiles and regulatory mechanisms in flavedo and...
Yamada, Yasuyuki; Sato, Fumihiko
Higher plants produce a large variety of low-molecular weight secondary compounds. Among them, nitrogen-containing alkaloids are the most biologically active and are often used pharmaceutically. Whereas alkaloid chemistry has been intensively investigated, alkaloid biosynthesis, including the relevant biosynthetic enzymes, genes and their regulation, and especially transcription factors, is largely unknown, as only a limited number of plant species produce certain types of alkaloids and they are difficult to study. Recently, however, several groups have succeeded in isolating the transcription factors that are involved in the biosynthesis of several types of alkaloids, including bHLH, ERF, and WRKY. Most of them show Jasmonate (JA) responsiveness, which suggests that the JA signaling cascade plays an important role in alkaloid biosynthesis. Here, we summarize the types and functions of transcription factors that have been isolated in alkaloid biosynthesis, and characterize their similarities and differences compared to those in other secondary metabolite pathways, such as phenylpropanoid and terpenoid biosyntheses. The evolution of this biosynthetic pathway and regulatory network, as well as the application of these transcription factors to metabolic engineering, is discussed.
Smith, D J; Burnham, M K; Bull, J H; Hodgson, J E; Ward, J M; Browne, P; Brown, J; Barton, B; Earl, A J; Turner, G
A cosmid clone containing closely linked beta-lactam antibiotic biosynthetic genes was isolated from a gene library of Flavobacterium sp. SC 12,154. The location within the cluster of the DNA thought to contain the gene for delta-(L-alpha-aminoadipyl)-L-cysteinyl-D-valine synthetase (ACVS), the first step in the beta-lactam antibiotic biosynthetic pathway, was identified by a novel method. This DNA facilitated the isolation, by cross-hybridization, of the corresponding DNA from Streptomyces clavuligerus ATCC 27064, Penicillium chrysogenum Oli13 and Aspergillus nidulans R153. Evidence was obtained which confirmed that the cross-hybridizing sequences contained the ACVS gene. In each case the ACVS gene was found to be closely linked to other beta-lactam biosynthetic genes and constituted part of a gene cluster. Images Fig. 1. Fig. 2. Fig. 4. Fig. 5. Fig. 6. Fig. 7. PMID:2107074
KOMATSU, MAMORU; KOMATSU, KYOKO; KOIWAI, HANAE; YAMADA, YUUKI; KOZONE, IKUKO; IZUMIKAWA, MIHO; HASHIMOTO, JUNKO; TAKAGI, MOTOKI; OMURA, SATOSHI; SHIN-YA, KAZUO; CANE, DAVID E.; IKEDA, HARUO
An industrial microorganism Streptomyces avermitilis, which is a producer of anthelmintic macrocyclic lactones, avermectins, has been constructed as a versatile model host for heterologous expression of genes encoding secondary metabolite biosynthesis. Twenty of the entire biosynthetic gene clusters for secondary metabolites were successively cloned and introduced into a versatile model host S. avermitilis SUKA17 or 22. Almost all S. avermitilis transformants carrying the entire gene cluster produced metabolites as a result of the expression of biosynthetic gene clusters introduced. A few transformants were unable to produce metabolites but their production was restored by the expression of biosynthetic genes using an alternative promoter or the expression of a regulatory gene in the gene cluster that controls the expression of biosynthetic genes in the cluster using an alternative promoter. Production of metabolites in some transformants of the versatile host was higher than that of the original producers and cryptic biosynthetic gene clusters in the original producer were also expressed in a versatile host. PMID:23654282
Transformation of opium poppy (Papaver somniferum L.) with antisense berberine bridge enzyme gene (anti-bbe) via somatic embryogenesis results in an altered ratio of alkaloids in latex but not in roots.
Frick, Susanne; Chitty, Julie A; Kramell, Robert; Schmidt, Jürgen; Allen, Robert S; Larkin, Philip J; Kutchan, Toni M
The berberine bridge enzyme cDNA bbe from Papaver somniferum L. was transformed in antisense orientation into seedling explants of the industrial elite line C048-6-14-64. In this way, 84 phenotypically normal To plants derived from embryogenic callus cultures were produced. The selfed progeny of these 84 plants yielded several T1 plants with an altered alkaloid profile. One of these plants T1-47, and its siblings T2-1.2 and T2-1.5 are the subject of the present work. The transformation of these plants was evaluated by PCR, and northern and Southern hybridisation. The transgenic plants contained one additional copy of the transgene. The alkaloid content in latex and roots was determined with HPLC and LC-MS. We observed an increased concentration of several pathway intermediates from all biosynthetic branches, e.g., reticuline, laudanine, laudanosine, dehydroreticuline, salutaridine and (S)-scoulerine. The transformation altered the ratio of morphinan and tetrahydrobenzylisoquinoline alkaloids in latex but not the benzophenanthridine alkaloids in roots. The altered alkaloid profile is heritable at least to the T2 generation. These results are the first example of metabolic engineering of the alkaloid pathways in opium poppy and, to our knowledge, the first time that an alkaloid biosynthetic gene has been transformed into the native species, followed by regeneration into a mature plant to enable analyses of the effect of the transgene on metabolism over several generations.
Kilgore, Matthew B; Kutchan, Toni M
Amaryllidaceae alkaloids are an example of the vast diversity of secondary metabolites with great therapeutic promise. The identification of novel compounds in this group with over 300 known structures continues to be an area of active study. The recent identification of norbelladine 4'-O-methyltransferase (N4OMT), an Amaryllidaceae alkaloid biosynthetic enzyme, and the assembly of transcriptomes for Narcissus sp. aff. pseudonarcissus and Lycoris aurea highlight the potential for discovery of Amaryllidaceae alkaloid biosynthetic genes with new technologies. Recent technical advances of interest include those in enzymology, next generation sequencing, genetic modification, nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (NMR), and mass spectrometry (MS).
Nijland, Jeroen G; Ebbendorf, Bjorg; Woszczynska, Marta; Boer, Rémon; Bovenberg, Roel A L; Driessen, Arnold J M
Industrial penicillin production levels by the filamentous fungus Penicillium chrysogenum increased dramatically by classical strain improvement. High-yielding strains contain multiple copies of the penicillin biosynthetic gene cluster that encodes three key enzymes of the β-lactam biosynthetic pathway. We have analyzed the gene cluster dose effect on penicillin production using the high-yielding P. chrysogenum strain DS17690 that was cured from its native clusters. The amount of penicillin V produced increased with the penicillin biosynthetic gene cluster number but was saturated at high copy numbers. Likewise, transcript levels of the biosynthetic genes pcbAB [δ-(l-α-aminoadipyl)-l-cysteinyl-d-valine synthetase], pcbC (isopenicillin N synthase), and penDE (acyltransferase) correlated with the cluster copy number. Remarkably, the protein level of acyltransferase, which localizes to peroxisomes, was saturated already at low cluster copy numbers. At higher copy numbers, intracellular levels of isopenicillin N increased, suggesting that the acyltransferase reaction presents a limiting step at a high gene dose. Since the number and appearance of the peroxisomes did not change significantly with the gene cluster copy number, we conclude that the acyltransferase activity is limiting for penicillin biosynthesis at high biosynthetic gene cluster copy numbers. These results suggest that at a high penicillin production level, productivity is limited by the peroxisomal acyltransferase import activity and/or the availability of coenzyme A (CoA)-activated side chains.
Moyano, Elisabet; Jouhikainen, Katja; Tammela, Päivi; Palazón, Javier; Cusidó, Rosa M; Piñol, M Teresa; Teeri, Teemu H; Oksman-Caldentey, Kirsi-Marja
In order to increase the production of the pharmaceuticals hyoscyamine and scopolamine in hairy root cultures, a binary vector system was developed to introduce the T-DNA of the Ri plasmid together with the tobacco pmt gene under the control of CaMV 35S promoter, into the genome of Datura metel and Hyoscyamus muticus. This gene codes for putrescine:SAM N-methyltransferase (PMT; EC. 184.108.40.206), which catalyses the first committed step in the tropane alkaloid pathway. Hairy root cultures overexpressing the pmt gene aged faster and accumulated higher amounts of tropane alkaloids than control hairy roots. Both hyoscyamine and scopolamine production were improved in hairy root cultures of D. metel, whereas in H. muticus only hyoscyamine contents were increased by pmt gene overexpression. These roots have a high capacity to synthesize hyoscyamine, but their ability to convert it into scopolamine is very limited. The results indicate that the same biosynthetic pathway in two related plant species can be differently regulated, and overexpression of a given gene does not necessarily lead to a similar accumulation pattern of secondary metabolites.
Mizumoto, Shuji; Ikegawa, Shiro; Sugahara, Kazuyuki
A number of genetic disorders are caused by mutations in the genes encoding glycosyltransferases and sulfotransferases, enzymes responsible for the synthesis of sulfated glycosaminoglycan (GAG) side chains of proteoglycans, including chondroitin sulfate, dermatan sulfate, and heparan sulfate. The phenotypes of these genetic disorders reflect disturbances in crucial biological functions of GAGs in human. Recent studies have revealed that mutations in genes encoding chondroitin sulfate and dermatan sulfate biosynthetic enzymes cause various disorders of connective tissues. This minireview focuses on growing glycobiological studies of recently described genetic diseases caused by disturbances in biosynthetic enzymes for sulfated GAGs. PMID:23457301
Hahn, Donald R; Gustafson, Gary; Waldron, Clive; Bullard, Brian; Jackson, James D; Mitchell, Jon
Spinosyns, a novel class of insect active macrolides produced by Saccharopolyspora spinosa, are used for insect control in a number of commercial crops. Recently, a new class of spinosyns was discovered from S. pogona NRRL 30141. The butenyl-spinosyns, also called pogonins, are very similar to spinosyns, differing in the length of the side chain at C-21 and in the variety of novel minor factors. The butenyl-spinosyn biosynthetic genes (bus) were cloned on four cosmids covering a contiguous 110-kb region of the NRRL 30141 chromosome. Their function in butenyl-spinosyn biosynthesis was confirmed by a loss-of-function deletion, and subsequent complementation by cloned genes. The coding sequences of the butenyl-spinosyn biosynthetic genes and the spinosyn biosynthetic genes from S. spinosa were highly conserved. In particular, the PKS-coding genes from S. spinosa and S. pogona have 91-94% nucleic acid identity, with one notable exception. The butenyl-spinosyn gene sequence codes for one additional PKS module, which is responsible for the additional two carbons in the C-21 tail. The DNA sequence of spinosyn genes in this region suggested that the S. spinosa spnA gene could have been the result of an in-frame deletion of the S. pogona busA gene. Therefore, the butenyl-spinosyn genes represent the putative parental gene structure that was naturally engineered by deletion to create the spinosyn genes.
Lewis, Ramsey S; Lopez, Harry O; Bowen, Steve W; Andres, Karen R; Steede, William T; Dewey, Ralph E
Motivation exists to develop tobacco cultivars with reduced nicotine content for the purpose of facilitating compliance with expected tobacco product regulations that could mandate the lowering of nicotine levels per se, or the reduction of carcinogenic alkaloid-derived tobacco specific nitrosamines (TSNAs). A berberine bridge enzyme-like (BBL) gene family was recently characterized for N. tabacum and found to catalyze one of the final steps in pyridine alkaloid synthesis for this species. Because this gene family acts downstream in the nicotine biosynthetic pathway, it may represent an attractive target for genetic strategies with the objective of reducing alkaloid content in field-grown tobacco. In this research, we produced transgenic doubled haploid lines of tobacco cultivar K326 carrying an RNAi construct designed to reduce expression of the BBL gene family. Field-grown transgenic lines carrying functional RNAi constructs exhibited average cured leaf nicotine levels of 0.684%, in comparison to 2.454% for the untransformed control. Since numerous barriers would need to be overcome to commercialize transgenic tobacco cultivars, we subsequently pursued a mutation breeding approach to identify EMS-induced mutations in the three most highly expressed isoforms of the BBL gene family. Field evaluation of individuals possessing different homozygous combinations of truncation mutations in BBLa, BBLb, and BBLc indicated that a range of alkaloid phenotypes could be produced, with the triple homozygous knockout genotype exhibiting greater than a 13-fold reduction in percent total alkaloids. The novel source of genetic variability described here may be useful in future tobacco breeding for varied alkaloid levels.
Zhao, Shicheng; Park, Chang Ha; Li, Xiaohua; Kim, Yeon Bok; Yang, Jingli; Sung, Gyoo Byung; Park, Nam Il; Kim, Soonok; Park, Sang Un
Mulberry (Morus alba L.) is used in traditional Chinese medicine and is the sole food source of the silkworm. Here, 21 cDNAs encoding phenylpropanoid biosynthetic genes and 21 cDNAs encoding triterpene biosynthetic genes were isolated from mulberry. The expression levels of genes involved in these biosynthetic pathways and the accumulation of rutin, betulin, and betulinic acid, important secondary metabolites, were investigated in different plant organs. Most phenylpropanoid and triterpene biosynthetic genes were highly expressed in leaves and/or fruit, and most genes were downregulated during fruit ripening. The accumulation of rutin was more than fivefold higher in leaves than in other organs, and higher levels of betulin and betulinic acid were found in roots and leaves than in fruit. By comparing the contents of these compounds with gene expression levels, we speculate that MaUGT78D1 and MaLUS play important regulatory roles in the rutin and betulin biosynthetic pathways.
Luo, Yunzi; Huang, Hua; Liang, Jing; Wang, Meng; Lu, Lu; Shao, Zengyi; Cobb, Ryan E.; Zhao, Huimin
Polycyclic tetramate macrolactams (PTMs) are a widely distributed class of natural products with important biological activities. However, many of them have not been characterized. Here we apply a plug and play synthetic biology strategy to activate a cryptic PTM biosynthetic gene cluster SGR810-815 from Streptomyces griseus and discover three potential PTMs. This gene cluster is highly conserved in phylogenetically diverse bacterial strains and contains an unusual hybrid polyketide synthase-nonribosomal peptide synthetase (PKS-NRPS) which resembles iterative PKSs known in fungi. To further characterize this gene cluster, we use the same synthetic biology approach to create a series of gene deletion constructs and elucidate the biosynthetic steps for the formation of the polycyclic system. The strategy we employ bypasses the traditional laborious processes to elicit gene cluster expression and should be generally applicable to many other silent or cryptic gene clusters for discovery and characterization of new natural products. PMID:24305602
Bömke, Christiane; Rojas, Maria Cecilia; Gong, Fan; Hedden, Peter; Tudzynski, Bettina
Gibberellins (GAs) are tetracyclic diterpenoid phytohormones that were first identified as secondary metabolites of the fungus Fusarium fujikuroi (teleomorph, Gibberella fujikuroi). GAs were also found in the cassava pathogen Sphaceloma manihoticola, but the spectrum of GAs differed from that in F. fujikuroi. In contrast to F. fujikuroi, the GA biosynthetic pathway has not been studied in detail in S. manihoticola, and none of the GA biosynthetic genes have been cloned from the species. Here, we present the identification of the GA biosynthetic gene cluster from S. manihoticola consisting of five genes encoding a bifunctional ent-copalyl/ent-kaurene synthase (CPS/KS), a pathway-specific geranylgeranyl diphosphate synthase (GGS2), and three cytochrome P450 monooxygenases. The functions of all of the genes were analyzed either by a gene replacement approach or by complementing the corresponding F. fujikuroi mutants. The cluster organization and gene functions are similar to those in F. fujikuroi. However, the two border genes in the Fusarium cluster encoding the GA4 desaturase (DES) and the 13-hydroxylase (P450-3) are absent in the S. manihoticola GA gene cluster, consistent with the spectrum of GAs produced by this fungus. The close similarity between the two GA gene clusters, the identical gene functions, and the conserved intron positions suggest a common evolutionary origin despite the distant relatedness of the two fungi. PMID:18567680
Karray, Fatma; Darbon, Emmanuelle; Oestreicher, Nathalie; Dominguez, Hélène; Tuphile, Karine; Gagnat, Josette; Blondelet-Rouault, Marie-Hélène; Gerbaud, Claude; Pernodet, Jean-Luc
Spiramycin, a 16-membered macrolide antibiotic used in human medicine, is produced by Streptomyces ambofaciens; it comprises a polyketide lactone, platenolide, to which three deoxyhexose sugars are attached. In order to characterize the gene cluster governing the biosynthesis of spiramycin, several overlapping cosmids were isolated from an S. ambofaciens gene library, by hybridization with various probes (spiramycin resistance or biosynthetic genes, tylosin biosynthetic genes), and the sequences of their inserts were determined. Sequence analysis showed that the spiramycin biosynthetic gene cluster spanned a region of over 85 kb of contiguous DNA. In addition to the five previously described genes that encode the type I polyketide synthase involved in platenolide biosynthesis, 45 other genes have been identified. It was possible to propose a function for most of the inferred proteins in spiramycin biosynthesis, in its regulation, in resistance to the produced antibiotic or in the provision of extender units for the polyketide synthase. Two of these genes, predicted to be involved in deoxysugar biosynthesis, were inactivated by gene replacement, and the resulting mutants were unable to produce spiramycin, thus confirming their involvement in spiramycin biosynthesis. This work reveals the main features of spiramycin biosynthesis and constitutes a first step towards a detailed molecular analysis of the production of this medically important antibiotic.
Fusarium verticillioides is a pathogen of maize and produces fumonisins, a group of polyketide derived secondary metabolites. Fumonisins cause diseases in animals, and they have been correlated epidemiologically with esophageal cancer and birth defects in humans. Fumonisin biosynthetic genes are c...
Aspergillus niger and A. awamori strains isolated from grapes cultivated in Mediterranean basin were examined for fumonisin B2 (FB2) production and presence/absence of sequences within the fumonisin biosynthetic gene (fum) cluster. Presence of 13 regions in the fum cluster was evaluated by PCR assay...
Ryan, Katy L.; Moore, Christopher T.; Panaccione, Daniel G.
Ergot alkaloids are pharmaceutically and agriculturally important secondary metabolites produced by several species of fungi. Ergot alkaloid pathways vary among different fungal lineages, but the pathway intermediate chanoclavine-I is evolutionarily conserved among ergot alkaloid producers. At least four genes, dmaW, easF, easE, and easC, are necessary for pathway steps prior to chanoclavine-I; however, the sufficiency of these genes for chanoclavine-I synthesis has not been established. A fragment of genomic DNA containing dmaW, easF, easE, and easC was amplified from the human-pathogenic, ergot alkaloid-producing fungus Aspergillus fumigatus and transformed into Aspergillus nidulans, a model fungus that does not contain any of the ergot alkaloid synthesis genes. HPLC and LC-MS analyses demonstrated that transformed A. nidulans strains produced chanoclavine-I and an earlier pathway intermediate. Aspergillus nidulans transformants containing dmaW, easF, and either easE or easC did not produce chanoclavine-I but did produce an early pathway intermediate and, in the case of the easC transformant, an additional ergot alkaloid-like compound. We conclude that dmaW, easF, easE, and easC are sufficient for the synthesis of chanoclavine-I in A. nidulans and expressing ergot alkaloid pathway genes in A. nidulans provides a novel approach to understanding the early steps in ergot alkaloid synthesis. PMID:23435153
Roth, J R; Lawrence, J G; Rubenfield, M; Kieffer-Higgins, S; Church, G M
Salmonella typhimurium synthesizes cobalamin (vitamin B12) de novo under anaerobic conditions. Of the 30 cobalamin synthetic genes, 25 are clustered in one operon, cob, and are arranged in three groups, each group encoding enzymes for a biochemically distinct portion of the biosynthetic pathway. We have determined the DNA sequence for the promoter region and the proximal 17.1 kb of the cob operon. This sequence includes 20 translationally coupled genes that encode the enzymes involved in parts I and III of the cobalamin biosynthetic pathway. A comparison of these genes with the cobalamin synthetic genes from Pseudomonas denitrificans allows assignment of likely functions to 12 of the 20 sequenced Salmonella genes. Three additional Salmonella genes encode proteins likely to be involved in the transport of cobalt, a component of vitamin B12. However, not all Salmonella and Pseudomonas cobalamin synthetic genes have apparent homologs in the other species. These differences suggest that the cobalamin biosynthetic pathways differ between the two organisms. The evolution of these genes and their chromosomal positions is discussed. Images PMID:8501034
Hayashi, Kazuhiro; Ogiyama, Yuki; Yokomi, Kazumasa; Nakagawa, Tsuyoshi; Kaino, Tomohiro; Kawamukai, Makoto
Coenzyme Q (CoQ) is an essential factor for aerobic growth and oxidative phosphorylation in the electron transport system. The biosynthetic pathway for CoQ has been proposed mainly from biochemical and genetic analyses of Escherichia coli and Saccharomyces cerevisiae; however, the biosynthetic pathway in higher eukaryotes has been explored in only a limited number of studies. We previously reported the roles of several genes involved in CoQ synthesis in the fission yeast Schizosaccharomyces pombe. Here, we expand these findings by identifying ten genes (dps1, dlp1, ppt1, and coq3-9) that are required for CoQ synthesis. CoQ10-deficient S. pombe coq deletion strains were generated and characterized. All mutant fission yeast strains were sensitive to oxidative stress, produced a large amount of sulfide, required an antioxidant to grow on minimal medium, and did not survive at the stationary phase. To compare the biosynthetic pathway of CoQ in fission yeast with that in higher eukaryotes, the ability of CoQ biosynthetic genes from humans and plants (Arabidopsis thaliana) to functionally complement the S. pombe coq deletion strains was determined. With the exception of COQ9, expression of all other human and plant COQ genes recovered CoQ10 production by the fission yeast coq deletion strains, although the addition of a mitochondrial targeting sequence was required for human COQ3 and COQ7, as well as A. thaliana COQ6. In summary, this study describes the functional conservation of CoQ biosynthetic genes between yeasts, humans, and plants.
Beaudoin, Guillaume A W; Facchini, Peter J
Opium poppy (Papaver somniferum) is one of the world's oldest medicinal plants and remains the only commercial source for the narcotic analgesics morphine, codeine and semi-synthetic derivatives such as oxycodone and naltrexone. The plant also produces several other benzylisoquinoline alkaloids with potent pharmacological properties including the vasodilator papaverine, the cough suppressant and potential anticancer drug noscapine and the antimicrobial agent sanguinarine. Opium poppy has served as a model system to investigate the biosynthesis of benzylisoquinoline alkaloids in plants. The application of biochemical and functional genomics has resulted in a recent surge in the discovery of biosynthetic genes involved in the formation of major benzylisoquinoline alkaloids in opium poppy. The availability of extensive biochemical genetic tools and information pertaining to benzylisoquinoline alkaloid metabolism is facilitating the study of a wide range of phenomena including the structural biology of novel catalysts, the genomic organization of biosynthetic genes, the cellular and sub-cellular localization of biosynthetic enzymes and a variety of biotechnological applications. In this review, we highlight recent developments and summarize the frontiers of knowledge regarding the biochemistry, cellular biology and biotechnology of benzylisoquinoline alkaloid biosynthesis in opium poppy.
Pistorius, Dominik; Müller, Rolf
The field of bacterial natural product research is currently undergoing a paradigm change concerning the discovery of natural products. Previously most efforts were based on isolation of the most abundant compound in an extract, or on tracking bioactivity. However, traditional activity-guided approaches are limited by the available test panels and frequently lead to the rediscovery of already known compounds. The constantly increasing availability of bacterial genome sequences provides the potential for the discovery of a huge number of new natural compounds by in silico identification of biosynthetic gene clusters. Examination of the information on the biosynthetic machinery can further prevent rediscovery of known compounds, and can help identify so far unknown biosynthetic pathways of known compounds. By in silico screening of the genome of the myxobacterium Stigmatella aurantiaca Sg a15, a trans-AT polyketide synthase/non-ribosomal peptide synthetase (PKS/NRPS) gene cluster was identified that could not be correlated to any secondary metabolite known to be produced by this strain. Targeted gene inactivation and analysis of extracts from the resulting mutants by high performance liquid chromatography coupled to high resolution mass spectrometry (HPLC-HRMS), in combination with the use of statistical tools resulted in the identification of a compound that was absent in the mutants extracts. By matching with our in-house database of myxobacterial secondary metabolites, this compound was identified as rhizopodin. A detailed analysis of the rhizopodin biosynthetic machinery is presented in this manuscript.
Balakrishnan, Bijinu; Karki, Suman; Chiu, Shih-Hau; Kim, Hyun-Ju; Suh, Jae-Won; Nam, Bora; Yoon, Yeo-Min; Chen, Chien-Chi; Kwon, Hyung-Jin
Monascus spp. produce several well-known polyketides such as monacolin K, citrinin, and azaphilone pigments. In this study, the azaphilone pigment biosynthetic gene cluster was identified through T-DNA random mutagenesis in Monascus purpureus. The albino mutant W13 bears a T-DNA insertion upstream of a transcriptional regulator gene (mppR1). The transcription of mppR1 and the nearby polyketide synthase gene (MpPKS5) was significantly repressed in the W13 mutant. Targeted inactivation of MpPKS5 also gave rise to an albino mutant, confirming that mppR1 and MpPKS5 belong to an azaphilone pigment biosynthetic gene cluster. This M. purpureus sequence was used to identify the whole biosynthetic gene cluster in the Monascus pilosus genome. MpPKS5 contains SAT/KS/AT/PT/ACP/MT/R domains, and this domain organization is preserved in other azaphilone polyketide synthases. This biosynthetic gene cluster also encodes fatty acid synthase (FAS), which is predicted to assist the synthesis of 3-oxooactanoyl-CoA and 3-oxodecanoyl-CoA. These 3-oxoacyl compounds are proposed to be incorporated into the azaphilone backbone to complete the pigment biosynthesis. A monooxygenase gene (an azaH and tropB homolog) that is located far downstream of the FAS gene is proposed to be involved in pyrone ring formation. A homology search on other fungal genome sequences suggests that this azaphilone pigment gene cluster also exists in the Penicillium marneffei and Talaromyces stipitatus genomes.
In fungi, genes involved in biosynthesis of a secondary metabolite (SM) are often located adjacent to one another in the genome and are coordinately regulated. These SM biosynthetic gene clusters typically encode enzymes, one or more transcription factors, and a transport protein. Fusaric acid is a ...
Goff, S A; Klein, T M; Roth, B A; Fromm, M E; Cone, K C; Radicella, J P; Chandler, V L
The C1, B and R genes regulating the maize anthocyanin biosynthetic pathway encode tissue-specific regulatory proteins with similarities to transcriptional activators. The C1 and R regulatory genes are usually responsible for pigmentation of seed tissues, and the B-Peru allele of B, but not the B-I allele, can substitute for R function in the seed. In this study, members of the B family of regulatory genes were delivered to intact maize tissues by high velocity microprojectiles. In colorless r aleurones or embryos, the introduction of the B-Peru genomic clone or the expressed cDNAs of B-Peru or B-I resulted in anthocyanin-producing cells. Luciferase produced from the Bronze1 anthocyanin structural gene promoter was induced 100-fold when co-introduced with the expressed B-Peru or B-I cDNAs. This quantitative transactivation assay demonstrates that the proteins encoded by these two B alleles are equally able to transactivate the Bronze1 promoter. Analogous results were obtained using embryogenic callus cells. These observations suggest that one major contribution towards tissue-specific anthocyanin synthesis controlled by the various alleles of the B and R genes is the differential expression of functionally similar proteins. Images Fig. 2. PMID:2369901
Trautman, Eric P.; Crawford, Jason M.
The connection of microbial biosynthetic gene clusters to the small molecule metabolites they encode is central to the discovery and characterization of new metabolic pathways with ecological and pharmacological potential. With increasing microbial genome sequence information being deposited into publicly available databases, it is clear that microbes have the coding capacity for many more biologically active small molecules than previously realized. Of increasing interest are the small molecules encoded by the human microbiome, as these metabolites likely mediate a variety of currently uncharacterized human-microbe interactions that influence health and disease. In this mini-review, we describe the ongoing biosynthetic, structural, and functional characterizations of the genotoxic colibactin pathway in gut bacteria as a thematic example of linking biosynthetic gene clusters to their metabolites. We also highlight other natural products that are produced through analogous biosynthetic logic and comment on some current disconnects between bioinformatics predictions and experimental structural characterizations. Lastly, we describe the use of pathway-targeted molecular networking as a tool to characterize secondary metabolic pathways within complex metabolomes and to aid in downstream metabolite structural elucidation efforts. PMID:26456470
van den Berg, Marco A; Westerlaken, Ilja; Leeflang, Chris; Kerkman, Richard; Bovenberg, Roel A L
Industrial strain improvement via classical mutagenesis is a black box approach. In an attempt to learn from and understand the mutations introduced, we cloned and characterized the amplified region of industrial penicillin production strains. Upon amplification of this region Penicillium chrysogenum is capable of producing an increased amount of antibiotics, as was previously reported [Barredo, J.L., Diez, B., Alvarez, E., Martín, J.F., 1989a. Large amplification of a 35-kb DNA fragment carrying two penicillin biosynthetic genes in high yielding strains of Penicillium chrysogenum. Curr. Genet. 16, 453-459; Newbert, R.W., Barton, B., Greaves, P., Harper, J., Turner, G., 1997. Analysis of a commercially improved Penicillium chrysogenum strain series, involvement of recombinogenic regions in amplification and deletion of the penicillin gene cluster. J. Ind. Microbiol. 19, 18-27]. Bioinformatic analysis of the central 56.9kb, present as six direct repeats in the strains analyzed in this study, predicted 15 Open Reading Frames (ORFs). Besides the three penicillin biosynthetic genes (pcbAB, pcbC and penDE) only one ORF has an orthologue of known function in the database: the Saccharomyces cerevisiae gene ERG25. Surprisingly, many genes known to encode direct or indirect steps beta-lactam biosynthesis like phenyl acetic acid CoA ligase and transporters are not present. Detailed analyses reveal a detectable transcript for most of the predicted ORFs under the conditions tested. We have studied the role of these in relation to penicillin production and amplification of the biosynthetic gene cluster. In contrast to what was expected, the genes encoding the three penicillin biosynthetic enzymes alone are sufficient to restore full beta-lactam synthesis in a mutant lacking the complete region. Therefore, the role of the other 12 ORFs in this region seems irrelevant for penicillin biosynthesis.
Jones, Charles H; Ravikrishnan, Anitha; Chen, Mingfu; Reddinger, Ryan; Kamal Ahmadi, Mahmoud; Rane, Snehal; Hakansson, Anders P; Pfeifer, Blaine A
Genetic vaccines offer a treatment opportunity based upon successful gene delivery to specific immune cell modulators. Driving the process is the vector chosen for gene cargo packaging and subsequent delivery to antigen-presenting cells (APCs) capable of triggering an immune cascade. As such, the delivery process must successfully navigate a series of requirements and obstacles associated with the chosen vector and target cell. In this work, we present the development and assessment of a hybrid gene delivery vector containing biological and biomaterial components. Each component was chosen to design and engineer gene delivery separately in a complimentary and fundamentally distinct fashion. A bacterial (Escherichia coli) inner core and a biomaterial [poly(beta-amino ester)]-coated outer surface allowed the simultaneous application of molecular biology and polymer chemistry to address barriers associated with APC gene delivery, which include cellular uptake and internalization, phagosomal escape, and intracellular cargo concentration. The approach combined and synergized normally disparate vector properties and tools, resulting in increased in vitro gene delivery beyond individual vector components or commercially available transfection agents. Furthermore, the hybrid device demonstrated a strong, efficient, and safe in vivo humoral immune response compared with traditional forms of antigen delivery. In summary, the flexibility, diversity, and potential of the hybrid design were developed and featured in this work as a platform for multivariate engineering at the vector and cellular scales for new applications in gene delivery immunotherapy.
Phylogenetic analysis of carotenoid biosynthetic pathway genes and their evolutionary rate variations were studied among eubacterial taxa. The gene sequences for the enzymes involved in this pathway were obtained for major phylogenetic groups of eubacteria (green sulfur bacteria, green nonsulphur bacteria, Gram-positive bacteria, proteobacteria, flavobacteria, cyanobacteria) and archeabacteria. These gene datasets were distributed under five major steps of carotenoid biosynthesis in eubacteria; isoprenoid precursor biosynthesis, phytoene synthesis, dehydrogenation of phytoene, lycopene cyclization, formation of acyclic xanthophylls, formation of cyclic xanthophylls and carotenoid biosynthesis regulation. The NJ algorithm was used on protein coding DNA sequences to deduce the evolutionary relationship for the respective crt genes among different eubacterial lineages. The rate of nonsynonymous nucleotide substitutions per nonsynonymous site (d(N)) and synonymous nucleotide substitutions per synonymous site (d(S)) were calculated for different clades of the respective phylogenetic tree for specific crt genes. The phylogenetic analysis suggests that evolutionary pattern of crt genes in eubacteria is characterized by lateral gene transfer and gene duplication events. The d(N) values indicate that carotenoid biosynthetic genes are more conserved in proteobacteria than in any other eubacterial phyla. Furthermore, of the genes involved in carotenoid biosynthesis pathway, structural genes evolve slowly than the regulatory genes in eubacteria.
Cimermancic, Peter; Medema, Marnix H.; Claesen, Jan; Kurita, Kenji; Wieland Brown, Laura C.; Mavrommatis, Konstantinos; Pati, Amrita; Godfrey, Paul A.; Koehrsen, Michael; Clardy, Jon; Birren, Bruce W.; Takano, Eriko; Sali, Andrej; Linington, Roger G.; Fischbach, Michael A.
Summary Although biosynthetic gene clusters (BGCs) have been discovered for hundreds of bacterial metabolites, our knowledge of their diversity remains limited. Here, we used a novel algorithm to systematically identify BGCs in the extensive extant microbial sequencing data. Network analysis of the predicted BGCs revealed large gene cluster families, the vast majority uncharacterized. We experimentally characterized the most prominent family, consisting of two subfamilies of hundreds of BGCs distributed throughout the Proteobacteria; their products are aryl polyenes, lipids with an aryl head group conjugated to a polyene tail. We identified a distant relationship to a third subfamily of aryl polyene BGCs, and together the three subfamilies represent the largest known family of biosynthetic gene clusters, with more than 1,000 members. Although these clusters are widely divergent in sequence, their small molecule products are remarkably conserved, indicating for the first time the important roles these compounds play in Gram-negative cell biology. PMID:25036635
Chen, Huiqin; Lee, Miin-Huey; Daub, Margret E; Chung, Kuang-Ren
We describe a core gene cluster, comprised of eight genes (designated CTB1-8), and associated with cercosporin toxin production in Cercospora nicotianae. Sequence analysis identified 10 putative open reading frames (ORFs) flanking the previously characterized CTB1 and CTB3 genes that encode, respectively, the polyketide synthase and a dual methyltransferase/monooxygenase required for cercosporin production. Expression of eight of the genes was co-ordinately induced under cercosporin-producing conditions and was regulated by the Zn(II)Cys(6) transcriptional activator, CTB8. Expression of the genes, affected by nitrogen and carbon sources and pH, was also controlled by another transcription activator, CRG1, previously shown to regulate cercosporin production and resistance. Disruption of the CTB2 gene encoding a methyltransferase or the CTB8 gene yielded mutants that were completely defective in cercosporin production and inhibitory expression of the other CTB cluster genes. Similar 'feedback' transcriptional inhibition was observed when the CTB1, or CTB3 but not CTB4 gene was inactivated. Expression of four ORFs located on the two distal ends of the cluster did not correlate with cercosporin biosynthesis and did not show regulation by CTB8, suggesting that the biosynthetic cluster was limited to CTB1-8. A biosynthetic pathway and a regulatory network leading to cercosporin formation are proposed.
Background The antifungal therapy caspofungin is a semi-synthetic derivative of pneumocandin B0, a lipohexapeptide produced by the fungus Glarea lozoyensis, and was the first member of the echinocandin class approved for human therapy. The nonribosomal peptide synthetase (NRPS)-polyketide synthases (PKS) gene cluster responsible for pneumocandin biosynthesis from G. lozoyensis has not been elucidated to date. In this study, we report the elucidation of the pneumocandin biosynthetic gene cluster by whole genome sequencing of the G. lozoyensis wild-type strain ATCC 20868. Results The pneumocandin biosynthetic gene cluster contains a NRPS (GLNRPS4) and a PKS (GLPKS4) arranged in tandem, two cytochrome P450 monooxygenases, seven other modifying enzymes, and genes for L-homotyrosine biosynthesis, a component of the peptide core. Thus, the pneumocandin biosynthetic gene cluster is significantly more autonomous and organized than that of the recently characterized echinocandin B gene cluster. Disruption mutants of GLNRPS4 and GLPKS4 no longer produced the pneumocandins (A0 and B0), and the Δglnrps4 and Δglpks4 mutants lost antifungal activity against the human pathogenic fungus Candida albicans. In addition to pneumocandins, the G. lozoyensis genome encodes a rich repertoire of natural product-encoding genes including 24 PKSs, six NRPSs, five PKS-NRPS hybrids, two dimethylallyl tryptophan synthases, and 14 terpene synthases. Conclusions Characterization of the gene cluster provides a blueprint for engineering new pneumocandin derivatives with improved pharmacological properties. Whole genome estimation of the secondary metabolite-encoding genes from G. lozoyensis provides yet another example of the huge potential for drug discovery from natural products from the fungal kingdom. PMID:23688303
Javidpour, Pouya; Deutsch, Samuel; Mutalik, Vivek K.; Hillson, Nathan J.; Petzold, Christopher J.; Keasling, Jay D.; Beller, Harry R.
Ladderanes are hydrocarbon chains with three or five linearly concatenated cyclobutane rings that are uniquely produced as membrane lipid components by anammox (anaerobic ammonia-oxidizing) bacteria. By virtue of their angle and torsional strain, ladderanes are unusually energetic compounds, and if produced biochemically by engineered microbes, could serve as renewable, high-energy-density jet fuel components. The biochemistry and genetics underlying the ladderane biosynthetic pathway are unknown, however, previous studies have identified a pool of 34 candidate genes from the anammox bacterium, Kuenenia stuttgartiensis, some or all of which may be involved with ladderane fatty acid biosynthesis. The goal of the present study was to establish a systematic means of testing the candidate genes from K. stuttgartiensis for involvement in ladderane biosynthesis through heterologous expression in E. coli under anaerobic conditions. This study describes an efficient means of assembly of synthesized, codon-optimized candidate ladderane biosynthesis genes in synthetic operons that allows for changes to regulatory element sequences, as well as modular assembly of multiple operons for simultaneous heterologous expression in E. coli (or potentially other microbial hosts). We also describe in vivo functional tests of putative anammox homologs of the phytoene desaturase CrtI, which plays an important role in the hypothesized ladderane pathway, and a method for soluble purification of one of these enzymes. This study is, to our knowledge, the first experimental effort focusing on the role of specific anammox genes in the production of ladderanes, and lays the foundation for future efforts toward determination of the ladderane biosynthetic pathway. Our substantial, but far from comprehensive, efforts at elucidating the ladderane biosynthetic pathway were not successful. We invite the scientific community to take advantage of the considerable synthetic biology resources and
Li, Chun; Li, Qi-Gang; Dunwell, Jim M; Zhang, Yuan-Ming
Starch is the most widespread and abundant storage carbohydrate in crops and its production is critical to both crop yield and quality. In regard to the starch content in the seeds of crop plants, there is a distinct difference between grasses (Poaceae) and dicots. However, few studies have described the evolutionary pattern of genes in the starch biosynthetic pathway in these two groups of plants. In this study, therefore, an attempt was made to compare evolutionary rate, gene duplication, and selective pattern of the key genes involved in this pathway between the two groups, using five grasses and five dicots as materials. The results showed 1) distinct differences in patterns of gene duplication and loss between grasses and dicots; duplication in grasses mainly occurred before the divergence of grasses, whereas duplication mostly occurred in individual species within the dicots; there is less gene loss in grasses than in dicots, 2) a considerably higher evolutionary rate in grasses than in dicots in most gene families analyzed, and 3) evidence of a different selective pattern between grasses and dicots; positive selection may have occurred asymmetrically in grasses in some gene families, for example, ADP-glucose pyrophosphorylase small subunit. Therefore, we deduced that gene duplication contributes to, and a higher evolutionary rate is associated with, the higher starch content in grasses. In addition, two novel aspects of the evolution of the starch biosynthetic pathway were observed.
Schardl, Christopher L.; Young, Carolyn A.; Pan, Juan; Florea, Simona; Takach, Johanna E.; Panaccione, Daniel G.; Farman, Mark L.; Webb, Jennifer S.; Jaromczyk, Jolanta; Charlton, Nikki D.; Nagabhyru, Padmaja; Chen, Li; Shi, Chong; Leuchtmann, Adrian
The epichloae (Epichloë and Neotyphodium species), a monophyletic group of fungi in the family Clavicipitaceae, are systemic symbionts of cool-season grasses (Poaceae subfamily Poöideae). Most epichloae are vertically transmitted in seeds (endophytes), and most produce alkaloids that attack nervous systems of potential herbivores. These protective metabolites include ergot alkaloids and indole-diterpenes (tremorgens), which are active in vertebrate systems, and lolines and peramine, which are more specific against invertebrates. Several Epichloë species have been described which are sexual and capable of horizontal transmission, and most are vertically transmissible also. Asexual epichloae are mainly or exclusively vertically transmitted, and many are interspecific hybrids with genomic contributions from two or three ancestral Epichloë species. Here we employ genome-scale analyses to investigate the origins of biosynthesis gene clusters for ergot alkaloids (EAS), indole-diterpenes (IDT), and lolines (LOL) in 12 hybrid species. In each hybrid, the alkaloid-gene and housekeeping-gene relationships were congruent. Interestingly, hybrids frequently had alkaloid clusters that were rare in their sexual ancestors. Also, in those hybrids that had multiple EAS, IDT or LOL clusters, one cluster lacked some genes, usually for late pathway steps. Possible implications of these findings for the alkaloid profiles and endophyte ecology are discussed. PMID:23744053
Thanapipatsiri, Anyarat; Gomez-Escribano, Juan Pablo; Song, Lijiang; Bibb, Maureen J; Al-Bassam, Mahmoud; Chandra, Govind; Thamchaipenet, Arinthip; Challis, Gregory L; Bibb, Mervyn J
Comparative transcriptional profiling of a ΔbldM mutant of Streptomyces venezuelae with its unmodified progenitor revealed that the expression of a cryptic biosynthetic gene cluster containing both type I and type III polyketide synthase genes is activated in the mutant. The 29.5 kb gene cluster, which was predicted to encode an unusual biaryl metabolite, which we named venemycin, and potentially halogenated derivatives, contains 16 genes including one-vemR-that encodes a transcriptional activator of the large ATP-binding LuxR-like (LAL) family. Constitutive expression of vemR in the ΔbldM mutant led to the production of sufficient venemycin for structural characterisation, confirming its unusual biaryl structure. Co-expression of the venemycin biosynthetic gene cluster and vemR in the heterologous host Streptomyces coelicolor also resulted in venemycin production. Although the gene cluster encodes two halogenases and a flavin reductase, constitutive expression of all three genes led to the accumulation only of a monohalogenated venemycin derivative, both in the native producer and the heterologous host. A competition experiment in which equimolar quantities of sodium chloride and sodium bromide were fed to the venemycin-producing strains resulted in the preferential incorporation of bromine, thus suggesting that bromide is the preferred substrate for one or both halogenases.
Thanapipatsiri, Anyarat; Gomez‐Escribano, Juan Pablo; Song, Lijiang; Bibb, Maureen J.; Al‐Bassam, Mahmoud; Chandra, Govind
Abstract Comparative transcriptional profiling of a ΔbldM mutant of Streptomyces venezuelae with its unmodified progenitor revealed that the expression of a cryptic biosynthetic gene cluster containing both type I and type III polyketide synthase genes is activated in the mutant. The 29.5 kb gene cluster, which was predicted to encode an unusual biaryl metabolite, which we named venemycin, and potentially halogenated derivatives, contains 16 genes including one—vemR—that encodes a transcriptional activator of the large ATP‐binding LuxR‐like (LAL) family. Constitutive expression of vemR in the ΔbldM mutant led to the production of sufficient venemycin for structural characterisation, confirming its unusual biaryl structure. Co‐expression of the venemycin biosynthetic gene cluster and vemR in the heterologous host Streptomyces coelicolor also resulted in venemycin production. Although the gene cluster encodes two halogenases and a flavin reductase, constitutive expression of all three genes led to the accumulation only of a monohalogenated venemycin derivative, both in the native producer and the heterologous host. A competition experiment in which equimolar quantities of sodium chloride and sodium bromide were fed to the venemycin‐producing strains resulted in the preferential incorporation of bromine, thus suggesting that bromide is the preferred substrate for one or both halogenases. PMID:27605017
Park, Hyun Bong; Perez, Corey E; Barber, Karl W; Rinehart, Jesse; Crawford, Jason M
Nonribosomal peptides represent a large class of metabolites with pharmaceutical relevance. Pteridines, such as pterins, folates, and flavins, are heterocyclic metabolites that often serve as redox-active cofactors. The biosynthetic machineries for construction of these distinct classes of small molecules operate independently in the cell. Here, we discovered an unprecedented nonribosomal peptide synthetase-like-pteridine synthase hybrid biosynthetic gene cluster in Photorhabdus luminescens using genome synteny analysis. P. luminescens is a Gammaproteobacterium that undergoes phenotypic variation and can have both pathogenic and mutualistic roles. Through extensive gene deletion, pathway-targeted molecular networking, quantitative proteomic analysis, and NMR, we show that the genetic locus affects the regulation of quorum sensing and secondary metabolic enzymes and encodes new pteridine metabolites functionalized with cis-amide acyl-side chains, termed pepteridine A (1) and B (2). The pepteridines are produced in the pathogenic phenotypic variant and represent the first reported metabolites to be synthesized by a hybrid NRPS-pteridine pathway. These studies expand our view of the combinatorial biosynthetic potential available in bacteria. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.7554/eLife.25229.001
Background Actinomycetes are a diverse group of medically, industrially and ecologically important bacteria, studied as much for the diseases they cause as for the cures they hold. The genomes of actinomycetes revealed that these bacteria have a large number of natural product gene clusters, although many of these are difficult to tie to products in the laboratory. Large scale comparisons of these clusters are difficult to perform due to the presence of highly similar repeated domains in the most common biosynthetic machinery: polyketide synthases (PKSs) and nonribosomal peptide synthetases (NRPSs). Results We have used comparative genomics to provide an overview of the genomic features of a set of 102 closed genomes from this important group of bacteria with a focus on natural product biosynthetic genes. We have focused on well-represented genera and determine the occurrence of gene cluster families therein. Conservation of natural product gene clusters within Mycobacterium, Streptomyces and Frankia suggest crucial roles for natural products in the biology of each genus. The abundance of natural product classes is also found to vary greatly between genera, revealing underlying patterns that are not yet understood. Conclusions A large-scale analysis of natural product gene clusters presents a useful foundation for hypothesis formulation that is currently underutilized in the field. Such studies will be increasingly necessary to study the diversity and ecology of natural products as the number of genome sequences available continues to grow. PMID:24020438
Matilla, Miguel A.; Stöckmann, Henning; Leeper, Finian J.; Salmond, George P. C.
Haterumalides are halogenated macrolides with strong antitumor properties, making them attractive targets for chemical synthesis. Unfortunately, current synthetic routes to these molecules are inefficient. The potent haterumalide, oocydin A, was previously identified from two plant-associated bacteria through its high bioactivity against plant pathogenic fungi and oomycetes. In this study, we describe oocydin A (ooc) biosynthetic gene clusters identified by genome sequencing, comparative genomics, and chemical analysis in four plant-associated enterobacteria of the Serratia and Dickeya genera. Disruption of the ooc gene cluster abolished oocydin A production and bioactivity against fungi and oomycetes. The ooc gene clusters span between 77 and 80 kb and encode five multimodular polyketide synthase (PKS) proteins, a hydroxymethylglutaryl-CoA synthase cassette and three flavin-dependent tailoring enzymes. The presence of two free-standing acyltransferase proteins classifies the oocydin A gene cluster within the growing family of trans-AT PKSs. The amino acid sequences and organization of the PKS domains are consistent with the chemical predictions and functional peculiarities associated with trans-acyltransferase PKS. Based on extensive in silico analysis of the gene cluster, we propose a biosynthetic model for the production of oocydin A and, by extension, for other members of the haterumalide family of halogenated macrolides exhibiting anti-cancer, anti-fungal, and other interesting biological properties. PMID:23012376
Courdavault, Vincent; Thiersault, Martine; Courtois, Martine; Gantet, Pascal; Oudin, Audrey; Doireau, Pierre; St-Pierre, Benoit; Giglioli-Guivarc'h, Nathalie
CaaX-prenyltransferases (CaaX-PTases) catalyse the covalent attachment of isoprenyl groups to conserved cysteine residues located at the C-terminal CaaX motif of a protein substrate. This post-translational modification is required for the function and/or subcellular localization of some transcription factors and components of signal transduction and membrane trafficking machinery. CaaX-PTases, including protein farnesyltransferase (PFT) and type-I protein geranylgeranyltransferase (PGGT-I), are heterodimeric enzymes composed of a common alpha subunit and a specific beta subunit. We have established RNA interference cell lines targeting the beta subunits of PFT and PGGT-I, respectively, in the Catharanthus roseus C20D cell line, which synthesizes monoterpenoid indole alkaloids in response to auxin depletion from the culture medium. In both types of RNAi cell lines, expression of a subset of genes involved in the early stage of monoterpenoid biosynthetic pathway (ESMB genes), including the MEP pathway, is strongly decreased. The role of CaaX-PTases in ESMB gene regulation was confirmed by using the general prenyltransferase inhibitor s-perillyl alcohol (SP) and the specific PFT inhibitor Manumycin A on the wild type line. Furthermore, supplementation of SP inhibited cells with monoterpenoid intermediates downstream of the steps encoded by the ESMB genes restores monoterpenoid indole alkaloids biosynthesis. We conclude that protein targets for both PFT and PGGT-I are required for the expression of ESMB genes and monoterpenoid biosynthesis in C. roseus, this represents a non previously described role for protein prenyltransferase in plants.
Pan, Ya-Jie; Liu, Jia; Guo, Xiao-Rui; Zu, Yuan-Gang; Tang, Zhong-Hua
Research on transcriptional regulation of terpenoid indole alkaloid (TIA) biosynthesis of the medicinal plant, Catharanthus roseus, has largely been focused on gene function and not clustering analysis of multiple genes at the transcript level. Here, more than ten key genes encoding key enzyme of alkaloid synthesis in TIA biosynthetic pathways were chosen to investigate the integrative responses to exogenous elicitor ethylene and copper (Cu) at both transcriptional and metabolic levels. The ethylene-induced gene transcripts in leaves and roots, respectively, were subjected to principal component analysis (PCA) and the results showed the overall expression of TIA pathway genes indicated as the Q value followed a standard normal distribution after ethylene treatments. Peak gene expression was at 15-30 μM of ethephon, and the pre-mature leaf had a higher Q value than the immature or mature leaf and root. Treatment with elicitor Cu found that Cu up-regulated overall TIA gene expression more in roots than in leaves. The combined effects of Cu and ethephon on TIA gene expression were stronger than their separate effects. It has been documented that TIA gene expression is tightly regulated by the transcriptional factor (TF) ethylene responsive factor (ERF) and mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) cascade. The loading plot combination with correlation analysis for the genes of C. roseus showed that expression of the MPK gene correlated with strictosidine synthase (STR) and strictosidine b-D-glucosidase(SGD). In addition, ERF expression correlated with expression of secologanin synthase (SLS) and tryptophan decarboxylase (TDC), specifically in roots, whereas MPK and myelocytomatosis oncogene (MYC) correlated with STR and SGD genes. In conclusion, the ERF regulates the upstream pathway genes in response to heavy metal Cu mainly in C. roseus roots, while the MPK mainly participates in regulating the STR gene in response to ethylene in pre-mature leaf. Interestingly, the
Pinedo, Cristina; Wang, Chieh-Mei; Pradier, Jean-Marc; Dalmais, Bérengère; Choquer, Mathias; Pêcheur, Pascal Le; Morgant, Guillaume; Collado, Isidro G.; Cane, David E.; Viaud, Muriel
The fungus Botrytis cinerea is the causal agent of the economically important gray mold disease that affects more than 200 ornamental and agriculturally important plant species. B. cinerea is a necrotrophic plant pathogen that secretes nonspecific phytotoxins, including the sesquiterpene botrydial and the polyketide botcinic acid. The region surrounding the previously characterized BcBOT1 gene has now been identified as the botrydial biosynthetic gene cluster. Five genes including BcBOT1 and BcBOT2 were shown by quantitative Reverse Transcription-PCR to be co-regulated through the calcineurin signaling pathway. Inactivation of the BcBOT2 gene, encoding a putative sesquiterpene cyclase, abolished botrydial biosynthesis, which could be restored by in trans complementation. Inactivation of BcBOT2 also resulted in over-production of botcinic acid that was observed to be strain-dependent. Recombinant BcBOT2 protein converted farnesyl diphosphate to the parent sesquiterpene of the botrydial biosynthetic pathway, the tricyclic alcohol presilphiperfolan-8β-ol. PMID:19035644
Li, Jie; Dong, Jun-De; Yang, Jian; Luo, Xiong-Ming; Zhang, Si
The diversity and properties of actinobacteria, predominant residents in coral holobionts, have been rarely documented. In this study, we aimed to explore the species diversity, antimicrobial activities and biosynthetic potential of culturable actinomycetes within the tissues of the scleractinian corals Porites lutea, Galaxea fascicularis and Acropora millepora from the South China Sea. A total of 70 strains representing 13 families and 15 genera of actinobacteria were isolated. The antimicrobial activity and biosynthetic potential of fifteen representative filamentous actinomycetes were estimated. Crude fermentation extracts of 6 strains exhibited comparable or greater activities against Vibrio alginolyticus than ciprofloxacin. Seven of the 15 actinomycetes strains possess type I polyketide synthases (PKS-I) and/or nonribosomal peptide synthetases (NRPS) genes. Nine tested strains possess type II polyketide synthases (PKS-II). Phylogenetic analysis based on 16S rRNA gene sequences indicated that these PKS and NRPS gene screening positive strains belong to genera Nocardiopsis, Pseudonocardia, Streptomyces, Micromonospora, Amycolatopsis and Prauserella. One PKS-I and four NRPS fragments showed <70% similarity to their closest relatives, which suggested the novelty of these genes. This study helps uncover the genetic capacity of stony coral-associated actinomycetes to produce bioactive molecules.
Namitha, Kanakapura Krishnamurthy; Archana, Surya Narayana; Negi, Pradeep Singh
To study the expression pattern of carotenoid biosynthetic pathway genes, changes in their expression at different stages of maturity in tomato fruit (cv. Arka Ahuti) were investigated. The genes regulating carotenoid production were quantified by a dot blot method using a DIG (dioxigenin) labelling and detection kit. The results revealed that there was an increase in the levels of upstream genes of the carotenoid biosynthetic pathway such as 1-deoxy-d-xylulose-5-phosphate reductoisomerase (DXR), 4-hydroxy-3-methyl-but-2-enyl diphosphate reductase (Lyt B), phytoene synthase (PSY), phytoene desaturase (PDS) and ζ-carotene desaturase (ZDS) by 2-4 fold at the breaker stage as compared to leaf. The lycopene and β-carotene content was analyzed by HPLC at different stages of maturity. The lycopene (15.33 ± 0.24 mg per 100 g) and β-carotene (10.37 ± 0.46 mg per 100 g) content were found to be highest at 5 days post-breaker and 10 days post-breaker stage, respectively. The lycopene accumulation pattern also coincided with the color values at different stages of maturity. These studies may provide insight into devising gene-based strategies for enhancing carotenoid accumulation in tomato fruits.
Cardoso, Mariana S.; Junqueira, Caroline; Trigueiro, Ricardo C.; Shams-Eldin, Hosam; Macedo, Cristiana S.; Araújo, Patrícia R.; Gomes, Dawidson A.; Martinelli, Patrícia M.; Kimmel, Jürgen; Stahl, Philipp; Niehus, Sebastian; Schwarz, Ralph T.; Previato, José O.; Mendonça-Previato, Lucia; Gazzinelli, Ricardo T.; Teixeira, Santuza M. R.
Background Trypanosoma cruzi is a protist parasite that causes Chagas disease. Several proteins that are essential for parasite virulence and involved in host immune responses are anchored to the membrane through glycosylphosphatidylinositol (GPI) molecules. In addition, T. cruzi GPI anchors have immunostimulatory activities, including the ability to stimulate the synthesis of cytokines by innate immune cells. Therefore, T. cruzi genes related to GPI anchor biosynthesis constitute potential new targets for the development of better therapies against Chagas disease. Methodology/Principal Findings In silico analysis of the T. cruzi genome resulted in the identification of 18 genes encoding proteins of the GPI biosynthetic pathway as well as the inositolphosphorylceramide (IPC) synthase gene. Expression of GFP fusions of some of these proteins in T. cruzi epimastigotes showed that they localize in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER). Expression analyses of two genes indicated that they are constitutively expressed in all stages of the parasite life cycle. T. cruzi genes TcDPM1, TcGPI10 and TcGPI12 complement conditional yeast mutants in GPI biosynthesis. Attempts to generate T. cruzi knockouts for three genes were unsuccessful, suggesting that GPI may be an essential component of the parasite. Regarding TcGPI8, which encodes the catalytic subunit of the transamidase complex, although we were able to generate single allele knockout mutants, attempts to disrupt both alleles failed, resulting instead in parasites that have undergone genomic recombination and maintained at least one active copy of the gene. Conclusions/Significance Analyses of T. cruzi sequences encoding components of the GPI biosynthetic pathway indicated that they are essential genes involved in key aspects of host-parasite interactions. Complementation assays of yeast mutants with these T. cruzi genes resulted in yeast cell lines that can now be employed in high throughput screenings of drugs against this
Casique-Arroyo, Gabriela; Martínez-Gallardo, Norma; González de la Vara, Luis; Délano-Frier, John P.
An analysis of key genes and enzymes of the betacyanin biosynthetic pathway in Amaranthus hypochondriacus (Ah) was performed. Complete cDNA sequence of Ah genes coding for cyclo-DOPA 5-O glucosyltransferase (AhcDOPA5-GT), two 4, 5-DOPA-extradiol-dioxygenase isoforms (AhDODA-1 and AhDODA-2, respectively), and a betanidin 5-O-glucosyltransferase (AhB5-GT), plus the partial sequence of an orthologue of the cytochrome P-450 R gene (CYP76AD1) were obtained. With the exception AhDODA-2, which had a closer phylogenetic relationship to DODA-like genes in anthocyanin-synthesizing plants, all genes analyzed closely resembled those reported in related Caryophyllales species. The measurement of basal gene expression levels, in addition to the DOPA oxidase tyrosinase (DOT) activity, in different tissues of three Ah genotypes having contrasting pigmentation levels (green to red-purple) was determined. Additional analyses were performed in Ah plants subjected to salt and drought stress and to two different insect herbivory regimes. Basal pigmentation accumulation in leaves, stems and roots of betacyanic plants correlated with higher expression levels of AhDODA-1 and AhB5-GT, whereas DOT activity levels coincided with pigment accumulation in stems and roots and with the acyanic nature of green plants, respectively, but not with pigmentation in leaves. Although the abiotic stress treatments tested produced changes in pigment levels in different tissues, pigment accumulation was the highest in leaves and stems of drought stressed betacyanic plants, respectively. However, tissue pigment accumulation in stressed Ah plants did not always correlate with betacyanin biosynthetic gene expression levels and/or DOT activity. This effect was tissue- and genotype-dependent, and further suggested that other unexamined factors were influencing pigment content in stressed Ah. The results obtained from the insect herbivory assays, particularly in acyanic plants, also support the proposal that
Theilgaard, H; van Den Berg, M; Mulder, C; Bovenberg, R; Nielsen, J
The low penicillin-producing, single gene copy strain Wis54-1255 was used to study the effect of overexpressing the penicillin biosynthetic genes in Penicillium chrysogenum. Transformants of Wis54-1255 were obtained with the amdS expression-cassette using the four combinations: pcbAB, pcbC, pcbC-penDE, and pcbAB-pcbC-penDE of the three penicillin biosynthetic genes. Transformants showing an increased penicillin production were investigated during steady-state continuous cultivations with glucose as the growth-limiting substrate. The transformants were characterized with respect to specific penicillin productivity, the activity of the two pathway enzymes delta-(L-alpha-aminoadipyl)-L-cysteinyl-D-valine synthetase (ACVS) and isopenicillin N synthetase (IPNS) and the intracellular concentration of the metabolites: delta-(L-alpha-aminoadipyl)-L-cysteinyl-D-valine (ACV), bis-delta-(L-alpha-aminoadipyl)-L-cysteinyl-D-valine (bisACV), isopenicillin N (IPN), glutathione (GSH), and glutathione disulphide (GSSG). Transformants with the whole gene cluster amplified showed the largest increase in specific penicillin productivity (r(p))-124% and 176%, respectively, whereas transformation with the pcbC-penDE gene fragment resulted in a decrease in r(p) of 9% relative to Wis54-1255. A marked increase in r(p) is clearly correlated with a balanced amplification of both the ACVS and IPNS activity or a large amplification of either enzyme activity. The increased capacity of a single enzyme occurs surprisingly only in the transformants where all the three biosynthetic genes are overexpressed but is not found within the group of pcbAB or pcbC transformants. The indication of the pcbAB and pcbC genes being closely regulated in fungi might explain why high-yielding strains of P. chrysogenum have been found to contain amplifications of a large region including the whole penicillin gene cluster and not single gene amplifications. Measurements of the total ACV concentration showed a large
Hoshino, Yasutaka; Chiba, Kazuhiro; Ishino, Keiko; Fukai, Toshio; Igarashi, Yasuhiro; Yazawa, Katsukiyo; Mikami, Yuzuru; Ishikawa, Jun
We identified the biosynthetic gene clusters of the siderophore nocobactin NA. The nbt clusters, which were discovered as genes highly homologous to the mycobactin biosynthesis genes by the genomic sequencing of Nocardia farcinica IFM 10152, consist of 10 genes separately located at two genomic regions. The gene organization of the nbt clusters and the predicted functions of the nbt genes, particularly the cyclization and epimerization domains, were in good agreement with the chemical structure of nocobactin NA. Disruptions of the nbtA and nbtE genes, respectively, reduced and abolished the productivity of nocobactin NA. The heterologous expression of the nbtS gene revealed that this gene encoded a salicylate synthase. These results indicate that the nbt clusters are responsible for the biosynthesis of nocobactin NA. We also found putative IdeR-binding sequences upstream of the nbtA, -G, -H, -S, and -T genes, whose expression was more than 10-fold higher in the low-iron condition than in the high-iron condition. These results suggest that nbt genes are regulated coordinately by IdeR protein in an iron-dependent manner. The ΔnbtE mutant was found to be impaired in cytotoxicity against J774A.1 cells, suggesting that nocobactin NA production is required for virulence of N. farcinica. PMID:21097631
Du, Deyao; Zhu, Yu; Wei, Junhong; Tian, Yuqing; Niu, Guoqing; Tan, Huarong
Nikkomycins and gougerotin are peptidyl nucleoside antibiotics with broad biological activities. The nikkomycin biosynthetic gene cluster comprises one pathway-specific regulatory gene (sanG) and 21 structural genes, whereas the gene cluster for gougerotin biosynthesis includes one putative regulatory gene, one major facilitator superfamily transporter gene, and 13 structural genes. In the present study, we introduced sanG driven by six different promoters into Streptomyces ansochromogenes TH322. Nikkomycin production was increased significantly with the highest increase in engineered strain harboring hrdB promoter-driven sanG. In the meantime, we replaced the native promoter of key structural genes in the gougerotin (gou) gene cluster with the hrdB promoters. The heterologous producer Streptomyces coelicolor M1146 harboring the modified gene cluster produced gougerotin up to 10-fold more than strains carrying the unmodified cluster. Therefore, genetic manipulations of genes involved in antibiotics biosynthesis with the constitutive hrdB promoter present a robust, easy-to-use system generally useful for the improvement of antibiotics production in Streptomyces.
Luo, Yunzi; Enghiad, Behnam; Zhao, Huimin
Natural product scaffolds remain a major source and inspiration for human therapeutics. However, generation of a natural product in the post-genomic era often requires reconstruction of the corresponding biosynthetic gene cluster in a heterologous host. In the burgeoning fields of synthetic biology and metabolic engineering, a significant amount of efforts has been devoted to develop DNA assembly techniques with higher efficiency, fidelity, and modularity, and heterologous expression systems with higher productivity and yield. Here we describe recent advances in DNA assembly and host engineering and highlight their applications in natural product discovery and engineering. PMID:26647833
Luo, Yunzi; Enghiad, Behnam; Zhao, Huimin
Natural product scaffolds remain a major source and inspiration for human therapeutics. However, generation of a natural product in the post-genomic era often requires reconstruction of the corresponding biosynthetic gene cluster in a heterologous host. In the burgeoning fields of synthetic biology and metabolic engineering, a significant amount of efforts has been devoted to develop DNA assembly techniques with higher efficiency, fidelity, and modularity, and heterologous expression systems with higher productivity and yield. Here we describe recent advances in DNA assembly and host engineering and highlight their applications in natural product discovery and engineering.
Tu, Qiang; Herrmann, Jennifer; Hu, Shengbiao; Raju, Ritesh; Bian, Xiaoying; Zhang, Youming; Müller, Rolf
Disorazol, a macrocyclic polykitide produced by the myxobacterium Sorangium cellulosum So ce12 and it is reported to have potential cytotoxic activity towards several cancer cell lines, including multi-drug resistant cells. The disorazol biosynthetic gene cluster (dis) from Sorangium cellulosum (So ce12) was identified by transposon mutagenesis and cloned in a bacterial artificial chromosome (BAC) library. The 58-kb dis core gene cluster was reconstituted from BACs via Red/ET recombineering and expressed in Myxococcus xanthus DK1622. For the first time ever, a myxobacterial trans-AT polyketide synthase has been expressed heterologously in this study. Expression in M. xanthus allowed us to optimize the yield of several biosynthetic products using promoter engineering. The insertion of an artificial synthetic promoter upstream of the disD gene encoding a discrete acyl transferase (AT), together with an oxidoreductase (Or), resulted in 7-fold increase in disorazol production. The successful reconstitution and expression of the genetic sequences encoding for these promising cytotoxic compounds will allow combinatorial biosynthesis to generate novel disorazol derivatives for further bioactivity evaluation.
Tu, Qiang; Herrmann, Jennifer; Hu, Shengbiao; Raju, Ritesh; Bian, Xiaoying; Zhang, Youming; Müller, Rolf
Disorazol, a macrocyclic polykitide produced by the myxobacterium Sorangium cellulosum So ce12 and it is reported to have potential cytotoxic activity towards several cancer cell lines, including multi-drug resistant cells. The disorazol biosynthetic gene cluster (dis) from Sorangium cellulosum (So ce12) was identified by transposon mutagenesis and cloned in a bacterial artificial chromosome (BAC) library. The 58-kb dis core gene cluster was reconstituted from BACs via Red/ET recombineering and expressed in Myxococcus xanthus DK1622. For the first time ever, a myxobacterial trans-AT polyketide synthase has been expressed heterologously in this study. Expression in M. xanthus allowed us to optimize the yield of several biosynthetic products using promoter engineering. The insertion of an artificial synthetic promoter upstream of the disD gene encoding a discrete acyl transferase (AT), together with an oxidoreductase (Or), resulted in 7-fold increase in disorazol production. The successful reconstitution and expression of the genetic sequences encoding for these promising cytotoxic compounds will allow combinatorial biosynthesis to generate novel disorazol derivatives for further bioactivity evaluation. PMID:26875499
Zhao, Daqiu; Tang, Wenhui; Hao, Zhaojun; Tao, Jun
Tree peony (Paeonia suffruticosa Andr.) has been named the "king of flowers" because of its elegant and gorgeous flower colour. Among these colours, the molecular mechanisms of white formation and how white turned to red in P. suffruticosa is little known. In this study, flower colour variables, flavonoid accumulation and expression of flavonoid biosynthetic genes of white ('Xueta') and red ('Caihui') P. suffruticosa were investigated. The results showed that the flower colours of both cultivars were gradually deepened with the development of flowers. Moreover, two anthoxanthin compositions apigenin 7-O-glucoside together with apigenin deoxyheso-hexoside were identified in 'Xueta' and 'Caihui', but one main anthocyanin composition peonidin 3,5-di-O-glucoside (Pn3G5G) was only found in 'Caihui'. Total contents of anthocyanins in 'Caihui' was increased during flower development, and the same trend was presented in anthoxanthins and flavonoids of these two cultivars, but the contents of these two category flavonoid in 'Caihui' were always higher than those in 'Xueta'. Furthermore, nine structural genes in flavonoid biosynthetic pathway were isolated including the full-length cDNAs of phenylalanine ammonialyase gene (PAL), chalcone synthase gene (CHS) and chalcone isomerase gene (CHI), together with the partial-length cDNAs of flavanone 3-hydroxylase gene (F3H), flavonoid 3'-hydroxylase gene (F3'H), dihydroflavonol 4-reductase gene (DFR), anthocyanidin synthase gene (ANS), UDP-glucose: flavonoid 3-O-glucosyltransferase gene (UF3GT) and UDP-glucose: flavonoid 5-O-glucosyltransferase gene (UF5GT), and PAL, UF3GT and UF5GT were reported in P. suffruticosa for the first time. Their expression patterns showed that transcription levels of downstream genes in 'Caihui' were basically higher than those in 'Xueta', especially PsDFR and PsANS, suggesting that these two genes may play a key role in the anthocyanin biosynthesis which resulted in the shift from white to red in
Pandey, Akansha; Swarnkar, Vishakha; Pandey, Tushar; Srivastava, Piush; Kanojiya, Sanjeev; Mishra, Dipak Kumar; Tripathi, Vineeta
Calotropis procera is a medicinal plant of immense importance due to its pharmaceutical active components, especially cardiac glycosides (CG). As genomic resources for this plant are limited, the genes involved in CG biosynthetic pathway remain largely unknown till date. Our study on stage and tissue specific metabolite accumulation showed that CG’s were maximally accumulated in stems of 3 month old seedlings. De novo transcriptome sequencing of same was done using high throughput Illumina HiSeq platform generating 44074 unigenes with average mean length of 1785 base pair. Around 66.6% of unigenes were annotated by using various public databases and 5324 unigenes showed significant match in the KEGG database involved in 133 different pathways of plant metabolism. Further KEGG analysis resulted in identification of 336 unigenes involved in cardenolide biosynthesis. Tissue specific expression analysis of 30 putative transcripts involved in terpenoid, steroid and cardenolide pathways showed a positive correlation between metabolite and transcript accumulation. Wound stress elevated CG levels as well the levels of the putative transcripts involved in its biosynthetic pathways. This result further validated the involvement of identified transcripts in CGs biosynthesis. The identified transcripts will lay a substantial foundation for further research on metabolic engineering and regulation of cardiac glycosides biosynthesis pathway genes. PMID:27703261
Yoshida, Kiyohito; Hashimoto, Mikako; Hori, Ryuji; Adachi, Takumi; Okuyama, Hidetoshi; Orikasa, Yoshitake; Nagamine, Tadashi; Shimizu, Satoru; Ueno, Akio; Morita, Naoki
The nutritional and pharmaceutical values of long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (LC-PUFAs) such as arachidonic, eicosapentaenoic and docosahexaenoic acids have been well recognized. These LC-PUFAs are physiologically important compounds in bacteria and eukaryotes. Although little is known about the biosynthetic mechanisms and functions of LC-PUFAs in bacteria compared to those in higher organisms, a combination of genetic, bioinformatic, and molecular biological approaches to LC-PUFA-producing bacteria and some eukaryotes have revealed the notably diverse organization of the pfa genes encoding a polyunsaturated fatty acid synthase complex (PUFA synthase), the LC-PUFA biosynthetic processes, and tertiary structures of the domains of this enzyme. In bacteria, LC-PUFAs appear to take part in specific functions facilitating individual membrane proteins rather than in the adjustment of the physical fluidity of the whole cell membrane. Very long chain polyunsaturated hydrocarbons (LC-HCs) such as hentriacontanonaene are considered to be closely related to LC-PUFAs in their biosynthesis and function. The possible role of LC-HCs in strictly anaerobic bacteria under aerobic and anaerobic environments and the evolutionary relationships of anaerobic and aerobic bacteria carrying pfa-like genes are also discussed. PMID:27187420
Fani, Renato; Mori, Elena; Tamburini, Elena; Lazcano, Antonio
A database of more than 100 histidine biosynthetic genes from different organisms belonging to the three primary domains has been analyzed, including those found in the now completely sequenced genomes of Haemophilus influenzae, Mycoplasma genitalium, Synechocystis sp., Methanococcus jannaschii, and Saccharomyces cerevisiae. The ubiquity of his genes suggests that it is a highly conserved pathway that was probably already present in the last common ancestor of all extant life. The chromosomal distribution of the his genes shows that the enterobacterial histidine operon structure is not the only possible organization, and that there is a diversity of gene arrays for the his pathway. Analysis of the available sequences shows that gene fusions (like those involved in the origin of the Escherichia coli and Salmonella typhimurium hisIE and hisB gene structures) are not universal. In contrast, the elongation event that led to the extant hisA gene from two homologous ancestral modules, as well as the subsequent paralogous duplication that originated hisF, appear to be irreversible and are conserved in all known organisms. The available evidence supports the hypothesis that histidine biosynthesis was assembled by a gene recruitment process.
Kang, Hahk-Soo; Charlop-Powers, Zachary; Brady, Sean F
The use of DNA sequencing to guide the discovery of natural products has emerged as a new paradigm for revealing chemistries encoded in bacterial genomes. A major obstacle to implementing this approach to natural product discovery is the transcriptional silence of biosynthetic gene clusters under laboratory growth conditions. Here we describe an improved yeast-based promoter engineering platform (mCRISTAR) that combines CRISPR/Cas9 and TAR to enable single-marker multiplexed promoter engineering of large gene clusters. mCRISTAR highlights the first application of the CRISPR/Cas9 system to multiplexed promoter engineering of natural product biosynthetic gene clusters. In this method, CRISPR/Cas9 is used to induce DNA double-strand breaks in promoter regions of biosynthetic gene clusters, and the resulting operon fragments are reassembled by TAR using synthetic gene-cluster-specific promoter cassettes. mCRISTAR uses a CRISPR array to simplify the construction of a CRISPR plasmid for multiplex CRISPR and a single auxotrophic selection to improve the inefficiency of using a CRISPR array for multiplex gene cluster refactoring. mCRISTAR is a simple and generic method for multiplexed replacement of promoters in biosynthetic gene clusters that will facilitate the discovery of natural products from the rapidly growing collection of gene clusters found in microbial genome and metagenome sequencing projects.
In order to determine the genetic basis for loss of fumonisin B¬2 (FB2) biosynthesis in FB2 non-producing A. niger strains, we developed multiplex PCR primer sets to amplify fragments of eight fumonisin biosynthetic pathway (fum) genes. Fragments of all eight fum genes were amplified in FB2-produci...
Pan, Yi; Woodbury, Andrea; Esko, Jeffrey D; Grobe, Kay; Zhang, Xin
Multiple signaling molecules, including bone morphogenic proteins (BMP) and fibroblast growth factors (FGF), play important roles in early lens development. However, how these morphogens are regulated is still largely unknown. Heparan sulfate participates in both morphogen transport and morphogen-receptor interaction. In this study, we demonstrate that inactivation of the heparan sulfate biosynthetic gene Ndst1 resulted in invagination defects of the early lens and in the disruption of lens-determination gene expression, leading to severe lens hypoplasia or anophthalmia. Ndst1 mutants exhibited reduced sulfation of heparan sulfate, but both BMP- and Wnt-signaling remained unchanged. Instead, these embryos showed diminished binding of a subset of FGF proteins to FGF receptors. Consistent with disruption of FGF signaling, expression of phospho-Erk and ERM were also downregulated in Ndst1-mutant lenses. Taken together, these results establish an important role of Ndst1 function in FGF signaling during lens development.
Schild, D; Brake, A J; Kiefer, M C; Young, D; Barr, P J
Functional complementation of mutations in the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae has been used to clone three multifunctional human genes involved in de novo purine biosynthesis. A HepG2 cDNA library constructed in a yeast expression vector was used to transform yeast strains with mutations in adenine biosynthetic genes. Clones were isolated that complement mutations in the yeast ADE2, ADE3, and ADE8 genes. The cDNA that complemented the ade8 (phosphoribosylglycinamide formyltransferase, GART) mutation, also complemented the ade5 (phosphoribosylglycinamide synthetase) and ade7 [phosphoribosylaminoimidazole synthetase (AIRS; also known as PAIS)] mutations, indicating that it is the human trifunctional GART gene. Supporting data include homology between the AIRS and GART domains of this gene and the published sequence of these domains from other organisms, and localization of the cloned gene to human chromosome 21, where the GART gene has been shown to map. The cDNA that complemented ade2 (phosphoribosylaminoimidazole carboxylase) also complemented ade1 (phosphoribosylaminoimidazole succinocarboxamide synthetase), supporting earlier data suggesting that in some organisms these functions are part of a bifunctional protein. The cDNA that complemented ade3 (formyltetrahydrofolate synthetase) is different from the recently isolated human cDNA encoding this enzyme and instead appears to encode a related mitochondrial enzyme. Images PMID:2183217
He, Wei-Qing; Wang, Yi-Guang
A geldanamycin (GDM) producing strain, Streptomyces hygroscopicus 17997, was isolated from Yunnan China soil by our institute researchers. GDM is an ansamycin antibiotic, which has the ability to bind with Hsp90 (Heat Shock Protein 90) and alter its function. Hsp90 is a chaperone protein involved in the regulation of the cell cycle, cell growth, cell survival, apoptosis, and oncogenesis. So it plays a key role in regulating the physiology of cells exposed to environmental stress and in maintaining the malignant phenotype of tumor cells. As an inhibitor of Hsp90, GDM possesses potent antitumor and antivirus bioactivity, but the hypato-toxicity and poor solubility in water limits its clinical use. Two GDM derivatives, 17-(Allylamino)-17-demethoxygeldanamycin (17-AAG) and 17-dimethylamino-ethylamino-17-demethoxygeldanamycin (17-DMAG), both showing lesser hepato-toxicity, are now in Phase II and Phase I clinic trials. In order to accomplish the structure modification of GDM by genetic means, an attempt to obtain the biosynthetic gene cluster of GDM from S. hygroscopicus 17997 was made. In this study, a pair of primers was designed according to a conserved sequence of one of possible post-PKS (polyketides synthase) modification genes, the carbamoyltransferase (CT) gene (gdmN) in GDM biosynthesis. The 732 bp PCR product was obtained from the S. hygroscopicus 17997 genomic DNA. Through the colony-PCR Binary Search Method, using the CT gene primers, six positive cosmid clones, CT1-6, were identified from the S. hygroscopicus 17997 cosmid genomic library. The CT gene containing fragments were verified and localized by Southern blot. The CT-4 positive cosmid was then sub-cloned and sequenced. Approximately 28.356kb of foreign gene sequence from CT-4 cosmid and by further PCR extension reaction was obtained. Based on BLAST analysis, this sequence contains 13 possible ORFs and their deduced functions are believed to be involved in GDM production. The ORF1 encoding products
Docimo, Teresa; Francese, Gianluca; Ruggiero, Alessandra; Batelli, Giorgia; De Palma, Monica; Bassolino, Laura; Toppino, Laura; Rotino, Giuseppe L.; Mennella, Giuseppe; Tucci, Marina
Phenylpropanoids are major secondary metabolites in eggplant (Solanum melongena) fruits. Chlorogenic acid (CGA) accounts for 70–90% of total phenolics in flesh tissues, while anthocyanins are mainly present in the fruit skin. As a contribution to the understanding of the peculiar accumulation of these health-promoting metabolites in eggplant, we report on metabolite abundance, regulation of CGA and anthocyanin biosynthesis, and characterization of candidate CGA biosynthetic genes in S. melongena. Higher contents of CGA, Delphinidin 3-rutinoside, and rutin were found in eggplant fruits compared to other tissues, associated to an elevated transcript abundance of structural genes such as PAL, HQT, DFR, and ANS, suggesting that active in situ biosynthesis contributes to anthocyanin and CGA accumulation in fruit tissues. Putative orthologs of the two CGA biosynthetic genes PAL and HQT, as well as a variant of a MYB1 transcription factor showing identity with group six MYBs, were isolated from an Occidental S. melongena traditional variety and demonstrated to differ from published sequences from Asiatic varieties. In silico analysis of the isolated SmPAL1, SmHQT1, SmANS, and SmMyb1 promoters revealed the presence of several Myb regulatory elements for the biosynthetic genes and unique elements for the TF, suggesting its involvement in other physiological roles beside phenylpropanoid biosynthesis regulation. Transient overexpression in Nicotiana benthamiana leaves of SmMyb1 and of a C-terminal SmMyb1 truncated form (SmMyb1Δ9) resulted in anthocyanin accumulation only of SmMyb1 agro-infiltrated leaves. A yeast two-hybrid assay confirmed the interaction of both SmMyb1 and SmMyb1Δ9 with an anthocyanin-related potato bHLH1 TF. Interestingly, a doubled amount of CGA was detected in both SmMyb1 and SmMyb1Δ9 agro-infiltrated leaves, thus suggesting that the N-terminal region of SmMyb1 is sufficient to activate its synthesis. These data suggest that a deletion of the C
Yanai, Koji; Sumida, Naomi; Okakura, Kaoru; Moriya, Tatsuki; Watanabe, Manabu; Murakami, Takeshi
PF1022A, a cyclooctadepsipeptide possessing strong anthelmintic properties and produced by the filamentous fungus Rosellinia sp. PF1022, consists of four alternating residues of N-methyl-L-leucine and four residues of D-lactate or D-phenyllactate. PF1022A derivatives obtained through modification of their benzene ring at the para-position with nitro or amino groups act as valuable starting materials for the synthesis of compounds with improved anthelmintic activities. Here we describe the production of such derivatives by fermentation through metabolic engineering of the PF1022A biosynthetic pathway in Rosellinia sp. PF1022. Three genes cloned from Streptomyces venezuelae, and required for the biosynthesis of p-aminophenylpyruvate from chorismate in the chloramphenicol biosynthetic pathway, were expressed in a chorismate mutase-deficient strain derived from Rosellinia sp. PF1022. Liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry and NMR analyses confirmed that this approach facilitated the production of PF1022A derivatives specifically modified at the para-position. This fermentation method is environmentally safe and can be used for the industrial scale production of PF1022A derivatives.
Sali, Andrej; Takano, Eriko; Fischbach, Michael A.
Bacterial secondary metabolites are widely used as antibiotics, anticancer drugs, insecticides and food additives. Attempts to engineer their biosynthetic gene clusters (BGCs) to produce unnatural metabolites with improved properties are often frustrated by the unpredictability and complexity of the enzymes that synthesize these molecules, suggesting that genetic changes within BGCs are limited by specific constraints. Here, by performing a systematic computational analysis of BGC evolution, we derive evidence for three findings that shed light on the ways in which, despite these constraints, nature successfully invents new molecules: 1) BGCs for complex molecules often evolve through the successive merger of smaller sub-clusters, which function as independent evolutionary entities. 2) An important subset of polyketide synthases and nonribosomal peptide synthetases evolve by concerted evolution, which generates sets of sequence-homogenized domains that may hold promise for engineering efforts since they exhibit a high degree of functional interoperability, 3) Individual BGC families evolve in distinct ways, suggesting that design strategies should take into account family-specific functional constraints. These findings suggest novel strategies for using synthetic biology to rationally engineer biosynthetic pathways. PMID:25474254
Spiering, Martin J; Moon, Christina D; Wilkinson, Heather H; Schardl, Christopher L
Loline alkaloids are produced by mutualistic fungi symbiotic with grasses, and they protect the host plants from insects. Here we identify in the fungal symbiont, Neotyphodium uncinatum, two homologous gene clusters (LOL-1 and LOL-2) associated with loline-alkaloid production. Nine genes were identified in a 25-kb region of LOL-1 and designated (in order) lolF-1, lolC-1, lolD-1, lolO-1, lolA-1, lolU-1, lolP-1, lolT-1, and lolE-1. LOL-2 contained the homologs lolC-2 through lolE-2 in the same order and orientation. Also identified was lolF-2, but its possible linkage with either cluster was undetermined. Most lol genes were regulated in N. uncinatum and N. coenophialum, and all were expressed concomitantly with loline-alkaloid biosynthesis. A lolC-2 RNA-interference (RNAi) construct was introduced into N. uncinatum, and in two independent transformants, RNAi significantly decreased lolC expression (P < 0.01) and loline-alkaloid accumulation in culture (P < 0.001) compared to vector-only controls, indicating involvement of lolC in biosynthesis of lolines. The predicted LolU protein has a DNA-binding site signature, and the relationships of other lol-gene products indicate that the pathway has evolved from various different primary and secondary biosynthesis pathways.
Fiallos-Jurado, Jennifer; Pollier, Jacob; Moses, Tessa; Arendt, Philipp; Barriga-Medina, Noelia; Morillo, Eduardo; Arahana, Venancio; de Lourdes Torres, Maria; Goossens, Alain; Leon-Reyes, Antonio
Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) is a highly nutritious pseudocereal with an outstanding protein, vitamin, mineral and nutraceutical content. The leaves, flowers and seed coat of quinoa contain triterpenoid saponins, which impart bitterness to the grain and make them unpalatable without postharvest removal of the saponins. In this study, we quantified saponin content in quinoa leaves from Ecuadorian sweet and bitter genotypes and assessed the expression of saponin biosynthetic genes in leaf samples elicited with methyl jasmonate. We found saponin accumulation in leaves after MeJA treatment in both ecotypes tested. As no reference genes were available to perform qPCR in quinoa, we mined publicly available RNA-Seq data for orthologs of 22 genes known to be stably expressed in Arabidopsis thaliana using geNorm, NormFinder and BestKeeper algorithms. The quinoa ortholog of At2g28390 (Monensin Sensitivity 1, MON1) was stably expressed and chosen as a suitable reference gene for qPCR analysis. Candidate saponin biosynthesis genes were screened in the quinoa RNA-Seq data and subsequent functional characterization in yeast led to the identification of CqbAS1, CqCYP716A78 and CqCYP716A79. These genes were found to be induced by MeJA, suggesting this phytohormone might also modulate saponin biosynthesis in quinoa leaves. Knowledge of the saponin biosynthesis and its regulation in quinoa may aid the further development of sweet cultivars that do not require postharvest processing.
Widdick, D. A.; Dodd, H. M.; Barraille, P.; White, J.; Stein, T. H.; Chater, K. F.; Gasson, M. J.; Bibb, M. J.
Lantibiotics are ribosomally synthesized oligopeptide antibiotics that contain lanthionine bridges derived by the posttranslational modification of amino acid residues. Here, we describe the cinnamycin biosynthetic gene cluster (cin) from Streptomyces cinnamoneus cinnamoneus DSM 40005, the first, to our knowledge, lantibiotic gene cluster from a high G+C bacterium to be cloned and sequenced. The cin cluster contains many genes not found in lantibiotic clusters from low G+C Gram-positive bacteria, including a Streptomyces antibiotic regulatory protein regulatory gene, and lacks others found in such clusters, such as a LanT-type transporter and a LanP-type protease. Transfer of the cin cluster to Streptomyces lividans resulted in heterologous production of cinnamycin. Furthermore, modification of the cinnamycin structural gene (cinA) led to production of two naturally occurring lantibiotics, duramycin and duramycin B, closely resembling cinnamycin, whereas attempts to make a more widely diverged derivative, duramycin C, failed to generate biologically active material. These results provide a basis for future attempts to construct extensive libraries of cinnamycin variants. PMID:12642677
Simkin, Andrew J; Kuntz, Marcel; Moreau, Helene; McCarthy, James
Roasted coffee contains a complex array of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) which make an important contribution to the characteristic flavour and aroma of the final beverage. It is thought that a few of the potent coffee aroma components, such as "beta-damascenone", could be derived from carotenoid precursors. In order to further investigate the potential link between carotenoids and coffee aroma profiles, we have measured the carotenoid content in developing coffee grain. The data obtained confirms the presence of lutein in the grain, and additionally shows that the immature coffee grain also contains significant amounts of beta-carotene, alpha-carotene, violaxanthin, and neoxanthin. Complimentary quantitative gene expression analysis revealed that all the carotenoid biosynthetic genes examined are expressed in the grain, and that the transcript levels are gene and stage dependent. Furthermore, consistent with the reduction of the carotenoid levels at the last stage of grain development (mature-red), most of the transcript levels were also found to be lower at the final developmental stage. Quantitative expression analysis of the carotenoid genes was also carried out for the developing pericarp tissue of the coffee cherries. Again, all the genes examined were expressed, and in most cases, the highest transcript levels were detected around the large green-yellow stages, a period when carotenoid synthesis is probably greatest.
Wang, Yang; Chen, Ying; Shen, Qirong; Yin, Xihou
The biosynthetic gene cluster for laspartomycins, a family of 11 amino acid peptide antibiotics, has been cloned and sequenced from Streptomyces viridochromogenes ATCC 29814. Annotation of a segment of 88912 bp of S. viridochromogenes genomic sequence revealed the putative las cluster and its flanking regions which harbor 43 open reading frames. The lpm cluster, which spans approximately 60 kb, consists of 21 open reading frames. Those include four NRPS genes (lpmA/orf18, lpmB/orf25, lpmC/orf26 and lpmD/orf27), four genes (orfs 21, 22, 24 and 29) involved in the lipid tail biosynthesis and attachment, four regulatory genes (orfs 13, 19, 32 and 33) and three putative exporters or self-resistance genes (orfs 14, 20 and 30). In addition, the gene involved in the biosynthesis of the nonproteinogenic amino acid Pip was also identified in the lpm cluster while the genes necessary for the biosynthesis of the rare residue diaminopropionic acid (Dap) were found to reside elsewhere on the chromosome. Interestingly, the dabA, dabB and dabC genes predicted to code for the biosynthesis of the unusual amino acid diaminobutyric acid (Dab) are organized into the lpm cluster even though the Dab residue was not found in the laspartomycins. Disruption of the NRPS lpmC gene completely abolished laspartomycin production in the corresponding mutant strain. These findings will allow molecular engineering and combinatorial biosynthesis approaches to expand the structural diversity of the amphomycin-group peptide antibiotics including the laspartomycins and friulimicins. PMID:21640802
Blin, Kai; Medema, Marnix H.; Kottmann, Renzo; Lee, Sang Yup; Weber, Tilmann
Secondary metabolites produced by microorganisms are the main source of bioactive compounds that are in use as antimicrobial and anticancer drugs, fungicides, herbicides and pesticides. In the last decade, the increasing availability of microbial genomes has established genome mining as a very important method for the identification of their biosynthetic gene clusters (BGCs). One of the most popular tools for this task is antiSMASH. However, so far, antiSMASH is limited to de novo computing results for user-submitted genomes and only partially connects these with BGCs from other organisms. Therefore, we developed the antiSMASH database, a simple but highly useful new resource to browse antiSMASH-annotated BGCs in the currently 3907 bacterial genomes in the database and perform advanced search queries combining multiple search criteria. antiSMASH-DB is available at http://antismash-db.secondarymetabolites.org/. PMID:27924032
Blin, Kai; Medema, Marnix H; Kottmann, Renzo; Lee, Sang Yup; Weber, Tilmann
Secondary metabolites produced by microorganisms are the main source of bioactive compounds that are in use as antimicrobial and anticancer drugs, fungicides, herbicides and pesticides. In the last decade, the increasing availability of microbial genomes has established genome mining as a very important method for the identification of their biosynthetic gene clusters (BGCs). One of the most popular tools for this task is antiSMASH. However, so far, antiSMASH is limited to de novo computing results for user-submitted genomes and only partially connects these with BGCs from other organisms. Therefore, we developed the antiSMASH database, a simple but highly useful new resource to browse antiSMASH-annotated BGCs in the currently 3907 bacterial genomes in the database and perform advanced search queries combining multiple search criteria. antiSMASH-DB is available at http://antismash-db.secondarymetabolites.org/.
Shafrin, Farhana; Ferdous, Ahlan Sabah; Sarkar, Suprovath Kumar; Ahmed, Rajib; Amin, Al-; Hossain, Kawsar; Sarker, Mrinmoy; Rencoret, Jorge; Gutiérrez, Ana; Del Rio, Jose C; Sanan-Mishra, Neeti; Khan, Haseena
Lignin, a cross-linked macromolecule of hydrophobic aromatic structure, provides additional rigidity to a plant cell wall. Although it is an integral part of the plant cell, presence of lignin considerably reduces the quality of the fiber of fiber-yielding plants. Decreasing lignin in such plants holds significant commercial and environmental potential. This study aimed at reducing the lignin content in jute-a fiber crop, by introducing hpRNA-based vectors for downregulation of two monolignoid biosynthetic genes- cinnamate 4-hydroxylase (C4H) and caffeic acid O-methyltransferase (COMT). Transgenic generations, analyzed through Southern, RT-PCR and northern assays showed downregulation of the selected genes. Transgenic lines exhibited reduced level of gene expression with ~ 16-25% reduction in acid insoluble lignin for the whole stem and ~13-14% reduction in fiber lignin content compared to the control lines. Among the two transgenic plant types one exhibited an increase in cellulose content and concomitant improvement of glucose release. Composition of the lignin building blocks was found to alter and this alteration resulted in a pattern, different from other plants where the same genes were manipulated. It is expected that successful COMT-hpRNA and C4H-hpRNA transgenesis in jute will have far-reaching commercial implications leading to product diversification and value addition.
Shafrin, Farhana; Ferdous, Ahlan Sabah; Sarkar, Suprovath Kumar; Ahmed, Rajib; Amin, Al-; Hossain, Kawsar; Sarker, Mrinmoy; Rencoret, Jorge; Gutiérrez, Ana; del Rio, Jose C.; Sanan-Mishra, Neeti; Khan, Haseena
Lignin, a cross-linked macromolecule of hydrophobic aromatic structure, provides additional rigidity to a plant cell wall. Although it is an integral part of the plant cell, presence of lignin considerably reduces the quality of the fiber of fiber-yielding plants. Decreasing lignin in such plants holds significant commercial and environmental potential. This study aimed at reducing the lignin content in jute-a fiber crop, by introducing hpRNA-based vectors for downregulation of two monolignoid biosynthetic genes- cinnamate 4-hydroxylase (C4H) and caffeic acid O-methyltransferase (COMT). Transgenic generations, analyzed through Southern, RT-PCR and northern assays showed downregulation of the selected genes. Transgenic lines exhibited reduced level of gene expression with ~ 16–25% reduction in acid insoluble lignin for the whole stem and ~13–14% reduction in fiber lignin content compared to the control lines. Among the two transgenic plant types one exhibited an increase in cellulose content and concomitant improvement of glucose release. Composition of the lignin building blocks was found to alter and this alteration resulted in a pattern, different from other plants where the same genes were manipulated. It is expected that successful COMT-hpRNA and C4H-hpRNA transgenesis in jute will have far-reaching commercial implications leading to product diversification and value addition. PMID:28051165
Qi, Xiwu; Shuai, Qin; Chen, Hu; Fan, Li; Zeng, Qiwei; He, Ningjia
Anthocyanins are natural food colorants produced by plants that play important roles in their growth and development. Mulberry fruits are rich in anthocyanins, which are the most important active components of mulberry and have many potentially beneficial effects on human health. The study of anthocyanin biosynthesis will bring benefits for quality improvement and industrial exploration of mulberry fruits. In the present study, nine putative genes involved in anthocyanin biosynthesis in mulberry plants were identified and cloned. Sequence analysis revealed that the mulberry anthocyanin biosynthetic genes were conserved and had counterparts in other plants. Spatial transcriptional analysis showed detectable expression of eight of these genes in different tissues. The results of expression and UPLC analyses in two mulberry cultivars with differently colored fruit indicated that anthocyanin concentrations correlated with the expression levels of genes associated with anthocyanin biosynthesis including CHS1, CHI, F3H1, F3'H1, and ANS during the fruit ripening process. The present studies provide insight into anthocyanin biosynthesis in mulberry plants and may facilitate genetic engineering for improvement of the anthocyanin content in mulberry fruit.
Chiang, Yi-Ming; Chang, Shu-Lin; Oakley, Berl R; Wang, Clay C C
Secondary metabolites from microorganisms have a broad spectrum of applications, particularly in therapeutics. The growing number of sequenced microbial genomes has revealed a remarkably large number of natural product biosynthetic clusters for which the products are still unknown. These cryptic clusters are potentially a treasure house of medically useful compounds. The recent development of new methodologies has made it possible to begin unlock this treasure house, to discover new natural products and to determine their biosynthesis pathways. This review will highlight some of the most recent strategies to activate silent biosynthetic gene clusters and to elucidate their corresponding products and pathways.
Saleh, Orwah; Flinspach, Katrin; Westrich, Lucia; Kulik, Andreas; Gust, Bertolt; Fiedler, Hans-Peter
Summary The biosynthetic gene cluster for endophenazines, i.e., prenylated phenazines from Streptomyces anulatus 9663, was heterologously expressed in several engineered host strains derived from Streptomyces coelicolor M145. The highest production levels were obtained in strain M512. Mutations in the rpoB and rpsL genes of the host, which result in increased production of other secondary metabolites, had no beneficial effect on the production of phenazines. The heterologous expression strains produced, besides the known phenazine compounds, a new prenylated phenazine, termed endophenazine E. The structure of endophenazine E was determined by high-resolution mass spectrometry and by one- and two-dimensional NMR spectroscopy. It represented a conjugate of endophenazine A (9-dimethylallylphenazine-1-carboxylic acid) and L-glutamine (L-Gln), with the carboxyl group of endophenazine A forming an amide bond to the α-amino group of L-Gln. Gene inactivation experiments in the gene cluster proved that ppzM codes for a phenazine N-methyltransferase. The gene ppzV apparently represents a new type of TetR-family regulator, specifically controlling the prenylation in endophenazine biosynthesis. The gene ppzY codes for a LysR-type regulator and most likely controls the biosynthesis of the phenazine core. A further putative transcriptional regulator is located in the vicinity of the cluster, but was found not to be required for phenazine or endophenazine formation. This is the first investigation of the regulatory genes of phenazine biosynthesis in Streptomyces. PMID:22509222
Felnagle, Elizabeth A; Rondon, Michelle R; Berti, Andrew D; Crosby, Heidi A; Thomas, Michael G
Capreomycin (CMN) belongs to the tuberactinomycin family of nonribosomal peptide antibiotics that are essential components of the drug arsenal for the treatment of multidrug-resistant tuberculosis. Members of this antibiotic family target the ribosomes of sensitive bacteria and disrupt the function of both subunits of the ribosome. Resistance to these antibiotics in Mycobacterium species arises due to mutations in the genes coding for the 16S or 23S rRNA but can also arise due to mutations in a gene coding for an rRNA-modifying enzyme, TlyA. While Mycobacterium species develop resistance due to alterations in the drug target, it has been proposed that the CMN-producing bacterium, Saccharothrix mutabilis subsp. capreolus, uses CMN modification as a mechanism for resistance rather than ribosome modification. To better understand CMN biosynthesis and resistance in S. mutabilis subsp. capreolus, we focused on the identification of the CMN biosynthetic gene cluster in this bacterium. Here, we describe the cloning and sequence analysis of the CMN biosynthetic gene cluster from S. mutabilis subsp. capreolus ATCC 23892. We provide evidence for the heterologous production of CMN in the genetically tractable bacterium Streptomyces lividans 1326. Finally, we present data supporting the existence of an additional CMN resistance gene. Initial work suggests that this resistance gene codes for an rRNA-modifying enzyme that results in the formation of CMN-resistant ribosomes that are also resistant to the aminoglycoside antibiotic kanamycin. Thus, S. mutabilis subsp. capreolus may also use ribosome modification as a mechanism for CMN resistance.
Darbani, Behrooz; Motawia, Mohammed Saddik; Olsen, Carl Erik; Nour-Eldin, Hussam H.; Møller, Birger Lindberg; Rook, Fred
Genomic gene clusters for the biosynthesis of chemical defence compounds are increasingly identified in plant genomes. We previously reported the independent evolution of biosynthetic gene clusters for cyanogenic glucoside biosynthesis in three plant lineages. Here we report that the gene cluster for the cyanogenic glucoside dhurrin in Sorghum bicolor additionally contains a gene, SbMATE2, encoding a transporter of the multidrug and toxic compound extrusion (MATE) family, which is co-expressed with the biosynthetic genes. The predicted localisation of SbMATE2 to the vacuolar membrane was demonstrated experimentally by transient expression of a SbMATE2-YFP fusion protein and confocal microscopy. Transport studies in Xenopus laevis oocytes demonstrate that SbMATE2 is able to transport dhurrin. In addition, SbMATE2 was able to transport non-endogenous cyanogenic glucosides, but not the anthocyanin cyanidin 3-O-glucoside or the glucosinolate indol-3-yl-methyl glucosinolate. The genomic co-localisation of a transporter gene with the biosynthetic genes producing the transported compound is discussed in relation to the role self-toxicity of chemical defence compounds may play in the formation of gene clusters. PMID:27841372
Villanueva, Laura; Bale, Nicole; Hopmans, Ellen C; Schouten, Stefan; Damsté, Jaap S Sinninghe
Sulphoquinovosyldiacylglycerols (SQDG) are polar sulphur-containing membrane lipids, whose presence has been related to a microbial strategy to adapt to phosphate deprivation. In this study, we have targeted the sqdB gene coding the uridine 5'-diphosphate-sulphoquinovose (UDP-SQ) synthase involved in the SQDG biosynthetic pathway to assess potential microbial sources of SQDGs in the marine environment. The phylogeny of the sqdB-coding protein reveals two distinct clusters: one including green algae, higher plants and cyanobacteria, and another one comprising mainly non-photosynthetic bacteria, as well as other cyanobacteria and algal groups. Evolutionary analysis suggests that the appearance of UDP-SQ synthase occurred twice in cyanobacterial evolution, and one of those branches led to the diversification of the protein in members of the phylum Proteobacteria. A search of homologues of sqdB-proteins in marine metagenomes strongly suggested the presence of heterotrophic bacteria potential SQDG producers. Application of newly developed sqdB gene primers in the marine environment revealed a high diversity of sequences affiliated to cyanobacteria and Proteobacteria in microbial mats, while in North Sea surface water, most of the detected sqdB genes were attributed to the cyanobacterium Synechococcus sp. Lipid analysis revealed that specific SQDGs were characteristic of microbial mat depth, suggesting that SQDG lipids are associated with specific producers.
Duncan, Katherine R.; Crüsemann, Max; Lechner, Anna; Sarkar, Anindita; Li, Jie; Ziemert, Nadine; Wang, Mingxun; Bandeira, Nuno; Moore, Bradley S.; Dorrestein, Pieter C.; Jensen, Paul R.
Genome sequencing has revealed that bacteria contain many more biosynthetic gene clusters than predicted based on the number of secondary metabolites discovered to date. While this biosynthetic reservoir has fostered interest in new tools for natural product discovery, there remains a gap between gene cluster detection and compound discovery. In this paper, we apply molecular networking and the new concept of pattern-based genome mining to 35 Salinispora strains, including 30 for which draft genome sequences were either available or obtained for this study. The results provide a method to simultaneously compare large numbers of complex microbial extracts, which facilitated the identification of media components, known compounds and their derivatives, and new compounds that could be prioritized for structure elucidation. Finally, these efforts revealed considerable metabolite diversity and led to several molecular family-gene cluster pairings, of which the quinomycin-type depsipeptide retimycin A was characterized and linked to gene cluster NRPS40 using pattern-based bioinformatic approaches.
Tannous, Joanna; El Khoury, Rhoda; Snini, Selma P; Lippi, Yannick; El Khoury, André; Atoui, Ali; Lteif, Roger; Oswald, Isabelle P; Puel, Olivier
Patulin is a polyketide-derived mycotoxin produced by numerous filamentous fungi. Among them, Penicillium expansum is by far the most problematic species. This fungus is a destructive phytopathogen capable of growing on fruit, provoking the blue mold decay of apples and producing significant amounts of patulin. The biosynthetic pathway of this mycotoxin is chemically well-characterized, but its genetic bases remain largely unknown with only few characterized genes in less economic relevant species. The present study consisted of the identification and positional organization of the patulin gene cluster in P. expansum strain NRRL 35695. Several amplification reactions were performed with degenerative primers that were designed based on sequences from the orthologous genes available in other species. An improved genome Walking approach was used in order to sequence the remaining adjacent genes of the cluster. RACE-PCR was also carried out from mRNAs to determine the start and stop codons of the coding sequences. The patulin gene cluster in P. expansum consists of 15 genes in the following order: patH, patG, patF, patE, patD, patC, patB, patA, patM, patN, patO, patL, patI, patJ, and patK. These genes share 60-70% of identity with orthologous genes grouped differently, within a putative patulin cluster described in a non-producing strain of Aspergillus clavatus. The kinetics of patulin cluster genes expression was studied under patulin-permissive conditions (natural apple-based medium) and patulin-restrictive conditions (Eagle's minimal essential medium), and demonstrated a significant association between gene expression and patulin production. In conclusion, the sequence of the patulin cluster in P. expansum constitutes a key step for a better understanding of the mechanisms leading to patulin production in this fungus. It will allow the role of each gene to be elucidated, and help to define strategies to reduce patulin production in apple-based products.
Yamaguchi, S; Kamiya, Y; Sun, T
Gibberellins (GAs) are biosynthesized through a complex pathway that involves several classes of enzymes. To predict sites of individual GA biosynthetic steps, we studied cell type-specific expression of genes encoding early and late GA biosynthetic enzymes in germinating Arabidopsis seeds. We showed that expression of two genes, AtGA3ox1 and AtGA3ox2, encoding GA 3-oxidase, which catalyzes the terminal biosynthetic step, was mainly localized in the cortex and endodermis of embryo axes in germinating seeds. Because another GA biosynthetic gene, AtKO1, coding for ent-kaurene oxidase, exhibited a similar cell-specific expression pattern, we predicted that the synthesis of bioactive GAs from ent-kaurene oxidation occurs in the same cell types during seed germination. We also showed that the cortical cells expand during germination, suggesting a spatial correlation between GA production and response. However, promoter activity of the AtCPS1 gene, responsible for the first committed step in GA biosynthesis, was detected exclusively in the embryo provasculature in germinating seeds. When the AtCPS1 cDNA was expressed only in the cortex and endodermis of non-germinating ga1-3 seeds (deficient in AtCPS1) using the AtGA3ox2 promoter, germination was not as resistant to a GA biosynthesis inhibitor as expression in the provasculature. These results suggest that the biosynthesis of GAs during seed germination takes place in two separate locations with the early step occurring in the provasculature and the later steps in the cortex and endodermis. This implies that intercellular transport of an intermediate of the GA biosynthetic pathway is required to produce bioactive GAs.
Ji, Chang Yoon; Kim, Yun-Hee; Kim, Ho Soo; Ke, Qingbo; Kim, Gun-Woo; Park, Sung-Chul; Lee, Haeng-Soon; Jeong, Jae Cheol; Kwak, Sang-Soo
Tocopherol (vitamin E) is a chloroplast lipid that is presumed to be involved in the plant response to oxidative stress. In this study, we isolated and characterized five tocopherol biosynthetic genes from sweetpotato (Ipomoea batatas [L.] Lam) plants, including genes encoding 4-hydroxyphenylpyruvate dioxygenase (IbHPPD), homogentisate phytyltransferase (IbHPT), 2-methyl-6-phytylbenzoquinol methyltransferase (IbMPBQ MT), tocopherol cyclase (IbTC) and γ-tocopherol methyltransferase (IbTMT). Fluorescence microscope analysis indicated that four proteins localized into the chloroplast, whereas IbHPPD observed in the nuclear. Quantitative RT-PCR analysis revealed that the expression patterns of the five tocopherol biosynthetic genes varied in different plant tissues and under different stress conditions. All five genes were highly expressed in leaf tissues, whereas IbHPPD and IbHPT were highly expressed in the thick roots. The expression patterns of these five genes significantly differed in response to PEG, NaCl and H2O2-mediated oxidative stress. IbHPPD was strongly induced following PEG and H2O2 treatment and IbHPT was strongly induced following PEG treatment, whereas IbMPBQ MT and IbTC were highly expressed following NaCl treatment. Upon infection of the bacterial pathogen Pectobacterium chrysanthemi, the expression of IbHPPD increased sharply in sweetpotato leaves, whereas the expression of the other genes was reduced or unchanged. Additionally, transient expression of the five tocopherol biosynthetic genes in tobacco (Nicotiana bentamiana) leaves resulted in increased transcript levels of the transgenes expressions and tocopherol production. Therefore, our results suggested that the five tocopherol biosynthetic genes of sweetpotato play roles in the stress defense response as transcriptional regulators of the tocopherol production.
Potharla, Vishwakanth Y.; Wang, Cheng; Cheng, Yi-Qiang
Spiruchostatins A and B are members of the FK228-family of natural products with potent histone deacetylase inhibitory activities and antineoplastic activities. However, their production in the wild-type strain of Pseudomonas sp. Q71576 is low. To improve the yield, the spiruchostatin biosynthetic gene cluster (spi) was first identified by rapid genome sequencing and characterized by genetic mutations. This spi gene cluster encodes a hybrid biosynthetic pathway similar to that encoded by the FK228 biosynthetic gene cluster (dep) in Chromobacterium violaceum No. 968. Each gene cluster contains a pathway regulatory gene (spiR vs. depR) but these two genes encode transcriptional activators of different classes. Overexpression of native spiR or heterologous depR in the wild-type strain of Pseudomonas sp. Q71576 resulted in 268% or 1,285% increase of the combined titer of spiruchostatins A and B, respectively. RT-PCR analysis indicates that overexpression of heterologous depR upregulates the expression of native spiR. PMID:24973954
Zhang, Chan; Liang, Jian; Yang, Le; Chai, Shiyuan; Zhang, Chenxi; Sun, Baoguo; Wang, Chengtao
This study investigated the effects of glutamic acid on production of monacolin K and expression of the monacolin K biosynthetic gene cluster. When Monascus M1 was grown in glutamic medium instead of in the original medium, monacolin K production increased from 48.4 to 215.4 mg l(-1), monacolin K production increased by 3.5 times. Glutamic acid enhanced monacolin K production by upregulating the expression of mokB-mokI; on day 8, the expression level of mokA tended to decrease by Reverse Transcription-polymerase Chain Reaction. Our findings demonstrated that mokA was not a key gene responsible for the quantity of monacolin K production in the presence of glutamic acid. Observation of Monascus mycelium morphology using Scanning Electron Microscope showed glutamic acid significantly increased the content of Monascus mycelium, altered the permeability of Monascus mycelium, enhanced secretion of monacolin K from the cell, and reduced the monacolin K content in Monascus mycelium, thereby enhancing monacolin K production.
Bancos, Simona; Szatmári, Anna-Mária; Castle, Julie; Kozma-Bognár, László; Shibata, Kyomi; Yokota, Takao; Bishop, Gerard J.; Nagy, Ferenc; Szekeres, Miklós
Plant steroid hormones, brassinosteroids (BRs), are essential for normal photomorphogenesis. However, the mechanism by which light controls physiological functions via BRs is not well understood. Using transgenic plants carrying promoter-luciferase reporter gene fusions, we show that in Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana) the BR-biosynthetic CPD and CYP85A2 genes are under diurnal regulation. The complex diurnal expression profile of CPD is determined by dual, light-dependent, and circadian control. The severely decreased expression level of CPD in phytochrome-deficient background and the red light-specific induction in wild-type plants suggest that light regulation of CPD is primarily mediated by phytochrome signaling. The diurnal rhythmicity of CPD expression is maintained in brassinosteroid insensitive 1 transgenic seedlings, indicating that its transcriptional control is independent of hormonal feedback regulation. Diurnal changes in the expression of CPD and CYP85A2 are accompanied by changes of the endogenous BR content during the day, leading to brassinolide accumulation at the middle of the light phase. We also show that CPD expression is repressed in extended darkness in a BR feedback-dependent manner. In the dark the level of the bioactive hormone did not increase; therefore, our data strongly suggest that light also influences the sensitivity of plants to BRs. PMID:16531479
Zhao, Shicheng; Li, Xiaohua; Cho, Dong Ha; Arasu, Mariadhas Valan; Al-Dhabi, Naif Abdullah; Park, Sang Un
Kenaf (Hibiscus cannabinus) is cultivated worldwide for its fiber; however, the medicinal properties of this plant are currently attracting increasing attention. In this study, we investigated the expression levels of genes involved in the biosynthesis of kaempferitrin, a compound with many biological functions, in different kenaf organs. We found that phenylalanine ammonia lyase (HcPAL) was more highly expressed in stems than in other organs. Expression levels of cinnamate 4-hydroxylase (HcC4H) and 4-coumarate-CoA ligase (Hc4CL) were highest in mature leaves, followed by stems and young leaves, and lowest in roots and mature flowers. The expression of chalcone synthase (HcCHS), chalcone isomerase (HcCHI), and flavone 3-hydroxylase (HcF3H) was highest in young flowers, whereas that of flavone synthase (HcFLS) was highest in leaves. An analysis of kaempferitrin accumulation in the different organs of kenaf revealed that the accumulation of this compound was considerably higher (>10-fold) in leaves than in other organs. On the basis of a comparison of kaempferitrin contents with the expression levels of different genes in different organs, we speculate that HcFLS plays an important regulatory role in the kaempferitrin biosynthetic pathway in kenaf.
Pandurangaiah, Shilpa; Ravishankar, Kundapura V; Shivashankar, Kodthalu S; Sadashiva, Avverahally T; Pillakenchappa, Kavitha; Narayanan, Sunil Kumar
Tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.) is one of the model plant to study carotenoid biosynthesis. In the present study, the fruit carotenoid content were quantified at different developmental stages for two contrasting genotypes, viz. IIHR-249-1 and IIHR-2866 by UPLC. Lycopene content was high in IIHR-249-1 (19.45 mg/100 g fresh weight) compared to IIHR-2866 (1.88 mg/100 g fresh weight) at the ripe stage. qPCR was performed for genes that are involved in the carotenoid biosynthetic pathway to study the difference in lycopene content in fruits of both the genotypes. The expression of Phytoene synthase (PSY) increased by 36-fold and Phytoene desaturase (PDS) increased by 14-fold from immature green stage to ripe stage in IIHR-249-1. The expression of Chloroplast lycopene beta-cyclase (LCY-B) and Chromoplast lycopene beta cyclase (CYC-B) decreased gradually from the initial stage to the ripe stage in IIHR-249-1. IIHR 249-1 showed 3- and 1.8-fold decrease in gene expression for Chloroplast lycopene beta-cyclase (LCY-B) and Chromoplast lycopene beta-cyclase (CYC-B) .The F2 hybrids derived from IIHR-249-1 and IIHR-2866 were analysed at the ripe stage for lycopene content. The gene expression of Chloroplast lycopene beta-cyclase (LCY-B) and Chromoplast lycopene beta-cyclase (CYC-B) in high and low lycopene lines from F2 progenies also showed the decrease in transcript levels of both the genes in high lycopene F2 lines. We wish to suggest that the differential expression of lycopene beta-cyclases can be used in marker-assisted breeding.
Liu, Fenghong; Wang, Lei; Gu, Liang; Zhao, Wei; Su, Hongyan; Cheng, Xianhao
In our preliminary study, the ripe fruits of two highbush blueberry (Vaccinium corymbosum L.) cultivars, cv 'Berkeley' and cv 'Bluecrop', were found to contain different levels of ascorbic acid. However, factors responsible for these differences are still unknown. In the present study, ascorbic acid content in fruits was compared with expression profiles of ascorbic acid biosynthetic and recycling genes between 'Bluecrop' and 'Berkeley' cultivars. The results indicated that the l-galactose pathway was the predominant route of ascorbic acid biosynthesis in blueberry fruits. Moreover, higher expression levels of the ascorbic acid biosynthetic genes GME, GGP, and GLDH, as well as the recycling genes MDHAR and DHAR, were associated with higher ascorbic acid content in 'Bluecrop' compared with 'Berkeley', which indicated that a higher efficiency ascorbic acid biosynthesis and regeneration was likely to be responsible for the higher ascorbic acid accumulation in 'Bluecrop'.
Liu, Lan; Salam, Nimaichand; Jiao, Jian-Yu; Jiang, Hong-Chen; Zhou, En-Min; Yin, Yi-Rui; Ming, Hong; Li, Wen-Jun
The class Actinobacteria has been a goldmine for the discovery of antibiotics and has attracted interest from both academics and industries. However, an absence of novel approaches during the last few decades has limited the discovery of new microbial natural products useful for industries. Scientists are now focusing on the ecological aspects of diverse environments including unexplored or underexplored habitats and extreme environments in the search for new metabolites. This paper reports on the diversity of culturable actinobacteria associated with hot springs located in Tengchong County, Yunnan Province, southwestern China. A total of 58 thermophilic actinobacterial strains were isolated from the samples collected from ten hot springs distributed over three geothermal fields (e.g., Hehua, Rehai, and Ruidian). Phylogenetic positions and their biosynthetic profiles were analyzed by sequencing 16S rRNA gene and three biosynthetic gene clusters (KS domain of PKS-I, KSα domain of PKS-II and A domain of NRPS). On the basis of 16S rRNA gene phylogenetic analysis, the 58 strains were affiliated with 12 actinobacterial genera: Actinomadura Micromonospora, Microbispora, Micrococcus, Nocardiopsis, Nonomuraea, Promicromonospora, Pseudonocardia, Streptomyces, Thermoactinospora, Thermocatellispora, and Verrucosispora, of which the two novel genera Thermoactinospora and Thermocatellisopora were recently described from among these strains. Considering the biosynthetic potential of these actinobacterial strains, 22 were positive for PCR amplification of at least one of the three biosynthetic gene clusters (PKS-I, PKS-II, and NRPS). These actinobacteria were further subjected to antimicrobial assay against five opportunistic human pathogens (Acinetobacter baumannii, Escherichia coli, Micrococcus luteus, Staphylococcus aureus and Streptococcus faecalis). All of the 22 strains that were positive for PCR amplification of at least one of the biosynthetic gene domains exhibited
Markert, Anne; Steffan, Nicola; Ploss, Kerstin; Hellwig, Sabine; Steiner, Ulrike; Drewke, Christel; Li, Shu-Ming; Boland, Wilhelm; Leistner, Eckhard
Ergoline alkaloids occur in taxonomically unrelated taxa, such as fungi, belonging to the phylum Ascomycetes and higher plants of the family Convolvulaceae. The disjointed occurrence can be explained by the observation that plant-associated epibiotic clavicipitalean fungi capable of synthesizing ergoline alkaloids colonize the adaxial leaf surface of certain Convolvulaceae plant species. The fungi are seed transmitted. Their capacity to synthesize ergoline alkaloids depends on the presence of an intact differentiated host plant (e.g. Ipomoea asarifolia or Turbina corymbosa [Convolvulaceae]). Here, we present independent proof that these fungi are equipped with genetic material responsible for ergoline alkaloid biosynthesis. The gene (dmaW) for the determinant step in ergoline alkaloid biosynthesis was shown to be part of a cluster involved in ergoline alkaloid formation. The dmaW gene was overexpressed in Saccharomyces cerevisiae, the encoded DmaW protein purified to homogeneity, and characterized. Neither the gene nor the biosynthetic capacity, however, was detectable in the intact I. asarifolia or the taxonomically related T. corymbosa host plants. Both plants, however, contained the ergoline alkaloids almost exclusively, whereas alkaloids are not detectable in the associated epibiotic fungi. This indicates that a transport system may exist translocating the alkaloids from the epibiotic fungus into the plant. The association between the fungus and the plant very likely is a symbiotum in which ergoline alkaloids play an essential role.
Thapa, Laxmi Prasad; Oh, Tae-Jin; Lee, Hei Chan; Liou, Kwangkyoung; Park, Je Won; Yoon, Yeo Joon; Sohng, Jae Kyung
The pSKC2 cosmid, which has 32 kb and 28 open-reading frames, was isolated from Streptomyces kanamyceticus ATCC12853 as the gene cluster of kanamycin. This gene cluster includes the minimal biosynthetic genes of kanamycin with the resistance and regulatory genes. It was heterologously expressed in Streptomyces venezuelae YJ003, which has the advantage of fast growth, good efficiency of the transformation host, and rapid production of the aminoglycosides antibiotic. The isolated compound was analyzed by electrospray ionization-mass spectrometry, liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry, high-performance liquid chromatography, and tandem mass spectrometry and shows a molecular weight of 485 as kanamycin A.
Abbott, James C.; Barakate, Abdellah; Pinçon, Gaelle; Legrand, Michel; Lapierre, Catherine; Mila, Isabelle; Schuch, Wolfgang; Halpin, Claire
Many reports now describe the manipulation of plant metabolism by suppressing the expression of single genes. The potential of such work could be greatly expanded if multiple genes could be coordinately suppressed. In the work presented here, we test a novel method for achieving this by using single chimeric constructs incorporating partial sense sequences for multiple genes to target suppression of two or three lignin biosynthetic enzymes. We compare this method with a more conventional approach to achieving the same end by crossing plants harboring different antisense transgenes. Our results indicate that crossing antisense plants is less straightforward and predictable in outcome than anticipated. Most progeny had higher levels of target enzyme activity than predicted and had lost the expected modifications to lignin structure. In comparison, plants transformed with the chimeric partial sense constructs had more consistent high level suppression of target enzymes and had significant changes to lignin content, structure, and composition. It was possible to suppress three target genes coordinately using a single chimeric construct. Our results indicate that chimeric silencing constructs offer great potential for the rapid and coordinate suppression of multiple genes on diverse biochemical pathways and that the technique therefore deserves to be adopted by other researchers. PMID:11891241
Brown, Stephanie; Clastre, Marc; Courdavault, Vincent; O'Connor, Sarah E
The monoterpene indole alkaloids are a large group of plant-derived specialized metabolites, many of which have valuable pharmaceutical or biological activity. There are ∼3,000 monoterpene indole alkaloids produced by thousands of plant species in numerous families. The diverse chemical structures found in this metabolite class originate from strictosidine, which is the last common biosynthetic intermediate for all monoterpene indole alkaloid enzymatic pathways. Reconstitution of biosynthetic pathways in a heterologous host is a promising strategy for rapid and inexpensive production of complex molecules that are found in plants. Here, we demonstrate how strictosidine can be produced de novo in a Saccharomyces cerevisiae host from 14 known monoterpene indole alkaloid pathway genes, along with an additional seven genes and three gene deletions that enhance secondary metabolism. This system provides an important resource for developing the production of more complex plant-derived alkaloids, engineering of nonnatural derivatives, identification of bottlenecks in monoterpene indole alkaloid biosynthesis, and discovery of new pathway genes in a convenient yeast host.
Qu, Xudong; Jiang, Nan; Xu, Fei; Shao, Lei; Tang, Gongli; Wilkinson, Barrie; Liu, Wen
Sanglifehrin A (SFA), a potent cyclophilin inhibitor produced by Streptomyces flaveolus DSM 9954, bears a unique [5.5] spirolactam moiety conjugated with a 22-membered, highly functionalized macrolide through a linear carbon chain. SFA displays a diverse range of biological activities and offers significant therapeutic potential. However, the structural complexity of SFA poses a tremendous challenge for new analogue development via chemical synthesis. Based on a rational prediction of its biosynthetic origin, herein we report the cloning, sequencing and characterization of the gene cluster responsible for SFA biosynthesis. Analysis of the 92 776 bp contiguous DNA region reveals a mixed polyketide synthase (PKS)/non-ribosomal peptide synthetase (NRPS) pathway which includes a variety of unique features for unusual PKS and NRPS building block formation. Our findings suggest that SFA biosynthesis requires a crotonyl-CoA reductase/carboxylase (CCR) for generation of the putative unusual PKS starter unit (2R)-2-ethylmalonamyl-CoA, an iterative type I PKS for the putative atypical extender unit (2S)-2-(2-oxo-butyl)malonyl-CoA and a phenylalanine hydroxylase for the NRPS extender unit (2S)-m-tyrosine. A spontaneous ketalization of significant note, may trigger spirolactam formation in a stereo-selective manner. This study provides a framework for the application of combinatorial biosynthesis methods in order to expand the structural diversity of SFA.
García-Estrada, Carlos; Martín, Juan-Francisco
Ripening of blue-veined cheeses, such as the French Bleu and Roquefort, the Italian Gorgonzola, the English Stilton, the Danish Danablu or the Spanish Cabrales, Picón Bejes-Tresviso, and Valdeón, requires the growth and enzymatic activity of the mold Penicillium roqueforti, which is responsible for the characteristic texture, blue-green spots, and aroma of these types of cheeses. This filamentous fungus is able to synthesize different secondary metabolites, including andrastins, mycophenolic acid, and several mycotoxins, such as roquefortines C and D, PR-toxin and eremofortins, isofumigaclavines A and B, and festuclavine. This review provides a detailed description of the main secondary metabolites produced by P. roqueforti in blue cheese, giving a special emphasis to roquefortine, PR-toxin and mycophenolic acid, and their biosynthetic gene clusters and pathways. The knowledge of these clusters and secondary metabolism pathways, together with the ability of P. roqueforti to produce beneficial secondary metabolites, is of interest for commercial purposes.
Lukežič, Tadeja; Lešnik, Urška; Podgoršek, Ajda; Horvat, Jaka; Polak, Tomaž; Šala, Martin; Jenko, Branko; Raspor, Peter; Herron, Paul R; Hunter, Iain S; Petković, Hrvoje
Tetracyclines (TCs) are medically important antibiotics from the polyketide family of natural products. Chelocardin (CHD), produced by Amycolatopsis sulphurea, is a broad-spectrum tetracyclic antibiotic with potent bacteriolytic activity against a number of Gram-positive and Gram-negative multi-resistant pathogens. CHD has an unknown mode of action that is different from TCs. It has some structural features that define it as 'atypical' and, notably, is active against tetracycline-resistant pathogens. Identification and characterization of the chelocardin biosynthetic gene cluster from A. sulphurea revealed 18 putative open reading frames including a type II polyketide synthase. Compared to typical TCs, the chd cluster contains a number of features that relate to its classification as 'atypical': an additional gene for a putative two-component cyclase/aromatase that may be responsible for the different aromatization pattern, a gene for a putative aminotransferase for C-4 with the opposite stereochemistry to TCs and a gene for a putative C-9 methylase that is a unique feature of this biosynthetic cluster within the TCs. Collectively, these enzymes deliver a molecule with different aromatization of ring C that results in an unusual planar structure of the TC backbone. This is a likely contributor to its different mode of action. In addition CHD biosynthesis is primed with acetate, unlike the TCs, which are primed with malonamate, and offers a biosynthetic engineering platform that represents a unique opportunity for efficient generation of novel tetracyclic backbones using combinatorial biosynthesis.
Weber, Tilmann; Blin, Kai; Duddela, Srikanth; Krug, Daniel; Kim, Hyun Uk; Bruccoleri, Robert; Lee, Sang Yup; Fischbach, Michael A; Müller, Rolf; Wohlleben, Wolfgang; Breitling, Rainer; Takano, Eriko; Medema, Marnix H
Microbial secondary metabolism constitutes a rich source of antibiotics, chemotherapeutics, insecticides and other high-value chemicals. Genome mining of gene clusters that encode the biosynthetic pathways for these metabolites has become a key methodology for novel compound discovery. In 2011, we introduced antiSMASH, a web server and stand-alone tool for the automatic genomic identification and analysis of biosynthetic gene clusters, available at http://antismash.secondarymetabolites.org. Here, we present version 3.0 of antiSMASH, which has undergone major improvements. A full integration of the recently published ClusterFinder algorithm now allows using this probabilistic algorithm to detect putative gene clusters of unknown types. Also, a new dereplication variant of the ClusterBlast module now identifies similarities of identified clusters to any of 1172 clusters with known end products. At the enzyme level, active sites of key biosynthetic enzymes are now pinpointed through a curated pattern-matching procedure and Enzyme Commission numbers are assigned to functionally classify all enzyme-coding genes. Additionally, chemical structure prediction has been improved by incorporating polyketide reduction states. Finally, in order for users to be able to organize and analyze multiple antiSMASH outputs in a private setting, a new XML output module allows offline editing of antiSMASH annotations within the Geneious software.
Weber, Tilmann; Blin, Kai; Duddela, Srikanth; Krug, Daniel; Kim, Hyun Uk; Bruccoleri, Robert; Lee, Sang Yup; Fischbach, Michael A.; Müller, Rolf; Wohlleben, Wolfgang; Breitling, Rainer; Takano, Eriko; Medema, Marnix H.
Microbial secondary metabolism constitutes a rich source of antibiotics, chemotherapeutics, insecticides and other high-value chemicals. Genome mining of gene clusters that encode the biosynthetic pathways for these metabolites has become a key methodology for novel compound discovery. In 2011, we introduced antiSMASH, a web server and stand-alone tool for the automatic genomic identification and analysis of biosynthetic gene clusters, available at http://antismash.secondarymetabolites.org. Here, we present version 3.0 of antiSMASH, which has undergone major improvements. A full integration of the recently published ClusterFinder algorithm now allows using this probabilistic algorithm to detect putative gene clusters of unknown types. Also, a new dereplication variant of the ClusterBlast module now identifies similarities of identified clusters to any of 1172 clusters with known end products. At the enzyme level, active sites of key biosynthetic enzymes are now pinpointed through a curated pattern-matching procedure and Enzyme Commission numbers are assigned to functionally classify all enzyme-coding genes. Additionally, chemical structure prediction has been improved by incorporating polyketide reduction states. Finally, in order for users to be able to organize and analyze multiple antiSMASH outputs in a private setting, a new XML output module allows offline editing of antiSMASH annotations within the Geneious software. PMID:25948579
Liu, Shui-Ping; Yuan, Peng-Hui; Wang, Yue-Yue; Liu, Xiao-Fang; Zhou, Zhen-Xing; Bu, Qing-ting; Yu, Pin; Jiang, Hui; Li, Yong-Quan
The polyene antibiotic natamycin is widely used as an antifungal agent in both human therapy and the food industry. Here we obtained four natamycin analogs with high titers, including two new compounds, by engineering of six post-polyketide synthase (PKS) tailoring enzyme encoding genes in a natamycin industrial producing strain, Streptomyces chattanoogensis L10. Precise analysis of S. chattanoogensis L10 culture identified natamycin and two natamycin analogs, 4,5-deepoxy-natamycin and 4,5-deepoxy-natamycinolide. The scnD deletion mutant of S. chattanoogensis L10 did not produce natamycin but increased the titer of 4,5-deepoxy-natamycin. Inactivation of each of scnK, scnC, and scnJ in S. chattanoogensis L10 abolished natamycin production and accumulated 4,5-deepoxy-natamycinolide. Deletion of scnG in S. chattanoogensis L10 resulted in production of two new compounds, 4,5-deepoxy-12-decarboxyl-12-methyl-natamycin and its dehydration product without natamycin production. Inactivation of the ScnG-associated ferredoxin ScnF resulted in impaired production of natamycin. Bioassay of these natamycin analogs showed that three natamycin analogs remained antifungal activities. We found that homologous glycosyltransferases genes including amphDI and nysDI can partly complement the ΔscnK mutant. Our results here also support that ScnG, ScnK, and ScnD catalyze carboxylation, glycosylation, and epoxidation in turn in the natamycin biosynthetic pathway. Thus this paper provided a method to generate natamycin analogs and shed light on the natamycin biosynthetic pathway.
Yan, Yijun; Yang, Jing; Yu, Zhiyin; Yu, Mingming; Ma, Ya-Tuan; Wang, Li; Su, Can; Luo, Jianying; Horsman, Geoffrey P.; Huang, Sheng-Xiong
The pyridine ring is a potent pharmacophore in alkaloid natural products. Nonetheless, its biosynthetic pathways are poorly understood. Rubrolones A and B are tropolone alkaloid natural products possessing a unique tetra-substituted pyridine moiety. Here, we report the gene cluster and propose a biosynthetic pathway for rubrolones, identifying a key intermediate that accumulates upon inactivation of sugar biosynthetic genes. Critically, this intermediate was converted to the aglycones of rubrolones by non-enzymatic condensation and cyclization with either ammonia or anthranilic acid to generate the respective pyridine rings. We propose that this non-enzymatic reaction occurs via hydrolysis of the key intermediate, which possesses a 1,5-dione moiety as an amine acceptor capable of cyclization. This study suggests that 1,5-dione moieties may represent a general strategy for pyridine ring biosynthesis, and more broadly highlights the utility of non-enzymatic diversification for exploring and expanding natural product chemical space. PMID:27713400
Handayani, Lita; Faridah, Didah Nur; Kusumaningrum, Harsi D
Staphylococcus aureus is a known pathogen causing intoxication by producing enterotoxins in food. Staphylococcal enterotoxin A is one of the enterotoxins commonly implicated in staphylococcal food poisoning. The ability of crude alkaloid extract from papaya leaves to inhibit the growth of S. aureus and staphylococcal enterotoxin A synthesis was investigated. Staphylococcal enterotoxin A gene-carrying S. aureus was isolated from raw milk and ready-to-eat foods. Crude alkaloid was extracted from ground, dried papaya leaves using ultrasonic-assisted extraction, and a MIC of the alkaloid was determined by the broth macrodilution method. Furthermore, S. aureus isolate was exposed to the crude alkaloid extract at one- and twofold MIC, and the expression of sea was subsequently analyzed using a quantitative reverse transcription real-time PCR. Ten isolates of S. aureus were obtained, and nine of those isolates were sea carriers. The yield of crude alkaloid extract was 0.48 to 1.82% per dry weight of papaya leaves. A MIC of crude alkaloid to S. aureus was 0.25 mg/ml. After exposure to the alkaloid at 0.25 and 0.5 mg/ml for 2 h, a significant increase in cycle threshold values of sea was observed. The sea was expressed 29 and 41 times less when S. aureus was exposed to crude alkaloid at one- and twofold MIC, respectively. This study revealed that crude alkaloid of papaya leaves could control staphylococcal enterotoxin A gene-carrying S. aureus by suppressing the expression of sea, in addition to the ability to inhibit the growth of S. aureus. The expression of sea was successfully quantified.
Wang, Qiang; Hillwig, Matthew L.; Okada, Kazunori; Yamazaki, Kohei; Wu, Yisheng; Swaminathan, Sivakumar; Yamane, Hisakazu; Peters, Reuben J.
Recent reports have revealed genomic clustering of enzymatic genes for particular biosynthetic pathways in plant specialized/secondary metabolism. Rice (Oryza sativa) carries two such clusters for production of antimicrobial diterpenoid phytoalexins, with the cluster on chromosome 2 containing four closely related/homologous members of the cytochrome P450 CYP76M subfamily (CYP76M5–8). Notably, the underlying evolutionary expansion of these CYP appears to have occurred after assembly of the ancestral biosynthetic gene cluster, suggesting separate roles. It has been demonstrated that CYP76M7 catalyzes C11α-hydroxylation of ent-cassadiene, and presumably mediates an early step in biosynthesis of the derived phytocassane class of phytoalexins. Here we report biochemical characterization of CYP76M5, -6, and -8. Our results indicate that CYP76M8 is a multifunctional/promiscuous hydroxylase, with CYP76M5 and -7 seeming to provide only redundant activity, while CYP76M6 seems to provide both redundant and novel activity, relative to CYP76M8. RNAi-mediated double knockdown of CYP76M7 and -8 suppresses elicitor inducible phytocassane production, indicating a role for these monooxygenases in phytocassane biosynthesis. In addition, our data suggests that CYP76M5, -6, and -8 may play redundant roles in production of the oryzalexin class of phytoalexins as well. Intriguingly, the preceding diterpene synthase for oryzalexin biosynthesis, unlike that for the phytocassanes, is not found in the chromosome 2 diterpenoid biosynthetic gene cluster. Accordingly, our results not only uncover a complex evolutionary history, but also further suggest some intriguing differences between plant biosynthetic gene clusters and the seemingly similar microbial operons. The implications for the underlying metabolic evolution of plants are then discussed. PMID:22215681
Reen, F Jerry; Romano, Stefano; Dobson, Alan D W; O'Gara, Fergal
Unlocking the rich harvest of marine microbial ecosystems has the potential to both safeguard the existence of our species for the future, while also presenting significant lifestyle benefits for commercial gain. However, while significant advances have been made in the field of marine biodiscovery, leading to the introduction of new classes of therapeutics for clinical medicine, cosmetics and industrial products, much of what this natural ecosystem has to offer is locked in, and essentially hidden from our screening methods. Releasing this silent potential represents a significant technological challenge, the key to which is a comprehensive understanding of what controls these systems. Heterologous expression systems have been successful in awakening a number of these cryptic marine biosynthetic gene clusters (BGCs). However, this approach is limited by the typically large size of the encoding sequences. More recently, focus has shifted to the regulatory proteins associated with each BGC, many of which are signal responsive raising the possibility of exogenous activation. Abundant among these are the LysR-type family of transcriptional regulators, which are known to control production of microbial aromatic systems. Although the environmental signals that activate these regulatory systems remain unknown, it offers the exciting possibility of evoking mimic molecules and synthetic expression systems to drive production of potentially novel natural products in microorganisms. Success in this field has the potential to provide a quantum leap forward in medical and industrial bio-product development. To achieve these new endpoints, it is clear that the integrated efforts of bioinformaticians and natural product chemists will be required as we strive to uncover new and potentially unique structures from silent or cryptic marine gene clusters.
Reen, F. Jerry; Romano, Stefano; Dobson, Alan D.W.; O’Gara, Fergal
Unlocking the rich harvest of marine microbial ecosystems has the potential to both safeguard the existence of our species for the future, while also presenting significant lifestyle benefits for commercial gain. However, while significant advances have been made in the field of marine biodiscovery, leading to the introduction of new classes of therapeutics for clinical medicine, cosmetics and industrial products, much of what this natural ecosystem has to offer is locked in, and essentially hidden from our screening methods. Releasing this silent potential represents a significant technological challenge, the key to which is a comprehensive understanding of what controls these systems. Heterologous expression systems have been successful in awakening a number of these cryptic marine biosynthetic gene clusters (BGCs). However, this approach is limited by the typically large size of the encoding sequences. More recently, focus has shifted to the regulatory proteins associated with each BGC, many of which are signal responsive raising the possibility of exogenous activation. Abundant among these are the LysR-type family of transcriptional regulators, which are known to control production of microbial aromatic systems. Although the environmental signals that activate these regulatory systems remain unknown, it offers the exciting possibility of evoking mimic molecules and synthetic expression systems to drive production of potentially novel natural products in microorganisms. Success in this field has the potential to provide a quantum leap forward in medical and industrial bio-product development. To achieve these new endpoints, it is clear that the integrated efforts of bioinformaticians and natural product chemists will be required as we strive to uncover new and potentially unique structures from silent or cryptic marine gene clusters. PMID:26264003
Guerriero, Gea; Giorno, Filomena; Ciccotti, Anna Maria; Schmidt, Silvia; Baric, Sanja
Apple proliferation (AP) represents a serious threat to several fruit-growing areas and is responsible for great economic losses. Several studies have highlighted the key role played by the cell wall in response to pathogen attack. The existence of a cell wall integrity signaling pathway which senses perturbations in the cell wall architecture upon abiotic/biotic stresses and activates specific defence responses has been widely demonstrated in plants. More recently a role played by cell wall-related genes has also been reported in plants infected by phytoplasmas. With the aim of shedding light on the cell wall response to AP disease in the economically relevant fruit-tree Malus × domestica Borkh., we investigated the expression of the cellulose (CesA) and callose synthase (CalS) genes in different organs (i.e., leaves, roots and branch phloem) of healthy and infected symptomatic outdoor-grown trees, sampled over the course of two time points (i.e., spring and autumn 2011), as well as in in vitro micropropagated control and infected plantlets. A strong up-regulation in the expression of cell wall biosynthetic genes was recorded in roots from infected trees. Secondary cell wall CesAs showed up-regulation in the phloem tissue from branches of infected plants, while either a down-regulation of some genes or no major changes were observed in the leaves. Micropropagated plantlets also showed an increase in cell wall-related genes and constitute a useful system for a general assessment of gene expression analysis upon phytoplasma infection. Finally, we also report the presence of several 'knot'-like structures along the roots of infected apple trees and discuss the occurrence of this interesting phenotype in relation to the gene expression results and the modalities of phytoplasma diffusion.
Gallo, A.; Bruno, K. S.; Solfrizzo, M.; Perrone, G.; Mule, G.; Visconti, A.; Baker, S. E.
Ochratoxin A (OTA), a mycotoxin produced by Aspergillus and Penicillium species, is composed of a dihydroisocoumarin ring linked to phenylalanine and its biosynthetic pathway has not yet been completely elucidated. Most of the knowledge regarding the genetic and enzymatic aspects of OTA biosynthesis has been obtained in Penicillium species. In Aspergillus species only pks genes involved in the initial steps of the pathway have been partially characterized. In our study, the inactivation of a gene encoding a nonribosomal peptide synthetase in OTA producing A. carbonarius ITEM 5010 has removed the ability of the fungus to produce OTA. This is the first report on the involvement of an nrps gene product in OTA biosynthetic pathway in Aspergillus species. The absence of OTA and ochratoxin α-the isocoumaric derivative of OTA, and the concomitant increase of ochratoxin β- the dechloro analog of ochratoxin α- were observed in the liquid culture of transformed strain. The data provide the first evidence that the enzymatic step adding phenylalanine to polyketide dihydroisocoumarin precedes the chlorination step to form OTA in A. carbonarius, and that ochratoxin α is a product of hydrolysis of OTA, giving an interesting new insight in the biosynthetic pathway of the toxin.
Moir, Robyn D.; Gross, David A.; Silver, David L.; Willis, Ian M.
The ability to store nutrients in lipid droplets (LDs) is an ancient function that provides the primary source of metabolic energy during periods of nutrient insufficiency and between meals. The Fat storage-Inducing Transmembrane (FIT) proteins are conserved ER–resident proteins that facilitate fat storage by partitioning energy-rich triglycerides into LDs. FIT2, the ancient ortholog of the FIT gene family first identified in mammals has two homologs in Saccharomyces cerevisiae (SCS3 and YFT2) and other fungi of the Saccharomycotina lineage. Despite the coevolution of these genes for more than 170 million years and their divergence from higher eukaryotes, SCS3, YFT2, and the human FIT2 gene retain some common functions: expression of the yeast genes in a human embryonic kidney cell line promotes LD formation, and expression of human FIT2 in yeast rescues the inositol auxotrophy and chemical and genetic phenotypes of strains lacking SCS3. To better understand the function of SCS3 and YFT2, we investigated the chemical sensitivities of strains deleted for either or both genes and identified synthetic genetic interactions against the viable yeast gene-deletion collection. We show that SCS3 and YFT2 have shared and unique functions that connect major biosynthetic processes critical for cell growth. These include lipid metabolism, vesicular trafficking, transcription of phospholipid biosynthetic genes, and protein synthesis. The genetic data indicate that optimal strain fitness requires a balance between phospholipid synthesis and protein synthesis and that deletion of SCS3 and YFT2 impacts a regulatory mechanism that coordinates these processes. Part of this mechanism involves a role for SCS3 in communicating changes in the ER (e.g. due to low inositol) to Opi1-regulated transcription of phospholipid biosynthetic genes. We conclude that SCS3 and YFT2 are required for normal ER membrane biosynthesis in response to perturbations in lipid metabolism and ER stress. PMID
Gubbens, Jacob; Zhu, Hua; Girard, Geneviève; Song, Lijiang; Florea, Bogdan I; Aston, Philip; Ichinose, Koji; Filippov, Dmitri V; Choi, Young H; Overkleeft, Herman S; Challis, Gregory L; van Wezel, Gilles P
Information on gene clusters for natural product biosynthesis is accumulating rapidly because of the current boom of available genome sequencing data. However, linking a natural product to a specific gene cluster remains challenging. Here, we present a widely applicable strategy for the identification of gene clusters for specific natural products, which we name natural product proteomining. The method is based on using fluctuating growth conditions that ensure differential biosynthesis of the bioactivity of interest. Subsequent combination of metabolomics and quantitative proteomics establishes correlations between abundance of natural products and concomitant changes in the protein pool, which allows identification of the relevant biosynthetic gene cluster. We used this approach to elucidate gene clusters for different natural products in Bacillus and Streptomyces, including a novel juglomycin-type antibiotic. Natural product proteomining does not require prior knowledge of the gene cluster or secondary metabolite and therefore represents a general strategy for identification of all types of gene clusters.
Page, Andrew F; Minocha, Rakesh; Minocha, Subhash C
Arginine (Arg) and ornithine (Orn), both derived from glutamate (Glu), are the primary substrates for polyamine (PA) biosynthesis, and also play important roles as substrates and intermediates of overall N metabolism in plants. Their cellular homeostasis is subject to multiple levels of regulation. Using reverse transcription quantitative PCR (RT-qPCR), we studied changes in the expression of all genes of the Orn/Arg biosynthetic pathway in response to up-regulation [via transgenic expression of mouse Orn decarboxylase (mODC)] of PA biosynthesis in poplar (Populus nigra × maximowiczii) cells grown in culture. Cloning and sequencing of poplar genes involved in the Orn/Arg biosynthetic pathway showed that they have high homology with similar genes in other plants. The expression of the genes of Orn, Arg and PA biosynthetic pathway fell into two hierarchical clusters; expression of one did not change in response to high putrescine, while members of the other cluster showed a shift in expression pattern during the 7-day culture cycle. Gene expression of branch point enzymes (N-acetyl-Glu synthase, Orn aminotransferase, Arg decarboxylase, and spermidine synthase) in the sub-pathways, constituted a separate cluster from those involved in intermediary reactions of the pathway (N-acetyl-Glu kinase, N-acetyl-Glu-5-P reductase, N-acetyl-Orn aminotransferase, N (2)-acetylOrn:N-acetyl-Glu acetyltransferase, N (2)-acetyl-Orn deacetylase, Orn transcarbamylase, argininosuccinate synthase, carbamoylphosphate synthetase, argininosuccinate lyase, S-adenosylmethionine decarboxylase, spermine synthase). We postulate that expression of all genes of the Glu-Orn-Arg pathway is constitutively coordinated and is not influenced by the increase in flux rate through this pathway in response to increased utilization of Orn by mODC; thus the pathway involves mostly biochemical regulation rather than changes in gene expression. We further suggest that Orn itself plays a major role in the
Ma, Tian; Zhou, Yuanjie; Li, Xiaowei; Zhu, Fayin; Cheng, Yongbo; Liu, Yi; Deng, Zixin
Abstract As a highly valued keto‐carotenoid, astaxanthin is widely used in nutritional supplements and pharmaceuticals. Therefore, the demand for biosynthetic astaxanthin and improved efficiency of astaxanthin biosynthesis has driven the investigation of metabolic engineering of native astaxanthin producers and heterologous hosts. However, microbial resources for astaxanthin are limited. In this study, we found that the α‐Proteobacterium Sphingomonas sp. ATCC 55669 could produce astaxanthin naturally. We used whole‐genome sequencing to identify the astaxanthin biosynthetic pathway using a combined PacBio‐Illumina approach. The putative astaxanthin biosynthetic pathway in Sphingomonas sp. ATCC 55669 was predicted. For further confirmation, a high‐efficiency targeted engineering carotenoid synthesis platform was constructed in E. coli for identifying the functional roles of candidate genes. All genes involved in astaxanthin biosynthesis showed discrete distributions on the chromosome. Moreover, the overexpression of exogenous E. coli idi in Sphingomonas sp. ATCC 55669 increased astaxanthin production by 5.4‐fold. This study described a new astaxanthin producer and provided more biosynthesis components for bioengineering of astaxanthin in the future. PMID:26580858
Patterson, Stephen; O'Hagan, David
The conversion of littorine to hyoscyamine has been investigated by feeding deuterium labelled (RS)-[2-(2)H]-, [3, 3-(2)H(2)]-, [2, 3, 3-(2)H(3)]- phenyllactic acids to transformed root cultures of Datura stramonium. Isolation and GC-MS analyses of the isotope incorporation into the resultant hyoscyamine does not support the involvement of a vicinal interchange process operating during the isomerisation of littorine to hyoscyamine. Additionally a metabolism study with [1'-13C, 3', 3'-(2)H(2)]-hyoscyamine has established that the alkaloid is metabolically stable at C-3' with no evidence for a reversible in vivo oxidation process to the corresponding aldehyde. The data do not support an S-adenosy-L-methionine (SAM 5)/co-enzyme-B(12) mediated process for the isomerisation of littorine to hyoscyamine.
Chen, I-Min; Chu, Ken; Ratner, Anna; Palaniappan, Krishna; Huang, Jinghua; Reddy, T. B.K.; Cimermancic, Peter; Fischbach, Michael; Ivanova, Natalia; Markowitz, Victor; Kyrpides, Nikos; Pati, Amrita
In the discovery of secondary metabolites (SMs), large-scale analysis of sequence data is a promising exploration path that remains largely underutilized due to the lack of relevant computational resources. We present IMG-ABC (https://img.jgi.doe.gov/abc/) -- An Atlas of Biosynthetic gene Clusters within the Integrated Microbial Genomes (IMG) system1. IMG-ABC is a rich repository of both validated and predicted biosynthetic clusters (BCs) in cultured isolates, single-cells and metagenomes linked with the SM chemicals they produce and enhanced with focused analysis tools within IMG. The underlying scalable framework enables traversal of phylogenetic dark matter and chemical structure space -- serving as a doorway to a new era in the discovery of novel molecules.
Fox, Ellen M.; Gardiner, Donald M.; Keller, Nancy P.; Howlett, Barbara J.
A gene, sirZ, encoding a Zn(II)2Cys6 DNA binding protein is present in a cluster of genes responsible for the biosynthesis of the epipolythiodioxopiperazine (ETP) toxin, sirodesmin PL in the ascomycete plant pathogen, Leptosphaeria maculans. RNA-mediated silencing of sirZ gives rise to transformants that produce only residual amounts of sirodesmin PL and display a decrease in the transcription of several sirodesmin PL biosynthetic genes. This indicates that SirZ is a major regulator of this gene cluster. Proteins similar to SirZ are encoded in the gliotoxin biosynthetic gene cluster of Aspergillus fumigatus (gliZ) and in an ETP-like cluster in Penicillium lilacinoechinulatum (PlgliZ). Despite its high level of sequence similarity to gliZ, PlgliZ is unable to complement the gliotoxin-deficiency of a mutant of gliZ in A. fumigatus. Putative binding sites for these regulatory proteins in the promoters of genes in these clusters were predicted using bioinformatic analysis. These sites are similar to those commonly bound by other proteins with Zn(II)2Cys6 DNA binding domains. PMID:18023597
Li, Li; Ban, Zhao-Jun; Li, Xi-Hong; Wu, Mao-Yu; Wang, Ai-Li; Jiang, Yu-Qian; Jiang, Yun-Hong
Anthocyanin biosynthesis in various plants is affected by environmental conditions and controlled by the transcription level of the corresponding genes. In pears (Pyrus communis cv. 'Wujiuxiang'), anthocyanin biosynthesis is significantly induced during low temperature storage compared with that at room temperature. We further examined the transcriptional levels of anthocyanin biosynthetic genes in 'Wujiuxiang' pears during developmental ripening and temperature-induced storage. The expression of genes that encode flavanone 3-hydroxylase, dihydroflavonol 4-reductase, anthocyanidin synthase, UDP-glucose: flavonoid 3-O-glucosyltransferase, and R2R3 MYB transcription factor (PcMYB10) was strongly positively correlated with anthocyanin accumulation in 'Wujiuxiang' pears in response to both developmental and cold-temperature induction. Hierarchical clustering analysis revealed the expression patterns of the set of target genes, of which PcMYB10 and most anthocyanin biosynthetic genes were related to the same cluster. The present work may help explore the molecular mechanism that regulates anthocyanin biosynthesis and its response to abiotic stress at the transcriptional level in plants.
Lo, Hsien-Chun; Entwistle, Ruth; Guo, Chun-Jun; Ahuja, Manmeet; Szewczyk, Edyta; Hung, Jui-Hsiang; Chiang, Yi-Ming; Oakley, Berl R.; Wang, Clay C. C.
Meroterpenoids are a class of fungal natural products that are produced from polyketide and terpenoid precursors. An understanding of meroterpenoid biosynthesis at the genetic level should facilitate engineering of second-generation molecules and increasing production of first-generation compounds. The filamentous fungus Aspergillus nidulans has previously been found to produce two meroterpenoids, austinol and dehydroaustinol. Using targeted deletions that we created, we have determined that, surprisingly, two separate gene clusters are required for meroterpenoid biosynthesis. One is a cluster of four genes including a polyketide synthase gene, ausA. The second is a cluster of ten additional genes including a prenyltransferase gene, ausN, located on a separate chromosome. Chemical analysis of mutant extracts enabled us to isolate 3,5-dimethylorsellinic acid and ten additional meroterpenoids that are either intermediates or shunt products from the biosynthetic pathway. Six of them were identified as novel meroterpenoids in this study. Our data, in aggregate, allow us to propose a complete biosynthetic pathway for the A. nidulans meroterpenoids. PMID:22329759
Wang, Qing; Ma, Bi; Qi, Xiwu; Guo, Qing; Wang, Xuwei; Zeng, Qiwei; He, Ningjia
Jasmonate (JA) is an important phytohormone regulating growth, development, and environmental response in plants, particularly defense response against herbivorous insects. Recently, completion of the draft genome of the mulberry (Morus notabilis) in conjunction with genome sequencing of silkworm (Bombyx mori) provides an opportunity to study this unique plant-herbivore interaction. Here, we identified genes involved in JA biosynthetic and signaling pathways in the genome of mulberry for the first time, with the majority of samples showing a tissue-biased expression pattern. The analysis of the representative genes 12-oxophytodienoic acid reductase (OPRs) and jasmonate ZIM-domain (JAZs) was performed and the results indicated that the mulberry genome contains a relatively small number of JA biosynthetic and signaling pathway genes. A gene encoding an important repressor, MnNINJA, was identified as an alternative splicing variant lacking an ethylene-responsive element binding factor-associated amphiphilic repression motif. Having this fundamental information will facilitate future functional study of JA-related genes pertaining to mulberry-silkworm interactions.
Vimolmangkang, Sornkanok; Deng, Xianbao; Owiti, Albert; Meelaph, Thitirat; Ogutu, Collins; Han, Yuepeng
Sacred lotus is rich in biologically active compounds, particularly benzylisoquinoline alkaloids (BIAs). Here, we report on isolation of genes encoding (S)-norcoclaurine synthase (NCS) in sacred lotus, which is a key entry-enzyme in BIA biosynthesis. Seven NCS genes, designated NnNCS1 through NnNCS7, were identified in the sacred lotus genome, and five are located next to each other within a 83 kb region on scaffold 8. The NCS genes are divided into two subfamilies, designated NCSI and NCSII. The NCSII genes are universal in plants, while the NCSI genes are only identified in a limited number of dicotyledonous taxa that produce BIAs. In sacred lotus, only NnNCS4 belongs to the NCSII subfamily, whilst the rest NCS genes within the NCSI subfamily. Overall, the NnNCS7 gene was predominantly expressed in all tested tissues, and its expression is significantly correlated with alkaloid content in leaf. In contrast, the NnNCS4 expression shows no significant correlation with alkaloid accumulation in leaf, and its lack of expression cannot inhibit alkaloid accumulation. Taken together, these results suggest that the NCSI subfamily is crucial for BIA biosynthesis, and its origin may represent an important evolutionary event that allows certain plant taxa to produce BIAs. PMID:27189519
Synthesis of 7-Epineoptilocaulin, Mirabilin B, and Isoptilocaulin. A Unified Biosynthetic Proposal for the Ptilocaulin and Batzelladine Alkaloids. Synthesis and Structure Revision of Netamines E and G
Yu, Min; Pochapsky, Susan S.; Snider, Barry B.
Addition of guanidine to a 6-methylhexahydroindenone in MeOH at reflux afforded 7-epineoptilocaulin. A similar reaction with a 6-propylhexahydroindenone afforded netamine E. MnO2 oxidation of 7-epineoptilocaulin and netamine E afforded mirabilin B and netamine G, respectively. The netamines have the side chains trans, not cis as was initially proposed. A unified biosynthetic scheme for the batzelladines and ptilocaulin family is proposed. Conjugate addition of guanidine to a bis enone followed by an intramolecular Michael reaction of the enolate to the other enone, aldol reaction, dehydration and enamine formation will lead to a tricyclic intermediate at the dehydroptilocaulin oxidation state. 1,4-Hydride addition will lead to ptilocaulin or 7-epineoptilocaulin depending on which face the hydride adds to. 1,2-Hydride addition will lead to isoptilocaulin. The key tricyclic intermediate was prepared from a tetrahydroindenone and guanidine and reduced with NaBH4 to give a mixture rich in ptilocaulin and isoptilocaulin. PMID:18928319
Greule, Anja; Marolt, Marija; Deubel, Denise; Peintner, Iris; Zhang, Songya; Jessen-Trefzer, Claudia; De Ford, Christian; Burschel, Sabrina; Li, Shu-Ming; Friedrich, Thorsten; Merfort, Irmgard; Lüdeke, Steffen; Bisel, Philippe; Müller, Michael; Paululat, Thomas; Bechthold, Andreas
Streptomyces diastatochromogenes Tü6028 is known to produce the polyketide antibiotic polyketomycin. The deletion of the pokOIV oxygenase gene led to a non-polyketomycin-producing mutant. Instead, novel compounds were produced by the mutant, which have not been detected before in the wild type strain. Four different compounds were identified and named foxicins A–D. Foxicin A was isolated and its structure was elucidated as an unusual nitrogen-containing quinone derivative using various spectroscopic methods. Through genome mining, the foxicin biosynthetic gene cluster was identified in the draft genome sequence of S. diastatochromogenes. The cluster spans 57 kb and encodes three PKS type I modules, one NRPS module and 41 additional enzymes. A foxBII gene-inactivated mutant of S. diastatochromogenes Tü6028 ΔpokOIV is unable to produce foxicins. Homologous fox biosynthetic gene clusters were found in more than 20 additional Streptomyces strains, overall in about 2.6% of all sequenced Streptomyces genomes. However, the production of foxicin-like compounds in these strains has never been described indicating that the clusters are expressed at a very low level or are silent under fermentation conditions. Foxicin A acts as a siderophore through interacting with ferric ions. Furthermore, it is a weak inhibitor of the Escherichia coli aerobic respiratory chain and shows moderate antibiotic activity. The wide distribution of the cluster and the various properties of the compound indicate a major role of foxicins in Streptomyces strains. PMID:28270798
Duncan, Katherine R.; Crüsemann, Max; Lechner, Anna; ...
Genome sequencing has revealed that bacteria contain many more biosynthetic gene clusters than predicted based on the number of secondary metabolites discovered to date. While this biosynthetic reservoir has fostered interest in new tools for natural product discovery, there remains a gap between gene cluster detection and compound discovery. In this paper, we apply molecular networking and the new concept of pattern-based genome mining to 35 Salinispora strains, including 30 for which draft genome sequences were either available or obtained for this study. The results provide a method to simultaneously compare large numbers of complex microbial extracts, which facilitated themore » identification of media components, known compounds and their derivatives, and new compounds that could be prioritized for structure elucidation. Finally, these efforts revealed considerable metabolite diversity and led to several molecular family-gene cluster pairings, of which the quinomycin-type depsipeptide retimycin A was characterized and linked to gene cluster NRPS40 using pattern-based bioinformatic approaches.« less
Gallagher, Kelley A.; Jensen, Paul R.
Background: Considerable advances have been made in our understanding of the molecular genetics of secondary metabolite biosynthesis. Coupled with increased access to genome sequence data, new insight can be gained into the diversity and distributions of secondary metabolite biosynthetic gene clusters and the evolutionary processes that generate them. Here we examine the distribution of gene clusters predicted to encode the biosynthesis of a structurally diverse class of molecules called hybrid isoprenoids (HIs) in the genus Streptomyces. These compounds are derived from a mixed biosynthetic origin that is characterized by the incorporation of a terpene moiety onto a variety of chemicalmore » scaffolds and include many potent antibiotic and cytotoxic agents. Results: One hundred and twenty Streptomyces genomes were searched for HI biosynthetic gene clusters using ABBA prenyltransferases (PTases) as queries. These enzymes are responsible for a key step in HI biosynthesis. The strains included 12 that belong to the ‘MAR4’ clade, a largely marine-derived lineage linked to the production of diverse HI secondary metabolites. We found ABBA PTase homologs in all of the MAR4 genomes, which averaged five copies per strain, compared with 21 % of the non-MAR4 genomes, which averaged one copy per strain. Phylogenetic analyses suggest that MAR4 PTase diversity has arisen by a combination of horizontal gene transfer and gene duplication. Furthermore, there is evidence that HI gene cluster diversity is generated by the horizontal exchange of orthologous PTases among clusters. Many putative HI gene clusters have not been linked to their secondary metabolic products, suggesting that MAR4 strains will yield additional new compounds in this structure class. Finally, we confirm that the mevalonate pathway is not always present in genomes that contain HI gene clusters and thus is not a reliable query for identifying strains with the potential to produce HI secondary metabolites
Gallagher, Kelley A.; Jensen, Paul R.
Background: Considerable advances have been made in our understanding of the molecular genetics of secondary metabolite biosynthesis. Coupled with increased access to genome sequence data, new insight can be gained into the diversity and distributions of secondary metabolite biosynthetic gene clusters and the evolutionary processes that generate them. Here we examine the distribution of gene clusters predicted to encode the biosynthesis of a structurally diverse class of molecules called hybrid isoprenoids (HIs) in the genus Streptomyces. These compounds are derived from a mixed biosynthetic origin that is characterized by the incorporation of a terpene moiety onto a variety of chemical scaffolds and include many potent antibiotic and cytotoxic agents. Results: One hundred and twenty Streptomyces genomes were searched for HI biosynthetic gene clusters using ABBA prenyltransferases (PTases) as queries. These enzymes are responsible for a key step in HI biosynthesis. The strains included 12 that belong to the ‘MAR4’ clade, a largely marine-derived lineage linked to the production of diverse HI secondary metabolites. We found ABBA PTase homologs in all of the MAR4 genomes, which averaged five copies per strain, compared with 21 % of the non-MAR4 genomes, which averaged one copy per strain. Phylogenetic analyses suggest that MAR4 PTase diversity has arisen by a combination of horizontal gene transfer and gene duplication. Furthermore, there is evidence that HI gene cluster diversity is generated by the horizontal exchange of orthologous PTases among clusters. Many putative HI gene clusters have not been linked to their secondary metabolic products, suggesting that MAR4 strains will yield additional new compounds in this structure class. Finally, we confirm that the mevalonate pathway is not always present in genomes that contain HI gene clusters and thus is not a reliable query for identifying strains with the potential to produce HI secondary metabolites. In
Nepal, Keshav Kumar; Yoo, Jin Cheol; Sohng, Jae Kyung
KanP, a putative methyltransferase, is located in the kanamycin biosynthetic gene cluster of Streptomyces kanamyceticus ATCC12853. Amino acid sequence analysis of KanP revealed the presence of S-adenosyl-L-methionine binding motifs, which are present in other O-methyltransferases. The kanP gene was expressed in Escherichia coli BL21 (DE3) to generate the E. coli KANP recombinant strain. The conversion of external quercetin to methylated quercetin in the culture extract of E. coli KANP proved the function of kanP as S-adenosyl-L-methionine-dependent methyltransferase. This is the first report concerning the identification of an O-methyltransferase gene from the kanamycin gene cluster. The resistant activity assay and RT-PCR analysis demonstrated the leeway for obtaining methylated kanamycin derivatives from the wild-type strain of kanamycin producer.
Montiel, Daniel; Kang, Hahk-Soo; Chang, Fang-Yuan; Charlop-Powers, Zachary; Brady, Sean F
Large-scale sequencing of prokaryotic (meta)genomic DNA suggests that most bacterial natural product gene clusters are not expressed under common laboratory culture conditions. Silent gene clusters represent a promising resource for natural product discovery and the development of a new generation of therapeutics. Unfortunately, the characterization of molecules encoded by these clusters is hampered owing to our inability to express these gene clusters in the laboratory. To address this bottleneck, we have developed a promoter-engineering platform to transcriptionally activate silent gene clusters in a model heterologous host. Our approach uses yeast homologous recombination, an auxotrophy complementation-based yeast selection system and sequence orthogonal promoter cassettes to exchange all native promoters in silent gene clusters with constitutively active promoters. As part of this platform, we constructed and validated a set of bidirectional promoter cassettes consisting of orthogonal promoter sequences, Streptomyces ribosome binding sites, and yeast selectable marker genes. Using these tools we demonstrate the ability to simultaneously insert multiple promoter cassettes into a gene cluster, thereby expediting the reengineering process. We apply this method to model active and silent gene clusters (rebeccamycin and tetarimycin) and to the silent, cryptic pseudogene-containing, environmental DNA-derived Lzr gene cluster. Complete promoter refactoring and targeted gene exchange in this "dead" cluster led to the discovery of potent indolotryptoline antiproliferative agents, lazarimides A and B. This potentially scalable and cost-effective promoter reengineering platform should streamline the discovery of natural products from silent natural product biosynthetic gene clusters.
Hadjithomas, Michalis; Chen, I-Min Amy; Chu, Ken; Ratner, Anna; Palaniappan, Krishna; Szeto, Ernest; Huang, Jinghua; Reddy, T. B. K.; Cimermančič, Peter; Fischbach, Michael A.; Ivanova, Natalia N.; Markowitz, Victor M.; Kyrpides, Nikos C.; Pati, Amrita
In the discovery of secondary metabolites, analysis of sequence data is a promising exploration path that remains largely underutilized due to the lack of computational platforms that enable such a systematic approach on a large scale. In this work, we present IMG-ABC (https://img.jgi.doe.gov/abc), an atlas of biosynthetic gene clusters within the Integrated Microbial Genomes (IMG) system, which is aimed at harnessing the power of “big” genomic data for discovering small molecules. IMG-ABC relies on IMG’s comprehensive integrated structural and functional genomic data for the analysis of biosynthetic gene clusters (BCs) and associated secondary metabolites (SMs). SMs and BCs serve as the two main classes of objects in IMG-ABC, each with a rich collection of attributes. A unique feature of IMG-ABC is the incorporation of both experimentally validated and computationally predicted BCs in genomes as well as metagenomes, thus identifying BCs in uncultured populations and rare taxa. We demonstrate the strength of IMG-ABC’s focused integrated analysis tools in enabling the exploration of microbial secondary metabolism on a global scale, through the discovery of phenazine-producing clusters for the first time in lphaproteobacteria. IMG-ABC strives to fill the long-existent void of resources for computational exploration of the secondary metabolism universe; its underlying scalable framework enables traversal of uncovered phylogenetic and chemical structure space, serving as a doorway to a new era in the discovery of novel molecules. IMG-ABC is the largest publicly available database of predicted and experimental biosynthetic gene clusters and the secondary metabolites they produce. The system also includes powerful search and analysis tools that are integrated with IMG’s extensive genomic/metagenomic data and analysis tool kits. As new research on biosynthetic gene clusters and secondary metabolites is published and more genomes are sequenced, IMG
Hadjithomas, Michalis; Chen, I-Min Amy; Chu, Ken; ...
In the discovery of secondary metabolites, analysis of sequence data is a promising exploration path that remains largely underutilized due to the lack of computational platforms that enable such a systematic approach on a large scale. In this work, we present IMG-ABC (https://img.jgi.doe.gov/abc), an atlas of biosynthetic gene clusters within the Integrated Microbial Genomes (IMG) system, which is aimed at harnessing the power of “big” genomic data for discovering small molecules. IMG-ABC relies on IMG’s comprehensive integrated structural and functional genomic data for the analysis of biosynthetic gene clusters (BCs) and associated secondary metabolites (SMs). SMs and BCs serve asmore » the two main classes of objects in IMG-ABC, each with a rich collection of attributes. A unique feature of IMG-ABC is the incorporation of both experimentally validated and computationally predicted BCs in genomes as well as metagenomes, thus identifying BCs in uncultured populations and rare taxa. We demonstrate the strength of IMG-ABC’s focused integrated analysis tools in enabling the exploration of microbial secondary metabolism on a global scale, through the discovery of phenazine-producing clusters for the first time in lphaproteobacteria. IMG-ABC strives to fill the long-existent void of resources for computational exploration of the secondary metabolism universe; its underlying scalable framework enables traversal of uncovered phylogenetic and chemical structure space, serving as a doorway to a new era in the discovery of novel molecules. IMG-ABC is the largest publicly available database of predicted and experimental biosynthetic gene clusters and the secondary metabolites they produce. The system also includes powerful search and analysis tools that are integrated with IMG’s extensive genomic/metagenomic data and analysis tool kits. As new research on biosynthetic gene clusters and secondary metabolites is published and more genomes are sequenced, IMG
Nemoto, Kiyomitsu; Ikeda, Ayaka; Ito, Sei; Miyata, Misaki; Yoshida, Chiaki; Degawa, Masakuni
Serum total cholesterol amounts in the stroke-prone hypertensive rat (SHRSP) strain are lower than in the normotensive control strain, Wistar-Kyoto (WKY) rat. To understand the strain difference, constitutive gene expression levels of hepatic cholesterol biosynthetic enzymes in male 8-week-old SHRSP and WKY rats were comparatively examined by DNA microarray and real-time reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) analyses. Of 22 cholesterol biosynthetic enzyme genes, expression levels of 8 genes, Pmvk, Idi1, Fdps, Fdft1, Sqle, Lss, Sc4mol, and Hsd17b7, in SHRSP were less than 50% those of the WKY rats; especially, the expression level of Sqle gene, encoding squalene epoxidase, a rate-limiting enzyme in cholesterol biosynthesis pathway, was about 20%. The gene expression level of sterol regulatory element-binding protein-2 (SREBP-2), which functions as a transcription factor upregulating gene expression of cholesterol biosynthetic enzymes, in SHRSP was about 70% of that in WKY rats. These results demonstrate the possibility that the lower serum total cholesterol level in SHRSP is defined by lower gene expression of most hepatic cholesterol biosynthetic enzymes. In particular, decreased gene expression level of Sqle gene might be the most essential factor. Moreover, the broad range of lowered rates of these genes in SHRSP suggests that the abnormal function and/or expression not only of SREBP-2 but also of one or more other transcription factors for those gene expressions exist in SHRSP.
Barrios-González, J; Baños, J G; Covarrubias, A A; Garay-Arroyo, A
Molecular studies were performed to establish the causes of the superior lovastatin productivity of a novel solid-state fermentation (SSF) process, in relation with liquid submerged fermentation (SmF; 20 mg/g vs. 0.65 mg/ml). In SSF, biosynthetic genes lovE and lovF transcripts accumulated to high levels from day 1 to day 7. In this period, lovE transcript showed 4.6-fold higher accumulation levels (transcription) than the highest level detected in SmF (day 5). lovF transcript showed two-fold higher expression than the highest point in SmF. In SmF, the expression was only detected clearly on day 5 and, showing a 50% decrease, on day 7. These results show that the higher lovastatin production in SSF is related to a more intense transcription of these biosynthetic genes. A strong expression of gldB gene in lovastatin SSF indicated that Aspergillus terreus senses osmotic stress during the course of SSF, but not in SmF. However, when a liquid medium of identical concentration was used in SmF, lovastatin production decreased in SSF.
Davis, Elizabeth; Sloan, Tyler; Aurelius, Krista; Barbour, Angela; Bodey, Elijah; Clark, Brigette; Dennis, Celeste; Drown, Rachel; Fleming, Megan; Humbert, Allison; Glasgo, Elizabeth; Kerns, Trent; Lingro, Kelly; McMillin, MacKenzie; Meyer, Aaron; Pope, Breanna; Stalevicz, April; Steffen, Brittney; Steindl, Austin; Williams, Carolyn; Wimberley, Carmen; Zenas, Robert; Butela, Kristen; Wildschutte, Hans
The emergence of bacterial pathogens resistant to all known antibiotics is a global health crisis. Adding to this problem is that major pharmaceutical companies have shifted away from antibiotic discovery due to low profitability. As a result, the pipeline of new antibiotics is essentially dry and many bacteria now resist the effects of most commonly used drugs. To address this global health concern, citizen science through the Small World Initiative (SWI) was formed in 2012. As part of SWI, students isolate bacteria from their local environments, characterize the strains, and assay for antibiotic production. During the 2015 fall semester at Bowling Green State University, students isolated 77 soil-derived bacteria and genetically characterized strains using the 16S rRNA gene, identified strains exhibiting antagonistic activity, and performed an expanded SWI workflow using transposon mutagenesis to identify a biosynthetic gene cluster involved in toxigenic compound production. We identified one mutant with loss of antagonistic activity and through subsequent whole-genome sequencing and linker-mediated PCR identified a 24.9 kb biosynthetic gene locus likely involved in inhibitory activity in that mutant. Further assessment against human pathogens demonstrated the inhibition of Bacillus cereus, Listeria monocytogenes, and methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in the presence of this compound, thus supporting our molecular strategy as an effective research pipeline for SWI antibiotic discovery and genetic characterization.
Bilovol, Yulia; Panaccione, Daniel G.
Bioactive ergot alkaloids produced by several species of fungi are important molecules in agriculture and medicine. Much of the ergot alkaloid pathway has been elucidated, but a few steps, including the gene controlling hydroxylation of festuclavine to fumigaclavine B, remain unsolved. Festuclavine is a key intermediate in the fumigaclavine branch of the ergot alkaloid pathway of the opportunistic pathogen Neosartorya fumigata and also in the dihydrolysergic acid-based ergot alkaloid pathway of certain Claviceps species. Based on several lines of evidence, the N. fumigata gene easM is a logical candidate to encode the festuclavine-hydroxylating enzyme. To test this hypothesis we disrupted easM function by replacing part of its coding sequences with a hygromycin resistance gene and transforming N. fumigata with this construct. High pressure liquid chromatography analysis demonstrated that easM deletion mutants were blocked in the ergot alkaloid pathway at festuclavine, and downstream products were eliminated. An additional alkaloid, proposed to be a prenylated form of festuclavine on the basis of mass spectral data, also accumulated to higher concentrations in the easM knockout. Complementation with the wild-type allele of easM gene restored the ability of the fungus to produce downstream compounds. These results indicate that easM encodes an enzyme required for fumigaclavine B synthesis likely by hydroxylating festuclavine. The festuclavine-accumulating strain of N. fumigata may facilitate future investigations of the biosynthesis of dihydrolysergic acid derivatives, which are derived from festuclavine and are the basis for several important drugs. PMID:26972831
Kim, Misun; Kim, Seong-Cheol; Song, Kwan Jeong; Kim, Ho Bang; Kim, In-Jung; Song, Eun-Young; Chun, Seung-Jong
Genetic transformation using a micro-cross section (MCS) technique was conducted to improve the carotenoid content in kiwifruit (Actinidia deliciosa cv. Hayward). The introduced carotenoid biosynthetic genes include geranylgeranyl diphosphate synthase (GGPS), phytoene desaturase (PDS), ζ-carotene desaturase (ZDS), β-carotene hydroxylase (CHX), and phytoene synthase (PSY). The transformed explants were selected on half-strength MS medium containing 0.001 mg l(-1) of 2,4-D and 0.1 mg l(-1) of zeatin, either 5 mg l(-1) hygromycin or 25 mg l(-1) kanamycin, and 500 mg l(-1) cefotaxime. The genomic PCR, genomic Southern blot analysis, and RT-PCR were performed to confirm the integration and expression of the transgenes. The transformation efficiencies of either kanamycin- or hygromycin-resistant shoots ranged from 2.9 to 22.1% depending on the target genes, and from 2.9 to 24.2% depending on the reporter genes. The selection efficiencies ranged from 66.7 to 100% for the target genes and from 95.8 to 100% for the reporter genes. Changes of carotenoid content in the several PCR-positive plants were determined by UPLC analysis. As a result, transgenic plants expressing either GGPS or PSY increased about 1.2- to 1.3-fold in lutein or β-carotene content compared to non-transgenic plants. Our results suggest that the Agrobacterium-mediated transformation efficiency of kiwifruit can be greatly increased by this MCS method and that the carotenoid biosynthetic pathway can be modified in kiwifruit by genetic transformation. Our results further suggest that GGPS and PSY genes could be major target genes to increase carotenoid contents in kiwifruit.
Dewey, Ralph E; Xie, Jiahua
Alkaloids represent an extensive group of nitrogen-containing secondary metabolites that are widely distributed throughout the plant kingdom. The pyridine alkaloids of tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum L.) have been the subject of particularly intensive investigation, driven largely due to the widespread use of tobacco products by society and the role that nicotine (16) (see Fig. 1) plays as the primary compound responsible for making the consumption of these products both pleasurable and addictive. In a typical commercial tobacco plant, nicotine (16) comprises about 90% of the total alkaloid pool, with the alkaloids nornicotine (17) (a demethylated derivative of nicotine), anatabine (15) and anabasine (5) making up most of the remainder. Advances in molecular biology have led to the characterization of the majority of the genes encoding the enzymes directly responsible the biosynthesis of nicotine (16) and nornicotine (17), while notable gaps remain within the anatabine (15) and anabasine (5) biosynthetic pathways. Several of the genes involved in the transcriptional regulation and transport of nicotine (16) have also been elucidated. Investigations of the molecular genetics of tobacco alkaloids have not only provided plant biologists with insights into the mechanisms underlying the synthesis and accumulation of this important class of plant alkaloids, they have also yielded tools and strategies for modifying the tobacco alkaloid composition in a manner that can result in changing the levels of nicotine (16) within the leaf, or reducing the levels of a potent carcinogenic tobacco-specific nitrosamine (TSNA). This review summarizes recent advances in our understanding of the molecular genetics of alkaloid biosynthesis in tobacco, and discusses the potential for applying information accrued from these studies toward efforts designed to help mitigate some of the negative health consequences associated with the use of tobacco products.
Cruz-Morales, Pablo; Kopp, Johannes Florian; Martínez-Guerrero, Christian; Yáñez-Guerra, Luis Alfonso; Selem-Mojica, Nelly; Ramos-Aboites, Hilda; Feldmann, Jörg; Barona-Gómez, Francisco
Natural products from microbes have provided humans with beneficial antibiotics for millennia. However, a decline in the pace of antibiotic discovery exerts pressure on human health as antibiotic resistance spreads, a challenge that may better faced by unveiling chemical diversity produced by microbes. Current microbial genome mining approaches have revitalized research into antibiotics, but the empirical nature of these methods limits the chemical space that is explored. Here, we address the problem of finding novel pathways by incorporating evolutionary principles into genome mining. We recapitulated the evolutionary history of twenty-three enzyme families previously uninvestigated in the context of natural product biosynthesis in Actinobacteria, the most proficient producers of natural products. Our genome evolutionary analyses where based on the assumption that expanded—repurposed enzyme families—from central metabolism, occur frequently and thus have the potential to catalyze new conversions in the context of natural products biosynthesis. Our analyses led to the discovery of biosynthetic gene clusters coding for hidden chemical diversity, as validated by comparing our predictions with those from state-of-the-art genome mining tools; as well as experimentally demonstrating the existence of a biosynthetic pathway for arseno-organic metabolites in Streptomyces coelicolor and Streptomyces lividans, Using a gene knockout and metabolite profile combined strategy. As our approach does not rely solely on sequence similarity searches of previously identified biosynthetic enzymes, these results establish the basis for the development of an evolutionary-driven genome mining tool termed EvoMining that complements current platforms. We anticipate that by doing so real ‘chemical dark matter’ will be unveiled. PMID:27289100
Cruz-Morales, Pablo; Kopp, Johannes Florian; Martínez-Guerrero, Christian; Yáñez-Guerra, Luis Alfonso; Selem-Mojica, Nelly; Ramos-Aboites, Hilda; Feldmann, Jörg; Barona-Gómez, Francisco
Natural products from microbes have provided humans with beneficial antibiotics for millennia. However, a decline in the pace of antibiotic discovery exerts pressure on human health as antibiotic resistance spreads, a challenge that may better faced by unveiling chemical diversity produced by microbes. Current microbial genome mining approaches have revitalized research into antibiotics, but the empirical nature of these methods limits the chemical space that is explored.Here, we address the problem of finding novel pathways by incorporating evolutionary principles into genome mining. We recapitulated the evolutionary history of twenty-three enzyme families previously uninvestigated in the context of natural product biosynthesis in Actinobacteria, the most proficient producers of natural products. Our genome evolutionary analyses where based on the assumption that expanded-repurposed enzyme families-from central metabolism, occur frequently and thus have the potential to catalyze new conversions in the context of natural products biosynthesis. Our analyses led to the discovery of biosynthetic gene clusters coding for hidden chemical diversity, as validated by comparing our predictions with those from state-of-the-art genome mining tools; as well as experimentally demonstrating the existence of a biosynthetic pathway for arseno-organic metabolites in Streptomyces coelicolor and Streptomyces lividans, Using a gene knockout and metabolite profile combined strategy.As our approach does not rely solely on sequence similarity searches of previously identified biosynthetic enzymes, these results establish the basis for the development of an evolutionary-driven genome mining tool termed EvoMining that complements current platforms. We anticipate that by doing so real 'chemical dark matter' will be unveiled.
Hadjithomas, Michalis; Chen, I-Min Amy; Chu, Ken; Ratner, Anna; Palaniappan, Krishna; Szeto, Ernest; Huang, Jinghua; Reddy, T. B. K.; Cimermančič, Peter; Fischbach, Michael A.; Ivanova, Natalia N.; Markowitz, Victor M.
ABSTRACT In the discovery of secondary metabolites, analysis of sequence data is a promising exploration path that remains largely underutilized due to the lack of computational platforms that enable such a systematic approach on a large scale. In this work, we present IMG-ABC (https://img.jgi.doe.gov/abc), an atlas of biosynthetic gene clusters within the Integrated Microbial Genomes (IMG) system, which is aimed at harnessing the power of “big” genomic data for discovering small molecules. IMG-ABC relies on IMG’s comprehensive integrated structural and functional genomic data for the analysis of biosynthetic gene clusters (BCs) and associated secondary metabolites (SMs). SMs and BCs serve as the two main classes of objects in IMG-ABC, each with a rich collection of attributes. A unique feature of IMG-ABC is the incorporation of both experimentally validated and computationally predicted BCs in genomes as well as metagenomes, thus identifying BCs in uncultured populations and rare taxa. We demonstrate the strength of IMG-ABC’s focused integrated analysis tools in enabling the exploration of microbial secondary metabolism on a global scale, through the discovery of phenazine-producing clusters for the first time in Alphaproteobacteria. IMG-ABC strives to fill the long-existent void of resources for computational exploration of the secondary metabolism universe; its underlying scalable framework enables traversal of uncovered phylogenetic and chemical structure space, serving as a doorway to a new era in the discovery of novel molecules. PMID:26173699
Hodges, Tyler W; Slattery, Marc; Olson, Julie B
In the ever-expanding search for novel bioactive molecules and enzymes, marine actinomycetes have proven to be a productive source. While open reef sediment and sponge-associated actinomycetes have been extensively examined, their marine cave counterparts remain unevaluated. Anchialine cave systems in the Bahamas offered an ideal setting to evaluate the occurrence and variation within sediment-associated actinomycete communities. While in close geographical proximity to open reef environments, these systems provide a specialized environmental niche devoid of light and direct exposure to nutrient input. In the present study, selective isolation techniques and molecular methods were used to test the hypothesis that variable distribution of actinomycetes and secondary metabolite gene clusters occur between open reef and marine cave systems. The results indicated that differences exist within the culturable sediment-associated actinomycete communities between marine caves and open reef systems, with members of the genus Streptomyces dominating cultures from open reef sediments and a more diverse suite of actinomycetes isolated from marine cave sediment samples. Within the cave isolates, members of the proposed genus Solwaraspora were the most represented. Based on PKS- and NRPS-gene-targeted PCR amplification and sequencing, geographic variation in the occurrence of these biosynthetic pathways was also observed. These findings indicate that marine cave systems are a lucrative source in the search for novel secondary metabolite producers with biotechnological applications and that environmental and geographic factors likely affect the occurrence of these biosynthetic pathways.
Ogasawara, Yasushi; Yackley, Benjamin J; Greenberg, Jacob A; Rogelj, Snezna; Melançon, Charles E
A large and rapidly increasing number of unstudied "orphan" natural product biosynthetic gene clusters are being uncovered in sequenced microbial genomes. An important goal of modern natural products research is to be able to accurately predict natural product structures and biosynthetic pathways from these gene cluster sequences. This requires both development of bioinformatic methods for global analysis of these gene clusters and experimental characterization of select products produced by gene clusters with divergent sequence characteristics. Here, we conduct global bioinformatic analysis of all available type II polyketide gene cluster sequences and identify a conserved set of gene clusters with unique ketosynthase α/β sequence characteristics in the genomes of Frankia species, a group of Actinobacteria with underexploited natural product biosynthetic potential. Through LC-MS profiling of extracts from several Frankia species grown under various conditions, we identified Frankia sp. EAN1pec as producing a compound with spectral characteristics consistent with the type II polyketide produced by this gene cluster. We isolated the compound, a pentangular polyketide which we named frankiamicin A, and elucidated its structure by NMR and labeled precursor feeding. We also propose biosynthetic and regulatory pathways for frankiamicin A based on comparative genomic analysis and literature precedent, and conduct bioactivity assays of the compound. Our findings provide new information linking this set of Frankia gene clusters with the compound they produce, and our approach has implications for accurate functional prediction of the many other type II polyketide clusters present in bacterial genomes.
Iftime, Dumitrita; Kulik, Andreas; Härtner, Thomas; Rohrer, Sabrina; Niedermeyer, Timo Horst Johannes; Stegmann, Evi; Weber, Tilmann; Wohlleben, Wolfgang
Streptomycetes are prolific sources of novel biologically active secondary metabolites with pharmaceutical potential. S. collinus Tü 365 is a Streptomyces strain, isolated 1972 from Kouroussa (Guinea). It is best known as producer of the antibiotic kirromycin, an inhibitor of the protein biosynthesis interacting with elongation factor EF-Tu. Genome Mining revealed 32 gene clusters encoding the biosynthesis of diverse secondary metabolites in the genome of Streptomyces collinus Tü 365, indicating an enormous biosynthetic potential of this strain. The structural diversity of secondary metabolisms predicted for S. collinus Tü 365 includes PKS, NRPS, PKS-NRPS hybrids, a lanthipeptide, terpenes and siderophores. While some of these gene clusters were found to contain genes related to known secondary metabolites, which also could be detected in HPLC-MS analyses, most of the uncharacterized gene clusters are not expressed under standard laboratory conditions. With this study we aimed to characterize the genome information of S. collinus Tü 365 to make use of gene clusters, which previously have not been described for this strain. We were able to connect the gene clusters of a lanthipeptide, a carotenoid, five terpenoid compounds, an ectoine, a siderophore and a spore pigment-associated gene cluster to their respective biosynthesis products.
Mei, Nan; Guo, Lei; Liu, Ruqing; Fuscoe, James C; Chen, Tao
Background Pyrrolizidine alkaloids (PAs) are probably the most common plant constituents that poison livestock, wildlife, and humans worldwide. Riddelliine is isolated from plants grown in the western United States and is a prototype of genotoxic PAs. Riddelliine was used to investigate the genotoxic effects of PAs via analysis of gene expression in the target tissue of rats in this study. Previously we observed that the mutant frequency in the liver of rats gavaged with riddelliine was 3-fold higher than that in the control group. Molecular analysis of the mutants indicated that there was a statistically significant difference between the mutational spectra from riddelliine-treated and control rats. Results Riddelliine-induced gene expression profiles in livers of Big Blue transgenic rats were determined. The female rats were gavaged with riddelliine at a dose of 1 mg/kg body weight 5 days a week for 12 weeks. Rat whole genome microarray was used to perform genome-wide gene expression studies. When a cutoff value of a two-fold change and a P-value less than 0.01 were used as gene selection criteria, 919 genes were identified as differentially expressed in riddelliine-treated rats compared to the control animals. By analysis with the Ingenuity Pathway Analysis Network, we found that these significantly changed genes were mainly involved in cancer, cell death, tissue development, cellular movement, tissue morphology, cell-to-cell signaling and interaction, and cellular growth and proliferation. We further analyzed the genes involved in metabolism, injury of endothelial cells, liver abnormalities, and cancer development in detail. Conclusion The alterations in gene expression were directly related to the pathological outcomes reported previously. These results provided further insight into the mechanisms involved in toxicity and carcinogenesis after exposure to riddelliine, and permitted us to investigate the interaction of gene products inside the signaling networks
Baccile, Joshua A.; Spraker, Joseph E.; Le, Henry H.; Brandenburger, Eileen; Gomez, Christian; Bok, Jin Woo; Macheleidt, Juliane; Brakhage, Axel A.; Hoffmeister, Dirk; Keller, Nancy P.; Schroeder, Frank C.
Natural product discovery efforts have focused primarily on microbial biosynthetic gene clusters (BGCs) containing large multi-modular PKSs and NRPSs; however, sequencing of fungal genomes has revealed a vast number of BGCs containing smaller NRPS-like genes of unknown biosynthetic function. Using comparative metabolomics, we show that a BGC in the human pathogen Aspergillus fumigatus named fsq, which contains an NRPS-like gene lacking a condensation domain, produces several novel isoquinoline alkaloids, the fumisoquins. These compounds derive from carbon-carbon bond formation between two amino acid-derived moieties followed by a sequence that is directly analogous to isoquinoline alkaloid biosynthesis in plants. Fumisoquin biosynthesis requires the N-methyltransferase FsqC and the FAD-dependent oxidase FsqB, which represent functional analogs of coclaurine N-methyltransferase and berberine bridge enzyme in plants. Our results show that BGCs containing incomplete NRPS modules may reveal new biosynthetic paradigms and suggest that plant-like isoquinoline biosynthesis occurs in diverse fungi. PMID:27065235
Itkin, M; Heinig, U; Tzfadia, O; Bhide, A J; Shinde, B; Cardenas, P D; Bocobza, S E; Unger, T; Malitsky, S; Finkers, R; Tikunov, Y; Bovy, A; Chikate, Y; Singh, P; Rogachev, I; Beekwilder, J; Giri, A P; Aharoni, A
Steroidal glycoalkaloids (SGAs) such as α-solanine found in solanaceous food plants--as, for example, potato--are antinutritional factors for humans. Comparative coexpression analysis between tomato and potato coupled with chemical profiling revealed an array of 10 genes that partake in SGA biosynthesis. We discovered that six of them exist as a cluster on chromosome 7, whereas an additional two are adjacent in a duplicated genomic region on chromosome 12. Following systematic functional analysis, we suggest a revised SGA biosynthetic pathway starting from cholesterol up to the tetrasaccharide moiety linked to the tomato SGA aglycone. Silencing GLYCOALKALOID METABOLISM 4 prevented accumulation of SGAs in potato tubers and tomato fruit. This may provide a means for removal of unsafe, antinutritional substances present in these widely used food crops.
McCoy, Elizabeth; O'Connor, Sarah E
Terpene indole alkaloids are plant natural products with diverse structures and biological activities. A highly branched biosynthetic pathway is responsible for the production of approximately 130 different alkaloids in Madagascar periwinkle (C. roseus) from a common biosynthetic intermediate derived from tryptamine. Although numerous biosynthetic pathways can incorporate unnatural starting materials to yield novel natural products, it was not clear how efficiently the complex, eukaryotic TIA pathway could utilize unnatural substrates to make new alkaloids. This work demonstrates that the TIA biosynthetic machinery can be used to produce novel alkaloid structures and also highlights the potential of this pathway for future metabolic engineering efforts.
Yan, Xia; Tang, Xi-Xiang; Qin, Dan; Yi, Zhi-Wei; Fang, Mei-Juan; Wu, Zhen; Qiu, Ying-Kun
This work investigated the metabolites and their biosynthetic functional hydroxylase genes of the deep-sea sediment metagenomic clone 25D7. 5-Bromoindole was added to the 25D7 clone derived Escherichia coli fermentation broth. The new-generated metabolites and their biosynthetic byproducts were located through LC-MS, in which the isotope peaks of brominated products emerged. Two new brominated bis-indole metabolites, 5-bromometagenediindole B (1), and 5-bromometagenediindole C (2) were separated under the guidance of LC-MS. Their structures were elucidated on the basis of 1D and 2D NMR spectra (COSY, HSQC, and HMBC). The biosynthetic functional genes of the two new compounds were revealed through LC-MS and transposon mutagenesis analysis. 5-Bromometagenediindole B (1) also demonstrated moderately cytotoxic activity against MCF7, B16, CNE2, Bel7402, and HT1080 tumor cell lines in vitro. PMID:27258289
Greule, Anja; Zhang, Songya; Paululat, Thomas; Bechthold, Andreas
Streptomyces strains are known for their capability to produce a lot of different compounds with various bioactivities. Cultivation under different conditions often leads to the production of new compounds. Therefore, production cultures of the strains are extracted with ethyl acetate and the crude extracts are analyzed by HPLC. Furthermore, the extracts are tested for their bioactivity by different assays. For structure elucidation the compound of interest is purified by a combination of different chromatography methods. Genome sequencing coupled with genome mining allows the identification of a natural product biosynthetic gene cluster using different computer programs. To confirm that the correct gene cluster has been identified, gene inactivation experiments have to be performed. The resulting mutants are analyzed for the production of the particular natural product. Once the correct gene cluster has been inactivated, the strain should fail to produce the compound. The workflow is shown for the antibacterial compound polyketomycin produced by Streptomyces diastatochromogenes Tü6028. Around ten years ago, when genome sequencing was still very expensive, the cloning and identification of a gene cluster was a very time-consuming process. Fast genome sequencing combined with genome mining accelerates the trial of cluster identification and opens up new ways to explore biosynthesis and to generate novel natural products by genetic methods. The protocol described in this paper can be assigned to any other compound derived from a Streptomyces strain or another microorganism. PMID:28117820
Greule, Anja; Zhang, Songya; Paululat, Thomas; Bechthold, Andreas
Streptomyces strains are known for their capability to produce a lot of different compounds with various bioactivities. Cultivation under different conditions often leads to the production of new compounds. Therefore, production cultures of the strains are extracted with ethyl acetate and the crude extracts are analyzed by HPLC. Furthermore, the extracts are tested for their bioactivity by different assays. For structure elucidation the compound of interest is purified by a combination of different chromatography methods. Genome sequencing coupled with genome mining allows the identification of a natural product biosynthetic gene cluster using different computer programs. To confirm that the correct gene cluster has been identified, gene inactivation experiments have to be performed. The resulting mutants are analyzed for the production of the particular natural product. Once the correct gene cluster has been inactivated, the strain should fail to produce the compound. The workflow is shown for the antibacterial compound polyketomycin produced by Streptomyces diastatochromogenes Tü6028. Around ten years ago, when genome sequencing was still very expensive, the cloning and identification of a gene cluster was a very time-consuming process. Fast genome sequencing combined with genome mining accelerates the trial of cluster identification and opens up new ways to explore biosynthesis and to generate novel natural products by genetic methods. The protocol described in this paper can be assigned to any other compound derived from a Streptomyces strain or another microorganism.
Zhang, Dong-Xiu; Stromberg, Arnold J; Spiering, Martin J; Schardl, Christopher L
Epichloë endophytes (holomorphic Epichloë spp. and anamorphic Neotyphodium spp.) are systemic, often heritable symbionts of cool-season grasses (subfamily Pooideae). Many epichloae provide protection to their hosts by producing anti-insect compounds. Among these are the loline alkaloids (LA), which are toxic and deterrent to a broad range of herbivorous insects but not to mammalian herbivores. LOL, a gene cluster containing nine genes, is associated with LA biosynthesis. We investigated coordinate regulation between LOL-gene expression and LA production in minimal medium (MM) cultures of Neotyphodium uncinatum. Expression of all LOL genes significantly fit temporal quadratic patterns during LA production. LOL-gene expression started before LA were detectable, and increased while LA accumulated. The highest gene expression level was reached at close to the time of most rapid LA accumulation, and gene expression declined to a very low level as amounts of LA plateaued. Temporal expression profiles of the nine LOL genes were tightly correlated with each other, but not as tightly correlated with proC and metE (genes for biosynthesis of precursor amino acids). Furthermore, the start days and peak days of expression significantly correlated with the order of the LOL-cluster genes in the genome. Hierarchical cluster analysis indicated three pairs of genes-lolA and lolC, lolO and lolD, and lolT and lolE-expression of which was especially tightly correlated. Of these, lolA and lolC tended to be expressed early, and lolT and lolE tended to be expressed late, in keeping with the putative roles of the respective gene products in the LA-biosynthesis pathway. Several common transcriptional binding sites were discovered in the LOL upstream regions. However, low expression of P(lolC2)uidA and P(lolA2)uidA in N. uncinatum transformants suggested induced expression of LOL genes might be subject to position effect at the LOL locus.
Tanaka, Yukinori; Kasahara, Ken; Hirose, Yutaka; Murakami, Kiriko; Kugimiya, Rie; Ochi, Kozo
A subset of rifampin resistance (rpoB) mutations result in the overproduction of antibiotics in various actinomycetes, including Streptomyces, Saccharopolyspora, and Amycolatopsis, with H437Y and H437R rpoB mutations effective most frequently. Moreover, the rpoB mutations markedly activate (up to 70-fold at the transcriptional level) the cryptic/silent secondary metabolite biosynthetic gene clusters of these actinomycetes, which are not activated under general stressful conditions, with the exception of treatment with rare earth elements. Analysis of the metabolite profile demonstrated that the rpoB mutants produced many metabolites, which were not detected in the wild-type strains. This approach utilizing rifampin resistance mutations is characterized by its feasibility and potential scalability to high-throughput studies and would be useful to activate and to enhance the yields of metabolites for discovery and biochemical characterization.
Ono, Nadia Nicole; Britton, Monica Therese; Fass, Joseph Nathaniel; Nicolet, Charles Meyer; Lin, Dawei; Tian, Li
Pomegranate fruit peel is rich in bioactive plant natural products, such as hydrolyzable tannins and anthocyanins. Despite their documented roles in human nutrition and fruit quality, genes involved in natural product biosynthesis have not been cloned from pomegranate and very little sequence information is available on pomegranate in the public domain. Shotgun transcriptome sequencing of pomegranate fruit peel cDNA was performed using RNA-Seq on the Illumina Genome Analyzer platform. Over 100 million raw sequence reads were obtained and assembled into 9,839 transcriptome assemblies (TAs) (>200 bp). Candidate genes for hydrolyzable tannin, anthocyanin, flavonoid, terpenoid and fatty acid biosynthesis and/or regulation were identified. Three lipid transfer proteins were obtained that may contribute to the previously reported IgE reactivity of pomegranate fruit extracts. In addition, 115 SSR markers were identified from the pomegranate fruit peel transcriptome and primers were designed for 77 SSR markers. The pomegranate fruit peel transcriptome set provides a valuable platform for natural product biosynthetic gene and SSR marker discovery in pomegranate. This work also demonstrates that next-generation transcriptome sequencing is an economical and effective approach for investigating natural product biosynthesis, identifying genes controlling important agronomic traits, and discovering molecular markers in non-model specialty crop species.
Mohandas, Poornima; Budell, William C; Mueller, Emily; Au, Andrew; Bythrow, Glennon V; Quadri, Luis E N
Phthiocerol dimycocerosates (PDIMs) and phenolic glycolipids (PGLs) contribute to the pathogenicity of several mycobacteria. Biosynthesis of these virulence factors requires polyketide synthases and other enzymes that represent potential targets for the development of adjuvant antivirulence drugs. We used six isogenic Mycobacterium marinum mutants, each with a different gene knockout in the PDIM/PGL biosynthetic pathway, to probe the pleiotropy of mutations leading to PDIM(-) PGL(-), PDIM(+) PGL(-) or PDIM(-) PGL(+) phenotypes. We evaluated the M. marinum mutants for changes in antibiotic susceptibility, cell envelope permeability, biofilm formation, surface properties, sliding motility and virulence in an amoeba model. The analysis also permitted us to begin exploring the hypothesis that different gene knockouts rendering the same PDIM and/or PGL deficiency phenotypes lead to M. marinum mutants with equivalent pleiotropic profiles. Overall, the results of our study revealed a complex picture of pleiotropic patterns emerging from different gene knockouts, uncovered unexpected phenotypic inequalities between mutants, and provided new insight into the phenotypic consequences of gene knockouts in the PDIM/PGL biosynthetic pathway.
Komorisono, Masahiko; Ueguchi-Tanaka, Miyako; Aichi, Ikuko; Hasegawa, Yasuko; Ashikari, Motoyuki; Kitano, Hidemi; Matsuoka, Makoto; Sazuka, Takashi
Molecular genetic studies of plant dwarf mutants have indicated that gibberellin (GA) and brassinosteroid (BR) are two major factors that determine plant height; dwarf mutants that are caused by other defects are relatively rare, especially in monocot species. Here, we report a rice (Oryza sativa) dwarf mutant, dwarf and gladius leaf 1 (dgl1), which exhibits only minimal response to GA and BR. In addition to the dwarf phenotype, dgl1 produces leaves with abnormally rounded tip regions. Positional cloning of DGL1 revealed that it encodes a 60-kD microtubule-severing katanin-like protein. The protein was found to be important in cell elongation and division, based on the observed cell phenotypes. GA biosynthetic genes are up-regulated in dgl1, but the expression of BR biosynthetic genes is not enhanced. The enhanced expression of GA biosynthetic genes in dgl1 is not caused by inappropriate GA signaling because the expression of these genes was repressed by GA3 treatment, and degradation of the rice DELLA protein SLR1 was triggered by GA3 in this mutant. Instead, aberrant microtubule organization caused by the loss of the microtubule-severing function of DGL1 may result in enhanced expression of GA biosynthetic genes in that enhanced expression was also observed in a BR-deficient mutant with aberrant microtubule organization. These results suggest that the function of DGL1 is important for cell and organ elongation in rice, and aberrant DGL1-mediated microtubule organization causes up-regulation of gibberellin biosynthetic genes independently of gibberellin signaling.
do Nascimento, Naíla Cannes; Menguer, Paloma Koprovski; Sperotto, Raul Antonio; de Almeida, Márcia Rodrigues; Fett-Neto, Arthur Germano
UV-B radiation can damage biomolecules, such as DNA, RNA, and proteins, halting essential cellular processes; this damage is partly due to ROS generation. Plant secondary metabolites may protect against UV-B. Psychotria brachyceras Müll. Arg. (Rubiaceae), a subtropical shrub, produces brachycerine, a monoterpene indole alkaloid mainly accumulated in leaf tissues, which displays antioxidant and antimutagenic activities. Exposure of P. brachyceras cuttings to UV-B radiation significantly increases leaf brachycerine concentration. It has been suggested that this alkaloid might contribute to protection against UV-B damage both through its quenching activity on ROS and as UV shield. To identify differentially expressed genes of P. brachyceras in response to UV-B and investigate a possible influence of this stimulus on putative brachycerine-related genes, suppressive subtractive hybridization was applied. Complementary DNA from UV-B-treated leaves for 24 h was used as tester, and cDNA from untreated leaves, as driver. After BLASTX alignments, 134 sequences matched plant genes. Using quantitative RT-PCR, selected genes potentially related to brachycerine showed significant increases in transcription after UV-B exposure: tryptophan decarboxylase, ACC oxidase, UDP-glucose glucosyltransferase, lipase, and serine/threonine kinase. Results suggest a possible involvement of brachycerine in acute UV-B responses and show that alkaloid accumulation seems at least partly regulated at transcriptional level.
Kim, Eun Young; Han, Jae Woo; Lee, Jee Yeon; Kim, Beom Seok
The antibiotic L-155,175, a potent antiparasitic and antifungal compound, has an unusual structure involving 16-membered macrolides that contain a tetrahydropyran ring connected through a three-carbon linker chain. To identify the biosynthetic gene cluster for L-155,175, a genomic DNA library of Streptomyces hygroscopicus ATCC31955 was constructed and screened with a degenerate primer set designed from a conserved region of the ketosynthase (KS) domain. Sequence analysis of a fosmid clone, pEY1D8 (34 kb), revealed multiple open reading frames (ORFs) encoding type I polyketide synthase (PKS). To determine whether the cloned genes are involved in L-155,175 biosynthesis, a deletion mutant (1D8m) was generated by homologous recombination, in which the gene encoding the KS domain was substituted with an apramycin-resistance gene by PCR-targeted Streptomyces gene replacement. LC-MS analysis showed that L-155,175 production was completely abolished in the 1D8m strain, thereby proving that the cloned gene is responsible for L-155,175 biosynthesis. The sequencing of two other fosmid clones (pEY8B10 and pEY1C9) harboring overlapping sequences from pEY1D8 revealed a 60-kb DNA segment encoding six ORFs for type I PKS harboring 12 modules. The domain organization of the PKS modules encoded by PKS exactly matched the structure of L-155,175. This is the first report on the gene cluster involved in the biosynthesis of L-155,175.
Facchini, Peter J; De Luca, Vincenzo
Alkaloids represent a large and diverse group of compounds that are related by the occurrence of a nitrogen atom within a heterocyclic backbone. Unlike other types of secondary metabolites, the various structural categories of alkaloids are unrelated in terms of biosynthesis and evolution. Although the biology of each group is unique, common patterns have become apparent. Opium poppy (Papaver somniferum), which produces several benzylisoquinoline alkaloids, and Madagascar periwinkle (Catharanthus roseus), which accumulates an array of monoterpenoid indole alkaloids, have emerged as the premier organisms used to study plant alkaloid metabolism. The status of these species as model systems results from decades of research on the chemistry, enzymology and molecular biology responsible for the biosynthesis of valuable pharmaceutical alkaloids. Opium poppy remains the only commercial source for morphine, codeine and semi-synthetic analgesics, such as oxycodone, derived from thebaine. Catharanthus roseus is the only source for the anti-cancer drugs vinblastine and vincristine. Impressive collections of cDNAs encoding biosynthetic enzymes and regulatory proteins involved in the formation of benzylisoquinoline and monoterpenoid indole alkaloids are now available, and the rate of gene discovery has accelerated with the application of genomics. Such tools have allowed the establishment of models that describe the complex cell biology of alkaloid metabolism in these important medicinal plants. A suite of biotechnological resources, including genetic transformation protocols, has allowed the application of metabolic engineering to modify the alkaloid content of these and related species. An overview of recent progress on benzylisoquinoline and monoterpenoid indole alkaloid biosynthesis in opium poppy and C. roseus is presented.
Bischof, Sylvain; Umhang, Martin; Eicke, Simona; Streb, Sebastian; Qi, Weihong; Zeeman, Samuel C
The branched glucans glycogen and starch are the most widespread storage carbohydrates in living organisms. The production of semicrystalline starch granules in plants is more complex than that of small, soluble glycogen particles in microbes and animals. However, the factors determining whether glycogen or starch is formed are not fully understood. The tropical tree Cecropia peltata is a rare example of an organism able to make either polymer type. Electron micrographs and quantitative measurements show that glycogen accumulates to very high levels in specialized myrmecophytic structures (Müllerian bodies), whereas starch accumulates in leaves. Compared with polymers comprising leaf starch, glycogen is more highly branched and has shorter branches--factors that prevent crystallization and explain its solubility. RNA sequencing and quantitative shotgun proteomics reveal that isoforms of all three classes of glucan biosynthetic enzyme (starch/glycogen synthases, branching enzymes, and debranching enzymes) are differentially expressed in Müllerian bodies and leaves, providing a system-wide view of the quantitative programming of storage carbohydrate metabolism. This work will prompt targeted analysis in model organisms and cross-species comparisons. Finally, as starch is the major carbohydrate used for food and industrial applications worldwide, these data provide a basis for manipulating starch biosynthesis in crops to synthesize tailor-made polyglucans.
Klein, Theodore M.; Roth, Bradley A.; Fromm, Michael E.
We have employed microprojectiles to deliver genes involved in anthocyanin biosynthesis to cells within intact aleurone and embryo tissues of maize. Clones of the A1 or Bz1 genes were introduced into aleurone tissue that lacked anthocyanins due to mutations of the endogenous A1 or Bz1 gene. Following bombardment, cells within the aleurone developed purple pigmentation, indicating that the mutation in the a1 or bz1 genotypes was corrected by the introduced gene. To analyze the expression of these genes in different genetic backgrounds, chimeric genes containing the 5′ and 3′ regions of the A1 or Bz1 genes fused to a luciferase coding region were constructed. These constructs were introduced into aleurones of genotypes carrying either dominant or recessive alleles of the C1 and R genes, which are known to regulate anthocyanin production. Levels of luciferase activity in permissive backgrounds (C1, R) were 30- to 200-fold greater than those detected in tissue carrying one or both of the recessive alleles (c1, r) of these genes. These results show that genes delivered to intact tissues by microprojectiles are regulated in a manner similar to the endogenous genes. The transfer of genes directly to intact tissues provides a rapid means for analyzing the genetic and tissue-specific regulation of gene expression. Images PMID:16594066
Augustin, Megan M; Ruzicka, Dan R; Shukla, Ashutosh K; Augustin, Jörg M; Starks, Courtney M; O'Neil-Johnson, Mark; McKain, Michael R; Evans, Bradley S; Barrett, Matt D; Smithson, Ann; Wong, Gane Ka-Shu; Deyholos, Michael K; Edger, Patrick P; Pires, J Chris; Leebens-Mack, James H; Mann, David A; Kutchan, Toni M
Steroid alkaloids have been shown to elicit a wide range of pharmacological effects that include anticancer and antifungal activities. Understanding the biosynthesis of these molecules is essential to bioengineering for sustainable production. Herein, we investigate the biosynthetic pathway to cyclopamine, a steroid alkaloid that shows promising antineoplastic activities. Supply of cyclopamine is limited, as the current source is solely derived from wild collection of the plant Veratrum californicum. To elucidate the early stages of the pathway to cyclopamine, we interrogated a V. californicum RNA-seq dataset using the cyclopamine accumulation profile as a predefined model for gene expression with the pattern-matching algorithm Haystack. Refactoring candidate genes in Sf9 insect cells led to discovery of four enzymes that catalyze the first six steps in steroid alkaloid biosynthesis to produce verazine, a predicted precursor to cyclopamine. Three of the enzymes are cytochromes P450 while the fourth is a γ-aminobutyrate transaminase; together they produce verazine from cholesterol.
Zhang, Na; Qi, Yan; Zhang, Hai-Jun; Wang, Xiaoyun; Li, Hongfei; Shi, Yantong; Guo, Yang-Dong
Genistein (GNT), an isoflavone, is used in the clinical treatment of various health disorders. GNT is found in primary food source plants and some medical plants. However, studies on the functions of GNT in plants are rarely reported. In this study, we demonstrated that GNT plays an important role in promoting anthocyanin accumulation in red cabbage. GNT solutions (10, 20, 30, 40, and 50 mg/L) as foliar fertilizers were applied to red cabbage. Consequently, anthocyanin accumulation in red cabbage increased in a light-dependent manner. GNT solution at 30 mg/L exhibited the optimal effect on anthocyanin accumulation, which was twice that of the control. Quantitative real-time PCR analysis indicated that GNT application upregulated the expression of all structural genes, contributing to anthocyanin biosynthesis under light conditions. Under dark conditions, GNT exerted no significant promotive effect on anthocyanin accumulation; only early biosynthetic genes of anthocyanin biosynthesis responded to GNT. The promotive effect of GNT on anthocyanin biosynthesis is directly attributable to the regulation of structural gene expression. Transcription factors exhibited no response to GNT. The levels of anthocyanin in red cabbage positively correlated with the enzyme activities of antioxidant systems. This finding correlation suggested that the promotive effect of GNT on anthocyanin levels was correlated with improved antioxidant activity in the red cabbage. PMID:27990149
Streptomyces griseus DSM 2608 produces bafilomycin, an antifungal plecomacrolide antibiotic. We cloned and sequenced an 87.4-kb region, including a polyketide synthase (PKS) region, methoxymalonate genes, flavensomycinate genes, and other putative regulatory genes. The 58.5kb of PKS region consisting 12 PKS modules arranged in five different PKS genes, was assumed to be responsible for the biosynthesis of plecomacrolide backbone including 16-membered macrocyclic lactone. All the modules showed high similarities with typical type I PKS genes. However, the starting module of PKS gene was confirmed to be specific for isobutyrate by sequence comparison of an acyltransferase domain. In downstream of PKS region, the genes for methoxymalonate biosynthesis were located, among which a gene for FkbH-like protein was assumed to play an important role in the production of methoxymalonyl-CoA from glyceryl-CoA. Further the genes encoding flavensomycinyl-ACP biosynthesis for the post-PKS tailoring were also found in the upstream of PKS region. By gene disruption experiments of a dehydratase domain of module 12 and an FkbH-like protein, this gene cluster was confirmed to be involved in the biosynthesis of bafilomycin. PMID:23663353
Liu, Qingshu; Shen, Qiyao; Bian, Xiaoying; Chen, Hanna; Fu, Jun; Wang, Hailong; Lei, Ping; Guo, Zhaohui; Chen, Wu; Li, Dingjun; Zhang, Youming
Heterologous expression of biosynthetic pathways is an important way to research and discover microbial natural products. Bacillus subtilis is a suitable host for the heterologous production of natural products from bacilli and related Firmicutes. Existing technologies for heterologous expression of large biosynthetic gene clusters in B. subtilis are complicated. Herein, we present a simple and rapid strategy for direct cloning based heterologous expression of biosynthetic pathways in B. subtilis via Red/ET recombineering, using a 5.2 kb specific direct cloning vector carrying homologous sequences to the amyE gene in B. subtilis and CcdB counterselection marker. Using a two-step procedure, two large biosynthetic pathways for edeine (48.3 kb) and bacillomycin (37.2 kb) from Brevibacillus brevis X23 and B. amyloliquefaciens FZB42, respectively, were directly cloned and subsequently integrated into the chromosome of B. subtilis within one week. The gene cluster for bacillomycin was successfully expressed in the heterologous host, although edeine production was not detectable. Compared with similar technologies, this method offers a simpler and more feasible system for the discovery of natural products from bacilli and related genera. PMID:27687863
Hagel, Jillian M.; Weljie, Aalim M.; Vogel, Hans J.; Facchini, Peter J.
Opium poppy (Papaver somniferum) produces a diverse array of bioactive benzylisoquinoline alkaloids and has emerged as a versatile model system to study plant alkaloid metabolism. The plant is widely cultivated as the only commercial source of the narcotic analgesics morphine and codeine. Variations in plant secondary metabolism as a result of genetic diversity are often associated with perturbations in other metabolic pathways. As part of a functional genomics platform, we used 1H nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) metabolite profiling for the analysis of primary and secondary metabolism in opium poppy. Aqueous and chloroform extracts of six different opium poppy cultivars were subjected to chemometric analysis. Principle component analysis of the 1H NMR spectra for latex extracts clearly distinguished two varieties, including a low-alkaloid variety and a high-thebaine, low-morphine cultivar. Distinction was also made between pharmaceutical-grade opium poppy cultivars and a condiment variety. Such phenotypic differences were not observed in root extracts. Loading plots confirmed that morphinan alkaloids contributed predominantly to the variance in latex extracts. Quantification of 34 root and 21 latex metabolites, performed using Chenomx NMR Suite version 4.6, showed major differences in the accumulation of specific alkaloids in the latex of the low-alkaloid and high-thebaine, low-morphine varieties. Relatively few differences were found in the levels of other metabolites, indicating that the variation was specific for alkaloid metabolism. Exceptions in the low-alkaloid cultivar included an increased accumulation of the alkaloid precursor tyramine and reduced levels of sucrose, some amino acids, and malate. Real-time polymerase chain reaction analysis of 42 genes involved in primary and secondary metabolism showed differential gene expression mainly associated with alkaloid biosynthesis. Reduced alkaloid levels in the condiment variety were associated with the
Rocha, Liliana O.; Laurence, Matthew H.; Proctor, Robert H.; McCormick, Susan P.; Summerell, Brett A.; Liew, Edward C. Y.
Fusarium goolgardi, isolated from the grass tree Xanthorrhoea glauca in natural ecosystems of Australia, is closely related to fusaria that produce a subgroup of trichothecene (type A) mycotoxins that lack a carbonyl group at carbon atom 8 (C-8). Mass spectrometric analysis revealed that F. goolgardi isolates produce type A trichothecenes, but exhibited one of two chemotypes. Some isolates (50%) produced multiple type A trichothecenes, including 4,15-diacetoxyscirpenol (DAS), neosolaniol (NEO), 8-acetylneosolaniol (Ac-NEO) and T-2 toxin (DAS-NEO-T2 chemotype). Other isolates (50%) produced only DAS (DAS chemotype). In the phylogenies inferred from DNA sequences of genes encoding the RNA polymerase II largest (RPB1) and second largest (RPB2) subunits as well as the trichothecene biosynthetic genes (TRI), F. goolgardi isolates were resolved as a monophyletic clade, distinct from other type A trichothecene-producing species. However, the relationships of F. goolgardi to the other species varied depending on whether phylogenies were inferred from RPB1 and RPB2, the 12-gene TRI cluster, the two-gene TRI1-TRI16 locus, or the single-gene TRI101 locus. Phylogenies based on different TRI loci resolved isolates with different chemotypes into distinct clades, even though only the TRI1-TRI16 locus is responsible for structural variation at C-8. Sequence analysis indicated that TRI1 and TRI16 are functional in F. goolgardi isolates with the DAS-NEO-T2 chemotype, but non-functional in isolates with DAS chemotype due to the presence of premature stop codons caused by a point mutation. PMID:26556373
Yang, Yongheng; Huang, Suzhen; Han, Yulin; Yuan, Haiyan; Gu, Chunsun; Wang, Zhongwei
Plant growth and secondary metabolism are commonly regulated by external cues such as light, temperature and water availability. In this study, the influences of low and high temperatures, dehydration, photoperiods, and different growing stages on the changes of steviol glycosides (SGs) contents and transcription levels of fifteen genes involved in SGs biosynthesis of Stevia rebaudiana Bertoni were examined using HPLC and RT-PCR. The observations showed that the transcript levels of all the fifteen genes were maximum under 25 °C treatment, and the transcription of SrDXS, SrDXR, SrMCT, SrCMK, SrMDS, SrHDS, SrHDR, SrIDI, SrGGDPS, SrCPPS1, SrUGT85C2 and SrUGT76G1 were restrained both in low temperature (15 °C) and high temperature (35 °C). Most genes in SGs biosynthesis pathway exhibited down-regulation in dehydration. To elucidate the effect of photoperiods, the plants were treated by different simulated photoperiods (8 L/16 D, 1 0L/14 D, 14 L/10 D and 16 L/8 D), but no significant transcription changes were observed. In the study of growing stages, there were evident changes of SGs contents, and the transcript levels of all the fifteen genes were minimal in fast growing period, and exhibited evident increase both in flower-bud appearing stage and flowering stage. The obtained results strongly suggest that the effect of environmental cues on steviol glycosides contents and transcription of corresponding biosynthetic genes in S. rebaudiana is significant. It is worth to study deeply.
Biosynthesis of ecdysteroids involves sequential enzymatic hydroxylations by microsomal enzymes and mitochondrial cytochrome P450’s. Enzymes of the pathway are collectively known as Halloween genes. Complete sequences for three Halloween genes, spook (Vdspo), disembodied (Vddib) and shade (Vdshd), w...
Bushley, Kathryn E.; Raja, Rajani; Jaiswal, Pankaj; Cumbie, Jason S.; Nonogaki, Mariko; Boyd, Alexander E.; Owensby, C. Alisha; Knaus, Brian J.; Elser, Justin; Miller, Daniel; Di, Yanming; McPhail, Kerry L.; Spatafora, Joseph W.
The ascomycete fungus Tolypocladium inflatum, a pathogen of beetle larvae, is best known as the producer of the immunosuppressant drug cyclosporin. The draft genome of T. inflatum strain NRRL 8044 (ATCC 34921), the isolate from which cyclosporin was first isolated, is presented along with comparative analyses of the biosynthesis of cyclosporin and other secondary metabolites in T. inflatum and related taxa. Phylogenomic analyses reveal previously undetected and complex patterns of homology between the nonribosomal peptide synthetase (NRPS) that encodes for cyclosporin synthetase (simA) and those of other secondary metabolites with activities against insects (e.g., beauvericin, destruxins, etc.), and demonstrate the roles of module duplication and gene fusion in diversification of NRPSs. The secondary metabolite gene cluster responsible for cyclosporin biosynthesis is described. In addition to genes necessary for cyclosporin biosynthesis, it harbors a gene for a cyclophilin, which is a member of a family of immunophilins known to bind cyclosporin. Comparative analyses support a lineage specific origin of the cyclosporin gene cluster rather than horizontal gene transfer from bacteria or other fungi. RNA-Seq transcriptome analyses in a cyclosporin-inducing medium delineate the boundaries of the cyclosporin cluster and reveal high levels of expression of the gene cluster cyclophilin. In medium containing insect hemolymph, weaker but significant upregulation of several genes within the cyclosporin cluster, including the highly expressed cyclophilin gene, was observed. T. inflatum also represents the first reference draft genome of Ophiocordycipitaceae, a third family of insect pathogenic fungi within the fungal order Hypocreales, and supports parallel and qualitatively distinct radiations of insect pathogens. The T. inflatum genome provides additional insight into the evolution and biosynthesis of cyclosporin and lays a foundation for further investigations of the role
Zhu, Jianhua; Wang, Mingxuan; Wen, Wei; Yu, Rongmin
Catharanthus roseus produces a wide range of terpenoid indole alkaloids (TIA). Many of them, such as vinblastine and vincristine, have significant bioactivity. They are valuable chemotherapy drugs used in combination with other drugs to treat lymphoma and leukemia. The TIA biosynthetic pathway has been investigated for many years, for scientific interest and for their potential in manufacturing applications, to fulfill the market demand. In this review, the progress and perspective of C. roseus TIA biosynthesis and its regulating enzymes are described. In addition, the culture condition, hormones, signaling molecules, precursor feeding on the accumulation of TIA, and gene expression are also evaluated and discussed. PMID:26009689
Jiao, Jiao; Gai, Qing-Yan; Wang, Wei; Luo, Meng; Gu, Cheng-Bo; Fu, Yu-Jie; Ma, Wei
In this work, Astragalus membranaceus hairy root cultures (AMHRCs) were exposed to ultraviolet radiation (UV-A, UV-B, and UV-C) for promoting isoflavonoid accumulation. The optimum enhancement for isoflavonoid production was achieved in 34-day-old AMHRCs elicited by 86.4 kJ/m(2) of UV-B. The resulting isoflavonoid yield was 533.54 ± 13.61 μg/g dry weight (DW), which was 2.29-fold higher relative to control (232.93 ± 3.08 μg/g DW). UV-B up-regulated the transcriptional expressions of all investigated genes involved in isoflavonoid biosynthetic pathway. PAL and C4H were found to be two potential key genes that controlled isoflavonoid biosynthesis. Moreover, a significant increase was noted in antioxidant activity of extracts from UV-B-elicited AMHRCs (IC50 values = 0.85 and 1.08 mg/mL) in comparison with control (1.38 and 1.71 mg/mL). Overall, this study offered a feasible elicitation strategy to enhance isoflavonoid accumulation in AMHRCs and also provided a basis for metabolic engineering of isoflavonoid biosynthesis in the future.
Sahni, Sangita; Prasad, Bishun D.; Liu, Qing; Grbic, Vojislava; Sharpe, Andrew; Singh, Surinder P.; Krishna, Priti
As a resource allocation strategy, plant growth and defense responses are generally mutually antagonistic. Brassinosteroid (BR) regulates many aspects of plant development and stress responses, however, genetic evidence of its integrated effects on plant growth and stress tolerance is lacking. We overexpressed the Arabidopsis BR biosynthetic gene AtDWF4 in the oilseed plant Brassica napus and scored growth and stress response phenotypes. The transgenic B. napus plants, in comparison to wild type, displayed increased seed yield leading to increased overall oil content per plant, higher root biomass and root length, significantly better tolerance to dehydration and heat stress, and enhanced resistance to necrotrophic fungal pathogens Leptosphaeria maculans and Sclerotinia sclerotiorum. Transcriptome analysis supported the integrated effects of BR on growth and stress responses; in addition to BR responses associated with growth, a predominant plant defense signature, likely mediated by BES1/BZR1, was evident in the transgenic plants. These results establish that BR can interactively and simultaneously enhance abiotic and biotic stress tolerance and plant productivity. The ability to confer pleiotropic beneficial effects that are associated with different agronomic traits suggests that BR–related genes may be important targets for simultaneously increasing plant productivity and performance under stress conditions. PMID:27324083
Laila, Rawnak; Robin, Arif Hasan Khan; Yang, Kiwoung; Park, Jong-In; Suh, Mi Chung; Kim, Juyoung; Nou, Ill-Sup
Cuticular waxes act as a protective barrier against environmental stresses. In the present study, we investigated developmental and genotypic variation in wax formation of cabbage lines, with a view to understand the related morphology, genetics and biochemistry. Our studies revealed that the relative expression levels of wax biosynthetic genes in the first-formed leaf of the highest-wax line remained constantly higher but were decreased in other genotypes with leaf aging. Similarly, the expression of most of the tested genes exhibited decrease from the inner leaves to the outer leaves of 5-month-old cabbage heads in the low-wax lines in contrast to the highest-wax line. In 10-week-old plants, expression of wax biosynthetic genes followed a quadratic function and was generally increased in the early developing leaves but substantially decreased at the older leaves. The waxy compounds in all cabbage lines were predominately C29-alkane, -secondary alcohol, and -ketone. Its deposition was increased with leaf age in 5-month-old plants. The high-wax lines had dense, prominent and larger crystals on the leaf surface compared to low-wax lines under scanning electron microscopy. Principal component analysis revealed that the higher expression of LTP2 genes in the lowest-wax line and the higher expression of CER3 gene in the highest-wax line were probably associated with the comparatively lower and higher wax content in those two lines, respectively. This study furthers our understanding of the relationships between the expression of wax biosynthetic genes and the wax deposition in cabbage lines. Highlight: In cabbage, expression of wax-biosynthetic genes was generally decreased in older and senescing leaves, while wax deposition was increased with leaf aging, and C29-hydrocarbon was predominant in the wax crystals. PMID:28119701
Wu, Xiumei; Flatt, Patricia M; Xu, Hui; Mahmud, Taifo
A gene cluster responsible for the biosynthesis of the antitumor agent cetoniacytone A was identified in Actinomyces sp. strain Lu 9419, an endosymbiotic bacterium isolated from the intestines of the rose chafer beetle (Cetonia aurata). The nucleotide sequence analysis of the 46 kb DNA region revealed the presence of 31 complete ORFs, including genes predicted to encode a 2-epi-5-epi-valiolone synthase (CetA), a glyoxalase/bleomycin resistance protein (CetB), an acyltransferase (CetD), an FAD-dependent dehydrogenase (CetF2), two oxidoreductases (CetF1 and CetG), two aminotransferases (CetH and CetM), and a pyranose oxidase (CetL). CetA has previously been demonstrated to catalyze the cyclization of sedoheptulose 7-phosphate to the cyclic intermediate, 2-epi-5-epi-valiolone. In this report, the glyoxalase/bleomycin resistance protein homolog CetB was identified as a 2-epi-5-epi-valiolone epimerase (EVE), a new member of the vicinal oxygen chelate (VOC) superfamily. The 24 kDa recombinant histidine-tagged CetB was found to form a homodimer; each monomer contains two betaalphabetabetabeta scaffolds that form a metal binding site with two histidine and two glutamic acid residues. A BLAST search using the newly isolated cet biosynthetic genes revealed an analogous suite of genes in the genome of Frankia alni ACN14a, suggesting that this plant symbiotic nitrogen-fixing bacterium is capable of producing a secondary metabolite related to the cetoniacytones.
Heidrich, Christoph; Pag, Ulrike; Josten, Michaele; Metzger, Jörg; Jack, Ralph W.; Bierbaum, Gabriele; Jung, Günther; Sahl, Hans-Georg
Epicidin 280 is a novel type A lantibiotic produced by Staphylococcus epidermidis BN 280. During C18 reverse-phase high-performance liquid chromatography two epicidin 280 peaks were obtained; the two compounds had molecular masses of 3,133 ± 1.5 and 3,136 ± 1.5 Da, comparable antibiotic activities, and identical amino acid compositions. Amino acid sequence analysis revealed that epicidin 280 exhibits 75% similarity to Pep5. The strains that produce epicidin 280 and Pep5 exhibit cross-immunity, indicating that the immunity peptides cross-function in antagonization of both lantibiotics. The complete epicidin 280 gene cluster was cloned and was found to comprise at least five open reading frames (eciI, eciA, eciP, eciB, and eciC, in that order). The proteins encoded by these open reading frames exhibit significant sequence similarity to the biosynthetic proteins of the Pep5 operon of Staphylococcus epidermidis 5. A gene for an ABC transporter, which is present in the Pep5 gene cluster but is necessary only for high yields (G. Bierbaum, M. Reis, C. Szekat, and H.-G. Sahl, Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 60:4332–4338, 1994), was not detected. Instead, upstream of the immunity gene eciI we found an open reading frame, eciO, which could code for a novel lantibiotic modification enzyme involved in reduction of an N-terminally located oxopropionyl residue. Epicidin 280 produced by the heterologous host Staphylococcus carnosus TM 300 after introduction of eciIAPBC (i.e., no eciO was present) behaved homogeneously during reverse-phase chromatography. PMID:9726851
Jensen, Jacob K.; Johnson, Nathan; Wilkerson, Curtis G.
The exact biochemical steps of xylan backbone synthesis remain elusive. In Arabidopsis, three non-redundant genes from two glycosyltransferase (GT) families, IRX9 and IRX14 from GT43 and IRX10 from GT47, are candidates for forming the xylan backbone. In other plants, evidence exists that different tissues express these three genes at widely different levels, which suggests that diversity in the makeup of the xylan synthase complex exists. Recently we have profiled the transcripts present in the developing mucilaginous tissue of psyllium (Plantago ovata Forsk). This tissue was found to have high expression levels of an IRX10 homolog, but very low levels of the two GT43 family members. This contrasts with recent wheat endosperm tissue profiling that found a relatively high abundance of the GT43 family members. We have performed an in-depth analysis of all GTs genes expressed in four developmental stages of the psyllium mucilagenous layer and in a single stage of the psyllium stem using RNA-Seq. This analysis revealed several IRX10 homologs, an expansion in GT61 (homologs of At3g18170/At3g18180), and several GTs from other GT families that are highly abundant and specifically expressed in the mucilaginous tissue. Our current hypothesis is that the four IRX10 genes present in the mucilagenous tissues have evolved to function without the GT43 genes. These four genes represent some of the most divergent IRX10 genes identified to date. Conversely, those present in the psyllium stem are very similar to those in other eudicots. This suggests these genes are under selective pressure, likely due to the synthesis of the various xylan structures present in mucilage that has a different biochemical role than that present in secondary walls. The numerous GT61 family members also show a wide sequence diversity and may be responsible for the larger number of side chain structures present in the psyllium mucilage. PMID:23761806
Liang, Dandan; Xing, Fuguo; Selvaraj, Jonathan Nimal; Liu, Xiao; Wang, Limin; Hua, Huijuan; Zhou, Lu; Zhao, Yueju; Wang, Yan; Liu, Yang
In order to reveal the inhibitory effects of cinnamaldehyde, citral, and eugenol on aflatoxin biosynthesis, the expression levels of 5 key aflatoxin biosynthetic genes were evaluated by real-time PCR. Aspergillus flavus growth and AFB1 production were completely inhibited by 0.80 mmol/L of cinnamaldehyde and 2.80 mmol/L of citral. However, at lower concentration, cinnamaldehyde (0.40 mmol/L), eugenol (0.80 mmol/L), and citral (0.56 mmol/L) significantly reduced AFB1 production with inhibition rate of 68.9%, 95.4%, and 41.8%, respectively, while no effect on fungal growth. Real-time PCR showed that the expressions of aflR, aflT, aflD, aflM, and aflP were down-regulated by cinnamaldehyde (0.40 mmol/L), eugenol (0.80 mmol/L), and citral (0.56 mmol/L). In the presence of cinnamaldehyde, AflM was highly down-regulated (average of 5963 folds), followed by aflP, aflR, aflD, and aflT with the average folds of 55, 18, 6.5, and 5.8, respectively. With 0.80 mmol/L of eugenol, aflP was highly down-regulated (average of 2061-folds), followed by aflM, aflR, aflD, and aflT with average of 138-, 15-, 5.2-, and 4.8-folds reduction, respectively. With 0.56 mmol/L of citral, aflT was completely inhibited, followed by aflM, aflP, aflR, and aflD with average of 257-, 29-, 3.5-, and 2.5-folds reduction, respectively. These results suggest that the reduction in AFB1 production by cinnamaldehyde, eugenol, and citral at low concentration may be due to the down-regulations of the transcription level of aflatoxin biosynthetic genes. Cinnamaldehyde and eugenol may be employed successfully as a good candidate in controlling of toxigenic fungi and subsequently contamination with aflatoxins in practice.
Yan, Wei; Ge, Hui Ming; Wang, Gang; Jiang, Nan; Mei, Ya Ning; Jiang, Rong; Li, Sui Jun; Chen, Chao Jun; Jiao, Rui Hua; Xu, Qiang; Ng, Seik Weng; Tan, Ren Xiang
The Pictet–Spengler (PS) reaction constructs plant alkaloids such as morphine and camptothecin, but it has not yet been noticed in the fungal kingdom. Here, a silent fungal Pictet–Spenglerase (FPS) gene of Chaetomium globosum 1C51 residing in Epinephelus drummondhayi guts is described and ascertained to be activable by 1-methyl-l-tryptophan (1-MT). The activated FPS expression enables the PS reaction between 1-MT and flavipin (fungal aldehyde) to form “unnatural” natural products with unprecedented skeletons, of which chaetoglines B and F are potently antibacterial with the latter inhibiting acetylcholinesterase. A gene-implied enzyme inhibition (GIEI) strategy has been introduced to address the key steps for PS product diversifications. In aggregation, the work designs and validates an innovative approach that can activate the PS reaction-based fungal biosynthetic machinery to produce unpredictable compounds of unusual and novel structure valuable for new biology and biomedicine. PMID:25425666
Mohanty, Sasmita; Grimm, Bernhard; Tripathy, Baishnab C
Temperature and light significantly influence chloroplast development and chlorophyll biosynthesis. To understand the mechanism of the modulation of chlorophyll biosynthesis, the levels of transcripts and proteins of many enzymatic steps of tetrapyrrole biosynthesis in wheat and cucumber were simultaneously examined. The effect of low (chill-stress) as well as high (heat-stress) temperatures on dark- and light-grown seedlings was monitored. The protochlorophyllide oxidoreductase (POR) content was greatly reduced in response to light in control and heat-stressed seedlings. However, the POR level was not reduced in light-exposed chill-stressed seedlings. The genes for glutamate semialdehyde aminotransferase (gsa; cucumber), glutamyl-tRNA reductase (GluTR; cucumber), 5-aminolevulinic acid dehydratase (Ala D; cucumber and wheat) and for a subunit of Mg-chelatase (Chl I; wheat) showed a reduced expression in cold stress compared to controls and heat-stress conditions. Although expression of the ferrochelatase gene (Fch) and geranylgeranyl reductase gene (Chl P) was upregulated in light, they were downregulated by both chill- and heat-stress. Interestingly, gsa and uroporphyrinogen decarboxylase gene (UroD) and gene product abundance was stimulated by light and heat-stress implying the presence of both light and heat-inducible elements in their promoters. This observation corroborates with the previous report of increased enzymatic activity of UroD in heat-stressed cucumber seedlings. The gsa and Uro D may play an important role in tolerance of the greening process of plants to heat-stress.
Singh, Bijay; Oh, Tae-Jin; Sohng, Jae Kyung
Thorough investigation of Streptomyces peucetius ATCC 27952 genome revealed a sesquiterpene synthase, named spterp13, which encodes a putative protein of 732 amino acids with significant similarity to S. avermitilis MA-4680 (SAV2163, GeoA) and S. coelicolor A3(2) (SCO6073). The proteins encoded by SAV2163 and SCO6073 produce geosmin in the respective strains. However, the spterp13 gene seemed to be silent in S. peucetius. Deletion of the doxorubicin gene cluster from S. peucetius resulted in increased cell growth rate along with detectable production of geosmin. When we over expressed the spterp13 gene in S. peucetius DM07 under the control of an ermE* promoter, 2.4 +/- 0.4-fold enhanced production of geosmin was observed.
Cacho, Ralph A.; Tang, Yi; Chooi, Yit-Heng
Genomics has revolutionized the research on fungal secondary metabolite (SM) biosynthesis. To elucidate the molecular and enzymatic mechanisms underlying the biosynthesis of a specific SM compound, the important first step is often to find the genes that responsible for its synthesis. The accessibility to fungal genome sequences allows the bypass of the cumbersome traditional library construction and screening approach. The advance in next-generation sequencing (NGS) technologies have further improved the speed and reduced the cost of microbial genome sequencing in the past few years, which has accelerated the research in this field. Here, we will present an example work flow for identifying the gene cluster encoding the biosynthesis of SMs of interest using an NGS approach. We will also review the different strategies that can be employed to pinpoint the targeted gene clusters rapidly by giving several examples stemming from our work. PMID:25642215
Yatusevich, Ruslan; Mugford, Sarah G; Matthewman, Colette; Gigolashvili, Tamara; Frerigmann, Henning; Delaney, Sean; Koprivova, Anna; Flügge, Ulf-Ingo; Kopriva, Stanislav
Glucosinolates are plant secondary metabolites involved in responses to biotic stress. The final step of their synthesis is the transfer of a sulfo group from 3'-phosphoadenosine 5'-phosphosulfate (PAPS) onto a desulfo precursor. Thus, glucosinolate synthesis is linked to sulfate assimilation. The sulfate donor for this reaction is synthesized from sulfate in two steps catalyzed by ATP sulfurylase (ATPS) and adenosine 5'-phosphosulfate kinase (APK). Here we demonstrate that R2R3-MYB transcription factors, which are known to regulate both aliphatic and indolic glucosinolate biosynthesis in Arabidopsis thaliana, also control genes of primary sulfate metabolism. Using trans-activation assays we found that two isoforms of APK, APK1, and APK2, are regulated by both classes of glucosinolate MYB transcription factors; whereas two ATPS genes, ATPS1 and ATPS3, are differentially regulated by these two groups of MYB factors. In addition, we show that the adenosine 5'-phosphosulfate reductases APR1, APR2, and APR3, which participate in primary sulfate reduction, are also activated by the MYB factors. These observations were confirmed by analysis of transgenic lines with modulated expression levels of the glucosinolate MYB factors. The changes in transcript levels also affected enzyme activities, the thiol content and the sulfate reduction rate in some of the transgenic plants. Altogether the data revealed that the MYB transcription factors regulate genes of primary sulfate metabolism and that the genes involved in the synthesis of activated sulfate are part of the glucosinolate biosynthesis network.
Monteiro, Sara; Freitas, Regina; Rajasekhar, Baru T.; Teixeira, Artur R.; Ferreira, Ricardo B.
Background During seed germination, β-conglutin undergoes a major cycle of limited proteolysis in which many of its constituent subunits are processed into a 20 kDa polypeptide termed blad. Blad is the main component of a glycooligomer, accumulating exclusively in the cotyledons of Lupinus species, between days 4 and 12 after the onset of germination. Principal Findings The sequence of the gene encoding β-conglutin precursor (1791 nucleotides) is reported. This gene, which shares 44 to 57% similarity and 20 to 37% identity with other vicilin-like protein genes, includes several features in common with these globulins, but also specific hallmarks. Most notable is the presence of an ubiquitin interacting motif (UIM), which possibly links the unique catabolic route of β-conglutin to the ubiquitin/proteasome proteolytic pathway. Significance Blad forms through a unique route from and is a stable intermediary product of its precursor, β-conglutin, the major Lupinus seed storage protein. It is composed of 173 amino acid residues, is encoded by an intron-containing, internal fragment of the gene that codes for β-conglutin precursor (nucleotides 394 to 913) and exhibits an isoelectric point of 9.6 and a molecular mass of 20,404.85 Da. Consistent with its role as a storage protein, blad contains an extremely high proportion of the nitrogen-rich amino acids. PMID:20066045
Koul, Archana; Yogindran, Sneha; Sharma, Deepak; Kaul, Sanjana; Rajam, Manchikatla Venkat; Dhar, Manoj K
Carotenoid biosynthetic pathway is one of the highly significant and very well elucidated secondary metabolic pathways in plants. microRNAs are the potential regulators, widely known for playing a pivotal role in the regulation of various biological as well as metabolic processes. miRNAs may assist in the metabolic engineering of the secondary metabolites for the production of elite genotypes with increased biomass and content of various metabolites. miRNA mediated regulation of carotenoid biosynthetic genes has not been elucidated so far. To illustrate the potential regulatory role of miRNAs in carotenoid biosynthesis, transcript profiling of the known miRNAs and their possible target carotenoid genes was undertaken at eight different developmental stages of tomato, using stem-loop PCR approach combined with quantitative RT-PCR. The inter-relationship amongst carotenoid content, biosynthetic genes and miRNAs was studied in depth. Comparative expression profiles of miRNA and target genes showed variable expression in different tissues studied. The expression level of miRNAs and their target carotenoid genes displayed similar pattern in the vegetative tissues as compared to the reproductive ones, viz. fruit (different stages), indicating the possibility of regulation of carotenoid biosynthesis at various stages of fruit development. This was later confirmed by the HPLC analysis of the carotenoids. The present study has further enhanced the understanding of regulation of carotenoid biosynthetic pathway in plants. The identified miRNAs can be employed to manipulate the biosynthesis of different carotenoids, through metabolic engineering for the production of lycopene rich tomatoes.
Nah, Hee-Ju; Pyeon, Hye-Rim; Kang, Seung-Hoon; Choi, Si-Sun; Kim, Eung-Soo
Actinomycetes family including Streptomyces species have been a major source for the discovery of novel natural products (NPs) in the last several decades thanks to their structural novelty, diversity and complexity. Moreover, recent genome mining approach has provided an attractive tool to screen potentially valuable NP biosynthetic gene clusters (BGCs) present in the actinomycetes genomes. Since many of these NP BGCs are silent or cryptic in the original actinomycetes, various techniques have been employed to activate these NP BGCs. Heterologous expression of BGCs has become a useful strategy to produce, reactivate, improve, and modify the pathways of NPs present at minute quantities in the original actinomycetes isolates. However, cloning and efficient overexpression of an entire NP BGC, often as large as over 100 kb, remain challenging due to the ineffectiveness of current genetic systems in manipulating large NP BGCs. This mini review describes examples of actinomycetes NP production through BGC heterologous expression systems as well as recent strategies specialized for the large-sized NP BGCs in Streptomyces heterologous hosts. PMID:28360891
Yamada, Tetsuya; Matsuda, Fumio; Kasai, Koji; Fukuoka, Shuichi; Kitamura, Keisuke; Tozawa, Yuzuru; Miyagawa, Hisashi; Wakasa, Kyo
Two distinct biosynthetic pathways for Phe in plants have been proposed: conversion of prephenate to Phe via phenylpyruvate or arogenate. The reactions catalyzed by prephenate dehydratase (PDT) and arogenate dehydratase (ADT) contribute to these respective pathways. The Mtr1 mutant of rice (Oryza sativa) manifests accumulation of Phe, Trp, and several phenylpropanoids, suggesting a link between the synthesis of Phe and Trp. Here, we show that the Mtr1 mutant gene (mtr1-D) encodes a form of rice PDT with a point mutation in the putative allosteric regulatory region of the protein. Transformed callus lines expressing mtr1-D exhibited all the characteristics of Mtr1 callus tissue. Biochemical analysis revealed that rice PDT possesses both PDT and ADT activities, with a preference for arogenate as substrate, suggesting that it functions primarily as an ADT. The wild-type enzyme is feedback regulated by Phe, whereas the mutant enzyme showed a reduced feedback sensitivity, resulting in Phe accumulation. In addition, these observations indicate that rice PDT is critical for regulating the size of the Phe pool in plant cells. Feeding external Phe to wild-type callus tissue and seedlings resulted in Trp accumulation, demonstrating a connection between Phe accumulation and Trp pool size. PMID:18487352
Donia, Mohamed S.; Cimermancic, Peter; Schulze, Christopher J.; Wieland Brown, Laura C.; Martin, John; Mitreva, Makedonka; Clardy, Jon; Linington, Roger G.; Fischbach, Michael A.
SUMMARY In complex biological systems, small molecules often mediate microbe-microbe and microbe-host interactions. Using a systematic approach, we identified 3,118 small molecule biosynthetic gene clusters (BGCs) in genomes of human-associated bacteria and studied their representation in 752 metagenomic samples from the NIH Human Microbiome Project. Remarkably, we discovered that BGCs for a class of antibiotics in clinical trials, thiopeptides, are widely distributed in genomes and metagenomes of the human microbiota. We purified and solved the structure of a new thiopeptide antibiotic, lactocillin, from a prominent member of the vaginal microbiota. We demonstrate that lactocillin has potent antibacterial activity against a range of Gram-positive vaginal pathogens, and we show that lactocillin and other thiopeptide BGCs are expressed in vivo by analyzing human metatranscriptomic sequencing data. Our findings illustrate the widespread distribution of small-molecule-encoding BGCs in the human microbiome, and they demonstrate the bacterial production of drug-like molecules in humans. PMID:25215495
Zheng, Xiasheng; Xu, Hui; Ma, Xinye; Zhan, Ruoting; Chen, Weiwen
Ilex asprella, which contains abundant α-amyrin type triterpenoid saponins, is an anti-influenza herbal drug widely used in south China. In this work, we first analysed the transcriptome of the I. asprella root using RNA-Seq, which provided a dataset for functional gene mining. mRNA was isolated from the total RNA of the I. asprella root and reverse-transcribed into cDNA. Then, the cDNA library was sequenced using an Illumina HiSeq™ 2000, which generated 55,028,452 clean reads. De novo assembly of these reads generated 51,865 unigenes, in which 39,269 unigenes were annotated (75.71% yield). According to the structures of the triterpenoid saponins of I. asprella, a putative biosynthetic pathway downstream of 2,3-oxidosqualene was proposed and candidate unigenes in the transcriptome data that were potentially involved in the pathway were screened using homology-based BLAST and phylogenetic analysis. Further amplification and functional analysis of these putative unigenes will provide insight into the biosynthesis of Ilex triterpenoid saponins.
Burow, Meike; Atwell, Susanna; Francisco, Marta; Kerwin, Rachel E; Halkier, Barbara A; Kliebenstein, Daniel J
Survival in changing and challenging environments requires an organism to efficiently obtain and use its resources. Due to their sessile nature, it is particularly critical for plants to dynamically optimize their metabolism. In plant primary metabolism, metabolic fine-tuning involves feed-back mechanisms whereby the output of a pathway controls its input to generate a precise and robust response to environmental changes. By contrast, few studies have addressed the potential for feed-back regulation of secondary metabolism. In Arabidopsis, accumulation of the defense compounds glucosinolates has previously been linked to genetic variation in the glucosinolate biosynthetic gene AOP2. AOP2 expression can increase the transcript levels of two known regulators (MYB28 and MYB29) of the pathway, suggesting that AOP2 plays a role in positive feed-back regulation controlling glucosinolate biosynthesis. We generated mutants affecting AOP2, MYB28/29, or both. Transcriptome analysis of these mutants identified a so far unrecognized link between AOP2 and jasmonic acid (JA) signaling independent of MYB28 and MYB29. Thus, AOP2 is part of a regulatory feed-back loop linking glucosinolate biosynthesis and JA signaling and thereby allows the glucosinolate pathway to influence JA sensitivity. The discovery of this regulatory feed-back loop provides insight into how plants optimize the use of resources for defensive metabolites.
Hadjithomas, Michalis; Chen, I-Min A.; Chu, Ken; Huang, Jinghua; Ratner, Anna; Palaniappan, Krishna; Andersen, Evan; Markowitz, Victor; Kyrpides, Nikos C.; Ivanova, Natalia N.
Secondary metabolites produced by microbes have diverse biological functions, which makes them a great potential source of biotechnologically relevant compounds with antimicrobial, anti-cancer and other activities. The proteins needed to synthesize these natural products are often encoded by clusters of co-located genes called biosynthetic gene clusters (BCs). In order to advance the exploration of microbial secondary metabolism, we developed the largest publically available database of experimentally verified and predicted BCs, the Integrated Microbial Genomes Atlas of Biosynthetic gene Clusters (IMG-ABC) (https://img.jgi.doe.gov/abc/). Here, we describe an update of IMG-ABC, which includes ClusterScout, a tool for targeted identification of custom biosynthetic gene clusters across 40 000 isolate microbial genomes, and a new search capability to query more than 700 000 BCs from isolate genomes for clusters with similar Pfam composition. Additional features enable fast exploration and analysis of BCs through two new interactive visualization features, a BC function heatmap and a BC similarity network graph. These new tools and features add to the value of IMG-ABC's vast body of BC data, facilitating their in-depth analysis and accelerating secondary metabolite discovery. PMID:27903896
Agarwal, Parul; Pathak, Sumya; Lakhwani, Deepika; Gupta, Parul; Asif, Mehar Hasan; Trivedi, Prabodh Kumar
Opium poppy (Papaver somniferum L.), known for biosynthesis of several therapeutically important benzylisoquinoline alkaloids (BIAs), has emerged as the premier organism to study plant alkaloid metabolism. The most prominent molecules produced in opium poppy include narcotic analgesic morphine, the cough suppressant codeine, the muscle relaxant papaverine and the anti-microbial agent sanguinarine and berberine. Despite several health benefits, biosynthesis of some of these molecules is very low due to tight temporal and spatial regulation of the genes committed to their biosynthesis. Transcription factors, one of the prime regulators of secondary plant product biosynthesis, might be involved in controlled biosynthesis of BIAs in P. somniferum. In this study, identification of members of different transcription factor gene families using transcriptome datasets of 10 cultivars of P. somniferum with distinct chemoprofile has been carried out. Analysis suggests that most represented transcription factor gene family in all the poppy cultivars is WRKY. Comparative transcriptome analysis revealed differential expression pattern of the members of a set of transcription factor gene families among 10 cultivars. Through analysis, two members of WRKY and one member of C3H gene family were identified as potential candidates which might regulate thebaine and papaverine biosynthesis, respectively, in poppy.
Kutil, Brandi L; Greenwald, Charles; Liu, Gang; Spiering, Martin J; Schardl, Christopher L; Wilkinson, Heather H
LOL, a fungal secondary metabolite gene cluster found in Epichloë and Neotyphodium species, is responsible for production of insecticidal loline alkaloids. To analyze the genetic architecture and to predict the evolutionary history of LOL, we compared five clusters from four fungal species (single clusters from Epichloë festucae, Neotyphodium sp. PauTG-1, Neotyphodium coenophialum, and two clusters we previously characterized in Neotyphodium uncinatum). Using PhyloCon to compare putative lol gene promoter regions, we have identified four motifs conserved across the lol genes in all five clusters. Each motif has significant similarity to known fungal transcription factor binding sites in the TRANSFAC database. Conservation of these motifs is further support for the hypothesis that the lol genes are co-regulated. Interestingly, the history of asexual Neotyphodium spp. includes multiple interspecific hybridization events. Comparing clusters from three Neotyphodium species and E. festucae allowed us to determine which Epichloë ancestors are the most likely contributors of LOL in these asexual species. For example, while no present day Epichloë typhina isolates are known to produce lolines, our data support the hypothesis that the E. typhina ancestor(s) of three asexual endophyte species contained a LOL gene cluster. Thus, these data support a model of evolution in which the polymorphism in loline alkaloid production phenotypes among endophyte species is likely due to the loss of the trait over time.
Zhu, Wei; Yang, Bingxian; Komatsu, Setsuko; Lu, Xiaoping; Li, Ximin; Tian, Jingkui
Catharanthus roseus is an important medicinal plant, which produces a variety of indole alkaloids of significant pharmaceutical relevance. In the present study, we aimed to investigate the potential stress-induced increase of indole alkaloid biosynthesis in C. roseus using proteomic technique. The contents of the detectable alkaloids ajmalicine, vindoline, catharanthine, and strictosidine in C. roseus were significantly increased under binary stress. Proteomic analysis revealed that the abundance of proteins related to tricarboxylic acid cycle and cell wall was largely increased; while, that of proteins related to tetrapyrrole synthesis and photosynthesis was decreased. Of note, 10-hydroxygeraniol oxidoreductase, which is involved in the biosynthesis of indole alkaloid was two-fold more abundant in treated group compared to the control. In addition, mRNA expression levels of genes involved in the indole alkaloid biosynthetic pathway indicated an up-regulation in their transcription in C. roseus under UV-B irradiation. These results suggest that binary stress might negatively affect the process of photosynthesis in C. roseus. In addition, the induction of alkaloid biosynthesis appears to be responsive to binary stress. PMID:26284098
Docimo, Teresa; Consonni, Roberto; Coraggio, Immacolata; Mattana, Monica
Phenylalanine ammonia-lyase (PAL), Cinnamic acid 4-hydroxylase (C4H) and 4-Coumarate: CoA ligase (4CL) catalyze the first three steps of the general phenylpropanoid pathway whereas chalcone synthase (CHS) catalyzes the first specific step towards flavonoids production. This class of specialized metabolites has a wide range of biological functions in plant development and defence and a broad spectrum of therapeutic activities for human health. In this study, we report the isolation of hemp PAL and 4CL cDNA and genomic clones. Through in silico analysis of their deduced amino acid sequences, more than an 80% identity with homologues genes of other plants was shown and phylogenetic relationships were highlighted. Quantitative expression analysis of the four above mentioned genes, PAL and 4CL enzymatic activities, lignin content and NMR metabolite fingerprinting in different Cannabis sativa tissues were evaluated. Furthermore, the use of different substrates to assay PAL and 4CL enzymatic activities indicated that different isoforms were active in different tissues. The diversity in secondary metabolites content observed in leaves (mainly flavonoids) and roots (mainly lignin) was discussed in relation to gene expression and enzymatic activities data.
Sezonov, G; Blanc, V; Bamas-Jacques, N; Friedmann, A; Pernodet, J L; Guérineau, M
A Streptomyces pristinaespiralis strain, which produces a streptogramin antibiotic pristinamycin II (PII) as a mixture of two biologically active molecules PIIB and PIIA, was genetically engineered to produce exclusively PIIA. The snaA,B genes, which encode a PIIA synthase that performs oxidation of the precursor (PIIB) to the final product (PIIA), were integrated in the chromosome of S. pristinaespiralis using an integrative derivative of the pSAM2 genetic element from Streptomyces ambofaciens. Integration was due to site-specific recombination at the attB site of S. pristinaespiralis, and no homologous recombination at the snaA,B locus was observed. The attB site of S. pristinaespiralis was sequenced and found to overlap the 3' end of a pro-tRNA gene. The integrants were stable in industrial conditions of pristinamycin production and showed no decrease in PII biosynthesis. Western blot analysis showed a constant production of the PIIA synthase in the overall fermentation process due to expression of the cloned snaA,B genes from the constitutive ermE promoter. This allows the complete conversion of the PIIB form into PIIA.
Docimo, Teresa; Consonni, Roberto; Coraggio, Immacolata; Mattana, Monica
Phenylalanine ammonia-lyase (PAL), Cinnamic acid 4-hydroxylase (C4H) and 4-Coumarate: CoA ligase (4CL) catalyze the first three steps of the general phenylpropanoid pathway whereas chalcone synthase (CHS) catalyzes the first specific step towards flavonoids production. This class of specialized metabolites has a wide range of biological functions in plant development and defence and a broad spectrum of therapeutic activities for human health. In this study, we report the isolation of hemp PAL and 4CL cDNA and genomic clones. Through in silico analysis of their deduced amino acid sequences, more than an 80% identity with homologues genes of other plants was shown and phylogenetic relationships were highlighted. Quantitative expression analysis of the four above mentioned genes, PAL and 4CL enzymatic activities, lignin content and NMR metabolite fingerprinting in different Cannabis sativa tissues were evaluated. Furthermore, the use of different substrates to assay PAL and 4CL enzymatic activities indicated that different isoforms were active in different tissues. The diversity in secondary metabolites content observed in leaves (mainly flavonoids) and roots (mainly lignin) was discussed in relation to gene expression and enzymatic activities data. PMID:23812081
Tuan, Pham Anh; Thwe, Aye Aye; Kim, Yeon Bok; Kim, Jae Kwang; Kim, Sun-Ju; Lee, Sanghyun; Chung, Sun-Ok; Park, Sang Un
In this study, the optimum wavelengths of light required for carotenoid biosynthesis were determined by investigating the expression levels of carotenoid biosynthetic genes and carotenoid accumulation in sprouts of tartary buckwheat (Fagopyrum tataricum Gaertn.) exposed to white, blue, and red light-emitting diodes (LEDs). Most carotenoid biosynthetic genes showed higher expression in sprouts irradiated with white light at 8 days after sowing than in those irradiated with blue and red lights. The dominant carotenoids in tartary buckwheat sprouts were lutein and β-carotene. The richest accumulation of total carotenoids was observed in sprouts grown under white light (1282.63 μg g(-1) dry weight), which was relatively higher than that in sprouts grown under blue and red lights (940.86 and 985.54 μg g(-1), respectively). This study might establish an effective strategy for maximizing the production of carotenoids and other important secondary metabolites in tartary buckwheat sprouts by using LED technology.
Takos, Adam M.; Rook, Fred
The alkaloids characteristically produced by the subfamily Amaryllidoideae of the Amaryllidaceae, bulbous plant species that include well know genera such as Narcissus (daffodils) and Galanthus (snowdrops), are a source of new pharmaceutical compounds. Presently, only the Amaryllidaceae alkaloid galanthamine, an acetylcholinesterase inhibitor used to treat symptoms of Alzheimer’s disease, is produced commercially as a drug from cultivated plants. However, several Amaryllidaceae alkaloids have shown great promise as anti-cancer drugs, but their further clinical development is restricted by their limited commercial availability. Amaryllidaceae species have a long history of cultivation and breeding as ornamental bulbs, and phytochemical research has focussed on the diversity in alkaloid content and composition. In contrast to the available pharmacological and phytochemical data, ecological, physiological and molecular aspects of the Amaryllidaceae and their alkaloids are much less explored and the identity of the alkaloid biosynthetic genes is presently unknown. An improved molecular understanding of Amaryllidaceae alkaloid biosynthesis would greatly benefit the rational design of breeding programs to produce cultivars optimised for the production of pharmaceutical compounds and enable biotechnology based approaches. PMID:23727937
Takos, Adam M; Rook, Fred
The alkaloids characteristically produced by the subfamily Amaryllidoideae of the Amaryllidaceae, bulbous plant species that include well know genera such as Narcissus (daffodils) and Galanthus (snowdrops), are a source of new pharmaceutical compounds. Presently, only the Amaryllidaceae alkaloid galanthamine, an acetylcholinesterase inhibitor used to treat symptoms of Alzheimer's disease, is produced commercially as a drug from cultivated plants. However, several Amaryllidaceae alkaloids have shown great promise as anti-cancer drugs, but their further clinical development is restricted by their limited commercial availability. Amaryllidaceae species have a long history of cultivation and breeding as ornamental bulbs, and phytochemical research has focussed on the diversity in alkaloid content and composition. In contrast to the available pharmacological and phytochemical data, ecological, physiological and molecular aspects of the Amaryllidaceae and their alkaloids are much less explored and the identity of the alkaloid biosynthetic genes is presently unknown. An improved molecular understanding of Amaryllidaceae alkaloid biosynthesis would greatly benefit the rational design of breeding programs to produce cultivars optimised for the production of pharmaceutical compounds and enable biotechnology based approaches.
Onaka, Hiroyasu; Taniguchi, Shin-ichi; Igarashi, Yasuhiro; Furumai, Tamotsu
Staurosporine is a representative member of indolocarbazole antibiotics. The entire staurosporine biosynthetic and regulatory gene cluster spanning 20-kb was cloned from Streptomyces sp. TP-A0274 and sequenced. The gene cluster consists of 14 ORFs and the amino acid sequence homology search revealed that it contains three genes, staO, staD, and staP, coding for the enzymes involved in the indolocarbazole aglycone biosynthesis, two genes, staG and staN, for the bond formation between the aglycone and deoxysugar, eight genes, staA, staB, staE, staJ, staI, staK, staMA, and staMB, for the deoxysugar biosynthesis and one gene, staR is a transcriptional regulator. Heterologous gene expression of a 38-kb fragment containing a complete set of the biosynthetic genes for staurosporine cloned into pTOYAMAcos confirmed its role in staurosporine biosynthesis. Moreover, the distribution of the gene for chromopyrrolic acid synthase, the key enzyme for the biosynthesis of indolocarbazole aglycone, in actinomycetes was investigated, and rebD homologs were shown to exist only in the strains producing indolocarbazole antibiotics.
Mora, Isabel; Cabrefiga, Jordi; Montesinos, Emilio
The antibacterial activity against bacterial plant pathogens and its relationships with the presence of the cyclic lipopeptide (cLP) biosynthetic genes ituC (iturin), bmyB (bacillomycin), fenD (fengycin) and srfAA (surfactin), and their corresponding antimicrobial peptide products have been studied in a collection of 64 strains of Bacillus spp. isolated from plant environments. The most frequent antimicrobial peptide (AMP) genes were bmyB, srfAA and fenD (34-50% of isolates). Most isolates (98.4%) produced surfactin isoforms, 90.6% iturins and 79.7% fengycins. The antibacterial activity was very frequent and generally intense among the collection of strains because 75% of the isolates were active against at least 6 of the 8 bacterial plant pathogens tested. Hierarchical and correspondence analysis confirmed the presence of two clearly differentiated groups. One group consisted of Bacillus strains that showed a strong antibacterial activity, presented several cLPs genes and produced several isoforms of cLPs simultaneously, mainly composed of B. subtilis and B. amyloliquefaciens, although the last one was exclusive to this group. Another group was characterized by strains with very low or none antibacterial activity, that showed one or none of the cLP genes and produced a few or none of the corresponding cLPs, and was the most heterogenous group including B. subtilis, B. licheniformis, B. megaterium, B. pumilus, B. cereus and B. thuringiensis, although the last two were exclusive to this group. This work demonstrated that the antagonistic capacity of plant-associated Bacillus against plant pathogenic bacteria is related to the presence of cLP genes and to the production of the corresponding cLPs, and it is mainly associated to the species B. subtilis and B. amyloliquefaciens. Our findings would help to increase the yield and efficiency of screening methods to obtain candidate strains to biocontrol agents with a mechanism of action relaying on the production of
Park, Nam Il; Xu, Hui; Li, Xiaohua; Jang, In Hyuk; Park, Suhyoung; Ahn, Gil Hwan; Lim, Yong Pyo; Kim, Sun Ju; Park, Sang Un
Radish [Raphanus sativus (Rs)] is an important dietary vegetable in Asian countries, especially China, Japan, and Korea. To elucidate the molecular mechanisms of anthocyanin accumulation in radish, the gene expression of enzymes directly involved in anthocyanin biosynthesis was analyzed. These genes include phenylalanine ammonia lyase (PAL), cinnamate 4-hydroxylase (C4H), 4-coumarate-CoA ligase (4CL), chalcone synthase (CHS), chalcone isomerase (CHI), flavanone 3-hydroxylase (F3H), dihydroflavonol reductase (DFR), and anthocyanidin synthase (ANS). RsDFR and RsANS were found to accumulate in the flesh or skin of two radish cultivars (Man Tang Hong and Hong Feng No.1). Radish skin contained higher CHS, CHI, and F3H transcript levels than radish flesh in all three cultivars. In the red radish, 16 anthocyanins were separated and identified by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) and elctrospray ionization-tandem mass spectrometry (ESI-MS/MS). Some of them were acylated with coumaroyl, malonoyl, feruoyl, and caffeoyl moieties. Furthermore (-)-epicatechin and ferulic acid were also identified in the three cultivars.
Kuppu, Sundaram; Mishra, Neelam; Hu, Rongbin; Sun, Li; Zhu, Xunlu; Shen, Guoxin; Blumwald, Eduardo; Payton, Paxton; Zhang, Hong
Water-deficit stress is a major environmental factor that limits agricultural productivity worldwide. Recent episodes of extreme drought have severely affected cotton production in the Southwestern USA. There is a pressing need to develop cotton varieties with improved tolerance to water-deficit stress for sustainable production in water-limited regions. One approach to engineer drought tolerance is by delaying drought-induced senescence via up-regulation of cytokinin biosynthesis. The isopentenyltransferase gene (IPT) that encodes a rate limiting enzyme in cytokinin biosynthesis, under the control of a water-deficit responsive and maturation specific promoter P(SARK) was introduced into cotton and the performance of the P(SARK)::IPT transgenic cotton plants was analyzed in the greenhouse and growth chamber conditions. The data indicate that P(SARK)::IPT-transgenic cotton plants displayed delayed senescence under water deficit conditions in the greenhouse. These plants produced more root and shoot biomass, dropped fewer flowers, maintained higher chlorophyll content, and higher photosynthetic rates under reduced irrigation conditions in comparison to wild-type and segregated non-transgenic lines. Furthermore, P(SARK)::IPT-transgenic cotton plants grown in growth chamber condition also displayed greater drought tolerance. These results indicate that water-deficit induced expression of an isopentenyltransferase gene in cotton could significantly improve drought tolerance.
Gaisser, S; Trefzer, A; Stockert, S; Kirschning, A; Bechthold, A
A 65-kb region of DNA from Streptomyces viridochromogenes Tü57, containing genes encoding proteins involved in the biosynthesis of avilamycins, was isolated. The DNA sequence of a 6.4-kb fragment from this region revealed four open reading frames (ORF1 to ORF4), three of which are fully contained within the sequenced fragment. The deduced amino acid sequence of AviM, encoded by ORF2, shows 37% identity to a 6-methylsalicylic acid synthase from Penicillium patulum. Cultures of S. lividans TK24 and S. coelicolor CH999 containing plasmids with ORF2 on a 5.5-kb PstI fragment were able to produce orsellinic acid, an unreduced version of 6-methylsalicylic acid. The amino acid sequence encoded by ORF3 (AviD) is 62% identical to that of StrD, a dTDP-glucose synthase from S. griseus. The deduced amino acid sequence of AviE, encoded by ORF4, shows 55% identity to a dTDP-glucose dehydratase (StrE) from S. griseus. Gene insertional inactivation experiments of aviE abolished avilamycin production, indicating the involvement of aviE in the biosynthesis of avilamycins. PMID:9335272
Groves, Ryan A.; Hagel, Jillian M.; Zhang, Ye; Kilpatrick, Korey; Levy, Asaf; Marsolais, Frédéric; Lewinsohn, Efraim; Sensen, Christoph W.; Facchini, Peter J.
Amphetamine analogues are produced by plants in the genus Ephedra and by khat (Catha edulis), and include the widely used decongestants and appetite suppressants (1S,2S)-pseudoephedrine and (1R,2S)-ephedrine. The production of these metabolites, which derive from L-phenylalanine, involves a multi-step pathway partially mapped out at the biochemical level using knowledge of benzoic acid metabolism established in other plants, and direct evidence using khat and Ephedra species as model systems. Despite the commercial importance of amphetamine-type alkaloids, only a single step in their biosynthesis has been elucidated at the molecular level. We have employed Illumina next-generation sequencing technology, paired with Trinity and Velvet-Oases assembly platforms, to establish data-mining frameworks for Ephedra sinica and khat plants. Sequence libraries representing a combined 200,000 unigenes were subjected to an annotation pipeline involving direct searches against public databases. Annotations included the assignment of Gene Ontology (GO) terms used to allocate unigenes to functional categories. As part of our functional genomics program aimed at novel gene discovery, the databases were mined for enzyme candidates putatively involved in alkaloid biosynthesis. Queries used for mining included enzymes with established roles in benzoic acid metabolism, as well as enzymes catalyzing reactions similar to those predicted for amphetamine alkaloid metabolism. Gene candidates were evaluated based on phylogenetic relationships, FPKM-based expression data, and mechanistic considerations. Establishment of expansive sequence resources is a critical step toward pathway characterization, a goal with both academic and industrial implications. PMID:25806807
Takos, Adam M; Knudsen, Camilla; Lai, Daniela; Kannangara, Rubini; Mikkelsen, Lisbeth; Motawia, Mohammed S; Olsen, Carl E; Sato, Shusei; Tabata, Satoshi; Jørgensen, Kirsten; Møller, Birger L; Rook, Fred
Cyanogenic glucosides are amino acid-derived defence compounds found in a large number of vascular plants. Their hydrolysis by specific β-glucosidases following tissue damage results in the release of hydrogen cyanide. The cyanogenesis deficient1 (cyd1) mutant of Lotus japonicus carries a partial deletion of the CYP79D3 gene, which encodes a cytochrome P450 enzyme that is responsible for the first step in cyanogenic glucoside biosynthesis. The genomic region surrounding CYP79D3 contains genes encoding the CYP736A2 protein and the UDP-glycosyltransferase UGT85K3. In combination with CYP79D3, these genes encode the enzymes that constitute the entire pathway for cyanogenic glucoside biosynthesis. The biosynthetic genes for cyanogenic glucoside biosynthesis are also co-localized in cassava (Manihot esculenta) and sorghum (Sorghum bicolor), but the three gene clusters show no other similarities. Although the individual enzymes encoded by the biosynthetic genes in these three plant species are related, they are not necessarily orthologous. The independent evolution of cyanogenic glucoside biosynthesis in several higher plant lineages by the repeated recruitment of members from similar gene families, such as the CYP79s, is a likely scenario.
Porcelli, Ida; Sheppard, Samuel K.; Lucchini, Sacha
Iron is essential for Escherichia coli growth and survival in the host and the external environment, but its availability is generally low due to the poor solubility of its ferric form in aqueous environments and the presence of iron-withholding proteins in the host. Most E. coli can increase access to iron by excreting siderophores such as enterobactin, which have a very strong affinity for Fe3+. A smaller proportion of isolates can generate up to 3 additional siderophores linked with pathogenesis; aerobactin, salmochelin, and yersiniabactin. However, non-pathogenic E. coli are also able to synthesise these virulence-associated siderophores. This raises questions about their role in the ecology of E. coli, beyond virulence, and whether specific siderophores might be linked with persistence in the external environment. Under the assumption that selection favours phenotypes that confer a fitness advantage, we compared siderophore production and gene distribution in E. coli isolated either from agricultural plants or the faeces of healthy mammals. This population-level comparison has revealed that under iron limiting growth conditions plant-associated isolates produced lower amounts of siderophores than faecal isolates. Additionally, multiplex PCR showed that environmental isolates were less likely to contain loci associated with aerobactin and yersiniabactin synthesis. Although aerobactin was linked with strong siderophore excretion, a significant difference in production was still observed between plant and faecal isolates when the analysis was restricted to strains only able to synthesise enterobactin. This finding suggests that the regulatory response to iron limitation may be an important trait associated with adaptation to the non-host environment. Our findings are consistent with the hypothesis that the ability to produce multiple siderophores facilitates E. coli gut colonisation and plays an important role in E. coli commensalism. PMID:25756870
Searle, Laura J; Méric, Guillaume; Porcelli, Ida; Sheppard, Samuel K; Lucchini, Sacha
Iron is essential for Escherichia coli growth and survival in the host and the external environment, but its availability is generally low due to the poor solubility of its ferric form in aqueous environments and the presence of iron-withholding proteins in the host. Most E. coli can increase access to iron by excreting siderophores such as enterobactin, which have a very strong affinity for Fe3+. A smaller proportion of isolates can generate up to 3 additional siderophores linked with pathogenesis; aerobactin, salmochelin, and yersiniabactin. However, non-pathogenic E. coli are also able to synthesise these virulence-associated siderophores. This raises questions about their role in the ecology of E. coli, beyond virulence, and whether specific siderophores might be linked with persistence in the external environment. Under the assumption that selection favours phenotypes that confer a fitness advantage, we compared siderophore production and gene distribution in E. coli isolated either from agricultural plants or the faeces of healthy mammals. This population-level comparison has revealed that under iron limiting growth conditions plant-associated isolates produced lower amounts of siderophores than faecal isolates. Additionally, multiplex PCR showed that environmental isolates were less likely to contain loci associated with aerobactin and yersiniabactin synthesis. Although aerobactin was linked with strong siderophore excretion, a significant difference in production was still observed between plant and faecal isolates when the analysis was restricted to strains only able to synthesise enterobactin. This finding suggests that the regulatory response to iron limitation may be an important trait associated with adaptation to the non-host environment. Our findings are consistent with the hypothesis that the ability to produce multiple siderophores facilitates E. coli gut colonisation and plays an important role in E. coli commensalism.
Tossi, Vanesa; Amenta, Melina; Lamattina, Lorenzo; Cassia, Raúl
The link between ultraviolet (UV)-B, nitric oxide (NO) and phenylpropanoid biosynthetic pathway (PPBP) was studied in maize and Arabidopsis. The transcription factor (TF) ZmP regulates PPBP in maize. A genetic approach using P-rr (ZmP+) and P-ww (ZmP⁻) maize lines demonstrate that: (1) NO protects P-rr leaves but not P-ww from UV-B-induced reactive oxygen species (ROS) and cell damage; (2) NO increases flavonoid and anthocyanin content and prevents chlorophyll loss in P-rr but not in P-ww and (3) the NO scavenger 2-(4-carboxyphenyl)-4,4,5,5-tetramethylimidazoline-1-oxyl-3-oxide (cPTIO) blocks the UV-B-induced expression of ZmP and their targets CHS and CHI suggesting that NO plays a key role in the UV-B-regulated PPBP. Involvement of endogenous NO was studied in Arabidopsis nitric oxide dioxygenase (NOD) plants that express a NO dioxygenase gene under the control of a dexamethasone (DEX)-inducible promoter. Expression of HY5 and MYB12, TFs involved in PPBP regulation, was induced by UV-B, reduced by DEX in NOD plants and recovered by subsequent NO treatment. C4H regulates synapate esters synthesis and is UV-B-induced in a NO-independent pathway. Data indicate that UV-B perception increases NO concentration, which protects plant against UV-B by two ways: (1) scavenging ROS; and (2) up-regulating the expression of HY5, MYB12 and ZmP, resulting in the PPBP activation.
Hernandez-Eligio, Alberto; Castellanos, Mildred; Moreno, Soledad; Espín, Guadalupe
We previously showed that in Azotobacter vinelandii, accumulation of polyhydroxybutyrate (PHB) occurs mainly during the stationary phase, and that a mutation in phbR, encoding a transcriptional regulator of the AraC family, reduces PHB accumulation. In this study, we characterized the roles of PhbR and RpoS, a central regulator during stationary phase in bacteria, in the regulation of expression of the PHB biosynthetic operon phbBAC and phbR. We showed that inactivation of rpoS reduced PHB accumulation, similar to the phbR mutation, and inactivation of both rpoS and phbR resulted in an inability to produce PHB. We carried out expression studies with the wild-type, and the rpoS, phbR and double rpoS-phbR mutant strains, using quantitative RT-PCR, as well as phbB : : gusA and phbR : : gusA gene fusions. These studies showed that both PhbR and RpoS act as activators of phbB and phbR, and revealed a role for PhbR as an autoactivator. We also demonstrated that PhbR binds specifically to two almost identical 18 bp sites, TGTCACCAA-N(4)-CACTA and TGTCACCAA-N(4)-CAGTA, present in the phbB promoter region. The activation of phbB and phbR transcription by RpoS reported here is in agreement with the observation that accumulation of PHB in A. vinelandii occurs mainly during the stationary phase.
Ernst, Laura; Goodger, Jason Q D; Alvarez, Sophie; Marsh, Ellen L; Berla, Bert; Lockhart, Eric; Jung, Jiyul; Li, Pinghua; Bohnert, Hans J; Schachtman, Daniel P
Recent reports suggest that early sensing of soil water stress by plant roots and the concomitant reduction in stomatal conductance may not be mediated by root-sourced abscisic acid (ABA), but that other xylem-borne chemicals may be the primary stress signal(s). To gain more insight into the role of root-sourced ABA, the timing and location of the expression of genes for key enzymes involved in ABA biosynthesis in Zea mays roots was measured and a comprehensive analysis of root xylem sap constituents from the early to the later stages of water stress was conducted. Xylem sap and roots were sampled from plants at an early stage of water stress when only a reduction in leaf conductance was measured, as well as at later stages when leaf xylem pressure potential decreased. It was found that the majority of ABA biosynthetic genes examined were only significantly expressed in the elongation region of roots at a later stage of water stress. Apart from ABA, sulphate was the only xylem-borne chemical that consistently showed significantly higher concentrations from the early to the later stages of stress. Moreover, there was an interactive effect of ABA and sulphate in decreasing maize transpiration rate and Vicia faba stomatal aperture, as compared to ABA alone. The expression of a sulphate transporter gene was also analysed and it was found that it had increased in the elongation region of roots from the early to the later stages of water stress. Our results support the suggestion that in the early stage of water stress, increased levels of ABA in xylem sap may not be due to root biosynthesis, ABA glucose ester catabolism or pH-mediated redistribution, but may be due to shoot biosynthesis and translocation to the roots. The analysis of xylem sap mineral content and bioassays indicate that the anti-transpirant effect of the ABA reaching the stomata at the early stages of water stress may be enhanced by the increased concentrations of sulphate in the xylem which is also
The epichloae (Epichloë and Neotyphodium species), a monophyletic group of fungi in the family Clavicipitaceae, are systemic symbionts of cool-season grasses (Poaceae subfamily Poöideae). Most epichloae are vertically transmitted in seeds (endophytes), and most produce alkaloids that attack nervous ...
Comparative study of withanolide production and the related transcriptional responses of biosynthetic genes in fungi elicited cell suspension culture of Withania somnifera in shake flask and bioreactor.
Ahlawat, Seema; Saxena, Parul; Ali, Athar; Khan, Shazia; Abdin, Malik Z
Ashwagandha (Withania somnifera) is one of the most reputed medicinal plants in the traditional medicinal system. In this study, cell suspension culture of W. somnifera was elicited with cell homogenates of fungi (A. alternata, F. solani, V. dahliae and P. indica) in shake flask and the major withanolides like withanolide A, withaferin A and withanone were analysed. Simultaneously expression levels of key pathway genes from withanolides biosynthetic pathways were also checked via quantitative PCR in shake flask as well as in bioreactor. The results show that highest gene expression of 10.8, 5.8, 4.9, and 3.3 folds were observed with HMGR among all the expressed genes in cell suspension cultures with cell homogenates of 3% P. indica, 5% V. dahliae, 3% A. alternata and 3% F. solani, respectively, in comparison to the control in shake flask. Optimized concentration of cell homogenate of P. indica (3% v/v) was added to the growing culture in 5.0-l bioreactor under optimized up-scaling conditions and harvested after 22 days. The genes of MVA, MEP and withanolides biosynthetic pathways like HMGR, SS, SE, CAS, FPPS, DXR and DXS were up-regulated by 12.5, 4.9, 2.18, 4.65, 2.34, 1.89 and 1.4 folds, respectively in bioreactor. The enhancement of biomass (1.13 fold) and withanolides [withanolide A (1.7), withaferin A (1.5), and withanone (1.5) folds] in bioreactor in comparison to shake flask was also found to be in line with the up-regulation of genes of withanolide biosynthetic pathways.
Guo, Chun-Jun; Knox, Benjamin P.; Sanchez, James F.; Chiang, Yi-Ming; Bruno, Kenneth S.; Wang, Clay C.
Nonribosomal peptides (NRPs) are natural products biosynthesized by NRP synthetases. A kusA-, pyrG- mutant strain of Aspergillusterreus NIH 2624 was developed that greatly facilitated the gene targeting efficiency in this organism. Application of this tool allowed us to link four major types of NRP related secondary metabolites to their responsible genes in A. terreus. In addition, an NRP related melanin synthetase was also identified in this species.
Wang, Xin-Long; Dou, Man; Luo, Qi; Cheng, Li-Zhi; Yan, Yong-Ming; Li, Rong-Tao; Cheng, Yong-Xian
Seven pairs of new alkaloid enantiomers, ganocochlearines C-I (1, 3-8), and three pairs of known alkaloids were isolated from the fruiting bodies of Ganoderma cochlear. The chemical structures of new compounds were elucidated on the basis of 1D and 2D NMR data. The absolute configurations of compounds 1, 3-10 were assigned by ECD calculations. Biological activities of these isolates against renal fibrosis were accessed in rat normal or diseased renal interstitial fibroblast cells. Importantly, the plausible biosynthetic pathway for this class of alkaloids was originally proposed.
Fuell, Christine; Elliott, Katherine A; Hanfrey, Colin C; Franceschetti, Marina; Michael, Anthony J
Polyamine biosynthesis in plants differs from other eukaryotes because of the contribution of genes from the cyanobacterial ancestor of the chloroplast. Plants possess an additional biosynthetic route for putrescine formation from arginine, consisting of the enzymes arginine decarboxylase, agmatine iminohydrolase and N-carbamoylputrescine amidohydrolase, derived from the cyanobacterial ancestor. They also synthesize an unusual tetraamine, thermospermine, that has important developmental roles and which is evolutionarily more ancient than spermine in plants and algae. Single-celled green algae have lost the arginine route and are dependent, like other eukaryotes, on putrescine biosynthesis from the ornithine. Some plants like Arabidopsis thaliana and the moss Physcomitrella patens have lost ornithine decarboxylase and are thus dependent on the arginine route. With its dependence on the arginine route, and the pivotal role of thermospermine in growth and development, Arabidopsis represents the most specifically plant mode of polyamine biosynthesis amongst eukaryotes. A number of plants and algae are also able to synthesize unusual polyamines such as norspermidine, norspermine and longer polyamines, and biosynthesis of these amines likely depends on novel aminopropyltransferases similar to thermospermine synthase, with relaxed substrate specificity. Plants have a rich repertoire of polyamine-based secondary metabolites, including alkaloids and hydroxycinnamic amides, and a number of polyamine-acylating enzymes have been recently characterised. With the genetic tools available for Arabidopsis and other model plants and algae, and the increasing capabilities of comparative genomics, the biological roles of polyamines can now be addressed across the plant evolutionary lineage.
Chirkin, Eqor; Atkatlian, William; Porée, François-Hugues
Securinega alkaloids represent a family of plant secondary metabolites known for 50 years. Securinine (1), the most abundant and studied alkaloid of this series was isolated by Russian researchers in 1956. In the following years, French and Japanese scientists reported other Securinega compounds and extensive work was done to elucidate their intriguing structures. The homogeneity of this family relies mainly on its tetracyclic chemical backbone, which features a butenolide moiety (cycle D) and an azabicyclo[3.2.1]octane ring system (rings B and C). Interestingly, after a period of latency of 20 years, the Securinega topic reemerged as a prolific source of new natural structures and to date more than 50 compounds have been identified and characterized. The oligomeric subgroup gathering dimeric, trimeric, and tetrameric units is of particular interest. The unprecedented structure of the Securinega alkaloids was the subject of extensive synthetic efforts culminating in several efficient and elegant total syntheses. The botanical distribution of these alkaloids seems limited to the Securinega, Flueggea, Margaritaria, and Breynia genera (Phyllanthaceae). However, only a limited number of plant species have been considered for their alkaloid contents, and additional phytochemical as well as genetic studies are needed. Concerning the biosynthesis, experiments carried out with radiolabelled aminoacids allowed to identify lysine and tyrosine as the precursors of the piperidine ring A and the CD rings of securinine (1), respectively. Besides, plausible biosynthetic pathways were proposed for virosaine A (38) and B (39), flueggine A (46), and also the different oligomers flueggenine A-D (48-51), fluevirosinine A (56), and flueggedine (20). The case of nirurine (45) and secu'amamine (37) remains elusive and additional studies seem necessary to understand their mode of production. The scope of biological of activities of the Securinega alkaloids was mainly centered on the CNS
Calvenzani, Valentina; Castagna, Antonella; Ranieri, Annamaria; Tonelli, Chiara; Petroni, Katia
Hydroxycinnamic acids (HCAs) are phenolic compounds widely found in most plant families. Aim of the present work was to investigate their accumulation and biosynthetic gene expression in presence or absence of UV-B radiation in tomato fruits of wild-type and hp-1, a mutant characterized by exaggerated photoresponsiveness and increased fruit pigmentation. Gene expression and HCAs content were higher in hp-1 than in wild type peel and UV-B depletion determined a decrease in HCAs accumulation in wild-type and an increase in hp-1 fruits, generally in accordance with biosynthetic gene expression. In flesh, despite a similar transcript level of most genes between the two genotypes, HCAs content was generally higher in wild type than in hp-1, although remaining at a lower level with respect to wild type peel. Under UV-B depletion, a general reduction of HCAs content was observed in wild-type flesh, whereas an increase in the content of p-coumaric acid and caffeic acid was observed in hp-1 flesh.
Background Lactation increases energy demands four- to five-fold, leading to a two- to three-fold increase in food consumption, requiring a proportional adjustment in the ability of the lactating dam to absorb nutrients and to synthesize critical biomolecules, such as cholesterol, to meet the dietary needs of both the offspring and the dam. The size and hydrophobicity of the bile acid pool increases during lactation, implying an increased absorption and disposition of lipids, sterols, nutrients, and xenobiotics. In order to investigate changes at the transcriptomics level, we utilized an exon array and calculated expression levels to investigate changes in gene expression in the liver, duodenum, jejunum, and ileum of lactating dams when compared against age-matched virgin controls. Results A two-way mixed models ANOVA was applied to detect differentially expressed genes. Significance calls were defined as a p < 0.05 for the overall physiologic state effect (lactation vs. control), and a within tissue pairwise comparison of p < 0.01. The proportion of false positives, an estimate of the ratio of false positives in the list of differentially expressed genes, was calculated for each tissue. The number of differentially expressed genes was 420 in the liver, 337 in the duodenum, 402 in the jejunum, and 523 in the ileum. The list of differentially expressed genes was in turn analyzed by Ingenuity Pathways Analysis (IPA) to detect biological pathways that were overrepresented. In all tissues, sterol regulatory element binding protein (Srebp)-regulated genes involved in cholesterol synthesis showed increased mRNA expression, with the fewest changes detected in the jejunum. We detected increased Scap mRNA in the liver only, suggesting an explanation for the difference in response to lactation between the liver and small intestine. Expression of Cyp7a1, which catalyzes the rate limiting step in the bile acid biosynthetic pathway, was also significantly increased in liver. In
Raibaud, A; Zalacain, M; Holt, T G; Tizard, R; Thompson, C J
Nucleotide sequence analysis of a 5,000-bp region of the bialaphos antibiotic production (bap) gene cluster defined five open reading frames (ORFs) which predicted structural genes in the order bah, ORF1, ORF2, and ORF3 followed by the regulatory gene, brpA (H. Anzai, T. Murakami, S. Imai, A. Satoh, K. Nagaoka, and C.J. Thompson, J. Bacteriol. 169:3482-3488, 1987). The four structural genes were translationally coupled and apparently cotranscribed from an undefined promoter(s) under the positive control of the brpA gene product. S1 mapping experiments indicated that brpA was transcribed by two promoters (brpAp1 and brpAp2) which initiate transcription 150 and 157 bp upstream of brp A within an intergenic region and at least one promoter further upstream within the bap gene cluster (brpAp3). All three transcripts were present at low levels during exponential growth and increased just before the stationary phase. The levels of the brpAp3 band continued to increase at the onset of stationary phase, whereas brpAp1-and brpAp2-protected fragments showed no further change. BrpA contained a possible helix-turn-helix motif at its C terminus which was similar to the C-terminal regulatory motif found in the receiver component of a family of two-component transcriptional activator proteins. This motif was not associated with the N-terminal domain conserved in other members of the family. The structural gene cluster sequenced began with bah, encoding a bialaphos acetylhydrolase which removes the N-acetyl group from bialaphos as one of the final steps in the biosynthetic pathway. The observation that Bah was similar to a rat and to a bacterial (Acinetobacter calcoaceticus) lipase probably reflects the fact that the ester bonds of triglycerides and the amide bond linking acetate to phosphinothricin are similar and hydrolysis is catalyzed by structurally related enzymes. This was followed by two regions encoding ORF1 and ORF2 which were similar to each other (48% nucleotide
Samanani, Nailish; Alcantara, Joenel; Bourgault, Richard; Zulak, Katherine G; Facchini, Peter J
The benzylisoquinoline alkaloids of opium poppy, including the narcotic analgesics morphine and codeine, accumulate in the multinucleate cytoplasm of specialized laticifers that accompany vascular tissues throughout the plant. In mature opium poppy plants, immunofluorescence labeling using specific antibodies showed that four alkaloid biosynthetic enzymes, (S)-norcoclaurine 6-O-methyltransferase (6OMT), (S)-coclaurine N-methyltransferase (CNMT), (S)-3'-hydroxy-N-methylcoclaurine-4'-O-methyltransferase (4'OMT) and salutaridinol-7-O-acetyltransferase (SAT) were restricted to sieve elements of the phloem adjacent or proximal to laticifers. The identity of sieve elements was confirmed by (i) the specific immunogold labeling of the characteristic cytoplasm of this cell type, (ii) the co-localization of a sieve element-specific H(+)-ATPase with all biosynthetic enzymes and (iii) the strict association of sieve plates with immunofluorescent cells. The localization of laticifers was demonstrated antibodies specific to major latex protein (MLP), which is characteristic of this cell type. In situ hybridization using antisense RNA probes for 6OMT, CNMT, 4'OMT and SAT showed that the corresponding gene transcripts were found in the companion cell paired with each sieve element. Seven benzylisoquinoline alkaloid biosynthetic enzymes, (S)-N-methylcoclaurine 3'-hydroxylase (CYP80B1), berberine bridge enzyme, codeinone reductase, 6OMT, CNMT, 4'OMT and SAT were localized by immunofluorescence labeling to the sieve elements in the root and hypocotyl of opium poppy seedlings. The abundance of these enzymes increased rapidly between 1 and 3 days after seed germination. The localization of seven biosynthetic enzymes to the sieve elements provides strong support for the unique, cell type-specific biosynthesis of benzylisoquinoline alkaloids in the opium poppy.
Mousa, Jarrod J; Newsome, Rachel C; Yang, Ye; Jobin, Christian; Bruner, Steven D
Multidrug transporters play key roles in cellular drug resistance to toxic molecules, yet these transporters are also involved in natural product transport as part of biosynthetic clusters in bacteria and fungi. The genotoxic molecule colibactin is produced by strains of virulent and pathobiont Escherichia coli and Klebsiella pneumoniae. In the biosynthetic cluster is a multidrug and toxic compound extrusion protein (MATE) proposed to transport the prodrug molecule precolibactin across the cytoplasmic membrane, for subsequent cleavage by the peptidase ClbP and cellular export. We recently determined the X-ray structure of ClbM, and showed preliminary data suggesting its specific role in precolibactin transport. Here, we define a functional role of ClbM by examining transport capabilities under various biochemical conditions. Our data indicate ClbM responds to sodium, potassium, and rubidium ion gradients, while also having substantial transport activity in the absence of alkali cations.
Jahanshiri, Zahra; Shams-Ghahfarokhi, Masoomeh; Allameh, Abdolamir; Razzaghi-Abyaneh, Mehdi
Aflatoxin contamination of grains and agro-products is a serious food safety issue and a significant economic concern worldwide. In the present study, the effects of eugenol on Aspergillus parasiticus growth and aflatoxin production were studied in relation to the expression of some essential genes involved in aflatoxin biosynthetic pathway. The fungus was cultured in presence of serial two-fold concentrations of eugenol (15.62-500 μg mL(-1)) for 3 days at 28 °C. Mycelia dry weight was determined as an index of fungal growth, while aflatoxin production was assessed by high performance liquid chromatography. The expression of aflatoxin biosynthetic genes including ver-1, nor-1, pksA, omtA and aflR were evaluated by real-time PCR. Eugenol strongly inhibited A. parasiticus growth in the range of 19.16-95.83 % in a dose-dependent manner. Aflatoxin B1 production was also inhibited by the compound in the range of 15.07-98.0 %. The expressions of ver-1, nor-1, pksA, omtA and aflR genes were significantly suppressed by eugenol at concentrations of 62.5 and 125 μg mL(-1). These results indicate that eugenol may be considered as a good candidate to control toxigenic fungal growth and the subsequent contamination of food, feed and agricultural commodities by carcinogenic aflatoxins.
Passari, Ajit Kumar; Chandra, Preeti; Zothanpuia; Mishra, Vineet Kumar; Leo, Vincent Vineeth; Gupta, Vijai Kumar; Kumar, Brijesh; Singh, Bhim Pratap
In the present study, fifteen endophytic actinobacterial isolates recovered from Solanum lycopersicum were studied for their antagonistic potential and plant-growth-promoting (PGP) traits. Among them, eight isolates showed significant antagonistic and PGP traits, identified by amplification of the 16S rRNA gene. Isolate number DBT204, identified as Streptomyces sp., showed multiple PGP traits tested in planta and improved a range of growth parameters in seedlings of chili (Capsicum annuum L.) and tomato (S. lycopersicum L.). Further, genes of indole acetic acid (iaaM) and 1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylate (ACC) deaminase (acdS) were successively amplified from five strains. Six antibiotics (trimethoprim, fluconazole, chloramphenicol, nalidixic acid, rifampicin and streptomycin) and two phytohormones [indole acetic acid (IAA) and kinetin (KI)] were detected and quantified in Streptomyces sp. strain DBT204 using UPLC-ESI-MS/MS. The study indicates the potential of these PGP strains for production of phytohormones and shows the presence of biosynthetic genes responsible for production of secondary metabolites. It is the first report showing production of phytohormones (IAA and KI) by endophytic actinobacteria having PGP and biosynthetic potential. We propose Streptomyces sp. strain DBT204 for inoculums production and development of biofertilizers for enhancing growth of chili and tomato seedlings.
Ikeda, Haruo; Kazuo, Shin-ya; Omura, Satoshi
To date, several actinomycete genomes have been completed and annotated. Among them, Streptomyces microorganisms are of major pharmaceutical interest because they are a rich source of numerous secondary metabolites. S. avermitilis is an industrial microorganism used for the production of an anthelmintic agent, avermectin, which is a commercially important antiparasitic agent in human and veterinary medicine, and agricultural pesticides. Genome analysis of S. avermitilis provides significant information for not only industrial applications but also understanding the features of this genus. On genome mining of S. avermitilis, the microorganism has been found to harbor at least 38 secondary metabolic gene clusters and 46 insertion sequence (IS)-like sequences on the genome, which have not been searched so far. A significant use of the genome data of Streptomyces microorganisms is the construction of a versatile host for heterologous expression of exogenous biosynthetic gene clusters by genetic engineering. Since S. avermitilis is used as an industrial microorganism, the microorganism is already optimized for the efficient supply of primary metabolic precursors and biochemical energy to support multistep biosynthesis. The feasibility of large-deletion mutants of S. avermitilis has been confirmed by heterologous expression of more than 20 exogenous biosynthetic gene clusters.
Chiku, Kazuhiro; Tsunemi, Kazuhiko; Yamamoto, Masanobu; Ohnishi-Kameyama, Mayumi; Yoshida, Mitsuru; Ishii, Tadashi; Taguchi, Fumiko; Iwaki, Masako; Ichinose, Yuki; Ono, Hiroshi
D-rhamnose (D-Rha) residue is a major component of lipopolysaccharides (LPSs) in strains of the phytopathogen Pseudomonas syringae pathovar glycinea. To investigate the effects of a deficiency in GDP-D-rhamnose biosynthetic genes on LPS structure and pathogenicity, we generated three mutants defective in D-Rha biosynthetic genes, encoding proteins GDP-D-mannose 4,6-dehydratase (GMD), GDP-4-keto-6-deoxy-D-mannose reductase (RMD), and a putative α-D-rhamnosyltransferase (WbpZ) in P. syringae pv. glycinea race 4. The Δgmd, Δrmd, and ΔwbpZ mutants had a reduced O-antigen polysaccharide consisting of D-Rha residues as compared with the wild type (WT). The swarming motility of the Δgmd, Δrmd, and ΔwbpZ mutant strains decreased and hydrophobicity and adhesion ability increased as compared with WT. Although the mutants had truncated O-antigen polysaccharides, and altered surface properties, they showed virulence to soybean, as WT did.
Ye, Yu-Jie; Xiao, Yun-Yi; Han, Yan-Chao; Shan, Wei; Fan, Zhong-Qi; Xu, Qun-Gang; Kuang, Jian-Fei; Lu, Wang-Jin; Lakshmanan, Prakash; Chen, Jian-Ye
Most harvested fruits and vegetables are stored at low temperature but many of them are highly sensitive to chilling injury. Jasmonic acid (JA), a plant hormone associated with various stress responses, is known to reduce chilling injury in fruits. However, little is known about the transcriptional regulation of JA biosynthesis in relation to cold response of fruits. Here, we show the involvement of a Group I WRKY transcription factor (TF) from banana fruit, MaWRKY26, in regulating JA biosynthesis. MaWRKY26 was found to be nuclear-localized with transcriptional activation property. MaWRKY26 was induced by cold stress or by methyl jasmonate (MeJA), which enhances cold tolerance in banana fruit. More importantly, MaWRKY26 transactivated JA biosynthetic genes MaLOX2, MaAOS3 and MaOPR3 via binding to their promoters. Further, MaWRKY26 physically interacted with a VQ motif-containing protein MaVQ5, and the interaction attenuated MaWRKY26-induced transactivation of JA biosynthetic genes. These results strongly suggest that MaVQ5 might act as a repressor of MaWRKY26 in activating JA biosynthesis. Taken together, our findings provide new insights into the transcriptional regulation of JA biosynthesis in response to cold stress and a better understanding of the molecular aspects of chilling injury in banana fruit. PMID:27004441
Baba, S; Nihira, T; Hosobuchi, M
MlcR is a pathway-specific transcriptional activator of the ML-236B biosynthetic genes in Penicillium citrinum. The MlcR-binding sequences were identified by an in vitro gel-shift assay and an in vivo reporter assay for the region between mlcA and mlcC as a model. The gel-shift assay showed that recombinant MlcR bound to the DNA sequence 5'-ACGGCGTTATTCGG-3' and most of the bases in this motif were required for the interaction between MlcR and DNA. In the reporter assay using beta-glucuronidase (GUS), substitution of the bases in this binding sequence resulted in the drastic reduction of GUS activities. These data clearly indicate that this MlcR-binding sequence is essential for the transcriptional activation of mlcA and mlcC in P. citrinum. Similar motifs were found in other loci of the ML-236B biosynthetic gene cluster and the consensus-binding motif for MlcR was predicted to be a direct repeat, 5'-WCGG-N(6)-TCGG-3'.
Franza, T; Enard, C; van Gijsegem, F; Expert, D
Twenty of the twenty-two MudII1734 insertions impairing the chrysobactin iron-assimilation system of Erwinia chrysanthemi 3937 were localized to a 50 kbp genomic insert contained in the R-prime plasmid, R'4 (Enard et al., 1988). Using the conjugative plasmid pULB110 (RP4::mini-Mu) and the generalized transducing phage phi EC2, we located this iron-transport region and the two unlinked mutations on the chromosome linkage map. Chrysobactin is a catechol-type siderophore and, as we have previously observed with the entA locus of Escherichia coli, the E. chrysanthemi-derived R'4 was found to complement E. coli entB and entE mutations. A 2.9 kb EcoRi and a 4.8 kb BamHI fragment in the R'4 sharing homology with the E. coli entCEBAP15 operon DNA were subcloned. These fragments were used as DNA/DNA hybridization probes to screen a wild-type gene library, yielding a recombinant cosmid (pEC7) able to complement mutations disrupting the 2,3-dihydroxybenzoic acid biosynthetic pathway in both Erwinia and Escherichia spp. as well as the E. coli entE mutation. Physical mapping of the genomic MudII1734 insertions corresponding to these mutations led to the identification of a cluster of genes confined to a DNA sequence of about 10 kb required for both biosynthetic and receptor functions.
Eckermann, Ruben; Gaich, Tanja
Experimental evidence is provided for the coherence of the double-bond geometry and the occurrence of "secondary cyclizations" in the biosynthesis of monoterpenoid indole alkaloids. Biosynthetically, akuammiline, C-mavacurine, and Strychnos alkaloids are proposed to be derived from the corynanthean alkaloid geissoschizine, a key intermediate in the biosynthetic pathway of these monoterpenoid indole alkaloids. This process occurs by so-called "secondary cyclizations" from geissoschizine or its derivatives. Although corynanthean alkaloids like geissoschizine incorporate E or Z double bonds located at C19-C20, the alkaloids downstream in the biosynthesis exclusively exhibit the E double bond. This study shows that secondary cyclizations preferentially occur with the E isomer of geissoschizine or its derivatives. This is attributed to the flexibility of the quinolizidine system of the corynanthean alkaloids, which can adopt a cis or trans conformation. For the secondary cyclization to take place, the cis-quinolizidine conformation is required. Experimental evidence supports the hypothesis that the E double bond of geissoschizine induces the cis conformation, whereas the Z double bond induces the trans conformation, which prohibits secondary cyclization of the Z compounds.
The putative elaiophylin biosynthetic gene cluster in Streptomyces sp. DSM4137 is adjacent to genes encoding adenosylcobalamin-dependent methylmalonyl CoA mutase and to genes for synthesis of cobalamin.
Haydock, Stephen F; Mironenko, Tatiana; Ghoorahoo, Haroun I; Leadlay, Peter F
A type I PKS gene probe obtained from RAPB of the rapamycin producer Streptomyces hygroscopicus, strongly hybridised to 92 out of 1120 cosmids from a genomic library of the elaiophylin-producing strain Streptomyces sp. DSM4137. Partial cosmid sequencing suggested the presence of 10 separate sequences encoding type I PKS genes. One entire DNA sequence was obtained and found exactly to match the gene organisation expected for the biosynthesis of the unusual macrodiolide polyketide elaiophylin. The putative elaiophylin gene cluster contains five large open-reading frames encoding typical modular polyketide synthases, which together catalyse the synthesis of the octaketide monomer of elaiophylin. Other genes were identified that would be required for provision of the ethylmalonate extender unit, for the synthesis and attachment of 2-deoxy-L-fucose and in regulation, or in export of the product. Immediately adjacent to the putative elaiophylin biosynthetic gene cluster is a 30-kbp region containing the gene for adenosylcobalamin-dependent methylmalonyl CoA mutase and also genes involved in the biosynthesis of the cobalamin cofactor. Analysis of the latter gene set confirms the view that cbiD of the anaerobic pathway and cobF in the aerobic pathway catalyse the same methylation of precorrin-5. The proximity of these genes to the putative elaiophylin gene cluster can best be rationalised if in this organism succinyl-CoA is a significant source of the methylmalonate units for complex polyketide biosynthesis.
Pandey, Shiv S.; Singh, Sucheta; Babu, C. S. Vivek; Shanker, Karuna; Srivastava, N. K.; Shukla, Ashutosh K.; Kalra, Alok
Not much is known about the mechanism of endophyte-mediated induction of secondary metabolite production in Catharanthus roseus. In the present study two fungal endophytes, Curvularia sp. CATDLF5 and Choanephora infundibulifera CATDLF6 were isolated from the leaves of the plant that were found to enhance vindoline content by 229–403%. The isolated endophytes did not affect the primary metabolism of the plant as the maximum quantum efficiency of PSII, net CO2 assimilation, plant biomass and starch content of endophyte-inoculated plants was similar to endophyte-free control plants. Expression of terpenoid indole alkaloid (TIA) pathway genes, geraniol 10-hydroxylase (G10H), tryptophan decarboxylase (TDC), strictosidine synthase (STR), 16-hydoxytabersonine-O-methyltransferase (16OMT), desacetoxyvindoline-4-hydroxylase (D4H), deacetylvindoline-4-O-acetyltransferase (DAT) were upregulated in endophyte-inoculated plants. Endophyte inoculation upregulated the expression of the gene for transcriptional activator octadecanoid-responsive Catharanthus AP2-domain protein (ORCA3) and downregulated the expression of Cys2/His2-type zinc finger protein family transcriptional repressors (ZCTs). The gene for the vacuolar class III peroxidase (PRX1), responsible for coupling vindoline and catharanthine, was upregulated in endophyte-inoculated plants. These endophytes may enhance vindoline production by modulating the expression of key structural and regulatory genes of vindoline biosynthesis without affecting the primary metabolism of the host plant. PMID:27220774
Susca, Antonia; Proctor, Robert H.; Morelli, Massimiliano; Haidukowski, Miriam; Gallo, Antonia; Logrieco, Antonio F.; Moretti, Antonio
The fungi Aspergillus niger and A. welwitschiae are morphologically indistinguishable species used for industrial fermentation and for food and beverage production. The fungi also occur widely on food crops. Concerns about their safety have arisen with the discovery that some isolates of both species produce fumonisin (FB) and ochratoxin A (OTA) mycotoxins. Here, we examined FB and OTA production as well as the presence of genes responsible for synthesis of the mycotoxins in a collection of 92 A. niger/A. welwitschiae isolates from multiple crop and geographic origins. The results indicate that (i) isolates of both species differed in ability to produce the mycotoxins; (ii) FB-nonproducing isolates of A. niger had an intact fumonisin biosynthetic gene (fum) cluster; (iii) FB-nonproducing isolates of A. welwitschiae exhibited multiple patterns of fum gene deletion; and (iv) OTA-nonproducing isolates of both species lacked the ochratoxin A biosynthetic gene (ota) cluster. Analysis of genome sequence data revealed a single pattern of ota gene deletion in the two species. Phylogenetic analysis suggest that the simplest explanation for this is that ota cluster deletion occurred in a common ancestor of A. niger and A. welwitschiae, and subsequently both the intact and deleted cluster were retained as alternate alleles during divergence of the ancestor into descendent species. Finally, comparison of results from this and previous studies indicate that a majority of A. niger isolates and a minority of A. welwitschiae isolates can produce FBs, whereas, a minority of isolates of both species produce OTA. The comparison also suggested that the relative abundance of each species and frequency of FB/OTA-producing isolates can vary with crop and/or geographic origin. PMID:27667988
Qu, Yang; Simonescu, Razvan; De Luca, Vincenzo
Two new monoterpene indole alkaloids, isoakuammiline (1) and 18-hydroxypseudovincadifformine (2), and five known alkaloids, coronaridine (3), heyneanine (4), 3,19-oxidocoronaridine (5), tabersonine, and strictosidine, were identified from the fruit of Tabernaemontana litoralis. The structures of the alkaloids were determined using NMR and MS data analyses. While 18-hydroxypseudovincadifformine (2) showed a new hydroxylation pattern, isoakuammiline (1) revealed a novel skeleton for monoterpene indole alkaloids. In spite of the isolation of stemmadenine from the fruit tissues in other Tabernaemontana species, this vital biosynthetic precursor of iboga, aspidosperma, and pseudoaspidosperma skeletons was not found in T. litoralis.
Li, Yanran; Smolke, Christina D
Noscapine is a potential anticancer drug isolated from the opium poppy Papaver somniferum, and genes encoding enzymes responsible for the synthesis of noscapine have been recently discovered to be clustered on the genome of P. somniferum. Here, we reconstitute the noscapine gene cluster in Saccharomyces cerevisiae to achieve the microbial production of noscapine and related pathway intermediates, complementing and extending previous in planta and in vitro investigations. Our work provides structural validation of the secoberberine intermediates and the description of the narcotoline-4'-O-methyltransferase, suggesting this activity is catalysed by a unique heterodimer. We also reconstitute a 14-step biosynthetic pathway of noscapine from the simple alkaloid norlaudanosoline by engineering a yeast strain expressing 16 heterologous plant enzymes, achieving reconstitution of a complex plant pathway in a microbial host. Other engineered yeasts produce previously inaccessible pathway intermediates and a novel derivative, thereby advancing protoberberine and noscapine related drug discovery.
Li, Yanran; Smolke, Christina D.
Noscapine is a potential anticancer drug isolated from the opium poppy Papaver somniferum, and genes encoding enzymes responsible for the synthesis of noscapine have been recently discovered to be clustered on the genome of P. somniferum. Here, we reconstitute the noscapine gene cluster in Saccharomyces cerevisiae to achieve the microbial production of noscapine and related pathway intermediates, complementing and extending previous in planta and in vitro investigations. Our work provides structural validation of the secoberberine intermediates and the description of the narcotoline-4′-O-methyltransferase, suggesting this activity is catalysed by a unique heterodimer. We also reconstitute a 14-step biosynthetic pathway of noscapine from the simple alkaloid norlaudanosoline by engineering a yeast strain expressing 16 heterologous plant enzymes, achieving reconstitution of a complex plant pathway in a microbial host. Other engineered yeasts produce previously inaccessible pathway intermediates and a novel derivative, thereby advancing protoberberine and noscapine related drug discovery. PMID:27378283
Rizvi, Noreen F.; Weaver, Jessica D.; Cram, Erin J.; Lee-Parsons, Carolyn W. T.
The Catharanthus roseus plant is the source of many valuable terpenoid indole alkaloids (TIAs), including the anticancer compounds vinblastine and vincristine. Transcription factors (TFs) are promising metabolic engineering targets due to their ability to regulate multiple biosynthetic pathway genes. To increase TIA biosynthesis, we elicited the TIA transcriptional activators (ORCAs and other unidentified TFs) with the plant hormone, methyl jasmonate (MJ), while simultaneously silencing the expression of the transcriptional repressor ZCT1. To silence ZCT1, we developed transgenic hairy root cultures of C. roseus that expressed an estrogen-inducible Zct1 hairpin for activating RNA interference. The presence of 17β-estradiol (5μM) effectively depleted Zct1 in hairy root cultures elicited with MJ dosages that either optimize or inhibit TIA production (250 or 1000μM). However, silencing Zct1 was not sufficient to increase TIA production or the expression of the TIA biosynthetic genes (G10h, Tdc, and Str), illustrating the tight regulation of TIA biosynthesis. The repression of the TIA biosynthetic genes at the inhibitory MJ dosage does not appear to be solely regulated by ZCT1. For instance, while Zct1 and Zct2 levels decreased through activating the Zct1 hairpin, Zct3 levels remained elevated. Since ZCT repressors have redundant yet distinct functions, silencing all three ZCTs may be necessary to relieve their repression of alkaloid biosynthesis. PMID:27467510
Wang, Cheng; Zeng, Jian; Li, Yin; Hu, Wei; Chen, Ling; Miao, Yingjie; Deng, Pengyi; Yuan, Cuihong; Ma, Cheng; Chen, Xi; Zang, Mingli; Wang, Qiong; Li, Kexiu; Chang, Junli; Wang, Yuesheng; Yang, Guangxiao; He, Guangyuan
Carotenoid content is a primary determinant of wheat nutritional value and affects its end-use quality. Wheat grains contain very low carotenoid levels and trace amounts of provitamin A content. In order to enrich the carotenoid content in wheat grains, the bacterial phytoene synthase gene (CrtB) and carotene desaturase gene (CrtI) were transformed into the common wheat cultivar Bobwhite. Expression of CrtB or CrtI alone slightly increased the carotenoid content in the grains of transgenic wheat, while co-expression of both genes resulted in a darker red/yellow grain phenotype, accompanied by a total carotenoid content increase of approximately 8-fold achieving 4.76 μg g(-1) of seed dry weight, a β-carotene increase of 65-fold to 3.21 μg g(-1) of seed dry weight, and a provitamin A content (sum of α-carotene, β-carotene, and β-cryptoxanthin) increase of 76-fold to 3.82 μg g(-1) of seed dry weight. The high provitamin A content in the transgenic wheat was stably inherited over four generations. Quantitative PCR analysis revealed that enhancement of provitamin A content in transgenic wheat was also a result of the highly coordinated regulation of endogenous carotenoid biosynthetic genes, suggesting a metabolic feedback regulation in the wheat carotenoid biosynthetic pathway. These transgenic wheat lines are not only valuable for breeding wheat varieties with nutritional benefits for human health but also for understanding the mechanism regulating carotenoid biosynthesis in wheat endosperm.
Koolen, Hector H F; Pral, Elizabeth M F; Alfieri, Silvia C; Marinho, Jane V N; Serain, Alessandra F; Hernández-Tasco, Alvaro J; Andreazza, Nathalia L; Salvador, Marcos J
Five alkaloids, in addition to hydroxytyrosol and uridine, were isolated from aerial parts of Alternanthera littoralis P. Beauv. Among the isolated compounds, alternamide A was an unusual tricyclic alkaloid with a bridged benzoazepine core. All isolated alkaloids have a catechol moiety, indicating a possible common biosynthetic route. Their structures were established by 1D and 2D NMR spectroscopy in combination with extensive tandem MS experiments by collisional induced dissociation (CID). The antiprotozoal activity of the isolated compounds was assayed against trypomastigote forms of Trypanosoma cruzi and amastigotes of Leishmania amazonensis. Alternamine A was the most active compound, reducing markedly the viability of both parasites. Antioxidant capacities evaluated by ORACFL assay showed that the isolated alkaloids (mainly alternamide B) contributed to the high activity recorded for the ethanolic crude extract; possibly, the catechol moiety present in all structures plays a central role in this result.
Fountain, Jake C.; Bajaj, Prasad; Nayak, Spurthi N.; Yang, Liming; Pandey, Manish K.; Kumar, Vinay; Jayale, Ashwin S.; Chitikineni, Anu; Lee, Robert D.; Kemerait, Robert C.; Varshney, Rajeev K.; Guo, Baozhu
The infection of maize and peanut with Aspergillus flavus and subsequent contamination with aflatoxin pose a threat to global food safety and human health, and is exacerbated by drought stress. Drought stress-responding compounds such as reactive oxygen species (ROS) are associated with fungal stress responsive signaling and secondary metabolite production, and can stimulate the production of aflatoxin by A. flavus in vitro. These secondary metabolites have been shown to possess diverse functions in soil-borne fungi including antibiosis, competitive inhibition of other microbes, and abiotic stress alleviation. Previously, we observed that isolates of A. flavus showed differences in oxidative stress tolerance which correlated with their aflatoxin production capabilities. In order to better understand these isolate-specific oxidative stress responses, we examined the transcriptional responses of field isolates of A. flavus with varying levels of aflatoxin production (NRRL3357, AF13, and Tox4) to H2O2-induced oxidative stress using an RNA sequencing approach. These isolates were cultured in an aflatoxin-production conducive medium amended with various levels of H2O2. Whole transcriptomes were sequenced using an Illumina HiSeq platform with an average of 40.43 million filtered paired-end reads generated for each sample. The obtained transcriptomes were then used for differential expression, gene ontology, pathway, and co-expression analyses. Isolates which produced higher levels of aflatoxin tended to exhibit fewer differentially expressed genes than isolates with lower levels of production. Genes found to be differentially expressed in response to increasing oxidative stress included antioxidant enzymes, primary metabolism components, antibiosis-related genes, and secondary metabolite biosynthetic components specifically for aflatoxin, aflatrem, and kojic acid. The expression of fungal development-related genes including aminobenzoate degradation genes and conidiation
Miyanaga, Akimasa; Janso, Jeffrey E.; McDonald, Leonard; He, Min; Liu, Hongbo; Barbieri, Laurel; Eustáquio, Alessandra S.; Fielding, Elisha N.; Carter, Guy T.; Jensen, Paul R.; Feng, Xidong; Leighton, Margaret; Koehn, Frank E.; Moore, Bradley S.
The pyrroloquinoline alkaloid family of natural products that includes the immunosuppressant lymphostin has long been postulated to arise from tryptophan. We now report the molecular basis of lymphostin biosynthesis in three marine Salinispora species that maintain conserved biosynthetic gene clusters harboring a hybrid nonribosomal peptide synthetase-polyketide synthase central to lymphostin assembly. Through a series of experiments involving gene mutations, stable isotope profiling, and natural product discovery, we report the assembly line biosynthesis of lymphostin and nine new analogues that exhibit potent mTOR inhibitory activity. PMID:21815669
Teves, Franco; Lamas-Maceiras, Mónica; García-Estrada, Carlos; Casqueiro, Javier; Naranjo, Leopoldo; Ullán, Ricardo V; Scervino, José-Martín; Wu, Xiaobin; Velasco-Conde, Tania; Martín, Juan F
The lysine biosynthetic pathway has to supply large amounts of alpha-aminoadipic acid for penicillin biosynthesis in Penicillium chrysogenum. In this study, we have characterized the P. chrysogenum L2 mutant, a lysine auxotroph that shows highly increased expression of several lysine biosynthesis genes (lys1, lys2, lys3, lys7). The L2 mutant was found to be deficient in homoaconitase activity since it was complemented by the Aspergillus nidulans lysF gene. We have cloned a gene (named lys3) that complements the L2 mutation by transformation with a P. chrysogenum genomic library, constructed in an autonomous replicating plasmid. The lys3-encoded protein showed high identity to homoaconitases. In addition, we cloned the mutant lys3 allele from the L2 strain that showed a G(1534) to A(1534) point mutation resulting in a Gly(495) to Asp(495) substitution. This mutation is located in a highly conserved region adjacent to two of the three cysteine residues that act as ligands to bind the iron-sulfur cluster required for homoaconitase activity. The L2 mutant accumulates homocitrate. Deletion of the lys1 gene (homocitrate synthase) in the L2 strain prevented homocitrate accumulation and reverted expression levels of the four lysine biosynthesis genes tested to those of the parental prototrophic strain. Homocitrate accumulation seems to act as a sensor of lysine-pathway distress, triggering overexpression of four of the lysine biosynthesis genes.
Meena, Seema; Rajeev Kumar, Sarma; Dwivedi, Varun; Kumar Singh, Anup; Chanotiya, Chandan S.; Akhtar, Md. Qussen; Kumar, Krishna; Kumar Shasany, Ajit; Nagegowda, Dinesh A.
Curry tree (Murraya koenigii L.) is a rich source of aromatic terpenes and pharmacologically important carbazole alkaloids. Here, M. koenigii leaf transcriptome was generated to gain insight into terpenoid and alkaloid biosynthesis. Analysis of de novo assembled contigs yielded genes for terpene backbone biosynthesis and terpene synthases. Also, gene families possibly involved in carbazole alkaloid formation were identified that included polyketide synthases, prenyltransferases, methyltransferases and cytochrome P450s. Further, two genes encoding terpene synthases (MkTPS1 and MkTPS2) with highest in silico transcript abundance were cloned and functionally characterized to determine their involvement in leaf volatile formation. Subcellular localization using GFP fusions revealed the plastidial and cytosolic localization of MkTPS1 and MkTPS2, respectively. Enzymatic characterization demonstrated the monoterpene synthase activity of recombinant MkTPS1, which produced primarily (−)-sabinene from geranyl diphosphate (GPP). Recombinant MkTPS2 exhibited sesquiterpene synthase activity and formed (E,E)-α-farnesene as the major product from farnesyl diphosphate (FPP). Moreover, mRNA expression and leaf volatile analyses indicated that MkTPS1 accounts for (−)-sabinene emitted by M. koenigii leaves. Overall, the transcriptome data generated in this study will be a great resource and the start point for characterizing genes involved in the biosynthetic pathway of medicinally important carbazole alkaloids. PMID:28272514
Enhanced morphinan alkaloid production in hairy root cultures of Papaver bracteatum by over-expression of salutaridinol 7-o-acetyltransferase gene via Agrobacterium rhizogenes mediated transformation.
Sharafi, Ali; Hashemi Sohi, Haleh; Mousavi, Amir; Azadi, Pejman; Dehsara, Bahareh; Hosseini Khalifani, Bahman
Papaver bracteatum is an important medicinal plant valued for its high content of thebaine and an alternative to P. somniferum for benzylisoquinoline alkaloid production. Salutaridinol 7-o-acetyltransferase (SalAT) is a key gene in morphinan alkaloids biosynthesis pathway. Over expression of SalAT gene was used for metabolic engineering in P. bracteatum hairy root cultures. Transcript level of the salutaridinol 7-o-acetyltransferase gene in transgenic hairy root lines increased up to 154 and 128 % in comparison with hairy roots without SalAT over expression and wild type roots, respectively. High performance liquid chromatography analysis showed that the transgenic hairy roots relatively improved levels of thebaine (1.28 % dry weight), codeine (0.02 % dry weight) and morphine (0.03 % dry weight) compared to those hairy roots without SalAT over expression. This suggests that P. bracteatum hairy roots expressing the SalAT gene could be potentially used for the production of valuable morphinan alkaloids.
Rodriguez, Alberto; Martínez, Juan A; Millard, Pierre; Gosset, Guillermo; Portais, Jean-Charles; Létisse, Fabien; Bolivar, Francisco
Metabolic engineering strategies applied over the last two decades to produce shikimate (SA) in Escherichia coli have resulted in a battery of strains bearing many expression systems. However, the effects that these systems have on the host physiology and how they impact the production of SA are still not well understood. In this work we utilized an engineered E. coli strain to determine the consequences of carrying a vector that promotes SA production from glucose with a high yield but that is also expected to impose a significant cellular burden. Kinetic comparisons in fermentors showed that instead of exerting a negative effect, the sole presence of the plasmid increased glucose consumption without diminishing the growth rate. By constitutively expressing a biosynthetic operon from this vector, the more active glycolytic metabolism was exploited to redirect intermediates towards the production of SA, which further increased the glucose consumption rate and avoided excess acetate production. Fluxomics and metabolomics experiments revealed a global remodeling of the carbon and energy metabolism in the production strain, where the increased SA production reduced the carbon available for oxidative and fermentative pathways. Moreover, the results showed that the production of SA relies on a specific setup of the PPP, where both its oxidative and non-oxidative branches are strongly activated to supply E4P and balance the NADPH requirements. This work improves our understanding of the metabolic reorganization observed in E. coli in response to the plasmid-based expression of the SA biosynthetic pathway. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.
Yin, Jia; Hoffmann, Michael; Bian, Xiaoying; Tu, Qiang; Yan, Fu; Xia, Liqiu; Ding, Xuezhi; Stewart, A Francis; Müller, Rolf; Fu, Jun; Zhang, Youming
Linear plus linear homologous recombination-mediated recombineering (LLHR) is ideal for obtaining natural product biosynthetic gene clusters from pre-digested bacterial genomic DNA in one or two steps of recombineering. The natural product salinomycin has a potent and selective activity against cancer stem cells and is therefore a potential anti-cancer drug. Herein, we separately isolated three fragments of the salinomycin gene cluster (salO-orf18) from Streptomyces albus (S. albus) DSM41398 using LLHR and assembled them into intact gene cluster (106 kb) by Red/ET and expressed it in the heterologous host Streptomyces coelicolor (S. coelicolor) A3(2). We are the first to report a large genomic region from a Gram-positive strain has been cloned using LLHR. The successful reconstitution and heterologous expression of the salinomycin gene cluster offer an attractive system for studying the function of the individual genes and identifying novel and potential analogues of complex natural products in the recipient strain.
Kumar, Abhishek; Henrissat, Bernard; Arvas, Mikko; Syed, Muhammad Fahad; Thieme, Nils; Benz, J. Philipp; Sørensen, Jens Laurids; Record, Eric; Pöggeler, Stefanie; Kempken, Frank
The marine-derived Scopulariopsis brevicaulis strain LF580 produces scopularides A and B, which have anticancerous properties. We carried out genome sequencing using three next-generation DNA sequencing methods. De novo hybrid assembly yielded 621 scaffolds with a total size of 32.2 Mb and 16298 putative gene models. We identified a large non-ribosomal peptide synthetase gene (nrps1) and supporting pks2 gene in the same biosynthetic gene cluster. This cluster and the genes within the cluster are functionally active as confirmed by RNA-Seq. Characterization of carbohydrate-active enzymes and major facilitator superfamily (MFS)-type transporters lead to postulate S. brevicaulis originated from a soil fungus, which came into contact with the marine sponge Tethya aurantium. This marine sponge seems to provide shelter to this fungus and micro-environment suitable for its survival in the ocean. This study also builds the platform for further investigations of the role of life-style and secondary metabolites from S. brevicaulis. PMID:26505484
Grobe, Nadja; Lamshöft, Marc; Orth, Robert G.; Dräger, Birgit; Kutchan, Toni M.; Zenk, Meinhart H.; Spiteller, Michael
It has been firmly established that humans excrete a small but steady amount of the isoquinoline alkaloid morphine in their urine. It is unclear whether it is of dietary or endogenous origin. There is no doubt that a simple isoquinoline alkaloid, tetrahydropapaveroline (THP), is found in human and rodent brain as well as in human urine. This suggests a potential biogenetic relationship between both alkaloids. Unlabeled THP or [1,3,4-D3]-THP was injected intraperitoneally into mice and the urine was analyzed. This potential precursor was extensively metabolized (96%). Among the metabolites found was the phenol-coupled product salutaridine, the known morphine precursor in the opium poppy plant. Synthetic [7D]-salutaridinol, the biosynthetic reduction product of salutaridine, injected intraperitoneally into live animals led to the formation of [7D]-thebaine, which was excreted in urine. [N-CD3]-thebaine was also administered and yielded [N-CD3]-morphine and the congeners [N-CD3]-codeine and [N-CD3]-oripavine in urine. These results show for the first time that live animals have the biosynthetic capability to convert a normal constituent of rodents, THP, to morphine. Morphine and its precursors are normally not found in tissues or organs, presumably due to metabolic breakdown. Hence, only that portion of the isoquinoline alkaloids excreted in urine unmetabolized can be detected. Analysis of urine by high resolution-mass spectrometry proved to be a powerful method for tracking endogenous morphine and its biosynthetic precursors. PMID:20421505
Hemlock (Conium maculatum L. Umbelliferae) has long been known as a poisonous plant. Toxicity is due to a group of piperidine alkaloids of which the representative members are coniine and gamma-coniceine. The latter is the more toxic and is the first formed biosynthetically. Its levels in relation to coniine vary widely according to environmental conditions and to provenance of the plants. Surprisingly, these piperidine alkaloids have turned up in quite unrelated species in the monocotyledons as well as the dicotyledons. Aloes, for instance, important medicinal plants, are not regarded as poisonous although some species are very bitter. Nevertheless a small number of mostly local species contain the alkaloids, especially gamma-coniceine and there have been records of human poisoning. The compounds are recognized by their characteristic mousy smell. Both acute and chronic symptoms have been described. The compounds are neurotoxins and death results from respiratory failure, recalling the effects of curare. Chronic non-lethal ingestion by pregnant livestock leads to foetal malformation. Both acute and chronic toxicity are seen with stock in damp meadows and have been recorded as problems especially in North America. The alkaloids derive biosynthetically from acetate units via the polyketide pathway in contrast to other piperidine alkaloids which derive from lysine.
Farrow, Scott C; Hagel, Jillian M; Facchini, Peter J
Benzylisoquinoline alkaloids (BIAs) are a large and diverse group of ~2500 specialized metabolites found predominantly in plants of the order Ranunculales. Research focused on BIA metabolism in a restricted number of plant species has identified many enzymes and cognate genes involved in the biosynthesis of compounds such as morphine, sanguinarine and berberine. However, the formation of most BIAs remains uncharacterized at the molecular biochemical level. Herein a compendium of sequence- and metabolite-profiling resources from 18 species of BIA-accumulating cell cultures was established, representing four related plant families. Our integrated approach consisted of the construction of EST libraries each containing approximately 3500 unigenes per species for a total of 58,787 unigenes. The EST libraries were manually triaged using known BIA-biosynthetic genes as queries to identify putative homologs with similar or potentially different functions. Sequence resources were analyzed in the context of the targeted metabolite profiles obtained for each cell culture using electrospray-ionization and collision-induced dissociation mass spectrometry. Fragmentation analysis was used for the identification or structural characterization coupled with the relative quantification of 72 BIAs, which establishes a key resource for future work on alkaloid biosynthesis. The metabolite profile obtained for each species provides a rational basis for the prediction of enzyme function in BIA metabolism. The metabolic frameworks assembled through the integration of transcript and metabolite profiles allow a comparison of BIA metabolism across several plant species and families. Taken together, these data represent an important tool for the discovery of BIA biosynthetic genes.
Coque, J J; Liras, P; Laiz, L; Martín, J F
A gene (lat) encoding lysine 6-aminotransferase was found upstream of the pcbAB (encoding alpha-aminoadipylcysteinyl-valine synthetase) and pcbC (encoding isopenicillin N synthase) genes in the cluster of early cephamycin biosynthetic genes in Nocardia lactamdurans. The lat gene was separated by a small intergenic region of 64 bp from the 5' end of the pcbAB gene. The lat gene contained an open reading frame of 1,353 nucleotides (71.4% G + C) encoding a protein of 450 amino acids with a deduced molecular mass of 48,811 Da. Expression of DNA fragments carrying the lat gene in Streptomyces lividans led to a high lysine 6-aminotransferase activity which was absent from untransformed S. lividans. The enzyme was partially purified from S. lividans(pULBS8) and showed a molecular mass of 52,800 Da as calculated by Sephadex gel filtration and polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis. DNA sequences which hybridized strongly with the lat gene of N. lactamdurans were found in four cephamycin-producing Streptomyces species but not in four other actinomycetes which are not known to produce beta-lactams, suggesting that the gene is specific for beta-lactam biosynthesis and is not involved in general lysine catabolism. The protein encoded by the lat gene showed similarity to ornithine-5-aminotransferases and N-acetylornithine-5-aminotransferases and contained a pyridoxal phosphate-binding consensus amino acid sequence around Lys-300 of the protein. The evolutionary implications of the lat gene as a true beta-lactam biosynthetic gene are discussed. Images PMID:1917857
Lazzeri, Valerio; Calvenzani, Valentina; Petroni, Katia; Tonelli, Chiara; Castagna, Antonella; Ranieri, Annamaria
Although light is recognized as one of the main factors influencing fruit carotenogenesis, the specific role of UV-B radiation has been poorly investigated. The present work is addressed to assess the molecular events underlying carotenoid accumulation in presence or absence of ultraviolet-B (UV-B) light in tomato fruits of wild-type and high pigment-1 (hp-1), a mutant characterized by exaggerated photoresponsiveness and increased fruit pigmentation. Gene expression analyses indicated that in wild-type fruits UV-B radiation mainly negatively affects the carotenoid biosynthetic genes encoding enzymes downstream of lycopene both in flesh and peel, suggesting that the down-regulation of genes CrtL-b and CrtL-e and the subsequent accumulation of lycopene during tomato ripening are determined at least in part by UV-B light. In contrast to wild-type, UV-B depletion did not greatly affect carotenoid accumulation in hp-1 and generally determined minor differences in gene expression between control and UV-B-depleted conditions.
The transition from one lifestyle to another in some fungi is initiated by a single orthologous gene, SGE1, that regulates markedly different genes in different fungi. Despite these differences, many of the regulated genes encode effector proteins or proteins involved in the synthesis of secondary m...
Lohman, Jeremy R.; Huang, Sheng-Xiong; Horsman, Geoffrey P.; Dilfer, Paul E.; Huang, Tingting; Chen, Yihua; Wendt-Pienkowski, Evelyn; Shen, Ben
Enediyne natural product biosynthesis is characterized by a convergence of multiple pathways, generating unique peripheral moieties that are appended onto the distinctive enediyne core. Kedarcidin (KED) possesses two unique peripheral moieties, a (R)-2-aza-3-chloro-β-tyrosine and an iso-propoxy-bearing 2-naphthonate moiety, as well as two deoxysugars. The appendage pattern of these peripheral moieties to the enediyne core in KED differs from the other enediynes studied to date with respect to stereochemical configuration. To investigate the biosynthesis of these moieties and expand our understanding of enediyne core formation, the biosynthetic gene cluster for KED was cloned from Streptoalloteichus sp. ATCC 53650 and sequenced. Bioinformatics analysis of the ked cluster revealed the presence of the conserved genes encoding for enediyne core biosynthesis, type I and type II polyketide synthase loci likely responsible for 2-aza-L-tyrosine and 3,6,8-trihydroxy-2-naphthonate formation, and enzymes known for deoxysugar biosynthesis. Genes homologous to those responsible for the biosynthesis, activation, and coupling of the L-tyrosine-derived moieties from C-1027 and maduropeptin and of the naphthonate moiety from neocarzinostatin are present in the ked cluster, supporting 2-aza-L-tyrosine and 3,6,8-trihydroxy-2-naphthoic acid as precursors, respectively, for the (R)-2-aza-3-chloro-β-tyrosine and the 2-naphthonate moieties in KED biosynthesis. PMID:23360970
Zhang, Ying; Fu, Xueqing; Hao, Xiaolong; Zhang, Lida; Wang, Luyao; Qian, Hongmei; Zhao, Jingya
Phenylalanine ammonia-lyase (PAL) is the key enzyme in the biosynthetic pathway of salicylic acid (SA). In this study, a full-length cDNA of PAL gene (named as AaPAL1) was cloned from Artemisia annua. The gene contains an open reading frame of 2,151 bps encoding 716 amino acids. Comparative and bioinformatics analysis revealed that the polypeptide protein of AaPAL1 was highly homologous to PALs from other plant species. Southern blot analysis revealed that it belonged to a gene family with three members. Quantitative RT-PCR analysis of various tissues of A. annua showed that AaPAL1 transcript levels were highest in the young leaves. A 1160-bp promoter region was also isolated resulting in identification of distinct cis-regulatory elements including W-box, TGACG-motif, and TC-rich repeats. Quantitative RT-PCR indicated that AaPAL1 was upregulated by salinity, drought, wounding, and SA stresses, which were corroborated positively with the identified cis-elements within the promoter region. AaPAL1 was successfully expressed in Escherichia. coli and the enzyme activity of the purified AaPAL1 was approximately 287.2 U/mg. These results substantiated the involvement of AaPAL1 in the phenylalanine pathway.
Shafrin, Farhana; Das, Sudhanshu Sekhar; Sanan-Mishra, Neeti; Khan, Haseena
Artificial microRNAs (amiRNA) provide a new feature in the gene silencing era. Concomitantly, reducing the amount of lignin in fiber-yielding plants such as jute holds significant commercial and environmental potential, since this amount is inversely proportional to the quality of the fiber. The present study aimed at reducing the lignin content in jute, by introducing amiRNA based vectors for down-regulation of two monolignoid biosynthetic genes of jute, coumarate 3-hydroxylase (C3H) and ferulate 5-hydroxylase (F5H). The transgenic lines of F5H-amiRNA and C3H-amiRNA showed a reduced level of gene expression, which resulted in about 25% reduction in acid insoluble lignin content for whole stem and 12-15% reduction in fiber lignin as compared to the non-transgenic plants. The results indicate successful F5H-amiRNA and C3H-amiRNA transgenesis for lignin reduction in jute. This is likely to have far-reaching commercial implications and economic acceleration for jute producing countries.
Luo, Hongping; Xie, Longxiang; Zeng, Jie; Xie, Jianping
Four kinds of bioprotective alkaloids-peramine, loline, ergot alkaloid, indole-diterpenes, produced by grass-fungal endophyte symbioses, are deterrents or toxic to vertebrate and invertebrate herbivores. Ergot alkaloids have pharmacological properties and widely are used clinically. The regulation of alkaloids biosynthesis is under intensive study to improve the yield for better agricultural and medicinal application. In this paper, we summarize the structure, related genes, regulation, and toxicity of alkaloids. We focus on the biosynthesis and the regulation network of alkaloids.
An apparent Bacillus subtilis folic acid biosynthetic operon containing pab, an amphibolic trpG gene, a third gene required for synthesis of para-aminobenzoic acid, and the dihydropteroate synthase gene.
Slock, J; Stahly, D P; Han, C Y; Six, E W; Crawford, I P
McDonald and Burke (J. Bacteriol. 149:391-394, 1982) previously cloned a sulfanilamide-resistance gene, sul, residing on a 4.9-kb segment of Bacillus subtilis chromosomal DNA, into plasmid pUB110. In this study we determined the nucleotide sequence of the entire 4.9-kb fragment. Genes identified on the fragment include pab, trpG, pabC, sul, one complete unidentified open reading frame, and one incomplete unidentified open reading frame. The first three of these genes, pab, trpG, and pabC, are required for synthesis of p-aminobenzoic acid. The trpG gene encodes an amphibolic glutamine amidotransferase required for synthesis of both p-aminobenzoate and anthranilate, the latter an intermediate in the tryptophan biosynthetic pathway. The pabC gene may encode a B. subtilis analog of enzyme X, an enzyme needed for p-aminobenzoate synthesis in Escherichia coli. The sul gene probably encodes dihydropteroate synthase, the enzyme responsible for formation of 7,8-dihydropteroate, the immediate precursor of folic acid. All six of the cloned genes are arranged in a single operon. Since all four of the identified genes are needed for folate biosynthesis, we refer to this operon as a folic acid operon. Expression of the trpG gene is known to be negatively controlled by tryptophan. We propose that this regulation is at the level of translation. This hypothesis is supported by the finding of an apparent Mtr-binding site which overlaps with the trpG ribosome-binding site. PMID:2123867
Gao, Xue; Chooi, Yit-Heng; Ames, Brian D.; Wang, Peng; Walsh, Christopher T.; Tang, Yi
Tremorgenic mycotoxins are a group of indole alkaloids which include the quinazoline-containing tryptoquivaline 2 that are capable of eliciting intermittent or sustained tremors in vertebrate animals. The biosynthesis of this group of bioactive compounds, which are characterized by an acetylated quinazoline ring connected to a 6-5-5 imidazoindolone ring system via a 5-membered spirolactone, has remained uncharacterized. Here, we report the identification of a gene cluster (tqa) from P. aethiopicum that is involved in the biosynthesis of tryptoquialanine 1, which is structurally similar to 2. The pathway has been confirmed to go through an intermediate common to the fumiquinazoline pathway, fumiquinazoline F, which originates from a fungal trimodular nonribosomal peptide synthetase (NRPS). By systematically inactivating every biosynthetic gene in the cluster, followed by isolation and characterization of the intermediates, we were able to establish the biosynthetic sequence of the pathway. An unusual oxidative opening of the pyrazinone ring by an FAD-dependent berberine bridge enzyme-like oxidoreductase has been proposed based on genetic knockout studies. Notably, a 2-aminoisobutyric acid (AIB)-utilizing NRPS module has been identified and reconstituted in vitro, along with two putative enzymes of unknown functions that are involved in the synthesis of the unnatural amino acid by genetic analysis. This work provides new genetic and biochemical insights into the biosynthesis of this group of fungal alkaloids, including the tremorgens related to 2. PMID:21299212
Gao, Xue; Chooi, Yit-Heng; Ames, Brian D; Wang, Peng; Walsh, Christopher T; Tang, Yi
Tremorgenic mycotoxins are a group of indole alkaloids which include the quinazoline-containing tryptoquivaline (2) that are capable of eliciting intermittent or sustained tremors in vertebrate animals. The biosynthesis of this group of bioactive compounds, which are characterized by an acetylated quinazoline ring connected to a 6-5-5 imidazoindolone ring system via a 5-membered spirolactone, has remained uncharacterized. Here, we report the identification of a gene cluster (tqa) from P. aethiopicum that is involved in the biosynthesis of tryptoquialanine (1), which is structurally similar to 2. The pathway has been confirmed to go through an intermediate common to the fumiquinazoline pathway, fumiquinazoline F, which originates from a fungal trimodular nonribosomal peptide synthetase (NRPS). By systematically inactivating every biosynthetic gene in the cluster, followed by isolation and characterization of the intermediates, we were able to establish the biosynthetic sequence of the pathway. An unusual oxidative opening of the pyrazinone ring by an FAD-dependent berberine bridge enzyme-like oxidoreductase has been proposed based on genetic knockout studies. Notably, a 2-aminoisobutyric acid (AIB)-utilizing NRPS module has been identified and reconstituted in vitro, along with two putative enzymes of unknown functions that are involved in the synthesis of the unnatural amino acid by genetic analysis. This work provides new genetic and biochemical insights into the biosynthesis of this group of fungal alkaloids, including the tremorgens related to 2.
Covering: July 2010 to June 2012. Previous review: Nat. Prod. Rep., 2011, 28, 1143-1191. Structurally diverse alkaloids containing five-membered heterocyclic subunits, such as imidazole, oxazole, thiazole, as well as their saturated congeners, are widely distributed in terrestrial and marine organisms and microorganisms. These naturally occurring secondary metabolites often exhibit extensive and pharmacologically important biological activities. The latest progress involving isolation, biological activities, chemical synthetic studies, and biosynthetic pathways of these natural products has been summarized in this review.
Janecek, Elisabeth; Wilk, Esther; Schughart, Klaus; Geffers, Robert; Strube, Christina
Toxocara canis and Toxocara cati are globally occurring intestinal nematodes of dogs and cats with a high zoonotic potential. Migrating larvae in the CNS of paratenic hosts, including humans, may cause neurotoxocarosis resulting in a variety of neurological symptoms. Toxocara canis exhibits a stronger affinity to the CNS than T. cati, causing more severe neurological symptoms in the mouse model. Pathomechanisms of neurotoxocarosis as well as host responses towards the respective parasite are mostly unknown. Therefore, the aim of this study was to characterise the pathogenesis at a transcriptional level using whole genome microarray expression analysis and identify differences and similarities between T. canis- and T. cati-infected brains. Microarray analysis was conducted in cerebra and cerebella of infected C57Bl/6J mice 42daysp.i. revealing more differentially transcribed genes for T. canis- than T. cati-infected brains. In cerebra and cerebella of T. canis-infected mice, a total of 2304 and 1954 differentially transcribed genes, respectively, were identified whereas 113 and 760 differentially transcribed genes were determined in cerebra and cerebella of T. cati-infected mice. Functional annotation analysis revealed major differences in host responses in terms of significantly enriched biological modules. Up-regulated genes were mainly associated with the terms "immune and defence response", "sensory perception" as well as "behaviour/taxis" retrieved from the Gene Ontology database. These observations indicate a strong immune response in both infection groups with T. cati-infected brains revealing less severe reactions. Down-regulated genes in T. canis-infected cerebra and cerebella revealed a significant enrichment for the Gene Ontology term "lipid/cholesterol biosynthetic process". Cholesterol is a highly abundant and important component in the brain, representing several functions. Disturbances of synthesis as well as concentration changes may lead to
Biosynthesis of ecdysteroids involves sequential enzymatic hydroxylations by microsomal enzymes and mitochondrial cytochrome P450’s. Enzymes of the pathway are collectively known as Halloween genes. Complete sequences for three Halloween genes, spook (Vdspo), disembodied (Vddib) and shade (Vdshd), w...
Feng, Liguo; Chen, Chen; Li, Tinglin; Wang, Meng; Tao, Jun; Zhao, Daqiu; Sheng, Lixia
Rosa rugosa is an important ornamental and economical plant. In this paper, four genes encoding 1-deoxy-D-xylulose-5-phosphate synthase (DXS), 1-deoxy-d-xylulose-5-phosphate reductoisomerase (DXR), alcohol acyltransferase (AAT) and linalool synthase (LIS) involved in the monoterpene biosynthesis pathways were isolated from R. rugosa 'Tangzi', and the expression patterns of these genes in different flower development stages and different parts of floral organs were determined by real-time quantitative fluorescence PCR. Furthermore, a comprehensive analysis was carried out into the relationship between expression of four monoterpene synthesis genes and accumulation of main volatile monoterpenes and their acetic acid ester derivatives. The results showed that the genes RrDXS, RrDXR and RrLIS showed consistent expressions during the development process for R. rugosa flower from budding to withering stage, the overall expression levels of gene RrDXS and RrLIS were obviously lower as compared with those of gene RrDXR and RrAAT. Although the gene RrDXS, RrDXR, RrAAT and RrLIS were expressed in all parts of R. rugosa floral organs, the expression levels varied significantly. The variations in the constituent and content of volatile monoterpenes including citronellol, geraniol, nerol, linalool, citronellyl acetate, geranyl acetate and neryl acetate at different development stages and parts of floral organs were significantly different. On this basis, we concluded that the gene RrDXR and RrAAT might play a key role in the biosynthesis of volatile monoterpenes in R. rugosa flowers, and the two genes are important candidate genes for the regulation of secondary metabolism for rose aromatic components.
Yin, Shouliang; Li, Zilong; Wang, Xuefeng; Wang, Huizhuan; Jia, Xiaole; Ai, Guomin; Bai, Zishang; Shi, Mingxin; Yuan, Fang; Liu, Tiejun; Wang, Weishan; Yang, Keqian
Heterologous expression is an important strategy to activate biosynthetic gene clusters of secondary metabolites. Here, it is employed to activate and manipulate the oxytetracycline (OTC) gene cluster and to alter OTC fermentation process. To achieve these goals, a fast-growing heterologous host Streptomyces venezuelae WVR2006 was rationally selected among several potential hosts. It shows rapid and dispersed growth and intrinsic high resistance to OTC. By manipulating the expression of two cluster-situated regulators (CSR) OtcR and OtrR and precursor supply, the OTC production level was significantly increased in this heterologous host from 75 to 431 mg/l only in 48 h, a level comparable to the native producer Streptomyces rimosus M4018 in 8 days. This work shows that S. venezuelae WVR2006 is a promising chassis for the production of secondary metabolites, and the engineered heterologous OTC producer has the potential to completely alter the fermentation process of OTC production.
Yi, Go-Eun; Robin, Arif Hasan Khan; Yang, Kiwoung; Park, Jong-In; Kang, Jong-Goo; Yang, Tae-Jin; Nou, Ill-Sup
Glucosinolates are anti-carcinogenic, anti-oxidative biochemical compounds that defend plants from insect and microbial attack. Glucosinolates are abundant in all cruciferous crops, including all vegetable and oilseed Brassica species. Here, we studied the expression of glucosinolate biosynthesis genes and determined glucosinolate contents in the edible organs of a total of 12 genotypes of Brassica oleracea: three genotypes each from cabbage, kale, kohlrabi and cauliflower subspecies. Among the 81 genes analyzed by RT-PCR, 19 are transcription factor-related, two different sets of 25 genes are involved in aliphatic and indolic biosynthesis pathways and the rest are breakdown-related. The expression of glucosinolate-related genes in the stems of kohlrabi was remarkably different compared to leaves of cabbage and kale and florets of cauliflower as only eight genes out of 81 were expressed in the stem tissues of kohlrabi. In the stem tissue of kohlrabi, only one aliphatic transcription factor-related gene, Bol036286 (MYB28) and one indolic transcription factor-related gene, Bol030761 (MYB51), were expressed. The results indicated the expression of all genes is not essential for glucosinolate biosynthesis. Using HPLC analysis, a total of 16 different types of glucosinolates were identified in four subspecies, nine of them were aliphatic, four of them were indolic and one was aromatic. Cauliflower florets measured the highest number of 14 glucosinolates. Among the aliphatic glucosinolates, only gluconapin was found in the florets of cauliflower. Glucoiberverin and glucobrassicanapin contents were the highest in the stems of kohlrabi. The indolic methoxyglucobrassicin and aromatic gluconasturtiin accounted for the highest content in the florets of cauliflower. A further detailed investigation and analyses is required to discern the precise roles of each of the genes for aliphatic and indolic glucosinolate biosynthesis in the edible organs.
Del Giudice, Luigi; Massardo, Domenica Rita; Pontieri, Paola; Wolf, Klaus
Some nuclear genes in Saccharomyces cerevisiae (S. cerevisiae) respond to signals from the mitochondria in a process called by Butow (Cell Death Differ. 9 (2002) 1043-1045) retrograde regulation. Expression of these genes is activated in cells lacking mitochondrial function by involvement of RTG1, RTG2 and RTG3 genes whose protein products bind to "R-boxes" in the promoter region; RTG2p is a cytoplasmic protein. Since S. cerevisiae rho0 strains, lacking the entire mitochondrial genome, are resistant to lycorine, an alkaloid extracted from Amaryllis plants, it could be hypothesized that in rho0 cells the dysfunctional mitochondrial status stimulates overexpression of nuclear genes very likely involved in both nuclear and mitochondrial DNA replication. In this report we show that the resistance of rho0 cells to lycorine is affected by the deletion of RTG genes.
Güven, Kasım Cemal; Percot, Aline; Sezik, Ekrem
This paper presents the alkaloids found in green, brown and red marine algae. Algal chemistry has interested many researchers in order to develop new drugs, as algae include compounds with functional groups which are characteristic from this particular source. Among these compounds, alkaloids present special interest because of their pharmacological activities. Alkaloid chemistry has been widely studied in terrestrial plants, but the number of studies in algae is insignificant. In this review, a detailed account of macro algae alkaloids with their structure and pharmacological activities is presented. The alkaloids found in marine algae may be divided into three groups: 1. Phenylethylamine alkaloids, 2. Indole and halogenated indole alkaloids, 3. Other alkaloids. PMID:20390105
Etchegaray, Augusto; Silva-Stenico, Maria E; Moon, David H; Tsai, Siu M
The genomes of the plant pathogens Xanthomonas axonopodis (Xac) and Xanthomonas campestris (Xcc) were analysed with the aim of deducing their ability to produce nonribosomal peptides. Nonribosomal peptide synthetase (NRPS) genes were identified in two separate loci of Xac. While the genes of locus 1 are common to both strains, locus 2 was only found in Xac. Dissection and phylogenetic analysis of the condensation and thioesterase domains of the NRPSs of loci 1 and 2 of Xac revealed homology, respectively, with siderophore and lipopeptide synthetases. Further analysis of locus 1 revealed genes related to polyketide and polyamine biosynthesis that could be involved in the assembly of substrates for siderophore biosynthesis in both strains. In vitro production of siderophores by both Xac and Xcc was confirmed. Since bacterial siderophores and lipopeptides can be pathogenic and are typically produced nonribosomally, these results suggest that the identified genes could be involved in phytotoxin production.
Background Moths (Lepidoptera) are highly dependent on chemical communication to find a mate. Compared to conventional unselective insecticides, synthetic pheromones have successfully served to lure male moths as a specific and environmentally friendly way to control important pest species. However, the chemical synthesis and purification of the sex pheromone components in large amounts is a difficult and costly task. The repertoire of enzymes involved in moth pheromone biosynthesis in insecta can be seen as a library of specific catalysts that can be used to facilitate the synthesis of a particular chemical component. In this study, we present a novel approach to effectively aid in the preparation of semi-synthetic pheromone components using an engineered vector co-expressing two key biosynthetic enzymes in a simple yeast cell factory. Results We first identified and functionally characterized a ∆11 Fatty-Acyl Desaturase and a Fatty-Acyl Reductase from the Turnip moth, Agrotis segetum. The ∆11-desaturase produced predominantly Z11-16:acyl, a common pheromone component precursor, from the abundant yeast palmitic acid and the FAR transformed a series of saturated and unsaturated fatty acids into their corresponding alcohols which may serve as pheromone components in many moth species. Secondly, when we co-expressed the genes in the Brewer’s yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae, a set of long-chain fatty acids and alcohols that are not naturally occurring in yeast were produced from inherent yeast fatty acids, and the presence of (Z)-11-hexadecenol (Z11-16:OH), demonstrated that both heterologous enzymes were active in concert. A 100 ml batch yeast culture produced on average 19.5 μg Z11-16:OH. Finally, we demonstrated that oxidized extracts from the yeast cells containing (Z)-11-hexadecenal and other aldehyde pheromone compounds elicited specific electrophysiological activity from male antennae of the Tobacco budworm, Heliothis virescens, supporting the idea that
Kong, Qing; Chi, Chen; Yu, Jiujiang; Shan, Shihua; Li, Qiyu; Li, Qianting; Guan, Bin; Nierman, William C; Bennett, Joan W
Aspergillus flavus is one of the major moulds that colonize peanut in the field and during storage. The impact to human and animal health, and to the economy in agriculture and commerce, is significant since this mold produces the most potent known natural toxins, aflatoxins, which are carcinogenic, mutagenic, immunosuppressive, and teratogenic. A strain of marine Bacillus megaterium isolated from the Yellow Sea of East China was evaluated for its effect in inhibiting aflatoxin formation in A. flavus through down-regulating aflatoxin pathway gene expression as demonstrated by gene chip analysis. Aflatoxin accumulation in potato dextrose broth liquid medium and liquid minimal medium was almost totally (more than 98 %) inhibited by co-cultivation with B. megaterium. Growth was also reduced. Using expression studies, we identified the fungal genes down-regulated by co-cultivation with B. megaterium across the entire fungal genome and specifically within the aflatoxin pathway gene cluster (aflF, aflT, aflS, aflJ, aflL, aflX). Modulating the expression of these genes could be used for controlling aflatoxin contamination in crops such as corn, cotton, and peanut. Importantly, the expression of the regulatory gene aflS was significantly down-regulated during co-cultivation. We present a model showing a hypothesis of the regulatory mechanism of aflatoxin production suppression by AflS and AflR through B. megaterium co-cultivation.
Augustin, Megan M.; Ruzicka, Dan R.; Shukla, Ashutosh K.; Augustin, Jörg M.; Starks, Courtney M.; O’Neil-Johnson, Mark; McKain, Michael R.; Evans, Bradley S.; Barrett, Matt D.; Smithson, Ann; Wong, Gane Ka-Shu; Deyholos, Michael K.; Edger, Patrick P.; Pires, J. Chris; Leebens-Mack, James H.; Mann, David A.; Kutchan, Toni M.
Summary Steroid alkaloids have been shown to elicit a wide range of pharmacological effects that include anticancer and antifungal activities. Understanding the biosynthesis of these molecules is essential to bioengineering for sustainable production. Herein, we investigate the biosynthetic pathway to cyclopamine, a steroid alkaloid that shows promising antineoplastic activities. Supply of cyclopamine is limited, as the current source is solely derived from wild collection of the plant Veratrum californicum. To elucidate the early stages of the pathway to cyclopamine, we interrogated a V. californicum RNA-seq dataset using the cyclopamine accumulation profile as a predefined model for gene expression with the pattern-matching algorithm Haystack. Refactoring candidate genes in Sf9 insect cells led to discovery of four enzymes that catalyze the first six steps in steroid alkaloid biosynthesis to produce verazine, a predicted precursor to cyclopamine. Three of the enzymes are cytochromes P450 while the fourth is a γ-aminobutyrate transaminase; together they produce verazine from cholesterol. PMID:25939370
Jones, Charles H; Gollakota, Akhila; Chen, Mingfu; Chung, Tai-Chun; Ravikrishnan, Anitha; Zhang, Guojian; Pfeifer, Blaine A
Given the rise of antibiotic resistant microbes, genetic vaccination is a promising prophylactic strategy that enables rapid design and manufacture. Facilitating this process is the choice of vector, which is often situationally-specific and limited in engineering capacity. Furthermore, these shortcomings are usually tied to an incomplete understanding of the structure-function relationships driving vector-mediated gene delivery. Building upon our initial report of a hybrid bacterial-biomaterial gene delivery vector, a comprehensive structure-function assessment was completed using a class of mannosylated poly(beta-amino esters). Through a top-down screening methodology, an ideal polymer was selected on the basis of gene delivery efficacy and then used for the synthesis of a stratified molecular weight polymer library. By eliminating contributions of polymer chemical background, we were able to complete an in-depth assessment of gene delivery as a function of (1) polymer molecular weight, (2) relative mannose content, (3) polymer-membrane biophysical properties, (4) APC uptake specificity, and (5) serum inhibition. In summary, the flexibility and potential of the hybrid design featured in this work highlights the ability to systematically probe vector-associated properties for the development of translational gene delivery candidates.
Hassani, D; Liu, H L; Chen, Y N; Wan, Z B; Zhuge, Q; Li, S X
Variegated plants are highly valuable in the floricultural market, yet the genetic mechanism underlying this attractive phenomenon has not been completely elucidated. In this study, we identified and measured different compounds in pink and white flower petals of peach (Prunus persica) by high-performance liquid chromatography and liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry analyses. No cyanidin-based or pelargonidin-based compounds were detected in white petals, but high levels of these compounds were found in pink petals. Additionally, we sequenced and analyzed the expression of six key structural genes in the anthocyanin biosynthesis pathway (CHI, CHS, DFR, F3'H, ANS, and UFGT) in both white and pink petals. Quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction revealed all six genes to be expressed at greatly reduced levels in white flower petals, relative to pink. No allelic variations were found in the transcribed sequences. However, alignment of transcribed and genomic sequences of the ANS gene detected alternative splicing, resulting in transcripts of 1.071 and 942 bp. Only the longer transcript was observed in white flower petals. Since ANS is the key intermediate enzyme catalyzing the colorless leucopelargonidin and leucocyanidin to substrates required for completion of anthocyanin biosynthesis, the ANS gene is implicated in flower color variegation and should be explored in future studies. This article, together with a previous transcriptome study, elucidates the mechanism underlying peach flower color variegation in terms of the key structural genes involved in anthocyanin biosynthesis.
Weber, T; Rausch, C; Lopez, P; Hoof, I; Gaykova, V; Huson, D H; Wohlleben, W
Bacterial secondary metabolites are an important source of antimicrobial and cytostatic drugs. These molecules are often synthesized in a stepwise fashion by multimodular megaenzymes that are encoded in clusters of genes encoding enzymes for precursor supply and modification. In this work,we present an open source software pipeline, CLUSEAN (CLUster SEquence ANalyzer) that helps to annotate and analyze such gene clusters. CLUSEAN integrates standard analysis tools, like BLAST and HMMer, with specific tools for the identification of the functional domains and motifs in nonribosomal peptide synthetases (NRPS)/type I polyketide synthases (PKS) and the prediction of specificities of NRPS.
Brown, D. M.; Williams, H.; Ryan, K. J. P.; Wilson, T. L.; Daniel, Z. C. T. R.; Mareko, M. H. D.; Emes, R. D.; Harris, D. W.; Jones, S.; Wattis, J. A. D.; Dryden, I. L.; Hodgman, T. C.; Brameld, J. M.; Parr, T.
We aimed to identify novel molecular mechanisms for muscle growth during administration of anabolic agents. Growing pigs (Duroc/(Landrace/Large-White)) were administered Ractopamine (a beta-adrenergic agonist; BA; 20 ppm in feed) or Reporcin (recombinant growth hormone; GH; 10 mg/48 hours injected) and compared to a control cohort (feed only; no injections) over a 27-day time course (1, 3, 7, 13 or 27-days). Longissimus Dorsi muscle gene expression was analyzed using Agilent porcine transcriptome microarrays and clusters of genes displaying similar expression profiles were identified using a modified maSigPro clustering algorithm. Anabolic agents increased carcass (p = 0.002) and muscle weights (Vastus Lateralis: p < 0.001; Semitendinosus: p = 0.075). Skeletal muscle mRNA expression of serine/one-carbon/glycine biosynthesis pathway genes (Phgdh, Psat1 and Psph) and the gluconeogenic enzyme, phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase-M (Pck2/PEPCK-M), increased during treatment with BA, and to a lesser extent GH (p < 0.001, treatment x time interaction). Treatment with BA, but not GH, caused a 2-fold increase in phosphoglycerate dehydrogenase (PHGDH) protein expression at days 3 (p < 0.05) and 7 (p < 0.01), and a 2-fold increase in PEPCK-M protein expression at day 7 (p < 0.01). BA treated pigs exhibit a profound increase in expression of PHGDH and PEPCK-M in skeletal muscle, implicating a role for biosynthetic metabolic pathways in muscle growth. PMID:27350173
Kumar, Arun; Yogendra, Kalenahalli N.; Karre, Shailesh; Kushalappa, Ajjamada C.; Dion, Yves; Choo, Thin M.
Fusarium head blight (FHB), caused by Fusarium graminearum, is one of the most devastating diseases of wheat and barley. Resistance to FHB is highly complex and quantitative in nature, and is most often classified as resistance to spikelet infection and resistance to spread of pathogen through the rachis. In the present study, a resistant (CI9831) and a susceptible (H106-371) two-row barley genotypes, with contrasting levels of spikelet resistance to FHB, pathogen or mock-inoculated, were profiled for metabolites based on liquid chromatography and high resolution mass spectrometry. The key resistance-related (RR) metabolites belonging to fatty acids, phenylpropanoids, flavonoids and terpenoid biosynthetic pathways were identified. The free fatty acids (FFAs) linoleic and palmitic acids were among the highest fold change RR induced (RRI) metabolites. These FFAs are deposited as cutin monomers and oligomers to reinforce the cuticle, which acts as a barrier to pathogen entry. Quantitative real-time PCR studies revealed higher expressions of KAS2, CYP86A2, CYP89A2, LACS2 and WAX INDUCER1 (HvWIN1) transcription factor in the pathogen-inoculated resistant genotype than in the susceptible genotype. Knockdown of HvWIN1 by virus-induced genes silencing (VIGS) in resistant genotype upon pathogen inoculation increased the disease severity and fungal biomass, and decreased the abundance of FFAs like linoleic and palmitic acids. Notably, the expression of CYP86A2, CYP89A2 and LAC2 genes was also suppressed, proving the link of HvWIN1 in regulating these genes in cuticle biosynthesis as a defense response. PMID:27194736
Morohoshi, Tomohiro; Okutsu, Noriya; Xie, Xiaonan; Ikeda, Tsukasa
Activated sludge is a complicated mixture of various microorganisms that is used to treat sewage and industrial wastewater. Many bacteria produce N-acylhomoserine lactone (AHL) as a quorum-sensing signal molecule to regulate the expression of the exoenzymes used for wastewater treatment. Here, we isolated an AHL-producing bacteria from an activated sludge sample collected from an electronic component factory, which we named Alicycliphilus sp. B1. Clone library analysis revealed that Alicycliphilus was a subdominant genus in this sample. When we screened the activated sludge sample for AHL-producing strains, 12 of 14 the AHL-producing isolates were assigned to the genus Alicycliphilus. A putative AHL-synthase gene, ALISP_0667, was cloned from the genome of B1 and transformed into Escherichia coli DH5α. The AHLs were extracted from the culture supernatants of the B1 strain and E. coli DH5α cells harboring the ALISP_0667 gene and were identified by liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry as N-(3-hydroxydecanoyl)-l-homoserine lactone and N-(3-hydroxydodecanoyl)-l-homoserine lactone. The results of comparative genomic analysis suggested that the quorum-sensing genes in the B1 strain might have been acquired by horizontal gene transfer within activated sludge.
Morohoshi, Tomohiro; Okutsu, Noriya; Xie, Xiaonan; Ikeda, Tsukasa
Activated sludge is a complicated mixture of various microorganisms that is used to treat sewage and industrial wastewater. Many bacteria produce N-acylhomoserine lactone (AHL) as a quorum-sensing signal molecule to regulate the expression of the exoenzymes used for wastewater treatment. Here, we isolated an AHL-producing bacteria from an activated sludge sample collected from an electronic component factory, which we named Alicycliphilus sp. B1. Clone library analysis revealed that Alicycliphilus was a subdominant genus in this sample. When we screened the activated sludge sample for AHL-producing strains, 12 of 14 the AHL-producing isolates were assigned to the genus Alicycliphilus. A putative AHL-synthase gene, ALISP_0667, was cloned from the genome of B1 and transformed into Escherichia coli DH5α. The AHLs were extracted from the culture supernatants of the B1 strain and E. coli DH5α cells harboring the ALISP_0667 gene and were identified by liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry as N-(3-hydroxydecanoyl)-l-homoserine lactone and N-(3-hydroxydodecanoyl)-l-homoserine lactone. The results of comparative genomic analysis suggested that the quorum-sensing genes in the B1 strain might have been acquired by horizontal gene transfer within activated sludge. PMID:27490553
Manrique-Carpintero, Norma C.; Tokuhisa, James G.; Ginzberg, Idit; Holliday, Jason A.; Veilleux, Richard E.
Natural variation in five candidate genes of the steroidal glycoalkaloid (SGA) metabolic pathway and whole-genome single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) genotyping were studied in six wild [Solanum chacoense (chc 80-1), S. commersonii, S. demissum, S. sparsipilum, S. spegazzinii, S. stoloniferum] and cultivated S. tuberosum Group Phureja (phu DH) potato species with contrasting levels of SGAs. Amplicons were sequenced for five candidate genes: 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl coenzyme A reductase 1 and 2 (HMG1, HMG2) and 2.3-squalene epoxidase (SQE) of primary metabolism, and solanidine galactosyltransferase (SGT1), and glucosyltransferase (SGT2) of secondary metabolism. SNPs (n = 337) producing 354 variations were detected within 3.7 kb of sequenced DNA. More polymorphisms were found in introns than exons and in genes of secondary compared to primary metabolism. Although no significant deviation from neutrality was found, dN/dS ratios < 1 and negative values of Tajima’s D test suggested purifying selection and genetic hitchhiking in the gene fragments. In addition, patterns of dN/dS ratios across the SGA pathway suggested constraint by natural selection. Comparison of nucleotide diversity estimates and dN/dS ratios showed stronger selective constraints for genes of primary rather than secondary metabolism. SNPs (n = 24) with an exclusive genotype for either phu DH (low SGA) or chc 80-1 (high SGA) were identified for HMG2, SQE, SGT1 and SGT2. The SolCAP 8303 Illumina Potato SNP chip genotyping revealed eight informative SNPs on six pseudochromosomes, with homozygous and heterozygous genotypes that discriminated high, intermediate and low levels of SGA accumulation. These results can be used to evaluate SGA accumulation in segregating or association mapping populations. PMID:23853090
Izquierdo, Luis; Abitiu, Nihal; Coderch, Núria; Hita, Beatriz; Merino, Susana; Gavin, Rosalina; Tomás, Juan M; Regué, Miguel
To determine the function of the waaE gene in the biosynthesis of the inner-core LPS of Klebsiella pneumoniae, a waaE non-polar mutant has been constructed. Data obtained from the comparative chemical analysis of LPS samples obtained from the wild-type, the mutant strain and the complemented mutant demonstrated that the waaE gene is involved in substitution of alpha-L-glycero-D-manno-heptopyranose I (L,D-HeppI) at the O-4 position by a beta-D-glucopyranose (beta-D-Glcp) residue. In addition, DNA amplification and nucleotide sequence determination studies revealed that waaE homologues located between the waaA and coaD genes are present in clinical isolates of Enterobacteriaceae containing the structure beta-D-Glcp-(1-->4)-alpha-L,D-HeppI (K. pneumoniae, Proteus mirabilis and Yersinia enterocolitica), as well as in strains of Serratia marcescens and Enterobacter aerogenes of unknown LPS-core structures. Complementation studies using non-polar waaE mutants prove that all the waaE homologues perform the same function. Furthermore, K. pneumoniae, Ser. marcescens and P. mirabilis non-polar waaE mutants showed reduced adhesion and pathogenicity. In addition, the Ser. marcescens and P. murabilis waaE mutants showed reduced swarming motility and ability to form biofilms in vitro. All these characteristics were rescued by reintroduction of the waaE gene independently of its origin. An easy DNA amplification method to detect this gene was established, which also helps in finding the potential presence of this structural feature [beta-D-Glcp-(1-->4)-alpha-L,D-HeppI] in the inner-core LPS of Enterobacteriaceae members with unknown LPS-core structures.
Wang, Jian-ying; Liang, Yan-li; Hai, Mei-rong; Chen, Jun-wen; Gao, Zheng-jie; Hu, Qian-qian; Zhang, Guang-hui; Yang, Sheng-chao
Background: Dipsacus asperoides is a traditional Chinese medicinal crop. The root is generally used as a medicine and is frequently prescribed by Chinese doctors for the treatment of back pain, limb paralysis, flutter trauma, tendon injuries, and fractures. With the rapid development of bioinformatics, research has been focused on this species at the gene or molecular level. For purpose of fleshing out genome information about D. asperoides, in this paper we conducted transcriptome analysis of this species. Principal Findings: To date, many genes encoding enzymes involved in the biosynthesis of triterpenoid saponins in D.asperoides have not been elucidated. Illumina paired-end sequencing was employed to probe D. asperoides's various enzymes associated with the relevant mesostate. A total of 30, 832,805 clean reads and de novo spliced 43,243 unigenes were obtained. Of all unigenes, only 8.27% (3578) were successfully annotated in total of seven public databases: Nr, Nt, Swiss-Prot, GO, KOG, KEGG, and Pfam, which might be attributed to the poor studies on D. asperoides. The candidate genes encoding enzymes involved in triterpenoid saponin biosynthesis were identified and experimentally verified by reverse transcription qPCR, encompassing nine cytochrome P450s and 17 UDP-glucosyltransferases. Specifically, unearthly putative genes involved in the glycosylation of hederagenin were acquired. Simultaneously, 4490 SSRs from 43,243 examined sequences were determined via bioinformatics analysis. Conclusion: This study represents the first report on the use of the Illumina sequence platform on this crop at the transcriptome level. Our findings of candidate genes encoding enzymes involved in Dipsacus saponin VI biosynthes is provide novel information in efforts to further understand the triterpenoid metabolic pathway on this species. The initial genetics resources in this study will contribute significantly to the genetic breeding program of D. asperoides, and are beneficial
Yan, Xiuqin; Zhang, Xue; Lu, Min; He, Yong; An, Huaming
Rosa roxburghii Tratt. is a well-known ornamental rose species native to China. In addition, the fruits of this species are valued for their nutritional and medicinal characteristics, especially their high ascorbic acid (AsA) levels. Nevertheless, AsA biosynthesis in R. roxburghii fruit has not been explored in detail because of a lack of genomic resources for this species. High-throughput transcriptomic sequencing generating large volumes of transcript sequence data can aid in gene discovery and molecular marker development. In this study, we generated more than 53 million clean reads using Illumina paired-end sequencing technology. De novo assembly yielded 106,590 unigenes, with an average length of 343 bp. On the basis of sequence similarity to known proteins, 9301 and 2393 unigenes were classified into Gene Ontology and Clusters of Orthologous Group categories, respectively. There were 7480 unigenes assigned to 124 pathways in the Kyoto Encyclopedia of Gene and Genome pathway database. BLASTx searches identified 498 unique putative transcripts encoding various transcription factors, some known to regulate fruit development. qRT-PCR validated the expressions of most of the genes encoding the main enzymes involved in ascorbate biosynthesis. In addition, 9131 potential simple sequence repeat (SSR) loci were identified among the unigenes. One hundred and two primer pairs were synthesized and 71 pairs produced an amplification product during initial screening. Among the amplified products, 30 were polymorphic in the 16 R. roxburghii germplasms tested. Our study was the first to produce a large volume of transcriptome data from R. roxburghii. The resulting sequence collection is a valuable resource for gene discovery and marker-assisted selective breeding in this rose species.
Safi, Hassan; Lingaraju, Subramanya; Amin, Anita; Kim, Soyeon; Jones, Marcus; Holmes, Michael; McNeil, Michael; Peterson, Scott N; Chatterjee, Delphi; Fleischmann, Robert; Alland, David
To study the evolution of drug resistance, we genetically and biochemically characterized Mycobacterium tuberculosis strains selected in vitro for ethambutol resistance. Mutations in decaprenylphosphoryl-β-D-arabinose (DPA) biosynthetic and utilization pathway genes Rv3806c, Rv3792, embB and embC accumulated to produce a wide range of ethambutol minimal inhibitory concentrations (MICs) that depended on mutation type and number. Rv3806c mutations increased DPA synthesis, causing MICs to double from 2 to 4 μg/ml in a wild-type background and to increase from 16 to 32 μg/ml in an embB codon 306 mutant background. Synonymous mutations in Rv3792 increased the expression of downstream embC, an ethambutol target, resulting in MICs of 8 μg/ml. Multistep selection was required for high-level resistance. Mutations in embC or very high embC expression were observed at the highest resistance level. In clinical isolates, Rv3806c mutations were associated with high-level resistance and had multiplicative effects with embB mutations on MICs. Ethambutol resistance is acquired through the acquisition of mutations that interact in complex ways to produce a range of MICs, from those falling below breakpoint values to ones representing high-level resistance.
Forget, Stephanie M.; McVey, Jennifer; Vining, Leo C.
JadL was identified as a Major Facilitator Superfamily (MFS) transporter (T.C. 2.A.1) through sequence homology. The protein is encoded by jadL, situated within the jadomycin biosynthetic gene cluster. JadL has, therefore, been assigned a putative role in host defense by exporting its probable substrates, the jadomycins, a family of secondary metabolites produced by Streptomyces venezuelae ISP5230. Herein, we evaluate this assumption through the construction and analysis of a jadL disrupted mutant, S. venezuelae VS678 (ΔjadL::aac(3)IV). Quantitative determination of jadomycin production with the jadL disrupted mutant did not show a significant decrease in production in comparison to the wildtype strain, as determined by HPLC and by tandem mass spectrometry. These results suggest that efflux of jadomycin occurs upon disruption of jadL, or that JadL is not involved in jadomycin efflux. Potentially, other transporters within S. venezuelae ISP5230 may adopt this role upon inactivation of JadL to export jadomycins. PMID:28377749
Svercel, Miroslav; Christen, Danilo; Moënne-Loccoz, Yvan; Duffy, Brion; Défago, Geneviève
The impact of repeated culture of perennial plants (i.e. in long-term monoculture) on the ecology of plant-beneficial bacteria is unknown. Here, the influence of extremely long-term monocultures of grapevine (up to 1603 years) on rhizosphere populations of fluorescent pseudomonads carrying the biosynthetic genes phlD for 2,4-diacetylphloroglucinol and/or hcnAB for hydrogen cyanide was determined. Soils from long-term and adjacent short-term monoculture vineyards (or brushland) in four regions of Switzerland were baited with grapevine or tobacco plantlets, and rhizosphere pseudomonads were studied by most probable number (MPN)-PCR. Higher numbers and percentages of phlD(+) and of hcnAB(+) rhizosphere pseudomonads were detected on using soil from long-term vineyards. On focusing on phlD, restriction fragment length polymorphism profiling of the last phlD-positive MPN wells revealed seven phlD alleles (three exclusively on tobacco, thereof two new ones). Higher numbers of phlD alleles coincided with a lower prevalence of the allele displayed by the well-studied biocontrol strain Pseudomonas fluorescens F113. The prevalence of this allele was 35% for tobacco in long-term monoculture soils vs. >60% in the other three cases. We conclude that soils from long-term grapevine monocultures represent an untapped resource for isolating novel biocontrol Pseudomonas strains when tobacco is used as bait.
Ren, Jinwei; Liu, Dong; Tian, Li; Wei, Yangye; Proksch, Peter; Zeng, Jinzhang; Lin, Wenhan
Five new phenoxazine-based alkaloids venezuelines A-E (1-5) and two new aminophenols venezuelines F-G (6-7), as well as three known analogues exfoliazone, chandrananimycin D and carboxyexfoliazone were isolated from the fermentation broth of the marine-derived bacterium Streptomyces venezuelae. The structures of new compounds were determined on the basis of extensive spectroscopic analysis. The cytotoxic activity of these compounds against a panel of tumor cell lines were tested, while the regulation of gene target Nur77 of 2 and exfoliazone (8) were evaluated.
Balusamy, Sri Renuka Devi; Kim, Yu-Jin; Rahimi, Shadi; Senthil, Kalai Selvi; Lee, Ok Ran; Lee, Sungyoung; Yang, Deok-Chun
The differential transcript patterns of five antioxidant genes, four genes related to the ginsenoside pathway and five P450 genes related to defense mechanism were investigated in in vitro adventitious roots of Panax ginseng after exposure to two different concentrations of heavy metals for 7 days. PgSOD-1 and PgCAT transcription increased in a dose-dependent manner during the exposure to CuCl(2), NiCl(2), and CdCl(2), while all other tested scavenging enzymes didn't show significant increase during heavy metal exposure. Conversely, the mRNA transcripts of PgSQE, PgDDS were highly responsive to CuCl(2) compared to NiCl(2) exposure. However, the transcript profile of Pgβ-AS was highly induced upon NiCl(2) treatment compared to CuCl(2) and CdCl(2) exposure. The expressions of PgCYP716A42, PgCYP71A50U, and PgCYP82C22 were regulated in similar manners, and all showed the highest transcript profile at 100 μM of CuCl(2), CdCl(2), and NiCl(2) except PgCYP71D184, which showed the highest transcript level when subjected to 10 μM CuCl(2) and NiCl(2). Thus it may suggest that in P. ginseng heavy metal interaction on cell membrane induced expression of various defense related genes via jasmonic acid pathway and also possesses cross talk networks with other defense related pathways.
Tong, Yuru; Su, Ping; Zhao, Yujun; Zhang, Meng; Wang, Xiujuan; Liu, Yujia; Zhang, Xianan; Gao, Wei; Huang, Luqi
1-Deoxy-d-xylulose-5-phosphate synthase (DXS) and 1-deoxy-d-xylulose-5-phosphate reductoisomerase (DXR) genes are the key enzyme genes of terpenoid biosynthesis but still unknown in Tripterygium wilfordii Hook. f. Here, three full-length cDNA encoding DXS1, DXS2 and DXR were cloned from suspension cells of T. wilfordii with ORF sizes of 2154 bp (TwDXS1, GenBank accession no.KM879187), 2148 bp (TwDXS2, GenBank accession no.KM879186), 1410 bp (TwDXR, GenBank accession no.KM879185). And, the TwDXS1, TwDXS2 and TwDXR were characterized by color complementation in lycopene accumulating strains of Escherichia coli, which indicated that they encoded functional proteins and promoted lycopene pathway flux. TwDXS1 and TwDXS2 are constitutively expressed in the roots, stems and leaves and the expression level showed an order of roots > stems > leaves. After the suspension cells were induced by methyl jasmonate, the mRNA expression level of TwDXS1, TwDXS2, and TwDXR increased, and triptophenolide was rapidly accumulated to 149.52 µg·g−1, a 5.88-fold increase compared with the control. So the TwDXS1, TwDXS2, and TwDXR could be important genes involved in terpenoid biosynthesis in Tripterygium wilfordii Hook. f. PMID:26512659
Background Panax ginseng C. A. Meyer is one of the most widely used medicinal plants. Complete genome information for this species remains unavailable due to its large genome size. At present, analysis of expressed sequence tags is still the most powerful tool for large-scale gene discovery. The global expressed sequence tags from P. ginseng tissues, especially those isolated from stems, leaves and flowers, are still limited, hindering in-depth study of P. ginseng. Results Two 454 pyrosequencing runs generated a total of 2,423,076 reads from P. ginseng roots, stems, leaves and flowers. The high-quality reads from each of the tissues were independently assembled into separate and shared contigs. In the separately assembled database, 45,849, 6,172, 4,041 and 3,273 unigenes were only found in the roots, stems, leaves and flowers database, respectively. In the jointly assembled database, 178,145 unigenes were observed, including 86,609 contigs and 91,536 singletons. Among the 178,145 unigenes, 105,522 were identified for the first time, of which 65.6% were identified in the stem, leaf or flower cDNA libraries of P. ginseng. After annotation, we discovered 223 unigenes involved in ginsenoside backbone biosynthesis. Additionally, a total of 326 potential cytochrome P450 and 129 potential UDP-glycosyltransferase sequences were predicted based on the annotation results, some of which may encode enzymes responsible for ginsenoside backbone modification. A BLAST search of the obtained high-quality reads identified 14 potential microRNAs in P. ginseng, which were estimated to target 100 protein-coding genes, including transcription factors, transporters and DNA binding proteins, among others. In addition, a total of 13,044 simple sequence repeats were identified from the 178,145 unigenes. Conclusions This study provides global expressed sequence tags for P. ginseng, which will contribute significantly to further genome-wide research and analyses in this species. The novel
Background Isoprenoids constitute a vast family of natural compounds performing diverse and essential functions in all domains of life. In most eubacteria, isoprenoids are synthesized through the methylerythritol 4-phosphate (MEP) pathway. The production of MEP is usually catalyzed by deoxyxylulose 5-phosphate reductoisomerase (DXR-I) but a few organisms use an alternative DXR-like enzyme (DXR-II). Results Searches through 1498 bacterial complete proteomes detected 130 sequences with similarity to DXR-II. Phylogenetic analysis identified three well-resolved clades: the DXR-II family (clustering 53 sequences including eleven experimentally verified as functional enzymes able to produce MEP), and two previously uncharacterized NAD(P)-dependent oxidoreductase families (designated DLO1 and DLO2 for DXR-II-like oxidoreductases 1 and 2). Our analyses identified amino acid changes critical for the acquisition of DXR-II biochemical function through type-I functional divergence, two of them mapping onto key residues for DXR-II activity. DXR-II showed a markedly discontinuous distribution, which was verified at several levels: taxonomic (being predominantly found in Alphaproteobacteria and Firmicutes), metabolic (being mostly found in bacteria with complete functional MEP pathways with or without DXR-I), and phenotypic (as no biological/phenotypic property was found to be preferentially distributed among DXR-II-containing strains, apart from pathogenicity in animals). By performing a thorough comparative sequence analysis of GC content, 3:1 dinucleotide frequencies, codon usage and codon adaptation indexes (CAI) between DXR-II sequences and their corresponding genomes, we examined the role of horizontal gene transfer (HGT), as opposed to an scenario of massive gene loss, in the evolutionary origin and diversification of the DXR-II subfamily in bacteria. Conclusions Our analyses support a single origin of the DXR-II family through functional divergence, in which constitutes
In silico analysis and expression profiling of miRNAs targeting genes of steviol glycosides biosynthetic pathway and their relationship with steviol glycosides content in different tissues of Stevia rebaudiana.
Saifi, Monica; Nasrullah, Nazima; Ahmad, Malik Mobeen; Ali, Athar; Khan, Jawaid A; Abdin, M Z
miRNAs are emerging as potential regulators of the gene expression. Their proven promising role in regulating biosynthetic pathways related gene networks may hold the key to understand the genetic regulation of these pathways which may assist in selection and manipulation to get high performing plant genotypes with better secondary metabolites yields and increased biomass. miRNAs associated with genes of steviol glycosides biosynthetic pathway, however, have not been identified so far. In this study miRNAs targeting genes of steviol glycosides biosynthetic pathway were identified for the first time whose precursors were potentially generated from ESTs and nucleotide sequences of Stevia rebaudiana. Thereafter, stem-loop coupled real time PCR based expressions of these miRNAs in different tissues of Stevia rebaudiana were investigated and their relationship pattern was analysed with the expression levels of their target mRNAs as well as steviol glycoside contents. All the miRNAs investigated showed differential expressions in all the three tissues studied, viz. leaves, flowers and stems. Out of the eleven miRNAs validated, the expression levels of nine miRNAs (miR319a, miR319b, miR319c, miR319d, miR319e, miR319f, miR319h, miRstv_7, miRstv_9) were found to be inversely related, while expression levels of the two, i.e. miR319g and miRstv_11 on the contrary, showed direct relation with the expression levels of their target mRNAs and steviol glycoside contents in the leaves, flowers and stems. This study provides a platform for better understanding of the steviol glycosides biosynthetic pathway and these miRNAs can further be employed to manipulate the biosynthesis of these metabolites to enhance their contents and yield in S. rebaudiana.
Ermawar, Riksfardini A; Collins, Helen M; Byrt, Caitlin S; Betts, Natalie S; Henderson, Marilyn; Shirley, Neil J; Schwerdt, Julian; Lahnstein, Jelle; Fincher, Geoffrey B; Burton, Rachel A
In cereals, the presence of soluble polysaccharides including (1,3;1,4)-β-glucan has downstream implications for human health, animal feed and biofuel applications. Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench is a versatile crop, but there are limited reports regarding the content of such soluble polysaccharides. Here, the amount of (1,3;1,4)-β-glucan present in sorghum tissues was measured using a Megazyme assay. Very low amounts were present in the grain, ranging from 0.16%-0.27% (w/w), while there was a greater quantity in vegetative tissues at 0.12-1.71% (w/w). The fine structure of (1,3;1,4)-β-glucan, as denoted by the ratio of cellotriosyl and cellotetraosyl residues, was assessed by high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) and ranged from 2.6-3:1 in the grain, while ratios in vegetative tissues were lower at 2.1-2.6:1. The distribution of (1,3;1,4)-β-glucan was examined using a specific antibody and observed with fluorescence and transmission electron microscopy. Micrographs showed a variable distribution of (1,3;1,4)-β-glucan influenced by temporal and spatial factors. The sorghum orthologs of genes implicated in the synthesis of (1,3;1,4)-β-glucan in other cereals, such as the Cellulose synthase-like (Csl) F and H gene families were defined. Transcript profiling of these genes across sorghum tissues was carried out using real-time quantitative polymerase chain reaction, indicating that, as in other cereals, CslF6 transcripts dominated.
Alferez, Fernando; Pozo, Luis V; Rouseff, Russell R; Burns, Jacqueline K
The effect of 5-chloro-3-methyl-4-nitro-1H-pyrazole (CMNP) and ethephon on peel color, flavedo carotenoid gene expression, and carotenoid accumulation was investigated in mature 'Valencia' orange ( Citrus sinensis L. Osbeck) fruit flavedo at three maturation stages. Abscission agent application altered peel color. CMNP was more effective than ethephon in promoting green-to-red (a) and blue-to-yellow (b) color at the middle and late maturation stages and total carotenoid changes at all maturation stages. Altered flow of carotenoid precursors during maturation due to abscission agents was suggested by changes in phytoene desaturase (Pds) and ζ-carotene desaturase (Zds) gene expression. However, each abscission agent affected downstream expression differentially. Ethephon application increased β-carotene hydroxilase (β-Chx) transcript accumulation 12-fold as maturation advanced from the early to middle and late stages. CMNP markedly increased β- and ε-lycopene cyclase (Lcy) transcript accumulation 45- and 15-fold, respectively, at midmaturation. Patterns of carotenoid accumulation in flavedo were supported in part by gene expression changes. CMNP caused greater accumulation of total flavedo carotenoids at all maturation stages when compared with ethephon or controls. In general, CMNP treatment increased total red carotenoids more than ethephon or the control but decreased total yellow carotenoids at each maturation stage. In control fruit flavedo, total red carotenoids increased and yellow carotenoids decreased as maturation progressed. Trends in total red carotenoids during maturation were consistent with measured a values. Changes in carotenoid accumulation and expression patterns in flavedo suggest that regulation of carotenoid accumulation is under transcriptional, translational, and post-translational control.
Mandal, Shantanu; Upadhyay, Shivangi; Singh, Ved Pal; Kapoor, Rupam
Stevia rebaudiana (Bertoni) produces steviol glycosides (SGs)--stevioside (stev) and rebaudioside-A (reb-A) that are valued as low calorie sweeteners. Inoculation with arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) augments SGs production, though the effect of this interaction on SGs biosynthesis has not been studied at molecular level. In this study transcription profiles of eleven key genes grouped under three stages of the SGs biosynthesis pathway were compared. The transcript analysis showed upregulation of genes encoding 2-C-methyl-D-erythritol-4-phosphate (MEP) pathway enzymes viz.,1-deoxy-D-xylulose 5-phospate synthase (DXS), 1-deoxy-D-xylulose 5-phospate reductoisomerase (DXR) and 2-C-methyl-D-erytrithol 2,4-cyclodiphosphate synthase (MDS) in mycorrhizal (M) plants. Zn and Mn are imperative for the expression of MDS and their enhanced uptake in M plants could be responsible for the increased transcription of MDS. Furthermore, in the second stage of SGs biosynthesis pathway, mycorrhization enhanced the transcription of copalyl diphosphate synthase (CPPS) and kaurenoic acid hydroxylase (KAH). Their expression is decisive for SGs biosynthesis as CPPS regulates flow of metabolites towards synthesis of kaurenoid precursors and KAH directs these towards steviol synthesis instead of gibberellins. In the third stage glucosylation of steviol to reb-A by four specific uridine diphosphate (UDP)-dependent glycosyltransferases (UGTs) occurs. While higher transcription of all the three characterized UGTs in M plants explains augmented production of SGs; higher transcript levels of UGT76G1, specifically improved reb-A to stev ratio implying increased sweetness. The work signifies that AM symbiosis upregulates the transcription of all eleven SGs biosynthesis genes as a result of improved nutrition and enhanced sugar concentration due to increased photosynthesis in M plants.
Heterologous production of kasugamycin, an aminoglycoside antibiotic from Streptomyces kasugaensis, in Streptomyces lividans and Rhodococcus erythropolis L-88 by constitutive expression of the biosynthetic gene cluster.
Kasuga, Kano; Sasaki, Akira; Matsuo, Takashi; Yamamoto, Chika; Minato, Yuiko; Kuwahara, Naoya; Fujii, Chikako; Kobayashi, Masayuki; Agematu, Hitosi; Tamura, Tomohiro; Komatsu, Mamoru; Ishikawa, Jun; Ikeda, Haruo; Kojima, Ikuo
Kasugamycin (KSM), an aminoglycoside antibiotic isolated from Streptomyces kasugaensis cultures, has been used against rice blast disease for more than 50 years. We cloned the KSM biosynthetic gene (KBG) cluster from S. kasugaensis MB273-C4 and constructed three KBG cassettes (i.e., cassettes I-III) to enable heterologous production of KSM in many actinomycetes by constitutive expression of KBGs. Cassette I comprised all putative transcriptional units in the cluster, but it was placed under the control of the P neo promoter from Tn5. It was not maintained stably in Streptomyces lividans and did not transform Rhodococcus erythropolis. Cassette II retained the original arrangement of KBGs, except that the promoter of kasT, the specific activator gene for KBG, was replaced with P rpsJ , the constitutive promoter of rpsJ from Streptomyces avermitilis. To enhance the intracellular concentration of myo-inositol, an expression cassette of ino1 encoding the inositol-1-phosphate synthase from S. avermitilis was inserted into cassette II to generate cassette III. These two cassettes showed stable maintenance in S. lividans and R. erythropolis to produce KSM. Particularly, the transformants of S. lividans induced KSM production up to the same levels as those produced by S. kasugaensis. Furthermore, cassette III induced more KSM accumulation than cassette II in R. erythropolis, suggesting an exogenous supply of myo-inositol by the ino1 expression in the host. Cassettes II and III appear to be useful for heterologous KSM production in actinomycetes. Rhodococcus exhibiting a spherical form in liquid cultivation is also a promising heterologous host for antibiotic fermentation.
Lee, Hyang-Yeol; Yerkes, Nancy; O’Connor, Sarah E.
Biosynthetic pathways can be hijacked to yield novel compounds by introduction of novel starting materials. Here we have altered tryptamine, which serves as the starting substrate for a variety of alkaloid biosynthetic pathways, by replacing the indole with one of four aza-indole isomers. We show that two aza-tryptamine substrates can be successfully incorporated into the products of the monoterpene indole alkaloid pathway in Catharanthus roseus. Use of unnatural heterocycles in precursor directed biosynthesis, in both microbial and plant natural product pathways, has not been widely demonstrated, and successful incorporation of starting substrate analogs containing the aza-indole functionality has not been previously reported. This work serves as a starting point to explore fermentation of aza-alkaloids from other tryptophan and tryptamine derived natural product pathways. PMID:20064432
Lee, Hyang-Yeol; Yerkes, Nancy; O'Connor, Sarah E
Biosynthetic pathways can be hijacked to yield novel compounds by introduction of novel starting materials. Here we have altered tryptamine, which serves as the starting substrate for a variety of alkaloid biosynthetic pathways, by replacing the indole with one of four aza-indole isomers. We show that two aza-tryptamine substrates can be successfully incorporated into the products of the monoterpene indole alkaloid pathway in Catharanthus roseus. Use of unnatural heterocycles in precursor-directed biosynthesis, in both microbial and plant natural product pathways, has not been widely demonstrated, and successful incorporation of starting substrate analogs containing the aza-indole functionality has not been previously reported. This work serves as a starting point to explore fermentation of aza-alkaloids from other tryptophan- and tryptamine-derived natural product pathways.
Xu, Zhichao; Luo, Hongmei; Ji, Aijia; Zhang, Xin; Song, Jingyuan; Chen, Shilin
Salvianolic acids are among the main bioactive components in Salvia miltiorrhiza, and their biosynthesis has attracted widespread interest. However, previous studies on the biosynthesis of phenolic acids using next-generation sequencing platforms are limited with regard to the assembly of full-length transcripts. Based on hybrid-seq (next-generation and single molecular real-time sequencing) of the S. miltiorrhiza root transcriptome, we experimentally identified 15 full-length transcripts and four alternative splicing events of enzyme-coding genes involved in the biosynthesis of rosmarinic acid. Moreover, we herein demonstrate that lithospermic acid B accumulates in the phloem and xylem of roots, in agreement with the expression patterns of the identified key genes related to rosmarinic acid biosynthesis. According to co-expression patterns, we predicted that six candidate cytochrome P450s and five candidate laccases participate in the salvianolic acid pathway. Our results provide a valuable resource for further investigation into the synthetic biology of phenolic acids in S. miltiorrhiza. PMID:26904067
Yin, Ling; Chen, Changming; Chen, Guoju; Cao, Bihao; Lei, Jianjun
Glucoraphanin is a plant secondary metabolite that is involved in plant defense and imparts health-promoting properties to cruciferous vegetables. In this study, three genes involved in glucoraphanin metabolism, branched-chain aminotransferase 4 (BCAT4), methylthioalkylmalate synthase 1 (MAM1) and dihomomethionine N-hydroxylase (CYP79F1), were cloned from Chinese kale (Brassica oleracea var. alboglabra Bailey). Sequence homology and phylogenetic analysis identified these genes and confirmed the evolutionary status of Chinese kale. The transcript levels of BCAT4, MAM1 and CYP79F1 were higher in cotyledon, leaf and stem compared with flower and silique. BCAT4, MAM1 and CYP79F1 were expressed throughout leaf development with lower transcript levels during the younger stages. Glucoraphanin content varied extensively among different varieties, which ranged from 0.25 to 2.73 µmol·g(-1) DW (dry weight). Expression levels of BCAT4 and MAM1 were high at vegetative-reproductive transition phase, while CYP79F1 was expressed high at reproductive phase. BCAT4, MAM1 and CYP79F1 were expressed significantly high in genotypes with high glucoraphanin content. All the results provided a better understanding of the roles of BCAT4, MAM1 and CYP79F1 in the glucoraphanin biosynthesis of Chinese kale.
Khetkorn, Wanthanee; Incharoensakdi, Aran; Lindblad, Peter; Jantaro, Saowarath
Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803 strains overexpressing pha genes were constructed and characterized for poly-3-hydroxybutyrate (PHB) production. These pha overexpressing strains showed slightly reduced growth rates. Under N-deprived condition, the strains overexpressing (OE) phaAB, phaEC and phaABEC showed significantly higher PHB contents than the wild type. The maximum PHB content, a 2.6-fold increase producing 26% PHB (dcw), was observed in OE phaAB cells grown for 9days in N-deprived medium. Under this condition, these OE phaAB cells increased PHB production to 35% PHB (dcw) upon addition of 0.4% (w/v) acetate. Higher PHB granules in OE phaAB cells were clearly visualized by both Nile red staining and TEM imaging. All OE strains under N-deficient condition had increased glgX transcript levels. Overall results demonstrate an enhanced PHB production in Synechocystis cells overexpressing pha genes, particularly phaA and phaB, when grown in N-deprived medium containing 0.4% (w/v) acetate.
Zhang, Jia-Jin; Shu, Li-Ping; Zhang, Wei; Long, Guang-Qiang; Liu, Tao; Meng, Zheng-Gui; Chen, Jun-Wen; Yang, Sheng-Chao
Background Erigeron breviscapus (Vant.) Hand-Mazz. is a famous medicinal plant. Scutellarin and chlorogenic acids are the primary active components in this herb. However, the mechanisms of biosynthesis and regulation for scutellarin and chlorogenic acids in E. breviscapus are considerably unknown. In addition, genomic information of this herb is also unavailable. Principal Findings Using Illumina sequencing on GAIIx platform, a total of 64,605,972 raw sequencing reads were generated and assembled into 73,092 non-redundant unigenes. Among them, 44,855 unigenes (61.37%) were annotated in the public databases Nr, Swiss-Prot, KEGG, and COG. The transcripts encoding the known enzymes involved in flavonoids and in chlorogenic acids biosynthesis were discovered in the Illumina dataset. Three candidate cytochrome P450 genes were discovered which might encode flavone 6-hydroase converting apigenin to scutellarein. Furthermore, 4 unigenes encoding the homologues of maize P1 (R2R3-MYB transcription factors) were defined, which might regulate the biosynthesis of scutellarin. Additionally, a total of 11,077 simple sequence repeat (SSR) were identified from 9,255 unigenes. Of SSRs, tri-nucleotide motifs were the most abundant motif. Thirty-six primer pairs for SSRs were randomly selected for validation of the amplification and polymorphism. The result revealed that 34 (94.40%) primer pairs were successfully amplified and 19 (52.78%) primer pairs exhibited polymorphisms. Conclusion Using next generation sequencing (NGS) technology, this study firstly provides abundant genomic data for E. breviscapus. The candidate genes involved in the biosynthesis and transcriptional regulation of scutellarin and chlorogenic acids were obtained in this study. Additionally, a plenty of genetic makers were generated by identification of SSRs, which is a powerful tool for molecular breeding and genetics applications in this herb. PMID:24956277
Argyris, Jason; Truco, María José; Ochoa, Oswaldo; McHale, Leah; Dahal, Peetambar; Van Deynze, Allen; Michelmore, Richard W.
Thermoinhibition, or failure of seeds to germinate when imbibed at warm temperatures, can be a significant problem in lettuce (Lactuca sativa L.) production. The reliability of stand establishment would be improved by increasing the ability of lettuce seeds to germinate at high temperatures. Genes encoding germination- or dormancy-related proteins were mapped in a recombinant inbred line population derived from a cross between L. sativa cv. Salinas and L. serriola accession UC96US23. This revealed several candidate genes that are located in the genomic regions containing quantitative trait loci (QTLs) associated with temperature and light requirements for germination. In particular, LsNCED4, a temperature-regulated gene in the biosynthetic pathway for abscisic acid (ABA), a germination inhibitor, mapped to the center of a previously detected QTL for high temperature germination (Htg6.1) from UC96US23. Three sets of sister BC3S2 near-isogenic lines (NILs) that were homozygous for the UC96US23 allele of LsNCED4 at Htg6.1 were developed by backcrossing to cv. Salinas and marker-assisted selection followed by selfing. The maximum temperature for germination of NIL seed lots with the UC96US23 allele at LsNCED4 was increased by 2–3°C when compared with sister NIL seed lots lacking the introgression. In addition, the expression of LsNCED4 was two- to threefold lower in the former NIL lines as compared to expression in the latter. Together, these data strongly implicate LsNCED4 as the candidate gene responsible for the Htg6.1 phenotype and indicate that decreased ABA biosynthesis at high imbibition temperatures is a major factor responsible for the increased germination thermotolerance of UC96US23 seeds. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1007/s00122-010-1425-3) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users. PMID:20703871
Kauppinen, R; Glass, I A; Aizencang, G; Astrin, K H; Atweh, G F; Desnick, R J
Congenital erythropoietic porphyria (CEP) is an autosomal recessive disorder resulting from the deficient activity of the heme biosynthetic enzyme uroporphyrinogen III synthase (UROS). Severely affected patients are transfusion dependent and have mutilating cutaneous manifestations. Successful bone marrow transplantation has proven curative, providing the rationale for stem cell gene therapy. Toward this goal, two retroviral MFG vectors containing the UROS cDNA were constructed, one with the wild-type sequence (MFG-UROS-wt) and a second with an optimized Kozak consensus sequence (MFG-UROS-K). Following transduction of CEP fibroblasts, the MFG-UROS-wt and MFG-UROS-K vectors increased the endogenous activity without selection to levels that were 18- and 5-fold greater, respectively, than the mean activity in normal fibroblasts. Notably, the MFG-UROS-wt vector expressed UROS activity in CEP fibroblasts at these high levels for over 6 months without cell toxicity. Addition of either delta-aminolevulinic acid (ALA) or ferric chloride did not affect expression of the transduced UROS gene nor did the increased concentrations of uroporphyrin isomers or porphyrin intermediates affect cell viability. Similarly, transduction of CEP lymphoblasts with the MFG-UROS-wt vector without G418 selection increased the endogenous UROS activity by 7-fold or almost 2-fold greater than that in normal lymphoblasts. Transduction of K562 erythroleukemia cells by cocultivation with the MFG-UROS-wt producer cells increased their high endogenous UROS activity by 1.6-fold without selection. Clonally isolated K562 cells expressed UROS for over 4 months at mean levels 4.7-fold greater than the endogenous activity without cell toxicity. Thus, the prolonged, high-level expression of UROS in transduced CEP fibroblasts and lymphoblasts, as well as in transduced K562 erythroid cells, demonstrated that the enzymatic defect in CEP cells could be corrected by retroviral-mediated gene therapy without
Lee, Eun-Jeong; Hagel, Jillian M.; Facchini, Peter J.
Benzylisoquinoline alkaloids (BIAs) are a diverse group of biologically active specialized metabolites produced mainly in four plant families. BIA metabolism is likely of monophyletic origin and involves multiple enzymes yielding structurally diverse compounds. Several BIAs possess defensive properties against pathogenic microorganisms and herbivores. Opium poppy (Papaver somniferum: Papaveraceae) has emerged as a model system to investigate the cellular localization of BIA biosynthesis. Although alkaloids accumulate in the laticifer cytoplasm (latex) of opium poppy, corresponding biosynthetic enzymes and gene transcripts are localized to proximal sieve elements and companion cells, respectively. In contrast, BIA metabolism in the non-laticiferous meadow rue (Thalictrum flavum; Ranunculaceae) occurs independent of the phloem. Evidence points toward the adoption of diverse strategies for the biosynthesis and accumulation of alkaloids as defensive compounds. Recruitment of cell types involved in BIA metabolism, both within and external to the phloem, was likely driven by selection pressures unique to different taxa. The biochemistry, cell biology, ecophysiology, and evolution of BIA metabolism are considered in this context. PMID:23781223
Kim, Yeon Bok; Park, Soo-Yun; Thwe, Aye Aye; Seo, Jeong Min; Suzuki, Tastsuro; Kim, Sun-Ju; Kim, Jae Kwang; Park, Sang Un
Red-flowered buckwheat ( Fagopyrum esculentum ) is used in the production of tea, juice, and alcohols after the detoxification of fagopyrin. In order to investigate the metabolomics and regulatory of anthocyanin production in red-flowered (Gan-Chao) and white-flowered (Tanno) buckwheat cultivars, quantitative real-time RT-PCR (qRT-PCR), gas chromatography time-of-flight mass spectrometry (GC-TOFMS), and high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) were conducted. The transcriptions of FePAL, FeC4H, Fe4CL1, FeF3H, FeANS, and FeDFR increased gradually from flowering stage 1 and reached their highest peaks at flowering stage 3 in Gan-Chao flower. In total 44 metabolites, 18 amino acids, 15 organic acids, 7 sugars, 3 sugar alcohols, and 1 amine were detected in Gan-Chao flowers. Two anthocyanins, cyanidin 3-O-glucoside and cyanidin 3-O-rutinoside, were identified in Gan-Chao cultivar. The first component of the partial least-squares to latent structures-discriminate analysis (PLS-DA) indicated that high amounts of phenolic, shikimic, and pyruvic acids were present in Gan-Chao. We suggest that transcriptions of genes involved in anthocyanin biosynthesis, anthocyanin contents, and metabolites have correlation in the red-flowered buckwheat Gan-Chao flowers. Our results may be helpful to understand anthocyanin biosynthesis in red-flowered buckwheat.
Hua, Cheng; Linling, Li; Shuiyuan, Cheng; Fuliang, Cao; Feng, Xu; Honghui, Yuan; Conghua, Wu
Dihydroflavonol-4-reductase (DFR, EC220.127.116.11) catalyzes a key step late in the biosynthesis of anthocyanins, condensed tannins (proanthocyanidins), and other flavonoids important to plant survival and human nutrition. Three DFR cDNA clones (designated GbDFRs) were isolated from the gymnosperm Ginkgo biloba. The deduced GbDFR proteins showed high identities to other plant DFRs, which form three distinct DFR families. Southern blot analysis showed that the three GbDFRs each belong to a different DFR family. Phylogenetic tree analysis revealed that the GbDFRs share the same ancestor as other DFRs. The expression of the three recombinant GbDFRs in Escherichia coli showed that their actual protein sizes were in agreement with predictions from the cDNA sequences. The recombinant proteins were purified and their activity was analyzed; both GbDFR1 and GbDFR3 could catalyze dihydroquercetin conversion to leucocyanidin, while GbDFR2 catalyzed dihydrokaempferol conversion to leucopelargonidin. qRT-PCR showed that the GbDFRs were expressed in a tissue-specific manner, and transcript accumulation for the three genes was highest in young leaves and stamens. These transcription patterns were in good agreement with the pattern of anthocyanin accumulation in G.biloba. The expression profiles suggested that GbDFR1 and GbDFR2 are mainly involved in responses to plant hormones, environmental stress and damage. During the annual growth cycle, the GbDFRs were significantly correlated with anthocyanin accumulation in leaves. A fitted linear curve showed the best model for relating GbDFR2 and GbDFR3 with anthocyanin accumulation in leaves. GbDFR1 appears to be involved in environmental stress response, while GbDFR3 likely has primary functions in the synthesis of anthocyanins. These data revealed unexpected properties and differences in three DFR proteins from a single species. PMID:23991027
Hissen, Anna H T; Wan, Adrian N C; Warwas, Mark L; Pinto, Linda J; Moore, Margo M
Aspergillus fumigatus is the leading cause of invasive mold infection and is a serious problem in immunocompromised populations worldwide. We have previously shown that survival of A. fumigatus in serum may be related to secretion of siderophores. In this study, we identified and characterized the sidA gene of A. fumigatus, which encodes l-ornithine N(5)-oxygenase, the first committed step in hydroxamate siderophore biosynthesis. A. fumigatus sidA codes for a protein of 501 amino acids with significant homology to other fungal l-ornithine N(5)-oxygenases. A stable DeltasidA strain was created by deletion of A. fumigatus sidA. This strain was unable to synthesize the siderophores N',N",N'''-triacetylfusarinine C (TAF) and ferricrocin. Growth of the DeltasidA strain was the same as that of the wild type in rich media; however, the DeltasidA strain was unable to grow in low-iron defined media or media containing 10% human serum unless supplemented with TAF or ferricrocin. No significant differences in ferric reduction activities were observed between the parental strain and the DeltasidA strain, indicating that blocking siderophore secretion did not result in upregulation of this pathway. Unlike the parental strain, the DeltasidA strain was unable to remove iron from human transferrin. A rescued strain (DeltasidA + sidA) was constructed; it produced siderophores and had the same growth as the wild type on iron-limited media. Unlike the wild-type and rescued strains, the DeltasidA strain was avirulent in a mouse model of invasive aspergillosis, indicating that sidA is necessary for A. fumigatus virulence.
Frick, Karen M.; Kamphuis, Lars G.; Siddique, Kadambot H. M.; Singh, Karam B.; Foley, Rhonda C.
Quinolizidine alkaloids (QAs) are toxic secondary metabolites found within the genus Lupinus, some species of which are commercially important grain legume crops including Lupinus angustifolius (narrow-leafed lupin, NLL), L. luteus (yellow lupin), L. albus (white lupin), and L. mutabilis (pearl lupin), with NLL grain being the most largely produced of the four species in Australia and worldwide. While QAs offer the plants protection against insect pests, the accumulation of QAs in lupin grain complicates its use for food purposes as QA levels must remain below the industry threshold (0.02%), which is often exceeded. It is not well understood what factors cause grain QA levels to exceed this threshold. Much of the early work on QA biosynthesis began in the 1970–1980s, with many QA chemical structures well-characterized and lupin cell cultures and enzyme assays employed to identify some biosynthetic enzymes and pathway intermediates. More recently, two genes associated with these enzymes have been characterized, however, the QA biosynthetic pathway remains only partially elucidated. Here, we review the research accomplished thus far concerning QAs in lupin and consider some possibilities for further elucidation and manipulation of the QA pathway in lupin crops, drawing on examples from model alkaloid species. One breeding strategy for lupin is to produce plants with high QAs in vegetative tissues while low in the grain in order to confer insect resistance to plants while keeping grain QA levels within industry regulations. With the knowledge achieved on alkaloid biosynthesis in other plant species in recent years, and the recent development of genomic and transcriptomic resources for NLL, there is considerable scope to facilitate advances in our knowledge of QAs, leading to the production of improved lupin crops. PMID:28197163
Frick, Karen M; Kamphuis, Lars G; Siddique, Kadambot H M; Singh, Karam B; Foley, Rhonda C
Quinolizidine alkaloids (QAs) are toxic secondary metabolites found within the genus Lupinus, some species of which are commercially important grain legume crops including Lupinus angustifolius (narrow-leafed lupin, NLL), L. luteus (yellow lupin), L. albus (white lupin), and L. mutabilis (pearl lupin), with NLL grain being the most largely produced of the four species in Australia and worldwide. While QAs offer the plants protection against insect pests, the accumulation of QAs in lupin grain complicates its use for food purposes as QA levels must remain below the industry threshold (0.02%), which is often exceeded. It is not well understood what factors cause grain QA levels to exceed this threshold. Much of the early work on QA biosynthesis began in the 1970-1980s, with many QA chemical structures well-characterized and lupin cell cultures and enzyme assays employed to identify some biosynthetic enzymes and pathway intermediates. More recently, two genes associated with these enzymes have been characterized, however, the QA biosynthetic pathway remains only partially elucidated. Here, we review the research accomplished thus far concerning QAs in lupin and consider some possibilities for further elucidation and manipulation of the QA pathway in lupin crops, drawing on examples from model alkaloid species. One breeding strategy for lupin is to produce plants with high QAs in vegetative tissues while low in the grain in order to confer insect resistance to plants while keeping grain QA levels within industry regulations. With the knowledge achieved on alkaloid biosynthesis in other plant species in recent years, and the recent development of genomic and transcriptomic resources for NLL, there is considerable scope to facilitate advances in our knowledge of QAs, leading to the production of improved lupin crops.
Petrak, J.; Jurani, M.; Baranovska, M.; Hapala, I.; Frollo, I.; Kvetnansky, R.
The aim of this study was to evaluate plasma epinephrine (EPI) and norepinephrine (NE) levels in blood collected directly during a single or 8-times repeated centrifugation at hypergravity 4G, using remote controlled equipment. Plasma EPI levels showed a huge hypergravity-induced increase. After the last blood collection during hypergravity, the centrifuge was turned off and another blood sampling was performed immediately after the centrifuge decelerated and stopped (10 min). In these samples plasma EPI showed significantly lower levels compared to centrifugation intervals. Plasma NE levels showed none or small changes. Repeated exposure to hypergravity 4G (8 days for 60 min) eliminated the increase in plasma EPI levels at the 15 min interval but did not markedly affect plasma NE levels. To explain these findings we measured mRNA levels of CA biosynthetic enzymes tyrosine hydroxylase (TH), dopamine-β-hydroxylase (DBH) and phenylethanolamine N-methyltransferase (PNMT) in the adrenal medulla (AM) and stellate ganglia (SG) of rats exposed to continuous hypergravity (2G) up to 6 days. In AM, TH, DBH and PNMT mRNA levels were significantly increased in intervals up to 3 days, however, after 6 day hypergravity exposure, no significant elevation was found. In SG, no significant changes in gene expression of CA enzymes were seen both after a single or repeated hypergravity. Thus, our data show that hypergravity highly activates the adrenomedullary system, whereas the sympathoneural system is not significantly changed. In conclusion, our results demonstrate that during repeated or continuous exposure of the organism to hypergravity the adrenomedullary system is adapted, whereas sympathoneural system is not affected.
Identification of the putrescine biosynthetic genes in Pseudomonas aeruginosa and characterization of agmatine deiminase and N-carbamoylputrescine amidohydrolase of the arginine decarboxylase pathway.
Nakada, Yuji; Itoh, Yoshifumi
Putrescine can be synthesized either directly from ornithine by ornithine decarboxylase (ODC; the speC product) or indirectly from arginine via arginine decarboxylase (ADC; the speA product). The authors identified the speA and speC genes in Pseudomonas aeruginosa PAO1. The activities of the two decarboxylases were similar and each enzyme alone appeared to direct sufficient formation of the polyamine for normal growth. A mutant defective in both speA and speC was a putrescine auxotroph. In this strain, agmatine deiminase (the aguA product) and N-carbamoylputrescine amidohydrolase (the aguB product), which were initially identified as the catabolic enzymes of agmatine, biosynthetically convert agmatine to putrescine in the ADC pathway: a double mutant of aguAB and speC was a putrescine auxotroph. AguA was purified as a homodimer of 43 kDa subunits and AguB as a homohexamer of 33 kDa subunits. AguA specifically deiminated agmatine with K(m) and K(cat) values of 0.6 mM and 4.2 s(-1), respectively. AguB was specific to N-carbamoylputrescine and the K(m) and K(cat) values of the enzyme for the substrate were 0.5 mM and 3.3 s(-1), respectively. Whereas AguA has no structural relationship to any known C-N hydrolases, AguB is a protein of the nitrilase family that performs thiol-assisted catalysis. Inhibition by SH reagents and the conserved cysteine residue in AguA and its homologues suggested that this enzyme is also involved in thiol-mediated catalysis.
Identification of the Fluvirucin B2 (Sch 38518) Biosynthetic Gene Cluster from Actinomadura fulva subsp. indica ATCC 53714: substrate Specificity of the β-Amino Acid Selective Adenylating Enzyme FlvN.
Miyanaga, Akimasa; Hayakawa, Yuki; Numakura, Mario; Hashimoto, Junko; Teruya, Kuniko; Hirano, Takashi; Shin-Ya, Kazuo; Kudo, Fumitaka; Eguchi, Tadashi
Fluvirucins are 14-membered macrolactam polyketides that show antifungal and antivirus activities. Fluvirucins have the β-alanine starter unit at their polyketide skeletons. To understand the construction mechanism of the β-alanine moiety in fluvirucin biosyntheses, we have identified the biosynthetic cluster of fluvirucin B2 produced from Actinomadura fulva subsp. indica ATCC 53714. The identified gene cluster contains three polyketide synthases, four characteristic β-amino acid-carrying enzymes, one decarboxylase, and one amidohydrolase. We next investigated the activity of the adenylation enzyme FlvN, which is a key enzyme for the selective incorporation of a β-amino acid substrate. FlvN showed strong preference for l-aspartate over other amino acids such as β-alanine. Based on these results, we propose a biosynthetic pathway for fluvirucin B2.
Paul, Priyanka; Singh, Sanjay K; Patra, Barunava; Sui, Xueyi; Pattanaik, Sitakanta; Yuan, Ling
Catharanthus roseus produces bioactive terpenoid indole alkaloids (TIAs), including the chemotherapeutics, vincristine and vinblastine. Transcriptional regulation of TIA biosynthesis is not fully understood. The jasmonic acid (JA)-responsive AP2/ERF transcription factor (TF), ORCA3, and its regulator, CrMYC2, play key roles in TIA biosynthesis. ORCA3 forms a physical cluster with two uncharacterized AP2/ERFs, ORCA4 and 5. Here, we report that (1) the ORCA gene cluster is differentially regulated; (2) ORCA4, while overlapping functionally with ORCA3, modulates an additional set of TIA genes. Unlike ORCA3, ORCA4 overexpression resulted in dramatic increase of TIA accumulation in C. roseus hairy roots. In addition, CrMYC2 is capable of activating ORCA3 and co-regulating TIA pathway genes concomitantly with ORCA3. The ORCA gene cluster and CrMYC2 act downstream of a MAP kinase cascade that includes a previously uncharacterized MAP kinase kinase, CrMAPKK1. Overexpression of CrMAPKK1 in C. roseus hairy roots upregulated TIA pathways genes and increased TIA accumulation. This work provides detailed characterization of a TF gene cluster and advances our understanding of the transcriptional and post-translational regulatory mechanisms that govern TIA biosynthesis in C. roseus.
Chung, Hsiao-Hang; Schwinn, Kathy E.; Ngo, Hanh M.; Lewis, David H.; Massey, Baxter; Calcott, Kate E.; Crowhurst, Ross; Joyce, Daryl C.; Gould, Kevin S.; Davies, Kevin M.; Harrison, Dion K.
Plant betalain pigments are intriguing because they are restricted to the Caryophyllales and are mutually exclusive with the more common anthocyanins. However, betalain biosynthesis is poorly understood compared to that of anthocyanins. In this study, betalain production and betalain-related genes were characterized in Parakeelya mirabilis (Montiaceae). RT-PCR and transcriptomics identified three sequences related to the key biosynthetic enzyme Dopa 4,5-dioxgenase (DOD). In addition to a LigB gene similar to that of non-Caryophyllales species (Class I genes), two other P. mirabilis LigB genes were found (DOD and DOD-like, termed Class II). PmDOD and PmDOD-like had 70% amino acid identity. Only PmDOD was implicated in betalain synthesis based on transient assays of enzyme activity and correlation of transcript abundance to spatio-temporal betalain accumulation. The role of PmDOD-like remains unknown. The striking pigment patterning of the flowers was due to distinct zones of red betacyanin and yellow betaxanthin production. The major betacyanin was the unglycosylated betanidin rather than the commonly found glycosides, an occurrence for which there are a few previous reports. The white petal zones lacked pigment but had DOD activity suggesting alternate regulation of the pathway in this tissue. DOD and DOD-like sequences were also identified in other betalain-producing species but not in examples of anthocyanin-producing Caryophyllales or non-Caryophyllales species. A Class I LigB sequence from the anthocyanin-producing Caryophyllaceae species Dianthus superbus and two DOD-like sequences from the Amaranthaceae species Beta vulgaris and Ptilotus spp. did not show DOD activity in the transient assay. The additional sequences suggests that DOD is part of a larger LigB gene family in betalain-producing Caryophyllales taxa, and the tandem genomic arrangement of two of the three B. vulgaris LigB genes suggests the involvement of duplication in the gene family evolution
Inorganic chemistry and biology can benefit greatly from each other. Although synthetic and physical inorganic chemistry have been greatly successful in clarifying the role of metal ions in biological systems, the time may now be right to utilize biological systems to advance coordination chemistry. One such example is the use of small, stable, easy-to-make, and well-characterized proteins as ligands to synthesize novel inorganic compounds. This biosynthetic inorganic chemistry is possible thanks to a number of developments in biology. This review summarizes the progress in the synthesis of close models of complex metalloproteins, followed by a description of recent advances in using the approach for making novel compounds that are unprecedented in either inorganic chemistry or biology. The focus is mainly on synthetic "tricks" learned from biology, as well as novel structures and insights obtained. The advantages and disadvantages of this biosynthetic approach are discussed.
Leboef, M; Cavé, A; Mangeney, P; Bouquet, A
A study of the alkaloidal content of trunk-barks of Pausinystalia macroceras (K. Schum.) Pierre, Rubiaceae, resulted in the isolation of six alkaloids, five of which are indole alkaloids that belong to the yohimbane and heteroyohimbane groups; among them, yohimbine was found in major amount. Moreover, the levorotatory isomer of calycanthine, a quinoline dimeric tryptophane derived base, has been isolated for the first time. The phytochemical significance of calycanthine and related alkaloids is discussed.
Yamada, Yasuyuki; Sato, Fumihiko
Benzylisoquinoline alkaloids (BIQ) are among the most structurally diverse and pharmaceutically valuable secondary metabolites. A plant-specific WRKY-type transcription factor, CjWRKY1, was isolated from Coptis japonica and identified as a transcriptional activator of BIQ biosynthesis. However, the expression of CjWRKY1 gene alone was not sufficient for the activation of genes encoding biosynthetic enzymes. Here, we report the importance of post-translational regulation of CjWRKY1 in BIQ biosynthesis. First, we detected the differential accumulation of CjWRKY1 protein in two cell lines with similar CjWRKY1 gene expression but different levels of accumulated alkaloids. Further investigation of the WRKY protein identified the phosphorylation of the WRKYGQK core domain at Y115. The CjWRKYY115E phosphorylation-mimic mutant showed loss of nuclear localization, DNA-binding activity, and transactivation activity compared to wild-type CjWRKY1. Rapid degradation of the CjWRKY1 protein was also confirmed following treatment with inhibitors of the 26S proteasome and protease inhibitors. The existence of two independent degradation pathways as well as protein phosphorylation suggests the fine-tuning of CjWRKY1 activities is involved in the regulation of biosynthesis of BIQs. PMID:27552928
Coatti, Giuliana Castello; Marcarini, Juliana Cristina; Sartori, Daniele; Fidelis, Queli Cristina; Ferreira, Dalva Trevisan; Mantovani, Mário Sérgio
Aspidospermine is an indole alkaloid with biological properties associated with combating parasites included in the genera Plasmodium, Leishmania and Trypanossoma. The present study evaluated the cytotoxicity (resazurin test), genotoxicity (comet assay) and mechanism of action (gene expression analysis via qRT-PCR) of this alkaloid in human HepG2 cells. The results demonstrated that treatment with aspidospermine was both cytotoxic (starting at 75 μM) and genotoxic (starting at 50 μM). There was no significant modulation of the expression of the following genes: GSTP1 and GPX1 (xenobiotic metabolism); CAT (oxidative stress); TP53 and CCNA2 (cell cycle); HSPA5, ERN1, EIF2AK3 and TRAF2 (endoplasmic reticulum stress); CASP8, CASP9, CASP3, CASP7, BCL-2, BCL-XL BAX and BAX (apoptosis); and PCBP4, ERCC4, OGG1, RAD21 and MLH1 (DNA repair). At a concentration of 50 μM (non-cytotoxic, but genotoxic), there was a significant increase in the expression of CYP1A1 (xenobiotic metabolism) and APC (cell cycle), and at a concentration of 100 μM, a significant increase in the expression of CYP1A1 (xenobiotic metabolism), GADD153 (endoplasmic reticulum stress) and SOD (oxidative stress) was detected, with repression of the expression of GR (xenobiotic metabolism and oxidative stress). The results of treatment with aspidospermine at a 100 μM concentration (the dose indicated in the literature to achieve 89 % reduction of the growth of L. amazonensis) suggest that increased oxidative stress and an unfolded protein response (UPR) occurred in HepG2 cells. For the therapeutic use of aspidospermine (antiparasitic), chemical alteration of the molecule to achieve a lower cytotoxicity/genotoxicity in host cells is recommended.
Forster, Yvonne; Ghaffar, Abdul; Bienz, Stefan
Several spermidine alkaloids are described in literature as constituents of the root bark of Capparis decidua. Since some of the proposed structures, however, are in conflict with the expected biosynthetic paths, an extract of the root bark of the plant was re-investigated. Four major spermidine alkaloids of the codonocarpine type were identified and their structures elucidated: of the four compounds, isocodonocarpine was described previously for C. decidua and cadabicine was proposed as a possible constituent as well. Codonocarpine was found for the first time in an extract of C. decidua but was previously isolated from a closely related plant. Capparidisinine, finally, is an alkaloid with a structure that has never been described before. The structures of the four alkaloids are substantiated by NMR and MS data, and the four compounds are in logical agreement with biosynthetic considerations: they would arise from α,ω-bis-adducts of spermidine with coumaric and/or ferulic acids, followed by phenol oxidation.
Ye, Suhui; Molloy, Brian; Braña, Alfredo F.; Zabala, Daniel; Olano, Carlos; Cortés, Jesús; Morís, Francisco; Salas, José A.; Méndez, Carmen
Genome mining of the mithramycin producer Streptomyces argillaceus ATCC 12956 revealed 31 gene clusters for the biosynthesis of secondary metabolites, and allowed to predict the encoded products for 11 of these clusters. Cluster 18 (renamed cluster arp) corresponded to a type I polyketide gene cluster related to the previously described coelimycin P1 and streptazone gene clusters. The arp cluster consists of fourteen genes, including genes coding for putative regulatory proteins (a SARP-like transcriptional activator and a TetR-like transcriptional repressor), genes coding for structural proteins (three PKSs, one aminotransferase, two dehydrogenases, two cyclases, one imine reductase, a type II thioesterase, and a flavin reductase), and one gene coding for a hypothetical protein. Identification of encoded compounds by this cluster was achieved by combining several strategies: (i) inactivation of the type I PKS gene arpPIII; (ii) inactivation of the putative TetR-transcriptional repressor arpRII; (iii) cultivation of strains in different production media; and (iv) using engineered strains with higher intracellular concentration of malonyl-CoA. This has allowed identifying six new alkaloid compounds named argimycins P, which were purified and structurally characterized by mass spectrometry and nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy. Some argimycins P showed a piperidine ring with a polyene side chain (argimycin PIX); others contain also a fused five-membered ring (argimycins PIV-PVI). Argimycins PI-PII showed a pyridine ring instead, and an additional N-acetylcysteinyl moiety. These compounds seem to play a negative role in growth and colony differentiation in S. argillaceus, and some of them show weak antibiotic activity. A pathway for the biosynthesis of argimycins P is proposed, based on the analysis of proposed enzyme functions and on the structure of compounds encoded by the arp cluster. PMID:28239372
Schläger, Sabrina; Dräger, Birgit
Alkaloid-containing plants have been used for medicine since ancient times. Modern pharmaceuticals still rely on alkaloid extraction from plants, some of which grow slowly, are difficult to cultivate and produce low alkaloid yields. Microbial cells as alternative alkaloid production systems are emerging. Before industrial application of genetically engineered bacteria and yeasts, several steps have to be taken. Original alkaloid-forming enzymes have to be elucidated from plants. Their activity in the heterologous host cells, however, may be low. The exchange of individual plant enzymes for alternative catalysts with better performance and optimal fermentation parameters appear promising. The overall aim is enhancement and stabilization of alkaloid yields from microbes in order to replace the tedious extraction of low alkaloid concentrations from intact plants.
Kawano, Noriaki; Kiuchi, Fumiyuki; Kawahara, Nobuo; Yoshimatsu, Kayo
The in vitro shoot culture of a T-DNA insertional mutant of Papaver somniferum L. established by the infection of Agrobacterium rhizogenes MAFF03-01724 accumulated thebaine instead of morphine as a major opium alkaloid. To develop a non-narcotic opium poppy and to gain insight into its genetic background, we have transplanted this mutant to soil, and analyzed its alkaloid content along with the manner of inheritance of T-DNA insertion loci among its selfed progenies. In the transplanted T0 primary mutant, the opium (latex) was found to be rich in thebaine (16.3% of dried opium) by HPLC analysis. The analyses on T-DNA insertion loci by inverse PCR, adaptor-ligation PCR, and quantitative real-time PCR revealed that as many as 18 copies of T-DNAs were integrated into a poppy genome in a highly complicated manner. The number of copies of T-DNAs was decreased to seven in the selected T3 progenies, in which the average thebaine content was 2.4-fold that of the wild type plant. This may indicate that the high thebaine phenotype was increasingly stabilized as the number of T-DNA copies was decreased. In addition, by reverse transcription PCR analysis on selected morphine biosynthetic genes, the expression of codeine 6-O-demethylase was clearly shown to be diminished in the T0 in vitro shoot culture, which can be considered as one of the key factors of altered alkaloid composition. PMID:24288085
Cárdenas, P D; Sonawane, P D; Heinig, U; Bocobza, S E; Burdman, S; Aharoni, A
Steroidal alkaloids (SAs) and their glycosylated forms (SGAs) are toxic compounds largely produced by members of the Solanaceae and Liliaceae plant families. This class of specialized metabolites serves as a chemical barrier against a broad range of pest and pathogens. In humans and animals, SAs are considered anti-nutritional factors because they affect the digestion and absorption of nutrients from food and might even cause poisoning. In spite of the first report on SAs nearly 200 years ago, much of the molecular basis of their biosynthesis and regulation remains unknown. Aspects concerning chemical structures and biological activities of SAs have been reviewed extensively elsewhere; therefore, in this review the latest insights to the elucidation of the SAs biosynthetic pathway are highlighted. Recently, co-expression analysis combined with metabolic profiling revealed metabolic gene clusters in tomato and potato that contain core genes required for production of the prominent SGAs in these two species. Elaborating the knowledge regarding the SAs biosynthetic pathway, the subcellular transport of these molecules, as well as the identification of regulatory and signaling factors associated with SA metabolism will likely advance understanding of chemical defense mechanisms in Solanaceae and Liliaceae plants. It will also provide the means to develop, through classical breeding or genetic engineering, crops with modified levels of anti-nutritional SAs.
Genome mining of the biosynthetic gene cluster of the polyene macrolide antibiotic tetramycin and characterization of a P450 monooxygenase involved in the hydroxylation of the tetramycin B polyol segment.
Cao, Bo; Yao, Fen; Zheng, Xiaoqing; Cui, Dongbing; Shao, Yucheng; Zhu, Changxiong; Deng, Zixin; You, Delin
A polyene macrolide antibiotic tetramycin biosynthetic gene cluster was identified by genome mining and isolated from Streptomyces hygrospinosus var. beijingensis. Genetic and in silico analyses gave insights into the mechanism of biosynthesis of tetramycin, and a model of the tetramycin biosynthetic pathway is proposed. Inactivation of a cytochrome P450 monooxygenase gene, tetrK, resulted in the production of a tetramycin B precursor: tetramycin A, which lacks a hydroxy group in its polyol region. TetrK was subsequently overexpressed heterologously in E. coli with a His(6) tag, and purified TetrK efficiently hydroxylated tetramycin A to afford tetramycin B. Kinetic studies revealed no inhibition of TetrK by substrate or product. Surprisingly, sequence-alignment analysis showed that TetrK, as a hydroxylase, has much higher homology with epoxidase PimD than with hydroxylases NysL and AmphL. The 3D structure of TetrK was then constructed by homology modeling with PimD as reference. Although TetrK and PimD catalyzed different chemical reactions, homology modeling indicated that they might share the same catalytic sites, despite also possessing some different sites correlated with substrate binding and substrate specificity. These findings offer good prospects for the production of improved antifungal polyene analogues.
Alkaloids from the plants of Amaryllidaceae family consists of an unique class of nitrogen-containing compounds showing diverse and significant biological activities, including anticancer and acetylcholinesterase (AChE) inhibitory activities. This review summarizes the research into the isolation, structure elucidation, biological activity, and chemical aspects of the Amaryllidaceae alkaloids over the last two years. In addition, structurally closely related Sceletium alkaloids are also discussed.
Tsuchiya, Shigeki; Cho, Yuko; Konoki, Keiichi; Nagasawa, Kazuo; Oshima, Yasukatsu; Yotsu-Yamashita, Mari
Saxitoxin, the most potent voltage-gated sodium channel blocker, is one of the paralytic shellfish toxins (PSTs) produced by cyanobacteria and dinoflagellates. Recently, putative biosynthetic genes of PSTs were reported in these microorganisms. We previously synthesized genetically predicted biosynthetic intermediates, Int-A’ and Int-C’2, and also Cyclic-C’ which was not predicted based on gene, and identified them all in the toxin-producing cyanobacterium Anabaena circinalis (TA04) and the dinoflagellate Alexandrium tamarense (Axat-2). This study examined the incorporation of 15N-labeled intermediates into PSTs (C1 and C2) in A. circinalis (TA04). Conversions from Int-A’ to Int-C’2, from Int-C’2 to Cyclic-C’, and from Int-A’ and Int-C’2 to C1 and C2 were indicated using high resolution-LC/MS. However, Cyclic-C’ was not converted to C1 and C2 and was detected primarily in the extracellular medium. These results suggest that Int-A’ and Int-C’2 are genuine precursors of PSTs, but Int-C’2 converts partially to Cyclic-C’ which is a shunt product excreted to outside the cells. This paper provides the first direct demonstration of the biosynthetic route towards saxitoxin and a shunt pathway. PMID:26842222
Nguyen, Thi-Kieu-Oanh; Jamali, Arash; Lanoue, Arnaud; Gontier, Eric; Dauwe, Rebecca
The tropane alkaloid spectrum in Solanaceae is highly variable within and between species. Little is known about the topology and the coordination of the biosynthetic pathways leading to the variety of tropine and pseudotropine derived esters in the alkaloid spectrum, or about the metabolic dynamics induced by tropane alkaloid biosynthesis stimulating conditions. A good understanding of the metabolism, including all ramifications, is however necessary for the development of strategies to increase the abundance of pharmacologically interesting compounds such as hyoscyamine and scopolamine. The present study explores the tropane alkaloid metabolic pathways in an untargeted approach involving a correlation-based network analysis. Using GC-MS metabolite profiling, the variation and co-variation among tropane alkaloids and primary metabolites was monitored in 60 Datura innoxia Mill. individuals, of which half were exposed to tropane alkaloid biosynthesis stimulating conditions by co-culture with Agrobacterium rhizogenes. Considerable variation was evident in the relative proportions of the tropane alkaloids. Remodeling of the tropane alkaloid spectrum under co-culture with A. rhizogenes involved a specific and strong increase of hyoscyamine production and revealed that the accumulation of hyoscyamine, 3-tigloyloxy-6,7-epoxytropane, and 3-methylbutyryloxytropane was controlled independently of the majority of tropane alkaloids. Based on correlations between metabolites, we propose a biosynthetic origin of hygrine, the order of esterification of certain di-oxygenated tropanes, and that the rate of acetoxylation contributes to control of hyoscyamine production. Overall, this study shows that the biosynthesis of tropane alkaloids may be far more complex and finely controlled than previously expected.
De Luca, V; Laflamme, P
Characterization of many of the major gene families responsible for the generation of central intermediates and for their decoration, together with the development of large genomics and proteomics databases, has revolutionized our capability to identify exotic and interesting natural-product pathways. Over the next few years, these tools will facilitate dramatic advances in our knowledge of the biosynthesis of alkaloids, which will far surpass that which we have learned in the past 50 years. These tools will also be exploited for the rapid characterization of regulatory genes, which control the development of specialized cell factories for alkaloid biosynthesis.
Yu, Bing-Wu; Chen, Jian-Yong; Wang, Yan-Ping; Cheng, Kin-Fin; Li, Xiao-Yu; Qin, Guo-Wei
The alkaloids, dechloroacutumidine and 1-epidechloroacutumine, together with three known alkaloids, acutumidine, acutumine, and dechloroacutumine, were isolated from the rhizomes of Menispermum dauricum and their structures established by spectral and chemical methods. The cytotoxicity of each compound against the growth of human cell lines was studied, and acutumine selectively inhibited T-cell growth.
Alkaloids can occur in two forms, denoted as ammonium salts and free bases. These forms differ substantially in their properties and in some cases in their structures. The article discusses and compares the salts and free bases of six well-known alkaloids: nicotine, morphine, cocaine, sanguinarine, allocryptopine, and magnoflorine. Relevance for the biological and medical uses of these compounds is emphasized.
Babiker, H A; Sugimoto, Y; Saisho, T; Inanaga, S; Hashimoto, M; Isogai, A
The biosynthetic relationship between acutumine 1 and dechloroacutumine 2 was studied using (13)C-labeled tyrosine and (3)H-labeled 2 as tracers. (13)C-NMR spectra of (13)C-labeled 1 and 2 showed that the alkaloids, each composed of two molecules of tyrosine, are derived from the same biosynthetic pathway. Feeding Menispermum dauricum (Menispermaceae) roots, cultured in a chloride-enriched medium, with (3)H-labeled 2 demonstrated that 1 is the only alkaloid metabolite of 2. Conversion (5%) of the exogenously applied 2, taken up by the roots, into 1 showed that 2 is the precursor of 1. Incomplete conversion of 2 into 1 suggests accumulation of the exogenously applied 2 in cell organelles and/or compartmentation of the enzymes involved in the biosynthesis of 1.
Olsson, S B; Challiss, R A J; Cole, M; Gardeniers, J G E; Gardner, J W; Guerrero, A; Hansson, B S; Pearce, T C
There is an ever-increasing demand for data to be embedded in our environment at ever-decreasing temporal and spatial scales. Whilst current communication and storage technologies generally exploit the electromagnetic properties of media, chemistry offers us a new alternative for nanoscale signaling using molecules as messengers with high information content. Biological systems effectively overcome the challenges of chemical communication using highly specific biosynthetic pathways for signal generation together with specialized protein receptors and nervous systems. Here we consider a new approach for information transmission based upon nature's quintessential example of infochemical communication, the moth pheromone system. To approach the sensitivity, specificity and versatility of infochemical communication seen in nature, we describe an array of biologically-inspired technologies for the production, transmission, detection, and processing of molecular signals. We show how it is possible to implement each step of the moth pheromone pathway for biosynthesis, transmission, receptor protein binding/transduction, and antennal lobe processing of monomolecular and multimolecular signals. For each implemented step, we discuss the value, current limitations, and challenges for the future development and integration of infochemical communication technologies. Together, these building blocks provide a starting point for future technologies that can utilize programmable emission and detection of multimolecular information for a new and robust means of communicating chemical information.
Ding, Yousong; Greshock, Thomas J.; Miller, Kenneth A.
An advanced metabolite, named pre-malbrancheamide, involved in the biosynthesis of malbrancheamide (1) and malbrancheamide B (2) has been synthesized in double 13C-labeled form and was incorporated into the indole alkaloid 2 by Malbranchea aurantiaca. In addition, pre-malbrancheamide has been detected as a natural metabolite in cultures of M. aurantiaca. The biosynthetic implications of these experiments are discussed. PMID:18844365
Ostash, Bohdan; Doud, Emma; Lin, Cecilie; Ostash, Iryna; Perlstein, Deborah; Fuse, Shinichiro; Wolpert, Manuel; Kahne, Daniel; Walker, Suzanne
The moenomycins are phosphoglycolipid antibiotics produced by Streptomyces ghanaensis and related organisms. The phosphoglycolipids are the only known active site inhibitors of the peptidoglycan glycosyltransferases, an important family of enzymes involved in the biosynthesis of the bacterial cell wall. Although these natural products have exceptionally potent antibiotic activity, pharmacokinetic limitations have precluded their clinical use. We previously identified the moenomycin biosynthetic gene cluster in order to facilitate biosynthetic approaches to new derivatives. Here we report a comprehensive set of genetic and enzymatic experiments that establish functions for the seventeen moenomycin biosynthetic genes involved in the synthesis moenomycin and variants. These studies reveal the order of assembly of the full molecular scaffold and define a subset of seven genes involved in the synthesis of bioactive analogs. This work will enable both in vitro and fermentation-based reconstitution of phosphoglycolipid scaffolds so that chemoenzymatic approaches to novel analogs can be explored. PMID:19640006
Influence of host plant genotype, presence of a pathogen, and coinoculation with Pseudomonas fluorescens strains on the rhizosphere expression of hydrogen cyanide- and 2,4-diacetylphloroglucinol biosynthetic genes in P. fluorescens biocontrol strain CHA0.
Jamali, Fatemeh; Sharifi-Tehrani, Abbas; Lutz, Matthias P; Maurhofer, Monika
The production of hydrogen cyanide (HCN) and 2,4-diacetylphloroglucinol (DAPG) is a major factor in the control of soil-borne diseases by Pseudomonas fluorescens CHA0. We investigated the impact of different biotic factors on the expression of HCN-in comparison to DAPG biosynthetic genes in the rhizosphere. To this end, the influence of plant cultivar, pathogen infection, and coinoculation with other biocontrol strains on the expression of hcnA-lacZ and phlA-lacZ fusion in strain CHA0 was monitored on the roots of bean. Interestingly, all the tested factors influenced the expression of the two biocontrol traits in a similar way. For both genes, we observed a several-fold higher expression in the rhizosphere of cv. Derakhshan compared with cvs. Goli and Naz, although bacterial rhizosphere colonization levels were similar on all cultivars tested. Root infection by Rhizoctonia solani stimulated total phlA and hcnA gene expression in the bean rhizosphere. Coinoculation of strain CHA0 with DAPG-producing P. fluorescens biocontrol strains Pf-68 and Pf-100 did neither result in a substantial alteration of hcnA nor of phlA expression in CHA0 on bean roots. To our best knowledge, this is the first study investigating the impact of biotic factors on HCN production by a bacterial biocontrol strain in the rhizosphere.
Differential effect of environmental conditions on the growth and regulation of the fumonisin biosynthetic gene FUM1 in the maize pathogens and fumonisin producers Fusarium verticillioides and Fusarium proliferatum.
Marín, Patricia; Magan, Naresh; Vázquez, Covadonga; González-Jaén, María Teresa
The effects of ecophysiological factors, temperature and solute potential, on both the growth and the regulation of the fumonisin biosynthetic FUM1 gene were studied and compared in one isolate each of the two closely related fumonisin-producing and maize pathogens Fusarium verticillioides and Fusarium proliferatum. The effect of solute potential and temperature was examined on in vitro mycelia growth and on the expression of the FUM1 gene, quantified by species-specific real-time reverse transcriptase-PCR assays. Although both isolates showed similar two-dimensional profiles of growth, for F. verticillioides, optimal growth conditions were maintained at higher temperatures and lower solute potential values. FUM1 gene expression was markedly induced at 20 degrees C in both isolates, under suboptimal conditions for growth; however, their expression patterns differed in relation to solute potential. Whereas FUM1 expression was induced in response to increasing water stress in the isolate of F. verticillioides, the F. proliferatum one showed a stable expression pattern regardless of water potential conditions. These results suggest a differential regulation of fumonisin biosynthesis in these isolates of the two species that might be related to their different host range, and play an ecological role. Additionally, environmental conditions leading to water stress (drought) might result in increased risk of fumonisin contamination of maize caused by F. verticillioides.
Zhang, Chanjuan; Ouyang, Bo; Yang, Changxian; Zhang, Xiaohui; Liu, Hui; Zhang, Yuyang; Zhang, Junhong; Li, Hanxia; Ye, Zhibiao
As a vital antioxidant, L-ascorbic acid (AsA) affects diverse biological processes in higher plants. Lack of AsA in cell impairs plant development. In the present study, we manipulated a gene of GDP-mannose pyrophosphorylase which catalyzes the conversion of D-mannose-1-P to GDP-D-mannose in AsA biosynthetic pathway and found out the phenotype alteration of tomato. In the tomato genome, there are four members of GMP gene family and they constitutively expressed in various tissues in distinct expression patterns. As expected, over-expression of SlGMP3 increased total AsA contents and enhanced the tolerance to oxidative stress in tomato. On the contrary, knock-down of SlGMP3 significantly decreased AsA contents below the threshold level and altered the phenotype of tomato plants with lesions and further senescence. Further analysis indicated the causes for this symptom could result from failing to instantly deplete the reactive oxygen species (ROS) as decline of free radical scavenging activity. More ROS accumulated in the leaves and then triggered expressions of defence-related genes and mimic symptom occurred on the leaves similar to hypersensitive responses against pathogens. Consequently, the photosynthesis of leaves was dramatically fallen. These results suggested the vital roles of AsA as an antioxidant in leaf function and defence response of tomato.
The endometrial cancer cell lines Ishikawa and HEC-1A, and the control cell line HIEEC, differ in expression of estrogen biosynthetic and metabolic genes, and in androstenedione and estrone-sulfate metabolism.
Hevir-Kene, Neli; Rižner, Tea Lanišnik
Estrogens have important roles in the pathogenesis of endometrial cancer. They can have carcinogenic effects through stimulation of cell proliferation or formation of DNA-damaging species. To characterize model cell lines of endometrial cancer, we determined the expression profiles of the estrogen receptors (ERs) ESR1, ESR2 and GPER, and 23 estrogen biosynthetic and metabolic genes, and investigated estrogen biosynthesis in the control HIEEC cell line and the Ishikawa and HEC-1A EC cell lines. HIEEC and Ishikawa expressed all ERs to different extents, while HEC-1A cells lacked expression of ESR1. Considering the estrogen biosynthetic and metabolic enzymes, these cells showed statistically significant different gene expression profiles for SULT2B1, HSD3B2, CYP19A1, AKR1C3, HSD17B1, HSD17B7, HSD17B12, CYP1B1, CYP3A5, COMT, SULT1A1, GSTP1 and NQO2. In these cells, E2 was formed from E1S and E1, while androstenedione was not converted to estrogens. HIEEC and Ishikawa had similar profiles of androstenedione and E1 metabolism, but hydrolysis of E1S to E1 was weaker in Ishikawa cells. HEC-1A cells were less efficient for activation of E1 into the potent E2, but metabolized androstenedione to other androgenic metabolites better than HIEEC and Ishikawa cells. This study reveals that HIEEC, Ishikawa, and HEC-1A cells can all form estrogens only via the sulfatase pathway. HIEEC, Ishikawa, and HEC-1A cells expressed all the major genes in the production of hydroxyestrogens and estrogen quinones, and in their conjugation. Significantly higher CYP1B1 mRNA levels in Ishikawa cells compared to HEC-1A cells, together with lack of UGT2B7 expression, indicate that Ishikawa cells can accumulate more toxic estrogen-3,4-quinones than HEC-1A cells, as also for HIEEC cells. This study provides further characterization of HIEEC, Ishikawa, and HEC-1A cells, and shows that they differ greatly in expression of the genes investigated and in their capacity for E2 formation, and thus they
Extent of Genetic Lesions of the Arginine and Pyrimidine Biosynthetic Pathways in Lactobacillus plantarum, L. paraplantarum, L. pentosus, and L. casei: Prevalence of CO2-Dependent Auxotrophs and Characterization of Deficient arg Genes in L. plantarum
Bringel, Françoise; Hubert, Jean-Claude
Lactic acid bacteria require rich media since, due to mutations in their biosynthetic genes, they are unable to synthesize numerous amino acids and nucleobases. Arginine biosynthesis and pyrimidine biosynthesis have a common intermediate, carbamoyl phosphate (CP), whose synthesis requires CO2. We investigated the extent of genetic lesions in both the arginine biosynthesis and pyrimidine biosynthesis pathways in a collection of lactobacilli, including 150 strains of Lactobacillus plantarum, 32 strains of L. pentosus, 15 strains of L. paraplantarum, and 10 strains of L. casei. The distribution of prototroph and auxotroph phenotypes varied between species. All L. casei strains, no L. paraplantarum strains, two L. pentosus strains, and seven L. plantarum strains required arginine for growth. Arginine auxotrophs were more frequently found in L. plantarum isolated from milk products than in L. plantarum isolated from fermented plant products or humans; association with dairy products might favor arginine auxotrophy. In L. plantarum the argCJBDF genes were functional in most strains, and when they were inactive, only one gene was mutated in more than one-half of the arginine auxotrophs. Random mutation may have generated these auxotrophs since different arg genes were inactivated (there were single point mutations in three auxotrophs and nonrevertible genetic lesions in four auxotrophs). These data support the hypothesis that lactic acid bacteria evolve by progressively loosing unnecessary genes upon adaptation to specific habitats, with genome evolution towards cumulative DNA degeneration. Although auxotrophy for only uracil was found in one L. pentosus strain, a high CO2 requirement (HCR) for arginine and pyrimidine was common; it was found in 74 of 207 Lactobacillus strains tested. These HCR auxotrophs may have had their CP cellular pool-related genes altered or deregulated. PMID:12732536
Gribble, Gordon W
Once considered to be isolation artifacts or chemical "mistakes" of nature, the number of naturally occurring organohalogen compounds has grown from a dozen in 1954 to >5000 today. Of these, at least 25% are halogenated alkaloids. This is not surprising since nitrogen-containing pyrroles, indoles, carbolines, tryptamines, tyrosines, and tyramines are excellent platforms for biohalogenation, particularly in the marine environment where both chloride and bromide are plentiful for biooxidation and subsequent incorporation into these electron-rich substrates. This review presents the occurrence of all halogenated alkaloids, with the exception of marine bromotyrosines where coverage begins where it left off in volume 61 of The Alkaloids. Whereas the biological activity of these extraordinary compounds is briefly cited for some examples, a future volume of The Alkaloids will present full coverage of this topic and will also include selected syntheses of halogenated alkaloids. Natural organohalogens of all types, especially marine and terrestrial halogenated alkaloids, comprise a rapidly expanding class of natural products, in many cases expressing powerful biological activity. This enormous proliferation has several origins: (1) a revitalization of natural product research in a search for new drugs, (2) improved compound characterization methods (multidimensional NMR, high-resolution mass spectrometry), (3) specific enzyme-based and other biological assays, (4) sophisticated collection methods (SCUBA and remote submersibles for deep ocean marine collections), (5) new separation and purification techniques (HPLC and countercurrent separation), (6) a greater appreciation of traditional folk medicine and ethobotany, and (7) marine bacteria and fungi as novel sources of natural products. Halogenated alkaloids are truly omnipresent in the environment. Indeed, one compound, Q1 (234), is ubiquitous in the marine food web and is found in the Inuit from their diet of whale
Bevalot, F; Fournet, A; Moretti, C; Vaquette, J
A preliminary screening showed the occurrence of alkaloids only in root bark and roots of ESENBECKIA PILOCARPOIDES H. B. K., (Rutaceae). Six alkaloids have been isolated and identified from root bark: one acridone, 1-hydroxy-3-methoxy- N-methyl-acridone; four furoquinolines, maculine, flindersiamine, kokusaginine, kokusagine; the sixth, isomaculine, a furo-4-quinolone, known as a synthetic product, has been isolated for the first time from a natural source.
Netz, Natalie; Opatz, Till
Marine indole alkaloids comprise a large and steadily growing group of secondary metabolites. Their diverse biological activities make many compounds of this class attractive starting points for pharmaceutical development. Several marine-derived indoles were found to possess cytotoxic, antineoplastic, antibacterial and antimicrobial activities, in addition to the action on human enzymes and receptors. The newly isolated indole alkaloids of marine origin since the last comprehensive review in 2003 are reported, and biological aspects will be discussed. PMID:26287214
Dittmann, Elke; Gugger, Muriel; Sivonen, Kaarina; Fewer, David P
Cyanobacteria are an ancient lineage of slow-growing photosynthetic bacteria and a prolific source of natural products with intricate chemical structures and potent biological activities. The bulk of these natural products are known from just a handful of genera. Recent efforts have elucidated the mechanisms underpinning the biosynthesis of a diverse array of natural products from cyanobacteria. Many of the biosynthetic mechanisms are unique to cyanobacteria or rarely described from other organisms. Advances in genome sequence technology have precipitated a deluge of genome sequences for cyanobacteria. This makes it possible to link known natural products to biosynthetic gene clusters but also accelerates the discovery of new natural products through genome mining. These studies demonstrate that cyanobacteria encode a huge variety of cryptic gene clusters for the production of natural products, and the known chemical diversity is likely to be just a fraction of the true biosynthetic capabilities of this fascinating and ancient group of organisms.
Wu, Ming-Cheng; Law, Brian; Wilkinson, Barrie; Micklefield, Jason
With the advent of next-generation DNA sequencing technologies, the number of microbial genome sequences has increased dramatically, revealing a vast array of new biosynthetic gene clusters. Genomics data provide a tremendous opportunity to discover new natural products, and also to guide the bioengineering of new and existing natural product scaffolds for therapeutic applications. Notably, it is apparent that the vast majority of biosynthetic gene clusters are either silent or produce very low quantities of the corresponding natural products. It is imperative therefore to devise methods for activating unproductive biosynthetic pathways to provide the quantities of natural products needed for further development. Moreover, on the basis of our expanding mechanistic and structural knowledge of biosynthetic assembly-line enzymes, new strategies for re-programming biosynthetic pathways have emerged, resulting in focused libraries of modified products with potentially improved biological properties. In this review we will focus on the latest bioengineering approaches that have been utilised to optimise yields and increase the structural diversity of natural product scaffolds for future clinical applications.
Wijekoon, Champa P; Facchini, Peter J
Opium poppy (Papaver somniferum) remains the sole commercial source for several pharmaceutical alkaloids including the narcotic analgesics codeine and morphine, and the semi-synthetic drugs oxycodone, buprenorphine and naltrexone. Although most of the biosynthetic genes have been identified, the post-transcriptional regulation of the morphinan alkaloid pathway has not been determined. We have used virus-induced gene silencing (VIGS) as a functional genomics tool to investigate the regulation of morphine biosynthesis via a systematic reduction in enzyme levels responsible for the final six steps in the pathway. Specific gene silencing was confirmed at the transcript level by real-time quantitative PCR (polymerase chain reaction), and at the protein level by immunoblot analysis using antibodies raised against salutaridine synthase (SalSyn), salutaridine reductase (SalR), salutaridine 7-O-acetyltransferase (SalAT), thebaine 6-O-demethylase (T6ODM), codeinone reductase (COR), and codeine O-demethylase (CODM). In some cases, silencing a specific biosynthetic gene resulted in a predictable accumulation of the substrate for the corresponding enzyme. Reduced SalSyn, SalR, T6ODM and CODM protein levels correlated with lower morphine levels and a substantial increase in the accumulation of reticuline, salutaridine, thebaine and codeine, respectively. In contrast, the silencing of genes encoding SalAT and COR resulted in the accumulation of salutaridine and reticuline, respectively, which are not the corresponding enzymatic substrates. The silencing of alkaloid biosynthetic genes using VIGS confirms the physiological function of enzymes previously characterized in vitro, provides insight into the biochemical regulation of morphine biosynthesis, and demonstrates the immense potential for metabolic engineering in opium poppy.
Jusoh, Malinna; Loh, Saw Hong; Chuah, Tse Seng; Aziz, Ahmad; Cha, Thye San
Microalgae lipids and oils are potential candidates for renewable biodiesel. Many microalgae species accumulate a substantial amount of lipids and oils under environmental stresses. However, low growth rate under these adverse conditions account for the decrease in overall biomass productivity which directly influence the oil yield. This study was undertaken to investigate the effect of exogenously added auxin (indole-3-acetic acid; IAA) on the oil content, fatty acid compositions, and the expression of fatty acid biosynthetic genes in Chlorella vulgaris (UMT-M1). Auxin has been shown to regulate growth and metabolite production of several microalgae. Results showed that oil accumulation was highest on days after treatment (DAT)-2 with enriched levels of palmitic (C16:0) and stearic (C18:0) acids, while the linoleic (C18:2) and α-linolenic (C18:3n3) acids levels were markedly reduced by IAA. The elevated levels of saturated fatty acids (C16:0 and C18:0) were consistent with high expression of the β-ketoacyl ACP synthase I (KAS I) gene, while low expression of omega-6 fatty acid desaturase (ω-6 FAD) gene was consistent with low production of C18:2. However, the increment of stearoyl-ACP desaturase (SAD) gene expression upon IAA induction did not coincide with oleic acid (C18:1) production. The expression of omega-3 fatty acid desaturase (ω-3 FAD) gene showed a positive correlation with the synthesis of PUFA and C18:3n3.
Shen, Chenjia; Guo, Hong; Chen, Hailing; Shi, Yujun; Meng, Yijun; Lu, Jiangjie; Feng, Shangguo; Wang, Huizhong
Dendrobium officinale L. is an important traditional herb with high commercial value in China. Several bioactive constituents, including polysaccharides and alkaloids, reportedly make major contributions toward the excellent medicinal effect of D. officinale. In this study, the contents of polysaccharides and alkaloids in various organs of D. officinale were measured and compared. We took advantage of transcriptomes from four organs to explore biological mechanisms in the organ-specific distribution of active ingredients in D. officinale. Based on Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes pathways, unigenes related to the enzymes involved in fructose and mannose metabolism and unigenes associated with putative upstream elements of the alkaloid biosynthetic pathway were identified. A large number of candidates, including 35 full-length glycosyltransferase genes and 49 full-length P450 genes, were also identified based on the transcriptome data, and the organ-specific expression pattern of these genes was determined. Furthermore, differential expression of all candidate genes was analyzed in two Dendrobium species, D. nobile L. and D. officinale. The data will supply important clues to exploit useful genes involved in polysaccharide and alkaloid synthesis.
Malmierca, M G; McCormick, S P; Cardoza, R E; Monte, E; Alexander, N J; Gutiérrez, S
Trichoderma species are often used as biocontrol agents against plant-pathogenic fungi. A complex molecular interaction occurs among the biocontrol agent, the antagonistic fungus, and the plant. Terpenes and sterols produced by the biocontrol fungus have been found to affect gene expression in both the antagonistic fungus and the plant. The terpene trichodiene (TD) elicits the expression of genes related to tomato defense and to Botrytis virulence. We show here that TD itself is able to induce the expression of Botrytis genes involved in the synthesis of botrydial (BOT) and also induces terpene gene expression in Trichoderma spp. The terpene ergosterol, in addition to its role as a structural component of the fungal cell membranes, acts as an elicitor of defense response in plants. In the present work, using a transformant of T. harzianum, which is silenced in the erg1 gene and accumulates high levels of squalene, we show that this ergosterol precursor also acts as an important elicitor molecule of tomato defense-related genes and induces Botrytis genes involved in BOT biosynthesis, in both cases, in a concentration-dependent manner. Our data emphasize the importance of a balance of squalene and ergosterol in fungal interactions as well as in the biocontrol activity of Trichoderma spp.
Young, Carolyn A.; Schardl, Christopher L.; Panaccione, Daniel G.; Florea, Simona; Takach, Johanna E.; Charlton, Nikki D.; Moore, Neil; Webb, Jennifer S.; Jaromczyk, Jolanta
The ergot alkaloid biosynthesis system has become an excellent model to study evolutionary diversification of specialized (secondary) metabolites. This is a very diverse class of alkaloids with various neurotropic activities, produced by fungi in several orders of the phylum Ascomycota, including plant pathogens and protective plant symbionts in the family Clavicipitaceae. Results of comparative genomics and phylogenomic analyses reveal multiple examples of three evolutionary processes that have generated ergot-alkaloid diversity: gene gains, gene losses, and gene sequence changes that have led to altered substrates or product specificities of the enzymes that they encode (neofunctionalization). The chromosome ends appear to be particularly effective engines for gene gains, losses and rearrangements, but not necessarily for neofunctionalization. Changes in gene expression could lead to accumulation of various pathway intermediates and affect levels of different ergot alkaloids. Genetic alterations associated with interspecific hybrids of Epichloë species suggest that such variation is also selectively favored. The huge structural diversity of ergot alkaloids probably represents adaptations to a wide variety of ecological situations by affecting the biological spectra and mechanisms of defense against herbivores, as evidenced by the diverse pharmacological effects of ergot alkaloids used in medicine. PMID:25875294
Miao, Ji; Choi, Sung-E; Seok, Sun Mi; Yang, Linda; Zuercher, William J; Xu, Yong; Willson, Timothy M; Xu, H Eric; Kemper, Jongsook Kim
Small heterodimer partner (SHP) plays important roles in diverse biological processes by directly interacting with transcription factors and inhibiting their activities. SHP has been designated an orphan nuclear receptor, but whether its activity can be modulated by ligands has been a long-standing question. Recently, retinoid-related molecules, including 4-[3-(1-adamantyl)-4-hydroxyphenyl]-3-chlorocinnamic acid (3Cl-AHPC), were shown to bind to SHP and enhance apoptosis. We have examined whether 3Cl-AHPC acts as an agonist and increases SHP activity in the repression of bile acid biosynthetic CYP7A1 and CYP8B1 genes and delineated the underlying mechanisms. Contrary to this expectation, micromolar concentrations of 3Cl-AHPC increased CYP7A1 expression but indirectly via p38 kinase signaling. Nanomolar concentrations, however, repressed CYP7A1 expression and decreased bile acid levels in HepG2 cells, and little repression was observed when SHP was down-regulated by small hairpin RNA. Mechanistic studies revealed that 3Cl-AHPC bound to SHP, increased the interaction of SHP with liver receptor homologue (LRH)-1, a hepatic activator for CYP7A1 and CYP8B1 genes, and with repressive cofactors, Brahma, mammalian Sin3a, and histone deacetylase-1, and, subsequently, increased the occupancy of SHP and these cofactors at the promoters. Mutation of Leu-100, predicted to contact 3Cl-AHPC within the SHP ligand binding pocket by molecular modeling, severely impaired the increased interaction with LRH-1, and repression of LRH-1 activity mediated by 3Cl-AHPC. 3Cl-AHPC repressed SHP metabolic target genes in a gene-specific manner in human primary hepatocytes and HepG2 cells. These data suggest that SHP may act as a ligand-regulated receptor in metabolic pathways. Modulation of SHP activity by synthetic ligands may be a useful therapeutic strategy.
Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi restore normal growth in a white poplar clone grown on heavy metal-contaminated soil, and this is associated with upregulation of foliar metallothionein and polyamine biosynthetic gene expression
Cicatelli, Angela; Lingua, Guido; Todeschini, Valeria; Biondi, Stefania; Torrigiani, Patrizia; Castiglione, Stefano
Background and Aims It is increasingly evident that plant tolerance to stress is improved by mycorrhiza. Thus, suitable plant–fungus combinations may also contribute to the success of phytoremediation of heavy metal (HM)-polluted soil. Metallothioneins (MTs) and polyamines (PAs) are implicated in the response to HM stress in several plant species, but whether the response is modulated by arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) remains to be clarified. The aim of the present study was to check whether colonization by AMF could modify growth, metal uptake/translocation, and MT and PA gene expression levels in white poplar cuttings grown on HM-contaminated soil, and to compare this with plants grown on non-contaminated soil. Methods In this greenhouse study, plants of a Populus alba clone were pre-inoculated, or not, with either Glomus mosseae or G. intraradices and then grown in pots containing either soil collected from a multimetal- (Cu and Zn) polluted site or non-polluted soil. The expression of MT and PA biosynthetic genes was analysed in leaves using quantitative reverse transcription–PCR. Free and conjugated foliar PA concentrations were determined in parallel. Results On polluted soil, AMF restored plant biomass despite higher Cu and Zn accumulation in plant organs, especially roots. Inoculation with the AMF caused an overall induction of PaMT1, PaMT2, PaMT3, PaSPDS1, PaSPDS2 and PaADC gene expression, together with increased free and conjugated PA levels, in plants grown on polluted soil, but not in those grown on non-polluted soil. Conclusions Mycorrhizal plants of P. alba clone AL35 exhibit increased capacity for stabilization of soil HMs, together with improved growth. Their enhanced stress tolerance may derive from the transcriptional upregulation of several stress-related genes, and the protective role of PAs. PMID:20810743
Fotheringham, Ian G.; Bledig, Stefan A.; Taylor, Paul P.
In Bacillus sphaericus and other Bacillus spp., d-amino acid transaminase has been considered solely responsible for biosynthesis of d-glutamate, an essential component of cell wall peptidoglycan, in contrast to the glutamate racemase employed by many other bacteria. We report here the cloning of the dat gene encoding d-amino acid transaminase and the glr gene encoding a glutamate racemase from B. sphaericus ATCC 10208. The glr gene encodes a 28.8-kDa protein with 40 to 50% sequence identity to the glutamate racemases of Lactobacillus, Pediococcus, and Staphylococcus species. The dat gene encodes a 31.4-kDa peptide with 67% primary sequence homology to the d-amino acid transaminase of the thermophilic Bacillus sp. strain YM1. PMID:9696787
Antoun, M D; Mendoza, N T; Ríos, Y R; Proctor, G R; Wickramaratne, D B; Pezzuto, J M; Kinghorn, A D
From the bulbs and leaves of Hymenocallis expansa (Amaryllidaceae), three alkaloid constituents were identified: (+)-tazettine, (+)-hippeastrine, and (-)-haemanthidine. These alkaloids demonstrated significant cytotoxicity when tested against a panel of human and murine tumor cell lines.
Kutchma, Alecksandr J.; Hoang, Tung T.; Schweizer, Herbert P.
A DNA fragment containing the Pseudomonas aeruginosa fabD (encoding malonyl-coenzyme A [CoA]:acyl carrier protein [ACP] transacylase), fabG (encoding β-ketoacyl-ACP reductase), acpP (encoding ACP), and fabF (encoding β-ketoacyl-ACP synthase II) genes was cloned and sequenced. This fab gene cluster is delimited by the plsX (encoding a poorly understood enzyme of phospholipid metabolism) and pabC (encoding 4-amino-4-deoxychorismate lyase) genes; the fabF and pabC genes seem to be translationally coupled. The fabH gene (encoding β-ketoacyl-ACP synthase III), which in most gram-negative bacteria is located between plsX and fabD, is absent from this gene cluster. A chromosomal temperature-sensitive fabD mutant was obtained by site-directed mutagenesis that resulted in a W258Q change. A chromosomal fabF insertion mutant was generated, and the resulting mutant strain contained substantially reduced levels of cis-vaccenic acid. Multiple attempts aimed at disruption of the chromosomal fabG gene were unsuccessful. We purified FabD as a hexahistidine fusion protein (H6-FabD) and ACP in its native form via an ACP-intein-chitin binding domain fusion protein, using a novel expression and purification scheme that should be applicable to ACP from other bacteria. Matrix-assisted laser desorption–ionization spectroscopy, native polyacrylamide electrophoresis, and amino-terminal sequencing revealed that (i) most of the purified ACP was properly modified with its 4′-phosphopantetheine functional group, (ii) it was not acylated, and (iii) the amino-terminal methionine was removed. In an in vitro system, purified ACP functioned as acyl acceptor and H6-FabD exhibited malonyl-CoA:ACP transacylase activity. PMID:10464226
Kage, Udaykumar; Yogendra, Kalenahalli N.; Kushalappa, Ajjamada C.
A semi-comprehensive metabolomics was used to identify the candidate metabolites and genes to decipher mechanisms of resistance in wheat near-isogenic lines (NILs) containing QTL-2DL against Fusarium graminearum (Fg). Metabolites, with high fold-change in abundance, belonging to hydroxycinnamic acid amides (HCAAs): such as coumaroylagmatine, coumaroylputrescine and Fatty acids: phosphatidic acids (PAs) were identified as resistance related induced (RRI) metabolites in rachis of resistant NIL (NIL-R), inoculated with Fg. A WRKY like transcription factor (TF) was identified within the QTL-2DL region, along with three resistance genes that biosynthesized RRI metabolites. Sequencing and in-silico analysis of WRKY confirmed it to be wheat TaWRKY70. Quantitative real time-PCR studies showed a higher expression of TaWRKY70 in NIL-R as compared to NIL-S after Fg inoculation. Further, the functional validation of TaWRKY70 based on virus induced gene silencing (VIGS) in NIL-R, not only confirmed an increased fungal biomass but also decreased expressions of downstream resistance genes: TaACT, TaDGK and TaGLI1, along with decreased abundances of RRI metabolites biosynthesized by them. Among more than 200 FHB resistance QTL identified in wheat, this is the first QTL from which a TF was identified, and its downstream target genes as well as the FHB resistance functions were deciphered. PMID:28198421
Parker, C T; Pradel, E; Schnaitman, C A
The rfa locus of Escherichia coli K-12 includes a block of about 10 closely spaced genes transcribed in the same direction which are involved in synthesis and modification of the hexose region of the lipopolysaccharide core. We have sequenced the first three genes in this block. The function of the first of these genes is unknown, but we have designated it rfaQ on the basis of its location and similarity to other rfa genes. Complementation of Salmonella typhimurium rfa mutants with E. coli rfa restriction fragments indicated that the second and third genes in the block were rfaG and rfaP. The deduced sizes of the RfaQ, RfaG, and RfaP proteins are 36,298, 42,284, and 30,872 Da, respectively, and the proteins are basic and lack extensive hydrophobic domains. RfaQ shares regions of homology with proteins RfaC and RfaF, which are involved in synthesis of the heptose region of the core. Proteins RfaB, RfaG, and RfaK share a region of homology, which suggests that they belong to a second family of Rfa proteins which are thought to be hexose transferases. PMID:1732225
Blanc-Potard, Anne-Beatrice; Figueroa-Bossi, Nara; Bossi, Lionello
Expression of the histidine operon of Salmonella typhimurium is increased in dnaA(Ts) mutants at 37°C. This effect requires an intact his attenuator and can be suppressed by increasing the gene copy number of the hisR locus, which encodes the tRNAHis. We present data which suggest that the his deattenuation defect in dnaA(Ts) mutants results from the loss of a gene dosage gradient between the hisR locus, close to oriC, and the his operon, far from oriC. Some of the conclusions drawn here may apply to other operons as well. PMID:10217789
Frölich, Cordula; Hartmann, Thomas; Ober, Dietrich
Phalaenopsis hybrids contain two 1,2-saturated pyrrolizidine monoesters, T-phalaenopsine (necine base trachelanthamidine) and its stereoisomer Is-phalaenopsine (necine base isoretronecanol). T-Phalaenopsine is the major alkaloid accounting for more than 90% of total alkaloid. About equal amounts of alkaloid were genuinely present as free base and its N-oxide. The structures were confirmed by GC-MS. The quantitative distribution of phalaenopsine in various organs and tissues of vegetative rosette plants and flowering plants revealed alkaloid in all tissues. The highest concentrations were found in young and developing tissues (e.g., root tips and young leaves), peripheral tissues (e.g., of flower stalks) and reproductive organs (flower buds and flowers). Within flowers, parts that usually attract insect visitors (e.g., labellum with colorful crests as well as column and pollinia) show the highest alkaloid levels. Tracer feeding experiments with (14)C-labeled putrecine revealed that in rosette plants the aerial roots were the sites of phalaenopsine biosynthesis. However active biosynthesis was only observed in roots still attached to the plant but not in excised roots. There is a slow but substantial translocation of newly synthesized alkaloid from the roots to other plant organs. A long-term tracer experiment revealed that phalaenopsine shows neither turnover nor degradation. The results are discussed in the context of a polyphyletic molecular origin of the biosynthetic pathways of pyrrolizidine alkaloids in various scattered angiosperm taxa. The ecological role of the so called non-toxic 1,2-saturated pyrrolizidine alkaloids is discussed in comparison to the pro-toxic 1,2-unsaturated pyrrolizidine alkaloids. Evidence from the plant-insect interphase is presented indicating a substantial role of the 1,2-saturated alkaloids in plant and insect defense.
de Andrade, Jean Paulo; Berkov, Strahil; Viladomat, Francesc; Codina, Carles; Zuanazzi, José Angelo S; Bastida, Jaume
Galanthamine, an acetylcholinesterase inhibitor marketed as a hydrobromide salt (Razadyne®, Reminyl®) for the treatment of Alzheimer's disease (AD), is obtained from Amaryllidaceae plants, especially those belonging to the genera Leucojum, Narcissus, Lycoris and Ungernia. The growing demand for galanthamine has prompted searches for new sources of this compound, as well as other bioactive alkaloids for the treatment of AD. In this paper we report the isolation of the new alkaloid 11β-hydroxygalanthamine, an epimer of the previously isolated alkaloid habranthine, which was identified using NMR techniques. It has been shown that 11β-hydroxygalanthamine has an important in vitro acetylcholinesterase inhibitory activity. Additionally, Hippeastrum papilio yielded substantial quantities of galanthamine.
Mizoguchi, Haruki; Oikawa, Hideaki; Oguri, Hiroki
To access architecturally complex natural products, chemists usually devise a customized synthetic strategy for constructing a single target skeleton. In contrast, biosynthetic assembly lines often employ divergent intramolecular cyclizations of a polyunsaturated common intermediate to produce diverse arrays of scaffolds. With the aim of integrating such biogenetic strategies, we show the development of an artificial divergent assembly line generating unprecedented numbers of scaffold variations of terpenoid indole alkaloids. This approach not only allows practical access to multipotent intermediates, but also enables systematic diversification of skeletal, stereochemical and functional group properties without structural simplification of naturally occurring alkaloids. Three distinct modes of [4+2] cyclizations and two types of redox-mediated annulations provided divergent access to five skeletally distinct scaffolds involving iboga-, aspidosperma-, andranginine- and ngouniensine-type skeletons and a non-natural variant within six to nine steps from tryptamine. The efficiency of our approach was demonstrated by successful total syntheses of (±)-vincadifformine, (±)-andranginine and (-)-catharanthine.
Almario, Juliana; Prigent-Combaret, Claire; Muller, Daniel; Moënne-Loccoz, Yvan
Pseudomonas strains producing 2,4-diacetylphloroglucinol (DAPG) can protect plants from soilborne phytopathogens and are considered the primary reason for suppressiveness of morainic Swiss soils to Thielaviopsis basicola-mediated black root-rot disease of tobacco, even though they also occur nearby in conducive sandstone soils. The underlying molecular mechanisms accounting for this discrepancy are not understood. In this study, we assessed the hypothesis that the presence of iron-rich vermiculite clay (dominant in suppressive soils) instead of illite (dominant in neighboring conducive soils) translates into higher levels of iron bioavailability and transcription of Pseudomonas DAPG synthetic genes in the tobacco rhizosphere. Rhizosphere monitoring of reporter gene systems pvd-inaZ and phlA-gfp in Pseudomonas protegens indicated that the level of iron bioavailability and the number of cells expressing phl genes (DAPG synthesis), respectively, were higher in vermiculitic than in illitic artificial soils. This was in accordance with the effect of iron on phlA-gfp expression in vitro and, indeed, iron addition to the illitic soil increased the number of cells expressing phlA-gfp. Similar findings were made in the presence of the pathogen T. basicola. Altogether, results substantiate the hypothesis that iron-releasing minerals may confer disease suppressiveness by modulating iron bioavailability in the rhizosphere and expression of biocontrol-relevant genes in antagonistic P. protegens.
Khadka, Manoj; Salem, Mohamed; Leblond, Jeffrey D
Vitrella brassicaformis is the second discovered species in the Chromerida, and first in the family Vitrellaceae. Chromera velia, the first discovered species, forms an independent photosynthetic lineage with V. brassicaformis, and both are closely related to peridinin-containing dinoflagellates and nonphotosynthetic apicomplexans; both also show phylogenetic closeness with red algal plastids. We have utilized gas chromatography/mass spectrometry to identify two free sterols, 24-ethylcholest-5-en-3β-ol, and a minor unknown sterol which appeared to be a C(28:4) compound. We have also used RNA Seq analysis to identify seven genes found in the nonmevalonate/methylerythritol pathway (MEP) for sterol biosynthesis. Subsequent genome analysis of V. brassicaformis showed the presence of two mevalonate (MVA) pathway genes, though the genes were not observed in the transcriptome analysis. Transcripts from four genes (dxr, ispf, ispd, and idi) were selected and translated into proteins to study the phylogenetic relationship of sterol biosynthesis in V. brassicaformis and C. velia to other groups of algae and apicomplexans. On the basis of our genomic and transcriptomic analyses, we hypothesize that the MEP pathway was the primary pathway that apicomplexans used for sterol biosynthesis before they lost their sterol biosynthesis ability, although contribution of the MVA pathway cannot be discounted.
Hua, Sui Sheng T; Beck, John J; Sarreal, Siov Bouy L; Gee, Wai
Aspergillus flavus is a ubiquitous saprophyte that is able to produce the most potent natural carcinogenic compound known as aflatoxin B1 (AFB1). This toxin frequently contaminates crops including corn, cotton, peanuts, and tree nuts causing substantial economic loss worldwide. Consequently, more than 100 countries have strict regulations limiting AFB1 in foodstuffs and feedstuffs. Plants and microbes are able to produce volatile compounds that act as a defense mechanism against other organisms. Pichia anomala strain WRL-076 is a biocontrol yeast currently being tested to reduce AF contamination of tree nuts in California. We used the SPME-GC/MS analysis and identified the major volatile compound produced by this strain to be 2-phenylethanol (2-PE). It inhibited spore germination and AF production of A. flavus. Inhibition of AF formation by 2-PE was correlated with significant down regulation of clustering AF biosynthesis genes as evidenced by several to greater than 10,000-fold decrease in gene expression. In a time-course analysis we found that 2-PE also altered the expression patterns of chromatin modifying genes, MYST1, MYST2, MYST3, gcn5, hdaA and rpdA. The biocontrol capacity of P. anomala can be attributed to the production of 2-PE, which affects spore germination, growth, toxin production, and gene expression in A. flavus.
Trichoderma species are often used as biocontrol agents against plant-pathogenic fungi. A complex molecular interaction occurs among the biocontrol agent, the antagonistic fungus, and the plant. Terpenes and sterols produced by the biocontrol fungus have been found to affect gene expression in both ...
Schierling, Andreas; Dettner, Konrad; Schmidt, Jürgen; Seifert, Karlheinz
To protect themselves from predation and microorganismic infestation, rove beetles of the genus Stenus produce and store bioactive alkaloids like stenusine, 3-(2-methyl-1-butenyl)pyridine, and cicindeloine in their pygidial glands. The biosynthesis of stenusine and 3-(2-methyl-1-butenyl)pyridine was previously investigated in Stenus bimaculatus and Stenus similis, respectively. Both molecules follow the same biosynthetic pathway, where the N-heterocyclic ring is derived from l-lysine and the side chain from l-isoleucine. The different alkaloids are finally obtained by slight modifications of shared precursor molecules. The piperideine alkaloid cicindeloine occurs as a main compound additionally to ( E)-3-(2-methyl-1-butenyl)pyridine and traces of stenusine in the pygidial gland secretion of Stenus cicindeloides and Stenus solutus. Feeding of S. solutus beetles with [D,15N]-labeled amino acids followed by GC/MS analysis techniques showed that cicindeloine is synthesized via the identical pathway and precursor molecules as the other two defensive alkaloids.
Barton, Michael D; Delneri, Daniela; Oliver, Stephen G; Rattray, Magnus; Bergman, Casey M
Every protein has a biosynthetic cost to the cell based on the synthesis of its constituent amino acids. In order to optimise growth and reproduction, natural selection is expected, where possible, to favour the use of proteins whose constituents are cheaper to produce, as reduced biosynthetic cost may confer a fitness advantage to the organism. Quantifying the cost of amino acid biosynthesis presents challenges, since energetic requirements may change across different cellular and environmental conditions. We developed a systems biology approach to estimate the cost of amino acid synthesis based on genome-scale metabolic models and investigated the effects of the cost of amino acid synthesis on Saccharomyces cerevisiae gene expression and protein evolution. First, we used our two new and six previously reported measures of amino acid cost in conjunction with codon usage bias, tRNA gene number and atomic composition to identify which of these factors best predict transcript and protein levels. Second, we compared amino acid cost with rates of amino acid substitution across four species in the genus Saccharomyces. Regardless of which cost measure is used, amino acid biosynthetic cost is weakly associated with transcript and protein levels. In contrast, we find that biosynthetic cost and amino acid substitution rates show a negative correlation, but for only a subset of cost measures. In the economy of the yeast cell, we find that the cost of amino acid synthesis plays a limited role in shaping transcript and protein expression levels compared to that of translational optimisation. Biosynthetic cost does, however, appear to affect rates of amino acid evolution in Saccharomyces, suggesting that expensive amino acids may only be used when they have specific structural or functional roles in protein sequences. However, as there appears to be no single currency to compute the cost of amino acid synthesis across all cellular and environmental conditions, we conclude that
Marques, Joaquim V.; Kim, Kye-Won; Lee, Choonseok; Costa, Michael A.; May, Gregory D.; Crow, John A.; Davin, Laurence B.; Lewis, Norman G.
Podophyllum species are sources of (−)-podophyllotoxin, an aryltetralin lignan used for semi-synthesis of various powerful and extensively employed cancer-treating drugs. Its biosynthetic pathway, however, remains largely unknown, with the last unequivocally demonstrated intermediate being (−)-matairesinol. Herein, massively parallel sequencing of Podophyllum hexandrum and Podophyllum peltatum transcriptomes and subsequent bioinformatics analyses of the corresponding assemblies were carried out. Validation of the assembly process was first achieved through confirmation of assembled sequences with those of various genes previously established as involved in podophyllotoxin biosynthesis as well as other candidate biosynthetic pathway genes. This contribution describes characterization of two of the latter, namely the cytochrome P450s, CYP719A23 from P. hexandrum and CYP719A24 from P. peltatum. Both enzymes were capable of converting (−)-matairesinol into (−)-pluviatolide by catalyzing methylenedioxy bridge formation and did not act on other possible substrates tested. Interestingly, the enzymes described herein were highly similar to methylenedioxy bridge-forming enzymes from alkaloid biosynthesis, whereas candidates more similar to lignan biosynthetic enzymes were catalytically inactive with the substrates employed. This overall strategy has thus enabled facile further identification of enzymes putatively involved in (−)-podophyllotoxin biosynthesis and underscores the deductive power of next generation sequencing and bioinformatics to probe and deduce medicinal plant biosynthetic pathways. PMID:23161544
The principles and application of established and newer methods for the quantitative and semi-quantitative determination of ergot alkaloids in food, feed, plant materials and animal tissues are reviewed. The techniques of sampling, extraction, clean-up, detection, quantification and validation are described. The major procedures for ergot alkaloid analysis comprise liquid chromatography with tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) and liquid chromatography with fluorescence detection (LC-FLD). Other methods based on immunoassays are under development and variations of these and minor techniques are available for specific purposes. PMID:26046699
The principles and application of established and newer methods for the quantitative and semi-quantitative determination of ergot alkaloids in food, feed, plant materials and animal tissues are reviewed. The techniques of sampling, extraction, clean-up, detection, quantification and validation are described. The major procedures for ergot alkaloid analysis comprise liquid chromatography with tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) and liquid chromatography with fluorescence detection (LC-FLD). Other methods based on immunoassays are under development and variations of these and minor techniques are available for specific purposes.
Ziegler, Jörg; Voigtländer, Susan; Schmidt, Jürgen; Kramell, Robert; Miersch, Otto; Ammer, Christian; Gesell, Andreas; Kutchan, Toni M
Plants of the order Ranunculales, especially members of the species Papaver, accumulate a large variety of benzylisoquinoline alkaloids with about 2500 structures, but only the opium poppy (Papaver somniferum) and Papaver setigerum are able to produce the analgesic and narcotic morphine and the antitussive codeine. In this study, we investigated the molecular basis for this exceptional biosynthetic capability by comparison of alkaloid profiles with gene expression profiles between 16 different Papaver species. Out of 2000 expressed sequence tags obtained from P. somniferum, 69 show increased expression in morphinan alkaloid-containing species. One of these cDNAs, exhibiting an expression pattern very similar to previously isolated cDNAs coding for enzymes in benzylisoquinoline biosynthesis, showed the highest amino acid identity to reductases in menthol biosynthesis. After overexpression, the protein encoded by this cDNA reduced the keto group of salutaridine yielding salutaridinol, an intermediate in morphine biosynthesis. The stereoisomer 7-epi-salutaridinol was not formed. Based on its similarities to a previously purified protein from P. somniferum with respect to the high substrate specificity, molecular mass and kinetic data, the recombinant protein was identified as salutaridine reductase (SalR; EC 18.104.22.168). Unlike codeinone reductase, an enzyme acting later in the pathway that catalyses the reduction of a keto group and which belongs to the family of the aldo-keto reductases, the cDNA identified in this study as SalR belongs to the family of short chain dehydrogenases/reductases and is related to reductases in monoterpene metabolism.
Rodríguez, Alicia; Medina, Ángel; Córdoba, Juan J; Magan, Naresh
Iberian dry-cured ham is colonised by moulds during the ripening process. The environmental conditions occurring during the process including the salt content predisposes the surface to colonisation by Penicillium species, including Penicillium nordicum which can contaminate the curing ham with ochratoxin A (OTA). The objective of this study was to examine the effect of NaCl (10% and 22%=0.94 and 0.87 water activity (aw)) on the activation of two genes involved in the biosynthetic pathway for OTA production, otapksPN and otanpsPN, relative growth and phenotypic OTA production by three strains of P. nordicum (CBS 110.769, FHSCC1 and FHSCC2) on a ham-based medium over a period of 12days at 25°C. Growth of the three strains was faster at 0.87 than 0.94 aw on the ham-based media. However, some intra- and inter-strain differences were observed. Of the three strains, only two (CBS 110.789; FHSCC2) were able to express the two genes involved in the biosynthesis of OTA in the two salt treatments. RT-qPCR showed that the temporal expression of the two genes (otapksPN and otanpsPN) was relatively similar for the wild type strain (FHSCC2) at both 0.94 and 0.87 aw over the 12day period. However, in the type strain (CBS 110.769) expression increased rapidly at 0.94 aw but was significantly lower at 0.87 aw. Expression of these two genes occurred after 3day incubation, while phenotypic OTA production was observed only after 6days in the two toxigenic strains. The other strain did not produce any OTA. The OTA concentrations confirmed the results observed with the molecular tools. This suggests that the RT-qPCR gene expression of these two genes may be a good early indicator of potential contamination of dry-cured ham with OTA during dry-cured ham ripening.
Block, Eli; Byemerwa, Jovita; Dispenza, Ross; Doughty, Benjamin; Gillyard, KaNesha; Godbole, Poorwa; Gonzales-Wright, Jeanette; Hull, Ian; Kannappan, Jotthe; Levine, Alexander; Nelakanti, Raman; Ruffner, Lydia; Shumate, Alaina; Sorayya, Aryo; Ugwu, Kyla
We are currently working on a series of projects towards the construction of a fully biological unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) for use in scientific and humanitarian missions. The prospect of a biologically-produced UAV presents numerous advantages over the current manufacturing paradigm. First, a foundational architecture built by cells allows for construction or repair in locations where it would be difficult to bring traditional tools of production. Second, a major limitation of current research with UAVs is the size and high power consumption of analytical instruments, which require bulky electrical components and large fuselages to support their weight. By moving these functions into cells with biosensing capabilities - for example, a series of cells engineered to report GFP, green fluorescent protein, when conditions exceed a certain threshold concentration of a compound of interest, enabling their detection post-flight - these problems of scale can be avoided. To this end, we are working to engineer cells to synthesize cellulose acetate as a novel bioplastic, characterize biological methods of waterproofing the material, and program this material's systemic biodegradation. In addition, we aim to use an "amberless" system to prevent horizontal gene transfer from live cells on the material to microorganisms in the flight environment.
Koketsu, Kento; Mitsuhashi, Satoshi; Tabata, Kazuhiko
L-Homophenylalanine (L-Hph) is a useful chiral building block for synthesis of several drugs, including angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors and the novel proteasome inhibitor carfilzomib. While the chemoenzymatic route of synthesis is fully developed, we investigated microbial production of L-Hph to explore the possibility of a more efficient and sustainable approach to L-Hph production. We hypothesized that L-Hph is synthesized from L-Phe via a mechanism homologous to 3-methyl-2-oxobutanoic acid conversion to 4-methyl-2-oxopentanoic acid during leucine biosynthesis. Based on bioinformatics analysis, we found three putative homophenylalanine biosynthesis genes, hphA (Npun_F2464), hphB (Npun_F2457), and hphCD (Npun_F2458), in the cyanobacterium Nostoc punctiforme PCC73102, located around the gene cluster responsible for anabaenopeptin biosynthesis. We constructed Escherichia coli strains harboring hphABCD-expressing plasmids and achieved the fermentative production of L-Hph from L-Phe. To our knowledge, this is the first identification of the genes responsible for homophenylalanine synthesis in any organism. Furthermore, to improve the low conversion efficiency of the initial strain, we optimized the expression of hphA, hphB, and hphCD, which increased the yield to ∼630 mg/liter. The L-Hph biosynthesis and L-Leu biosynthesis genes from E. coli were also compared. This analysis revealed that HphB has comparatively relaxed substrate specificity and can perform the function of LeuB, but HphA and HphCD show tight substrate specificity and cannot complement the LeuA and LeuC/LeuD functions, and vice versa. Finally, the range of substrate tolerance of the L-Hph-producing strain was examined, which showed that m-fluorophenylalanine, o-fluorophenylalanine, and L-tyrosine were accepted as substrates and that the corresponding homoamino acids were generated.
Mitsuhashi, Satoshi; Tabata, Kazuhiko
l-Homophenylalanine (l-Hph) is a useful chiral building block for synthesis of several drugs, including angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors and the novel proteasome inhibitor carfilzomib. While the chemoenzymatic route of synthesis is fully developed, we investigated microbial production of l-Hph to explore the possibility of a more efficient and sustainable approach to l-Hph production. We hypothesized that l-Hph is synthesized from l-Phe via a mechanism homologous to 3-methyl-2-oxobutanoic acid conversion to 4-methyl-2-oxopentanoic acid during leucine biosynthesis. Based on bioinformatics analysis, we found three putative homophenylalanine biosynthesis genes, hphA (Npun_F2464), hphB (Npun_F2457), and hphCD (Npun_F2458), in the cyanobacterium Nostoc punctiforme PCC73102, located around the gene cluster responsible for anabaenopeptin biosynthesis. We constructed Escherichia coli strains harboring hphABCD-expressing plasmids and achieved the fermentative production of l-Hph from l-Phe. To our knowledge, this is the first identification of the genes responsible for homophenylalanine synthesis in any organism. Furthermore, to improve the low conversion efficiency of the initial strain, we optimized the expression of hphA, hphB, and hphCD, which increased the yield to ∼630 mg/liter. The l-Hph biosynthesis and l-Leu biosynthesis genes from E. coli were also compared. This analysis revealed that HphB has comparatively relaxed substrate specificity and can perform the function of LeuB, but HphA and HphCD show tight substrate specificity and cannot complement the LeuA and LeuC/LeuD functions, and vice versa. Finally, the range of substrate tolerance of the l-Hph-producing strain was examined, which showed that m-fluorophenylalanine, o-fluorophenylalanine, and l-tyrosine were accepted as substrates and that the corresponding homoamino acids were generated. PMID:23354699
In the past few years, there has been impressive progress in elucidating the mechanism of biosynthesis of various natural products accomplished through the use of genetic, molecular biological and biochemical techniques. Here, we present a comprehensive overview of the current results from our studies on fungal natural product biosynthetic enzymes, including nonribosomal peptide synthetase and polyketide synthase-nonribosomal peptide synthetase hybrid synthetase, as well as auxiliary enzymes, such as methyltransferases and oxygenases. Specifically, biosynthesis of the following compounds is described in detail: (i) Sch210972, potentially involving a Diels-Alder reaction that may be catalyzed by CghA, a functionally unknown protein identified by targeted gene disruption in the wild type fungus; (ii) chaetoglobosin A, formed via multi-step oxidations catalyzed by three redox enzymes, one flavin-containing monooxygenase and two cytochrome P450 oxygenases as characterized by in vivo biotransformation of relevant intermediates in our engineered Saccharomyces cerevisiae; (iii) (-)-ditryptophenaline, formed by a cytochrome P450, revealing the dimerization mechanism for the biosynthesis of diketopiperazine alkaloids; (iv) pseurotins, whose variations in the C- and O-methylations and the degree of oxidation are introduced combinatorially by multiple redox enzymes; and (v) spirotryprostatins, whose spiro-carbon moiety is formed by a flavin-containing monooxygenase or a cytochrome P450 as determined by heterologous de novo production of the biosynthetic intermediates and final products in Aspergillus niger. We close our discussion by summarizing some of the key techniques that have facilitated the discovery of new natural products, production of their analogs and identification of biosynthetic mechanisms in our study.
Smita, Shuchi; Rajwanshi, Ravi; Lenka, Sangram Keshari; Katiyar, Amit; Chinnusamy, Viswanathan; Bansal, Kailash Chander
Fruit ripening process is associated with change in carotenoid profile and accumulation of lycopene in tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.). In this study, we quantified the beta-carotene and lycopene content at green, breaker and red-ripe stages of fruit ripening in eight tomato genotypes by using high-performance liquid chromatography. Among the genotypes, lycopene content was found highest in Pusa Rohini and lowest in VRT-32-1. To gain further insight into the regulation of lycopene biosynthesis and accumulation during fruit ripening, expression analysis of nine carotenoid pathway-related genes was carried out in the fruits of high lycopene genotype-Pusa Rohini. We found that expression of phytoene synthase and beta-carotene hydroxylase-1 was four and thirty-fold higher, respectively, at breaker stage as compared to red-ripe stage of fruit ripening. Changes in the expression level of these genes were associated with a 40% increase in lycopene content at red-ripe stage as compared with breaker stage. Thus, the results from our study suggest the role of specific carotenoid pathway-related genes in accumulation of high lycopene during the fruit ripening processes.
The Neurospora crassa mutant NcΔEgt-1 identifies an ergothioneine biosynthetic gene and demonstrates that ergothioneine enhances conidial survival and protects against peroxide toxicity during conidial germination.
Bello, Marco H; Barrera-Perez, Viviana; Morin, Dexter; Epstein, Lynn
Ergothioneine (EGT) is a histidine derivative with sulfur on the imidazole ring and a trimethylated amine; it is postulated to have an antioxidant function. Although EGT apparently is only produced by fungi and some prokaryotes, it is acquired by animals and plants from the environment, and is concentrated in animal tissues in cells with an EGT transporter. Monobromobimane derivatives of EGT allowed conclusive identification of EGT by LC/MS and the quantification of EGT in Colletotrichum graminicola and Neurospora crassa conidia and mycelia. EGT concentrations were significantly (α=0.05) higher in conidia than in mycelia, with approximately 17X and 5X more in C. graminicola and N. crassa, respectively. The first EGT biosynthetic gene in a fungus was identified by quantifying EGT in N. crassa wild type and knockouts in putative homologs of actinomycete EGT biosynthetic genes. NcΔEgt-1, a strain with a knockout in gene NCU04343, does not produce EGT, in contrast to the wild type. To determine the effects of EGT in vivo, we compared NcΔEgt-1 to the wild type. NcΔEgt-1 is not pleiotropically affected in rate of hyphal elongation in Vogel's medium either with or without ammonium nitrate and in the rate of germination of macroconidia on Vogel's medium. The superoxide-producer menadione had indistinguishable effects on conidial germination between the two strains. Cupric sulfate also had indistinguishable effects on conidial germination and on hyphal growth between the two strains. In contrast, germination of NcΔEgt-1 conidia was significantly more sensitive to tert-butyl hydroperoxide than the wild type; germination of 50% (GI(50)) of the NcΔEgt-1 conidia was prevented at 2.7 mM tert-butyl hydroperoxide whereas the GI(50) for the wild type was 4.7 mM tert-butyl hydroperoxide, or at a 1.7X greater concentration. In the presence of tert-butyl hydroperoxide and the fluorescent reactive oxygen species indicator 5-(and-6)-carboxy-2',7'-dichlorodihydrofluorescein
Wong, B; Murray, J S; Castellanos, M; Croen, K D
Candida albicans produces large amounts of the pentitol D-arabitol in culture and in infected mammalian hosts, but the functional and pathogenic significance of D-arabitol in C. albicans is not known. In this study, we sought to elucidate the pathway by which C. albicans synthesizes D-arabitol and to identify and characterize key enzymes in this pathway. C. albicans B311 produced D-[14C-1]arabitol from [14C-2]glucose; this finding implies on structural grounds that D-ribulose-5-PO4 from the pentose pathway is the major metabolic precursor of D-arabitol. NAD- or NADP-dependent pentitol dehydrogenases catalyze the final steps in D-arabitol biosynthesis in other fungi; therefore, lysates of C. albicans B311 were tested for enzymes of this class and were found to contain a previously unknown NAD-dependent D-arabitol dehydrogenase (ArDH). The ArDH structural gene was cloned by constructing a new D-arabitol utilization pathway in Escherichia coli. The C. albicans ArDH gene expressed in E. coli and Saccharomyces cerevisiae an enzyme that catalyzes the reaction D-arabitol + NAD <-->D-ribulose + NADH; this gene was present as a single copy per haploid genome, and its deduced peptide sequence was homologous with sequences of several members of the short-chain dehydrogenase family of enzymes. These results suggest that (i) C. albicans synthesizes D-arabitol by dephosphorylating and reducing the pentose pathway intermediate D-ribulose-5-PO4 and (ii) ArDH catalyzes the final step in this pathway. Images PMID:8407803
Michael, Joseph P
This review of simple indolizidine and quinolizidine alkaloids (i.e., those in which the parent bicyclic systems are in general not embedded in polycyclic arrays) is an update of the previous coverage in Volume 55 of this series (2001). The present survey covers the literature from mid-1999 to the end of 2013; and in addition to aspects of the isolation, characterization, and biological activity of the alkaloids, much emphasis is placed on their total synthesis. A brief introduction to the topic is followed by an overview of relevant alkaloids from fungal and microbial sources, among them slaframine, cyclizidine, Steptomyces metabolites, and the pantocins. The important iminosugar alkaloids lentiginosine, steviamine, swainsonine, castanospermine, and related hydroxyindolizidines are dealt with in the subsequent section. The fourth and fifth sections cover metabolites from terrestrial plants. Pertinent plant alkaloids bearing alkyl, functionalized alkyl or alkenyl substituents include dendroprimine, anibamine, simple alkaloids belonging to the genera Prosopis, Elaeocarpus, Lycopodium, and Poranthera, and bicyclic alkaloids of the lupin family. Plant alkaloids bearing aryl or heteroaryl substituents include ipalbidine and analogs, secophenanthroindolizidine and secophenanthroquinolizidine alkaloids (among them septicine, julandine, and analogs), ficuseptine, lasubines, and other simple quinolizidines of the Lythraceae, the simple furyl-substituted Nuphar alkaloids, and a mixed quinolizidine-quinazoline alkaloid. The penultimate section of the review deals with the sizable group of simple indolizidine and quinolizidine alkaloids isolated from, or detected in, ants, mites, and terrestrial amphibians, and includes an overview of the "dietary hypothesis" for the origin of the amphibian metabolites. The final section surveys relevant alkaloids from marine sources, and includes clathryimines and analogs, stellettamides, the clavepictines and pictamine, and bis
Decker, H; Motamedi, H; Hutchinson, C R
The nucleotide sequence of the tcmIII, tcmIc, and tcmVII region of the tetracenomycin (TCM) C gene cluster of Streptomyces glaucescens ETH 22794 (GLA.0) revealed the presence of two genes, tcmP and tcmG. The deduced product of tcmG resembles flavoprotein hydroxylases found in several other bacteria, whereas the predicted amino acid sequence of tcmP is not significantly similar to those of any known proteins in the available data bases. Southern blot hybridization revealed an approximately 180-bp deletion in a tcmIII (tcmG) mutant and a 1,800-bp insertion in a tcmVII (tcmP) mutant. Heterologous expression of tcmG and tcmP in Streptomyces lividans and tcmP in Escherichia coli established that tcmP encodes an O-methyltransferase, catalyzing the methylation of the C-9 carboxy group of TCM E to yield TCM A2, and that tcmG is responsible for the hydroxylation of TCM A2 at positions C-4, C-4a, and C-12a to give TCM C. These are the final two steps of TCM C biosynthesis. Images PMID:8509339
Gao, Shouhong; Saechao, Saengking; Di, Peng; Chen, Junfeng; Chen, Wansheng
Rational engineering to produce biologically active plant compounds has been greatly impeded by our poor understanding of the regulatory and metabolic pathways underlying the biosynthesis of these compounds. Here we capitalized on our previously described gene-to-metabolite network in order to engineer rosmarinic acid (RA) biosynthesis pathway for the production of beneficial RA and lithospermic acid B (LAB) in Salvia miltiorrhiza hairy root cultures. Results showed their production was greatly elevated by (1) overexpression of single gene, including cinnamic acid 4-hydroxylase (c4h), tyrosine aminotransferase (tat), and 4-hydroxyphenylpyruvate reductase (hppr), (2) overexpression of both tat and hppr, and (3) suppression of 4-hydroxyphenylpyruvate dioxygenase (hppd). Co-expression of tat/hppr produced the most abundant RA (906 mg/liter) and LAB (992 mg/liter), which were 4.3 and 3.2-fold more than in their wild-type (wt) counterparts respectively. And the value of RA concentration was also higher than that reported before, that produced by means of nutrient medium optimization or elicitor treatment. It is the first report of boosting RA and LAB biosynthesis through genetic manipulation, providing an effective approach for their large-scale commercial production by using hairy root culture systems as bioreactors. PMID:22242141
Kruse, Lars H; Stegemann, Thomas; Sievert, Christian; Ober, Dietrich
Pyrrolizidine alkaloids (PAs) are toxic secondary metabolites that are found in several, distantly related families of the angiosperms. The first specific step in PA biosynthesis is catalyzed by homospermidine synthase (HSS), which has been recruited several times independently by duplication of the gene encoding deoxyhypusine synthase (DHS), an enzyme involved in the post-translational activation of the eukaryotic initiation factor 5A. HSS shows highly diverse spatiotemporal gene expression in various PA-producing species. In Symphytum officinale (Boraginaceae), PAs are reported to be synthesized in the roots, with HSS being localized in cells of the root endodermis. Here, we show that S. officinale plants activate a second site of HSS expression when inflorescences start to develop. HSS has been localized in the bundle sheath cells of specific leaves. Tracer feeding experiments have confirmed that these young leaves not only express HSS, but the whole PA biosynthetic route. This second site of PA biosynthesis results in drastically increased PA levels within the inflorescences. The boost of PA biosynthesis is proposed to guarantee optimal protection especially of the reproductive structures.
Borchert, Erik; Jackson, Stephen A.; O’Gara, Fergal; Dobson, Alan D. W.
Three different deep sea sponge species, Inflatella pellicula, Poecillastra compressa, and Stelletta normani comprising seven individual samples, retrieved from depths of 760–2900 m below sea level, were investigated using 454 pyrosequencing for their secondary metabolomic potential targeting adenylation domain and ketosynthase domain sequences. The data obtained suggest a diverse microbial origin of nonribosomal peptide synthetases and polyketide synthase fragments that in part correlates with their respective microbial community structures that were previously described and reveals an untapped source of potential novelty. The sequences, especially the ketosynthase fragments, display extensive clade formations which are clearly distinct from sequences hosted in public databases, therefore highlighting the potential of the microbiome of these deep sea sponges to produce potentially novel small-molecule chemistry. Furthermore, sequence similarities to gene clusters known to be involved in the production of many classes of antibiotics and toxins including lipopeptides, glycopeptides, macrolides, and hepatotoxins were also identified. PMID:27446062
Borchert, Erik; Jackson, Stephen A; O'Gara, Fergal; Dobson, Alan D W
Three different deep sea sponge species, Inflatella pellicula, Poecillastra compressa, and Stelletta normani comprising seven individual samples, retrieved from depths of 760-2900 m below sea level, were investigated using 454 pyrosequencing for their secondary metabolomic potential targeting adenylation domain and ketosynthase domain sequences. The data obtained suggest a diverse microbial origin of nonribosomal peptide synthetases and polyketide synthase fragments that in part correlates with their respective microbial community structures that were previously described and reveals an untapped source of potential novelty. The sequences, especially the ketosynthase fragments, display extensive clade formations which are clearly distinct from sequences hosted in public databases, therefore highlighting the potential of the microbiome of these deep sea sponges to produce potentially novel small-molecule chemistry. Furthermore, sequence similarities to gene clusters known to be involved in the production of many classes of antibiotics and toxins including lipopeptides, glycopeptides, macrolides, and hepatotoxins were also identified.
Rasmussen, Susanne; Parsons, Anthony J; Xue, Hong; Liu, Qianhe; Jones, Christopher S; Ryan, Geraldine D; Newman, Jonathan A
Lolium perenne cultivars with elevated levels of fructans in leaf blades (high sugar-content grasses) have been developed to improve animal nutrition and reduce adverse environmental impacts of pastoral agricultural systems. Expression of the high sugar trait can vary substantially depending on genotype×environment (G×E) interactions. We grew three potential high sugar-content and a control cultivar in three temperature regimes and quantified water soluble carbohydrates (WSCs) and the expression of all functionally characterised L. perenne fructan pathway genes in leaf tissues. We also analysed the distribution, expression and sequence variation of two specific isoforms of Lp6G-FFT (fructan: fructan 6G-fructosyltransferase). Our study confirmed a significant G×E interaction affecting the accumulation of fructans in the high sugar-content cultivar AberDart, which accumulated higher levels of high DP (degree of polymerisation) fructans in blades compared to the control cultivar only when grown at 20°C (day)/10°C (night) temperatures. The cultivar Expo on the other hand accumulated significantly higher levels of high DP fructans in blades independent of temperature. Fructan levels in pseudostems were higher than in blades, and they increased markedly with decreasing temperature, but there was no consistent effect of cultivar in this tissue. The expression of the high sugar trait was generally positively correlated with transcript levels of fructosyltransferases. Presence and expression of only one of the two known 6G-FFT isoforms was positively correlated with high fructan biosynthesis, while the second isoform was associated with low fructan concentrations and positively correlated with fructan exohydrolase gene expression. The presence of distinct 6G-FFT sequence variants appears to be associated with the capacity of high sugar-content grasses to accumulate higher fructan levels particularly at warmer temperatures. These findings might be exploited for the
Demissie, Zerihun A; Erland, Lauren A E; Rheault, Mark R; Mahmoud, Soheil S
Lavender essential oils are constituted predominantly of regular monoterpenes, for example linalool, 1,8-cineole, and camphor. However, they also contain irregular monoterpenes including lavandulol and lavandulyl acetate. Although the majority of genes responsible for the production of regular monoterpenes in lavenders are now known, enzymes (including lavandulyl diphosphate synthase (LPPS)) catalyzing the biosynthesis of irregular monoterpenes in these plants have not been described. Here, we report the isolation and functional characterization of a novel cis-prenyl diphosphate synthase cDNA, termed Lavandula x intermedia lavandulyl diphosphate synthase (LiLPPS), through a homology-based cloning strategy. The LiLPPS ORF, encoding for a 305-amino acid long protein, was expressed in Escherichia coli, and the recombinant protein was purified by nickel-nitrilotriacetic acid affinity chromatography. The approximately 34.5-kDa bacterially produced protein specifically catalyzed the head-to-middle condensation of two dimethylallyl diphosphate units to LPP in vitro with apparent Km and kcat values of 208 ± 12 μm and 0.1 s(-1), respectively. LiLPPS is a homodimeric enzyme with a sigmoidal saturation curve and Hill coefficient of 2.7, suggesting a positive co-operative interaction among its catalytic sites. LiLPPS could be used to modulate the production of lavandulol and its derivatives in plants through metabolic engineering.
Saleem, M.; Cutler, A.J.
Alkaloids of C. roseus are in high demand for therapeutic and other reasons. Cultured Catharanthus cells can produce limited quantities of these alkaloids. The authors have found that cultured mesophyll protoplasts in the presence of /sup 14/C-Tryptamine are capable of synthesizing alkaloids. The pattern of alkaloids synthesis changes when protoplasts are subjected to a heat shock at 37/sup 0/C. The heat shocked protoplasts incorporated 33% more /sup 14/C-Tryptamine and produced 3 new types of alkaloids. Treatment of protoplasts with 5-azacytidine, a DNA hypomethylating agent and Na-butyrate which induces hyperacetylation of histones produced qualitative and quantitative changes in the alkaloid pattern. Four new alkaloids following the above treatments were detected by TLC and HPLC of the extracts. It is suggested that the alkaloid pattern of the cultured protoplasts can be altered by treatment with compounds known as regulators of gene expression. Work is in progress to isolate and identify these new alkaloids.
Wang, Xiao-Ling; Liu, Bing-Rui; Chen, Chien-Kuang; Qin, Guo-Wei; Lee, Shoei-Sheng
An alkaloid with novel skeleton, sinoscrewtine (1), has been isolated from the roots of Sinomenium acutum. Its structure was established by spectral analysis and X-ray crystallographic study, and its possible biosynthetic pathway was delivered. In vitro experiments, 1 showed weak injurious effects against H(2)O(2)/Aβ(25-35) induced oxidative injury in PC-12 cells and DPPH radical scavenging activity with IC(50) of 32.6μM.
Yogendra, Kalenahalli N; Dhokane, Dhananjay; Kushalappa, Ajjamada C; Sarmiento, Felipe; Rodriguez, Ernesto; Mosquera, Teresa
The resistance to late blight is either qualitative or quantitative in nature. Quantitative resistance is durable, but challenging due to polygenic inheritance. In the present study, the diploid potato genotypes resistant and susceptible to late blight, were profiled for metabolites. Tissue specific metabolite analysis of benzylisoquinoline alkaloids (BIAs) in response to pathogen infection revealed increased accumulation of morphinone, codeine-6-glucuronide and morphine-3-glucuronides. These BIAs are antimicrobial compounds and possibly involved in cell wall reinforcement, especially through cross-linking cell wall pectins. Quantitative reverse transcription-PCR studies revealed higher expressions of TyDC, NCS, COR-2 and StWRKY8 transcription factor genes, in resistant genotypes than in susceptible genotype, following pathogen inoculation. A luciferase transient expression assay confirmed the binding of the StWRKY8 TF to promoters of downstream genes, elucidating a direct regulatory role on BIAs biosynthetic genes. Sequence analysis of StWRKY8 in potato genotypes revealed polymorphism in the WRKY DNA binding domain in the susceptible genotype, which is important for the regulatory function of this gene. A complementation assay of StWRKY8 in Arabidopsis wrky33 mutant background was associated with decreased fungal biomass. In conclusion, StWRKY8 regulates the biosynthesis of BIAs that are both antimicrobial and reinforce cell walls to contain the pathogen to initial infection.
Reina, M; Ruiz-Mesia, W; López-Rodríguez, M; Ruiz-Mesia, L; González-Coloma, A; Martínez-Díaz, R
Ten indole alkaloids were isolated from Geissospermum reticulatum, seven (1-7) from the leaves and three (8-10) from the bark. Seven were aspidospermatan-type alkaloids (1-3, 5-9), including four (5-8) with a 1-oxa-3-cyclopentene group in their molecule, which we named geissospermidine subtype. Compounds 1-3, 5-8, and 10 had not been reported previously as natural products, while 4 and 9 were the known alkaloids O-demethylaspidospermine and flavopereirine. Their structures were determined by spectroscopic techniques including 1D and 2D NMR experiments (COSY, NOESY, HSQC, HMBC). Additionally, X-ray crystallographic analyses of 1, 2, and 6 were performed. Antiparasitic activities of the ethanolic and alkaloidal extracts and of the pure alkaloids were tested against Trypanosoma cruzi and Leishmania infantum. In general, the extracts exhibited selective action and were more active against Leishmania than against Trypanosoma. Alkaloid 4 was also very active against L. infantum.
The synthesis of functional polymers encoded with biomolecules has been an extensive area of research for decades. As such, a diverse toolbox of polymerization techniques and bioconjugation methods has been developed. The greatest impact of this work has been in biomedicine and biotechnology, where fully synthetic and naturally derived biomolecules are used cooperatively. Despite significant improvements in biocompatible and functionally diverse polymers, our success in the field is constrained by recognized limitations in polymer architecture control, structural dynamics, and biostabilization. This Perspective discusses the current status of functional biosynthetic polymers and highlights innovative strategies reported within the past five years that have made great strides in overcoming the aforementioned barriers. PMID:27375299
Cui, B; Chai, H; Dong, Y; Horgen, F D; Hansen, B; Madulid, D A; Soejarto, D D; Farnsworth, N R; Cordell, G A; Pezzuto, J M; Kinghorn, A D
Bioassay-directed fractionation of a root extract of Acronychia laurifolia (Rutaceae) using the KB-V1+ human tumor cell line led to the isolation of six quinoline alkaloids. One of these alkaloids is novel, namely, 2,3-methylenedioxy-4,7-dimethoxyquinoline and the other five were identified as the known compounds, evolitrine, gamma-fagarine, skimmianine, kokusaginine and maculosidine. Two known bis-tetrahydrofuran lignans, sesamolin and yangambin, were also identified. The structure of the new alkaloid was determined by spectroscopic methods. All of the isolates were evaluated against a panel of human cancer cell lines; four of the alkaloids showed weak cytotoxic activity.
Neto, Alexandre T.; Oliveira, Carolina Q.; Ilha, Vinicius; Pedroso, Marcelo; Burrow, Robert A.; Dalcol, Ionara I.; Morel, Ademir F.
In this study, one new quinolizidine alkaloid, lanatine A ( 1), together with three other known alkaloids, 13-α- trans-cinnamoyloxylupanine ( 2), 13-α-hydroxylupanine ( 3), and (-)-multiflorine ( 4) were isolated from the aerial parts of Lupinus lanatus (Fabaceae). The structures of alkaloids 1- 4 were elucidated by spectroscopic data analysis. The stereochemistry of 1 was determined by single crystal X-ray analysis. Bayesian statistical analysis of the Bijvoet differences suggests the absolute stereochemistry of 1. In addition, the antimicrobial potential of alkaloids 1- 4 is also reported.
Wilkinson, Barrie; Micklefield, Jason
Natural products continue to fulfill an important role in the development of therapeutic agents. In addition, with the advent of chemical genetics and high-throughput screening platforms, these molecules have become increasingly valuable as tools for interrogating fundamental aspects of biological systems. To access the vast portion of natural-product structural diversity that remains unexploited for these and other applications, genome mining and microbial metagenomic approaches are proving particularly powerful. When these are coupled with recombineering and related genetic tools, large biosynthetic gene clusters that remain intractable or cryptic in the native host can be more efficiently cloned and expressed in a suitable heterologous system. For lead optimization and the further structural diversification of natural-product libraries, combinatorial biosynthetic engineering has also become indispensable. However, our ability to rationally redesign biosynthetic pathways is often limited by our lack of understanding of the structure, dynamics and interplay between the many enzymes involved in complex biosynthetic pathways. Despite this, recent structures of fatty acid synthases should allow a more accurate prediction of the likely architecture of related polyketide synthase and nonribosomal peptide synthetase multienzymes.
Akhgari, Amir; Laakso, Into; Seppänen-Laakso, Tuulikki; Yrjönen, Teijo; Vuorela, Heikki; Oksman-Caldentey, Kirsi-Marja; Rischer, Heiko
Rhazya stricta Decne. (Apocynaceae) contains a large number of terpenoid indole alkaloids (TIAs). This study focused on the composition of alkaloids obtained from transformed hairy root cultures of R. stricta employing ultra-performance liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (UPLC-MS). In the UPLC-MS analyses, a total of 20 TIAs were identified from crude extracts. Eburenine and vincanine were the main alkaloids followed by polar glucoalkaloids, strictosidine lactam and strictosidine. Secodine-type alkaloids, tetrahydrosecodinol, tetrahydro- and dihydrosecodine were detected too. The occurrence of tetrahydrosecodinol was confirmed for the first time for R. stricta. Furthermore, two isomers of yohimbine, serpentine and vallesiachotamine were identified. The study shows that a characteristic pattern of biosynthetically related TIAs can be monitored in Rhazya hairy root crude extract by this chromatographic method.
Blodgett, Joshua A. V.; Oh, Dong-Chan; Cao, Shugeng; Currie, Cameron R.; Kolter, Roberto; Clardy, Jon
A combination of small molecule chemistry, biosynthetic analysis, and genome mining has revealed the unexpected conservation of polycyclic tetramate macrolactam biosynthetic loci in diverse bacteria. Initially our chemical analysis of a Streptomyces strain associated with the southern pine beetle led to the discovery of frontalamides A and B, two previously undescribed members of this antibiotic family. Genome analyses and genetic manipulation of the producing organism led to the identification of the frontalamide biosynthetic gene cluster and several biosynthetic intermediates. The biosynthetic locus for the frontalamides’ mixed polyketide/amino acid structure encodes a hybrid polyketide synthase nonribosomal peptide synthetase (PKS-NRPS), which resembles iterative enzymes known in fungi. No such mixed iterative PKS-NRPS enzymes have been characterized in bacteria. Genome-mining efforts revealed strikingly conserved frontalamide-like biosynthetic clusters in the genomes of phylogenetically diverse bacteria ranging from proteobacteria to actinomycetes. Screens for environmental actinomycete isolates carrying frontalamide-like biosynthetic loci led to the isolation of a number of positive strains, the majority of which produced candidate frontalamide-like compounds under suitable growth conditions. These results establish the prevalence of frontalamide-like gene clusters in diverse bacterial types, with medicinally important Streptomyces species being particularly enriched. PMID:20547882
Miller, Kenneth A.; Tsukamoto, Sachiko; Williams, Robert M.
The Diels-Alder reaction is one of the most well-studied, synthetically useful organic transformations. While a significant number of naturally occurring substances are postulated to arise by biosynthetic Diels-Alder reactions, rigorous confirmation of a mechanistically distinct natural Diels-Alderase enzyme remains elusive. Within this context, several related fungi within the Aspergillus genus produce a number of metabolites of opposite absolute configuration including (+)- or (−)-versicolamide B. These alkaloids are hypothesized to arise via biosynthetic Diels-Alder reactions implying that each Aspergillus species possesses enantiomerically distinct Diels-Alderases. Herein, experimental validation of these biosynthetic proposals via deployment of the IMDA reaction as a key step in the asymmetric total syntheses of (+)- and (−)-versicolamide B is described. Laboratory validation of the proposed biosynthetic Diels-Alder construction, coupled with the secondary metabolite profile of the producing fungi, reveals that each Aspergillus species has evolved enantiomerically distinct indole oxidases, as well as enantiomerically distinct Diels-Alderases. PMID:20300443
Rahman, Md Toufiqur; Phani Babu Tiruveedhula, Veera V. N.; Cook, James M.
Bisindole natural products consist of two monomeric indole alkaloid units as their obligate constituents. Bisindoles are more potent with respect to their biological activity than their corresponding monomeric units. In addition, the synthesis of bisindoles are far more challenging than the synthesis of monomeric indole alkaloids. Herein is reviewed the enantiospecific total and partial synthesis of bisindole alkaloids isolated primarily from the Alstonia genus of the Apocynaceae family. The monomeric units belong to the sarpagine, ajmaline, macroline, vobasine, and pleiocarpamine series. An up-to-date discussion of their isolation, characterization, biological activity as well as approaches to their partial and total synthesis by means of both synthetic and biosynthetic strategies are presented. PMID:27854259
Camarano, S; González, A; Rossini, C
Ladybird beetles produce a large number of defensive alkaloids. Previous studies suggest that the structural diversity of these endogenous alkaloids can be traced to a common biosynthetic route based on the condensation of several acetate units. In this study, adults of Epilachna paenulata, a phytophagous neotropical species, were fed on diet enriched with potential precursors (sodium acetate, fatty acids and the amino acids lysine and ornithine) labeled with stable isotopes ((13)C, (2)H and (15)N). Labeled acetate was incorporated into the structurally related homotropane and piperidine alkaloids. The later also showed incorporation of [methyl-(2)H3] stearic acid. Our results hence support a fatty acid pathway for the biosynthesis of E. paenulata alkaloids. To our knowledge, this is the first report on the incorporation of a labeled fatty acid into a defensive piperidine alkaloid in insects.
Elzaouk, Lina; Laufs, Stephanie; Heerklotz, Dirk; Leimbacher, Walter; Blau, Nenad; Résibois, Annette; Thöny, Beat
Biosynthesis of the tetrahydrobiopterin (BH(4)) cofactor, essential for catecholamines and serotonin production and nitric oxide synthase (NOS) activity, requires the enzymes GTP cyclohydrolase I (GTPCH), 6-pyruvoyl-tetrahydropterin synthase (PTPS), and sepiapterin reductase (SR). Upon studying the distribution of GTPCH and PTPS with polyclonal immune sera in cross sections of rat brain, prominent nuclear staining in many neurons was observed besides strong staining in peri-ventricular structures. Furthermore, localization studies in transgenic mice expressing a Pts-LacZ gene fusion containing the N-terminal 35 amino acids of PTPS revealed beta-galactosidase in the nucleus of neurons. In contrast, PTPS-beta-galactosidase was exclusively cytoplasmic in the convoluted kidney tubules but nuclear in other parts of the nephron, indicating again that nuclear targeting may occur only in specific cell categories. Furthermore, the N terminus of PTPS acts as a domain able to target the PTPS-beta-galactosidase fusion protein to the nucleus. In transiently transfected COS-1 cells, which do not express GTPCH and PTPS endogenously, we found cytoplasmic and nuclear staining for GTPCH and PTPS. To further investigate nuclear localization of all three BH(4)-biosynthetic enzymes, we expressed Flag-fusion proteins in transiently transfected COS-1 cells and analyzed the distribution by immunolocalization and sub-cellular fractionation using anti-Flag antibodies and enzymatic assays. Whereas 5-10% of total GTPCH and PTPS and approximately 1% of total SR were present in the nucleus, only GTPCH was confirmed to be an active enzyme in nuclear fractions. The in vitro studies together with the tissue staining corroborate specific nuclear localization of BH(4)-biosynthetic proteins with yet unknown biological function.
Raman, Srivatsan; Rogers, Jameson K; Taylor, Noah D; Church, George M
Engineering biosynthetic pathways for chemical production requires extensive optimization of the host cellular metabolic machinery. Because it is challenging to specify a priori an optimal design, metabolic engineers often need to construct and evaluate a large number of variants of the pathway. We report a general strategy that combines targeted genome-wide mutagenesis to generate pathway variants with evolution to enrich for rare high producers. We convert the intracellular presence of the target chemical into a fitness advantage for the cell by using a sensor domain responsive to the chemical to control a reporter gene necessary for survival under selective conditions. Because artificial selection tends to amplify unproductive cheaters, we devised a negative selection scheme to eliminate cheaters while preserving library diversity. This scheme allows us to perform multiple rounds of evolution (addressing ∼10(9) cells per round) with minimal carryover of cheaters after each round. Based on candidate genes identified by flux balance analysis, we used targeted genome-wide mutagenesis to vary the expression of pathway genes involved in the production of naringenin and glucaric acid. Through up to four rounds of evolution, we increased production of naringenin and glucaric acid by 36- and 22-fold, respectively. Naringenin production (61 mg/L) from glucose was more than double the previous highest titer reported. Whole-genome sequencing of evolved strains revealed additional untargeted mutations that likely benefit production, suggesting new routes for optimization.
Simpson, Thomas J
Biosynthetic genes for the prenylated xanthone shamixanthone have been identified in the Aspergillus nidulans genome; based on assignment of putative functions from sequence analyses and selected gene deletions, a pathway was proposed leading from the anthraquinone emodin via the benzophenone carboxylic acid monodictyphenone and the xanthone emericellin to shamixanthone. Several aspects of this proposed pathway are inconsistent with previously identified biosynthetic intermediates: the anthraquinone chrysophanol and the benzophenone aldehyde derivatives arugosins F and A/B, isotopic labelling studies and chemical precedents. A new pathway is presented that provides a full rationale for the results of the gene deletion studies and reconciles them with previous biosynthetic results, and is in accord with established chemical and biosynthetic mechanisms. The importance of interpreting genetic information in terms of established biosynthetic events is discussed.
Shitan, Nobukazu; Bazin, Ingrid; Dan, Kazuyuki; Obata, Kazuaki; Kigawa, Koji; Ueda, Kazumitsu; Sato, Fumihiko; Forestier, Cyrille; Yazaki, Kazufumi
Alkaloids comprise one of the largest groups of plant secondary metabolites. Berberine, a benzylisoquinoline alkaloid, is preferentially accumulated in the rhizome of Coptis japonica, a ranunculaceous plant, whereas gene expression for berberine biosynthetic enzymes has been observed specifically in root tissues, which suggests that berberine synthesized in the root is transported to the rhizome, where there is high accumulation. We recently isolated a cDNA encoding a multidrug-resistance protein (MDR)-type ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporter (Cjmdr1) from berberine-producing cultured C. japonica cells, which is highly expressed in the rhizome. Functional analysis of Cjmdr1 by using a Xenopus oocyte expression system showed that CjMDR1 transported berberine in an inward direction, resulting in a higher accumulation of berberine in Cjmdr1-injected oocytes than in the control. Typical inhibitors of ABC proteins, such as vanadate, nifedipine, and glibenclamide, as well as ATP depletion, clearly inhibited this CjMDR1-dependent berberine uptake, suggesting that CjMDR1 functioned as an ABC transporter. Conventional membrane separation methods showed that CjMDR1 was localized in the plasma membrane of C. japonica cells. In situ hybridization indicated that Cjmdr1 mRNA was expressed preferentially in xylem tissues of the rhizome. These findings strongly suggest that CjMDR1 is involved in the translocation of berberine from the root to the rhizome. PMID:12524452
Newman, Adam G; Townsend, Craig A
Perylenequinones are a class of photoactivated polyketide mycotoxins produced by fungal plant pathogens that notably produce reactive oxygen species with visible light. The best-studied perylenequinone is cercosporin-a product of the Cercospora species. While the cercosporin biosynthetic gene cluster has been described in the tobacco pathogen Cercospora nicotianae, little is known of the metabolite's biosynthesis. Furthermore, in vitro investigations of the polyketide synthase central to cercosporin biosynthesis identified the naphthopyrone nor-toralactone as its direct product-an observation in conflict with published biosynthetic proposals. Here, we present an alternative biosynthetic pathway to cercosporin based on metabolites characterized from a series of biosynthetic gene knockouts. We show that nor-toralactone is the key polyketide intermediate and the substrate for the unusual didomain protein CTB3. We demonstrate the unique oxidative cleavage activity of the CTB3 monooxygenase domain in vitro. These data advance our understanding of perylenequinone biosynthesis and expand the biochemical repertoire of flavin-dependent monooxygenases.
Ledermann, Benjamin; Béjà, Oded; Frankenberg-Dinkel, Nicole
The pink open-chain tetrapyrrole pigment phycoerythrobilin (PEB) is employed by marine cyanobacteria, red algae and cryptophytes as a light-harvesting chromophore in phycobiliproteins. Genes encoding biosynthesis proteins for PEB have also been discovered in cyanophages, viruses that infect cyanobacteria, and mimic host pigment biosynthesis with the exception of PebS which combines the enzymatic activities of two host enzymes. In this study, we have identified novel members of the PEB biosynthetic enzyme families, heme oxygenases and ferredoxin-dependent bilin reductases. Encoding genes were found in metagenomic datasets and could be traced back to bacteriophage but not cyanophage origin. While the heme oxygenase exhibited standard activity, a new bilin reductase with highest homology to the teal pigment producing enzyme PcyA revealed PEB biosynthetic activity. Although PcyX possesses PebS-like activity both enzymes share only 9% sequence identity and likely catalyze the reaction via two independent mechanisms. Our data point towards the presence of phycobilin biosynthetic genes in phages that probably infect alphaproteobacteria and, therefore, further support a role of phycobilins outside oxygenic phototrophs.
Bunsupa, Somnuk; Katayama, Kae; Ikeura, Emi; Oikawa, Akira; Toyooka, Kiminori; Saito, Kazuki; Yamazaki, Mami
Lysine decarboxylase (LDC) catalyzes the first-step in the biosynthetic pathway of quinolizidine alkaloids (QAs), which form a distinct, large family of plant alkaloids. A cDNA of lysine/ornithine decarboxylase (L/ODC) was isolated by differential transcript screening in QA-producing and nonproducing cultivars of Lupinus angustifolius. We also obtained L/ODC cDNAs from four other QA-producing plants, Sophora flavescens, Echinosophora koreensis, Thermopsis chinensis, and Baptisia australis. These L/ODCs form a phylogenetically distinct subclade in the family of plant ornithine decarboxylases. Recombinant L/ODCs from QA-producing plants preferentially or equally catalyzed the decarboxylation of l-lysine and l-ornithine. L. angustifolius L/ODC (La-L/ODC) was found to be localized in chloroplasts, as suggested by the transient expression of a fusion protein of La-L/ODC fused to the N terminus of green fluorescent protein in Arabidopsis thaliana. Transgenic tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum) suspension cells and hairy roots produced enhanced levels of cadaverine-derived alkaloids, and transgenic Arabidopsis plants expressing (La-L/ODC) produced enhanced levels of cadaverine, indicating the involvement of this enzyme in lysine decarboxylation to form cadaverine. Site-directed mutagenesis and protein modeling studies revealed a structural basis for preferential LDC activity, suggesting an evolutionary implication of L/ODC in the QA-producing plants. PMID:22415272
Bunsupa, Somnuk; Katayama, Kae; Ikeura, Emi; Oikawa, Akira; Toyooka, Kiminori; Saito, Kazuki; Yamazaki, Mami
Lysine decarboxylase (LDC) catalyzes the first-step in the biosynthetic pathway of quinolizidine alkaloids (QAs), which form a distinct, large family of plant alkaloids. A cDNA of lysine/ornithine decarboxylase (L/ODC) was isolated by differential transcript screening in QA-producing and nonproducing cultivars of Lupinus angustifolius. We also obtained L/ODC cDNAs from four other QA-producing plants, Sophora flavescens, Echinosophora koreensis, Thermopsis chinensis, and Baptisia australis. These L/ODCs form a phylogenetically distinct subclade in the family of plant ornithine decarboxylases. Recombinant L/ODCs from QA-producing plants preferentially or equally catalyzed the decarboxylation of L-lysine and L-ornithine. L. angustifolius L/ODC (La-L/ODC) was found to be localized in chloroplasts, as suggested by the transient expression of a fusion protein of La-L/ODC fused to the N terminus of green fluorescent protein in Arabidopsis thaliana. Transgenic tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum) suspension cells and hairy roots produced enhanced levels of cadaverine-derived alkaloids, and transgenic Arabidopsis plants expressing (La-L/ODC) produced enhanced levels of cadaverine, indicating the involvement of this enzyme in lysine decarboxylation to form cadaverine. Site-directed mutagenesis and protein modeling studies revealed a structural basis for preferential LDC activity, suggesting an evolutionary implication of L/ODC in the QA-producing plants.
Eftekhariyan Ghamsari, Mohammad Reza; Karimi, Farah; Mousavi Gargari, Seyed Latif; Hosseini Tafreshi, Seyed Ali; Salami, Seyed Alireza
Datura stramonium is a well-known medicinal plant, which is important for its alkaloids. There are intrinsic limitations for the natural production of alkaloids in plants; metabolic engineering methods can be effectively used to conquer these limitations. In order for this the genes involved in corresponding pathways need to be studied. Virus-Induced Gene Silencing is known as a functional genomics technique to knock-down expression of endogenous genes. In this study, we silenced phytoene desaturase as a marker gene in D. stramonium in a heterologous and homologous manner by tobacco-rattle-virus-based VIGS vectors. Recombinant TRV vector containing pds gene from D. stramonium (pTRV2-Dspds) was constructed and injected into seedlings. The plants injected with pTRV2-Dspds showed photobleaching 2 weeks after infiltration. Spectrophotometric analysis demonstrated that the amount of chlorophylls and carotenoids in leaves of the bleached plants decreased considerably compared to that of the control plants. Semi-Quantitative RT-PCR results also confirmed that the expression of pds gene in the silenced plants was significantly reduced in comparison with the control plants. The results showed that the viral vector was able to influence the levels of total alkaloid content in D. stramonium. Our results illustrated that TRV-based VIGS vectors are able to induce effective and reliable functional gene silencing in D. stramonium as an alternative tool for studying the genes of interest in this plant, such as the targeted genes in tropane alkaloid biosynthetic pathway. The present work is the first report of establishing VIGS as an efficient method for transient silencing of any gene of interest in D. stramonium.
Wang, Linzhu; Beuerle, Till; Timbilla, James; Ober, Dietrich
Several insect lineages have developed diverse strategies to sequester toxic pyrrolizidine alkaloids from food-plants for their own defense. Here, we show that in two highly divergent insect taxa, the hemimetabolous grasshoppers and the holometabolous butterflies, an almost identical strategy evolved independently for safe accumulation of pyrrolizid