data/part_2/00df285cd9c52ff5e7af11b0ca50ef7e.json

{"metadata":{"id":"00df285cd9c52ff5e7af11b0ca50ef7e","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/9b48b189-fc4a-44ad-b3fd-bd2ab15be082/retrieve"},"pageCount":20,"title":"Listening to Farmers' Perceptions through Participatory Rice Varietal Selection: A Case Study in ViIlages in Eastern Uttar Pradesh, India","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":203,"text":"Decisions about the adoption oftechnology are conditional to farmers' perceptions ofthe performance of a new technology relative to that of the technology currently being practiced. Farmers may assess a new technology, such as an improved variety, in terms of a range of attributes, such as grain quality, straw yield, and inpu! requirements, in addition to grain yield (Traxler and Byerlee 1993). In Orissa, eastern India, farmers indicated preference not only for the visual appearance of rice grain, but also for attributes such as cooking quality, taste, keeping quality, and straw quality (Kshirsagar, Pandey, and Bellon 1997). If fimners perceive an improved variety to be inferior to traditional varieties in terms of one or more attributes, they are unlikely to adopt such a variety (Adesina andZinnah 1993, as cited by Kshirsagar, Pandey, andBellon 1997). Crop improvement could potentially benefit from farmers' assessments of the relative performance of different varieties under farmer management. Information on the traits desired by farmers and their knowledge of the production system could be invaluable in setting the goals of a breeding program, delineating the target environment, identifying the parents for breeding and defining the management treatment for breeding work (Sperling ･ ｾ ＠ al. 1996; Eyzaguirre and Iwanaga 1996)."},{"index":2,"size":210,"text":"Varietal preferences may differ, not only between socioeconomic groups bu! also by gender.In a farmer-participª1ory breeding (FPB) project on pearl millet in the Jodhpur district, Rajasthan, India, grain yield, early availability of grain, and the case ofharvesting by hand (lower paniele number and lower plant height) were the main considerations for making selections by women. For the men, yield and quality appeared 10 be a stronger eoneern (W' eltzien, Whitaker, and Anders 1996). WhiJe women have traditionally been seed selectors and managers of germplasm in low-input farrning systems, scientists have no! given enough attention to their local knowledge, eriteria for selection, and perceptions regarding new seeds untiJ recently, F or instance, the criteria for selecting seeds, practices of animal care and food processing, and the consequent preferences for different kinds of blending various food materials are useful starting points for building on women'g Thelma R. Paris andJoyce Luis are with the Social Sciences Division and Surapong Sarkarung is in P!ant Breeding. Genetics & Btochem;stry at lhe [ntem.tional Rice Research Institute (IRRIJ. Los Bailos. Phi[ippines. Abha Singh. Han Nalh Singh, Qrnk.r Nalh Singh. aod Sanjay Singh are with Narendr. Dev. Vniversity and Agricultural Technology (NOVA T). Kumarganj, Faiz.had. eastem Vtta, Pradesh, Indía. Ram Kathin Singh i, at IRRI's New Delhi Office."},{"index":3,"size":336,"text":"perspectives in particípatory research (Gupta et al. 1996). Another example is when high labor demands for manual tbreshing may create incentives for women to adopt vaneties that are easier to thresh (Adcsina and Forson 1995). Including women in the early evaluation of varieties ensures that new seeds can be adopted rapidly, Thus, men's and women's entena and preferences for rice vaneties should be well understood and considered in plant-breeding strategies, In March 1997, a farmer-participatory planl-breeding program for raínfed nce was developed at the Intemational Rice Research Institute (IRRI) in collaboration with the Indían Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR), This project inc\\udes síx research siles representing different nce ecosystems in eastem India, The project is under the umbrella ofthe CGIAR's Systemwíde Initiative on Participatory Research and Gender Analysis. The goal of this iniliative is to develop, test, and refine methodologies of participatory research and gender analysis as they apply to Ihe development ofnew technologies in germplasm and natural resource management. This FPB projecl aims lo test the hypothesis that farmer particípation in rainfed nce breeding can help develop suilable vaneties more efficiently, It is also designed to identifY the stages in a breeding program where farmer ínterfacing is optimaL The project has two components: the first is a plant-breeding component, whích aíms to develop and evaluate a methodology for participatory improvement of rice for heterogeneous environments, and to produce and improve adoption of matenal suíting farmers' needs. The second is a socÍal-science component (including gender analysis) that aims (1) to characterize cropping systems, diversíty ofvanetíes grown, and the crop-management practices ofrice farmers, (2) to analyze male and female farmers' selection criteria and their reactions to a range of cultivars and breeding lines, and (3). to enhance the capacities of national agricultural research systems (NARS) in participatory research and gender analysis in plant breeding andrice vanetal selection (Courtoís et al. 2000), Thís paper focuses on farmers' selectíon cnteria and their reactions to a range of cultivars and breeding lines UIlder particÍpatory vanetal selection conducted on farmers' fields,"}]},{"head":"Characteristics of the villages","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":373,"text":"The results of the socioeconomic and gender analysÍs in the FPB project includes only two villages (table 1): Mungeshpur in the Faizabad district and Basalatpur in the Siddathnagar district, eastem Vttar Pradesh. These sites are among the research sites UIlder the FPB project. A similar study was conducted in the other FPB research sites in Onssa and Madhya Pradesh, Basalatpur represents favorable (but submergence prone) lowland, rainfed arcas, Mungeshpur represents shallow, submergence-prone areas that are favorably rainfed during years of low rainfalL Basalatpur and Mungeshpur have a rugher proportion of lowland fields (70% and 60%, respectively) with heavier soil and good water-holding capacity, The flow of natural resources like rainwater (field hydrological conditions) tbroughout the season has also had a major impact on vanetal selection in these villages, F armers in Mungeshpur have more access to supplementary irrigation, wruch enables them to diversífY into other crops, partÍCularly vegetables and fodder crops, Only one diesel pump exists ín Basalatpur and trus limits crop diversífication. The importance of livestock between the two villages also differs, Livestock in Mungeshpur is more importan! than in Basalatpur, In Mungeshpur, bullocks continue to be used for Jand preparation, and tbreshing is done manually, In contrast, land preparation and threshing in Basalatpur is mechanized with the use of tractors, The degree of market onentatíon is higher in Basalatpur (nearer the cíty) where more rice is sold, The socioeconomic characteristics of the sample households are shown in table 2, Households are classified by official social categoties of caste. Muslims dominate in Basalatpur (55%), followed by scheduled and back:ward castes. In Mungeshpur, the backward and scheduled castes dominate (89%). The Yadavs, a subcaste ofthe backward caste in Mungeshpur, take care ofmilch animals. The majority ofthe farming households are owner-cultivators, and share cropping is oflimited importance. F emale labor participation in rice production is four times hígher than that of males in Basalatpur and three-fourths in Mungesphur. There is wide disparity in terms of access 10 education between men and women. In general, females have lower literacy rates than meno The differences in resource endowments, socioeconomic status, importance aflivestock, degree ofmarket orientation, gender roles and responsibilities in rice production, and family size may determine the choice of rice varieties/cultivars and agronomic management practices."}]},{"head":"Cropping systems","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":83,"text":"Rice followed by wheat + mustard is the predominant cropping pattem in al! villages. In BasaIatpur, wheat and oilseed are grown mainly for domestic use, but rice is grown for consumption as welI as marketing. On the other hand, in Mungeshpur, rice 18 mainIy grown for consumption because oflow yields and low marketabIe surplus. Rice is followed by wheat + mustard, which are grown for both domestic consumption and sale. Land preparation for rice is started in June after the arrival afthe monsoon. "}]},{"head":"The gender division of labor in rice production","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":14,"text":"The majority of the respondents belong to the lower social class, with small-sized landholdings."},{"index":2,"size":273,"text":"Females are younger and have lower literacy rates, compared to males, and have over 20 years of farming experience. The extent of female participation in rice production is high in both villages. Sorne tasks in rice production and postharvest operations are gender specific. Land preparation and the application of chemicals are men's responsibilities in both villages (10% of fertilizer application is done by women in Basalatpur). In Mungeshpur, women from the lower social status dominate in the work of pulling seedlings (100%), transplanting (70%), weeding (80%), applying farrnyard manure (60%), harvesting (82%), and threshing (82%). In Basalatpur, more men than women participate in pulling seedlings and harvesting. Women do the transplanting of seedlings (100%) and most ofthe weeding (75%), with men doing most ofthe spraying (90%). Women are also mainly responsible for postharvest activities such as cleaning and selecting the seeds for the next season, storage, and processing rice into other food products for home consumption and for sale. They are the primary end-users of rice byproducts and biomass for livestock and other farm use. A village study in eastem India revealed that women from the lower castes provided 60% to 80% ofthe total labor input in rice production (Paris et al. 1996). Aside from their significant contributions in rice production, women also provide labor in non-rice crops, collect green animal fodder, and feed and tend Iivestock. Thus, men's and women'g preferences for specifíc traits in rice varieties may differ, based on gender-specific roles and responsibilities. With inereasing male migration lo cities, women are laking on more responsibilities as farm managers, aside from theír normal household and childcare responsibilities (Paris el aL 1996)."}]},{"head":"Rice varieties","index":5,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Varieties grown by ¡armers","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":117,"text":"The rice varieties eurrently grown by farrners are shown in table 3. Traditional varieties are more cornrnon in Basalatpur than in Mungeshpur. Although modern varieties (MVs) show higher adoption rates in Mungeshpur, these varieties ofien suffer from submergenee, drought, and stress al reproduetive and ripening phases when the erop is planted late. Most farrners felt that traditional varieties are more tolerant to drought, submergenee, pests, and diseases, while MV s performed well under irrigated conditions. The majority of the farrners indieated that they felt that MVs needed better management lhan traditionaI varieties. Modero varieties need more labor, higher levels of fertilízer, and more irrigation, but more farmers prefer to grow MV s because of their higher yields. "}]},{"head":"Topographical adaptations","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":260,"text":"Farrners generally match varieties wíth their environment. For rainfed rice, this means an adaptation to the hydrological conditions of their fields, Each field position in the topo-sequence corresponds to a risk of drought or submergence. The drought risk inercases frorn the bottom to the top of the topo-sequence, while submergence risk decreases along the same path, assocíated with progressively lower water depths and earlier recession of the water. This translates into different ideotypes for the different situations. Table 4 shows varietal diversity according to land type/topography. In Basalatpur, varieties such as Bengalia, Sarya, Oriswa, Kuwari Mashuri, Malwa, and Ghanbhanan are the major traditional rice cultivars grown in the uplands, and Kalamanak, Malasia, Motibaddam, and Malwa are the major varieties grown in the lowlands. Improved varieties, such as NDR-97, PNR-38 1 , and Sarju 52 are grown in the uplands by a few farrners, but the improved variety, Mashuri, occupied more area in the lowlands. In Mungeshpur, the cornrnon local varieties grown on upland fields are Ari, Bagri, 90 days, Sonia, Lalmati, Punjab, Lalbagra, Ashwani, lndrasan, and Bilaspuri. The improved varieties are Saket-4, NDR-80, and NDR-118 in upland and medium fields and Sarju 52, Mashuri, and dwarfMashuri mostly in lowland fields, Medium-duration fields are grown mostly in medium land. Varieties such as Sarju-52. Ashwani. NDR-359. Pant-4. -10, and-12. andIndrasan are grownon the fields thatare located in between upper and lower levels oí land type. Fanners of Mungeshpur prefer to grow these varieties on the these land types on the belief that they need optimum moisture during the growth period. Fields dif-"},{"index":2,"size":14,"text":"in Basalatpur; therefore, sorne farrners prefer to grow medium varieties on upland fields also."}]},{"head":"Farmers' perceptions of usefol fraits in varietal adoption","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":143,"text":"To determine whether there are gender differences in perceptions of useful traits in varietal adoption, we used graphic illustrations of traits. We first showed cards that illustrate useful traits in selecting rice varieties. We then asked each farmer what traits he or she consider in selecting rice varieties for specific land types-upland and lowland fields. To assess how farmers valued each trait, we asked the question, \"If you had 100 paisa, how much would you pay for each trait? The value in paisa allocated to a particular trait corresponded to the importance given by the fanner. Because many traÍts are interrelated, we rec1assified them in consultation with a plant breeder. For example, we grouped traits such as ease in hullíng and mílling recovery under postharvest quality. Table 2 shows the seleetion eriteria of male and female fanners for different land types and villages."}]},{"head":"F avorahle rainfed low/ands (Basalatpur, Siddathnagar district)","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":242,"text":"In the lowland areas in Basalatpur, yield and duratíon are the most important trait5 maJe and female farmers consider in selection rice varieties, In this village, the popular traditional varieties are Bengalía, Oríswa, and Kuwari mashuri. These are short-duration (90-110 days), medium-height varieties, The average yields are 2.5 tons per hectare, Farmers prefer short-duration rice varíeties in the uplands because of the importance of growing early winter crops such as oilseed, linseed, pulses, peas, and potatoes. They prefer to parboil Bengalia; otherwise, its grains break easíly. Women in Basalatpur use traditional rice varietíes for making puffed rice and churra, beaten rice Iike cornflakes .. For women who continue to use the traditional method ofhand-pounding rice, postharvest qualities such as ease ofhulling and mgh milling recovery are additional useful traits. The men did not mention these. The finding that women are more concerned !han men with postharvest traits and milling recovery are similar to the findings in a participatory breeding project in the hígh altitudes in NepaL Sthapít, 10sm, and Wítcombe (1996) also observed that women farmers are particularly skillfuJ in assessing postharvest traits, such as milling recovery, and the cooking and eating quality of rice. They found that the evaluation scores between maJe and femaJe farmers in Chhomrong village showed significant agreement. Women farmers reported ¡hat they would like to decide on varíety selection after the postharvest evaluation. Consumers preferred wmte-grained rice to red-pericarped rice because it saves women time in milling."},{"index":2,"size":83,"text":"In Basalatpur, both male and female farmers agreed upon the important traits fo! 10wland rice varieties. Grain price is an important cohsiderlltion for farmers here because they seU traditional varíet-¡es in the market. These, like Kalamanak, command a higher price because oftheir good taste and aroma. Kalamanak gives Iow yields of 1.5 to 2 tons per hectare. In contrast, grain price is not an important consideration in Mungeshpur because rice ís mainly used for home consumption and is seldom sold in the market."}]},{"head":"Shallow, suhmergence-prone uplands (Mungeshpur, Faizahad distríd)","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":146,"text":"In Mungeshpur, both male and female farmers agreed upon important traits in selecting varieties for the uplands. Women gave more importance to postharvest qualities and grain quality such as bold and pure graíns. For the lowlands, both males and females cited better grain yield, medium duration (125-135 days), bioniass, and resistance to abiotic stress as their selection critería for lowland rice varíeties. Women gave greater weight to better adaptation to specific soH types and to grain quality. Women mentioned additional useful traits for varíeties in the uplands and lowlands that were not mentioned by men: competitiveness with weeds and postharvest quality. Weeds are the major problem in the uplands, particularly when rice is direct-seeded. In the lowlands, weeds are more prevalent during drought. These additional traits are related to the roles and responsibilities of female farnily members (e.g., hand weeding and feeding rice straw to livestock)."}]},{"head":"Farmers' evaluation of new rice genotypes grown in farmers' fields","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":119,"text":"During the 1999 monsoon season, two farmers from each of the villages of Mungeshpur and Saríyawan (rainfed neighboring village) ofthe Faizabad district and from Basalatpur were selected to check the performance of rice genotypes in their fields. The genotypes were (1) advanced lines from a shuttle breeding project from Uttar Pradesh, (2) released varieties, and (3) the most common local varieties. Of the 14 genotypes screened in Basalatpur, two are scented varíetíes (Kamini, which flowers in 136 days, and Sugandha, which flowers in 124 days). Scientists distributed the seeds through the FPB project. In this approach, breeders select the most promising lines with farmers, and farmers are given a \"basket of choices,\" growing several genotypes in their specific environments."},{"index":2,"size":125,"text":"Ten farmers (five women and five men) visited the individual plots and ranked the rice genotypes grown on farmers' fields past the maturity stage. Farmers were asked to rank the rice lines from I (exceIlent) to 14 or 16 (worst) on the basis ofvisual assessment. The rankings ofthe new cultivars by the farmers generated an n x k matrix, where n equals the lines being evaluated and k equals the farmers evaluating the crop performance. KendaIl's Coefficient ofConcordance (W) was used to measure the agreement in rankings arnong male farmers and among female farmers, and the correlation between male and female farmers' rankings. High and significant correlation values indicate cIose agreement on the ranking of the rice genotypes by men and women in the sample."},{"index":3,"size":227,"text":"Tables 5a to 5d show that in the two villages, male and female evaluators were in cIose agreement in the ranking ofthe lines. The Ws were highly significant, revealing that farmers' and breeders' rankings are ofien acceptable. Table 6 shows the surnmary of the ranking of male farmers, female farmers, and plant breeders indicating their choices. Ofthe 14 and 16 varieties ranked in Basalatpur and Mungeshpur, PVS 1, PVS3, PVS7, PVS9, PVSlO, and PVSI5 carne out as the farmers' and breeders' choices in 1999. The traits of these lines are shown on table 7. During the crop season in 2000, several ofthese lines were compared with local check through PVS. Twenty-three farmers in two villages in Faizabad grew three rice lines, while 50 farmers in six villages in Siddathnagar grew six rice lines obtained from PVS trials.      Mrs. Yadav is 53 years old, iIliterate, and a fuIl-time farmer. Her husband is a full-time worker in the 110ur and oil milis. This makes her ¡he de jacto head ofhousehold. She supervises ¡he farm and makes decisions regarding what crops and varieties to grow. Three years ago, she grew mostly local varieties because of a lack of irrigation facilities. We gave her seeds of NDR 97, a new variety, which she planted on 0.10 ha of land. Later she increased the area planted lo this variety lo 0.5 ha."},{"index":4,"size":169,"text":"She told us the positive traits she likes in this variety, such as suitability ro her land type, good taste, shorter duration, good milling recovery, ease of threshing, and medium height, and negative traits such as less rice straw: 1 don 't like the taste of Sarju52. lt is coarse and does not rema in sofi afier cookíng. Jt also does not have many broken grains afier milling. So we sold Sarju52 and used NDR359 for home consumption. One thing 1 noticed with the straw ofNDR359 is that it is sofi. so instead of storing it for a long time, we had lO feed ít immediafely fo our anima/s. 1/ we keep the straw for two to three months, it will not be very easy lO cut and the animals will refuse to eat ít. lnstead ojleaving the rice stalles to dry in the fie/d. which is our usual practice, we immediately thresh afier harvesting. lis short duration also enab/es me to grow another crop during the rabi season."},{"index":5,"size":145,"text":"Mrs. T. B Singh, 50 years old, belongs to the upper caste. Due lo labor shortages during the peak season and Ihe lack of male labor (her husband is fully engaged in a nonfarm job), she has been forced to provide physicallabor in most of Ihe rice operations. She was able to finish five years in school. She is the decision maker in !he household and is quite knowledgeable about farming. In 1997, she was one of Ihe collaborators of!he project. Afier testing 13 genotypes on her field, she obtained 5.2 tons per ha from PVS5 (NDRSB9730015), so she decided to continue to grow Ihis variety and expand the area during Ihe 1998 kharif season. She expecled to get six tons per ha, but because of drought, Ihere were many unfilled grains. She told us about Ihe variety's positive traits aside from its high yield:"},{"index":6,"size":21,"text":"1 prefer PVS5 because of Its medium duration; medium bold, cylindrical grain; resistance to pesls and diseases; and better mil/ing recovery."},{"index":7,"size":9,"text":"In 1995, we gave her new seeda of BKP246."},{"index":8,"size":248,"text":"1 like this variety too because it is suítable for the lowland rainfed area, has good yields, and is not susceptible to diseases. I like the size and the shape ofthe grain-medium and boldo It a/so has the best milling recovery and commands a high price in the market. In 1998, 1 sold four quíntals of paddy at Rs 400 per quintal, while the o/her varieties are Rs 50 less than BFK246. We use Sarju52 and Saket4 for home consumption. Saket4 has fine graíns and matures early, a trait ideal for the uplands. Our agricultural workers prefer coarse graíns, which last longer in the stomach than paddy with finer grains. I observed that the quantity ofstraw ofBFP346 is less, but grain quality is more important 10 USo Mr. Bansat Lal , 42 years old, an ilIiterate father !rom the backward caste, is a full-time fanner. Hís sons are fully engaged in nonfann activíties and his daughter-in-Iaw supervises fann activities and takes part in decision making. In 1997, he was a collaborator in the plant vanetal-selection program and obtaíned good yields. After threshing and mílling, the female members of his household al so agreed that the PVS5 (NDRSB97300 15) and PVS6 (NDRSB9730020) should be grown the following year. Both Mr. Lal and his daughter-in-law have the same criteria for selection, such as better yield, good qualíty of straw, medium height, resistance to pests and diseases, longer and fine grains, no broken grains after milling, softness and expansion after cooking."},{"index":9,"size":72,"text":"My daughter-in-law observed that PVS5 is easy to hull through hand pounding afier parboiling. Jt is a/so good for puffed rice. Mr. Lal shared the seeds ofPVS5 with other fanners. In 1998, he cultivated PVS5 and PVS6 on his 3 bigha (0.3 ha) land area. He was able to obtain a yieldofsix quintals per bigha inone pIot and four quintals in another plot. These yielils were higher than those in nearby fields."}]},{"head":"Conclusions","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":242,"text":"Socioeconomic surveys revealed that a major determinant of vanetal choice is the eonsCÍous attempt of fanners to match vaneties with the land type. Each field position in the topo-sequence corresponds to a risk of drought or submergence. In Mungeshpur (shallow and submergenceprone) fanners' eritena for selecting rice vaneties are associated mainly with duration (short to medium), for growing rabi crops after rice in the upland fields, and with better yield. A second determining factor is the adaptation to different user needs: food, livestock fodder, thatching, and cash. A third detennining factor is related to different postharvest operations like ease ofthreshing, good taste, high mil!ing recovery (above 65%), good storage capacity, and premium market price. Gender-specific roles and responsibilíties also determine vanetal preferences. For example, women prefer medium or semi-tal! vaneties that are easier to thresh, as well as vaneties that have a good quantity and quality of rice straw for livestock feed. Moreover, they prefer vaneties for the specific rice products that they make. While it may be difficult to combine all their preferred traits into one unique vanety because of genetic correlations, it is ímportant that both men and women have a \"basket of choices\" of vaneties suited to their needs and agroecosystems. elearly, Iistening to fanners' perceptions and involving both men and women fanners in selecting rice varieties at the early stage of breeding can lead to faster adoption of varieties suited to their specific rice ecosysteros and diverse needs."}]},{"head":"armers• Perceptions through Participatory Rice Varietal Seleerían","index":13,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Introduction","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":153,"text":"In many regions of the world farmers routinely produce seeds for their staple crops. 111is i5 partículady cornmon in regions where agricultural production is affected by frequent and unpredíctable droughts, as in most areas where pearl millet (PennÍsetum glaucum [L.] R.BL),a cross-pollínating crop, is grown. Under these harsh climatie conditions, fanners have developed landraces that tend to show good levels of tolerance to these environments. 111e farmers have also evolved strategies for maintaining seed during drought years in order to safeguard food production and animal foddeL Given the fuet that formal plant-breeding programs have failed to develop superior varieties for marginallands and low-input conditions, the main objective ofthe study presented here is to better understsnd farmers' own seed-management pmctices as a basis for planning and implementing participatory strategíes that capitalize on fanners' local knowledge. This approach would aliow researchers to then conCentrate on specific weaknesses that farmers' own selection pmctices cannot effectively address."},{"index":2,"size":28,"text":"To date, these local strategies, including the fanners' needs and preferences, along with details of their cropping systems, are not familiar to scientists involved in conventional breeding programs."},{"index":3,"size":165,"text":"Kirsten vom Brocke ;, • PhD student al the Institute of Plant Breeding, Seed Science and Populatíon Generics, University of Hohenheim. Stuttgart, Germany; Anja Christinck is a PhD ,lUdent at !he In't;tule for Social Seiences of the Agricultural Se<:tor, Department ofCommW1ication and Extension, University ofHohenheim; and Eva Weltzien is a principal scientist witb !he Interna-lÍan.! Crops Researeh Institute for lhe Sem;-Arid Tropios (lCRlSA n, in Bam.ko, Malí (West Amea). The work jll'esented here is part of rhe project \"Enhancing qu.lity, diversity and productivíty of fanners' peorl millet genetic <esoorces in Rajasthan, India,\" which i5 acollaborative acrivity ofthe Intemational Crops Research Instítute forthe ｓ ･ ｭ ｩ ｾ ａ ｲ ｩ ､ ＠ Tropies (ICRlSAn. Hyderabad, Indía; ilS natíonal partner ín,titutlons in Rajaslban, including lbe Central Arid Zone Research Institule (CAZRI), Rajasthan Agriculture University (RAU M.ndor) •• nd lbe N.tianal Bureau for Plant Genetic Resourees (NBPGR), and the Universiry ofHohenheim in Germany. We thank all scientists and staffmembers involved foc their personal support to this study."},{"index":4,"size":86,"text":"particularly Dr. Thomas Presterl and Prof. Dr. H.H. Geiger (Univer,;ty afHohenheim, lnstitule ofPlant breeding, Seed Science and Popularion Genetícs), Prof. Dr. V. Hoffinann (Agricultural Social Sc;ences, Department of Communication and Extension), Dr. P. BrameI-Cox (lCRlSA n, and Dr. O.P. Yadav (CAZRI). The enlbusiastic and most competen< participation offarmer, from Ibe villages of A'gola;, Udaipur Khurd, Kíchiyasar, and Nunwa in !he workshops ís equally acknowledged. We further thank the German MinislTy for Economic Cooperation and Development (BMZ) for funding through !he German Society for Technical Co-operation (GTZ)."},{"index":5,"size":60,"text":"The objectives of this projeet are listed below: l. To describe farmers' own crop-improvement activíties in regard to yieJd, quality, and diversity of pearl míllet, with special emphasis on seed-management strategies, such as introgression of modem varieties, seJection, storage, processing, exchange, and procurement 2. To quantifY the effects of farmer activities on the genetic structure and performance ofpearl millet populations"}]},{"head":"Short description of the study area","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":180,"text":"Rajasthan ís situated in the northwest ofIndia (figure 1). It is a semi-arid regíon wíth a mean annual rainfaU that ranges !Tom < 250 mm in the westem part (Thar Desert) to > 650 mm in the southeast (figure 2). In this study, we refer only to the westem part ofthe state, where farmers must make do with ¡ess than 350 mm of annual rainfall, with high variabilíty!Tom year to year. Experienced farmers often talk of a 10-year cyc1e in which two seasons have good raíns, two have severe drought with crop failures, and the rest usually have fair to good seasons. Soils are mainly sandy, and sand dunes are common. VilIages are typically scattered across wide areas. Pearl míllet is grown tbree to four months during the monsoon season, mostly in mixtures with other crops, such as legumes and cucurbits. Animal husbandry is another important par! of tbe farmíng system. Social conditions in tbe víllages are govemed by the caste system. Even today, the caste system stilllargely determines people's social status, occupation, income, and access to education and information.  "}]},{"head":"Farmers' seed-management strategies","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":5,"text":"Farmer's concept 01 a \"variety\""},{"index":2,"size":124,"text":"Farmers' seed management can only be evaluated if one fully understands the farmers' concept of a \"variety.\" Ims term, as understood by plant breeders, does not seem lO be fully appropriate for the farmers' pearl míllet seed system in west Rajasthan. In order to learo how farmers perceive \"varieties,\" informal interviews as well as classification and ranking exercises were carried out during workshops with farmers from the study villages. Care was taken to inelude both female and male farmers in the interviewing process. The results demonstrate tha! environrnental adaptation was the main eriterion for farmers' c!assification of pearl millet plants in westem Rajasthan. Potential uses and quality aspeets further eontributed to the farmers' method of grouping different plant types (Christinck and vom Brocke 1998)."},{"index":3,"size":245,"text":"Traditionallandraces that have adapted to the environment show a high basal and nodal tillering ability, indicating toleranee to drought and low requirements for soil fertilíty. If these eharaeteristies are combined with tmn stems, narrow leaves, and thin, compact panicles with srnall grains, farmers will conclude that sueh a plant will grow under low-input eonditions (Le., in their fields) and produce grain and straw of high nutritional quality. In contrast, the characteristics of modem varieties are low basal and nodal tillering ability, tmck stems with broad leaves, and Iarge panicles with relatively large grains Iha! are mostly round in shape. From the farmers' experience, this plant type is not toleranl lo drought stress, requires higher soil fertility, and has inferior food and fodder qualities. Farmers, however, are aware that pearl millet plants showing such characterístics can produce higher yields under favorable conditions (Chrístinck and vom Brocke 1998). Farmers are therefore concemed about the composition oftheir seed stocks, i.e., wmch plant types and, thus, which properties are present. Farmers expect plant types to change over time, in reaction to environmental conditions such as soil quality and raínfall, so Iha! the seed stock generated in one year cannot be exactly reproduced the next season. They have a strong concept of continuous interactions between plant type and environmenl, as evidenced by their belief, or experience, that any pearl millet cultivar, including modern varieties, that is grown in their fie1d for sorne years will eventually become like their local cultivars."},{"index":4,"size":62,"text":"Contrary to the views of professional plant breeders, the farmers' concept of a \"variety\" is not that of a population with more or less uniform and stable plant characterístics based on its genetic background; the term \"variety\" is applied to a plant type that is evolving under or adapting lo certain environmental conditions. This concept is reflected in fue farmers' seed-management strategies."}]},{"head":"What is seed management?","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":54,"text":"Seed management comprises all activities of a farming faroily that influence their seed stock, including introgression of modern cultivars (open-pollinated varieties or hybrids), seed selection, processing, storage, exchange, and procurement. In this paper, we refer mainly 10 seed selection and processíng, and the ways in wmch farmers deal with modem varieties frorn the market."},{"index":2,"size":80,"text":"Ways 01 se/ecting or processing seed Farmers in Rajasthan generally employ two main selection methods. The first is winnowing or grading, which entails cleaning and separating seed grains. The rate of selection can vary greatly. It may be lhat only 10% of the threshed and stored grain will be rejected (rnainly husks and broken and insect-infested grains), or more than 50% ifthe grains, for example, are small and not fully developed. Generally, the smaller grains are be used for food."},{"index":3,"size":142,"text":"The second method, which is also very cornmon, is the selection of panicles that show preferred traits. Farmers usually select for panicles on the threshing ground afier the panicles have been separated from the straw, although sorne farrners prefer to select for panicles in the field before harvesting, taking the entire plant into consideration, e.g., number oftillers, height. Even by inspecting the panicle, farrners can envisage what the plant's other characteristics looked like (or would look like when regrown). Many farmers do not perforrn panicle selection every year, but only in the better seasons, which usually occur every two to four years. In harsher years, they are most likely to use the winnowing/grading method. A third, less cornmon, forrn of selection is to use the harvest of a preferred field-a field considered to be more fertile than others-for sowing the following year."},{"index":4,"size":147,"text":"Using \"improved varieties\" or hybrids from the market If a farrning family does use pearl millet seed from the market, in most cases it will be mixed into the family's own seed stock. In western Rajasthan, farrners without access to irrigation facilities generally do not grow improved varieties or hybrids in pure stands. Market seed is mostly certified or \"truthfully labeled\" seed. Further advanced generations of such seed can be optioned from the market or from other farrners. This grain is not labeled and its origin is ofien unknown. There are two ways in which farmers use seed from the market: l. Occasional introgression of new seed from the market into the previous year' s seed stock: the resulting crop consists of many different plant types (traditionallandrace, market variety, and several generations of progeny). Mixing ratio and frequency can vary widely, ranging from 1:10 up to 50:50."},{"index":5,"size":68,"text":"2. Regular introgression ofnew seed from the market into the previous year's seed stock, selecting for desired plant types among outcrosses: One or more new plant types will become dominant, and the variability of plant types is less than in the first example. The amount and frequency of mixing new seed, as well as selection intensity, can differ greatly from farmer to farrner and from year to year."},{"index":6,"size":79,"text":"It is important to understand that most farmers do not use improved varieties to replace their own seed, as is ofien assurned. Rather, they use new seed to increase the variability of plant types in their fields, thereby creating new options for their strategies of selecting for preferred plant characteristics, including grain and straw yield, food and fodder quality, storability, drought tolerance, early maturity, tolerance to adverse weather conditions (heat, sandstorrns, thunaerstorrns), and resistance to bird or locust damage."}]},{"head":"Social aspects of seed management","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":222,"text":"The availability of seed grain at the onset of rains is very important for farmers in western Rajasthan. The success of a crop depends very much on sowing irnmediately afier the first rains of the monsoon. For centuries, farmers have had to deal with crop failures due to severe drought conditions. Therefore, \"taking care ofthe seed\" is considered to be of great importance. Farmers who can successfully maintain their own seed, or be in a position to provide other villagers with seed in times of scarcity, are considered to be good farmers and are respected by al!. There is a special caste in most villages for whom maintaining seed and sharing it with others is considered to be a traditional obligation. Nevertheless, other farrners can also build up a reputation for owning good seed, and \"lending\" or sellíng il to others. Seed management is, therefore, related to aspects of caste and status in vilIage life. Furthermore, ít ís a gender-related actívíty. Selecting the seed, storíng it, and processing it before sowing is traditionally done by women, whereas soil preparation and sowing ís usually done by men. Men also often participate in harvesting, and depending on the family, they can be equally involved in selecting seed. Buyíng seed from the market and obtaining information about market varieties is done almost exeJusively by men."},{"index":2,"size":167,"text":"Diverse seed-management strategies co-exist ín villages in western Rajasthan, reflecting the diversíty of socíoeconomic conditíons: farmers who grow traditionallandraces with or without selection; families who mix, sometimes orregularly, seed from the market ínto the landrace seed with or without selectíon; and familíes who sow the pure seed of markct varieties. All these seed-management strategies can be found in one village. Even though pearl millet is a cross-pollinating crop, it seems to be possible for a village cornmuníty to maintain a diversity of plant types. The reasons for a farming family using a certain strategy can only be partly explained by soíl conditions and c1imatic factors. Other important factors seem to be the size ofthe landholding (market-oriented or subsistence-oriented), the number and species of animals and their fodder requirements, the aecess to cash income or loans to buy seed, the family tradition and knowledge, and access to information on new varieties, e.g., literacy and mobility. Most ofthese socioeconomic conditions are related to the caste system in Rajasthani villages."}]},{"head":"Quantification of the effects oC farmers' seed-management strategies","index":19,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Material and methods","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":356,"text":"To quantif)' the effects of farmers' seed management, 69 graín stock samples were collected from 16 farmers located in four different villages in westem and central Rajasthan during 1995-1997. Samples were characterized by the farmer, e.g., as separated seed grain and food grain, and were classified into four main seed-management strategies (rabie 1). These grain samples from farmers, along with 12 modem varieties known to be grown in these víllages, were evaluated under varyíng drought-stress conditions at three research stations in westem Rajasthan (Mandor, Jodhpur, Palí) between 1997 and 1998. Climatíc conditíons in 1997 were generally favorable, whereas in 1998 severe drought affected the plant growth, especíally at Mandor. The fie1d trials comprised 81 entries and were laid out in lattice designs with five replications. The different plant traits that are used by farmers and scientists 10 describe the performance of pearl millet were recorded in order to assess productivity and characteristícs of entries. These plant traits inc1uded noda! tillering, leaf shape, stem diameter, panicle girth, number of productíve tillers, grain weight, straw and grain yield, as well as diversity of plant types withín one entry. Separate analysis of the five test environments revealed a significant phenotypic relationship betwcen grain yield and plant characteristics (table 2). The number ofpanicles and basal tillers, plus nodal tillering and phenotypic diversity ofplant types within one entry, were al! positívely assocíated with grain yield in the stress envíronments and negatively associated in the non-stress environments. Conversely, entries with large stems, large leaves and panicles, and bold grains showed negative correlatíon coefficients with grain yield under stress conditions and positive coefficients in the non-stress environments. A genotype X envITonment (GE) analysis based on grain-yield data was carried out in order to gain an overall view ofthe effects ofthese strategies on the adaptation offarmers' seed stocks to different environments. For this purpose pattem analysis was used to c1assify environments and to assess relatíonships between the entries and between environments, as well as 10 analyze the interrelation between entries and environments. To generate the analysis, the statistícal packet GEBEI was used (Watson et al. 1996). The details ofthis calculation will be published elsewhere."}]},{"head":"Results and discussion","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":129,"text":"The phenotypic relationship described in table 2 shows the effectíveness of fanners' seed-management strategies. Entries with plant characteristics that farmers associated with adaptation 10 stress proved to be more productíve under stress conditions than other entries. These findings were supported by the results of the pattem analysis. The analysis indicated that most of the entries classified as LR showed dose interactíon with the preflowering drought stress at Mandor and Jodhpur. Compared 10 the LR entries, entries classified as IGRI tended to show a less specific interaction with the stress envITonments. In contrast to the management groups LR and IGRI, a change in the adaptatíon pattem seemed to be obvious in entries derived from IGR2. The positive interactíon of the samp!es exc\\usively with the preflowering drought environments was mostly eliminated."},{"index":2,"size":42,"text":"Entries also tended to show relatívely high productivity in more favorable environments. Samples grouped in IGR2 thus tended to perform fairIy well in al! the test environments. Entries labeled as modem varieties (MV), indicated almost no positive associatíon with the preflowering drought"}]}],"figures":[{"text":" Figure 1. The state of Rajastban in the northwest ofIndia "},{"text":"Figure 2 . Figure 2. District capitals and zones of mean annual rainfall in the study area "},{"text":"Table 1 . VilIage Characteristics, Basalatpur (Siddathnagar District) and Mungeshpur (Faizabad District),India, 1997     Agroecology Basalatpur. Siddathnagar Mungeshpur, Faizabad AgroecologyBasalatpur. SiddathnagarMungeshpur, Faizabad   Shallow, submergence-prone, favorable Shallow, submergence-prone, favorable  Favorable lowland rainled during years of low rainlall Favorable lowlandrainled during years of low rainlall Total no. of households 140 133 Total no. of households140133 Sample size for surveys 50 50 Sample size for surveys5050 No. of male farmers 30 30 No. of male farmers3030 No. 01 lemale farmers 20 20 No. 01 lemale farmers2020 Land types (%)   Land types (%) Lowland 70% 60% Lowland70%60% Mediumland O 20% MediumlandO20% Upland 30% 20% Upland30%20% Irrígation source (private pump) 1% 10% Irrígation source (private pump)1%10% Importance 01 livestock Low High Importance 01 livestockLowHigh Degree 01 markel orientallon High Low Degree 01 markel orientallonHighLow  "},{"text":"Table 2 . Transplanting and broadcasting are done in luIy; weeding, in August; and harvesting and threshing, in Oclober to December. During the rabi (dry) season from November to April, crops such as wheat + mustard, peas, grams, lentils, berseem as green fodder, and vegetables are grown. A few farmers, who have their own irrigalion sources, grow crops like mung, maize, vegetables, and green fodder during the zaid season (late April to lune) in Mungeshpur. Growing crops during the rabi and zaid seasons i5 not common in Basalatpur because of the lack of irrigation facilities. Socioeconomic Characteristics of Sample Households, 1997 Characteristics Basalatpur, Siddathnagar Mungeshpur, Faizabad CharacteristicsBasalatpur, SiddathnagarMungeshpur, Faizabad Caste composition ('lo 01 households)   Caste composition ('lo 01 households) Upper caste 6% 9% Upper caste6%9% Backward caste 18% 49% Backward caste18%49% Scheduled caste 21% 42% Scheduled caste21%42% Minorily 55% O Minorily55%O Area by tenure ('lo 01 households))   Area by tenure ('lo 01 households)) Share-in 3% O Share-in3%O Share-out O 1% Share-outO1% Owner-cultivated 97% 99% Owner-cultivated97%99% Labor inputs in rice (dayslha)   Labor inputs in rice (dayslha) Male farmers 25 dayslha (19) 45 dayslha (25) Male farmers25 dayslha (19)45 dayslha (25) Female famners 105 dayslha (81) 130 dayslha (75) Female famners105 dayslha (81)130 dayslha (75) Categories ollarmers (%)   Categories ollarmers (%) Marginal «1 ha) 68% 80% Marginal «1 ha)68%80% Small (1-2 ha) 24% 16% Small (1-2 ha)24%16% Large ( >2 ha) 8% 4% Large ( >2 ha)8%4% Ave. operational size 1.00 ha 0.70 ha Ave. operational size1.00 ha0.70 ha Literacy rates (%)   Literacy rates (%) Male head 72% 51% Male head72%51% Female head 40% 14% Female head40%14% Average family size 7 7 Average family size77 Note:   Note:  "},{"text":"Figures in parentheses are percentages oftotal mate and femate labor inputs in rice production.   "},{"text":"Table 3 . Popular Rice Varieties Grown by Farmers According to Land Type Landtype Variety Basalatpur  Mungeshpur LandtypeVarietyBasalatpurMungeshpur Uplandlmidland Traditional Bengalía. Sarya, Kuwan Ari. Bagrí, Balbagra, Chaini UplandlmidlandTraditionalBengalía. Sarya, KuwanAri. Bagrí, Balbagra, Chaini   Mashurí, Oríswa, Malwa Mashurí, Oríswa, Malwa  Improved NDR-97, ｓ ｡ ｾ ｵ Ｍ Ｕ Ｒ Ｎ ＠ PNR-381 Saket-4, NDR-80, 91,118 ImprovedNDR-97, ｓ ｡ ｾ ｵ Ｍ Ｕ Ｒ Ｎ ＠PNR-381Saket-4, NDR-80, 91,118     NDR-359, Pant-4. Pant-10, NDR-359, Pant-4. Pant-10,     Pant-12, Sarju-52 Pant-12, Sarju-52 Shaliow ｬ ｯ ｷ ｬ ｡ ｮ ､ ｾ ｯ ｷ ｬ ｡ ｮ ､ ＠ TradHional Kalamanak, Motibaddam, Bilaspurí, lodrasan Shaliow ｬ ｯ ｷ ｬ ｡ ｮ ､ ｾ ｯ ｷ ｬ ｡ ｮ ､ ＠TradHionalKalamanak, Motibaddam,Bilaspurí, lodrasan   Malwa, Malasia  Malwa, Malasia  Improved Mashuri, Rajshree, Sambha Mashuri, Madhu, BKP-246, ImprovedMashuri, Rajshree, SambhaMashuri, Madhu, BKP-246,   Mashuri  Dwarf Mashun MashuriDwarf Mashun  "},{"text":"Table 4 . Farmers' Perceptions ofUseful Traits in Selecting Rice Varieties According to Land Type  -----   Mungeshpur     -----Mungeshpur  Upland lowland Upland  lowland UplandlowlandUplandlowland Traits Male female Male Fomale Mal. Female  Male Female TraitsMalefemaleMaleFomaleMal.FemaleMaleFemale Grain yi.ld 36.67 39.50 48.67 49.67 41,67 35,96  42,06 40.45 Grain yi.ld36.6739.5048.6749.6741,6735,9642,0640.45 Ouration 25.83 34.5Q 0,67 1.00 20.56 25,84  20.56 15,QQ Ouration25.8334.5Q0,671.0020.5625,8420.5615,QQ Grain príce 0.00 0,00 15.67 16.00 1.67 2.81  2.97 1.82 Grain príce0.000,0015.6716.001.672.812.971.82 Resistance ID abiotic stress Biomass quality 8.33 3.33 6.10 2.50 0.67 5.33 0.33 4,61 6.10 5.00 6.18 2.25 ! 5.10 5.52 5.00 8.64 Resistance ID abiotic stress Biomass quality8.33 3.336.10 2.500.67 5.330.33 4,616.10 5.006.18 2.25!5.10 5.525.00 8.64 Taste 1,67 0.50 10.33 12,33 2.78 2.81  2.12 3,18 Taste1,670.5010.3312,332.782.812.123,18 Bold and pura graln 7.61 1.50 1.67 0,00 4.44 4.49  3.40 5.00 Bold and pura graln7.611.501.670,004.444.493.405.00 Adaplation lo speciflc soillype 3.33 3.00 2.33 0,67 5.00 4.49  5.52 6.36 Adaplation lo speciflc soillype3.333.002.330,675.004.495.526.36 Postllarves! quaHIy 0.83 3,00 6.67 7.67 0.00 5.06  0.00 2,27 Postllarves! quaHIy0.833,006.677.670.005.060.002,27 Resistance to bioHc stress 4.17 2.50 1,00 1.33 3.89 1,69  4.25 3.18 Resistance to bioHc stress4.172.501,001.333.891,694.253.18 Cooking characteristics 0.83 1,00 1.67 2.00 3.89 3,92  3.40 5.00 Cooking characteristics0.831,001.672.003.893,923.405.00 Response to fertilizar 2.50 1.00 2.67 1.33 5,00 2.25  4.25 1.82 Response to fertilizar2.501.002.671.335,002.254.251.82 Competitiveness with weeds 0.00 0.00 0.00 2.33 0.00 2.25  0.00 2.27 Competitiveness with weeds0.000.000.002.330.002.250.002.27 Resistance to lodging 1.67 0.00 2.65 0.67 0.00 0.00  0.85 0.00 Resistance to lodging1.670.002.650.670.000.000.850.00 Adaptation to several preparations 2.34 4.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00  0.00 0.00 Adaptation to several preparations2.344.000.000.000.000.000.000.00 TOTAL 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0  100.0 100,0 TOTAL100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0100,0  "},{"text":"Table 5a . Summary Ranking of Rice Genotypes inBasalatpur, Siddathnagar District, 1999     Field 1  M.tes(5)  Femates(5) Breeders (3) Field 1M.tes(5)Femates(5)Breeders (3) No. Unes Ave. Score R.nk Ave.score R.nk Ave. score Rank No.UnesAve. ScoreR.nkAve.scoreR.nkAve. scoreRank PVSl NDR-40032 2.4 3 2.6 2 3.0 2 PVSlNDR-400322.432.623.02 PVS2 Kamini 8.4 8 8.8 6 11.3 12 PVS2Kamini8.488.8611.312 PVS3 NDR-9730004 5.8 5 7.0 5 4.0 3 PVS3NDR-97300045.857.054.03 PVS4 Bindili 6.4 6 8.8 6 10.3 11 PVS4Bindili6.468.8610.311 PVSS NDR-9830103 10.6 10 13.2 11 9.3 10 PVSSNDR-983010310.61013.2119.310 PVS6 Sugandha 10.8 10 7.0 5 12.0 13 PVS6Sugandha10.8107.0512.013 PVS7 NDR-96005 6.8 7 7.6 7 6.3 5 PVS7NDR-960056.877.676.35 PVS8 4113 14.0 11 12.4 10 14.0 14 PVS8411314.01112.41014.014 PVS9 NDR-9730015 3.0 2 1.8 1 5.3 4 PVS9NDR-97300153.021.815.34 PVS10 NDR-9730020 2.0 1 4.0 3 2.0 1 PVS10NDR-97300202.014.032.01 PVSll Malasia 9.6 9 5.2 4 8.7 9 PVSllMalasia9.695.248.79 PVS12 RAU-1308-10-11-3•1•2-4-3 8.6 11 7.4 5 6.7 6 PVS12RAU-1308-10-11-3•1•2-4-38.6117.456.76 PVS13 CN-l03S•61 4.8 4 10.0 9 8.0 8 PVS13CN-l03S•614.8410.098.08 PVS14 RAU-1411•10 10.4 10 9.2 8 7.0 7 PVS14RAU-1411•1010.4109.287.07   W=.73••  W=.63**  w=.70'\"  W=.73••W=.63**w=.70'\" ••Significant at 0.5 and .10 per cent leve!.       ••Significant at 0.5 and .10 per cent leve!.  "},{"text":"Table 5b . Summary Ranking of Rice Genotypes inBasalatpur, Siddatbnagar District, 1999     Fleld2  Males (5)  F.mal •• (5) Br.eder. (3) Fleld2Males (5)F.mal •• (5)Br.eder. (3)   Ave,  Ave.  Ave.  Ave,Ave.Ave. No. Lines score Rank score Rank seor. Rank No.LinesscoreRankscoreRankseor.Rank PVSl NDR•40032 2.2 2 3.8 3 3.3 4 PVSlNDR•400322.223.833.34 PVS2 Kamini 7.2 6 7.8 7 10.7 10 PVS2Kamini7.267.8710.710 PVS3 NDR•9730004 8.2 1 5.4 5 2.7 2 PVS3NDR•97300048.215.452.72 PVS4 Blndili 5.6 4 2.6 2 11.7 11 PVS4Blndili5.642.6211.711 PVS5 NDR•9830103 8.0 7 9.2 8 9.7 9 PVS5NDR•98301038.079.289.79 PVS6 Sugandha 604 5 6.2 5 9.3 8 PVS6Sugandha60456.259.38 PVS7 pvsa NOR•96005 4113 4.6 11.0 3 9 6.4 12.2 5 10 5.3 13.3 5 12 PVS7 pvsaNOR•96005 41134.6 11.03 96.4 12.25 105.3 13.35 12 PVS9 NDR•9730015 1.8 1 1.8 1 1.3  PVS9NDR•97300151.811.811.3 PVS10 NOR•9730020 2.4 2 5.0 4 3.0 3 PVS10NOR•97300202.425.043.03 PVS11 Malasia 12.6 10 7.2 6 9.3 8 PVS11Malasia12.6107.269.38 PVS12 RAU•1308-1Q.ll•3-1•2 .... 3 13.6 11 12.2 10 7.7 7 PVS12RAU•1308-1Q.ll•3-1•2 .... 313.61112.2107.77 PVS13 CN•1035-61 8.6 8 12.2 10 6.0 6 PVS13CN•1035-618.6812.2106.06 PVS14 RAU•1411•10 12.8 10 11.0 9 11.7 11 PVS14RAU•1411•1012.81011.0911.711   W=.90 u  w=.72!t'A  w=31*\"  W=.90 uw=.72!t'Aw=31*\"  "},{"text":"Table Se . Summary Ranking ofRice Genotypes inMungesbpur, Faizabad District, 1999     Field 1  Mal •• (S)  Fem,le. (5\\ Breadars (3) Field 1Mal •• (S)Fem,le. (5\\Breadars (3) No. Unes Avescores Rank Ave scores Rank Ave scores Rank No.UnesAvescoresRankAve scoresRankAve scoresRank PVSl NDR40032 3.2 3 2.6  2 1.7 1 PVSlNDR400323.232.621.71 PVS2 Kamíni 15.8 16 15.2  14 15.3 16 PVS2Kamíni15.81615.21415.316 PVS3 NDR•9730004 6.6 6 6.0  4 3.0 2 PVS3NDR•97300046.666.043.02 PVS4 NDR•9730003 10.4 13 7.2  7 3.7 3 PVS4NDR•973000310.4137.273.73 PVS5 RAU-1308•9-3-1•10-3-4-3 8.4 8 9.0  8 13.0 13 PVS5RAU-1308•9-3-1•10-3-4-38.489.0813.013 PVS6 PSRM•1-1648-1 13.8 15 14.8  13 14.0 13 PVS6PSRM•1-1648-113.81514.81314.013 PVS7 NDR•9830102 2.9 1 1.8  1 5.7 5 PVS7NDR•98301022.911.815.75 PVS8 NDR-9730002 9.2 10 12.6 . 10 7.0 8 PVS8NDR-97300029.21012.6.107.08 PVS9 NDR-!l730015 8.0 7 6.6  5 5.0 4 PVS9NDR-!l7300158.076.655.04 PVS10 NDR-!l730020 5.4 4 7.0  6 6.0 6 PVS10NDR-!l7300205.447.066.06 PVSll Mashuri 6.6 5 10.6  9 9.7 10 PVSllMashuri6.6510.699.710 PVS12 RAlJ..1308-10•11-3-1 .... 3 10.2 11 13.0  11 12.0 12 PVS12RAlJ..1308-10•11-3-1 .... 310.21113.01112.012 PVS13 PVS14 NDR-96012 RAU-1411-10 9.0 , lOA 9 12 8.8 6.0  8 4 8.0 10.0 9 11 PVS13 PVS14NDR-96012 RAU-1411-109.0 , lOA9 128.8 6.08 48.0 10.09 11 PVS15 NDR•9830103 3.0 2 3.4  3 6.7 7 PVS15NDR•98301033.023.436.77 PVS16 RAU•1400-13-20Q.4-6 14.0 14 13.2  12 13.3 140 PVS16RAU•1400-13-20Q.4-614.01413.21213.3140   w\"71-   w=.81**  w=O,79*\" w\"71-w=.81**w=O,79*\"  "},{"text":"Table 5d . Summary Ranking of Rice Genolypes inMungeshpur, Faizabad District, 1999     Fieid 2  Mal •• (S)  Female. (5)    Fieid 2Mal •• (S)Female. (5) No Unes Ave scores Rank Ave seores Rank= Ave scores Rank NoUnesAve scoresRankAve seoresRank= Ave scoresRank PVS1 NDR-40032 4.2 3 3.4 3 2.3 1 PVS1NDR-400324.233.432.31 PVS2 Kamini 11.4 12 14,4 14 14,7 11 PVS2Kamini11.41214,41414,711 PVS3 NDR-973004 8.0 7 6.2 4 4,7 2 PVS3NDR-9730048.076.244,72 PVS4 NDR-973003 8.6 9 8.0 8 8,0 6 PVS4NDR-9730038.698.088,06 PVS5 RAU-1308-9-3-1-10-3-4-3 14 12.0 12 14.3 10 10 PVS5RAU-1308-9-3-1-10-3-4-31412.01214.31010 PVS6 PSRM-I-16-48-1 12.8 13 11.8 11 12.3 8 PVS6PSRM-I-16-48-112.81311.81112.38 PVS7 NDR-9830102 3.6 2 2.4 2 7.0 5 PVS7NDR-98301023.622.427.05 PVS8 NDR-9730002 8.0 7 10.0 9 8,7 7 PVS8NDR-97300028.0710.098,77 PVS9 NDR-9730015 5.6 5 6.4 5 5.0 2 PVS9NDR-97300155.656.455.02 PVS10 NDR-9730020 5.2 4 7,0 6 6.0 4 PVS10NDR-97300205.247,066.04 PVS11 Mashun 10.6 10 13.6 13 7,0 4 PVS11Mashun10.61013.6137,04 PVS12 RAU-1308-10-11-3-1-4-3 8 10.2 la 12.7 9 9 PVS12RAU-1308-10-11-3-1-4-3810.2la12.799 PVS13 NDR-96012 10,8 11 72 7 9.3 7 PVS13NDR-9601210,8117279.37 PVS14 RAU-141HO 7,0 6 10,0 9 9,0 7 PVS14RAU-141HO7,0610,099,07 PVS15 NDR-9830103 1.6 1 1.4 1 5.3 3 PVS15NDR-98301031.611.415.33 PVS16 RAU-1400-13-20 15,0 15 10,0 9 9.7 6 PVS16RAU-1400-13-2015,01510,099.76    w-z.6S ... •  W=.65\"'''  w=.60 u w-z.6S ... •W=.65\"'''w=.60 u  "},{"text":"Table 6 . Summary Ranking ofPreferred Lines by Male and Female Farmers and Plant Breeders, 1999 Mala farmer. Female farmers Plan! breeders Mala farmer.Female farmersPlan! breeders  "},{"text":" tried many varieties since the las! jour lo five yeors such as Saket4 and NDR80. but because they were damoged by drought and disease, 1 slopped growing Ihem. 1 shifted back lo a local variety [ARIj although it does not laste good, has poor míllíng recovery and coarse grains. But 1 like NDR97 because of its suitobilíty lo my land, good laste, and shorter duralion. The only problem is Ihat it produces less biomass [strow}, which is no! enough for my two bul/ocles and five buffoloes. We need more straw for Ihe animols Ihroughoul the year. We a/so growcurbi [greenfodderj ond harvest them green during the kharif season. Due 10  "},{"text":"Table 1 . Farmers' Seed-Management Strategies as Represented in Field Trials LR Mainlains only locallandrace seed without introgression 01 modem malerial LRMainlains only locallandrace seed without introgression 01 modem malerial  SeleClion method mainly winnowlng SeleClion method mainly winnowlng IGR1 Occasionally introgresses modem varieties into iandrace IGR1Occasionally introgresses modem varieties into iandrace  Seiection method malnly wlnnowlng Seiection method malnly wlnnowlng IGR2 Introgresses modem malerial more regularly than strategy IGR1 IGR2Introgresses modem malerial more regularly than strategy IGR1  Seleels regularly/frequenlly for panicles Seleels regularly/frequenlly for panicles  "},{"text":"Table 2 . Phenotypic Correlation of Observed Traits witli Grain Yicld    Environments   Environments  Favorable Mild terminal drought Early drought FavorableMild terminal droughtEarly drought Traits MAN97 J0091 PAL97 MAN98 J0098 TraitsMAN97J0091PAL97MAN98J0098 Graio weighl 0.69*• 0.75\" 0.42** . 0.08 -0.25' Graio weighl0.69*•0.75\"0.42** .0.08-0.25' Panicle girth 0.70** 0.83\" 0.42\" -0.60- -0.24' Panicle girth0.70**0.83\"0.42\"-0.60--0.24' Lcafwidlh 0.38-  0.33\" -0.62- -0.24' Lcafwidlh0.38-0.33\"-0.62--0.24' Slcm diameler 0.62\" 0.69- 0.41•• -0.65\" -0.14 Slcm diameler0.62\"0.69-0.41••-0.65\"-0.14 No. of panicles -0.54\" -0.46\" -0.41 0.90- 0.48\" No. of panicles-0.54\"-0.46\"-0.410.90-0.48\" Tíllers -O.54*\" -0.58- 0.01 0.67- 0.36- Tíllers-O.54*\"-0.58-0.010.67-0.36- Nodal lillering -0.65\"  -0.41- 0.56\" 0.27* Nodal lillering-0.65\"-0.41-0.56\"0.27* Plan! type diversity -0.57\"  -0,36'\" 0.32'- 0.11 Plan! type diversity-0.57\"-0,36'\"0.32'-0.11 'p < .OS. \"p<.OL      'p < .OS. \"p<.OL  "}],"sieverID":"3ee40fd9-966e-41b1-83b4-5582590b2399","abstract":"This paperpresenls a case study based on Ihe findings in two villages in easlem Vttar Pradesh, India, part of a project started in 1997 to develop, test. and refine methodologíes of participatory research and gender analysis as they apply to the development ofnew technologies in germplasm and natural resouree managemen!. The two villages oecupy different agroecologiea1 areas and also differ in sociocultural characteristics. Both male and female farmers were included in Ihe study, and details oftheirpreferences for Ihe rice varieties studied are presenled in Ihis papero ISI"}