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data/part_2/00cd681c01e249941ee7c8e76f198de9.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"00cd681c01e249941ee7c8e76f198de9","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/a0bb3a34-2ffb-445c-a53d-e46f0dfbadc3/retrieve"},"pageCount":4,"title":"Minutes 16 th meeting of the Vietnam Food Safety Working Group","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"'Smart food strategy' for Hanoi city, by Dr Hoang Thi Lua, Rikolto","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":126,"text":"Presentation attached -Lua approached CIAT, CIRAD, ILRI, and they are willing to be part of a core group linked to the initiative. Lua wants also to hear from other FSWG members if they want to join the core group for further discussion. Q&A: -Michael: This strategy can be articulated in international processes Milan Urban Food Policy Pact signed by 200 cities worldwide to promote urban food strategy and ensure Hanoi inspired by this group to design sustainable food strategy. -Hardwick: World Bank also works on the strategy with a focus on safe food production and safe food handling practices along the food supply chain. It is also important to focus on the demand side (consumers willing to pay for safer food) to change behaviour of producers."},{"index":2,"size":90,"text":"WB also has a regional study that was conducted 2-3 years ago that can provide further details on demand side of the food system. -Fred: Great to know that this project is not only about safety of crops and vegetables, but also fruit, meat, and other products. ILRI also has experiences on the safety of animal-sourced food value chains. Will discuss further at the planned 1 st consultation workshop under this initiative. -Any members who are interested to join the core group can send an email to Lua or Fred."}]},{"head":"Management of pesticides maximum residue limit (MRL) in agricultural products in Viet","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":90,"text":"Nam To ensure the products complied the requirements of importers, the exporters need to take food products to the lab for testing. -Are farmers/extension services aware of necessary/compulsory delays between last treatment and harvest? -IFC focuses on the MRL issues in all crops they engage on. Farmers still need to understand the consequences of the agrochemicals overuse, because most of them associate overuse of agrochemicals with secure yields. The study finds that exporters of agriculture products are more likely to work with smallholders in their supply chains on this issue."}]},{"head":"Tour le table 1. Update on MARD -CGIAR coordination meeting by Dr Fred Unger, ILRI","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":179,"text":"Presentation attached -Some of the areas of collaboration is about food system transformation and cover food safety aspects (SHIFT, One Health initiatives). CGIAR is also committed to assisting Vietnam in developing regional and international Hubs, for example, Food Innovation Hub. -Highlight on food safety in Vietnam One Health Partnership: + Food safety was not identified as a focus area of the new framework, but based on the comment of several FSWG members, it was re-included in the document. -Comment by Hardwick: Need to provide more formal comments from FSWG to OHP rather than from an individual organization. Three issues that FSWG can focus on: + OHP Vietnam recognizes the importance of AMR. In other countries, this issue does not come up very prominently. + OHP should has some roles to play with food system transformation, especially food safety management system. Identify within FSWG specific areas to support with. + Livestock interaction -> to deal with diseases transmitted from the wild to the domesticated livestock. ➔ ILRI will draft and share document with the FSWG before submitting it to OHP. "}]},{"head":"ASSET project in","index":4,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Communication","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":44,"text":"-XLS sheet presented to prepare a datasheet to update FSWG members on past/current and new projects/initiatives -Agreed that food safety projects since 2016 will be included, and also regional projects for learning purpose -On website of FSWG: Chi, ILRI will share options for voting."}]},{"head":"Wrap-up and follow up actions","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":61,"text":"-To share form of food system action plan https://docs.google.com/forms/d/15DzjJq-HKcFecnFVjxpa1B8o9JnVWxeBxsm10RXT81E/edit?usp=sharing (deadline end of January 2022) -ILRI to draft and share document with the FSWG before submitting to OHP to highlight food safety importance in OHP phase 2 agenda -Follow up on email UNFSS post-summit (need discuss focal point for FSWG) -Chi, ILRI to circulate datasheet to collate information on past/ongoing projects etc."},{"index":2,"size":17,"text":"-FSWG members interested to join core group of \"smart food strategy\" initiative can contact Fred or Lua."},{"index":3,"size":3,"text":"Recording link: https://www.dropbox.com/sh/th8ebbcwm8zjau9/AAASNpsGFKYc2SvdnMyrCsP1a?dl=0"}]}],"figures":[{"text":" Laos, Cambodia, Vietnam (and Myanmar) by Pascal Lienhard, CIRAD Presentation attached "},{"text":"by Ms Pham Hoang Van, IFC Why was China not included in the study for MRLs? -MARD tried to give examples of high value markets (EU, US, Australia). Vietnam also exports to China a lot of fresh food, but no information on how MRL use is in the food. No statistics to show the MRL use in these products. -Pascal: Beyond MRL establishment, what are the capacities/facilities to monitor these MRLs at local/national levels? -Under the scope of research, try to identify gaps of existing regulations, and capacity of monitoring at national and local level. Require lab to conduct MRL monitoring, very costly and time consuming. Presentation attached Presentation attached Q&A: Q&A: - -  "}],"sieverID":"4cc08185-32bd-4e2a-9767-26d1796600e4","abstract":"these notes are made available as a contribution to information sharing. They do not constitute a formal record] Specific presentation by FSWG members or invited guest speakers 1. Update on the development of the national action plan for transition to a transparent, responsible and sustainable food system in Vietnam for 2021-2030 by Asso. Prof. Dr Dao The Anh, VAAS Presentation attached Recommendations and next steps: -MARD should integrate the action plan into the strategy of sustainable agriculture and rural development, 2021-2030, vision 2050. -Zero Hunger office should be upgraded as coordination organization under Department of Collective Economics and Rural Development. -Finalizing the transition pathway of food system and update the progress in the UNFSS gateway.-Continuing the bilateral dialogues with important partners, mobilizing and intergrating divers resources for implementation of the action plan. -Calling for contribution of national and international organizations to the action plan."}

data/part_2/00d317de687d6610514de364677d050c.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"00d317de687d6610514de364677d050c","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://dataverse.harvard.edu/api/access/datafile/:persistentId/?persistentId=doi:10.7910/DVN/SNL11W/C3QZRX"},"pageCount":29,"title":"BASELINE SURVEY -Productive Safety Net Program -Ethiopia FOLLOW-UP COMMUNITY/KEBELE QUESTIONNAIRE","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Instructions to enumerators:","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":112,"text":"The community survey is a very important component of the overall household survey. For this questionnaire, the community is defined as the kebele or peasant association (PA). Interview at least five people, perhaps together, who are knowledgeable about the community (e.g., community leaders, PA chairmen, elders, priests, teachers). You must include at least one member of the Kebele Food Security Task Force and at least one woman. You may need to meet with other members of the Kebele Food Security Task Force in order to complete some sections relating to PSNP. In general, when there is uncertainty regarding an answer, record the details in notes to the questionnaire. Q.8. Latitude Q.9. Longitude"}]},{"head":"Informed Consent Statement","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":42,"text":"Team members of this project will start to introduce themselves. The statement for the whole team will be provided by one of the team members according to the following paragraph. The respondents need not sign the statement, as consent is obtained verbally."},{"index":2,"size":81,"text":"\"Hello, My name is [Team member's Name]. First please allow my colleagues to also introduce themselves.  If several instances of PSNP road work, ask the respondents to start with those they find most important., and record up to three. We would like to ask about the most important road construction projects conducted by PSNP, three at most. If several instances of PSNP soil conservation work, ask the respondents to start with those they find most important., and record up to three."},{"index":3,"size":18,"text":"We would like to ask about the most important soil conservation projects conducted by PSNP, three at most. "}]}],"figures":[{"text":" Kebele name and code (3 digits, id04) Q.5. Name of survey location: No Q.6. Name of key Informant Group members Q "},{"text":"PSNP public works (prefill using 4 rounds of PSNP household surveys) [All team members introduce themselves]. We are researchers of International Food Policy Research Institute, working with the Productive Safety Net Program (PSNP). We are conducting a research project to evaluate the Productive Safety Net Program (PSNP), the program you all know and has been implemented in Ethiopia for many years. We would very much appreciate your participation in this discussion. The information you provide will help the government to improve the program's implementation in the future. The discussion usually takesWe now would like us to talk about the PSNP projects that have taken place in this kebele since the inception of the program and until 2012. Section 2: Q.10. 2005 Q.11. 2006 Q.12. 2007 Q.13. 2008 Q.14. 2009 Q.15. 2010 Q.16. 2011 Q.17. 2012 Q.18. 2013 Section 2: Q.10. 2005Q.11. 2006Q.12. 2007Q.13. 2008Q.14. 2009Q.15. 2010Q.16. 2011Q.17. 2012Q.18. 2013 filled Correct filled Correct filled Correct filled Correct filled Correct filled Correct filled Correct filled Correct filled Correct filledCorrectfilledCorrectfilledCorrectfilledCorrectfilledCorrectfilledCorrectfilledCorrectfilledCorrectfilledCorrect  if  if  if  if  if  if  if  if  if ififififififififif  wrong  wrong  wrong  wrong  wrong  wrong  wrong  wrong  wrong wrongwrongwrongwrongwrongwrongwrongwrongwrong 1 New activities on                  1 New activities on roads                  roads 2 New activities on soil                  2 New activities on soil conservation (e.g.                  conservation (e.g. terracing)                  terracing) 3 New activities in tree                  3 New activities in tree planting                  planting 4 New activities in                  4 New activities in water sources and                  water sources and harvesting                  harvesting 5 New activities, clinic                  5 New activities, clinic construction                  construction 6 New activities,                  6 New activities, irrigation                  irrigation 7 New activities,                  7 New activities, school construction                  school construction 8 Other new activities:                  8 Other new activities: -------------------                  ------------------- 9 Maintenance, roads                  9 Maintenance, roads 10 Maintenance, soil                  10 Maintenance, soil conservation                  conservation 11 Maintenance, tree                  11 Maintenance, tree planting/nursery                  planting/nursery 12 Maintenance, water                  12 Maintenance, water sources                  sources 13 Maintenance,                  13 Maintenance, clinics                  clinics 14 Maintenance,                  14 Maintenance, irrigation                  irrigation 15 Maintenance,                  15 Maintenance, schools                  schools 16 Other maintenance:                  16 Other maintenance: ENUMERATOR      SIGNATURE_______________________________      ENUMERATORSIGNATURE_______________________________ DATE____________________________________              DATE____________________________________  "},{"text":"Section 3. Impact of PSNP road works Q.19. Has there been any PSNP new road work in this kebele? [check against section 2] Yes=1> Continue, No=2>Skip to next section  "},{"text":"Code c] Q.30. Approximately how many children used   Roadwork #1   Roadwork #2  Roadwork #3 Roadwork #1Roadwork #2Roadwork #3  (most important) (second most important) (third most important) (most important)(second most important)(third most important)  1   2  3 123 Q.20. Name of location(s)      Q.20. Name of location(s) Q.21. Year started:      Q.21. Year started: Q.22. Year ended:      Q.22. Year ended: Q.23. Does this Q.24. Using this road, how far is Q.23 Does this Q.24 Using this road, how far is Q.23 Does this Q.24 Using this road, how far is Q.23. Does thisQ.24. Using this road, how far isQ.23 Does thisQ.24 Using this road, how far isQ.23 Does thisQ.24 Using this road, how far is road link [name the nearest […]  road link [name in the nearest […] road link [name in the nearest […] road link [namethe nearest […]road link [name inthe nearest […]road link [name inthe nearest […] in Q.20] to […]   Q.19] to […]  Q.19] to […] in Q.20] to […]Q.19] to […]Q.19] to […] Code a: Code b: 1= minutes walking  Code c: 1= minutes walking  1= minutes walking Code a:Code b: 1= minutes walkingCode c: 1= minutes walking1= minutes walking 1 Well accessible to any vehicle 0 No such service 2= hours walking 1= yes 0 Never 2= hours walking 1= yes 2= hours walking 1 Well accessible to any vehicle0 No such service 2= hours walking1= yes0 Never 2= hours walking1= yes2= hours walking 2 Reasonable access to any vehicle 1= yes 1 Less than once per week 3= minutes by car 2= no>> next line 1 Rarely (< once per week) 3= minutes by car 2= no>> next line 3= minutes by car 2 Reasonable access to any vehicle 1= yes1 Less than once per week 3= minutes by car 2= no>> next line1 Rarely (< once per week) 3= minutes by car 2= no>> next line3= minutes by car 3 Reasonable access to terrain-ready vehicles (such as 4x4) but not 2= no>> next line 2 Once per week 4= hours by car  2 Once a week 4= hours by car  4= hours by car 3 Reasonable access to terrain-ready vehicles (such as 4x4) but not 2= no>> next line2 Once per week 4= hours by car2 Once a week 4= hours by car4= hours by car to regular cars 4 Access to carts/animals 5 Only walking Q.29. How often did/do traders from outside use this road to come sell in the 3 Several times per week 4 Available several times a day 5= kilometers Distance or time Unit village? [ 3 Several times a week 5= kilometers 4 Every day Distance or time Unit  Distance or time 5= kilometers Unit to regular cars 4 Access to carts/animals 5 Only walking Q.29. How often did/do traders from outside use this road to come sell in the 3 Several times per week 4 Available several times a day 5= kilometers Distance or time Unit village? [3 Several times a week 5= kilometers 4 Every day Distance or time UnitDistance or time5= kilometers Unit 6 No access a. Source of drinking      6 No access a. Source of drinking water      water b.Village of similar size      b.Village of similar size c.Larger village      c.Larger village d.Town or city      d.Town or city e.A major road      e.A major road f.Primary School      f.Primary School [gr.1-6]      [gr.1-6] g.Junior School      g.Junior School [gr.7-8]      [gr.7-8] h.High School      h.High School [gr. 9-10]      [gr. 9-10] i.Preparatory school      i.Preparatory school [gr.11-12]      [gr.11-12] j.Periodic Market      j.Periodic Market k.Daily Market      k.Daily Market l.Clinic or health      l.Clinic or health services      services m.Agricultural      m.Agricultural Extension services      Extension services n.Credit services      n.Credit services  "},{"text":"Impact of PSNP water harvesting and irrigation works Q.77. Are villagers allowed to harvest non-timber forest products from the area? (honey, mushrooms, herbs, berries, etc) Yes=1>Q.59, No=2>Next page. Q.59. How many households rely on this area as an important source of non-timber forest products for their Has there been any PSNP new water harvesting or irrigation works in this kebele? [check against section 2] Yes=1>Continue, No=2>Skip to next sectionIf several instances of PSNP water harvesting work, ask the respondents to start with those they find most important, and record up to three.We would like to ask about all the most important water management works performed by PSNP, in three categories: Work on previous sources of water, New sources of water, and irrigation infrastructures.Did PSNP divert a river for irrigation in the kebele? (ex: irrigation trenches, etc.) 1=Yes>Q.79, 2=No>Next Page Did PSNP create rainwater harvesting ponds in this kebele? 1=Yes >Q.95 2=No >Next Page Has there been any PSNP new construction work in this village that were completed? [check against section 2] Yes=1>Q.162, No=2>Skip to next section Structure must be completed and in use. If several instances of PSNP construction work, ask the respondents to start with those they find most important, and record up to three. Does this school provide teaching at the grade […] level? 1=Yes, 2=No, fill in each box. Code e: Area Units 1 GASHA 2 HECTARE 3 GEMED 4 TIMAD 5 KERT Q.41. Name of village Q.42. Year work started Q.43. Year work ended Q.44. Surface area of the project [code e for units] 9 ZHIR 10 TINTO 11 ERMIJA 12 DERO 13 GEZEM 0 = Never 1 = Sometimes during dry season 2 = Often during dry season 3 = Often throughout the year 99 = unable to estimate Use for Agriculture and Livestock Q.165. Year completed Q.79. Name of Village Q.80. Year started Q.81. Year completed Q.82. Are there any restrictions as to who is allowed to use this water? 1=Yes 2=No 17 SQUARE METER 18 BOY/SEITI 19 SEW YEMIAWLEW 20 EKABERE 21 KAMDI Code j: distance or time traveled 1= minutes walking 2= hours walking 3= minutes by car 5= kilometers 4= hours by car Q.102. Are there any restrictions as to what purpose this water is used for? 1=Yes 2=No Q.164. Year started Q.84. Are there any quantity restrictions on the use of this water? 1=Yes 2=No Q.163. Name of Village Q.101. Are there any quantity restrictions on the use of this water? 1=Yes 2=No Q.83. Are there any time restrictions on the use of this water? 1=Yes 2=No Q.95. Name of Village Q.96. Year started Q.97. Year completed Q.98. For how many months of the year is this pond full of water? Q.99. Are there any restrictions as to who can use water from this pond? 2=No Q.100. Are there any time restrictions on the use of this water? 1=Yes 2=No Q.162. Did PSNP conduct any School construction work in this kebele? Yes=1>Q.163 No=2>Next Page 25 EGETA 26 SAHREN/SEZIR 27 FEGA 28 SUATA 29 YESEW KENE Soil conservation 33 CHAMA 34 DULLA 35 DEKIKA 36 DOMA 37 DITKUL project #1 (most important) Soil conservation 41 OTHER ___________ project #2 (second most important) Soil conservation project #3 (third most important) 1 2 3 Number Unit** Number Unit** Number Unit** (most important) (2 nd most important) (3 rd most important) 1 2 3 1 2 3 School project 1 (most important) School project 2 (second most important) School project 3 (Third most important) 1 2 3 Section 5. Code h: Irrigation project 1 Irrigation project 2 Irrigation project 3 (most important) (2nd most important) (3rd most important) Q.78. River diversion for irrigation Pond 1 Pond 2 Pond 3 Q.94. Rainwater Harvesting ponds Section 7. Code e: Area Units 1 GASHA 2 HECTARE 3 GEMED 4 TIMAD 5 KERT Q.41. Name of village Q.42. Year work started Q.43. Year work ended Q.44. Surface area of the project [code e for units] 9 ZHIR 10 TINTO 11 ERMIJA 12 DERO 13 GEZEM 0 = Never 1 = Sometimes during dry season 2 = Often during dry season 3 = Often throughout the year 99 = unable to estimate Use for Agriculture and Livestock Q.165. Year completed Q.79. Name of Village Q.80. Year started Q.81. Year completed Q.82. Are there any restrictions as to who is allowed to use this water? 1=Yes 2=No 17 SQUARE METER 18 BOY/SEITI 19 SEW YEMIAWLEW 20 EKABERE 21 KAMDI Code j: distance or time traveled 1= minutes walking 2= hours walking 3= minutes by car 5= kilometers 4= hours by car Q.102. Are there any restrictions as to what purpose this water is used for? 1=Yes 2=No Q.164. Year started Q.84. Are there any quantity restrictions on the use of this water? 1=Yes 2=No Q.163. Name of Village Q.101. Are there any quantity restrictions on the use of this water? 1=Yes 2=No Q.83. Are there any time restrictions on the use of this water? 1=Yes 2=No Q.95. Name of Village Q.96. Year started Q.97. Year completed Q.98. For how many months of the year is this pond full of water? Q.99. Are there any restrictions as to who can use water from this pond? 2=No Q.100. Are there any time restrictions on the use of this water? 1=Yes 2=No Q.162. Did PSNP conduct any School construction work in this kebele? Yes=1>Q.163 No=2>Next Page 25 EGETA 26 SAHREN/SEZIR 27 FEGA 28 SUATA 29 YESEW KENE Soil conservation 33 CHAMA 34 DULLA 35 DEKIKA 36 DOMA 37 DITKUL project #1 (most important) Soil conservation 41 OTHER ___________ project #2 (second most important) Soil conservation project #3 (third most important) 1 2 3 Number Unit** Number Unit** Number Unit** (most important) (2 nd most important) (3 rd most important) 1 2 3 1 2 3 School project 1 (most important) School project 2 (second most important) School project 3 (Third most important) 1 2 3 Section 5. Code h: Irrigation project 1 Irrigation project 2 Irrigation project 3 (most important) (2nd most important) (3rd most important) Q.78. River diversion for irrigation Pond 1 Pond 2 Pond 3 Q.94. Rainwater Harvesting ponds Section 7. 6 MASSA 7 KEDEMA 8 KUFARO Q.166. 1 14 KEND/LUNT 22 TILM 15 SQUARE ZHIR 23 KETERA 16 MEDEB 24 EMAM 7 30 KADA 31 KOTI 32 OYE 2 3 8 9 38 KEBENO 39 MESHABEN 40 MESMER 1 2 3 4 10 11 12 7 8 9 10 11 12 7 8 9 10 11 12 4 5 6 5 6 1 2 3 4 5 6 6 MASSA 7 KEDEMA 8 KUFARO Q.166. 1 14 KEND/LUNT 22 TILM 15 SQUARE ZHIR 23 KETERA 16 MEDEB 24 EMAM 730 KADA 31 KOTI 32 OYE 2 3 8 938 KEBENO 39 MESHABEN 40 MESMER 1 2 3 4 10 11 12 7 8 9 10 11 12 7 8 9 10 11 12 4 5 6 5 6 1 2 3 4 5 6 Code f: Approximate proportions of population             Code f: Approximate proportions of population 0 = Nobody (0%) 1 = A minority (1% to 20%)    1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 4 5 6 0 = Nobody (0%) 1 = A minority (1% to 20%)1234561 2 3 4561 2 3456 2 = Some people (21% to 50%)              2 = Some people (21% to 50%) 3 = Most people (51% to 85%)    7 8 9 10 11 12 7 8 9 10 11 12 7 8 9 10 11 12 3 = Most people (51% to 85%)78910 11 12 7 8 9 10 11 12 7 8 910 11 12 4 = Almost everybody (86% to 99%)             4 = Almost everybody (86% to 99%) 5 = Everybody (100%) could sell on the market? (%) Q.169. How far away was the nearest primary school (grades 1-6) before this one was completed? surplus they If answer is No for at least one of grades (1-6) in Q.168, ask: a.Number  b.Unit [code j] a.Number b.Unit [code j] a.Number b.Unit [code j] 5 = Everybody (100%) could sell on the market? (%) Q.169. How far away was the nearest primary school (grades 1-6) before this one was completed? surplus they If answer is No for at least one of grades (1-6) in Q.168, ask:a.Numberb.Unit [code j]a.Numberb.Unit [code j]a.Numberb.Unit [code j] Code k: Crop * Insist on obtaining a number, even approximate. 999999=cannot approximate If answer is No for at least one of grades (7-8) in Q.168, ask:  a.Number  b.Unit [code j] a.Number b.Unit [code j] a.Number b.Unit [code j] Code k: Crop * Insist on obtaining a number, even approximate. 999999=cannot approximate If answer is No for at least one of grades (7-8) in Q.168, ask:a.Numberb.Unit [code j]a.Numberb.Unit [code j]a.Numberb.Unit [code j] 1= TEFF Q.170. How far away was the nearest junior school (grades 7-8) before this one was completed? 13=LENTILS (Mesir) 25=SUGARCANE 37=ORANGE     49=FENUGREEK (Abish)    1= TEFF Q.170. How far away was the nearest junior school (grades 7-8) before this one was completed? 13=LENTILS (Mesir) 25=SUGARCANE 37=ORANGE49=FENUGREEK (Abish) 2= BARLEY 3= WHEAT 4= MAIZE Q.171. How far was the nearest Secondary or Preparatory school (grades 9-12)? 14=COFFEE 26=TOBACCO 15=CHAT 27=PINEAPPLE (Ananas) 16=ENSET 28=AVOCADO If answer is No for at least one of grades (9-12) in Q.168, ask: 38=GODERE 39=ADENGUARE 40=SWEET POTATOES (Sekuar Dinich) a.Number 50=BEET ROOT (Key Sir) 52=GINGER (Jinjibel) 51=CARROT b.Unit [code j] a.Number b.Unit [code j] a.Number b.Unit [code j] 2= BARLEY 3= WHEAT 4= MAIZE Q.171. How far was the nearest Secondary or Preparatory school (grades 9-12)? 14=COFFEE 26=TOBACCO 15=CHAT 27=PINEAPPLE (Ananas) 16=ENSET 28=AVOCADO If answer is No for at least one of grades (9-12) in Q.168, ask:38=GODERE 39=ADENGUARE 40=SWEET POTATOES (Sekuar Dinich) a.Number50=BEET ROOT (Key Sir) 52=GINGER (Jinjibel) 51=CARROT b.Unit [code j]a.Numberb.Unit [code j]a.Numberb.Unit [code j] 5= SORGHUM 6= ZENGADA * Insist on obtaining a number, even approximate. 999999=cannot approximate 17=BANANAS 29=ONIONS (Shinkurt) 18=GRASS 30=SPINACH (Quosta) 41=TOMATO 42=GUAYA (Vetch)   a.Number 53=SELATA (Lettuce) 54=TIKL GOMMEN b.Unit [code j] a.Number  b.Unit [code j] a.Number b.Unit [code j] 5= SORGHUM 6= ZENGADA * Insist on obtaining a number, even approximate. 999999=cannot approximate 17=BANANAS 29=ONIONS (Shinkurt) 18=GRASS 30=SPINACH (Quosta)41=TOMATO 42=GUAYA (Vetch)a.Number53=SELATA (Lettuce) 54=TIKL GOMMEN b.Unit [code j] a.Numberb.Unit [code j] a.Numberb.Unit [code j] 7= OATS 19=GESHO 31=GARLIC (Nech Shinkurt) 43=NUEG     55=PUMPKIN (Duba)    7= OATS19=GESHO31=GARLIC (Nech Shinkurt)43=NUEG55=PUMPKIN (Duba) 8= HORSE BEANS (Bakela) 9= LINSEED (Telba) 10=GROUNDNUTS (Lew) 11=SESAME (Selit) 12=BLACK PEPPER (Kundoberbere) Use for personal hygiene and/or laundry 20=EUCALYPTUS 21=SHIEFERAW/HALEKO 22=DAGUSSA 23=SUNFLOWER 24=POTATOES Code j (repeated): distance or time traveled own consumption?* Q.60. How many households derive an income from selling these non-timber forest products?* 32=YAM 44=CABBAGE (Gomen) 33=FASOLIA 45=PADDY, RICE 34=MANGO 46=SINAR/GERIMA 35=CHICK PEAS (Shimbra) 47=HARICOT BEANS (Boloke) 36=COW PEAS (Ater) 48=FIELD PEAS * Insist on obtaining a number, even approximate. 999999=cannot approximate. 1= minutes walking Q.116. Do households use this water for personal hygiene? 1=Yes>Q.117 2=No>>Next Page 2= hours walking Q.117. How many households rely on this water as an important source of water for personal hygiene? * 3= minutes by car **: 1 unit used = ______________ hectares 4= hours by car Q.118. Before this project, how far was the nearest source of water for personal hygiene? [In distance or time] 5= kilometers a.Number 56= GREEN PEPPER 57= FORAGE 58=PAPAYA 59 = FOREST PRODUCTS 60= OTHERS b.Unit [code j] a.Number  b.Unit [code j] a.Number b.Unit [code j] 8= HORSE BEANS (Bakela) 9= LINSEED (Telba) 10=GROUNDNUTS (Lew) 11=SESAME (Selit) 12=BLACK PEPPER (Kundoberbere) Use for personal hygiene and/or laundry 20=EUCALYPTUS 21=SHIEFERAW/HALEKO 22=DAGUSSA 23=SUNFLOWER 24=POTATOES Code j (repeated): distance or time traveled own consumption?* Q.60. How many households derive an income from selling these non-timber forest products?* 32=YAM 44=CABBAGE (Gomen) 33=FASOLIA 45=PADDY, RICE 34=MANGO 46=SINAR/GERIMA 35=CHICK PEAS (Shimbra) 47=HARICOT BEANS (Boloke) 36=COW PEAS (Ater) 48=FIELD PEAS * Insist on obtaining a number, even approximate. 999999=cannot approximate. 1= minutes walking Q.116. Do households use this water for personal hygiene? 1=Yes>Q.117 2=No>>Next Page 2= hours walking Q.117. How many households rely on this water as an important source of water for personal hygiene? * 3= minutes by car **: 1 unit used = ______________ hectares 4= hours by car Q.118. Before this project, how far was the nearest source of water for personal hygiene? [In distance or time] 5= kilometersa.Number56= GREEN PEPPER 57= FORAGE 58=PAPAYA 59 = FOREST PRODUCTS 60= OTHERS b.Unit [code j] a.Numberb.Unit [code j] a.Numberb.Unit [code j]  "},{"text":"Overall evolution of agricultural and livestock production in PSNP zones Q.194.) Information on CROPS grown in the areas affected by various PSNP projectsPlease list up to five most important crops grown in the areas affected by PSNP in order of importance, before and after the PSNP. Use this table to fill in the two tables on the next page CROPS GROWN BEFORE in the areas where PSNP is active now.  CROPS GROWN BEFORE in the areas where PSNP is active now.  SECTION 8:  Area    Households Yields SECTION 8:AreaHouseholdsYields  Code (k): Crop 1= TEFF Q.194. Q.195. Q.196. Q.197. 13=LENTILS (Mesir) Q.198.  25=SUGARCANE Q.199. Q.200. 37=ORANGE Q.201. Q.202. 49=FENUGREEK (Abish) Q.203. Code (k): Crop 1= TEFF Q.194. Q.195.Q.196.Q.197.13=LENTILS (Mesir) Q.198.25=SUGARCANE Q.199.Q.200.37=ORANGE Q.201.Q.202.49=FENUGREEK (Abish) Q.203. 2= BARLEY 3= WHEAT 4= MAIZE 5= SORGHUM 6= ZENGADA 7= OATS 8= HORSE BEANS (Bakela) 9= LINSEED (Telba) A. Five most important crops grown BEFORE the PSNP, in order of importance 14=COFFEE 15=CHAT 16=ENSET 17=BANANAS 18=GRASS 19=GESHO 20=EUCALYPTUS 21=SHIEFERAW/HALEKO 1 2 Crop name Crop code [code k] What was the area grown in this crop before the PSNP project? irrigated (%) that area was What share of 26=TOBACCO 27=PINEAPPLE (Ananas) How many 28=AVOCADO 29=ONIONS (Shinkurt) 30=SPINACH (Quosta) 31=GARLIC (Nech Shinkurt) What share of 32=YAM 33=FASOLIA B. Five most important crops grown AFTER the PSNP, in order of importance (same or different than 38=GODERE 50=BEET ROOT (Key Sir) 39=ADENGUARE What share of What was the What was the average yield 51=CARROT 40=SWEET POTATOES (Sekuar Dinich) 52=GINGER (Jinjibel) 41=TOMATO 53=SELATA (Lettuce) 42=GUAYA (Vetch) 54=TIKL GOMMEN 43=NUEG 55=PUMPKIN (Duba) 44=CABBAGE (Gomen) 56= GREEN PEPPER 45=PADDY, RICE 57= FORAGE before) 1 these areas? 2 these areas? that crop in output to market? that crop in were irrigating of that crop's irrigated? a were growing households were selling part of this crop when not households these these households average yearly yield of this crop when irrigated? a 2= BARLEY 3= WHEAT 4= MAIZE 5= SORGHUM 6= ZENGADA 7= OATS 8= HORSE BEANS (Bakela) 9= LINSEED (Telba) A. Five most important crops grown BEFORE the PSNP, in order of importance 14=COFFEE 15=CHAT 16=ENSET 17=BANANAS 18=GRASS 19=GESHO 20=EUCALYPTUS 21=SHIEFERAW/HALEKO 1 2 Crop name Crop code [code k] What was the area grown in this crop before the PSNP project? irrigated (%) that area was What share of26=TOBACCO 27=PINEAPPLE (Ananas) How many 28=AVOCADO 29=ONIONS (Shinkurt) 30=SPINACH (Quosta) 31=GARLIC (Nech Shinkurt) What share of 32=YAM 33=FASOLIA B. Five most important crops grown AFTER the PSNP, in order of importance (same or different than 38=GODERE 50=BEET ROOT (Key Sir) 39=ADENGUARE What share of What was the What was the average yield 51=CARROT 40=SWEET POTATOES (Sekuar Dinich) 52=GINGER (Jinjibel) 41=TOMATO 53=SELATA (Lettuce) 42=GUAYA (Vetch) 54=TIKL GOMMEN 43=NUEG 55=PUMPKIN (Duba) 44=CABBAGE (Gomen) 56= GREEN PEPPER 45=PADDY, RICE 57= FORAGE before) 1 these areas? 2 these areas? that crop in output to market? that crop in were irrigating of that crop's irrigated? a were growing households were selling part of this crop when not households these these households average yearly yield of this crop when irrigated? a 3 4 10=GROUNDNUTS (Lew) 11=SESAME (Selit) 12=BLACK PEPPER (Kundoberbere) a. Area 22=DAGUSSA 23=SUNFLOWER 24=POTATOES Unit [code e] b.Area  34=MANGO 35=CHICK PEAS (Shimbra) 36=COW PEAS (Ater) 4 estimate 3 999999 = can't [code f] 46=SINAR/GERIMA 47=HARICOT BEANS (Boloke) 48=FIELD PEAS [code f] a.Yield 58=PAPAYA 59 = FOREST PRODUCTS 60= OTHERS Unit b.Yield a.Yield b.Yield Unit 3 410=GROUNDNUTS (Lew) 11=SESAME (Selit) 12=BLACK PEPPER (Kundoberbere) a. Area22=DAGUSSA 23=SUNFLOWER 24=POTATOES Unit [code e] b.Area34=MANGO 35=CHICK PEAS (Shimbra) 36=COW PEAS (Ater) 4 estimate 3 999999 = can't[code f]46=SINAR/GERIMA 47=HARICOT BEANS (Boloke) 48=FIELD PEAS [code f]a.Yield58=PAPAYA 59 = FOREST PRODUCTS 60= OTHERS Unit b.Yield a.Yieldb.Yield Unit 5 1        5 5 15 2 Code (l) = Livestock 101=Poultry 106=Oxen or cows     2Code (l) = Livestock 101=Poultry106=Oxen or cows 3 102=Goats 103=Sheep  107=Camels 108=Other____________     3102=Goats 103=Sheep107=Camels 108=Other____________ 4 104=Mules or donkeys 105=Horses       4104=Mules or donkeys 105=Horses 5         5  Code e (repeated): Area Units      Code e (repeated): Area Units 1 GASHA 2 HECTARE CROPS GROWN NOW in the areas affected by PSNP in order of importance. 9 ZHIR 17 SQUARE METER 10 TINTO 18 BOY/SEITI 3 GEMED 11 ERMIJA 19 SEW YEMIAWLEW (They can be the same as those above, or different) 4 TIMAD 12 DERO 20 EKABERE Area Households 25 EGETA 26 SAHREN/SEZIR 27 FEGA 28 SUATA 33 CHAMA 34 DULLA 35 DEKIKA 36 DOMA 41 OTHER ___________ Yields 1 GASHA 2 HECTARE CROPS GROWN NOW in the areas affected by PSNP in order of importance. 9 ZHIR 17 SQUARE METER 10 TINTO 18 BOY/SEITI 3 GEMED 11 ERMIJA 19 SEW YEMIAWLEW (They can be the same as those above, or different) 4 TIMAD 12 DERO 20 EKABERE Area Households 25 EGETA 26 SAHREN/SEZIR 27 FEGA 28 SUATA33 CHAMA 34 DULLA 35 DEKIKA 36 DOMA41 OTHER ___________ Yields  5 KERT 6 MASSA Q.204. Q.205. 7 KEDEMA Q.206. Q.207. 13 GEZEM 14 KEND/LUNT 15 SQUARE ZHIR Q.208. 21 KAMDI 22 TILM Q.209. 23 KETERA How many 29 YESEW KENE 30 KADA Q.211. 31 KOTI What share of Q.210. What share of 37 DITKUL Q.212. 38 KEBENO 39 MESHABEN What is the average Q.213. What is the average yield of 5 KERT 6 MASSA Q.204. Q.205. 7 KEDEMAQ.206.Q.207.13 GEZEM 14 KEND/LUNT 15 SQUARE ZHIR Q.208.21 KAMDI 22 TILM Q.209. 23 KETERA How many29 YESEW KENE 30 KADA Q.211. 31 KOTI What share of Q.210. What share of37 DITKUL Q.212. 38 KEBENO 39 MESHABEN What is the averageQ.213. What is the average yield of  8 KUFARO   16 MEDEB  24 EMAM households  these 32 OYE these households 40 MESMER yield yearly of this this crop when irrigated? 8 KUFARO16 MEDEB24 EMAM householdsthese32 OYEthese households40 MESMER yield yearly of thisthis crop when irrigated? Code f (repeated): Approximate proportions of population Crop name What is the area Crop grown in this crop code b What share of that area is irrigated (%)  are growing that crop in these areas? households are irrigating that crop in these are selling part of that crop's output to market? crop when not irrigated? [use same units as Code f (repeated): Approximate proportions of population Crop name What is the area Crop grown in this crop code bWhat share of that area is irrigated (%)are growing that crop in these areas?households are irrigating that crop in theseare selling part of that crop's output to market?crop when not irrigated? [use same units as 0 = Nobody (0%)        areas? above for a given 0 = Nobody (0%)areas?above for a given 1 = A minority (1% to 20%)       crop] 1 = A minority (1% to 20%)crop] 2 = Some people (21% to 50%) 4 = Almost everybody (86% to 99%) 3 = Most people (51% to 85%) a.Area Unit [code e] b.Area   can't estimate 999999 =  [code f] [code f] a.Yield Unit b.Yield a.Yield b.Yield Unit 2 = Some people (21% to 50%) 4 = Almost everybody (86% to 99%) 3 = Most people (51% to 85%) a.AreaUnit [code e] b.Areacan't estimate 999999 =[code f][code f]a.YieldUnit b.Yielda.Yieldb.Yield Unit 5 = Everybody (100%) 1       5 = Everybody (100%) 1 2         2 3         3 4         4 5         5          22 22  "},{"text":"Business in the Kebele Activities: We would like to ask about wages paid by activity. If daily wages are not used, describe the terms of the most common contracts employed including how payment is made and whether food and lodging are included. If possible, place a value on the latter items. SECTION 9: Wages    Before PSNP Now SECTION 9: WagesBefore PSNPNow 26  Spice Miller (or other miller)  26Spice Miller (or other miller) Q.230. What are the usual main economic activities -that is, the Metal works(blacksmith, tinsmith) Q.237. 27 28 Q.238. Q.239. Woodwork -Carpentry Type of work Season main source of people's livelihoods [code m] 29 Woodwork -tools 30 Crafts (basket making, reed mat making..) (Mehr, Belk, Non-harvest or Any season) Most important Q.240. a.Males age 16 and up Second most Daily wage rate (Birr) b.Females age 16 and up c.Males up to 15 years old Third most d.Females up to 15 years old Q.230. What are the usual main economic activities -that is, the Metal works(blacksmith, tinsmith) Q.237. 27 28 Q.238. Q.239. Woodwork -Carpentry Type of work Season main source of people's livelihoods [code m] 29 Woodwork -tools 30 Crafts (basket making, reed mat making..) (Mehr, Belk, Non-harvest or Any season)Most important Q.240. a.Males age 16 and upSecond most Daily wage rate (Birr) b.Females age 16 and up c.Males up to 15 years oldThird most d.Females up to 15 years old Code m = Activities 01= Farming -crops 32 Seamstress/tailor/clothes repair 31 Weaving/Spinning Agricultural  06 = Other services (restaurants, transportation, barber, etc.) Code m = Activities 01= Farming -crops 32 Seamstress/tailor/clothes repair 31 Weaving/Spinning Agricultural06 = Other services (restaurants, transportation, barber, etc.) 02= Farming -Livestock 33 Clothes retail shop 1. Land preparation Meher 07 = PSNP 02= Farming -Livestock 33 Clothes retail shop 1. Land preparationMeher07 = PSNP 03= Small industry (milling, textiles…) 04= Trade 05 = Construction 34 Fabric retail shop 35 Hairdresser 2. Land preparation Belg 08 = Other Community work 09 = Other -specify_______________________ 03= Small industry (milling, textiles…) 04= Trade 05 = Construction 34 Fabric retail shop 35 Hairdresser 2. Land preparationBelg08 = Other Community work 09 = Other -specify_______________________ 36 3. Money lender  Planting Meher 363.Money lenderPlantingMeher 37 Business types in the kebele: Traditional healer 38 Construction 4. Planting Belg Before PSNP Now 37 Business types in the kebele: Traditional healer 38 Construction 4.PlantingBelgBefore PSNPNow Q.231. Q.232. Busines s code Business type 39 Agricultural inputs and tools rental 5. Weeding and maintenance 40 Mechanic 41 Shoe repair 6. Weeding and maintenance Q.233. Were there any […] in this kebele before PSNP Meher Belg Q.234. How many […] were there in this kebele before Q.235. Are there any […] in this kebele now? Q.236. How many […] are there in this kebele now? Q.231. Q.232. Busines s code Business type 39 Agricultural inputs and tools rental 5. Weeding and maintenance 40 Mechanic 41 Shoe repair 6. Weeding and maintenanceQ.233. Were there any […] in this kebele before PSNP Meher BelgQ.234. How many […] were there in this kebele beforeQ.235. Are there any […] in this kebele now?Q.236. How many […] are there in this kebele now? 42 7. Bicycle repair Harvesting started? Meher PSNP started? 427.Bicycle repairHarvestingstarted? MeherPSNP started? 1 2 43 44 8. Fruit/vegetable stand Grain trader Other (specify):_________ Other (specify):_________ Harvesting Belg 1 2 43 448.Fruit/vegetable stand Grain trader Other (specify):_________ Other (specify):_________ HarvestingBelg 3 4 45 9. Livestock or meat trader Other agricultural trader Other (specify):_________ Livestock herding/watering Meher 3 4 459.Livestock or meat trader Other agricultural trader Other (specify):_________ Livestock herding/wateringMeher 5 6 10. Coffee trader Firewood selling herding/watering Livestock Belg 5 610.Coffee trader Firewood selling herding/watering LivestockBelg 7 Non-Agricultural unskilled Wood burning and charcoal  7 Non-Agricultural unskilled Wood burning and charcoal 8  Grass cutting and selling Non-agricultural daily  8Grass cutting and selling Non-agricultural daily 9 10 11. laborer (ex: construction, Other Ambulatory trader housework) Home brewery Non-agricultural daily Meher 9 1011.laborer (ex: construction, Other Ambulatory trader housework) Home brewery Non-agricultural dailyMeher 11 12. Fish selling laborer (ex: construction, Belg 1112.Fish selling laborer (ex: construction,Belg 12 13. Village shop (selling soap, housework) matches, etc.) PSNP unskilled worker - 1213.Village shop (selling soap, housework) matches, etc.) PSNP unskilled worker- 13  Grocery store    13Grocery store 14 Non-agricultural skilled Butcher shop    14 Non-agricultural skilled Butcher shop 15 16 14. Slaughterhouse Selling game meat Mechanic* - 15 1614.Slaughterhouse Selling game meatMechanic*- 17 15. Phone service  Cook* - 1715.Phone serviceCook*- 18  Internet café    18Internet café 19 16. Food preparation (roadside) Seamstress/tailor* - 1916.Food preparation (roadside) Seamstress/tailor*- 20 21 17. Restaurant Bar/tarven Artisan (woodwork, metal work, etc)* - 20 2117.Restaurant Bar/tarven Artisan (woodwork, metal work, etc)*- 22 18. Transport service (minibus) Teacher* - 2218.Transport service (minibus) Teacher*- 23  Transport service (car taxi)  23Transport service (car taxi) 24 19. Transport service (mototaxi) Other: _____________ - 2419.Transport service (mototaxi) Other: _____________-  "}],"sieverID":"4dcca067-eaac-4114-81cf-eb578a274481","abstract":""}

data/part_2/01133f881fad39ff538687eceaf56a74.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"01133f881fad39ff538687eceaf56a74","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/2f8e6ba6-a7b3-4335-8d35-f09fa4076272/retrieve"},"pageCount":31,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"List of Tables","index":1,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"List of Figures","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"List of Acronyms","index":3,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"ADIS","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":74,"text":"The goal of the project is to contribute to efforts for enhancing the quality and consumption of milk for improved income and nutrition in Rwanda. The country's Innovation Platform convened by the LSIL identified that increasing the quality, marketing and consumption of animal source foods (ASF), especially milk, is an important research for development priority for Rwanda. The Livestock Systems Innovation Lab project will achieve its overall objective by generating and communicating evidence on:"},{"index":2,"size":51,"text":"a) The impact of nutrition education on ASF consumption and nutritional status of 12-23-month-old children and pregnant and lactating women in poor households that have received a dairy cow. b) The impact of selected capacity development interventions on the marketing performance of dairy cooperatives. c) The viability of supplying quality milk."},{"index":3,"size":88,"text":"The proposed project draws upon the work and lessons of a previous Government of Rwanda (GoR) programthe One Cow per Poor Family (Girinka), and a recently concluded USAID Feed the Future funded program known as the Rwanda Dairy Competitiveness Program (RDCP II) to achieve each of the project's specific objectives. To ensure sustainability of the project's impacts, project design has taken into consideration the role of three important crosscutting themes, namely, the role of gender in livestock systems, human and institutional capacity development, and human health and nutrition."}]},{"head":"Research Objective","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":77,"text":"To address objective 2 of the project, a quasi-experimental design in the form of a onegroup pretest-posttest design to assess performance and capacity of dairy cooperatives to improve market access for smallholder milk producers has been applied. TechnoServe has applied AgPOSA, a harmonized tool developed by TechnoServe, ILRI and Land O'Lakes, to assess capacities and performance of 30 producer organizations in four milksheds of Rwanda. This survey took place during the months of September and October 2017."},{"index":2,"size":53,"text":"The aim of the survey was to establish baseline indicators against which the project shall be monitored. A capacity development intervention for the producer organizations will then be conducted for 12 months and an endline AgPOSA survey conducted to assess changes in capacities and market performance. The following outcomes and indicators are envisaged: "}]},{"head":"Baseline survey Methodology 1.3.1. Survey Design","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":127,"text":"The participants of this survey were 30 dairy cooperatives that were part of the Rwanda dairy competitiveness program (RDCPII). These dairy cooperatives went through capacity assessments focusing on key sustainability dimensions that include governance, financial health, value proposition to markets and farmers, relationship with the external environment. Key respondents for this assessment were the managers, board of directors and key staff of the cooperatives. This assessment enabled determination of capacity gaps of the cooperatives targeted for a capacity development intervention. A sub-sample of the cooperatives will then be targeted for capacity building and mentorship. Four cooperatives will receive intensive trainings coupled with coaching and mentorship while 16 will be targeted for a market systems facilitation approach to enable linkages with business development service providers and other actors."}]},{"head":"The AgPOSA tool","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":205,"text":"The AgPOSA tool is a harmonized tool from two separate tools; a) the Producer Organization Sustainability Assessment (POSA) tool developed by ILRI and TechnoServe and b) the AgroPro (Cooperative performance assessment tool) tool developed by Land O'Lakes. The AgPOSA tool reflects generally accepted fundamental dimensions of sustainability, which the project will track over time. The tool enables collection of quantitative data. AgPOSA is useful in objectively determining capacity gaps of Producer Organizations (PO's) (related to management and leadership, financial health, value proposition to market/farmers, relationship with the external environment, among other sustainability dimensions) as well as supporting PO management to develop action plans for closing capacity gaps (Figure 1). Pilot testing: After the enumerator training, a half-day pilot-testing was conducted in Rwamagana District. The pilot test was essential in verifying that the survey questions were well understood by the respondents. The test helped the enumerators to assess various aspects of the survey platform including how to ask questions right, how to collect the right data, ensure clarity of survey questions, record survey data, and capture GPS location data. The pilot test also enabled the enumerators to determine if the survey questions were clear to the respondents and if the flow of the questions was logical."}]},{"head":"Sampling","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":36,"text":"The survey sample comprised 30 PO's selected from a sampling frame of 81 PO's that were working with the Rwanda Dairy Competitiveness Program (RDCP II). The set selection criteria used for selection of the 30 were:"},{"index":2,"size":132,"text":" Physical infrastructure: Existence/non-existence of a milk collection center (MCC) for milk bulking and chilling. The MCC is an important parameter for implementing the hub model approach.  Gender and youth: With the various activities conducted in the MCC, women and youth should play an important role in the advancement of the producer organization. Hence, the gender composition of Board of Directors (BOD) was a key component.  Milk potential: high milk potential is an indicator of likely future growth and expansion of the producer organizations.  Poverty and malnutrition: TechnoServe took into consideration both poverty and malnutrition levels, which vary across the milk sheds.  Farming systems: Farming systems differ in different milk sheds of Rwanda and influence milk volumes and the incomes of smallholder farmers, due to different production costs."}]},{"head":"Survey data collection","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":78,"text":"Data was collected from 30 producer organizations across the four milksheds from September 19 th , 2017 to October 17 th , 2017. The TechnoServe project staff accompanied the enumerators to ensure that there was authenticity and accuracy of the data collection. The AgPOSA tool was printed and two enumerators did the data collection per cooperative, which helped keep the data in check during its collection process. Data collected and submitted was reviewed daily during the fieldwork period."}]},{"head":"Data Analysis","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":59,"text":"Data was collected using hardcopy of AgPOSA tool questionnaires then entered into the the tool in Microsoft Excel at the end of the fieldwork period. Data cleaning (to mainly address duplicated numbers and typing errors) took place after the fieldwork. The analysis of the data collected by the AgPOSA tool is based on four major and inter-related components namely:"},{"index":2,"size":413,"text":" A sustainability strategy that defines the vision and levers within the enabling environment (based on the balanced score card)  An internally aligned scoring system that defines the practices results for sustainability  A continuous improvement process through gap analysis, benchmarking and planning  A graduation process and exit procedures that aim to reduce support to cooperatives over time An overall score was derived by aggregating all the scores under each dimension. Respective indicators are allocated weighted scores based on their importance in contributing to PO sustainability. The total aggregate maximum score is 100. The tool classifies the PO's into stages (1-5) depending on the scores obtained as shown in the figure below. From the 30 PO's that were assessed, eight PO's attained a score of 50 or more, and two PO's scored below 20. There is need to conduct a deeper analysis for the 2 POs that scored over 60 in order to identify areas requiring strengthening for them to become role model PO's for the market systems faciliatation approach. COABONDE which scored the lowest (7.88) is not connected to the electric grid and thus incur alot of costs in chilling the milk due to relying on a diesel-powered generator which consumes approximately 20 litres of diesel a day which is 20,000Rwf (US$ 23). From the scores obtained, 2 POs were in stage 1, 14 POs in stage 2, 12 PO's in stage 3 and 2 POs in stage 4. This shows that a majority of the PO's (47%) are in the systems development phase, where they are focusing on getting the business running. The findings above show that PO's in stage 1 are very weak in financial health, access to dairy inputs and services and member loyalty but strong in relationship with external environment. This means that they are in the set-up phase where they are focusing on business start-up, they can advance into stage two when an improvement on the weak dimensions is done to improve operations. It is noted that financial health and access to dairy inputs and services are weak crosscutting dimensions in PO's in both stage one and two while engagement with output market, relationship with external environment are strong crosscutting dimensions for PO's in stage three and four respectively. Effective and transparent leadership and management are some of the dimensions that affect most of the PO's. Access to dairy inputs and services and engagement with output market are the most challenged dimensions for the PO's."}]},{"head":"PO distribution by stage","index":11,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"PO overall performance","index":12,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Stage Four","index":13,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Figure 9. Stage Four","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":87,"text":"Seven percent of the PO's assessed are in stage four, implying that they are in the stabilization and growth phase where they are focusing on a holistic business improvement with a major focus on financials. Lack of a connection to the electric grid had affected the PO's operations mostly on the financials since they had to rely on dieselpowered generators. This increased the costs as well as not having a diversity of the business development services at the PO affecting the access to dairy inputs and services."}]},{"head":"Average scores per dimension per milkshed","index":15,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Figure 10. Average scores per dimension per milkshed","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":60,"text":"The survey shows that 66% of the average scores per dimension were scored highly in the Eastern milkshed, those being: financial health, access to dairy inputs and services, relationship with external environment and member loyalty. The southern milkshed scored highly in efficient and transparent leadership and management dimension. The Kigali milkshed scoring highly in the engagement with output market dimension."}]},{"head":"PO scores per dimension per milkshed 2.7.1. Eastern Milkshed","index":17,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Figure 11. Eastern milkshed","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":107,"text":"In the Eastern Milkshed, the survey shows that 40% of the PO's are above the average score for the financial health dimension, 30 % of the PO's are above the average score for the engagement with output market dimension and that 60% of the PO's are above the average score for the efficient and transparent leadership and management dimension. Furthermore, 50% of the PO's are above the average score for the access to dairy inputs and services dimension; 60% of the PO's are above the average score relationship with external environment dimension and 60% of the PO's are above the average score for the member loyalty dimension."},{"index":2,"size":85,"text":"With the fact that the Eastern Milkshed has the biggest population of cows in Rwanda, there are many stakeholders in the dairy sector in the milkshed and thus leading to a high relationship with external environment dimension, member loyalty and effective and transparent leadership and management dimensions were high. High seasonal variance and informal market affect the milk quality and quantity delivered to the POs. Poor record keeping done at the POs affects the data available which in turn leads to poorly generated financial reports."}]},{"head":"Northern Milkshed","index":19,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Figure 12. Northern milkshed","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":105,"text":"In the Northern Milkshed, the survey shows that 28% of the PO's are above the average score in the financial health dimension, 57% of the PO's are above the average score in the engagement with output market dimension, 57% of the PO's are above the average score in the efficient and transparent leadership and management dimension. Furthermore, 57% of the PO's are above the average score in the access to dairy inputs and services dimension, 28% of the POs are above the average score for the relationship with external environment and 57% of the POs are above the average score for the member loyalty dimension."},{"index":2,"size":153,"text":"Poor recordkeeping and ability of PO staff to develop financial reports for the milk business as well as other BDS services has led to poor performance in the financial health dimension and thus capacity building of staff and Board of Directors to foster efficient and effective supervision and controls is required. In the Southern Milkshed, the survey shows that 25% of the PO's are above the average score in the financial health dimension, 37% of the PO's are above the average score in the engagement with output market, and 75% are above the average score in the efficient and transparent leadership and management dimension. In addition, 50% of the PO's are above the average score in the access to dairy inputs and services dimension, 50% of the PO's are above the average score in the relationship with external environment and 62% of the PO's are above average score in the member loyalty dimension."},{"index":3,"size":63,"text":"Poor record keeping and financial reporting has led to the PO's having poor performance in the financial health dimension, seasonal variance has greatly affected the volumes of milk supplied to the PO's. BDS services mostly feeds need to be introduced to the PO's so that the milk volumes delivered increase and building the capacity of PO BODS and staff to increase financial management."}]},{"head":"Kigali Milkshed","index":21,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Figure 14. Kigali milkshed","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":100,"text":"In the Kigali Milkshed, the survey shows that 60% of the PO's are above the average score in the financial dimension, 60% of the PO's are above the average score in the engagement with output market, and 60% are above the average score in the efficient and transparent leadership and management dimension. Additionally, 40% of the PO's are above the average score in the access to dairy inputs and services dimension, 60% of the PO's are above the average score in the relationship with external environment and 80% of the PO's are above average score in the member loyalty dimension."},{"index":2,"size":58,"text":"With the fact that the PO's are in the Kigali milkshed, the capital city provides a ready market for the milk delivered to the PO's, however value proposition to farmers is still low since access to dairy inputs and services to farmers at the PO's is still low and thus the dairy hub model approach should be escalated. "}]},{"head":"PO scores per dimension for all POs","index":23,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Total BOD members versus total female BOD members","index":24,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":52,"text":"The total number of BOD members in the 30 PO's is 150 members of which 53 are women making 35% of the surveyed sample. It can be noted that most of the posts held by women are either secretary or advisor and only two of the 30 PO's surveyed had female chairpersons. "}]},{"head":"Fully paid up shareholders versus fully paid female shareholders","index":25,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":50,"text":"There was a noticeable difference between registered members and shareholders who have fully paid their equity fee. For the case of fully paid up shareholders, 3,327 members of the surveyed PO are fully paid shareholders of which 824 members are fully paid female shareholders making 25% of the surveyed sample.   "}]},{"head":"Fully paid up shareholders versus youth shareholders","index":26,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":70,"text":"From the 30 surveyed PO's, it was noted that 3,327 farmers are fully paid up shareholders of which 70 are fully paid up youth shareholders, making 2%. This shows that the youth aren't engaged in the operations of the POs mostly as members, they are however transporters who either collect milk from farmers and deliver it to the milk collection center or from satellite centers to the milk collection center. "}]},{"head":"Conclusion","index":27,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":33,"text":"Most of the PO's did not have documentary evidence and the information was mainly obtained verbally from the board members. This indicates a need for a quick set up of information management systems."},{"index":2,"size":50,"text":"Interim BOD's or newly elected BOD's are still leading some of the PO's where handover has not been done making it hard for major decisions to be made since the BOD's do not consider themselves to be properly in office as they do not have all documents at their reach."},{"index":3,"size":89,"text":"Most PO's performed better in all dimensions except for financial health and access to dairy inputs and services. This can be attributed to the lack of specific technical expertise of the PO staff, possible documentation errors, and different types of existing farming systems that offered different levels of accessibility to the dairy inputs and services. This can also be attributed to PO accountants lacking the knowledge and experience of creating financial reports and recording daily financial data. These inaccuracies may impact the BOD's ability to make accurate operational decisions."},{"index":4,"size":16,"text":"Integration of gender and youth in the POs is very important to ensure inclusion in POs."},{"index":5,"size":27,"text":"There is need for greater sensitization and mobilization of women and youth in the dairy value chain to enhance their participation and improve operations of the POs."},{"index":6,"size":97,"text":"For the selection of the 20 POs, four will receive intensive capacity building intervention and 16 will be targeted for a market facilitation approach. The following selection criteria will be used to select the 20 PO's from the population of 30 PO's. The criteria below are based on results of the AgPOSA assessment conducted:  PO's that have achieved a score of 40% and above: Test market facilitation approach and use the best PO as an innovator, so that others can learn from them as a role model.  PO's that have achieved a score of 30-40%:"},{"index":7,"size":109,"text":"o Top performers in this group to join market systems facilitated group; o Middle performers to be referred to other dairy support organizations; o The bottom performers to join the intensive capacity building;  PO's that have scored below 30% requires long-term capacity building and hence need to be referred to other dairy support organizations.  PO's that fall in different geography, though within the set will be dropped  PO's supported by both EADD and RDCP II are not to undergo intensive capacity building intervention but rather market facilitation approach  PO's in the same project focal Districts where all three objectives will be implemented shall be selected."},{"index":8,"size":25,"text":"The PO's selected for both the intensive capacity building intervention and market facilitation approach are shown in table 4 and 5 in the annex below."}]},{"head":"Annexes","index":28,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"AgPOSA Tool","index":29,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"AgPOSA survey questionnaires","index":30,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":1,"text":"AgPOSA_2017.xlsx"}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure 1 . Figure 1. AgPOSA tool dimensions and scoring system .....................................................................Figure 2. The 5 different stages and their characteristics .................................................................. Figure 3. Distribution of scores ..............................................................................................................Figure 4. Distribution by stage ...............................................................................................................Figure 5. Dimension progression towards sustainability .................................................................... Figure 6. Stage one ................................................................................................................................. Figure 7. Stage Two ................................................................................................................................. Figure 8. Stage three ............................................................................................................................... Figure 9. Stage Four ................................................................................................................................ Figure 10. Average scores per dimension per milkshed .................................................................... Figure 11. Eastern milkshed ................................................................................................................... Figure 12. Northern milkshed ................................................................................................................. Figure 13. Southern milkshed ................................................................................................................ Figure 14. Kigali milkshed ....................................................................................................................... Figure 15. PO scores per dimension for all POs ................................................................................. Figure 16. Average total active suppliers versus the average milk suppliers ................................. Figure 17. Total BOD members versus total female BOD members ............................................... Figure 18. Fully paid shareholders versus fully paid female shareholders ..................................... Figure 19. Vacant posts versus interested female candidates ......................................................... Figure 20. Total BOD members versus youth in BOD ....................................................................... Figure 21. Fully paid up shareholders versus youth shareholders ................................................... "},{"text":"Figure 2 . Figure 1. AgPOSA tool dimensions and scoring system .....................................................................Figure 2. The 5 different stages and their characteristics .................................................................. Figure 3. Distribution of scores ..............................................................................................................Figure 4. Distribution by stage ...............................................................................................................Figure 5. Dimension progression towards sustainability .................................................................... Figure 6. Stage one ................................................................................................................................. Figure 7. Stage Two ................................................................................................................................. Figure 8. Stage three ............................................................................................................................... Figure 9. Stage Four ................................................................................................................................ Figure 10. Average scores per dimension per milkshed .................................................................... Figure 11. Eastern milkshed ................................................................................................................... Figure 12. Northern milkshed ................................................................................................................. Figure 13. Southern milkshed ................................................................................................................ Figure 14. Kigali milkshed ....................................................................................................................... Figure 15. PO scores per dimension for all POs ................................................................................. Figure 16. Average total active suppliers versus the average milk suppliers ................................. Figure 17. Total BOD members versus total female BOD members ............................................... Figure 18. Fully paid shareholders versus fully paid female shareholders ..................................... Figure 19. Vacant posts versus interested female candidates ......................................................... Figure 20. Total BOD members versus youth in BOD ....................................................................... Figure 21. Fully paid up shareholders versus youth shareholders ................................................... "},{"text":"Figure 3 . Figure 1. AgPOSA tool dimensions and scoring system .....................................................................Figure 2. The 5 different stages and their characteristics .................................................................. Figure 3. Distribution of scores ..............................................................................................................Figure 4. Distribution by stage ...............................................................................................................Figure 5. Dimension progression towards sustainability .................................................................... Figure 6. Stage one ................................................................................................................................. Figure 7. Stage Two ................................................................................................................................. Figure 8. Stage three ............................................................................................................................... Figure 9. Stage Four ................................................................................................................................ Figure 10. Average scores per dimension per milkshed .................................................................... Figure 11. Eastern milkshed ................................................................................................................... Figure 12. Northern milkshed ................................................................................................................. Figure 13. Southern milkshed ................................................................................................................ Figure 14. Kigali milkshed ....................................................................................................................... Figure 15. PO scores per dimension for all POs ................................................................................. Figure 16. Average total active suppliers versus the average milk suppliers ................................. Figure 17. Total BOD members versus total female BOD members ............................................... Figure 18. Fully paid shareholders versus fully paid female shareholders ..................................... Figure 19. Vacant posts versus interested female candidates ......................................................... Figure 20. Total BOD members versus youth in BOD ....................................................................... Figure 21. Fully paid up shareholders versus youth shareholders ................................................... "},{"text":"Figure 4 . Figure 1. AgPOSA tool dimensions and scoring system .....................................................................Figure 2. The 5 different stages and their characteristics .................................................................. Figure 3. Distribution of scores ..............................................................................................................Figure 4. Distribution by stage ...............................................................................................................Figure 5. Dimension progression towards sustainability .................................................................... Figure 6. Stage one ................................................................................................................................. Figure 7. Stage Two ................................................................................................................................. Figure 8. Stage three ............................................................................................................................... Figure 9. Stage Four ................................................................................................................................ Figure 10. Average scores per dimension per milkshed .................................................................... Figure 11. Eastern milkshed ................................................................................................................... Figure 12. Northern milkshed ................................................................................................................. Figure 13. Southern milkshed ................................................................................................................ Figure 14. Kigali milkshed ....................................................................................................................... Figure 15. PO scores per dimension for all POs ................................................................................. Figure 16. Average total active suppliers versus the average milk suppliers ................................. Figure 17. Total BOD members versus total female BOD members ............................................... Figure 18. Fully paid shareholders versus fully paid female shareholders ..................................... Figure 19. Vacant posts versus interested female candidates ......................................................... Figure 20. Total BOD members versus youth in BOD ....................................................................... Figure 21. Fully paid up shareholders versus youth shareholders ................................................... "},{"text":"Figure 5 . Figure 1. AgPOSA tool dimensions and scoring system .....................................................................Figure 2. The 5 different stages and their characteristics .................................................................. Figure 3. Distribution of scores ..............................................................................................................Figure 4. Distribution by stage ...............................................................................................................Figure 5. Dimension progression towards sustainability .................................................................... Figure 6. Stage one ................................................................................................................................. Figure 7. Stage Two ................................................................................................................................. Figure 8. Stage three ............................................................................................................................... Figure 9. Stage Four ................................................................................................................................ Figure 10. Average scores per dimension per milkshed .................................................................... Figure 11. Eastern milkshed ................................................................................................................... Figure 12. Northern milkshed ................................................................................................................. Figure 13. Southern milkshed ................................................................................................................ Figure 14. Kigali milkshed ....................................................................................................................... Figure 15. PO scores per dimension for all POs ................................................................................. Figure 16. Average total active suppliers versus the average milk suppliers ................................. Figure 17. Total BOD members versus total female BOD members ............................................... Figure 18. Fully paid shareholders versus fully paid female shareholders ..................................... Figure 19. Vacant posts versus interested female candidates ......................................................... Figure 20. Total BOD members versus youth in BOD ....................................................................... Figure 21. Fully paid up shareholders versus youth shareholders ................................................... "},{"text":"Figure 10 . Figure 1. AgPOSA tool dimensions and scoring system .....................................................................Figure 2. The 5 different stages and their characteristics .................................................................. Figure 3. Distribution of scores ..............................................................................................................Figure 4. Distribution by stage ...............................................................................................................Figure 5. Dimension progression towards sustainability .................................................................... Figure 6. Stage one ................................................................................................................................. Figure 7. Stage Two ................................................................................................................................. Figure 8. Stage three ............................................................................................................................... Figure 9. Stage Four ................................................................................................................................ Figure 10. Average scores per dimension per milkshed .................................................................... Figure 11. Eastern milkshed ................................................................................................................... Figure 12. Northern milkshed ................................................................................................................. Figure 13. Southern milkshed ................................................................................................................ Figure 14. Kigali milkshed ....................................................................................................................... Figure 15. PO scores per dimension for all POs ................................................................................. Figure 16. Average total active suppliers versus the average milk suppliers ................................. Figure 17. Total BOD members versus total female BOD members ............................................... Figure 18. Fully paid shareholders versus fully paid female shareholders ..................................... Figure 19. Vacant posts versus interested female candidates ......................................................... Figure 20. Total BOD members versus youth in BOD ....................................................................... Figure 21. Fully paid up shareholders versus youth shareholders ................................................... "},{"text":"Figure 1 . Figure 1. AgPOSA tool dimensions and scoring system 1.3.2. Data Collection Process The AgPOSA baseline survey process was planned and executed collaboratively by ILRI and TechnoServe project team. Each of the stages of the process is described briefly below: Enumerator Team Training: Training of enumerators took place on July 5, 2017 in Kigali. TechnoServe conducted the training in collaboration with ILRI and University of Rwanda (UR) team members. The training covered the overview of the LSIL project, the AgPOSA tool content, survey objectives, interviewing skills refresher, survey target group, survey logistics, planning and a pilot feedback review session. "},{"text":"Figure 2 .Figure 3 . Figure 2. The 5 different stages and their characteristics 2. Results and discussions 2.1. Distribution of AgPOSA scores "},{"text":"Figure 4 . Figure 4. Distribution by stage "},{"text":"2. 5 . Figure 6. Stage one Seven percent of the PO's assessed are in stage 1 which is on the start-up phase. The most challenging dimension of the two PO's are financial health with COABONDE having stalled operations due to problems with electricity and Indakemwa Mugandamure having problems of documentation of their data. Access to dairy inputs and services is another challenging dimension because there are no Business Development Services (BDS) at the PO affecting the value proposition to farmers and in-turn affecting the member loyalty. "},{"text":" Figure 13. Southern milkshed "},{"text":"Figure 15 . 3 . Women and Youth Representation 3 . 2 .Figure 16 . Figure 15. PO scores per dimension for all POs "},{"text":"Figure 17 . Figure 17. Total BOD members versus total female BOD members "},{"text":"Figure 18 . Figure 18. Fully paid shareholders versus fully paid female shareholders3.1.4. Vacant posts versus interested female candidatesDuring elections at the PO's, 167 vacant posts were available during the survey period and interested female candidates who vied for the posts were 98 making 59%. The number of women elected was 53 in comparison to 98 who vied for posts making it 54% of women in various posts. "},{"text":"Figure 19 . 3 . 2 .Figure 20 . Figure 19. Vacant posts versus interested female candidates3.2. Youth representation in the POs3.2.1. Total BOD member versus youth in BODFor the BOD representation, of the total number of 150 BOD members for the 30 PO's only 11 were youth (35 years and below) making 7% of the leaders in the BOD positions. It can be noted that most of the positions that are occupied by the youth in the various PO's are advisors. "},{"text":"Figure 21 . Figure 21. Fully paid up shareholders versus youth shareholders "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"Table 1 . Outcomes and indicators of LSIL Objective 2 ........................................................................  "},{"text":"Table 2 . PO overall performance ...........................................................................................................  "},{"text":"Table 3 . The surveyed POs including milkshed and GPS coordinates ........................................... Table 4. List of POs selected for the capacity building intervention ................................................. Table 5. List of POs selected for the Market Systems Approach .....................................................  "},{"text":"Background of the Livestock Systems Innovation Lab Rwanda Reach Project The Livestock Systems Innovation Lab Rwanda Reach Project is a 3 year, 1 million USD project funded by the USAID Feed the Future initiative, through the University of Florida. The project is implemented by a consortium of partners consisting of International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI) as the lead partner, RTI International, University of Rwanda and TechnoServe. 1. INTRODUCTION 1. INTRODUCTION 1.1. Access to Dairy Input and Services 1.1.Access to Dairy Input and Services AgPOSA Agricultural Producer Organization Sustainability Assessment AgPOSAAgricultural Producer Organization Sustainability Assessment BDS Business Development Services BDSBusiness Development Services BOD Board of Directors BODBoard of Directors COABONDE Cooperative y'Aborozi ba Ndego COABONDECooperative y'Aborozi ba Ndego EADD East African Dairy Development Project EADDEast African Dairy Development Project EOM Engagement with Output market EOMEngagement with Output market ETLM Efficient and Transparent Leadership and Management ETLMEfficient and Transparent Leadership and Management FH Financial Health FHFinancial Health ILRI International Livestock Research Institute ILRIInternational Livestock Research Institute LSIL Livestock Systems Innovation Lab LSILLivestock Systems Innovation Lab PO Producer Organization POProducer Organization POSA Producer Organization Sustainability Assessment POSAProducer Organization Sustainability Assessment REE Relationship with External Environment REERelationship with External Environment MCC Milk Collection Center MCCMilk Collection Center ML Member Loyalty MLMember Loyalty  "},{"text":"Table 1 . Outcomes and indicators of LSIL Objective 2 OUTCOME   INDICATOR OUTCOMEINDICATOR     Number of dairy farmers trained, mentored and Number of dairy farmers trained, mentored and     coached coached     Number of dairy cooperatives implementing improved Number of dairy cooperatives implementing improved Vibrant, well managed and governance and management practices Vibrant, well managed andgovernance and management practices performing dairy   Volume of members' milk supplied through performing dairyVolume of members' milk supplied through cooperatives with improved cooperatives cooperatives with improvedcooperatives market access   Number of male and female members supplying milk market accessNumber of male and female members supplying milk     through the cooperative through the cooperative     Number of men and women in the board and Number of men and women in the board and     management of cooperatives management of cooperatives Improved access to BDS by Number of business agreements with BDS to provide Improved access to BDS byNumber of business agreements with BDS to provide cooperatives, improving services to cooperative members (signed cooperatives,improvingservices to cooperative members (signed value proposition to agreements) valuepropositiontoagreements) members    members  "},{"text":"Table 2 . PO overall performance 16 14  1614 14   12 1412 12    12 10    10 8    8 6    6 4 2   2 422 2    2 0    0  Stage I Stage 2 Stage 3 Stage 4 Stage IStage 2Stage 3Stage 4 N O PRODUCER ORGANIZATION   SCORE MILK SHED N O PRODUCER ORGANIZATIONSCORE MILK SHED 1 Kamate Dairy Marketing Cooperative (KAMDAMACO) 67.06 East 1Kamate Dairy Marketing Cooperative (KAMDAMACO)67.06East 2 Katabagemu Dairy Farmers Cooperative (KAFCO) 64.71 East 2Katabagemu Dairy Farmers Cooperative (KAFCO)64.71East 3 Cooperative d'Eleveurs Moderne Bigogwe (CEMO) 55.88 North 3Cooperative d'Eleveurs Moderne Bigogwe (CEMO)55.88North 4 Rwimbogo Dairy Farmers Cooperative  54.94 East 4Rwimbogo Dairy Farmers Cooperative54.94East 5 Koperative amizero y'aborozi   53.53 South 5Koperative amizero y'aborozi53.53South 6 Koperative Zamuka Mworozi Gicumbi (KOZAMGI) 52.94 Kigali 6Koperative Zamuka Mworozi Gicumbi (KOZAMGI)52.94Kigali 7 Murambi Dairy Cooperative Society (MUDACOS) 52.35 East 7Murambi Dairy Cooperative Society (MUDACOS)52.35East 8 Giramata Mworozi Nyagisozi   52.35 South 8Giramata Mworozi Nyagisozi52.35South 9 Kinazi Dairy Cooperative (KDC)   49.41 South 9Kinazi Dairy Cooperative (KDC)49.41South 10 Cooperative d'Eleveurs du zone Nyiragikokora (CEZONYI) 49.41 North 10 Cooperative d'Eleveurs du zone Nyiragikokora (CEZONYI) 49.41North 11 Bugesera Milk Collection Center (BMCC) 48.82 Kigali 11 Bugesera Milk Collection Center (BMCC)48.82Kigali 12 Borozi Twisugane   48.82 North 12 Borozi Twisugane48.82North 13 Abashumbabeza Cooperative   43.53 East 13 Abashumbabeza Cooperative43.53East  "},{"text":"Dimension progression towards sustainability  14 Terimbere Mworozi w'inka 41.76 South 14 Terimbere Mworozi w'inka41.76South 15 KOPIZI Zirakamwa 38.82 North 15 KOPIZI Zirakamwa38.82North 16 Zirakamwa Twicundire 38.47 North 16 Zirakamwa Twicundire38.47North 17 Gwizumukamo Busoro 37.65 South 17 Gwizumukamo Busoro37.65South 18 Cooperative des Eleveurs de Kayenzi (COOPEKA) 35.88 South 18 Cooperative des Eleveurs de Kayenzi (COOPEKA)35.88South 19 Cooperative de Transformation du Soja et des Oleagineux 34.71 North 19 Cooperative de Transformation du Soja et des Oleagineux34.71North de Rulindo (CTSOR)   de Rulindo (CTSOR) 20 CECOLA Zirakamwa 34.71 East 20 CECOLA Zirakamwa34.71East 21 Bwera Ntoma Rutungu Tworore (BNRT) 34.71 East 21 Bwera Ntoma Rutungu Tworore (BNRT)34.71East 22 Cooperative y'Aborozi Ba Ndego (CODEN Jyambere) 33.58 East 22 Cooperative y'Aborozi Ba Ndego (CODEN Jyambere)33.58East 23 Cooperative d'Eleveurs Moderne Bukure (COOPEMOBU) 32.94 North 23 Cooperative d'Eleveurs Moderne Bukure (COOPEMOBU) 32.94North 24 Cooperative Turwanye Bwaki (CTBK ) 32.94 North 24 Cooperative Turwanye Bwaki (CTBK )32.94North 25 Koperative Indashikirwa Mubworozi (KOINDAMU) 29.41 Kigali 25 Koperative Indashikirwa Mubworozi (KOINDAMU)29.41Kigali 26 Rusatira Dairy Company (RUDACO) 28.82 South 26 Rusatira Dairy Company (RUDACO)28.82South 27 Buhabwa Dairy Cooperative 24.12 East 27 Buhabwa Dairy Cooperative24.12East 28 Agiragiterka Kinigi 21.76 North 28 Agiragiterka Kinigi21.76North 29 Indakemwa Mugandamure 19.41 South 29 Indakemwa Mugandamure19.41South 30 Cooperative y'Aborozi Ba Ndego (COABONDE) 7.88 East 30 Cooperative y'Aborozi Ba Ndego (COABONDE)7.88East Figure 5. Dimension progression towards sustainability   Figure 5. Dimension progression towards sustainability  "}],"sieverID":"0c5b50fa-db1d-4c52-be59-a30aff231ae6","abstract":""}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"018d5f05dc0fc07cfc2d006bcc4a10b0","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/8d7dc6de-4d44-478a-9fba-1aaafe72bfd4/retrieve"},"pageCount":20,"title":"Crop-model assisted phenomics and genome-wide association study for climate adaptation of indica rice. 1. Phenology","keywords":["Candidate genes","cold tolerance","flowering","HD3a florigen","heuristics","Oryza sativa L.","photoperiod sensitivity","RIDEV crop model"],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":150,"text":"Phenology, in terms of plant developmental processes that govern organ production and flowering time, is of foremost importance to crop adaptation (Dingkuhn, 1995;Fukai, 1999;Shrestha et al., 2013). A precursor study (Dingkuhn et al., 2015b) characterized environment-driven variation and genetic diversity of time to flowering in ten environments in Senegal and Madagascar for an irrigated rice diversity panel of 203 accessions (the ORYTAGE indica subset; Cirad ORYTAGE project and GRiSP Global Rice Phenotyping Network, http://ricephenonetwork.irri.org), consisting of landraces and improved varieties. It was characterized for genotypic diversity and plasticity of phenology as challenged by day length, temperature, and altitude. This study carries the analysis two steps further by (i) using a physiological model (RIDEV) to extract physiological trait information from the dataset using heuristics (Hammer et al., 2002;Rebolledo et al., 2015) and (ii) conducting a genome-wide association study (GWAS) that relates single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) to the variation of the traits."},{"index":2,"size":137,"text":"Although measuring time to flowering is easy, it is difficult to dissect the various traits contributing to its variability, particularly if the objective is not only to predict flowering (as needed by agronomists; Dingkuhn, 1995) but also to obtain traits that correlate with genetic control mechanisms (needed by geneticists and breeders). As a precursor to the present approach, Dingkuhn and Miezan (1995) used RIDEV to dissect day length and thermal response parameters of flowering for 50 rice varieties grown at ten sowing dates in Senegal. For this study, we developed RIDEV V2, incorporating novel findings on crop microclimate (Julia andDingkuhn, 2012, 2013) and photoperiod response (Dingkuhn et al., 2008). We apply it to dissect flowering responses of the ORYTAGE indica panel to ten environments differing in season, latitude and altitude, and consequently in climate and day length."},{"index":3,"size":178,"text":"The underlying assumption of any heuristic phenotyping approach is that crop model parameters share similarity with genetic parameters controlling the traits, resulting in correlations between genotypic parameter variation and specific DNA polymorphisms. RIDEV, like many phenology models, assumes flowering responses to consist of genotype-specific thermal-time budgets (constitutive trait) and day length and temperature responses (inducible), the latter depending on constitutive cardinal temperatures. This simple model stands in contrast to the complexity of gene networks controlling flowering in rice (Shrestha et al., 2014). At least 19 network genes participate in two parallel but interconnected pathways, at the bottom of which are HD3a (promoting flowering under short days) and RFT1 (long days). While several of the network genes are under the control of the circadian clock, others are connected to genes conveying thermal and stress effects, such as Ghd7, which retards flowering under low temperatures by suppressing the long-day flowering stimulus (Ehd1→RFT1 pathway; Song et al., 2012). Day length, temperature and stress signaling are thus connected, and the more variable the environment, the more network genes participate in flowering control."},{"index":4,"size":70,"text":"This study aims to better understand environmental and genetic control of indica rice phenology in photo-thermally variable tropical environments. The specific objectives were to (i) develop a modeling approach to extract functional component traits from flowering data; (ii) conduct GWAS on estimated model parameters and compare their performance with those of simpler climatic index variables; and (iii) identify candidate genes and DNA polymorphisms putatively involved in climatic adaptation of flowering."}]},{"head":"Materials and methods","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Experimental design","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":24,"text":"This study used data from experiments in Senegal and Madagascar presented in detail by Dingkuhn et al. (2015a,b). Only essential information is reported here."}]},{"head":"Senegal","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":108,"text":"The experiment was conducted at the AfricaRice Sahel Station at Ndiaye, Senegal (16°12′N, 16°16′W, 8 m above sea level; asl). It used an augmented design with six blocks and two factors (sowing date, genotype). Each block had six sowing dates and 38 genotypes plus four replicated checks (IR64, Sahel 108, N22, Chomrong). Subplots were 1 m×1 m and pre-germinated seed was hill-wise dibbled onto wet puddled soil at 20 cm×20 cm. Fields were kept flooded at 5-10 cm depth throughout. Fertilizer inputs were 120-60-60 (N-P-K, kg ha −1 ). Weeds were controlled by hand and birds with nylon fishnets. The soil was a heavy, slightly acid, vertisol clay."},{"index":2,"size":63,"text":"Sowing dates were 7 February, 7 March and 7 April (hot-dry season), 17 July (wet season), 17 September (cool during late-season), and 19 October (cool-dry season) 2009. Days to 50% flowering were determined when half of the panicles at the center of the subplot were shedding pollen. Weather was recorded with a HOBO U30-NRC weather station (Onset Corp., Bourne, MA, USA) located on-farm."}]},{"head":"Madagascar","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":145,"text":"Experimental sites were Ambohitromby (Hautes Terres, Région d'Antsirabe, 19°52′S, 46°59′E, 1494 m asl) and Ivory (19°32′S, 46°24′E, 869 m asl). The experiment, identical at both sites, was a randomized complete-block design with three replications. Elemental plots (variety) were 0.6 m×1.4 m (3 × 7 hills planted at 20 cm×20 cm, with the central row used for observations). Pre-germinated seed was sown on 3 December 2009 and 6 December 2010 at Ivory and on 11 December 2009 and 15 December 2010 at Ambohitromby in a seedling nursery and transplanted 15-20 d after sowing. Plots were kept flooded at 5-10 cm throughout. Fertilizer was green manure (5 t ha −1 ) and 81-27-49 (N-P-K, kg ha −1 ). Weeding was manual and fungicide treatment followed the local standard. The soil was acid (pH 4.5) at both locations, with clay texture at Ambohitromby and clay loam at Ivory."},{"index":2,"size":32,"text":"Observations of flowering were performed as in Senegal but on the five central plants on the middle row of the plots. Check varieties were as in Senegal but cv. Chomrong was absent."},{"index":3,"size":17,"text":"Weather was monitored daily with ENERCO 404 Series (CIMEL Electronique, Paris, France) automatic weather stations located on-farm."}]},{"head":"Germplasm","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":83,"text":"A subsample of 203 indica accessions from the ORYTAGE specieswide (O. sativa L.) diversity panel of Cirad (http://ricephenonetwork. irri.org/diversity-panels/orytage-diversity-panels) was investigated. The population covered improved and traditional varieties from all tropical regions but had large subsets from Madagascar (34) and W. Africa (44, of which 30 were improved lines from AfricaRice bred in Senegal). Twenty improved varieties and lines were from IRRI (Philippines). A complete list of the accessions' geographical origin and seed sources is presented in Supplementary Table S1 at JXB online."}]},{"head":"Genotyping by sequencing","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":231,"text":"Genotyping was conducted at Diversity Arrays Technology Pty Ltd (Australia) using genotyping by sequencing (GBS) previously described by Courtois et al. (2013). A combination of PstI-TaqI restriction enzymes was used to reduce genome complexity. Sequences were trimmed at 69 bp (5 bp of the restriction fragment plus 64 bases, with a minimum quality score of 10). An analytical pipeline developed by DArT P/L was used to produce DArT score tables (corresponding to the presence/absence of any given sequence) and tables of SNPs within the 69 bp sequences. Both DArT and SNP markers were used. DArT markers correspond to a change in the 5 bp restriction site: it can be an SNP at any of the five positions or an indel. Since the lines were homozygous, the fact that DArT are dominant markers did not matter. The positions of the markers on the Nipponbare sequence were determined by aligning the sequences to the Os-Nipponbare-Reference-IRGSP-1.0 pseudomolecule assembly (Kawahara et al., 2013). Markers that had no or several positions on the Nipponbare sequence, more than 15% missing data, or a minor allele frequency below 3% were discarded. Heterozygotes were treated as missing data. Missing data were imputed using Beagle v3.3.2 (Browning and Browning, 2007). Beagle infers the haplotype phase and missing data on a chromosome basis using an empirical, localized haplotype-cluster model that adapts to local linkage disequilibrium (LD) by an iterative expectation-maximization algorithm."}]},{"head":"Genomics data resource used for association mapping","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":103,"text":"Data cleaning involved removing sequences having more than one hit on the pseudomolecules, which were discarded, as well as markers with call rates below 80% or having minor allele frequency below 2.5%. After data cleaning and before imputation of the GBS resource, the rate of missing data was 6.5%. The final dataset was composed of 16 232 markers (8214 DArT and 8018 SNP markers), which corresponded to a density of one marker per 24 kb. There were nine gaps of more than 500 kb devoid of markers on chromosomes 2, 4, 6, 7, 8, and 11, of which two were about 1 Mb."}]},{"head":"Association mapping","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":110,"text":"GWAS was conducted for each trait using a mixed model with control of the structure and kinship under Tassel v5.0 (Bradbury et al., 2007). The threshold to declare an association highly significant was set at a probability level of P<1 × 10 −5 . In addition associations having 1 × 10 −5 <P<1 × 10 −4 are presented in the Supplementary Table S3. The 50% decay genomic distance of LD was calculated according to Sved (1971) (see Supplementary Fig. S5). Supporting SNPs, as a supplemental measure to evaluate a QTL, were defined as SNPs with P<1 × 10 −3 located within ±LD. Quantile-quantile plots are presented in Supplementary Fig. S1."}]},{"head":"RIDEV V2 model General","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":205,"text":"The RIDEV V2 model is an improved version of RIDEV described and validated by Dingkuhn et al. (1995), Dingkuhn and Miezan (1995), and Dingkuhn (1995, 1997), and later described as an agronomic decision tool by Wopereis et al. (2003). It simulates the duration of phenological phases, the timing of panicle initiation (PI) and flowering (FL) events, and the incidence of cold-or heat-induced sterility. RIDEV V2 can be used in simulation mode (phenology/ sterility prediction) or heuristic (reverse) mode to estimate genotypic parameters. The main improvements in RIDEV V2 are (i) the use of the Impatience model of day length effects on PI (Dingkuhn et al., 2008); (ii) improved simulation of floodwater temperature as a function of estimated leaf area index (LAI) dynamics and weather variables; (iii) simulation of air humidity (RH) and air temperature (T a ) effect on time of day of anthesis (TOA; Julia and Dingkuhn, 2012); and (iv) simulation of panicle temperature at TOA as a function of T a , RH, wind speed and solar radiation (R s ) (Julia and Dingkuhn, 2013). A schematic diagram of RIDEV V2 is shown in Fig. 1. Detailed description and manual are provided in http://umr-agap. cirad.fr/en/equipes-scientifiques/plasticite-phenotypique-et-adaptation-des-monocotyledones/principaux-resultats/ridev. Source code is provided in Supplementary Protocol S1."},{"index":2,"size":99,"text":"RIDEV V2 operates deterministically at daily time steps, with hourly loops used to calculate thermal time and TOA. The model is implemented in the C++ language and coupled with routines in R for R-Genoud parameter estimation procedures (refer to website). The user has a choice of which crop parameters to optimize within user-set value ranges, and which parameters to freeze at a userdefined value. Input data are read from and results written into text files. Input and output variables used here are presented in Table 1 (complete list in Supplementary Table S2). We describe only phenology modules used here."}]},{"head":"Phenological phases","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":115,"text":"The model simulates crop development from sowing until physiological maturity, with crop establishment included in the basic vegetative phase (BVP). No time was allocated to seedling emergence as pre-germinated seed was sown directly onto moist soil. The BVP is followed by a photoperiod sensitive phase (PSP) ending with PI, then a reproductive phase (RPR) ending with FL and a maturation phase (MATU). Each phase except PSP has a genotype-specific thermal-time budget (BVPsum, RPRsum, MATUsum). RPRsum was considered as constant (400 °C d) because it is known to vary less than BVP among genotypes (although this is poorly documented). MATU was not studied here. The duration of PSP depends on day length and temperature (see below)."}]},{"head":"Thermal time and cardinal temperatures","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":76,"text":"Development proceeds in thermal-time increments, calculated with genotypic cardinal temperatures Tbase and Topt (Dingkuhn and Miezan, 1995). Linear development response between Tbase and Topt is assumed. This may be inaccurate for temperatures near Tbase but was considered acceptable as we were seeking genotypic differences and not necessarily absolutes. For each day, a physiological heat value (Tphys, state variable) is calculated by estimating it on an hourly basis and averaging it for the 24 h of day(i):"},{"index":2,"size":70,"text":"Daily Tphys is accrued until SumTPhys attains the genotypic target for the current phenological phase (e.g. BVPsum for BVP). Hourly temperatures are estimated from daily T a(min) , T a(max) (at 2 m) and astronomic day/night length using a standard diurnal temperature pattern (similar to Reicosky et al., 1989; details on website). This procedure is applied identically to T min and T max for air, water, shoot apex or panicle."}]},{"head":"Photoperiod sensitivity","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":20,"text":"The Impatience model described and validated by Dingkuhn et al. (2008) was chosen among several other options provided in RIDEV."},{"index":2,"size":62,"text":"Impatience is based on a threshold photoperiod for floral induction, with a mechanism causing gradual threshold lowering (longer days enable induction) as the wait-state for the signal is prolonged ('impatience'). This model simulated best the flowering observed for some highly day length sensitive rices (Dingkuhn et al., 2015b) and sorghums (Dingkuhn et al., 2008). Parameters PPcrit and PPsens were fitted by optimization."}]},{"head":"Water temperature","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":149,"text":"The shoot apex of irrigated rice is submerged until stem elongation. Water temperature (T w ) deviates from T a depending on ground cover, time of day and weather (Dingkuhn et al., 1995). In RIDEV, daily T w(min) and T w(max) are calculated from canopy light transmission ratio (LTR, obtained from LAI using Lambert-Beer's law) and T a(min) and T a(max) using empirical functions obtained from ca. 5000 measurements in diverse climatic situations (Julia andDingkuhn, 2012, 2013). Simulated and observed data from that source are compared in Supplementary Fig. S2. As climatic inputs, only T a is used in order to limit data requirements. A proxy for RH and R s is used in the form of [T a(max) −T a(min) ], as high diurnal amplitudes are associated with low RH and high R s . Equations 1 and 2 were used to calculate water temperature (T w ):"},{"index":2,"size":5,"text":"(1) with a=0.658; b=0.425; c=−0.303."}]},{"head":"T T a T T b T T","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":12,"text":"w max a max a max a min a max a mi"}]},{"head":"LTR","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":104,"text":"with a=−0.728; b=0.275; c=−18.46, where T a is air temperature at 2 m in the field. This model was validated with independent field observations at the Ndiaye and Fanaye sites of AfricaRice Center in Senegal (Fig. 2), resulting in a T w(sim) vs T w(obs) correlation with R 2 =0.87. In this figure, observed T a is also plotted against observed T w as small dots. Their strong deviation from the 1:1 line by up to 10 °C indicates that the model predicting T w was necessary. A separate experimental validation of Eq. 1 predicting T w(min) was presented by Dingkuhn et al. (2015b)."}]},{"head":"Apex temperature","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":59,"text":"Since the shoot apex is under the water line during much of the crop cycle, apex temperature (T apex ) was considered to be equal to T w , except during RPR, during which internode elongation lifts the apex towards the canopy top. We therefore simulated T apex to linearly converge with T a in the course of RPR."}]},{"head":"Transplanting shock","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":41,"text":"RIDEV phenology takes into account development delays during BVP caused by transplanting, which is usually about 1 week, depending on practices. For the Madagascar experiments, which were transplanted, a lag of 100 °C d was assumed for BVP for all genotypes."}]},{"head":"Acclimation to cold conditions","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":83,"text":"Parameter estimation mostly provided accurate flowering predictions across the ten environments (six in Senegal and four in Madagascar), but not for some genotypes. We hypothesized that this was caused by cold acclimation at high altitude in Madagascar whereas in Senegal, periods with cold nights were short and strictly seasonal (Dingkuhn et al., 2015b). A function was implemented in RIDEV reducing base temperature (T base ) linearly as mean T a(min) during the initial 30 d after sowing dropped below 18 °C, as follows:"},{"index":2,"size":29,"text":"where TbaseCor is the acclimated Tbase applied for the rest of the crop cycle, and AvTmin30d is the average T a(min) observed during the initial 30 d after sowing."},{"index":3,"size":65,"text":"The critical T a(min) of 18 °C for acclimation was chosen because chilling stress was observed in indica rice below it (Dingkuhn et al., 1995). The underlying hypothesis was that acclimation for reproductive stages happens during early vegetative stages, arbitrarily set to 30 d. The crop coefficient AcclimTb attenuates the acclimation response and was optimized along with the other parameters. At AcclimTb=0 no acclimation happens."}]},{"head":"RIDEV parameters used in the study","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":18,"text":"Table 1 presents RIDEV V2 parameters used (a complete list of parameters/variables is given in Supplementary Table S2)."},{"index":2,"size":69,"text":"Only T a(min) and T a(max) were used as climatic input. For Senegal, Transplanting was 0 and in Madagascar it was 1. Plant population POP was 600 000 ha −1 in Senegal and 250 000 in Madagascar. Whenever crop parameter Topt was not estimated, it was set to default=30 °C. Ripening phase RPRsum was set to 400 °C. As output, only the duration from sowing to flowering was used."}]},{"head":"Choices of parameters and ranges for estimation","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":128,"text":"Parameters were either fixed to default values or optimized by R-Genoud within physiologically relevant ranges, whereby the parameters were co-optimized in one procedure. The accuracy of model prediction of observed days from sowing to flowering across the ten environments was evaluated by the normalized least-square error method (cost function). R-Genoud varied parameter values by genetic algorithm until the cost function was minimized, involving 10 6 -10 7 simulations per run. Four estimation runs are reported here (Table 2), one of which (Run2) included only Senegal data and excluded Topt from parameter optimization. Limiting the number of parameters improved GWAS associations while degrading phenotype predictions. When parameter number was too small (Run0), both GWAS and phenotype prediction were poor. Run3 made use of the acclimation function to low temperatures."}]},{"head":"Traits analysed by GWAS","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":33,"text":"Two types of traits were analysed, (i) index variables directly calculated from flowering dates and (ii) RIDEV parameters. The index variables were described by Dingkuhn et al. (2015b) and are summarized as follows."}]},{"head":"BVPindex (d)","index":23,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":57,"text":"BVPindex, estimating BVP, represented the shortest time from sowing to PI observed among the 6 sowing dates in Senegal, with PI estimated at 25 d before flowering (De Datta, 1981). This occurred on sowings in July or September when photoperiod effects were smallest, and we assumed PSP to be nil. BVPindex varied between 20 and 80 d."}]},{"head":"PPindex (d)","index":24,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":136,"text":"Sowing in Senegal in February, March and April increased duration from sowing to flowering in photoperiod-sensitive genotypes (Dingkuhn and Miezan, 1995; for theory refer to Dingkuhn et al., 2008). For sowing in February, interactions with low T a(min) were likely. (The 'hot-dry season' is cool at the onset.) To avoid this we used the difference in duration between March (strong photoperiod signal) and July (weak) sowings as an index for photoperiod sensitivity. COLDindex (dimensionless) For sowing in mid-July and October in Senegal, day length effects are negligible (Dingkuhn et al., 1995) but the October crop is exposed to low T a(min) during RPR, causing delayed flowering. We used the ratio October/July duration to flowering as an index of sensitivity to cold. A ratio (instead of difference) was used because temperature presumably affects duration cumulatively throughout development."}]},{"head":"ALTindex (d)","index":25,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":41,"text":"The difference in duration to flowering between the high-altitude site in Madagascar and the warm, sea-level environment in Senegal for the crop sown in July was used as an index for the altitude effect, which is possibly but not necessarily thermal."},{"index":2,"size":70,"text":"RIDEV parameters Tbase, Topt, BVPsum, PPsens and AcclimTb were also used. For PPsens, the reciprocal value gave the best results (1/PPsens). In addition, the derived parameter BVPmin was used. It was calculated as [BVPmin=BVPsum/(Topt−Tbase)] and expresses the shortest possible time in days for a genotype to attain PI. Estimation of PPcrit helped improving phenotype prediction but gave no significant GWAS peaks, and PPsens peaks were little affected by PPcrit estimation."},{"index":3,"size":56,"text":"Searches for annotated genes within QTLs Annotated genes within ±100 kB of a given SNP were extracted from Phytozome (Joint Genome Institute (JGI), https://phytozome.jgi.doe.gov) and MSU database (Michigan SU, http://rice. plantbiology.msu.edu/). Further functional and expression-related information was extracted from databases GeneVisible (https:// genevisible.com/), PlaNet (http://aranet.mpimp-golm.mpg.de/), Gramene (http://archive.gramene.org/), UniProt (http://www.uniprot.org/), RiceXPro (http://ricexpro.dna.affrc.go.jp/), RiceChip (http://www.ricechip.org/) and gabi (https://www.gabipd.org/)."}]},{"head":"Statistics","index":26,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":14,"text":"Linear regression analyses and frequency distributions were conducted with SigmaPlot 12.3 (Systat Software Inc.)."}]},{"head":"Results","index":27,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Sensitivity of simulation outcome to RIDEV crop parameters","index":28,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":102,"text":"A sensitivity analysis was conducted for RIDEV parameter effects on time to flowering for four contrasting environments (Supplementary Fig. S3). Parameters Tbase, Topt and BVPsum contributing to thermal response showed similar patterns across those environments but differed in slope and curvature of the response. For this reason, the parameter BVPmin was calculated, integrating effects of the three parameters. By contrast, the environments distinguished strongly among effects of PPsens, AcclimTb and the three temperature-related parameters. Tbase, Topt and BVPsum were retained for GWAS analysis, however, because each gave more and functionally plausible genomic associations than the aggregated parameter BVPmin (refer to sections below)."}]},{"head":"Estimated RIDEV model parameters","index":29,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":132,"text":"RIDEV parameters were estimated for each accession across environments (Table 2). Frequency distributions for estimation Run1 and Run3 are presented in Fig. 3 for the parameters. Tbase was normally distributed for Run1 with a mean at about 5.5 °C (Fig. 3A). This value is low as compared with those reported for rice, mostly superior to 10 °C (Dingkuhn and Miezan, 1995). When Tbase was estimated for Senegal data only (Run2, histogram not presented), however, mean Tbase was 11.5 ± 2.6 (SD) °C. Inclusion of higher altitude Madagascar data with continuously low night temperatures thus reduced Tbase, indicating acclimation. Inclusion in RIDEV of acclimation (Run3) resulted in 9.4 ± 4.1 °C mean Tbase (Fig. 3A, histogram). Acclimation thus explained much of the difference in Tbase estimation for Senegal vs Senegal and Madagascar combined."},{"index":2,"size":94,"text":"Estimated Topt varied widely between 20 and 35 °C (Fig. 3B) and was similar for Run1 and Run3. (The temperature window for Topt estimation was capped at 35 °C because higher temperatures occurred rarely, potentially causing meaningless parameter estimations outside the conditions encountered. Topt values above the observed range do not affect simulations but would increase noise in GWAS.) Estimated 1/PPsens (Fig. 3C) was <1.5 for most accessions, indicating photoperiod insensitivity, but the distribution showed a protracted tail towards higher values, indicating delayed flowering under long days. Distributions were similar for Run1 and Run3."},{"index":3,"size":139,"text":"Parameter BVPmin (Fig. 3D) was normally distributed, with a mean of about 50 d (Run1) and a range between 20 and 80 d. The distribution reflected the strong representation of short to medium-duration materials maturing at 100-120 d after sowing (data not presented), with a BVP of 40-60 d. Run3 reduced BVPmin by about 10 d because the additional parameter AcclimTb helped explaining better the earliest observed flowering for many accessions. BVPsum (Fig. 3E; corresponding to BVPmin but expressed in thermal time) decreased for Run3 vs Run1, which was an expected result of higher Tbase estimations. AcclimTb (Fig. 3F), only estimated in Run3, was bimodally distributed, indicating a subpopulation that acclimatized little (AcclimTb<0.3) and another that acclimatized strongly. Phenotypic variation of index variables was reported by Dingkuhn et al. (2015b). For their frequency distribution refer to Supplementary Fig. S4."}]},{"head":"Variation in time to flowering explained by the model","index":30,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":107,"text":"When only two parameters were estimated (BVPsum, PPsens; Table 2: Run0), the model explained only 76% of variation of time to flowering (Fig. 4A; same data used for parameterization and simulation). With the inclusion of estimated cardinal temperatures (Run1, Fig. 4C), the correlation increased to R 2 =0.91, indicating that the thermal response parameters were needed. The case of the mildly photoperiod-sensitive check Sahel 108 is given in Fig. 4B (R 2 =0.92), where duration varied between 65 and 120 d. Duration was longer for Madagascar than Senegal due to cooler climate, but variation was observed within both countries due to altitude (Madagascar) or sowing date (Senegal)."},{"index":2,"size":97,"text":"Across all accessions, the correlation between simulated and observed duration to flowering was much stronger for Senegal environments alone (Fig. 4D, Run2: R 2 =0.96) than for all environments combined (Fig. 4C, Run1: R 2 =0.91), owing to cases wrongly predicted for Madagascar. Observed and simulated durations were between 50 and nearly 250 d and inaccurate simulations occurred mostly in the middle range. Since simulated cases deviating by >10 d from observation represented less than 1% of all cases generally concerned only one environment for any given accession, Run1 parameter estimations were accepted and used for GWAS."},{"index":3,"size":59,"text":"A marked improvement of the simulated vs observed correlation was achieved with the implementation of the coldacclimation hypothesis (Run3), which reduced Tbase when the crop experienced cool conditions during the initial 30 d (Fig. 4E; R 2 =0.94). Most of the apparent outliers observed in Fig. 4D disappeared when acclimation was considered, indicating that they were not random errors."}]},{"head":"Genomic associations for photoperiod sensitivity","index":31,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":47,"text":"GWAS results for PPindex are shown in Fig. 5A. Four QTLs were detected, located on chr1 (P1(1)i), chr6 (P6i), chr7 (P7i) and chr11 (P11(2)i). Their P-values were between 1.0 × 10 −5 and 2.5 × 10 −6 , and each QTL had several supporting SNPs (Table 3)."},{"index":2,"size":33,"text":"The model parameter 1/PPsens gave the same QTLs for estimation Run0 (Table 2: only two parameters estimated) and Run1 that had cardinal temperatures co-estimated. We will henceforth refer to the results of Run1."},{"index":3,"size":156,"text":"Among the four QTLs detected for PPindex, none was detected for corresponding model parameter 1/PPsens. However, two were physically close, with 497 kb separating P6m from P6i and 709 kb separating P11(3)m from P11(2) i (Table 3). In both cases, 1/PPsens gave more significant associations with P=2.5 × 10 −9 vs 2.5 × 10 −6 on chr6 and P=1.0 × 10 −7 vs 7.9 × 10 −6 on chr11. Six additional QTLs were detected for 1/PPsens on chr1, 2, 3, 4, 9 and 11 (Fig. 5B and Table 3). The QTL P9m on chr9 (P=2.0 × 10 −7 ) had two peak SNPs of equal P separated by 26 kb, which is within the estimated LD of 39 kb (Supplementary Fig. S5). The RIDEV parameter thus detected more and stronger QTLs than PPindex, but the two methods mostly yielded different QTLs. Parameters 1/PPsens and PPindex were correlated, although not strongly (1/PPsens=0.513 + 0.0184×PPindex; R 2 =0.62)."}]},{"head":"Genomic associations for the duration of BVP","index":32,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":125,"text":"BVPindex yielded only weak associations having P<1.0 × 10 −5 (Fig. 6A). The strongest was QTL B6(1)i and co-localized with B6m (P=2.5 × 10 −6 ) for RIDEV parameter BVPsum (Fig. 6B: Run1). Two other weak associations for BVPindex co-localized with strong QTLs for RIDEV parameter BVPmin (Fig. 6C: B2m′ with P=7.9 × 10 −6 and B6(2)m′ with P=1.3 × 10 −7 ). A QTL on chr7 (B7m; P=1.3 × 10 −6 ) was detected for BVPsum (Fig. 6B) but was not detected for BVPindex. Consequently, model  The QTLs reported for model parameters related to BVP were all obtained by estimation Run1 (Table 2). None were obtained with Run0. Consequently, the co-estimation of cardinal temperatures (Run1) was essential to detect QTLs for BVP-related model parameters."}]},{"head":"Genomic associations for thermal response of duration to flowering","index":33,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":90,"text":"The COLDIndex calculated from duration to flowering for July (warm) and October (cold) sowings in Senegal gave a QTL on chr1 (Fig. 7A: C1i; P=1.3 × 10 −5 ). The functionally comparable RIDEV Tbase parameter derived from the same phenomics dataset (Run2: Senegal environments only), which conveys thermal effects on flowering, did not replicate C1i but gave a larger QTL on chr6 (Fig. 7B: C6m; P=2.0 × 10 −7 ). The same locus gave a much weaker association (P=6.3 × 10 −5 ) for COLDIndex (compare Fig. 7A vs 7B)."},{"index":2,"size":46,"text":"The RIDEV Run3 (Table 2) across all environments and with the inclusion of AcclimTb gave a strong QTL (P=2.5 × 10 −6 ) on chr1 (H1m; Fig. 7C). This QTL did not co-localize with any other QTL, although it was physically close to C1i (1.3 Mb)."},{"index":3,"size":109,"text":"Another index variable also related to temperature (ALTIndex) was calculated as the difference in duration to flowering between July sowing in Senegal (warm) and the high-altitude site in Madagascar (cold), with day length effects expected to be negligible. ALTIndex gave nine significant associations (Fig. 8A). Assuming that ALTIndex conveys thermal effects, we compared QTLs for ALTIndex and cardinal temperatures (Fig. 8B, C), estimated for Madagascar and Senegal environments combined (Run1). Only one QTL was detected for Tbase on chr1, T1m (P=1.6 × 10 −5 ; Fig. 8B), which co-localized with T1i (Fig. 8A). The QTL C6m previously detected for Tbase for Senegal environments alone (Fig. 7B) was not observed."},{"index":4,"size":64,"text":"For Topt, two strong associations were detected on chr8 and 9 (T8(2)m and T9m). Two weak associations (P=3.2 × 10 −5 ) on chr3 and chr5 for Topt that visually co-localized with T3(2)i and T5i for ALTindex (Fig. 8C vs 8A) were actually different, with about 200 kb separating them. Consequently, the numerous associations detected for ALTIndex could not be explained with RIDEV parameters."}]},{"head":"Annotated genes within QTLs","index":34,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":90,"text":"In Table 3, details of QTL parameters and putative candidate genes within ±100 kb and ±39 kb (±LD) of the peak SNP  are presented for the 18 QTLs that had P<1 × 10 −5 , ≥3 supporting SNPs and an allelic frequency of ≥4% for the minor allele (henceforth called major QTLs). Information on all 37 observed QTLs is presented in Supplementary Table S3. Within 100 kb, 12-37 genes were found. In some major QTLs, few functional genes occurred due to an abundance of transposons (e.g. P9m, P6m and B6m)."}]},{"head":"Genes known to participate in networks controlling flowering","index":35,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":22,"text":"A particularly interesting pair of candidate genes was associated with C6m (major QTL for Tbase; Fig. 7B; P=2.0 × 10 −7 )."},{"index":2,"size":34,"text":"They were Loc_Os06g06300, syn. OsFTL3, syn. RFT1, a florigen promoting flowering under long days; and Loc_Os06g06320, syn. HD3a, syn. OsFTL2, a florigen promoting flowering under short days. The main SNP was located within HD3a."},{"index":3,"size":61,"text":"Major QTL P11(2)i (PPindex) was associated with OsFON2 (Loc_Os11g38270) controlling floral meristem size. The RFT1-family florigene Loc_Os07g30250 was found in QTL P7i. RIDEV parameter 1/PPsens did not pick up this locus but gave major QTL P11(1)m in which OsNAC5 (Loc_ Os11g08210) was detected, controlling floral morphogenesis. On major QTL T8( 2)m (Topt), Loc_Os08g16430 was found, a gene associated with phytochrome P450. "}]},{"head":"Other genes associated with development","index":36,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":17,"text":"Several candidate genes were related to dwarfism, although the well-known semidwarf gene SD1 was not among them."},{"index":2,"size":68,"text":"Examples for major QTLs were B7m (Loc_Os07g39220 or OsBZR1, controlling dwarfism and leaf angle via brassinosteroid), T1i (Loc_Os01g03510, dwarfism) and T5i (Loc_Os05g02500, syn. OsMKP1, dwarfism, and gibberellin and brassinosteroid sensitivity; Loc_Os05g02530, photosynthetic capacity, root development, and culm length and grain number). This was also true for minor QTLs P1(2)m (Loc_Os01g49000, dwarfism and microtubule organization) and T1m (Loc_Os01g03510, dwarfism). Candidate genes related to developmental biology but not dwarfism  3)."},{"index":3,"size":58,"text":"were observed in major QTLs T8(1)i (Loc_Os08g04270; grain size/filling/dormancy, root branching) and T9m (Loc_ Os09g35000, microspore development). Among the two candidate genes associated with trehalose-6-phosphate (T6P), a regulator of cell sink activity, Loc_Os07g30160 in QTL P7i (syn. TPP10) may be of interest because it is located near the center of the QTL and has known expression in pollen."}]},{"head":"Phytohormone or stress related genes","index":37,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":57,"text":"Major QTLs having candidate genes known for abiotic stress responses were T8(1)i (Loc_Os08g04210, -230, -240, -250, salt stress) and T9m (Loc_Os09g35010, syn. DREB1, drought/cold/salinity). The numerous candidates related to phytohormones (auxin, gibberellin, ethylene, but not ABA), to oxidative stress, proline synthesis, heat-shock proteins, or fatty acid desaturase (cold adaptation) were associated with minor QTLs (Supplementary Table S3)."},{"index":2,"size":123,"text":"Putatively stress-related signaling function can also be attributed to serine/threonine kinases, which were found in ten QTLs. In two cases, the peak SNP was located within the gene [Loc_Os01g03370 in major QTL T1i (ALTindex), colocalized with minor QTL T1m (Tbase)]. The sole major QTL associated with cold acclimation (H1m) had five SNPs of equal P-value, located in a genomic region that occurred on chr1 as five near-identical repeats. These regions contained several genes involved in transcription regulation and, putatively, epigenetic processes. The genes were Loc_Os01g74410 (MYB family TF), Loc_Os01g74440, syn. OsMADS79 (MADS box transcription regulator), and Loc_Os01g74520 (methyl transferase). Putative genes controlling epigenetics were also seen in a minor QTL B9m′ (Loc_Os09g39420, syn. OsWD40-174, histone transcription regulator; and Loc_Os09g39490, syn. OsNFYB12, histone-like TF)."}]},{"head":"Distribution of G and T alleles of QTL C6m among accessions","index":38,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":78,"text":"For the peak SNP on the C6m QTL, which was located within HD3a florigen (Table 3), we determined the distribution of G vs T alleles among accessions and phenotypes. The more abundant allele (G, 66%) was associated with lower Tbase (less cold sensitive), but also with high 1/PPsens (photoperiod sensitive), as shown in Table 4. The G-allele accessions had smaller COLDindex and their duration to flowering was less sensitive to high-altitude conditions, indicating smaller sensitivity to cool conditions."},{"index":2,"size":114,"text":"In terms of genetic composition of the G-and T-groups, the molecular subgroups I1 and I3 (Dingkuhn et al., 2015a) were nearly exclusively composed of G-types (>90%), whereas I2 group was predominantly T-type and the three aus-type accessions (I4) were also T-type. The G type was more abundant in traditional (84%) vs improved (46%) accessions but nearly absent in upland-adapted accessions (6%). It was frequent in Madagascar (91%), Nepal and Bhutan (91%), Bangladesh (100%) and Indochina (93%) accessions but less frequent in S. Asian, S. E. Asian, Indian and W. African accessions. Breeding products of IRRI and AfricaRice (52% and 23%) had different frequencies of the G allele. Details are presented in Supplementary Table S4."}]},{"head":"Discussion","index":39,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"RIDEV model explains phenology variation among diverse environments","index":40,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":143,"text":"A previous version of RIDEV was used to explain multienvironment variation of rice phenology (Dingkuhn et al., 1995) and genotypic differences (Dingkuhn and Miezan, 1995). The present RIDEV V2 incorporated recent findings on crop-generated microclimate (Julia andDingkuhn, 2012, 2013) and day length control of flowering (Dingkuhn et al., 2008). The model explained 96% of variation in time to flowering for the Senegal environments alone (Run2) but only 91% for Senegal and Madagascar environments combined (Run1). The fact that the cold-acclimation hypothesis (Run 3) reigned in most of the apparent outliers (R 2 =0.94) indicates that some accessions showed adaptation when continuously exposed to low temperatures at high altitude. Cold acclimation has been reported for rice in terms of reduced spikelet sterility (Shimono et al., 2010) but not for phenology. However, Shi et al. (2015) reported evidence for epigenetic control of flowering in rice."},{"index":2,"size":131,"text":"Phenological acclimation to low temperatures, according to the concept of thermal time, would reduce either Tbase or the number of heat units (BVPsum in RIDEV), in both cases advancing flowering. Our choice of having acclimation act on Tbase was arbitrary and would require dedicated experiments to validate. Zhang et al. (2008) reported an apparent increase in heat units needed by rice varieties to flower as climate warmed over a period of 20 years. In fact, they observed constant duration to flowering despite the warming. Similarly, in our study, cool conditions increased duration to flowering less when they were a permanent condition (high altitude). We tested alternative factors such as atmospheric humidity but retained cold acclimation because it explained phenological variation best. Full validation of this hypothesis will require controlled environment studies."}]},{"head":"RIDEV parameters are biologically meaningful-but what do they mean?","index":41,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":198,"text":"Duration to flowering is prone to genotype × environment interactions (G×E). Some G×E have a known physiological basis, such as day length and thermal control of development (Dingkuhn et al., 1995(Dingkuhn et al., , 2015b)). The modelling concepts of genotypic thermal-time budgets, cardinal temperatures and photoperiod sensitivity were implemented in RIDEV to heuristically extract G effects while factoring in E effects. Adding cold acclimation gave excellent phenotype predictability (R 2 =0.94). However, this in itself is no proof of biological model accuracy. In fact, there is no obvious similarity between the complex gene networks controlling flowering in rice (Shrestha et al., 2014) and physiological concepts such as genotypic thermal-time budgets. Yin et al. (2005), however, demonstrated for barley that such model parameters are associated with specific genomic loci, and conversely, QTL  et al. (2005) and Yin et al. (2005) by using a diversity panel and exposing it to climate variation caused by latitude, altitude and season under field conditions. Greater scope for discovery was associated with greater challenge to the model's skills as E and G were more complex. We find that the original model was insufficient and had to introduce an acclimation parameter to improve phenotype prediction."},{"index":2,"size":149,"text":"We used two criteria for the meaningfulness of the RIDEV parameters, (i) phenotype variation explained and (ii) quality of genomic associations obtained. The former ascertained that phenotype and environment variation were maximally linked in the analysis. The latter, when associated with known QTLs or genes having a function related to the trait, suggested that the parameters had biological meaning. The index variables calculated from the same datasets (PPindex, COLDindex, ALTindex, BVPindex; Dingkuhn et al., 2015b) served as backdrop for model performance. RIDEV parameters mostly gave more and stronger QTLs than index variables, although rarely the same. This means that RIDEV increased analytical power and its parameters were biologically meaningful, but they did not exactly describe the same traits as those described by the index variables. Only the function of the causative genes underlying the QTLs, once analysed, can inform a posteriori on the exact biological meaning of the parameters."},{"index":3,"size":124,"text":"The inevitable interactions among crop parameters describing different processes but contributing to the same outcome (flowering) are a problem that can only be overcome by choosing environments that differentiate among individual parameter effects. Sensitivity analysis indicated distinct effects among PPsens, and AcclimTb and the group of three thermal budget parameters (Tbase, Topt and BVPsum), which had similar effects and thus may cause over-parameterization. However, the absence of any QTLs for BVPsum for the 'minimalist' Run0 (estimation of only BVPsum and PPsens) indicated that the co-estimation of cardinal temperatures was necessary to obtain associations for thermal-budget traits. We also ran GWAS for their aggregate derivative, BVPmin. However, Tbase, Topt and BVPsum gave more and different QTLs compared with BVPmin, indicating that their behavior was distinct."}]},{"head":"Many candidate genes with plausible function","index":42,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":31,"text":"With 10-20 annotated genes present within the LD per association, and detailed haplotype information unavailable, candidate gene search relied on reported function and stage/ organ specificity of expression using public databases."}]},{"head":"Florigens and genes controlling shoot development","index":43,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":134,"text":"The association of Tbase with a highly significant SNP located inside the HD3a florigen (major QTL C6m) is an important finding. This SNP is potentially causative. HD3a and its immediate neighbor, the florigen RFT1, stand at the bottom of a complex cascade of at least 19 genes controlling flowering in rice, not counting circadian clock genes that control several genes of this network (Shrestha et al., 2014). HD3a promotes flowering under short days and RFT1 under long days. Gómez-Ariza et al. (2015) reported that genotypes flowering early in temperate (cool) climates express HD3a even under long days, which is characteristic of rice varieties selected for Europe. HD3a is thus a key gene for earliness under cool conditions. Fittingly, Tbase affects time to flowering in a temperature-dependent but day length-independent manner (Dingkuhn and Miezan, 1995)."},{"index":2,"size":141,"text":"The minor G-allele for low Tbase was frequent (33%) and its distribution interesting. Its greater abundance in accessions from Madagascar, Nepal, Bhutan and Bangladesh (which has a cool Boro rice season), and in the cold-tolerant I3 genetic group (Dingkuhn et al., 2015a), points at a climate-related selection history for the allele. Accessions carrying G allele had lower Tbase and their crop duration was less affected by altitude (Madagascar) and the cool season (Senegal; COLDindex), while BVPmin differed little between the alleles. However, G accessions were on average more photoperiod sensitive. This could be caused by genetic linkage (neighborhood of HD3a and RFT1, the latter promoting flowering under LD) or physiological linkages. The G allele was frequent in photoperiod-insensitive, improved accessions from S. E. Asia. Its frequent occurrence in photoperiod sensitivity accessions may thus not be causal but a result of co-selection."},{"index":3,"size":96,"text":"Another flowering gene, RID1, syn. EHD2, was associated with RIDEV parameter BVPmin. EHD2 controls both HD3a and RFT1 through the central switch EHD1, which is under circadian control (Shrestha et al., 2014). Dysfunction of EHD2 causes late flowering and tallness (Hu et al., 2013). RIDEV QTLs were also associated with MADS box genes (OsMADS75, 76, and 79), a family involved in developmental and flowering processes (Arora et al., 2007). In contrast to the central importance of OsMADS50, 51, and 56 (Shrestha et al., 2014), the role in flowering of the genes found here is less known."},{"index":4,"size":71,"text":"Flowering genes were also associated with day length response. For PPindex QTLs, OsFON2 controlling floral meristem size (Suzaki et al., 2006) and another RFT1-family gene (Loc_Os07g30250) conveying photoperiod sensitivity (Shrestha et al., 2014) were identified. RIDEV parameter 1/PPsens did not pick up these genes but gave an association with OsNAC5, a stress tolerance gene (Takasaki et al., 2010;Jeong et al., 2013) that is also known to control flower morphogenesis (http://shigen.nig.ac.jp/rice/oryzabase/gene/ detail/2047)."},{"index":5,"size":64,"text":"Only one of the many heading date (HD) QTLs described in the literature was identified here by GWAS, whereas Nakagawa et al. (2005) obtained several HD QTLs with the help of a phenology model. That study, however, used a wide cross (indica vs temperate japonica) involving polymorphisms in these highly conserved genes. Within the indica subspecies, a different spectrum of polymorphisms can be expected."},{"index":6,"size":41,"text":"The observed association with PPindex of TPP10, a trehalose phosphatase playing a pivotal role in sink regulation by controlling T6P sugar signaling, may be surprising. However, Wahl et al. (2013) reported recently that T6P has an important role in flowering control."}]},{"head":"Thermal adaptation and acclimation","index":44,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":180,"text":"Many QTLs had genes not known for flowering per se but thermal adaptation. Although all traits were derived from flowering date, the thermal extremes in Senegal and Madagascar expressed such adaptations, captured by Tbase, Topt and AcclimTb. Stress genes DREB1 and DREB1A (Ito et al., 2006;Mao and Chen, 2012) were associated with Topt, as was the apoptotic ATPase Loc_Os08g16460, which is strongly up-regulated in anthers under cold stress (Bai et al., 2015), and the cold-responsive endonuclease Loc_Os09g35000, involved in microspore development. The transcription factor OsMYB59 (syn. OsMYB48-1; Baldoni et al., 2015) associated with AcclimTb is an important stress response gene (Park et al., 2010;Xiong et al., 2014) and regulatory hub (Smita et al., 2015). Loc_Os03g01320 associated with minor QTL B3m was reported to participate in rice heat response (Mellacheruvu et al., 2016). More generally, the abundance of NAC-type stress-responsive genes (Fang et al., 2008, Park et al., 2010, Nuruzzaman et al., 2013), oxidative stressrelated genes and serine/threonine kinases (Kulik et al., 2011) in QTL regions also suggests that thermal stress was an important factor in the variation of flowering time."},{"index":2,"size":153,"text":"Acclimation is an important component of thermal adaptation (Shimono et al., 2010;Koumoto et al., 2014). When epigenetically controlled it is conveyed by DNA-, RNA-or histone-modifying genes (Chinnusamy and Zhu, 2009). Several of our candidate genes reportedly convey epigenetic control, such as the OsMADS genes already mentioned (Kapazoglou et al., 2012) and OsWD40-174, a HIRA histone chaperon involved in knox silencing controlled by ABAresponsive miRNA (Liu et al., 2009). Interestingly, the H1m major QTL for cold acclimation was associated with Loc_ Os01g74520 (methyl transferase) and Loc_Os01g74190 (radical SAM enzyme; Fujimori, 2013), both being nucleic acid methylation genes putatively conveying epigenetic transcription control. Also within QTL H1m were Loc_Os01g74590 (MYB-family), OsMYB59 (identical to OsMYB48-1), and OsMADS79, important regulatory hubs for transcription as described above. These putative cold-acclimation genes underlying QTL H1m occurred in a small, five-fold repeated region, associated with five equally significant SNPs. It thus appears likely that AcclimTb is associated with epigenetic processes."},{"index":3,"size":85,"text":"The spectrum of genes associated with the QTLs suggests that phenological adaptation to the environments studied here involved a combination of developmental, thermal stress-related and epigenetic acclimation factors, in large part through transcription factors participating in gene networks controlling thermal sensing and response (Zhang and Tao, 2013). A conceptual conclusion from this finding is that although most crop models separate development control from physiological stresses, the ensemble of candidate genes reported here suggests stress response networks to be intimately connected with the control of flowering."}]},{"head":"Conclusion","index":45,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":81,"text":"Overall, the types of genes located in the majority of QTLs reflected the nature of the traits investigated. All measured traits were related to development and flowering, and they involved either thermal or photoperiod responses. Many candidate genes were thus related to flowering control, dwarfism, cold or heat tolerance, and stress responses in general. Putatively epigenetic genes were specifically associated with the cold acclimation parameter of RIDEV. Which candidates were causative remains to be determined through haplotype analyses and experimental validation."},{"index":2,"size":73,"text":"The larger number of major QTLs extracted with RIDEV across many environments, as opposed to the index variables derived from pairs of environments, provided proof of concept for model-assisted phenotyping for multi-environment field data. The present results may benefit molecular breeding upon validation of the QTLs. The most promising lead for crop improvement was QTL C6m. The hypothesis of the SNP located within HD3a being causative for low temperature adaptation merits further research."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Fig. 1 . Fig. 1. Schematic diagram of RIDEV V2 model. Only the phenology modules (top) were used in this study. Dark gray boxes are modules, white boxes are input data, black arrows are data flow, and white arrows are phenological progress. BVP, basic vegetative phase; FL, flowering; GM, germination; MATU, maturation phase; PI, panicle initiation; PSP, photoperiod-sensitive phase; RH, air humidity; RPR, reproductive phase; R s , solar radiation; SP, stress sensitive phase; T a , air temperature; T apex , shoot apex temperature; T w , water temperature. "},{"text":"Fig. 2 . Fig. 2. Validation of RIDEV V2 calculation of water temperature using independent data (courtesy of Africa Rice Center). The correlation between calculated and observed minimum and maximum water temperature (T w ) is shown across all rice developmental stages, two sites and three plant population densities or continuously flooded Sahel 108 rice. Observed periods were 15 February to 28 May 2012 at Fanaye (hot-dry season, inland) and 6 October 2012-4 March 2013 at Ndiaye (cool-dry season, coastal) in the Senegal river valley. Small dots are observed air temperature, indicating a large air-water differential that was explained by the model. The 95% confidence interval (close to regression line) and the prediction interval (parallel straight lines) are provided. "},{"text":"Fig. 3 . Fig. 3. Frequency distributions (number of accessions per class) of estimated RIDEV V2 parameter values for Senegal and Madagascar environments combined, for Run1 (no cold acclimation considered) and Run3 (parameter AcclimTb co-optimized). Run1 and Run3 gave similar distributions for Topt (B), 1/PPsens (C) and BVPmin (D). Co-optmization of AcclimTb gave more realistic values for Tbase (A; higher), which necessarily caused lower values for BVPsum (E). (For frequency distributions for index variables refer to Supplementary Fig. S4n.) Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/jxb/article/68/15/4369/4093817 by guest on 17 June 2021 "},{"text":"Fig. 4 . Fig. 4. Correlations of simulated vs observed time to flowering using estimated RIDEV parameters. (A) all accessions, estimation Run0; (B) check cv. Sahel 108, Run1; (C) all accessions, Run1; (D) all accessions, Run2 (Senegal data only); (E) all accessions, Run3. Estimation runs are explained inTable 2. Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/jxb/article/68/15/4369/4093817 by guest on 17 June 2021 "},{"text":"Fig. 5 . Fig. 5. Associations for photoperiod response. (A) index variable PPindex; (B) RIDEV model parameter 1/PPsens as estimated in Run1. Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/jxb/article/68/15/4369/4093817 by guest on 17 June 2021 "},{"text":"Fig. 6 . Fig. 6. Associations for basic vegetative phase duration. (A) BVPindex; (B) RIDEV parameter BVPsum; (C) RIDEV parameter BVPmin. RIDEV parameter estimation Run1. "},{"text":"Fig. 7 . Fig. 7. Associations for low-temperature-related traits. (A) COLDindex (based on Senegal observations only); (B) RIDEV parameter Tbase estimated in Run2 (Senegal observations only); (C) RIDEV parameter AcclimTb estimated in Run3 (Senegal and Madagascar data combined). Unnamed dotted arrows indicate co-localizations with QTL C6m. For AcclimTb only the prominent QTL H1m was analysed (Table3). "},{"text":"Fig. 8 . Fig. 8. Associations for temperature response traits (Senegal and Madagascar data combined). (A) ALTIndex; (B) RIDEV parameter Tbase estimated in Run1; (C) RIDEV parameter Topt estimated in Run 1. "},{"text":"Table 1 . RIDEV Parameter/variable Parameter/variable  "},{"text":"Table 2 . RIDEV parameter estimation runs using R-GenoudData sets for Senegal included six environments (six sowing dates) and for Madagascar four environments (2 altitudes×2 years). Fields marked × indicate inclusion in estimation run. Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/jxb/article/68/15/4369/4093817 by guest on 17 June 2021 Estimation run Data sets included Crop parameters estimated    Figures Estimation runData sets includedCrop parameters estimatedFigures  Senegal Madagascar Tbase Topt BVPsum PPcrit PPsens AcclimTb  SenegalMadagascarTbaseToptBVPsumPPcritPPsensAcclimTb 0 × × Set to 12 Set to 30 × Set to 11.5 × Set to 0 - 0××Set to 12Set to 30×Set to 11.5×Set to 0- 1 × × × × × × × Set to 0 4A, B, 5B, 1×××××××Set to 04A, B, 5B,          6B, C, 6B, C,          8B, C 8B, C 2 × Not used × Set to 30 × × × Set to 0 7B 2×Not used×Set to 30×××Set to 07B 3 × × × × × × × × 4C, 7C 3××××××××4C, 7C  "},{"text":"Table 2 . Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/jxb/article/68/15/4369/4093817 by guest on 17 June 2021  "},{"text":"Table 3 . Major QTLs having P<1×10 −5 , at least three supporting SNPs with P<1 × 10 −3 within LD region, and a frequency of at least 4% for the rarer allele Annotated genes located within ±100 kB of main SNP are listed with putative function. Distance of center of gene from SNP is provided as ×kB. Genes within the estimated LD of 39 kB of SNP are shown in bold. QTL ID, given code; Chr, chromosome number; Type, index variable or model parameter; Run, model parameter estimation run as in Table2;Supp. SNPs, number of supporting SNPs having P<1.0 × 10 −3 ; Fig, figure showing the QTL graphically. A complete list of all QTLs having P<1 × 10 −4is presented in Supplementary TableS3. All QTLs carrying the same name but differ in suffix 'm' or 'I' (for model or index) colocalize within ±LD. Putative candidate genes [distance from SNP in kbp], function Loc_Os06g16070 [11], serine/threonine kinase Loc_Os07g30160 [8], syn. TPP10, trehalose phosphatase or T6P synthase, expressed in pollen; Loc_Os07g30130 [32], MYB-like DNA binding domain; Loc_Os07g30250 [73], RFT1 family protein, flowering under long day Loc_Os11g38270 [14], syn. OsFON2, floral meristem size Loc_Os04g35180 [72], heat shock protein; Loc_Os04g35240 [33], serine/ threonine kinase; Loc_Os04g35270 [2], fucosyl tranf., neutral invertase Loc_Os06g16660 to Loc_Os06g16720, retrotransposons expressed SNP located in transposon, gene-poor region Gene-poor region (13 transposons, 3 Fbox proteins) Loc_Os11g08210 [60], syn. OsNAC5, ABA-dependent TF, apical meristem, flower morphogenesis, cold/salt tol.; Loc_Os11g08080 [15], MYB-like DNA binding domain Loc_Os11g39160 [50], Loc_ Os11g39190 [24], Loc_Os11g39260 [18], Loc_Os11g39280 [31], Loc_ Os11g39290 [36], Loc_Os11g39310 [46], Loc_Os11g39320 [51], Loc_ Os11g39330 [57], apoptotic ATPases; Loc_Os11g39370 [74], syn. OsSERL1, brassinosteroid sensitivity, serine/ threonine kinase Putative candidate genes[distance from SNP in kbp],functionLoc_Os06g16070 [11], serine/threoninekinaseLoc_Os07g30160 [8], syn. TPP10,trehalose phosphatase or T6P synthase,expressed in pollen; Loc_Os07g30130[32], MYB-like DNA binding domain;Loc_Os07g30250 [73], RFT1 familyprotein, flowering under long dayLoc_Os11g38270 [14], syn. OsFON2,floral meristem sizeLoc_Os04g35180 [72], heat shockprotein; Loc_Os04g35240 [33], serine/threonine kinase; Loc_Os04g35270 [2],fucosyl tranf., neutral invertaseLoc_Os06g16660 to Loc_Os06g16720,retrotransposons expressed SNPlocated in transposon, gene-poor regionGene-poor region (13 transposons, 3Fbox proteins)Loc_Os11g08210 [60], syn. OsNAC5,ABA-dependent TF, apical meristem,flower morphogenesis, cold/salt tol.;Loc_Os11g08080 [15], MYB-like DNAbinding domainLoc_Os11g39160 [50], Loc_Os11g39190 [24], Loc_Os11g39260[18], Loc_Os11g39280 [31], Loc_Os11g39290 [36], Loc_Os11g39310[46], Loc_Os11g39320 [51], Loc_Os11g39330 [57], apoptotic ATPases;Loc_Os11g39370 [74], syn. OsSERL1,brassinosteroid sensitivity, serine/threonine kinase Fig   5A  5A      5A  5B    5B   5B  5B     5B         Fig5A5A5A5B5B5B5B5B Run Locus of peak SNP P Supp. Effect Alleles Allele Genes (bp) SNPs frequency (no. acc.) 9138014 2.51E−06 13 −27.2 G T 156 38 25  17811153 2.51E−06 9 −31.7 A T 175 19 20      22650475 7.94E−06 7 −20.2 A T 119 75 30  1 21450464 3.16E−09 8 −1.5 C T 181 7 21    1 9635471 2.51E−09 19 −0.98 A T 166 22 12   1 10498775 2.00E−07 8 −1.6 A T 181 7 22 10524485 1 4240572 6.31E−06 4 −0.8 G A 169 19 20     01 23359728 1.00E−07 6 −1.4 G A 179 9 25        Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/jxb/article/68/15/4369/4093817 by guest on 17 June 2021 Run Locus of peak SNP P Supp. Effect Alleles Allele Genes(bp) SNPs frequency(no. acc.)9138014 2.51E−06 13 −27.2 G T 156 38 2517811153 2.51E−06 9 −31.7 A T 175 19 2022650475 7.94E−06 7 −20.2 A T 119 75 301 21450464 3.16E−09 8 −1.5 C T 181 7 211 9635471 2.51E−09 19 −0.98 A T 166 22 121 10498775 2.00E−07 8 −1.6 A T 181 7 22105244851 4240572 6.31E−06 4 −0.8 G A 169 19 2001 23359728 1.00E−07 6 −1.4 G A 179 9 25Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/jxb/article/68/15/4369/4093817 by guest on 17 June 2021 QTL ID Chr Trait Type  Traits for photoperiod effect on time of flowering P6i 6 PPindex Index  P7i 7 PPindex Index      P11(2)i 11 PPindex Index  P4m 4 1/PPsens RIDEV    P6m 6 1/PPsens RIDEV   P9m 9 1/PPsens RIDEV  P11(1)m 11 1/PPsens RIDEV     P11(3)m 11 1/PPsens RIDEV         QTL ID Chr Trait TypeTraits for photoperiod effect on time of floweringP6i 6 PPindex IndexP7i 7 PPindex IndexP11(2)i 11 PPindex IndexP4m 4 1/PPsens RIDEVP6m 6 1/PPsens RIDEVP9m 9 1/PPsens RIDEVP11(1)m 11 1/PPsens RIDEVP11(3)m 11 1/PPsens RIDEV  "},{"text":"Table 3 . Continued Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/jxb/article/68/15/4369/4093817 by guest on 17 June 2021  "},{"text":"Table 4 . Mean trait values observed for accessions carrying G or T allele on QTL C6meffects when built into the model can predict flowering time. For rice,Nakagawa et al. (2005) dissected traits with a statistical model predicting flowering of a bi-parental population, yielding QTLs for the known heading-date loci Hd1, Hd2, Hd6 and Hd8. Consequently, even if the phenology model simplifies biological processes and forces ex ante theory upon the data, it can meaningfully link physiology to genomics. Parameter Accession with G-allele Accession with T-allele (mean±SE) ParameterAccession with G-alleleAccession with T-allele (mean±SE)  (mean±SE)  (mean±SE) Tbase [°C], RIDEV 8.15 ± 0.36 12.67 ± 0.25 Tbase [°C], RIDEV8.15 ± 0.3612.67 ± 0.25 1/PPsens [unitless], RIDEV 1.67 ± 0.11 0.86 ± 0.02 1/PPsens [unitless], RIDEV1.67 ± 0.110.86 ± 0.02 BVPmin [d], RIDEV 44.4 ± 0.9 36.9 ± 1.1 BVPmin [d], RIDEV44.4 ± 0.936.9 ± 1.1 COLDindex, Senegal [unitless] 1.30 ± 0.01 1.42 ± 0.02 COLDindex, Senegal [unitless]1.30 ± 0.011.42 ± 0.02 Delta-duration, high/mid alt., Madagascar [d] 18.5 ± 1.6 23.7 ± 0.7 Delta-duration, high/mid alt., Madagascar [d]18.5 ± 1.623.7 ± 0.7  "}],"sieverID":"f336d912-07b1-4f23-b485-77fbb9807741","abstract":"Phenology and time of flowering are crucial determinants of rice adaptation to climate variation. A previous study characterized flowering responses of 203 diverse indica rices (the ORYTAGE panel) to ten environments in Senegal (six sowing dates) and Madagascar (two years and two altitudes) under irrigation in the field. This study used the physiological phenology model RIDEV V2 to heuristically estimate component traits of flowering such as cardinal temperatures (base temperature (T base ) and optimum temperature), basic vegetative phase, photoperiod sensitivity and cold acclimation, and to conduct a genome-wide association study for these traits using 16 232 anonymous single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) markers. The RIDEV model after genotypic parameter optimization explained 96% of variation in time to flowering for Senegal alone and 91% for Senegal and Madagascar combined. The latter was improved to 94% by including an acclimation parameter reducing T base when the crop experienced low temperatures during early vegetative development. Eighteen significant (P<1.0 × 10 −5 ) quantitative trait loci (QTLs) were identified, namely ten for RIDEV parameters and eight for climatic index variables (difference in time to flowering between key environments). Co-localization of QTLs for different traits were rare. RIDEV parameters gave QTLs that were mostly more significant and distinct from QTLs for index variables. Candidate genes were investigated within the estimated 50% linkage disequilibrium regions of 39 kB. In addition to several known flowering network genes, they included genes related to thermal stress adaptation and epigenetic control mechanisms. The peak SNP for a QTL for the crop parameter Tbase (P=2.0 × 10 −7 ) was located within HD3a, a florigen that was recently identified as implicated in flowering under cool conditions."}

data/part_2/01af4e3fe6a89f85bbd35490d9bff538.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"01af4e3fe6a89f85bbd35490d9bff538","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/8d9aaa1f-a4d1-41cd-b2bb-ae18b28163f8/retrieve"},"pageCount":18,"title":"Research questions Pig Risk project (2012-2017) Is pork safe in Vietnam?","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":47,"text":"• Project did not come with pre-determined research questions, there was plenty room for adaptation in the proposal • Emphasis on capacity building -an approach where teams made key research decisions and were supported in implementation • Integrated approach -New for most of the team members (e.  "}]}],"figures":[{"text":" g., China -presented) • Multi-year process of inter-personal relationship/trust-building ✓ EH/OH Resource Centres (will be presented) ✓ Long term networks established ✓ EH/OH champions (e.g., China, Thailand, Indonesia) ✓ Peer reviewed publications & > 100 short term trainees on integrated approaches Reflections and impact Pest Forecast Surveillance and early warning systems for climate sensitive diseases in Vietnam, 2015-2018 Objectives To develop and disseminate maps of hotspots of climate-sensitive diseases (CSDs) Develop a real-time prediction system for CSDs Partners • MARD (DAH and PPD) & MOH (GDPM) • NIVR (veterinary institute) • Hanoi University of Public health and NIHE (medical institute) • PPRI (plant protection institute) • IMHEN (MONRE, environment) • Provincial DARDs and DOHs Selected achievements Prediction model associated with climate factors developed e.g., dengue Risk maps for vector borne diseases develop, e.g., Japanese Encephalitis Ongoing activities: since 2012 ➢ Safer Animal Sourced Food from traditional slaughter and retail Safer Pork -Pig RISK and Safe PORK (Slaughter and retail), Vietnam SFFF Cambodia (retail) Cambodia ➢ AMR ➢ Mosquito Metropolitan Project ➢ Wildlife trade & COVID 19 related studies, Vietnam (Partner) ➢ Parasitic Pork Borne Diseases, Vietnam "},{"text":"Food Food safety (FS) performance of key pork value chain Low-costs FS interventions (retail & slaughter) Behavioural nudges Cost benefit Risk communication Safer pork for Vietnamese consumers Background • Pork is most important meat diet in Vietnam • Traditional value chain most important (producer, slaughtered and retail) • Food safety important concern of consumer Safe PORK 3 S Food Safety Performance Tool developed and applied for key pork value chains (7) ➢ 3 pillars: Safety (risk assessment), Scalability (potential of VC to scale) and Societal norms (gender) Key results: Safety -Poor food safety outcomes across all retail types (modern and traditional) Scalability -Traditional markets and slaughter will continue to provide most pork Societal -Women also worry more about foodborne disease more frequently than men. Man more in favour of purely technical interventions than woman (nudges) Training • all VC actors, school canteen, TOT • Media, academia and risk accessors Policy and impact: Through larger FS initiatives (AgroSafe & SafeGro) -2021 onwards WB report FS risk management & FS recognised by high level (DPM) Peer reviewed papers (15), briefs (10) and videos (7) Safe Food, Fair Food for Cambodia (2017-2021) Objective: Develop and test evidence-based solution for hygienic improvement at wet markets Methods: Risk assessment, Nutrition survey, RCT to test interventions Partner & groups involved: Animal Science, Academia, NGO and market authorities Selected achievements: ✓ QMRA (1/10 consumers may get sick annual due to Salmonella from chicken salad) and COI (63 US$/case), both FIRST for for Cambodia (Salmonella cost FBD in Animal sourced food) ✓ Nutrition survey: Mothers concerned of chemical contamination ✓ Policy: FS Taskforce established ✓ Large RCT to test low-cost interventions (25 US$) ▪ 24 markets across 6 province, 12 markets (interventions or control), each market 15 retailers, overall, 360 (180+180) ▪ Log CFU (hygienic indicator) and Salmonella (51 to 26%) significantly reduced ▪ Success enabler: Strong commitment of involved local veterinary and market manager boards ✓ Scientific and com outputs: ▪ Manuals, videos, publications (submitted) AMR related OH research Issues: ✓ 90% AB sold without prescription, dispensed by inexperienced staff, 25% of sales is AB sales ✓ Farmers but also humans have easy access to vet drugs ✓ Regulations on use of antibiotics in place but not worked effectively yet. Selected research: ✓ Mapping drivers for AMU and AMR patterns (VIDA-PIG), University of Copenhagen, NIVR, NIN, ILRI ✓ Antimicrobial stewardship in Thai Nguyen and Hung Yen province (AMS), TNU -ILRI -Queensland Univ. ✓ Challenges in implementing a AMR One Health Surveillance system, USYD, ILRI, PH & Vet ✓ AMR transmission dynamics (pork from \"organic\" shops, Hanoi), LSHTM, ILRI, NIVR ✓ Test interventions and cost benefit to reduce antimicrobials in pig farms (probiotic) USYD, ILRI, PH & Vet CGIAR Antimicrobial Resistance Hub, launched in 2019 led by ILRI Aim: Support the efforts of low-and middle-income countries (LMICs) in controlling agriculture-associated AMR risks, through promoting and facilitating transdisciplinary partnerships. "}],"sieverID":"3af4ae57-c58f-46da-b9ed-acc44f24a1cf","abstract":"1 -2 person out of 10 (17%) estimated to suffer Salmonella caused food borne disease/year Hospitalization costs of foodborne diarrhoea per treatment episode: USD 107 Microbiological hazard most important Interdisciplinary team Vets, PH, animal science, agriculture economics, social science, com experts, behavioural economist & private sector"}

data/part_2/01d634fa93c1d3eaa44b122dff51e0b5.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"01d634fa93c1d3eaa44b122dff51e0b5","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/8ccf7c20-3a3c-4e45-89b3-03c4ee5a9f25/retrieve"},"pageCount":31,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":89,"text":"Open Data Kit (ODK) is a suite of tools to help users collect and aggregate data. ODK-Collect is a powerful phone-based replacement for paper forms that is built on the android platform. Data can be collected in a variety of formats including text, location, photographs, videos, audio, and barcodes. In using the ODK, users need to understand and adhere to basic principles of designing and implementing surveys and the collection of continuous monitoring data. Details on general installation and use of ODK collect are available at Using ODK Collect."},{"index":2,"size":62,"text":"The ADGG ODK tools are designed to transmit data electronically directly to the main ADGG data Platform on which data from different types of farmers (smallholders, medium scale and large scale) is collated and stored. Data for each country participating in livestock data management is mirrored within a country database that is managed through a nationally designated Dairy Performance Recording Centre (DPRC)."},{"index":3,"size":65,"text":"Data collection in the ADGG project is carried out under supervision of designated coordinators in each county by trained Performance Recording Agents (PRA's). The data collected, is transmitted to the ADGG data platform and processed in real time where internet connectivity is available. The data collected can also be cued on the android device and transmitted automatically at the end of each's day data collection."},{"index":4,"size":63,"text":"The ADGG ODK tool is packaged into modules to enable fast and accurate collection of interrelated information on animals in the targeted farming systems. Using a logical sequencing of events, related information is grouped for collection in a single cycle. With the diversity of information anticipated to be collected, guidance is provided on constraints, anticipated data ranges, and choices for a given variable."},{"index":5,"size":18,"text":"The sequential logic used in grouping data collected through the ADGG ODK tool is illustrated in Figure 1."},{"index":6,"size":15,"text":"Figure 1. Overview of sequence and information collected from farms using the ADGG data tool"},{"index":7,"size":33,"text":"The ADGG ODK data capture tool is currently available in English, Kiswahili and Amharic, and can be translated and availed in the official language used in any country that adopts the ADGG platform."},{"index":8,"size":14,"text":"Instructions on accessing the ADGG data tools are available here: Installing ODK for ADGG."}]},{"head":"The ADGG ODK data capture tool","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":21,"text":"The ADGG data capture tool is packaged into modules designed to enable collection of information related to specific activities as follows:"},{"index":2,"size":1,"text":"1."},{"index":3,"size":6,"text":"Administration and user access 2. Registration"}]},{"head":"3.","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":3,"text":"Cattle management/monitoring 4."},{"index":2,"size":6,"text":"Monitoring fodder production and milk utilization"}]},{"head":"5.","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":12,"text":"Farm equipment and resources to support the dairy enterprise (general farm details)"}]},{"head":"Farmers/project groups","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":13,"text":"Note: Data can be captured on multiple activities during a single farm visit."},{"index":2,"size":19,"text":"Details on the type of data that can be collected within each category listed are outlined in subsequent sections."}]},{"head":"Administration and user access","index":6,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Creation of administrative areas","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":49,"text":"Within each country the data and results from specific administrative areas/units such as Regions, Districts, Councils, Wards and Villages, are pre-coded and linked in the database. When using the ADGG ODK tool, administrative units are accessed through pull-down menues. This reduces errors in typing or spelling during data entry."},{"index":2,"size":22,"text":"New administrative units can be added/edited by data managers as the expanse and numbers of farmers participating in the ADGG project increases."}]},{"head":"User access for data collators","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":50,"text":"Data collaters are users directly engaged in obtaining data from livestock keepers, monitoring data quality and availing information generated through the ADGG patform for decision making by different stakeholders. Two types of data collaters are provided with user access in the ADGG ODK tools: data managers and data service providers."},{"index":2,"size":21,"text":"Data managers are the ICT personnel engaged at the DPRC in the lead institution that hosts the national livestock database server."},{"index":3,"size":52,"text":"Data service providers comprise site coordinators, performance recording agents (PRA's) and artificial insemination technicians (AI-Techs) engaged in each country. These users must be registered on the ADGG platform by the data managers. At registration, each user determines their log-in credentails and is given rights to the speficic activities they will carry out."},{"index":4,"size":13,"text":"Note: Only registered users can log in and use the data collection tool."},{"index":5,"size":11,"text":"At registration, data service providers provide information presented in Figure 2. "}]},{"head":"Registration","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":20,"text":"The process of registering the sources of data to be captured in the ADGG database is grouped into four categories:"},{"index":2,"size":4,"text":"• Registration of farmers "}]},{"head":"Registration of farmers","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":42,"text":"Farmers willing to participate in the ADGG project are required to provide their consent through signing a document outlining their understanding of the project activities and the anticipated use of the information collected on their farms (see Appendix 1 of this document)."},{"index":2,"size":23,"text":"At registration, farmes provide information as illustrated in Figure 3. The registration of a farmer in done only once and cannot be repeated."},{"index":3,"size":1,"text":"ii."},{"index":4,"size":12,"text":"A farmer has to be registered before their animals can be registered."},{"index":5,"size":11,"text":"Identification of people to receive feedback based on the data submitted"},{"index":6,"size":55,"text":"Information is captured on individuals on a farm who will receive information and feedback based on data collected from the farm. The people to receive feedback indicate their name, relationship to the head of the household, contact details, gender, age and level of education, and indicate the preferred language to be used for receiving feedback."},{"index":7,"size":21,"text":"Individuals receiving feedback serve as a key contact point for networking, communication and introducing interventions to help improve the dairy enterprise."}]},{"head":"Household demographihc information","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":42,"text":"Once a farmer is registered, details are obtained about their household. The household demographic information includes details related to members within the household. Indivituals who are resident in a household for less than three months are not considered to be household members."},{"index":2,"size":13,"text":"There are two options for collecting household demographic information in the tool: a."},{"index":3,"size":47,"text":"Households not willing to provide demographics A famer can opt not to give details on the members of his/her household. In this instance, the farmer is requested to provide a general indication of the total number of household members of each gender, grouped into pre-defined age categories."}]},{"head":"b.","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":8,"text":"Households willing to provide details on their demographics"},{"index":2,"size":27,"text":"In this case, information is collected on each household member providing details on their gender, age, level of education achieved and their relationship to the household head."}]},{"head":"Cattle registration","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":33,"text":"Animals belonging to registered farmers can be added into the database. It is desirable to have all the animals that the farmer owns registered. However, this remains a decision of the livestock owner."},{"index":2,"size":55,"text":"Each animal must be uniquely identified as per the country's identification/registration policy. Animal idenfication could be using an electronically bar coded or conventional alfa-numerically labeled pastic ear tag, or a radio frequency identification (RFID) microchip. Details on animal registration, recording and the use of animal records at farm level are outlined in a subsequent manual."},{"index":3,"size":1,"text":"Note:"},{"index":4,"size":11,"text":"1. Each individual animal is only registered once in its lifetime."}]},{"head":"2.","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":19,"text":"If ownership of an animal is changed, the animal retains its original identification and related information in the database."}]},{"head":"3.","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":25,"text":"Information collated on all animals will enable the farmer to receive better feedback to help guide decisions on the management of the whole dairy enterprice."},{"index":2,"size":31,"text":"At registration, the following information is captured on an animal: its breed-type, sex, date of birth and information on its parents (sire and dam) see Figure 4. Calves (male and female)"},{"index":3,"size":10,"text":"Depending on the category, specific information is captured, for example:"},{"index":4,"size":22,"text":"Mature female animals: additional information is captured related to the udder conformation and the number of previous calvings the animal has had."},{"index":5,"size":14,"text":"Sires: additional informatin is collected on the origin and the international herd book number."},{"index":6,"size":14,"text":"Calves: additional information is captured on its growth (weight for age) and any deformities."}]},{"head":"Adoption of technology by farmers","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":43,"text":"Through this section information is obtained on the farm resource base and adoption of different technologies supporting the dairy enterprise. This includes the total number of animals a farmer has, adoption of feeding and animal health practices, the land that the farmer owns."}]},{"head":"Cattle management or monitoring","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":31,"text":"Once an animal is registered, information on various events in its life are recorded either on a monthly basis or when it occurs. Measurements and and dates of occurrence are noted."},{"index":2,"size":30,"text":"Reproduction is critical for any dairy enterprise. Management interventions and dates for key events (Synchronization, Insemination, Pregnancy Diagnosis, Calving) to enable animals produce healthy calves are stored in the database."}]},{"head":"Synchronization","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":55,"text":"Synchronization entails the multiple administration of specific hormones to a group of cows/heifers (from 20-100) on the same day to induce estrus (An individual animal on a farm could also be given hormones to enable timely calving). The synchronized cows/heifers come on heat at almost the same time and are inseminated by a qualified inseminator."},{"index":2,"size":86,"text":"During synchronization, the following details are recorded (illustrated in Figure 5): During insemination (natural mating or AI) of a cow/heifer, the details of the procedure should be documented. These include: date of service, body condition of the cow/heifer, type of insemination (synchronized or not), source of semen, details of the straw used and the sire ID (Figure 6).  At calving, details should be noted as follows: the date of calving, whether or not the calving was normal, a still birth and/or an abortion (see Figure 8)."},{"index":3,"size":13,"text":"This information is critical for good management of the reproductive performance of cows."},{"index":4,"size":42,"text":"Figure 8. Details captured on stillbirths and abortion Performance of registered animals is monitored on a monthly basis by the PRA. To facilitate monitoring, it is advisable for the PRA to have a notebook, a measuring tape and a portable weighing scale."}]},{"head":"Monitoring performance of calves","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":48,"text":"The growth and health of a calf once it is registered is monitored each month. During each visit, the PRA should assess the calf and keep a record of different measurments on the calf. Accurate measurments should be noted on its body weight, heart girth and body condition."},{"index":2,"size":31,"text":"Details should also be noted on the main feeds provided for the calf and any treatment the calf may have been given in the past month as illustrated in Figure 9."},{"index":3,"size":43,"text":"Figure 9. Information captured when monitoring performance of calves Note: When calves are 18 months old, the data system will automatically \"graduate\" them to be listed as mature animals. They will no longer appear in the drop-down list of calves in the tool."}]},{"head":"Monitoring performance of mature female animals","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":88,"text":"Following calving, milk, the key output for the dairy enterprise is harvested from the cow. The quantity of milk produced by an animal reflects the value of that animal to the farmer. It is good practice for farmers to monitor and record milk produced each time the animal is milked. However, in farming systems where technology adoption is limited, farmers are advised to keep a written record of the milk produced by each animal on at least one day of each month that the cow is in milk."},{"index":2,"size":56,"text":"Dairy animals enrolled in the ADGG data platform are monitored once a month. On the day of monitoring, the amount of milk produced by an animal within a 24-hour period is recorded as: the date of milking and the amount of milk produced in the morning of recording and in the evening of the previous day."}]},{"head":"Note:","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":1,"text":"1."},{"index":2,"size":37,"text":"It is advisable for milk on a given farm to be recorded on the same day of each month, e.g. on the 10 th day of each month, or on the 15 th day of each month."}]},{"head":"2.","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":18,"text":"Consistency in the date of milk recording is important for more accurate prediction of production within the lactation."}]},{"head":"3.","index":23,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":38,"text":"A dairy cow is normally milked for 10 months (305 days), then is dried off in anticipation of another calving event. Details on the lactation cycle of dairy cattle is provided in the manual on \"dairy cattle management\"."},{"index":2,"size":31,"text":"When monitoring milk production, the PRA assesses the animal's condition and the production environment under which it is kept. Information noted on each animal is illustrated in Figure 10, and includes:"},{"index":3,"size":5,"text":"• Heart girth of animal"},{"index":4,"size":4,"text":"• Body condition score"},{"index":5,"size":7,"text":"• Feeding regime adopted by the farmer  "}]},{"head":"Animal movement into and out of herds","index":24,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":31,"text":"The movement of animals into a herd through birth, purchase or as a gift, and the movement out the herd through deaths, sales or transfer to another farmer is also monitored."},{"index":2,"size":41,"text":"Movement of animals out of herds (called animal exits), and the reasons for movement are of interest as this greatly affects the productivity on a farm. This information should be recorded as soon as it occurs as illustrated in Figure 12."},{"index":3,"size":9,"text":"Figure 12. Details captured on animals leaving a herd"}]},{"head":"Collection of samples from animals for genotyping","index":25,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":67,"text":"Once in a while, in line with specifically outlined protocols, a sample is collected from targeted animals for DNA analysis to determine their genotype. At this time, the ADGG tools are used to note the code given for the sample collected from the animal. An electronic barcode is used to identify each sample. This barcode is read using a scanner and is stored in the data platform."}]},{"head":"Monitoring milk utilization and fodder production","index":26,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":51,"text":"The ADGG tool is used to regularly monitor how the milk produced on a farm is utilized. Information is collected on general use of milk at household and farm level, and on quantities sold. This data is important for understanding the demand and consumption patterns for milk within smallholder dairy enterprises."},{"index":2,"size":54,"text":"One of the greatest limitations to milk production under smallholder farming systems is the availability of adequate feed resources. The ADGG project is monitoring the adoption of practices to improve fodder production by different farmers. Data is recorded on the types of improved fodders planted, and the land resources availed for growing improved fodder."}]},{"head":"Note:","index":27,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":31,"text":"Information on use of milk and fodder production provides a guide to developing targeted interventions to address gaps in the dairy value chain and in feed resources for smallholder dairy enterprises."}]},{"head":"Farm resources and equipment to support the dairy enterprise","index":28,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":34,"text":"Once a farmer is registered on the ADGG platform and has a better understanding of what the project seeks to achieve, the farmer is requested to provide more detailed information around their dairy enterprise."},{"index":2,"size":27,"text":"The farmer is requested to provide information on resources available and investments made on the farm to support dairy production. Information is grouped into categories outlined below."}]},{"head":"Land ownership, water sources and their use","index":29,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":109,"text":"Data is obtained on the land owned by the farmer, the proportion allocated for dairy related activities, and water sources available as illustrated in Figure 13. Other species of livestock reared Smallholder livestock keepers rarely keep just one species of animal. Information on the different species of livestock kept by the farmer in addition to cattle is noted (Figure 14). This provides a more wholistic picture on the allocation and use of resources on the farm, and on the different income streams related to livestock that support the farmer. The improved management practices learnt and adopted for cattle also have an impact on the other species of livestock reared. "}]},{"head":"Investments in cattle housing and structures","index":30,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":30,"text":"If the farmer keeps his/her cattle in a shed, its characteristics and details on other structures that are used for the dairy enterprise are noted as illustrated in Figure 16."},{"index":2,"size":138,"text":"Cattle housing and structures built to provide feeds and water, in addition to controlling the movement of the animals directly influence the health and production environment of dairy cattle. Cattle breeding practices adopted on the farm Many farmers face challenges in the management of reproduction. At the start of the herd monitoring process, we seek to understand how the farmers propagate and breed their dairy animals. This section of the tool obtains information on the use of natural mating (live bulls) and the use of AI (Figure 16). Animal health management practices and services used on the farm Good dairy cattle management requires an understanding of the well-being of the animals. Poor animal conditions and diseases negatively impact dairy production. The availability of services to support the raising of healthy dairy animals is not uniform in different areas."},{"index":3,"size":42,"text":"In this section, we obtain information on animal health services (deworming, vaccination and external parasitic infections) and an indication of the reliability and cost of each service depending on the service providers available (Figure 17). Feeding systems used for the dairy enterprise"},{"index":4,"size":36,"text":"Information on the type of feed (fodder, pasture, crop residue and concentrates) being used at the farm for different categories of animals, sources of the feeds and their costs is collected as illustrated in Figure 18."},{"index":5,"size":7,"text":"Figure 18. Details captured on feed resources"}]},{"head":"Membership and participation in community groups","index":31,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":93,"text":"Community groups provide a platform for learning and sharing thoughts and ideas. Farmer involvement in groups greatly influences the adoption of technologies and pracices to enhance their livestock enterprises. We obtain information on groups within the farming community and an indication of participation by farmers enrolled in the ADGG platform as illustrated in Figure 19. Select one: for some questions in the tool, the user is able to select only one option from a list of choices. In this instance, the choices are presented using a \"round\" button as illustrated in List 1."},{"index":2,"size":22,"text":"Example: the gender of the farmer can either be male or female and not both, hence only one option can be selected."},{"index":3,"size":49,"text":"List 1: Example list of choices that can be made using select one option 2. Select multiple: in some questions, the user can select more than one option from a list of choices. In this case, the choices are presented using a \"square\" button as illustrated in List 2."},{"index":4,"size":21,"text":"Example: the farmer may own goats, sheep and pigs. All three options can be selected when listed using the square button."}]},{"head":"Recording dates, time, images and GPS coordinates","index":32,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":19,"text":"Date and time: when collecting data, the date on which an activity or event occurred needs to be noted."},{"index":2,"size":11,"text":"The tool enables the recording of date within a given time-line."},{"index":3,"size":63,"text":"In order to record the date and/or time for an event, the options \"select date\" or \"select time\" are predented as illustrated in List 4. When the option is \"select date\", a calendar is opened from which the user can select the date, month and year as required. For the option \"select time\", the user is able to select the hour and minutes."},{"index":4,"size":20,"text":"A warning message is given when a date is indicated that is beyond the boundaries set for a given activity."},{"index":5,"size":25,"text":"For instance, it is not logical to indicate that the milk production being recorded in the year 2020 was produced by the animal in 2018."},{"index":6,"size":13,"text":"List 4: Example options for selecting the date and time of an event"},{"index":7,"size":69,"text":"Images: when collecting data on a farm, it may be desirable to take a picture of an animal or of a written document. The photograph can be taken directly within the ODK tool or to take the picure using the camera on the device and later upload the photograph into the tool and sen it to the database. The options available in the tool are illustrated in List 5."},{"index":8,"size":54,"text":"List 5: Example options for taking and stroring photographs in the tools GPS coordinates: evidence that data is collected on a specific farm is noted through recording the GPS coordinates of the location at which the information was generated as illustrated in List 6. Enure the location setting on your android device is active."},{"index":9,"size":7,"text":"List 6: Option for recording GPS coordinates"},{"index":10,"size":7,"text":"Collecting similar information on different animals (repeats)"},{"index":11,"size":28,"text":"When collecting information on a farm, it may be necessary to collect the same information on many different animals. This is easily done using the option \"Add Group\"."},{"index":12,"size":50,"text":"The \"Add Group\" option when selected enables the user to provide a similar cycle of responses on a different animal without going through the process of activating a new form for data collection. Information collected using \"Add group\" is stored alongside data of the individual identified within the new loop."}]},{"head":"Constraints and boundaries for data parameters","index":33,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":37,"text":"To facilitate the collection of data around different measures/parameters on an animal, constraints/boundaries are provided for the scale within which each measure must fit. Boundaries within the data tool are based on biological parameters of dairy cattle."},{"index":2,"size":76,"text":"For example, when registering or monitoring the growth of a calf prior to weaning at 9-12 weeks of age, its weight will range between 10 and 100 kg. In case the user records a value outside of this range, a message will be displayed indicating that the value is beyond the boundaries for the trait. A correct measure must be taken and recorded, otherwise the user will be unable to record additional information on the animal."}]},{"head":"Hints","index":34,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":28,"text":"Some sections of the tool provide directions to the data collector on how to answer a particular question. Such information is presented in itallics beneath the main question."},{"index":2,"size":4,"text":"Addressing common errors a."},{"index":3,"size":14,"text":"Challenge: names of farmers and/or animals that are registered fail to appear in list."},{"index":4,"size":29,"text":"Solution: ensure you have access to the internet. Download an update of the form using the option \"Get blank  Challenge: failure to send data collected to the main database."},{"index":5,"size":12,"text":"Note: this could be as a result of different factors such as:"},{"index":6,"size":14,"text":"• using old versions of data forms that have been deactivated: download updated forms."},{"index":7,"size":17,"text":"• poor internet connection: wait until internet is available then allow the devise to send the data."},{"index":8,"size":23,"text":"• trying to send the same data twice: update the forms on your tool and check that data has not been previously submitted."},{"index":9,"size":20,"text":"• trying to send incomplete data: check that you have completed all information in a form prior to sending it."},{"index":10,"size":7,"text":"Quick guide to using ADGG ODK collect"},{"index":11,"size":45,"text":"Step 1: Ensure you are regisitered as a platform user by ICT personnel in country At registration, you will be provided with credentials to enable you access and use the ADGG data capture tools. Remember your credentials and DO NOT share them with other people."},{"index":12,"size":53,"text":"Step 2: Install and configure ODK on your android device Download the ODK application through the play store on your android device. Configure your ODK application to the ADGG Platfrom using the details provided by your ICT department. An illustration of downloading and configuring your ODK is available at Installing ODK for ADGG."},{"index":13,"size":38,"text":"Step 3: Download the ADGG tool in the ODK application Download the ADGG tool using the ODK Application you have installed and configured in step 2. This is done by selecting \"Get Blank From\" from the ODK menu."},{"index":14,"size":11,"text":"Step 4: Data collection Overiview of the ADGG data collection process"},{"index":15,"size":36,"text":"Step 5: Submit data to ADGG database Once you have filled in details in the form, use the menu option \"Send Finalized From\" in the ODK application to submit the information collected to ADGG data platform."},{"index":16,"size":1,"text":"Note:"},{"index":17,"size":15,"text":"• An internet connection is need for all steps except Step 4, i.e data collection."},{"index":18,"size":13,"text":"• A Farmer needs to be registered before you can register his/her animals."},{"index":19,"size":14,"text":"• Animal monitoring and services can only done for animals that have been registred."},{"index":20,"size":39,"text":"• Information collected through the ADGG ODK tool needs to be updated regularly by selecting \"Get Blank Form\" from the ODK applicaiton. This ensures that you have the most recent information related to farmers and animals in the database."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figures Figures "},{"text":"Figure 2 . Figure 2. Details captured during the registration of Data service providers "},{"text":"Figure Figure 3. Details captured during regististration of farmers "},{"text":"Figure 4 . Figure 4. Details captured during registration of cattle "},{"text":"Figure 5 . Figure 5. Details captured during sysnchronization "},{"text":"Figure 7 . Figure 7. Details captured during pregnancy diagnosis "},{"text":"• Figure 10. Details captured during cow or heifer monitoring "},{"text":"Figure 11 . Figure 11. Details captured on East Coast fever (ECF) vaccination "},{"text":"Figure 13 . Figure 13. Details on land and water resources "},{"text":"Figure 14 . Figure 14. Details captured on other livestock species owned by the farmer "},{"text":"Figure 15 . Figure 15. Details captured on cattle housing and structures "},{"text":"Figure 16 . Figure 16. Details captured on methods of breeding dairy animals "},{"text":"Figure 17 . Figure 17. Details captured on animal health services "},{"text":"Figure 19 . Figure 19. Details captured on group memebership "},{"text":"Form\" . In order to ensure that you have the most up to date list of farmers and animals that have been registered, each user is advised to update the tools in use each morning prior to going out to collect data on farms. In case the problem persisits, contact the country ICT administrator.b.Challenge: obtaining GPS coordinates takes a very long time.Solution: enure the location setting on your android device is active. The device communicates with satellites that are positioned in the skies to record the GPS coordinates. Stand in an open area and face your android device towards the sky and allow it to register coordinates of the location within a 10 metre radius. "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "}],"sieverID":"c1a56b95-a7ff-4497-99e9-559529125eed","abstract":""}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"023e018f8df4b0704a2f241c4d02eafb","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/dab852cf-6e63-456e-b7ee-645401f53c3c/retrieve"},"pageCount":2,"title":"MEANS-END CHAIN ANALYSIS","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[]}],"figures":[{"text":" 1. Purpose: understand how farmers evaluate, and why they value a product or service such as a crop variety, a management practice or a seed source 2. Level: household or individual farmer 3. Users of the tool: researchers 4. Output of the tool: an overview of how farmers evaluate a product or service, usually in the form of a hierarchical value map where responses are aggregated 5. Audience of the output: breeders, seed system experts and designers of interventions 6. Minimum sample size: 30-60 7. Resources a. number of people: 1-2 people b. equipment: seed samples or other material to be evaluated, transport, paper, pen and voice recorder c. expertise: knowledge on means-end chain theory, experienced interviewers/ enumerators, and fluency in the interviewees' language 8. Timing: any time when insight into farmers' preferences and choices for varieties, seed sources, and other goods or services is needed, e.g. when defining: i) desirable characteristics of new seed, or ii) the group of farmers who will use the new seed 9. Duration: 1 week for about 10-12 farmers 10. Steps a. Identify representative communities for the seed system being studied: at least 2 for each typical seed system area b. Plan the collection trips c. Prepare the planting material d. Construct elicitation e. Laddering f. Analysis of means-end chains "}],"sieverID":"3054cc9e-a943-41db-803a-db99a5d2bf9e","abstract":"11. Which methods can be used in combination with the tool: various elicitation techniques such as Kelly's Triad Sorting, and laddering interviews 12. Gender: data may be disaggregated for gender or other social groups to better understand how men and women value and evaluate certain goods or services in different ways (gender responsiveness level 1: gender is a significant factor in this tool, but it is not the main reason for using it)13. User guide: Kilwinger, F. B. M. (2020). User guide to means-end chain analysis. Lima (Peru). CGIAR Research Program on Roots, Tubers and Bananas (RTB). RTB User Guide. No. 2020-4."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"02606006a79866177c590afbc6163980","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/84e61c16-fe89-44a7-b4e6-a26c8c0f5cfd/retrieve"},"pageCount":16,"title":"Estatus de la Gestión de Riesgos Climáticos en el Sector Agroalimentario y su Importancia para la Seguridad Alimentaria y Nutricional en Honduras","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"RESUMEN","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":85,"text":"Honduras ha sido identificado como el país con mayor vulnerabilidad en términos de riesgo, variabilidad y cambio climático de Centroamérica; es por esto que la Secretaría de Agricultura y Ganadería (SAG) en colaboración con el Programa de Investigación de CGIAR en Cambio Climático, Agricultura y Seguridad Alimentaria (CCAFS) en América Latina y con apoyo del Consejo Agropecuario Centroamericano (CAC) presentan el Estatus de la Investigación en Cambio Climático, Agricultura y Seguridad Alimentaria, así como el marco gubernamental y actores involucrados en torno a esta temática."},{"index":2,"size":70,"text":"En el documento se evidencia que Honduras cuenta con una estructura legal e institucional que promueve políticas y acciones orientadas a contrarrestar los efectos negativos del cambio climático en la agricultura, colaborando continuamente con organizaciones internacionales, academia y sector privado; sin embargo, el país se mantiene en continuo proceso de desarrollo y mejora para incrementar la resiliencia y adaptación al cambio climático así como la mitigación del sector agrícola hondureño."}]},{"head":"INTRODUCCIÓN","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":76,"text":"El cambio climático es una realidad para Centroamérica, considerada un \"Punto Caliente\" en términos de afectaciones por la variabilidad climática (Magrin et al., 2007). En los últimos años ha sido constantemente asediada por múltiples eventos climáticos intensos y extremos, como sequías y huracanes (Ver figura 1) (CCAD-SICA, 2010), generando mayores retos y problemáticas en la región agravados por patrones insostenibles de producción, el inadecuado uso de la tierra y la deforestación (CAC, CCAD y Comisca, 2008)."},{"index":2,"size":97,"text":"El sector agropecuario es extremadamente vulnerable a la variabilidad climática. Algunos de los impactos más relevantes son las alteraciones en la precipitación, que modifican los periodos de cosecha y siembra, así como aumentos en la temperatura, que propician la propagación de plagas y enfermedades en los cultivos (Nelson et al., 2009). Esta situación pone en riesgo la seguridad alimentaria del 52% de la población rural que depende de cultivos como el maíz y el frijol, en su mayoría sistemas en secano y por lo tanto, son altamente sensibles a la variabilidad climática (Baumeister, 2010;RUTA et al., 2012)."},{"index":3,"size":68,"text":"FIGURA 1. Áreas propensas a sequía en Centroamérica (Ramírez, 2007) En este sentido, el CAC (conformado por representantes de los Ministerios de Agricultura de la región) y CCAFS desarrollan una agenda conjunta en la que buscan el fortalecimiento de la región en términos institucionales, científicos y de gestión del riesgo climático en el sector agrícola con miras a la reducción de la inseguridad alimentaria de la población centroamericana."},{"index":4,"size":98,"text":"A su vez, el Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical (CIAT) suscribió en el año 2013 un convenio de cooperación con el CAC 1 , el cual CCAFS ha apoyado desde sus inicios. En el marco de este convenio, se desarrolló una iniciativa con el fin de identificar el estado de los países centroamericanos en términos de investigación en cambio climático, agricultura y seguridad alimentaria, el marco gubernamental y actores involucrados en torno a esta temática, así como la revisión de los principales impactos de la variabilidad climática en el sector agropecuario y sus consecuencias en la seguridad alimentaria."},{"index":5,"size":27,"text":"Este documento es producto de esta iniciativa, el cual fue realizado en conjunto con el enlace técnico del CAC de la SAG, científicos de CCAFS y CIAT."},{"index":6,"size":80,"text":"La metodología utilizada para llevar a cabo la construcción de este documento se basó en la revisión de literatura y de información secundaria, así como en la realización de entrevistas a algunos de los actores clave del país sobre esta temática. Además de este documento, uno de los logros más significativos es el afianzamiento de los lazos de CCAFS con los Ministerios de Agricultura y de Medio Ambiente, así como con varias instituciones del sector privado, academia y sociedad civil."}]},{"head":"CONTEXTUALIZACIÓN","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":63,"text":"El territorio nacional de Honduras se encuentra en el norte de Centroamérica, limita al norte con el Mar Caribe, al sur con El Salvador y con el Golfo de Fonseca en el Océano Pacífico, al este y sureste con Nicaragua y al oeste con Guatemala. Tiene una extensión total de 112.492 Km 2 y ocupa el segundo lugar en extensión territorial en Centroamérica."},{"index":2,"size":36,"text":"Su posición geográfica y topográfica dan como resultado una combinación de climas, en donde sobresalen la selva húmeda tropical, la sabana tropical y el mesotérmico, con dos temporadas muy marcadas de sequía y lluvias (Pineda, 1997)."},{"index":3,"size":72,"text":"El relieve es montañoso en más de un 80% de su extensión (Portillo-Reyes, 2007), los rasgos geomorfológicos más sobresalientes son la planicie costera, las tierras altas y las tierras altas montañosas. El 59% de su territorio se clasifica como bosque, compuesto en su mayoría por bosque latifoliado, bosque de pino y bosque de manglar. Las tierras dedicadas a las actividades agropecuarias corresponden al 24,7% del territorio nacional (Ver figura 2) (ICF, 2012)."},{"index":4,"size":68,"text":"FIGURA 2. Mapa de cobertura y uso de suelo de la República de Honduras. (Esnacifor-PBPR-ICF, 2009) Los granos básicos representan el 47% de la canasta básica hondureña, de la cual el 100% del maíz amarillo y el 85% del arroz para consumo interno es importado, principalmente de los Estados Unidos de América. El valor de las importaciones de cereales en 2008 fue de USD 182.930.000 (PMA, 2011;INE, 2009)."},{"index":5,"size":76,"text":"En el 2013, el producto interno bruto (PIB) del país alcanzó los USD 17,97 mil millones (BCH, 2013) y el crecimiento económico alcanzó el 3,3% anual. Después de la manufactura y la banca, las actividades agropecuarias son las que más contribuyen al PIB, con un 13,5%. La madera, el café, el aceite de palma, el banano, los melones y sandías contribuyen con el 22,6% de los ingresos por exportaciones que equivalen a USD 999.055.600 (BCH, 2013)."},{"index":6,"size":51,"text":"El país es altamente vulnerable a la variabilidad climática: en 1998 el huracán Mitch ocasionó una catástrofe sin precedentes en su historia, provocando 7.000 muertes, causando daños en el 60% de la infraestructura del país y generando afectaciones en los cultivos, los cuales fueron calculados en USD 1.722,7 millones (CEPAL, 1999). "}]},{"head":"SECTOR AGROPECUARIO Y EL IMPACTO DE LA VARIABILIDAD CLIMÁTICA","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":29,"text":"En esta sección se mencionan los impactos más significativos en agricultura, producto de la variabilidad climática relacionados al cambio climático identificados en las comunicaciones nacionales y por actores clave."},{"index":2,"size":42,"text":"Las lluvias extremas, las sequías atípicas, la variación en la fechas de las lluvias, la pérdida de fertilidad y la erosión en los suelos cultivables son los impactos que causan las mayores afectaciones a la agricultura en el territorio hondureño (Argenal, 2010)."},{"index":3,"size":89,"text":"Los escenarios climáticos, tomando en cuenta las variaciones producto del fenómeno de El Niño oscilación sur (ENOS) en sus fases fría y cálida, proyectan disminuciones en la precipitación total entre un 3% y un 10% para el año 2020, así como aumento de la temperatura hasta de 0.9°C en la vertiente Pacífica y algunas cuencas del Caribe. Mientras que para el 2090, se proyectan disminuciones de la precipitación total desde un 28% hasta 31% en los departamentos de Cortés, Atlántida, Yoro, Francisco Morazán, Comayagua y El Paraíso (Argenal, 2010)."},{"index":4,"size":19,"text":"Se prevé que los cultivos de maíz, frijol y café sufrirán los efectos del cambio climático, causando estrés y"}]},{"head":"DATOS CLAVE","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":44,"text":"• La población del área rural alcanza el 54% del total, mientras que el 46% corresponde al área urbana (INE, 2013). El 67,4% de la población vive en condiciones de pobreza, de ellos el 42,8% se encuentra en condiciones de extrema pobreza (CEPAL, 2012)."},{"index":2,"size":35,"text":"• El 54% de la población rural se dedica al cultivo de granos básicos (FAO-RUTA, 2010). El 10% de la población ingiere debajo del nivel mínimo de consumo de energía alimentaria (2.188 kcal) (INE, 2013)."},{"index":3,"size":89,"text":"• 1,16 millones de personas son vulnerables en términos de desnutrición, principalmente los que viven en la zona sur y en la región fronteriza con Guatemala y el Atlántico Norte (PMA, 2008 provocando bajos rendimientos en los cultivos así como disminución de la calidad o pérdidas en la cosecha desde parciales a totales (Ordaz et al., 2010). Tan solo para el maíz se pronostica que en el 2025 las pérdidas de producción podrían ascender a cerca de 120.000 toneladas anualmente, valoradas en USD 40 millones (Eitzinger et al., 2012)."},{"index":4,"size":35,"text":"De manera particular, el cultivo de granos básicos se ve perjudicado por la variación en la época de lluvias y en el incremento de plagas y enfermedades que se han propagado por la variación climática."},{"index":5,"size":49,"text":"Entre las plagas que han aumentado su presencia en el maíz está la mancha de asfalto producida por un complejo de hongos (Pillacora maydis, Monographella maydis y Coniothyrium phyllacoae) y el cultivo de frijol ha sido afectado por el hongo causante de la mancha angular (Phaeoisariopsis griseola) 2 ."},{"index":6,"size":71,"text":"Como consecuencia del fenómeno del ENOS en los departamentos de Choluteca, Francisco Morazán y Valle en el año 2009 se registraron pérdidas del 56% en la cosecha de maíz en el ciclo de primera (que comienza en mayo y termina en agosto) y del 66% en el ciclo de postrera (que sucede entre agosto y octubre), así como en la producción de sorgo que disminuyó en un 40% (ACF Internacional, 2010)."},{"index":7,"size":46,"text":"Sin embargo, un estudio reciente señala el potencial de los pequeños productores de secano de maíz y frijol para la adaptación al cambio climático, particularmente en las zonas oriente y occidente del corredor seco y en los departamentos de Copán y Lempira (Eitzinger et al., 2012)."},{"index":8,"size":55,"text":"En el cultivo del café, los efectos del cambio climático y el remplazo de las prácticas agrícolas perjudican la producción. Tradicionalmente, las plagas de la roya (Hemileia vastatrix) y la broca (Hypothenemus hampei) no alcanzaban las plantaciones que se encontraban en alturas de 1.100msnm, pero actualmente se manifiestan en los cultivos de hasta los 1.600msnm."},{"index":9,"size":60,"text":"Para el ciclo 2012-2013 la plaga de la roya causó disminuciones en la producción total entre el 20% y el 25%. Otras afectaciones identificadas en el café son las floraciones en épocas atípicas, migración de las zonas óptimas para la producción de café y la pérdida de fertilidad en los suelos como consecuencia de las lluvias  (PNUD et al., 2011)."}]},{"head":"INVESTIGACIÓN Y PROYECTOS SOBRE CAMBIO CLIMÁTICO, AGRICULTURA Y SEGURIDAD ALIMENTARIA","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":45,"text":"Este apartado busca presentar de manera general las tendencias en investigación que se están desarrollando en Honduras. A través de la agrupación de las instituciones se mencionan los proyectos, actividades y trabajos que se están llevando a cabo relacionados con agricultura, clima y seguridad alimentaria."},{"index":2,"size":78,"text":"En la figura 3 se muestra un cuadro con algunos de los actores clave que realizan investigaciones o proyectos relacionados con cada temática, y que fueron identificados durante el levantamiento de datos para este documento, con el propósito de visibilizar su rol en uno o varios temas. En el interior de cada cuadro se encuentran las organizaciones que desarrollan trabajos en cada temática, en las intersecciones se localizan las que han estado trabajando en dos o más temáticas."}]},{"head":"SECTOR GUBERNAMENTAL","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":55,"text":"La SAG por medio del Servicio de Información Agroalimentaria (Infoagro) y la Dirección de Ciencia y Tecnología Agropecuaria (DICTA), en coordinación con el Servicio Meteorológico Nacional (SMN), han iniciado la emisión de boletines agrometeorológicos en beneficio de los agricultores, los cuales presentan las condiciones meteorológicas en las principales zonas productoras de granos básicos del país."},{"index":2,"size":62,"text":"Igualmente, dentro de la SAG, el Servicio de Educación Agrícola, Capacitación y Desarrollo Agro Empresarial (Seduca) tiene el propósito de promover la formación de recursos humanos en función de las necesidades que surgen de las demandas del sector agroalimentario para dotar a la fuerza laboral del país de las destrezas y conocimientos orientados a producir y comercializar de una forma más competitiva."},{"index":3,"size":71,"text":"Otro de los programas que la SAG lidera es el Programa Nacional de Desarrollo Agroalimentario (Pronagro), el cual es responsable de organizar los actores públicos y privados, con el fin de fortalecer las condiciones de competitividad de los diferentes actores organizados en cadenas agroalimentarias y de valor, así como establecer alianzas públicas o privadas, diálogos e iniciativas, que intensifiquen, diversifiquen, y aumenten el valor agregado de la producción agrícola y agroindustrial."},{"index":4,"size":43,"text":"La Unidad de Planeamiento, Evaluación y Gestión (UPEG) de la SAG trabaja en el seguimiento de políticas y planes nacionales, regionales y sectoriales, así como la Estrategia Centroamericana de Desarrollo Rural Territorial (Ecadert) promoviendo el uso de buenas prácticas agrícolas en proyectos implementados."},{"index":5,"size":57,"text":"El Programa de Desarrollo Rural Sostenible para la Región Sur (EmprendeSur) es un programa de la SAG con fondos FIDA, BCIE, OFID y Gobierno de Honduras que se desarrolla en Choluteca, El Paraíso, Francisco Morazán, La Paz y Valle. Trabajan con grupos de productores rurales organizados fortaleciendo cadenas de valor con enfoque de género y cambio climático."},{"index":6,"size":63,"text":"Durante el 2012, la SAG y el CIAT se suscribieron a un Convenio Marco de Cooperación con el objetivo de desarrollar colaboración entre las partes en los campos de forrajes, frijol, suelos, mercados y cambio climático, donde ambas partes se comprometieron a facilitar dicha cooperación por medio de actividades como el intercambio de información científica, y la gestión y desarrollo de proyectos conjuntos."},{"index":7,"size":64,"text":"La DICTA tiene como una de sus principales actividades el desarrollo de diversas investigaciones en torno a la afectación del cambio climático al sector agropecuario y las medidas para contrarrestarlos, fortaleciendo la colaboración con diversos actores públicos, privados e internacionales. Además se coordina con el Servicio Nacional de Seguridad Agropecuaria (Senasa) en los temas de inocuidad de alimentos, seguridad alimentaria y mejoramiento de semillas."},{"index":8,"size":47,"text":"Uno de sus programas es el de investigaciones de frijol en desarrollo de variedades tolerantes a sequías y altas temperaturas que cuenta con la colaboración de la Escuela de Agrícola Panamericana -Zamorano, el Programa Dry Grain Pulses CRSP/USAID, la red SICTA/IICA/Cosude, CCAFS, Bioversity y CIMMYT, entre otros."},{"index":9,"size":63,"text":"El sector público cuenta cada vez más con los organismos internacionales y la academia para apoyar sus procesos de formulación de política. Particularmente, a través de un ambicioso esfuerzo integrador ejecutado por la Secretaría de Recursos Naturales y Ambiente (SERNA), y el Comité Interinstitucional de Cambio Climático (CICC) que involucra a todos los actores a nivel nacional relacionados en la temática 5 ."},{"index":10,"size":62,"text":"El CICC actúa como plataforma de discusión, teniendo como propósito generar la incidencia política de manera multidisciplinaria y multisectorial para facilitar la atención coordinada de acciones que garanticen la adaptación y mitigación al cambio climático. En la plataforma existen también subcomités para abordar temáticas específicas como lo son REDD+ (forestal), temas marino-costeros (región caribe), agricultura y seguridad alimentaria, y calidad de aire."},{"index":11,"size":88,"text":"Adicionalmente, por medio del proyecto 'Fondo de Adaptación: Enfrentando riesgos climáticos en recursos hídricos en Honduras: Incrementando resiliencia y disminuyendo vulnerabilidades en áreas urbanas pobres' el CICC ha venido trabajando para aumentar la resiliencia en la población más vulnerable en cuanto a riesgos por el cambio climático relacionados con el agua. El proyecto se desarrolla a través de actividades piloto e intervenciones de caracter global para integrar los impactos del cambio climático en el sector hídrico, buscando que sea un trabajo colaborativo entre los diversos actores 6 ."},{"index":12,"size":95,"text":"En temas de mitigación, la SERNA, en conjunto con el Instituto de Conservación Forestal, Áreas Protegidas y Vida Silvestre (ICF) ha desarrollado un proceso de preparación para implementar la reducción emisiones causadas por la deforestación y la degradación de bosques en el país. El proceso se desarrolla a través de acciones estratégicas como el involucramiento de actores multisectoriales y desarrollo de sistemas de monitoreo y reporte, así como el manejo sostenible de bosques por medio del fomento de sistemas agroforestales y forestales lo cual, permite una mejora en la calidad de vida local y regional."}]},{"head":"Seguridad Alimentaria","index":8,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Gestión de riesgos","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":61,"text":"Adaptación Mitigación También, la DNCC junto con DICTA ha iniciado en el 2014 un proceso de análisis de iniciativas que permitirán categorizarlas como Acciones Nacionales Apropiadas de Mitigación (NAMA, por sus siglas en inglés) con el objetivo de poder replicar y promover acciones que permitan la reducción de emisiones y que a su vez promuevan el desarrollo sostenible local y nacional."},{"index":2,"size":42,"text":"En gestión de riesgos, la Comisión Permanente de Contingencias (Copeco), coordina y fortalece el Sistema Nacional de Gestión de Riesgos (Sinager), donde ha trabajado con comités comunitarios de brigadistas en la prevención de desastres naturales y en la concientización de la población."},{"index":3,"size":57,"text":"De acuerdo con la SERNA, en términos de mitigación al cambio climático para diciembre de 2013, Honduras contaba con 29 proyectos registrados bajo el Mecanismo de Desarrollo Limpio (MDL) del Protocolo de Kioto: 14 de tipo hidroeléctrico, 3 de biomasa , 3 de cogeneración, 1 de captura de metano, 1 eólico, 1 geotérmico y 6 de biogás."}]},{"head":"ACADEMIA","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":28,"text":"La Escuela Agrícola Panamericana del Zamorano desarrolla programas en mejoramiento de granos básicos resistentes a condiciones climáticas adversas en colaboración con varios actores de organizaciones internacionales 7 ."},{"index":2,"size":66,"text":"Por su parte, la Universidad Nacional Agraria (UNA) tiene un programa en el que desarrolla Escuelas de Campo (ECAS) vinculando trabajo universitario con la sociedad. El objetivo general de este proyecto es mejorar la seguridad alimentaria en el largo plazo de las poblaciones vulnerables de Honduras a través del fortalecimiento de la resiliencia a estreses climáticos de los sistemas alimentario a diferentes escalas espaciales y temporales."},{"index":3,"size":63,"text":"El Instituto Hondureño de Ciencias de la Tierra de la Universidad Nacional Autónoma de Honduras (IHCIT-UNAH), desarrolla el Programa Regional de Investigación en Gestión de Riesgos de la Dipredca, junto con la Agencia Sueca para el Desarrollo Internacional (ASDI) y el Consejo Superior Universitario Centroamericano (CSUCA), en el cual se busca desarrollar las capacidades de investigación para la prevención y mitigación de desastres."},{"index":4,"size":81,"text":"De igual forma, el IHCIT-UNAH lidera un proyecto que comenzó como una iniciativa universitaria y se espera se consolide con el Observatorio de la Sostenibilidad, que entre sus objetivos tiene ordenar y darle seguimiento a indicadores de cambio climático, adaptación, mitigación y gestión de riesgos dentro del territorio de Honduras (IHCIT-UNAH, 2012). Este trabajo es de suma importancia para el seguimiento y evolución de la de las medidas de adaptación y mitigación al cambio climático que se implementan en el país."}]},{"head":"INSTITUCIONES REGIONALES","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":49,"text":"El IICA también ha venido involucrándose en la realización de proyectos en colaboración con instituciones de carácter nacional como la SAG y la SERNA en temas de política pública relacionados con agricultura, seguridad alimentaria, recurso hídrico y desarrollo territorial, así como con otros socios a nivel regional e internacional."},{"index":2,"size":35,"text":"Actualmente, el IICA incluye el cambio climático en los ejes de planeación de sus programas. El IICA busca trabajar de cerca con los productores en proyectos de acceso a mercados y seguridad alimentaria 8 ."}]},{"head":"ORGANISMOS Y COOPERACIÓN INTERNACIONAL","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":51,"text":"En un esfuerzo conjunto el PMA y la FAO trabajan un proyecto en el que vigilan de cerca la situación en el Corredor Seco en el país, realizando levantamientos periódicos de información en seguridad alimentaria, asistiendo en la prevención de desastres y fortalecimiento de la SAN colaborando con Secretarías del Estado."},{"index":2,"size":41,"text":"La FAO también lidera proyectos de gestión comunitaria integral de riesgos y fondos mutuos de contingencia en la Mancomunidad del Norte de Choluteca. A nivel nacional y regional, elaboran el primer mapa nacional de degradación de tierras con metodología FAO: LADA/WOCAT."},{"index":3,"size":68,"text":"Honduras es parte del Plan de acción estratégico para fortalecer la conservación y el uso de los recursos fitogenéticos mesoamericanos para la adaptación de la agricultura al cambio climático (PAEM) liderado por Bioversity International pero elaborado en conjunto con diversas instituciones de caracter nacional y regional. Este plan de acción se construyó con el fin de servir como una herramienta estratégica para fortalecer la SAN a nivel regional."},{"index":4,"size":39,"text":"En los temas de producción agroforestal y cosecha de agua, la Cooperación Alemana (GIZ) desarrolla diversos proyectos sobre temas relacionados con cambio climatico y seguridad alimentaria particularmente en la zona del Trifinio que comparte Honduras, El Salvador y Guatemala."},{"index":5,"size":95,"text":"La Por medio de la Dirección General de Ayuda Humanitaria y Protección Civil (DG-ECHO), la Comisión Europea, colabora con Acción contra el Hambre (ACF, por sus siglas en francés) y CARE Internacional en la Segunda etapa de la Iniciativa de Incremento de la Resiliencia a la Sequía en el Corredor Seco Centroamericano, realizando actividades como la sistematización y difusión de herramientas y buenas prácticas para incrementar la resiliencia a la sequía con enfoque en medios de vida, y la producción y difusión de instrumentos nacionales para la gestión del riesgo de sequía, por mencionar algunas."},{"index":6,"size":66,"text":"La Agencia Suiza para el Desarrollo y la Cooperación (Cosude) está trabajando en el país en los temas de acceso a finanzas del clima, planes sectoriales con enfoque de gestión de riesgo, balances hídricos y también con otros sectores sensibles al clima. Adicionalmente, otra organización que trabaja de cerca la gestión de riesgos y la prevención de desastres en el país es la Cruz Roja Hondureña."},{"index":7,"size":34,"text":"Varios de los programas e investigaciones que se realizan han contado con el apoyo de organismos internacionales que financian los diferentes proyectos como una forma de colaborar con los países en vías de desarrollo. "}]},{"head":"ASOCIACIONES Y ONG","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":54,"text":"La Federación Nacional de Agricultores y Ganaderos (Fenagh) trabaja en proyectos relacionados con la promoción de sistemas agroforestales y pastoriles, considerando el impacto del cambio climático en el sector agroalimentario. Por su parte, la Fundación Hondureña de Investigación Agrícola (FHIA) investiga y promueve sistemas agroforestales diversificados, específicamente con cacao, y lidera programas de fitomejoramiento."},{"index":2,"size":81,"text":"En el sur de Honduras, Oxfam Québec ejecuta el Proyecto Apoyo a la Seguridad Alimentaria (PRASA) en las cuencas de los ríos Nacaome y Goascorán, financiado por la Agencia Canadiense de Desarrollo Internacional (ACDI) y con financiamiento complementario de One Drop. El proyecto tiene como propósito mejorar los medios de vida y los ingresos de las poblaciones que viven en el trópico seco de Honduras por medio de la utilización sostenible de los recursos naturales y una gestión racional del agua."},{"index":3,"size":38,"text":"ONG locales como la Fundación Vida focalizan sus actividades en el marco de la realización de convenios que sirven de conexión con ONG internacionales para la implementación de proyectos de adaptación y de desarrollo compatible con el clima."},{"index":4,"size":44,"text":"Es necesario reforzar la incidencia en la gestión de riesgos climáticos con la transversalización de estrategias de adaptación para salvaguardar la seguridad de la población hondureña, incluyendo seguridad alimentaria y nutricional. Incrementar, diversificar y fortalecer los mecanismos divulgación y métodos para atender los ejes."}]},{"head":"MARCO NORMATIVO PARA CAMBIO CLIMÁTICO, AGRICULTURA Y SEGURIDAD ALIMENTARIA","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":23,"text":"En esta sección se presenta el marco normativo que ha desarrollado Honduras dentro de la temática de cambio climático, agricultura y seguridad alimentaria."},{"index":2,"size":33,"text":"Honduras es signataria de diversos acuerdos internacionales sobre cambio climático. En 1992 firmó el CMNUCC en la Cumbre de la Tierra de Río de Janeiro, Brasil, ratificándolo el 29 de Julio de 1995."},{"index":3,"size":58,"text":"En el año de 1996 aprobó el Convenio Regional sobre Cambio Climático (Guatemala, 1993) La Política de Estado para el Sector Agroalimentario y el Medio Rural de Honduras 2004-2021 enfatiza un marco de políticas y estrategias de largo plazo para asegurar la continuidad de esfuerzos conjuntos en el sector y así transformar la agricultura hondureña de manera integral."},{"index":4,"size":122,"text":"Dentro de la Política de Estado para la Gestión Integral de Riesgo en Honduras (Pegirh) aprobada en el 2013, se considera que es imperativo prepararse con estrategias preventivas de largo plazo que incluyan un rápido aprendizaje en la evaluación de impacto, la definición e implementación de estrategias de recuperación temprana, el desarrollo de capacidades de resiliencia de la población especialmente en la recuperación de medios de vida, vivienda, seguridad humana y territorial sin reproducir nuevos riesgos a desastres derivado de amenazas naturales, efectos del cambio climático y la acción antropogénica; vinculando la gestión política, territorial y financiera a fin de reducir la vulnerabilidad, favorecer la resiliencia y contribuir a los procesos de desarrollo humano y al desarrollo sostenible (República de Honduras, 2013)."},{"index":5,"size":50,"text":"En este contexto, centros de investigación del CGIAR han colaborado en conjunto con diversas entidades en el proceso de gestión integral de riesgo del país (CIMMYT, CIAT. Bioversity, ICRAF, ILRI, entre otros). En la tabla 1 y figura 4 se presenta el listado y la línea cronológica de la normatividad."}]},{"head":"ÁREA NORMATIVIDAD","index":15,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Planeación nacional","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":56,"text":"Plan Durante los años 90, con la firma y ratificación de los convenios internacionales para cambio climático, Honduras inicia su camino en la creación de diversas leyes e instrumentos en la temática, más adelante en el año 2010 alinea sus planes estratégicos al Plan de Nación, lo que conlleva la creación de múltiples programas y estrategias."},{"index":2,"size":60,"text":"Recientemente, se aprobó la Ley de Cambio Climático en el país. En la región es el tercer país en contar con una legislación de este tipo, el primero fue Costa Rica y durante el 2013 le siguió Guatemala. Esta legislación tiene como propósito establecer los principios y regulaciones necesarios para planificar y prevenir los impactos que genera el cambio climático. "}]},{"head":"ESTRUCTURA NACIONAL PARA CAMBIO CLIMÁTICO, AGRICULTURA Y SEGURIDAD ALIMENTARIA","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":64,"text":"Este apartado describe la estructura gubernamental del país que enmarca los temas de cambio climático, agricultura y seguridad alimentaria. En Honduras, el tema es trabajado en coordinación y de manera transversal con los distintos gabinetes sectoriales (PMC-001-2014) y sus Secretarías de Estado, por medio de Comisiones, Sistemas Nacionales y Comités. De igual forma, se involucran los centros de investigación, entidades comerciales, productores y ONG."},{"index":2,"size":41,"text":"A nivel gubernamental, el Gabinete Sectorial de Desarrollo Económico acoge a la SAG así como a la SERNA. La SERNA tiene el mandato de garantizar el uso y manejo sostenible de los recursos naturales y prevenir la contaminación del medio ambiente."},{"index":3,"size":33,"text":"En el año 1997, se crea la Unidad de Cambio Climático, que en el año 2010 se convierte en la Dirección Nacional de Cambio Climático (DNCC) que depende de la SERNA (PCM 046-2010)."},{"index":4,"size":28,"text":"La DNCC coordina las acciones orientadas a formular y ejecutar las políticas nacionales la mitigación de los GEI y la adaptación a los efectos adversos del cambio climático."},{"index":5,"size":30,"text":"Igualmente, promueve el desarrollo de programas y estrategias de acción climática, relativos al cumplimiento de los compromisos asumidos a través de la suscripción del CMNUCC y el Protocolo de Kioto."},{"index":6,"size":40,"text":"En la DNCC, se encuentra el Comité Técnico Interinstitucional de Cambio Climático (CTICC) en el cual, están representadas instituciones gubernamentales, no gubernamentales, sociedad civil y academia, aborda los temas de cambio climático y gestión de riesgos en conjunto (PCM 048-2011)."},{"index":7,"size":68,"text":"La SAG es la secretaría encargada de velar por la producción agropecuaria, lograr que la producción agrícola nacional sea competitiva, sostenible y con capacidad para insertarse en la economía internacional, respondiendo a las necesidades del mercado interno e integrándose en un esquema de desarrollo humano, social, ambiental, basado en la autogestión, la participación comunitaria, el enfoque de equidad de género y el manejo sostenible de los recursos naturales."},{"index":8,"size":26,"text":"La mayoría los Comités Técnicos son de reciente creación, por lo que es necesario darle continuidad al trabajo que realizan para consolidar y transversalizar los esfuerzos."},{"index":9,"size":85,"text":"La SAG crea el Comité de Seguros Agrícolas de Honduras (CSA) en 2009 (PCM-25-2009), como un mecanismo para cubrir los riesgos a los que se enfrentan los productores agropecuarios, asegurando la provisión de alimentos y la protección de cultivos y animales contra eventos adversos de la naturaleza o de otra índole. Como unidad adjunta al CSA funciona la Unidad de Riesgo Agropecuario (URA), la cual se encarga de procesar y concentrar la información de riesgo agrícola con el fin de dar apoyo a los productores."},{"index":10,"size":48,"text":"Así mismo, la SAG por medio de la DICTA en coordinación con la Dirección Nacional de Cambio Climático están en proceso de crear el Sub-comité de Agricultura para adaptación al Cambio Climático. También existe un Subcomité de Seguridad Alimentaria bajo el CTICC que está liderado por la SAG."},{"index":11,"size":58,"text":"Otro de los subcomités creados para una adecuada coordinación sectorial es el Subcomité de REDD+, creado con el propósito de poder fomentar acciones complementarias para la conservación de bosques, aumento de las reservas naturales de carbono y la promoción de beneficios sociales y ambientales para las comunidades locales tomando a los bosques como medios de subsistencia de vida."},{"index":12,"size":46,"text":"En el marco de la seguridad alimentaria, Honduras ha reconocido la problemática multidimensional que padece, por lo que es considerada como una condición prioritaria para el logro de los objetivos nacionales La Copeco, es un importante actor con independencia funcional y administrativa, siendo un ente descentralizado."},{"index":13,"size":56,"text":"El SMN es responsable de conocer e informar sobre las condiciones meteorológicas presentes y futuras, para lo cual debe analizar las condiciones atmosféricas de su área de responsabilidad y poder así elaborar pronósticos de su evolución en el tiempo y en el espacio. El SMN se encuentra adscrito a Copeco de acuerdo al decreto legislativo PMC-001-2014."}]},{"head":"GESTIÓN DEL RIESGO CLIMÁTICO","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":16,"text":"En esta sección se propone un esquema para articular la gestión del riesgo climático en Honduras."},{"index":2,"size":46,"text":"El país cuenta con una buena base institucional y legal para gestionar los riesgos climáticos. Sin embargo, se necesitan mejoras en torno a tres temas: incorporación de los riesgos climáticos en documentos fundamentales de políticas públicas, implementación de políticas públicas y creación de capacidades (PNUD, 2013)."},{"index":3,"size":41,"text":"Para concretar acciones es necesaria la coordinación, sinergia y compromiso entre las organizaciones involucradas. La SAG debe ser la encargada de encausar el trabajo en esta temática por medio del CSA y en colaboración con la DICTA coordinando los siguientes ejes:"},{"index":4,"size":85,"text":"• Gestión del conocimiento • Gestión de suelos • Gestión del recurso hídrico • Técnicas de fitomejoramiento • Mecanismos financieros, institucionales y RRD/ACC Este trabajo se debe realizar a la par con organizaciones como el SMN, la SERNA, la Asociación Hondureña de Instituciones Bancarias (AHIBA), la Cámara Hondureña de Aseguradores (CAHDA) el Banco Nacional de Desarrollo Agrícola (Banadesa), entre otros, apoyándose del Seduca y el Infoagro para una eficiente divulgación de conocimientos y capacitación. Asimismo, por medio del Pronagro aumentar las relaciones con la Fenagh."},{"index":5,"size":26,"text":"En la figura 6 se puede observar el mapa estratégico propuesto de gestión del riesgo climático en Honduras, donde se presentan las relaciones para este sector."}]},{"head":"EL PAÍS EN EL CONTEXTO REGIONAL","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":76,"text":"Como respuesta al historial de eventos climáticos que han impactado al territorio y en prevención para los eventos climáticos extremos futuros productos del cambio climático, la nación hondureña ha creado una estructura institucional que le permite decretar políticas y leyes para adaptarse y mitigar los efectos del cambio climático. Los esfuerzos han sido alineados al Plan de Nación e incluye dentro de sus planes y estrategias del sector agropecuario el cambio climático y la seguridad alimentaria."},{"index":2,"size":23,"text":"Igualmente importante son los esfuerzos colaborativos entre la SERNA y la SAG por medio de las diferentes comisiones a las que se integran."},{"index":3,"size":28,"text":"La conformación del CSA es un importante paso dentro 10 FIGURA 6. Mapa estratégico propuesto de gestión de riesgo climático en Honduras para el Sector Agroalimentario. (Elaboración propia). "}]},{"head":"PODER EJECUTIVO Desarrollo e Inclusión","index":20,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Secretaría de Desarollo e Inclusión","index":21,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Conducción y Regulación Económica","index":22,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Secretaría de","index":23,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Capacitación/ Divulgación","index":24,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":30,"text":"de los esfuerzos para fortalecer la seguridad alimentaria de su población. En Centroamérica solo Panamá cuenta con una institución pública de este tipo, que es el Instituto de Seguro Agropecuario."},{"index":2,"size":25,"text":"Una vez que se concrete el subcomité de Agricultura y Seguridad Alimentaria (que es parte del CTICC), será el primero de su tipo en Centroamérica."},{"index":3,"size":61,"text":"Si bien Honduras es el país más vulnerable de Centroamérica al cambio climático, posee una estructura legal e institucional desarrolladas para contrarrestar los efectos negativos del cambio climático, colabora continuamente con organizaciones internacionales, academia y sector privado, está en continuo proceso de desarrollo y mejora para incrementar la resiliencia y adaptación al cambio climático así como la mitigación de este fenómeno."}]},{"head":"RECOMENDACIONES","index":25,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":14,"text":"Como parte del proceso de creación de este documento, se resumen algunas recomendaciones generales:"},{"index":2,"size":62,"text":"• Realizar talleres que promuevan la articulación de el trabajo de los diferentes actores en los ejes de gestión del conocimiento, gestión de suelos, gestión del recurso hídrico, técnicas de fitomejoramiento y mecanismos financieros e institucionales para la reducción del riesgo de desastres (RRD) y adaptación al cambio climático (ACC), hacia el mejoramiento integral de la gestión de riesgo (Ver figura 7)."},{"index":3,"size":44,"text":"• Coordinar y ejecutar el trabajo colaborativo en la gestión de riesgos climáticos en el sector agropecuario a cargo de la SAG, en vinculación con instituciones y organizaciones tanto del sector gubernamental, academia, centros de investigación, organismos de cooperación y de la sociedad civil."},{"index":4,"size":17,"text":"• Incluir dentro de las políticas de seguridad alimentaria y cambio climático la gestión de riesgos climáticos."},{"index":5,"size":31,"text":"• Reforzar la estructura física y legal existente, para mejorar la cobertura de los seguros agropecuarios, el desarrollo de los mecanismos de transferencia de riesgos y los bonos de catástrofes naturales."},{"index":6,"size":41,"text":"• Incrementar, diversificar y fortalecer los mecanismos de divulgación ya existentes, para aumentar la aceptación y difusión de las tecnologías, herramientas y demás métodos para acrecentar la seguridad alimentaria de la población incorporando la gestión de riesgos y el cambio climático."},{"index":7,"size":39,"text":"• Reforzar la investigación para la adaptación al cambio climático de los sistemas de producción de alimentos, específicamente en la producción de granos básicos con enfoque a la divulgación, aceptación e implementación de las tecnologías, especies o métodos desarrollados."},{"index":8,"size":51,"text":"Así mismo en el marco del convenio de colaboración CAC-CIAT con apoyo permanente de CCAFS y considerando las características particulares de la nación hondureña, CCAFS desea contribuir para fortalecer los esfuerzos en su territorio, aprovechando los vínculos de trabajo con los 15 centros de investigación del CGIAR y demás entidades asociadas."},{"index":9,"size":57,"text":"Entre los temas prioritarios está desarrollar el trabajo en seguros agropecuarios en conjunto con el CSA, acotándose a las iniciativas que realizan la Universidad de Columbia a través del Instituto Internacional de Clima y Sociedad (IRI) y la Universidad Zamorano. Así como, para reforzar el desarrollo de los funcionarios ministeriales, determinando aspectos puntuales en temas de capacitación."},{"index":10,"size":39,"text":"Para lograr esto, aparte de los diversos esfuerzos que realiza la SAG en cuanto a opciones de colaboración, se han realizado un par de talleres en el marco de la temática de gestión de riesgo para el sector agroalimentario."},{"index":11,"size":46,"text":"El primero de ellos se denominó \"Construcción de una Agenda Conjunta para la Gestión del Riesgo Climático del Sector Agroalimentario de Honduras\" (4-5 de marzo del 2014) con el fin de elaborar un plan de trabajo con diferentes actores como el CAC, CCAFS, CIAT y PNUD."},{"index":12,"size":87,"text":"La agenda conjunta, resultado del taller, tuvo como insumo una versión preliminar del presente documento, el cual llevó a la priorización de los ejes temáticos mencionados en la figura 7 y a la articulación de los esfuerzos en el sector agropecuario hondureño con el apoyo de PNUD.  Los talleres contaron con la participación de diferentes instituciones (públicas, privadas, academia, instituciones internacionales, entre otras) que contribuyeron activamente mostrando su interés en contribuir y participar de manera eficaz en las iniciativas lideradas por la SAG y sus socios estratégicos."}]},{"head":"Gestión del Riesgo Climático","index":26,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":24,"text":"Como resultado del taller se llegaron a unos acuerdos que se presentan en acciones y procesos que se enmarcan en los cinco ejes priorizados:"}]},{"head":"Gestión del conocimiento","index":27,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":55,"text":"• Conformar un grupo ad hoc que tendrá como misión constituir la Red Técnico Científica para la Gestión de Riesgos Climáticos en el Sector Agrícola. Este grupo estará inicialmente integrado por representantes de la SAG, SERNA, SMN, Copeco, y la UNAH; integrándose organismos regionales e internacionales de acuerdo a los requerimientos que se vayan dando."},{"index":2,"size":58,"text":"• Priorizar la creación de la Red ya que en todos los ejes temáticos se han identificado necesidades en generación, estandarización, actualización, intercambio, sistematización y acceso de la información; adicionalmente para facilitar la articulación y coordinación de los diferentes actores, así como el monitoreo, evaluación y seguimiento relacionado con suelo, recursos hídricos y manejo financiero y fortalecimiento institucional."},{"index":3,"size":103,"text":"• Promover la articulación de la SAG con el INE para contar en el mediano plazo con un Censo Agrícola; también coordinará con SERNA, Infoagro, SMN, Copeco, y otros actores que sean identificados para la elaboración en el corto plazo del Boletín Agro climatológico. De igual forma, la SAG articulará en conjunto con el SMN, los esfuerzos actuales en términos de generación de información climática que soporte iniciativas en curso como la construcción participativa con instituciones claves de un prototipo de seguros de índices para el sector agrícola, de manera que el potencial de éxito de este tipo de proyectos se incremente gradualmente."},{"index":4,"size":27,"text":"• Soportar la elaboración y socialización de un catálogo de oferta tecnológica para apoyar el eje temático de recursos fitogenéticos A través de la Red Técnico Científica"},{"index":5,"size":23,"text":"• Promover y facilitar la articulación de la agenda entre los sectores de Ambiente y Agricultura por medio de la Red Técnico Científica."}]},{"head":"Gestión del suelo","index":28,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":51,"text":"• Adelantar acciones para incorporar la gestión del suelo en la planificación del territorio, incluyendo los conflictos de los usos del suelo destinados a la producción y protección, las tensiones entre producción, degradación y adaptación al cambio climático, a través de la coordinación entre la SAG, SERNA y la antigua Seplan."},{"index":2,"size":42,"text":"• Estructurar un grupo interinstitucional para el manejo del suelo, que sirva como la plataforma para resolver/ solventar conflictos en el uso de la tierra, así apoyar la validación de los planes de ordenamiento para un enfoque de uso sostenible del suelo."},{"index":3,"size":44,"text":"• Apoyar la creación de una estructura para el manejo de suelos que pueda tener una agenda conjunta con las estructuras de ambiente (SAG concertado con la SERNA) e identificar estructuras temporales de articulación para el tema de suelos como la de los productores."},{"index":4,"size":26,"text":"• Promover la armonización de los roles y responsabilidades de la SAG (tierra como un recurso para la producción) y la SERNA (tierra como recurso natural)."},{"index":5,"size":32,"text":"• Socializar en la SAG el Plan de Acción Nacional de Lucha contra la Desertificación y la Sequía (PAN-LCD) que es el instrumento técnico en materia de Manejo Sostenible de la Tierra."},{"index":6,"size":33,"text":"• Desarrollar un plan de trabajo para la implementación del Eje estratégico 1 del PAN-LCD: Producción Agroalimentaria sostenible, el cual tiene objetivos y resultados comunes y acciones priorizadas por regiones para esta temática."},{"index":7,"size":36,"text":"• Identificar actores y estrategias para tener un diagnóstico sobre cuáles son los incentivos perversos que hay en el sector productivo, y cuáles son sus móviles y mecanismo, así como mecanismos que solventen/anulen estos incentivos (SAG)."},{"index":8,"size":28,"text":"• Apoyar un diagnóstico financiero del estado actual de las tierras y socializar los resultados a nivel de tomadores de decisiones y técnicos (SAG, SERNA, Secretaría de Finanzas-SEFIN)."},{"index":9,"size":24,"text":"• Desarrollar un plan para la gestión sostenible del suelo que tenga en cuenta entre otros la ENCC, el PAN-LCD y la Estrategia SAN."},{"index":10,"size":25,"text":"12 Taller: Construcción de una Agenda Conjunta para la Gestión del Riesgo Climático del Sector Agroalimentario de Honduras, 4 y 5 de marzo de 2014"},{"index":11,"size":5,"text":"Gestión de los recursos hídricos"},{"index":12,"size":28,"text":"• Trabajar en una propuesta consensuada de ajuste al marco institucional y legal que regula los recursos hídricos con la participación los actores pertinentes (SAG, SERNA, entre ellos)."},{"index":13,"size":66,"text":"• Apoyar la elaboración de un plan nacional de riego y drenaje con consideraciones de adaptación al cambio climático, que además considere un mejor aprovechamiento de las aguas de lluvia y agua almacenada en suelos (agua verde), en el marco de un enfoque integral del recurso hídrico, que incluya la conservación de sus fuentes, el manejo y disposición de aguas (SAG en articulación con la SERNA)."},{"index":14,"size":86,"text":"• Fortalecer los sistemas de información meteorológica e hidrológica para apoyar la toma de decisiones en materia de gestión del riesgo y para el mejor aprovechamiento y conservación de los recursos hídricos en la agricultura, a través de una alianza entre la SAG, SMN, y Copeco que permita generar productos de información sistemática (foros o boletines agroclimáticos en momentos clave del año, y de manera excepcional en presencia en casos de emergencia o desastres, y contar planes de contingencia para las distintas amenazas de origen hidrometeorológico)."},{"index":15,"size":61,"text":"• Fortalecer las capacidades para un uso sostenible y eficiente del agua en la agricultura considerando los escenarios de cambio climático y los posibles impactos sobre los recursos hídricos, y para la gestión integral del recurso hídrico en general. Lo anterior articulado a la Red Técnico Científica. SAG buscando la articulación con SERNA, la academia y demás actores de la Red."},{"index":16,"size":26,"text":"• Promover la investigación, diagnóstico y estrategias para identificar cómo la calidad del agua afecta la competitividad, y calidad del suelo se vincula con la contaminación."},{"index":17,"size":38,"text":"• Fortalecer la capacitación a nivel de productores para el manejo del recurso hídrico, así como formación a los productores en el uso adecuado del agua y la identificación de la corresponsabilidad privada en el manejo del agua."},{"index":18,"size":27,"text":"• Identificar y promover mecanismos para servicios financieros para la adquisición de fuentes de agua por parte de la comunidad y articular con el tema de protección/producción."}]},{"head":"Recursos fitogenéticos","index":29,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":24,"text":"• Apoyar el desarrollo de una Agenda Nacional de Investigación que responda a las necesidades con visión de futuro de acuerdo con los escenarios."},{"index":2,"size":7,"text":"• Elaborar un diagnóstico de tecnologías disponibles."},{"index":3,"size":9,"text":"• Identificar y sistematizar buenas prácticas a nivel local"},{"index":4,"size":4,"text":"• Fortalecer alianzas estratégicas."}]},{"head":"Mecanismos financieros, institucionales y RRD/ACC","index":30,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":34,"text":"• Promover la identificación de mecanismos para la estimación de pérdidas esperadas y mecanismos financieros individuales y colectivos, así como la atención a productores vulnerables en riesgo de pobreza (SAG, SEFIN, Desarrollo Social, Copeco)."},{"index":2,"size":33,"text":"• Reintegrar y reactivar el Comité de Seguros Agrícolas, con el propósito de liderar el proyecto de seguros agropecuarios, por medio de la actualización de los miembros y el restablecimiento de objetivos. (SAG)"},{"index":3,"size":42,"text":"• Impulsar con el apoyo de la academia y centros de investigación no sólo a nivel nacional sino también global con el fin de soportar la formulación e implementación de las políticas públicas en el sector soportado con conocimiento científico y experiencia."},{"index":4,"size":39,"text":"• Desarrollar talleres en conjunto -SAG, CCAFS, PNUD, IRI, SMN para capacitar a los diferentes actores clave sobre temas como: información climática, mercado de seguros, mercado de crédito en zonas rurales, diseño de índices, políticas y regulaciones de estado."},{"index":5,"size":29,"text":"• Desarrollar actividades de diagnóstico para contribuir al establecimiento de convenios con proveedores de información climática, financiamiento, aseguramiento de canasta básica y capacidad de redes de información e infraestructura."},{"index":6,"size":46,"text":"• Contribuir a la construcción de un prototipo de seguros indexados individuales y colectivos viables a ser aplicados en Honduras. Particularmente, con el apoyo del IRI y de instituciones miembros del comité: Convenio de CEPAL con cadenas agroindustriales/ seguros, AHIBA, Universidad del Zamorano, CIMMYT y Agrosamex."},{"index":7,"size":36,"text":"Ambos talleres han sido esfuerzos que sientan las bases de la construcción de la agenda conjunta para atender los riesgos climáticos en el Sector Agroalimentario y su Importancia para la Seguridad Alimentaria y Nutricional en Honduras."},{"index":8,"size":16,"text":"13 Taller de Seguros Basados en Índice, realizado el 11 y 12 de marzo de 2014."}]}],"figures":[{"text":" Para el período de 1993 al 2012, Honduras es clasificado como el país con mayores daños causados por eventos climáticos extremos, ocupando el primer puesto dentro del Índice de Vulnerabilidad al Cambio Climático del Germanwatch (Kreft y Eckstein, 2013). "},{"text":"FIGURA 4 . FIGURA 4. Línea de tiempo en normatividad relacionada con cambio climático, agricultura y seguridad alimentaria. (Elaboración propia). "},{"text":"Figura 7 : Figura 7: Ejes temáticos de la gestión del riesgo climático en Honduras (Elaboración propia)Adicionalmente, la agenda se complementa con los resultados obtenidos en el Taller \"Seguro de índice para el desarrollo económico-agrícola en Honduras\" (11-12 de marzo del 2014) liderado por el IRI de la Universidad de Columbia como parte integral de uno de los componentes asociados a la gestión de riesgos climáticos en agricultura. "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":" ). SIMBOLOGÍA Y LEYENDA Bosque Lt. SIMBOLOGÍA Y LEYENDABosque Lt. Agricultura Matorrales Bosque P.R. AgriculturaMatorralesBosque P.R. Bosque seco Lagos y lagunas Bosque P.D. Bosque secoLagos y lagunasBosque P.D. Sabanas Bosque mixto Agropecuario SabanasBosque mixtoAgropecuario Urbano Bosque manglar Agrocomercial UrbanoBosque manglarAgrocomercial   3 3  "},{"text":" patrocinado por el Instituto Internacional para el Desarrollo Sostenible de Inglaterra y el Instituto para la Transición Social y Ambiental de Alemania. El proyecto es liderado por el Centro Universitario Regional del Litoral Atlántico (CURLA) y está siendo implementado por los Centros Regionales en Occidente y en la Región 13 del Golfo de Fonseca. El Centro Agronómico Tropical de Investigación El Centro Agronómico Tropical de Investigación y Enseñanza (CATIE) en el marco del Programa y Enseñanza (CATIE) en el marco del Programa Agroambiental Mesoamericano (PAM) desarrolla un Agroambiental Mesoamericano (PAM) desarrolla un modelo de co-gestión territorial atendiendo a los problemas modelo de co-gestión territorial atendiendo a los problemas asociados al cambio climático que incluye adaptación, asociados al cambio climático que incluye adaptación,  "},{"text":" ASDI trabaja en el corredor seco, en la región del Golfo de Fonseca, con proyectos como el Programa de Gestión Comunitaria de Cuencas con Adaptación al Cambio Climático (2014-2017) y con el Programa Desarrollo EconómicoLocal/Cadenas (2014-2017). Por otra parte, en el norte del país, están desarrollando un programa relacionado con la cadena del cacao.El PNUD apoya a la SAG y la SERNA en la implementación de acciones establecidas en la Ley del Sinager, y en el fortalecimiento de las finanzas del clima y riesgo climático. También colabora en las Comunicaciones Nacionales del País ante la Convención Marco de Naciones Unidas para el Cambio Climático (CMNUCC).  "},{"text":" de Nación, 2010de Nación,  -2022.   .     Cambio climático Estrategia Nacional de Cambio Climático Honduras (ENCC), 2010. Ley de Cambio Climático, 2014 Cambio climáticoEstrategia Nacional de Cambio Climático Honduras (ENCC), 2010. Ley de Cambio Climático, 2014  Plan Estratégico Operativo del Sector Plan Estratégico Operativo del Sector  Agroalimentario (Peagroh), 2010-2014. Agroalimentario (Peagroh), 2010-2014.  Plan de Inversión del País para El Sector Plan de Inversión del País para El Sector Agricultura Agroalimentario (PIPSA), 2011-2014. Estrategia del Sector Agroalimentario AgriculturaAgroalimentario (PIPSA), 2011-2014. Estrategia del Sector Agroalimentario  (ESA), 2011-2014. (ESA), 2011-2014.  Política de Estado para el sector Política de Estado para el sector  Agroalimentario y el medio rural 2004-2021 Agroalimentario y el medio rural 2004-2021  Política de Seguridad Alimentaria y Política de Seguridad Alimentaria y Seguridad alimentaria Nutricional (PSAN), 2002. Estrategia de Seguridad Alimentaria y Nutricional (ENSAN), 2010-2022. Seguridad alimentariaNutricional (PSAN), 2002. Estrategia de Seguridad Alimentaria y Nutricional (ENSAN), 2010-2022.  Ley de Seguridad Alimentaria, 2011. Ley de Seguridad Alimentaria, 2011.  Política Hídrica Nacional, 2007. Política Hídrica Nacional, 2007. Agua Plan Nacional de lucha contra la desertificación y sequía, 2005-2021. AguaPlan Nacional de lucha contra la desertificación y sequía, 2005-2021.  Ley General de Aguas de Honduras, 2009 Ley General de Aguas de Honduras, 2009  Ley del Sistema Nacional de Gestión de Ley del Sistema Nacional de Gestión de  Riesgos (Sinager), 2010. Riesgos (Sinager), 2010. RIESGO Reglamento de Sinager, 2010. RIESGOReglamento de Sinager, 2010.  Política de Estado para la Gestión Integral Política de Estado para la Gestión Integral  de Riesgo en Honduras (PEGIRH), 2013. de Riesgo en Honduras (PEGIRH), 2013. TABLA 1. Normatividad relacionada con cambio climático, agricultura y seguridad alimentaria. (Elaboración propia). TABLA 1. Normatividad relacionada con cambio climático, agricultura y seguridad alimentaria. (Elaboración propia).  "}],"sieverID":"b9af3505-01ba-4446-a2c7-a0894ec27549","abstract":""}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"02c6d63d4e51c07a7bb149f247cf9d5f","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/e728b0d3-c421-429c-85d6-d1029e031e19/retrieve"},"pageCount":24,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Definition:","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":19,"text":"(1) an individual with feminist knowledge regarding the cause-and-effect relationship between policies, actions, and/or activities and gender inequalities, and"},{"index":2,"size":10,"text":"(2) is formally requested to provide her/his/their knowledge and services."},{"index":3,"size":1,"text":"Critique:"},{"index":4,"size":12,"text":"(1) \"cause and effect\" suggest positivist approach that contradicts \"non-positivist feminist knowledge\""},{"index":5,"size":32,"text":"(2) The resistance to engagement by the institution is not only about knowledge/expertise of individual, but also a) stigma of gender work and b) the influence of larger social and political structures"},{"index":6,"size":24,"text":"The process of feminist knowledge transfer to achieve the goal of \"transformation in gendered power relations for more equal societies, workplaces, policies, and communities\":"},{"index":7,"size":59,"text":"1. An understanding that gender inequality is \"structural\" and \"systemic\", and a capacity to use gender lenses or feminist glasses in knowledge transfer scenarios. 2. Transfer of knowledge which aims at being \"transformative\"; that is, knowledge use should aim not only at better understanding, but also at changing the world, fighting against social injustices, and redressing unequal power relations."},{"index":8,"size":34,"text":"3. Feminist knowledge understood as situated knowledge, filtered through the standpoints of different knowers, in which some ways of knowing are privileged over others. This implies the acknowledgement of the plurality of feminist \"knowledges\"."},{"index":9,"size":68,"text":"4. An explicit acknowledgement of the inherently \"political\" nature of the contexts in which such knowledge is transferred, as well as of feminist knowledge transfer as a site for contestation. 5. A key focus on \"reflexivity\" in order to acknowledge biases and limitations and allow for the recognition of multiple perspectives. An individual with feminist knowledge regarding the cause-and-effect relationship between policies, actions, and/or activities and gender inequalities"},{"index":10,"size":9,"text":"Less clear: the relationship between research and gender equality:"},{"index":11,"size":18,"text":"▪ Diverse understandings of this connection ▪ Emphasis on sex-disaggregated data and inclusion of women in data collection"},{"index":12,"size":45,"text":"▪ \"Gender sensitive\" research design ensured 30% women participation, as their crop was still \"dominated by males\" ▪ \"once you include gender, there is equity. If there is equity, there is really development of farmers\" (Biophysical Scientist, Level 1 KII, gender and institution not given)."},{"index":13,"size":17,"text":"▪ The emphasis on quantitative data was limited in its consideration of heterogeneity and included \"speculative statements\"."},{"index":14,"size":23,"text":"An individual with feminist knowledge regarding the cause-and-effect relationship between policies, actions, and/or activities and gender inequalities Institutional transformation to addressing gender inequalities:"},{"index":15,"size":105,"text":"▪ Sessions explicitly to build capacity in this ▪ While there was clear commitment on the part of participants to integrate gender into their their discussions did not directly tie back to how these policies could address inequalities \"I also love the part that has to do with the communication… with the institutions in order to bring about transformation. So, this now becomes like a whole package. After you have done data analysis to get your results, what do you do with it? So, this is not just a half-way thing; it has been wholesome.\" (Biophysical Scientist, Level 1 KII, gender and institution not given)."},{"index":16,"size":22,"text":"Others (non-gender experts) are able to identify the need for that specific capability (gender expertise) and delegate work accordingly (to gender experts)."}]},{"head":"Program addresses:","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":22,"text":"▪ the recognition and understanding of social science, which can support the recruitment of GREAT participants as gender focal points in projects."},{"index":2,"size":18,"text":"▪ the integration of gender into design of research projects, creating a demand for these capacities as well."},{"index":3,"size":31,"text":"▪ the importance of working together as a team and the role of a social scientist within the research And, who \"(2) is formally requested to provide her knowledge and services.\""},{"index":4,"size":9,"text":"Participants also reported increased confidence in their own ability."},{"index":5,"size":42,"text":"\"GREAT increased my confidence to engage with biophysical scientists and tell them that [they] can collaborate and there is more ground we can cover together… There is a lot of demand for my services now.' (Social Scientist, NARI, woman, Level 1 KII).\""},{"index":6,"size":25,"text":"Biophysical scientists also reported an increased confidence as well as opportunities to apply this knowledge within their institutions. For example, one Level 2 participant states:"},{"index":7,"size":42,"text":"\"Now I have capacity to mentor other graduate students or junior staff on gender. So, I will be able to mentor and supervise others in using these gender-responsive strategies in research and I'm happy about[.]\" (Biophysical Scientist, NARI, man, Level 2 KII)."},{"index":8,"size":22,"text":"The increased confidence among biophysical scientists sometimes translated into doing the gender-related research themselves, rather than engaging social scientists as gender experts."},{"index":9,"size":29,"text":"And, who \"(2) is formally requested to provide her knowledge and services.\" ▪ What is the risk of not being a gender \"expert\"? Is there space for critical selfreflection?"},{"index":10,"size":12,"text":"▪ What is the role of positionality/discipline in becoming a \"gender expert\"?"},{"index":11,"size":3,"text":"Elisabeth Garner, PhD "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"of expertise, roles, experiences under the umbrella term \"gender expert\" of 5 Level 2 KIIs said yes, because: But, not necessarily demand for deeper social science -Participants might benefit from discussing a spectrum of gender knowledge, research, and application Are you a gender expert? Are you a gender expert? Participants were limited and varied in reaching Hoard's definition of a \"Gender Participants were limited and varied in reaching Hoard's definition of a \"Gender Expert\" Expert\" But… they still needed more experience (3 of 5) But… they still needed more experience (3 of 5) Participants considered the trainers gender experts Participants considered the trainers gender experts  "}],"sieverID":"3918a948-f2d6-4090-a07c-98e7f84109e7","abstract":""}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0349b08c785080344d65ee0d1996a607","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/39b4157f-2304-48ab-846e-7344fb0ad417/retrieve"},"pageCount":6,"title":"PESCADO DE VALOR COMERCIAL ALTO TRANSFORMA VIDAS Disseminação de boas práticas de higiene no manuseio, processamento e conservação do pescado","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":92,"text":"A pesca em Moçambique desempenha um papel importante na economia familiar e nacional, pois é fonte de alimento, emprego, entrada de divisas e outros. No concernente à pesca artesanal, ainda é caracterizada pelo uso de meios e técnicas rudimentares a destacar o uso de pequenas embarcações e o arrasto da rede pela força humana. A produção é muitas vezes processada usando métodos tradicionais conhecidos por salgado e seco. Entretanto, estas razões, associadas às más práticas de higiene no manuseamento, processamento e conservação de pescado, certa parte da produção resulta em perdas pós-capturas."},{"index":2,"size":105,"text":"Para solucionar este problema da pesca artesanal, o Ministério do Mar, Águas Interiores e Pescas, através do ProPESCA (Projecto de Promoção da Pesca Artesanal), procura através da disseminação incentivar os pescadores, comerciantes e consumidores às boas práticas que garantem a qualidade do pescado. A iniciativa, que visa garantir a saúde do consumidor, como também aumentar a renda dos praticantes desta actividade, conta com o financiamento do Fundo Internacional para o Desenvolvimento Agrícola (FIDA) e da União Europeia. Pretende-se com este artigo partilhar os resultados da introdução e promoção do uso de técnicas de refrigeração e evisceração do pescado garantindo assim a sua qualidade, acrescentando-lhe valor."},{"index":3,"size":58,"text":"Observamos com agrado os comerciantes conquistando clientes com pescado de boa qualidade exposto durante as feiras. Com isto expandem seu negócio quer por número de clientes quer por mercados. Já 48 dos comerciante fornecem seus produtos a clientes fixos -restaurantes, estabelecimento de processamento, hotéis e singulares. Encurtam assim e a seu favor a cadeia de valor do pescado."},{"index":4,"size":35,"text":"Cinco capacitações em boas práticas de processamento do pescado usando gelo foram organizadas. A atividade envolveu 43 pescadores e comerciantes. Com duração de quatro dias cada, contou com teoria e prática e exibições de vídeos."},{"index":5,"size":86,"text":"Até agora, o projeto promoveu 12 feiras de pescado, com audiência de aproximadamente 1.400 pessoas. O objectivo não era apenas a venda do pescado, mas sim, a demonstração pelos comerciantes convidados da utilização do gelo na conservação do pescado no momento da venda ao público. Diretamente no mercado, houveram duas sensibilizações em matéria de boas práticas do manuseamento de pescado, com uma audiência aproximadamente de 200 consumidores. Em forma de palestra sobre a matéria, os técnicos, foram falando, criando espaços para a interação com o público."},{"index":6,"size":15,"text":"Até agora, o projeto promoveu 12 feiras de pescado, com audiência de aproximadamente 1.400 pessoas."},{"index":7,"size":44,"text":"Entre 2009 e 2015 foram capacitados dois técnicos e 14 extensionistas para melhor conduzir o processo da transferência de tecnologias de processamento e conservação do pescado em gelo às comunidades pesqueiras. Com a duração de oito a catorze dias, nesta capacitação ensinou-se o seguinte:"},{"index":8,"size":24,"text":"• O peixe grande deve ser destripado a bordo ou em terra dependendo da situação, porque é nas tripas que estão concentradas as bactérias."},{"index":9,"size":23,"text":"• Deve-se usar o gelo em escama, porque cobre melhor a superfície do peixe, o gelo em barra deve ser muito bem partido."},{"index":10,"size":54,"text":"• Deve-se usar caixa isotérmica exclusivamente para o pescado. Esta evita contato direito com o sol, de forma a manter o gelo por longo tempo. Arruma-se o gelo com peixe de forma intercalada, sendo a primeira e última camadas de gelo. A proporção depende da estação do ano e a caixa deve ter dreno."},{"index":11,"size":17,"text":"• Neste processo, a higiene é fundamental: deve estar patente no lugar, na pessoa como nos recipientes."},{"index":12,"size":30,"text":"A equipa técnica do Instituto Nacional de Desenvolvimento de Pesca e Aquacultura, com apoio de consultores nacionais e internacionais, elaborou e publicou manuais, cartazes, panfletos e brochuras com linguagem simples."}]},{"head":"Os benefícios para os beneficiários","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":39,"text":"Várias foram as atividades para dar visibilidade às vantagens das boas práticas de higiene no manuseio, processamento e conservação do pescado. Em 5 saídas à pesca, fez-se demonstração do uso de gelo abordo com embarcações melhoradas, envolvendo 16 pescadores."}]},{"head":"Mudanças levam tempo","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":114,"text":"Temos a certeza que as capacitações realizadas foram úteis, apesar do número reduzido de pescadores que investem nesta prática. O uso de gelo envolve custos diários e utilização de embarcações que oferecem condições para o efeito. Estes custos nem sempre são possíveis de se cobrir. Também a evisceração exige mudança de comportamento tanto do pescador quanto do consumidor, tudo isto leva tempo. Notamos que 22 comerciantes destripam o pescado de maior tamanho. Esta técnica de conservação ainda não tem muita aderência. São várias as justificações dos comerciantes para não optarem nesta técnica, onde destacamos a perda do peso. Achamos nós que há falta de informação e tradição por parte do consumidor sobre esta prática."}]},{"head":"Impacto das boas práticas na renda de pescadore e comerciantes","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":56,"text":"Observamos com agrado os comerciantes conquistando clientes com pescado de boa qualidade exposto durante as feiras. Com isto expandem seu negócio quer por número de clientes quer por mercados. Já 48 dos comerciante fornecem seus produtos a clientes fixos (restaurantes, estabelecimento de processamento, hotéis e singulares), encurtando a seu favor a cadeia de valor do pescado."},{"index":2,"size":39,"text":"O quê ajudou a comunidade? O uso de embarcações melhoradas para a pesca em mar aberto. Por serem mais seguras, espaçosas, com motor a propulsãopoupando esforço e tempo do pescador consistem condição básica para a evolução da pesca artesanal."},{"index":3,"size":60,"text":"Porém, a base de gestão de conhecimento é que possibilitou o sucesso da intervenção. Nos referimos à metodologia usada na transferência de tecnologia (demonstração prática, ilustração de imagens com realidade moçambicana, ilustração de vídeos com mensagens realísticas). Também muito contribuíram tanto o envolvimento das estruturas locais na mobilização da comunidade quanto a alocação de extensionista localmente, facilitando a sensibilização regular."},{"index":4,"size":60,"text":"Apesar dos avanços registados ainda sentimos que existem desafios a serem ultrapassados, começando pela infraestrutura local, como vias de acesso degradadas, que por vezes tornam-se intransitável no período chuvoso, sem se falar nas viaturas não adequadas para o transporte de pescado. A falta de eletricidade e de fábricas de produção de gelo localmente dificultam a persuasão dos pescadores e comerciantes."},{"index":5,"size":72,"text":"Ainda se observa o uso massivo de embarcações pequenas, feitas de troncos escavados, que não permitem o uso de gelo abordo; fator que se vê agravado pela pouca exigência na qualidade do produto por parte da maioria dos consumidores. Este ciclo vicioso condiciona fraco empenho dos pescadores e comerciantes na implementação das boas práticas. Ainda por cima, o elevado custo de aquisição de caixa isotérmica acaba condicionando o uso de alternativas inadequadas."}]},{"head":"Mudanças de comportamento num mundo a mudar","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":135,"text":"Com a implementação das boas práticas para a valorização do pescado no âmbito do ProPESCA constatamos que é possível reduzir a perda póscaptura em mais de 90% com o uso de gelo a bordo e a evisceração de peixes grandes. O número reduzido de pescadores utilizando as práticas difundidas pela intervenção deve-se sobre tudo a resistência a mudança comportamental dos pescadores. Destas conclusões e para alcançarmos melhores resultados, recomendamos inicialmente ao sector das Pescas, Governo e parceiros que continuem a incentivar o uso de embarcações melhoradas (pois possibilitam a utilização do gelo a bordo). Também ao governo a tarefa de melhorar as vias de acesso e instalem rede eléctrica e fábrica de gelo semiindustrial produzido com energia renovável eatravés do sector de Indústria e Comércio e Saúdeque fiscalizem o produto pesqueiro nas bancas do mercado."},{"index":2,"size":101,"text":"Quanto aos comerciantes, que continuem usando gelo, desde que em quantidades suficientes, e caixas isotérmicas, além de que destripem todo peixe com tamanho considerável para o efeito. Destripar vale acima de tudo para os pescadores. Aos beneficiários: que adiram aos fundos especiais para mulheres e negócios emergentes para aquisição de caixas adequados para o processamento e conservação de pescado. Por fim, recomendamos aos consumidores que sejam exigentes na compra de pescado. O objectivo não era apenas a venda do pescado, mas sim, a demonstração pelos comerciantes convidados da utilização do gelo na conservação do pescado no momento da venda ao público."}]},{"head":"Fátima Cecilia Osório Mawoze","index":6,"paragraphs":[]}],"figures":[{"text":" Técnica de pescado no Departamento de Promoção e Desenvolvimento da Pesca e Aquacultura, na Direção Provincial de Mar Águas Interiores e Pesca, Direção Provincial de Mar Águas Interiores e Pescas de Sofala, Moçambique. E-mail: [email protected] Este é um dos resultados do processo iniciado pelo projeto \"Capitalização de Experiências para Maior Impacto no Desenvolvimento Rural\", implementado pelo CTA, FAO e IICA, e apoiado pelo FIDA. http://experiencecapitalization.cta.int País: Moçambique Região: Sudeste da África Data: Junho 2017 Palavras-chave: Cadeias alimentares, tecnologia de pescado, pesca artesanal "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"caso do Sr. Meno    Incapazes Incapazes  de bancar com o investimento necessário, esconde-se de bancar com o investimento necessário, esconde-se  por vezes em desculpas além de si, como nos hábitos por vezes em desculpas além de si, como nos hábitos  do consumidor. do consumidor.  Fato é que o consumidor joga um papel importante Fato é que o consumidor joga um papel importante  na implementação das boas prática. Muitos na implementação das boas prática. Muitos  pescadores e comerciantes encontraram acesso a pescadores e comerciantes encontraram acesso a  clientes exigentes, que se tornaram fixos, exatamente clientes exigentes, que se tornaram fixos, exatamente  por oferecer qualidade alta e constante. Observamos por oferecer qualidade alta e constante. Observamos  também que os comerciantes e pescadores que hoje também que os comerciantes e pescadores que hoje  destripam o peixe grande e possuem caixa isotérmica destripam o peixe grande e possuem caixa isotérmica  conseguiram diminuir as perdas e aumentar tempo conseguiram diminuir as perdas e aumentar tempo  para outras tarefas. Depois dos comerciantes para outras tarefas. Depois dos comerciantes  adquirem seu produto com o pescador, têm onde ou adquirem seu produto com o pescador, têm onde ou  a quem entregar, sem precisarem ficar na banca do a quem entregar, sem precisarem ficar na banca do  mercado. Com isso combinam todos a pesca com a mercado. Com isso combinam todos a pesca com a  machamba, aumentando rendimentos e qualidade de machamba, aumentando rendimentos e qualidade de  vida. Mudança de comportamento custa tempo, pois vida. Mudança de comportamento custa tempo, pois  mexe com hábitos culturais. Assim, as mulheres que mexe com hábitos culturais. Assim, as mulheres que  hoje se dedicam à pesca artesanal precisam conquistar hoje se dedicam à pesca artesanal precisam conquistar  seu espaço neste mundo a mudar. seu espaço neste mundo a mudar.  pescado o aconselhou a utilizar gelo. Disse-nos que não precisa mais percorrer pescado o aconselhou a utilizar gelo.Disse-nos que não precisa mais percorrer  \"Não foi fácil: o cesto não tinha como distâncias a procura de compradores \"Não foi fácil: o cesto não tinha comodistâncias a procura de compradores Durante a capacitação, o senhor Carlos guardar gelo para não derreter, daí porque logo que obtém o produto Durante a capacitação, o senhor Carlosguardar gelo para não derreter, daíporque logo que obtém o produto Gomes, chamado carinhosamente Sr. comprei uma caixa onde punha um encaminha directamente aos clientes. Gomes, chamado carinhosamente Sr.comprei uma caixa onde punha umencaminha directamente aos clientes. Meno, trouxe-nos sua história de sucesso. plástico preto e conseguia manter por \"Tenho muita sorte, às vezes adquiro Meno, trouxe-nos sua história de sucesso.plástico preto e conseguia manter por\"Tenho muita sorte, às vezes adquiro Encorajadora para nós que procuramos algum tempo o gelo e o produto 300 kg de camarão por dia e os meus Encorajadora para nós que procuramosalgum tempo o gelo e o produto300 kg de camarão por dia e os meus transmitir à comunidade experiências mantinha-se fresco e conservado\". clientes levam todo no mesmo dia. Só transmitir à comunidade experiênciasmantinha-se fresco e conservado\".clientes levam todo no mesmo dia. Só de boas práticas do processamento do pescado por forma a melhorar suas vidas, a reproduzimos aqui. Sr. Meno iniciou em 2000 na Beira a venda de pescado num regime de venda ambulante porta a porta para clientes dos quais alguns tornaram-se fixos e outros não. Disse ele, naquela altura não usava gelo \"apenas um cesto de mitxeu de 20 kg bastava para compra do peixe e camarão e andar casa a casa a procura de clientes\". Três anos depois, o proprietário de um Soubemos que Sr. Meno ganhou reputação no mercado e confiança dos pescadores o que lhe facilitava na aquisição do produto, visto que o número de clientes fixos aumentava. Nesta altura já movimentava valores altos e decidiu abrir uma conta bancária. Em 2007 Sr. Meno explora outros mercados, tendo encontrado sucesso em Movisa onde até hoje trabalha e passou a vender apenas camarão. São os restaurantes e estabelecimento de processamento da posso agradecer ao ProPESCA porque muita coisa que faço hoje aprendi nas capacitações. Vendo camarão e ponho gelo suficiente e todos meus clientes também exigem camarão bem fresco, não congelado e com a cabeça fixa.\" Visitamos sua casa para testemunharmos a melhoria de vida da sua família como resultado deste negócio. Observamos com satisfação a construção de uma habitação confortável de alvenaria, com electrificação e água canalizada. de boas práticas do processamento do pescado por forma a melhorar suas vidas, a reproduzimos aqui. Sr. Meno iniciou em 2000 na Beira a venda de pescado num regime de venda ambulante porta a porta para clientes dos quais alguns tornaram-se fixos e outros não. Disse ele, naquela altura não usava gelo \"apenas um cesto de mitxeu de 20 kg bastava para compra do peixe e camarão e andar casa a casa a procura de clientes\". Três anos depois, o proprietário de umSoubemos que Sr. Meno ganhou reputação no mercado e confiança dos pescadores o que lhe facilitava na aquisição do produto, visto que o número de clientes fixos aumentava. Nesta altura já movimentava valores altos e decidiu abrir uma conta bancária. Em 2007 Sr. Meno explora outros mercados, tendo encontrado sucesso em Movisa onde até hoje trabalha e passou a vender apenas camarão. São os restaurantes e estabelecimento de processamento daposso agradecer ao ProPESCA porque muita coisa que faço hoje aprendi nas capacitações. Vendo camarão e ponho gelo suficiente e todos meus clientes também exigem camarão bem fresco, não congelado e com a cabeça fixa.\" Visitamos sua casa para testemunharmos a melhoria de vida da sua família como resultado deste negócio. Observamos com satisfação a construção de uma habitação confortável de alvenaria, com electrificação e água canalizada. estabelecimento de processamento de cidade da Beira seus principais clientes.  estabelecimento de processamento decidade da Beira seus principais clientes.  "}],"sieverID":"8eeea799-f046-4f5e-808a-03f00eacd0c6","abstract":"O projeto aqui analisado está a ter lugar na Província de Sofala no distrito de Dondo posto da localidade de Chinamacondo nos centros de pesca de Farol e Movisa, com o início em 2014, no âmbito do ProPESCA. Ainda em curso, a intervenção deve terminar em Março de 2018.Foram envolvidos na experiência para além dos pescadores e comerciantes, o Sector da Pesca, o FIDA, Administração e Município locais. Contou com a seguinte parceria: Administração"}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"035fdb3ac13b6bab7b22c90a51f31e76","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/822533dd-ac40-41fc-8420-3ec23aa46b55/retrieve"},"pageCount":1,"title":"An Analysis of Dissemination of Livestock Feed Technology: The Case of Bihar in Eastern India","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Materials and methods","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Results","index":3,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Conclusion","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":4,"text":"Photo credit: Dhiraj Singh"},{"index":2,"size":14,"text":"The results indicate that the rate of adoption of ILRI-CSISA feed technology is low"}]}],"figures":[],"sieverID":"43e7c61f-1c79-47ec-8677-44d164b8c12f","abstract":"Dairy farming in Bihar is a major source of income for small and marginal farmers.  There are constraints to effective transformation of dairy production from a subsistence-oriented to a profitable commercial venture.  High cost of commercial feed along with low quality of available feed hinders animal productivity and limits economic returns from dairy production.  ILRI's laboratory analysis indicates quality limitations especially in metabolizeable energy and digestibility of available feed resources.  To increase availability of quality feed, ILRI has formulated a balanced concentrate feed based on locally available ingredients/resources in 2011-12.  With support from the Cereal Systems Initiative for South Asia (CSISA) project and in collaboration with national partners, a series of training and demonstration activities was implemented to disseminate this feed technology in CSISA-Bihar hub sites.  This study presents the results from the analysis of data on adoption and dissemination of this feed technology. Pictures  20% of farmers who have participated in training are using the ILRI-CSISA promoted feed compared to 6% of the nonparticipants.  Among non-participant sample farmers, 28% have heard about ILRI-CSISA promoted feed.  Neighbors are main source of information about the technology among farmers who did not participate in training, followed by CSISA project field staff.  Participant farmers have shared the information on how to prepare the ILRI-CSISA promoted feed to more than 1200 farmers.  Knowledge of most of farmers on concentrate feed has improved after the training.  Improving awareness of this feed technology through training and demonstration activities will facilitate increased adoption among dairy farmers in Bihar."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"03940027c20f9ade328ab8a1d60c5fec","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/5a666823-4876-4723-bcd6-913328b93d32/retrieve"},"pageCount":5,"title":"Precipitation Characteristics of the South American Monsoon System Derived from Multiple Data Sets","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":80,"text":"The monsoon (hereafter, South American Monsoon System, SAMS) is the most important climatic feature in South America (Zhou and Lau 1998;Vera et al. 2006;Marengo et al. 2010). The main feature of the SAMS is the enhanced convective activity and heavy precipitation in tropical South America, which typically starts in October-November, is fully developed during December-February and retreats in late April or early May (Kousky 1988;Horel et al. 1989;Marengo et al. 2001;Grimm et al. 2005;Gan et al. 2006;Liebmann et al. 2007)."},{"index":2,"size":104,"text":"Although the variability of precipitation in the SAMS has been extensively investigated over the years, one of the main challenges has been the availability of data sets with suitable spatial and temporal resolutions able to resolve the large range of meteorological systems observed during the monsoon. While some stations in South America have precipitation records going back several decades, the sparseness of stations is not adequate to characterize mesoscale precipitation systems. To overcome this difficulty, some studies have developed considerable efforts to collect precipitation records from stations and develop quality-controlled gridded precipitation data sets (Legates and Willmott 1990;Liebmann and Allured 2005;Silva et al. 2007)."},{"index":3,"size":64,"text":"Recently, new generation of reanalysis products have been completed (Saha et al. 2010;Dee et al. 2011;Rienecker et al. 2011). The new reanalyses, which are derived from state-of-the-art data assimilation systems and high resolution climate models, provide substantial improvements in the spatiotemporal variability of precipitation relative to the first generation of reanalyses (Higgins et al. 2010;Saha et al. 2010;Rienecker et al. 2011;Silva et al. 2011)."},{"index":4,"size":96,"text":"This paper evaluates and compares statistical properties of daily precipitation in three types of data sets: gridded station data, satellite-derived precipitation and reanalyses. This study employs several analyses to determine consistencies and disagreements in the representation of precipitation over SAMS. The period 1998-2008 is selected in order to minimize missing data and develop a consistent comparison among the data sets. In addition, since the data sets are available with different horizontal resolutions, the comparison is performed in two ways: 1) all data sets regridded to a common resolution and 2) data sets with their original resolutions."}]},{"head":"Data","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":88,"text":"The statistical properties of precipitation in the SAMS region are investigated with daily gridded data from multiple sources during 1 Jan-31 Dec 1998-2008. The following data sets are used: i) Physical Sciences Division, Earth System Research Laboratory (PSD): This data set is formed from observed precipitation collected at stations distributed over South America (Liebmann andAllured 2005, 2006). The daily gridded precipitation is constructed by averaging all observations available within a specified radius of each grid point. Two grid resolutions (1° and 2.5° lat/lon) are used in this study."},{"index":2,"size":206,"text":"ii) Global Precipitation Climatology Project (GPCP): The daily GPCP combines Special Sensor/Microwave Imager (SSM/I), GPCP Version 2.1 Satellite-Gauge, geosynchronous-orbit Infrared (IR), (geo-IR) Tb histograms (1°x1° grid in the band 40°N-40°S, 3-hourly), low-orbit IR GOES Precipitation Index (GPI), TIROS Operational Vertical Sounder (TOVS) and Atmospheric Infrared Sounder (AIRS) data (Huffman et al. 2001). The GPCP data used in this study have 1 o lat/lon grid spacing. iii) Climate Prediction Center unified gauge (CPC-uni): The NOAA Climate Prediction Center (CPC) unified gauge uses an optimal interpolation technique to re-project precipitation reports to a grid (Higgins et al. 2000;Silva et al. 2007;Chen et al. 2008;Silva et al. 2011). This study uses data with 0.5 o lat/lon grid spacing. Although the PSD and CPC-uni data sets share some of the same station observations, it is worth noting that the quality control and gridding methods are distinct. In addition, it is likely that the number and origin of station data in both data sets are different. iv) Climate Forecast System Reanalysis (CFSR): Daily precipitation from the NCEP CFSR (Saha et al. 2010) is used at 0.5 o lat/lon grid spacing. It is also important to note that precipitation is not assimilated in the CFSR production and is a forecast (first-guess) product. "}]},{"head":"Results","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":151,"text":"Several statistical analysis have been applied to the daily precipitation and the reader is referred to Carvalho et al. (2011) for additional details. The annual evolution of SAMS is examined to determine consistencies and disagreements among the data sets. The large-scale features of interest are: the dominant spatial precipitation pattern, dates of onset and demise, duration and amplitude of the monsoon. These characteristics are determined with empirical orthogonal functional (EOF) analysis applied to the daily precipitation (only land grid points) from each data set separately. Before computation of EOF analysis, the time series of precipitation in each grid point are scaled by the square-root of the cosine of the latitude and the long-term mean removed (1 Jan-31 Dec, 1998Dec, -2008)). The first mode (EOF1) and associated temporal coefficient (PC1) explain the largest fraction of the total variance of precipitation over land and are used to describe the annual evolution of SAMS."},{"index":2,"size":178,"text":"To determine dates of onset, demise and duration of SAMS, the daily PC1 is smoothed with ten passes of a 15-day moving average. This smoothing procedure is obtained empirically and used to decrease the influence of high frequency variations during the transition phases of SAMS. The large-scale onset of SAMS is defined as the date when the smoothed PC1 changes from negative to positive values. This implies that positive precipitation anomalies during that time become dominant over the SAMS domain. Likewise, the demise of SAMS is defined as the date when the smoothed PC1 changes from positive to negative values. The duration of the monsoon is defined as the period between onset and demise dates. The seasonal amplitude of the monsoon is defined as the integral of positive unsmoothed PC1 values from onset to demise. Therefore, the seasonal amplitude index represents the sum of positive precipitation anomalies and minimizes the effect of \"break\" periods in the monsoon especially near the onset and demise. Active/break periods in SAMS are particularly frequent on intraseasonal time scales (Jones and Carvalho 2002)."},{"index":3,"size":133,"text":"Figure 1 shows the spatial patterns of EOF1 derived from each data set with 2.5 o lat/lon grid spacing and expressed as correlations between PC1 and precipitation anomalies. Positive correlations are interpreted as positive precipitation anomalies and indicative of active SAMS. In general, all data sets show similar features such as positive precipitation anomalies over central South America and negative anomalies over the northern parts of the continent. The region of negative anomalies over northern South America is substantially smaller in the PSD due to missing data (the \"bull's eye\" at ~60 o W, 10 o S is a grid point with missing data). The magnitude of positive correlations varies slightly and is highest for PSD. The largest positive correlation in MERRA is slightest to the west relative to the other data sets."},{"index":4,"size":108,"text":"The percentages of explained variance by EOF1 are: 20.5% (PSD), 11.6% (GPCP), 8.4% (CPCuni), 10% (CFSR), 17.9% (MERRA) and 6.9% (TRMM). EOF1 captures the largest fraction of the total variance, which includes subseasonal, seasonal and interannual variations, since the EOF analysis is performed removing only the long-term mean. Main differences in explained variance are associated with how much each PC1 represents the distribution of subseasonal, seasonal and interannual variations. These percentages are comparable to the percentages obtained with the data sets at their original resolutions, which suggests that spatial resolution of the data sets is not the main issue, but rather how each data set represents temporal variations."},{"index":5,"size":255,"text":"Dates of onset, demise and duration of SAMS derived from each data set with the original resolution are shown in Fig. 2. The mean onset date (Fig. 2 top) is highly coherent among PSD, GPCP, CPC-uni and TRMM (~21 October) including the ranges of minimum and maximum onset dates. In contrast, the mean onset dates in CFSR and MERRA are off by several weeks. The variability in dates of mean demise (Fig. 2 middle) indicates agreements among PSD, GPCP, CPC-uni and TRMM and some differences in CFSR and large disagreement in MERRA. Consequently, the mean durations of SAMS (~180 days) agree reasonably well among PSD, GPCP, CPC-uni and TRMM data and is shorter and more variable in the CFSR and MERRA reanalyses (Fig. 2 bottom). These results indicate that differences in data resolution do not explain disagreements in the annual evolution of SAMS especially between CFSR and MERRA and the other data sets. Carvalho et al. (2011) compares some statistical properties of daily gridded precipitation from different data (1998)(1999)(2000)(2001)(2002)(2003)(2004)(2005)(2006)(2007)(2008): 1) Physical Sciences Division, Earth System Research Laboratory (PSD) (1.0 o and 2.5 o lat/lon), 2) Global Precipitation Climatology Project (GPCP at 1 o lat/lon), 3) Climate Prediction Center unified gauge (CPC-uni) (0.5 o lat/lon), 4) NCEP CFSR reanalysis (0.5 o lat/lon), 5) NASA MERRA reanalysis (0.5 o lat/0.3 o lon) and 6) TRMM 3B42 V6 data (0.25 o lat/lon). The same statistical analyses are applied to data in: 1) a common 2.5 o lat/lon grid and 2) in the original resolutions of the data sets."}]},{"head":"Conclusions","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":110,"text":"All data sets consistently represent the large-scale patterns of the SAMS. The onset, demise and duration of SAMS are consistent among PSD, GPCP, CPC-uni and TRMM data sets, whereas CFSR and MERRA seem to have problems in capturing the correct timing of SAMS. Power spectrum analysis shows that intraseasonal variance is somewhat similar in the six data sets. Moreover, differences in spatial patterns of mean precipitation are small among PSD, GPCP, CPC-uni and TRMM data and some discrepancies are found CFSR and MERRA. Fitting of gamma frequency distributions to daily precipitation shows differences in the parameters that characterize the shape, scale and tails of the frequency distributions. This suggests that  "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Fig. 1 Fig. 1 First EOF patterns described as correlations between the first temporal coefficient (PC1) and precipitation anomalies. Solid (dashed) contours indicate positive (negative) correlations at 0.1 intervals (zero contours omitted). Shadings indicate correlations ≥ 0.2 (≤ -0.2) and are significant at 5%. Data grid spacing: 2.5° lat/lon. "},{"text":"Fig. 2 Fig. 2 Top: mean (squares), minimum (dash) and maximum (asterisk) dates of SAMS onset. Middle: mean (squares), minimum (dash) and maximum (asterisk) dates of SAMS demise. Bottom: mean (squares), minimum (dash) and maximum (asterisk) durations of SAMS. Data sets are indicated in the horizontal axis. Data sets have different grid spacings. "},{"text":" v) Modern-Era Retrospective Analysis for Research and Applications (MERRA): Daily precipitation from MERRA at 0.5 o latitude/0.3 o longitude is used (Rienecker et al. 2011). As in the CFSR, precipitation is a forecast product. vi) Tropical Rainfall Measurement Mission (TRMM 3B42 V6): Daily precipitation from TRMM is used with 0.25 o lat/lon (Bookhagen and Strecker 2008; Bookhagen and Strecker 2010; Bookhagen and Burbank 2011).  "}],"sieverID":"083fd9d7-7dfd-479e-9632-4ded6d2c5327","abstract":""}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"03c1148afa1bae6dd92d4ad9b81d9540","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/abfc81eb-cf27-4451-aafc-888b12b0b226/retrieve"},"pageCount":1,"title":"Sustainable Intensification Innovations Diffusion: Africa RISING Experience","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":40,"text":"The study was conducted in Africa RISING operational areas of Hadiya (SNNPR), Bale (Oromia), North Shewa (Amhara) and South Tigray zones (Tigray). Data was collected using expertise workshop and Key Informant discussion. ArcGIS was used to map the diffused innovations."},{"index":2,"size":30,"text":"We acknowledge the financial support from USAID in Washington to Africa RISING project, and funders for Mixed Farming Systems Initiative (SI-MFS). We also thank all who assisted the field study."},{"index":3,"size":2,"text":"3. Methods/approaches"}]},{"head":"Conclusion/messages","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":38,"text":"Most Africa RISING validated innovations are scaled and covered wider districts. Thus, all concerned public and private institutions should be engaged to sustain; and further scaling, marketing and improving the innovations for better economical, social and environmental uses."}]},{"head":"Innovations diffusion","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":36,"text":"Africa RISING validated and facilitated scaling of more than 31 crop-livestock-NRM innovations in Amhara, Tigray, Oromia and SNNP regions for the last ten years. Eighty-seven (87) percent the scaled innovations could diffuse widely in different areas."},{"index":2,"size":4,"text":"The most diffused innovations:"},{"index":3,"size":7,"text":"• Improved enset, avocado and potato -Hadiya."},{"index":4,"size":9,"text":"• Improved bread wheat, oat/vetch, feeding trough -North Shewa."},{"index":5,"size":8,"text":"• Bread wheat and feeding trough -South Tigray."},{"index":6,"size":45,"text":"• Bread wheat, rope and washer, and multipurpose 2-wheel tractor (only with pump modality) -Oromia region. • Driving factors for scaling: Crops-better yield, disease resistance, adaptation to wider agroecology and familiarity to the varieties; forages-better biomass, nutrition and palatability; and NRM-easy to use and multifunctionality."}]},{"head":"Innovation diffusion maps","index":4,"paragraphs":[]}],"figures":[{"text":"Assefa, H., 2 Mekonnen, K . , 2 Gebreyes, M., 2 Assefa, A., 2 Alene, T., 2 Ebrahim, M. and 2 Dubale, W. 1 Amhara Region Agricultural Research Institute, and 2 International Livestock Research Institute  1. Introduction 4. Findings 1. Introduction4. Findings Africa RISING has conducted research for development (R4D)  Africa RISING has conducted research for development (R4D) activities and facilitated wider scaling of proven crop, livestock  activities and facilitated wider scaling of proven crop, livestock and NRM innovations to intensify the crop-livestock systems and  and NRM innovations to intensify the crop-livestock systems and improve the livelihood of smallholder farmers in the Ethiopian  improve the livelihood of smallholder farmers in the Ethiopian highlands. Documenting diffusion of scaled innovations is  highlands. Documenting diffusion of scaled innovations is essential to understand drivers of scaling and status of scaled  essential to understand drivers of scaling and status of scaled innovations.  innovations. 2. Objectives  2. Objectives Map the diffusion of Africa RISING scaled crop, livestock and  Map the diffusion of Africa RISING scaled crop, livestock and NRM innovations in mixed systems of the Ethiopian highlands.  NRM innovations in mixed systems of the Ethiopian highlands. 6. Acknowledgement  6. Acknowledgement  "}],"sieverID":"b9ee4ef1-119b-48b4-b9c3-94a298ce7661","abstract":""}

data/part_2/0418f2d235d7bf4e392657ed3c3938dc.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0418f2d235d7bf4e392657ed3c3938dc","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/c8562b2b-867e-480b-bfb9-056ec53ec6c8/retrieve"},"pageCount":2,"title":"The 3 rd International Forum on Water and Food","keywords":[],"chapters":[],"figures":[],"sieverID":"901652e0-3a69-4194-974a-a5fb95b0c955","abstract":""}

data/part_2/04371d3a1064895f2112610380e1f613.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"04371d3a1064895f2112610380e1f613","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/411618b9-12e8-40f0-955e-9ab7a21e21b0/retrieve"},"pageCount":14,"title":"Sources of resistance to Pseudocercospora fijiensis, the cause of black Sigatoka in banana","keywords":["black Sigatoka","disease evaluation","resistance"],"chapters":[{"head":"| INTRODUC TI ON","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":128,"text":"Bananas are perennial monocot herbs belonging to the genus Musa, family Musaceae and order Zingiberales (Simmonds & Shepherd, 1955). The genus Musa comprises five sections that are divided into 40 species. Eumusa is the largest and best characterized section and includes two seeded species, Musa acuminata and M. balbisiana, which are the ancestors to most edible banana cultivars (Simmonds & Shepherd, 1955). Some varieties are also believed to have arisen from the hybridization of M. schizocarpa (S genome) with either M. acuminata or M. balbisiana. Recent studies revealed evidence of diversification within wild M. acuminata subspecies and intraspecific hybridization within the M. acuminata subspecies malaccensis and burmannica (Rouard et al., 2018). Southeast Asia and Indochina are the centres of diversity for banana and the region where bananas originated."},{"index":2,"size":64,"text":"Banana is an important crop in the tropics and subtropics, and is a major staple and source of income to millions of people (FAOSTAT, 2016). Despite their importance, yields in small-scale production systems are often low due to abiotic and biotic stresses. One of the most destructive biotic stresses of banana is black Sigatoka, a fungal leaf disease caused by Pseudocercospora fijiensis (Churchill, 2011)."},{"index":3,"size":82,"text":"The fungus is heterothallic and produces asexual conidia and sexual ascospores throughout the year (Fouré, 1987). The disease is polycyclic and results in multiple infections in a banana cycle, leading to substantial leaf damage and yield losses of >50% (Guzmán et al., 2019). In large-scale plantations, black Sigatoka is managed by the frequent application of fungicides (Churchill, 2011). Small-scale farmers have limited access to fungicides and often cannot afford them (Alakonya et al., 2018). They therefore suffer massive losses from this disease."},{"index":4,"size":105,"text":"Several banana breeding programmes have successfully developed black Sigatoka-resistant hybrids and cultivars (Batte et al., 2019;Ortiz & Swennen, 2014;Rowe & Rosales, 2000;Tenkouano et al., 2011;Vuylsteke et al., 1993). These include the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA), where African cooking banana and plantain hybrids resistant to black Sigatoka were developed (Pillay et al., 2012;Vuylsteke et al., 1993Vuylsteke et al., , 1997)). The plantains developed by IITA include PITA 14, PITA 21, and PITA 23, and a cooking banana hybrid called BITA 3. These hybrids are currently being grown by farmers in Cameroon, Ghana, Ivory Coast, Nigeria, and Uganda (Tenkouano et al., 2011;Tenkouano & Swennen, 2004)."},{"index":5,"size":110,"text":"In East Africa, IITA and the National Agricultural Research Organisation in Uganda (NARO) developed 27 improved East African Highland banana (EAHB) hybrids, known as NARITAs. The NARITAs have high yields, and some of them are resistant to black Sigatoka (Tushemereirwe et al., 2015). One of these hybrids, NARITA 7, has been deployed to farmers in Uganda (Nowakunda et al., 2015). The Fundacion Hondureña de Investigación Agrícola (FHIA) in Honduras has also developed improved diploids and hybrids with resistance to black Sigatoka (Pillay et al., 2012;Rowe & Rosales, 2000). The hybrids include  which are now grown in many African countries, including Ghana, Kenya, Nigeria, Tanzania, and Uganda (Tenkouano & Swennen, 2004)."},{"index":6,"size":69,"text":"The success of resistance breeding is dependent on the availability of good sources of resistance (Pillay et al., 2012). Several banana varieties resistant to black Sigatoka have been identified and used in banana improvement programmes (Pillay et al., 2012;Vuylsteke et al., 1993). Among these, Calcutta 4 (M. acuminata subsp. burmannicoides) and Pisang Lilin (M. acuminata subsp. malaccensis) are the most extensively used (Pillay et al., 2012;Vuylsteke et al., 1997)."},{"index":7,"size":47,"text":"However, a vast genetic diversity does exist in bananas that may serve as potential donors of resistance (Christelová et al., 2017), but these have not been used by breeding programmes, mainly because of sterility of some of the clones and low seed set (Ortiz & Swennen, 2014)."},{"index":8,"size":197,"text":"An overreliance on a few sources of disease resistance to P. fijiensis poses a risk to the sustainability and durability of host resistance. P. fijiensis undergoes regular sexual recombination, which suggests that the fungus might overcome existing sources of resistance (McDonald & Linde, 2002). Examples of this have already been reported. Fullerton and Olsen (1995) reported that P. fijiensis isolates in Papua New Guinea and the Pacific Islands overcame resistance in young Calcutta 4 plants. In the Cook Islands, the resistant cultivars Paka and T8 (a Paka × Highgate AAAA hybrid) were reported to have become susceptible (Fullerton & Olsen, 1995). Yangambi KM5, a variety once considered highly resistant to P. fijiensis (Fouré, 1987), also became susceptible to black Sigatoka in Cameroon (Mouliom-Pefoura, 1999), Costa Rica (Escobar-Tovar et al., 2015), and Tanzania (Kimunye et al., 2019). In Cuba, the resistant FHIA-18 hybrid became susceptible to P. fijiensis (Miranda et al., 2006). All these reports point to a changing pathogen virulence profile and the risk of relying on a narrow genetic pool. The existing resistant banana gene pool therefore needs to be broadened to ensure that durable resistance to black Sigatoka is being developed by Musa breeding programmes."},{"index":9,"size":21,"text":"The identification and introgression of new and effective P. fijiensis resistance genes into banana hybrids and cultivars has now become necessary."},{"index":10,"size":137,"text":"Bananas and plantains have been screened for resistance to black Sigatoka before. Fouré (1994) evaluated more than 350 accessions for response to black Sigatoka in Njombe in Cameroon. However, these accessions have not been evaluated in other locations in Africa, especially in the East African highlands. Host response to infection can also depend on plantation management, including soil fertility regimes and nutrients (Kablan et al., 2012), as well as pathogen characteristics. Isolates with differing levels of aggressiveness and virulence have been reported. For example, Romero and Sutton (1997) reported higher black Sigatoka severities on Grand Naine and False Horn with isolates from Colombia, Costa Rica, and Honduras compared to those from Cameroon and Asia, while Fullerton and Olsen (1995) reported P. fijiensis strains with differential virulence from those collected in Papua New Guinea and the Pacific Islands."},{"index":11,"size":19,"text":"Banana genotypes used as resistance sources must therefore be evaluated in different environments before being used in breeding programmes."},{"index":12,"size":83,"text":"Several accessions used by IITA and NARO in their banana breeding programmes have not been evaluated for resistance to black Sigatoka in East Africa. The objective of this study was to evaluate 95 accessions for response to P. fijiensis in Uganda (under highland conditions), including 13 accessions previously evaluated in Cameroon (under lowland conditions), along with wild and improved diploids. This was done to identify additional sources of resistance that could potentially be used as parents in IITA and NARO's banana breeding programmes."}]},{"head":"| MATERIAL S AND ME THODS","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"| Plant materials and trial design","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":86,"text":"Two trials were conducted to test banana accessions in the IITA germplasm collection for resistance against P. fijiensis under natural field conditions (natural infection) at Sendusu, Wakiso district in Uganda. The station lies at 0.53°N, 32.58°E, 1,150 m a.s.l. Rainfall is about 1200 mm/year, with a bimodal distribution between two rainy seasons, March-June and September-December. The annual minimum temperature is 17.9 ℃, maximum temperature 29.1 ℃, average temperature 22 ℃, and a relative humidity of 76.3%. These conditions are favourable for P. fijiensis infection and proliferation."},{"index":2,"size":96,"text":"Trial 1 comprised 79 diverse Musa accessions originating from different geographic regions (Table 1). The trial was planted in 2013 using tissue culture plantlets. The accessions were planted as unreplicated single row plots, with five plants per row at a spacing of 3 × 3 m. From each of the five mats, one fully developed sucker with foliage (maiden sucker) per mat was selected, tagged, and evaluated every 3 months in 2017 until the plants were harvested. Three evaluations were made per plant. Calcutta 4 and Mbwazirume plants were used as resistant and susceptible checks, respectively."},{"index":3,"size":12,"text":"Trial 2 was planted in 2017 and included 22 accessions (Table 2)."},{"index":4,"size":71,"text":"Eight of these were selected from the first trial based on their response to P. fijiensis, five were diploid accessions previously used to generate improved diploids, six were improved diploids, and three were tetraploids used in the NARO/IITA breeding pipeline. Yangambi KM5 was included to validate the reduced resistance observed in farmers' fields (Kimunye et al., 2019), while Williams and Mbwazirume served as susceptible checks, and Calcutta 4 as resistant check."},{"index":5,"size":135,"text":"The field experiment consisted of rows comprising seven plants per accession, of which five were used for disease ratings, planted in a randomized complete block design with three replications. The trial was established with suckers collected in Sendusu and Kawanda. Plants were planted with a spacing of 2 × 3 m. The suckers were pared before planting, and the rhizomes treated with Dursban (chlorpyrifos) for 20 min to eliminate nematodes and weevils. A P. fijiensis-susceptible Matooke variety (EAHB, cooking type), Enzirabahima, was used as a disease spreader row to ensure there was enough inoculum in the field. The accessions were evaluated every 3 months, starting at 6 months after planting, for three crop cycles (mother plant, daughter, and granddaughter), concluding evaluations in November 2018. Each of the cycles lasted 9-12 months depending on the cultivar."},{"index":6,"size":51,"text":"Field management of the two trials was similar. At planting each hole was filled with 10 kg cow manure, after which dry grass was applied as mulch 4 months after planting. Weeding was done by hand until flowering. A herbicide (Weedall, a glyphosate-based nonselective herbicide) was thereafter used to manage weeds."},{"index":7,"size":12,"text":"Detrashing was minimal and limited to dry leaves hanging around the pseudostem."}]},{"head":"| Disease evaluation","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":37,"text":"Disease was scored by counting the number of standing leaves (NSL). Each leaf was visually rated for the stage of symptom development, as described by Fouré (1987) Disease severity was evaluated on a 0-6 scale (Gauhl, 1994)."},{"index":2,"size":75,"text":"According to this scale, 0 = no visible symptoms, 1 = <1%, 2 = 1%-5%, 3 = 6%-15%, 4 = 16%-33%, 5 = 34%-50%, and 6 = 51%-100% of leaf area covered with disease symptoms. At the most advanced stage of symptoms (SSD), that is, the stage at which symptom progression stopped on each plant (all leaves), the youngest leaf with visible streak symptoms (Stage 2; YLst) and the youngest leaf spotted (YLS) were recorded."},{"index":3,"size":29,"text":"The index of nonspotted leaves (INSL) was computed as (YLS − 1)/NSL × 100. Disease severity scores per leaf were used to compute the disease severity index per plant:"},{"index":4,"size":34,"text":"where n = number of leaves in each severity grade, b = grade (0-6), N = number of severity grades used in the scale ( 7), and T = total number of leaves scored."},{"index":5,"size":22,"text":"Disease severity index over the different evaluation times was used to calculate the area under disease progress curve (AUDPC), using the formula:"},{"index":6,"size":36,"text":"where X i = proportion of the host tissue damaged at ith day, t i = the time in months after appearance of the disease at ith month, and n = the total number of observations."}]},{"head":"| Data analysis","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":112,"text":"Variation among accessions was assessed using one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA), and the means separated using the least significant difference at the 95% confidence level. For the second trial, no significant differences between the mother, daughter, and granddaughter plants were obtained, so the data were combined and subjected to an ANOVA. Pearson's correlation was used to determine the association between the different disease parameters, AUDPC, SSD, INSL, YLS, and YLst. Mean values from the ANOVA were used to perform a cluster analysis based on Euclidean distances. Hierarchical clustering of banana accessions was done using AUDPC, INSL, YLS, YLst, and SSD. All the analysis was implemented in GenStat v. 19 (VSN International Ltd)."}]},{"head":"| Genetic grouping","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":56,"text":"Accessions were assigned to different genomic groups and ploidy level according to the Musa Germplasm Information system (MGIS) database (https://www.crop-diver sity.org/mgis/). The accessions were then grouped into genetic clusters based on simple-sequence Accessions grouped together based on the morphological traits and into cluster as defined using simple sequence repeats (Christelová et al., 2017;Nakato et al., 2018)."},{"index":2,"size":17,"text":"c YLS value on accessions without Stage 6 lesions is number of standing leaves plus 1 (NSL+1)."},{"index":3,"size":16,"text":"d Reaction type assigned based on hierarchical clustering using AUDPC, SSD, YLst, YLS, INSL, and DSI."},{"index":4,"size":12,"text":"e Calcutta 4 resistant check with high resistance (Carlier et al., 2003)."},{"index":5,"size":1,"text":"f"},{"index":6,"size":11,"text":"Cultivar previously evaluated at Njombe, Cameroon (Fouré, 1994;Guzmán et al., 2019)."},{"index":7,"size":17,"text":"g Mbwazirume: an East African Highland banana used as a susceptible local check (Tushemereirwe et al., 2015)."}]},{"head":"TA B L E 1 (Continued)","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":77,"text":"TA B L E 2 The response of banana accessions including diploids, triploids, and tetraploids (Trial 2) to infection by Pseudocercospora fijiensis. Symptoms under field conditions in Uganda were scored based on the area under disease progress curve (AUDPC) and the most advanced stage of disease symptom b Accessions grouped into clusters as defined using simple sequence repeats (Christelová et al., 2017;Nakato et al., 2018). e Calcutta 4 resistant check with high resistance (Carlier et al., 2003)."},{"index":2,"size":12,"text":"f Cultivar previously evaluated at Njombe, Cameroon (Fouré, 1994;Guzmán et al., 2019)."},{"index":3,"size":15,"text":"g Mbwazirume, an East African Highland banana, and Williams were used as susceptible local checks."},{"index":4,"size":11,"text":"repeat (SSR) genotyping data (Christelová et al., 2017;Nakato et al., 2018)."}]},{"head":"| RE SULTS","index":8,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"| Black Sigatoka symptoms","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":26,"text":"Black Sigatoka symptoms were observed on all banana accessions  Black Sigatoka symptoms on the rest of the accessions progressed to Stage 6 (Tables 1 and 2)."}]},{"head":"| Relationship between disease parameters","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":19,"text":"Significant correlations (p < 0.0001) were observed between black Sigatoka assessment parameters in both screening trials (Table 3).  3)."},{"index":2,"size":28,"text":"SSD and AUDPC had a higher coefficient of determination than DSI, YLS, YLst, and INSL for the two trials, and were therefore used in subsequent analysis (Table 3)."}]},{"head":"| Genotype response to black Sigatoka","index":11,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"| Trial 1","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":56,"text":"Banana accessions responded differently (p < 0.05) to black Sigatoka (Table 1). Calcutta 4, used as a resistant check, had the lowest disease severity, with an AUDPC of 36.0, while the most susceptible accession was Mlema (AUDPC = 426.9) (Table 1). Disease severity F I G U R E 1 Pictorial representation of black Sigatoka symptoms "}]},{"head":"TA B L E 3 Pearson coatoka evaluation parameters","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":41,"text":"in several accessions did not differ significantly from Calcutta 4, and these were classified as resistant (Table 1). Other than Calcutta 4, the resistant check, other highly resistant accessions with an AA genome were Pahang, Pisang KRA, Malaccensis 0074, and M.A."},{"index":2,"size":17,"text":"Truncata. The other highly resistant accessions were Tani and Balbisiana within the BB genome group (Table 1)."},{"index":3,"size":106,"text":"Hierarchical clustering revealed three groups representing resistant and susceptible accessions, while some accessions had an intermediate response. The resistant group comprised 28 accessions that clustered with Calcutta 4 (Figure 2). Some of the accessions in this group, such as K.N. Khom, Kayinja, and Pisang Lilin, had a significantly higher AUDPC than Calcutta 4, but with symptoms that did not progress beyond Stage 4 (Table 1). The second group consisted of 43 accessions that clustered with the susceptible accession Mbwazirume, while eight accessions were considered intermediate (Figure 2). The intermediate accessions had a significantly lower AUDPC than Mbwazirume, but with symptoms progressing to Stage 6 (Table 1)."}]},{"head":"| Trial 2","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":45,"text":"The response of the banana accessions to P. fijiensis in Trial 2 varied significantly (p < 0.05) (Table 2). The accessions also grouped into three clusters. Long Tavoy, followed by Calcutta 4, were most resistant, with AUDPC values of 39.8 and 57.0, respectively (Table 2)."},{"index":2,"size":34,"text":"Other accessions that clustered with Calcutta 4 and Long Tavoy were Pahang, Borneo, Malaccensis, Pisang Lilin, 02145/1320, and Monyet (Table 2; Figure 3). Yangambi KM5, Zebrina GF, and TMB2X5265-1 were in the intermediate group."},{"index":3,"size":53,"text":"All improved diploid and tetraploid bananas evaluated in this study were susceptible to P. fijiensis, except accessions 02145/1320 and TMB2X5265-1 (Table 2). Improved diploids TMB2X9128-3, SH 3217, SH 3362, and 10969S-1, and the tetraploids 222k-1,1438k-1, and 376K-1, were susceptible to P. fijiensis and clustered with the susceptible cultivars Williams and Mbwazirume (Figure 3)."},{"index":4,"size":48,"text":"In the two trials, 31 accessions were considered resistant to black Sigatoka, of which one was an improved diploid (02145/1320), 25 were wild diploids (21 M. acuminata, four M. balbisiana), five were triploid M. balbisiana bananas, and one was the tetraploid FHIA 18 hybrid (Tables 1 and 2)."}]},{"head":"| Genetic grouping","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":29,"text":"The accessions evaluated were distributed across 22 subgroups within nine clusters (Table 4; Figure 4). The M. acuminata group had the highest number of resistant accessions (67.7%), while 32.3%"},{"index":2,"size":83,"text":"F I G U R E 2 Dendrogram of a hierarchical cluster analysis for the response of banana accessions in the IITA germplasm collection (Trial 1) at Sendusu, Uganda, when evaluated for resistance against Pseudocercospora fijiensis under field conditions. Clustering is based on the Euclidean distances for area under disease progress curve, index of nonspotted leaves, youngest leaf spotted, the youngest leaf with streak symptoms, and the stage of most advanced symptoms of the accessions belonged to the M. balbisiana group (Table 4)."},{"index":3,"size":51,"text":"Resistant accessions were found in 12 of the subgroups, with M. acuminata subsp. malaccensis (III), M. acuminata subsp. zebrina (X), and M. acuminata subsp. burmannica (I) having the highest number of resistant accessions (Table 4). Most of the susceptible accessions were in the subgroup AAA Lujugira/Mutika (Cluster X) and AA cv."},{"index":4,"size":11,"text":"African (Cluster IX), with 15 and 14 accessions, respectively (Table 4)."}]},{"head":"| DISCUSS ION","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":32,"text":"In this study, several banana varieties were identified as resistant to P. fijiensis, with a reaction like that of Calcutta 4. These varieties include Long Tavoy, Pahang, Malaccensis 0074, Pisang KRA, M.A."},{"index":2,"size":82,"text":"Truncata, Balbisiana, and Tani that are diploids and can be useful in breeding programmes. P. fijiensis resistance has been reported before in wild diploids like Krasan Saichon, Zebrina, Birmanie, and Tuu Gia, while others were moderately resistant (Nascimento et al., 2020). Here, most of the accessions (25 out of 31) that were resistant or had an intermediate response to P. fijiensis were diploid bananas. The resistant diploids belonged to M. acuminata subsp. burmannica, subsp. malaccensis, and subsp. zebrina, and to M. balbisiana."},{"index":3,"size":133,"text":"Earlier studies of banana varieties in Cameroon also reported resistant accessions in these subgroups (Fouré, 1994). More accessions from these subspecies should be screened to expand the available sources of resistance to P. fijiensis. Improved diploids are routinely used as male parents in banana breeding programmes (Swennen & Vuylsteke, 1993;Vuylsteke et al., 1993). The improved diploids 10969S-1 and TMB2X5265-1, for instance, were reported as good sources of black Sigatoka resistance (Batte et al., 2019). However, in the current study they were not resistant to P. fijiensis. These contrasting observations could be attributed to the high genetic diversity and emergence of new and highly virulent pathotypes arising from frequent sexual reproduction documented in P. fijiensis isolates from Uganda (Kimunye et al., 2021). Additional studies to characterize the virulence of P. fijiensis population are recommended."},{"index":4,"size":64,"text":"Symptom progression in Calcutta 4 and other accessions in this study stopped at the early streak stage (Stage 2). This corresponds to the host reaction previously described by Meredith and Lawrence (1970) and Fouré (1994). The reaction in Calcutta 4 has been described as a hypersensitive response (Fouré, 1994;Guzmán et al., 2019), a type of resistance thought to be controlled by a major gene."},{"index":5,"size":181,"text":"This kind of resistance is readily transferable from one genotype to another but can easily be overcome by the pathogen (McDonald & Linde, 2002). Thus, as a proactive measure, other sources of re- Type 2, characterized by typical but slow symptom progression up to necrosis (Fouré, 1994). This is because they allowed the pathogen to produce asexual spores, which are normally produced at Stage 3 of symptom development (Meredith & Lawrence, 1970)  A substantial number of accessions resistant to black Sigatoka contained the B genome (BB, AB, AAB, ABB). This is contrary to the findings of Fouré (1994), who reported that cultivars with a B genome were mainly susceptible or had partial resistance. M. balbisiana has several desirable attributes including drought tolerance (Ravi et al., 2013), but their inclusion in banana breeding has been limited until now, primarily due to the banana streak virus (eBSV) that is encoded in the B genome (Bakry et al., 2009). Recent studies have shown that the recombination of M. balbisiana and M. acuminata resulted in an eBSV-free progeny (Noumbissié et al., 2016;Umber et al., 2016)."},{"index":6,"size":28,"text":"This presents the possibility of using M. balbisiana to broaden and improve resistance to black Sigatoka, as well as to introduce other desirable traits such as drought tolerance."},{"index":7,"size":66,"text":"In this study, tetraploid hybrids derived from the cross of the P. fijiensis-susceptible EAHBs (Nante, Nfuka, and Entukura) with the P. fijiensis-resistant Calcutta 4 were susceptible to black Sigatoka. These included 376K-1 (Nante × Calcutta 4), 222K-1 (Nfuka × Calcutta 4), and 1438K-1 (Entukura × Calcutta 4). The tetraploids were derived from genetically related Matooke bananas (Němečková et al., 2018) that are highly susceptible to black"},{"index":8,"size":149,"text":"Sigatoka. This deviates from earlier findings whereby susceptible plantain triploids were crossed with diploid Calcutta 4, resulting in mostly black Sigatoka-resistant tetraploid hybrids (Vuylsteke et al., 1993). Thus, selections for advancement in breeding need to be made based on the reaction of individual hybrids to black Sigatoka. Resistance to P. fijiensis in Musa hybrids is conferred by a major recessive gene bs1 and two modifiers genes, bsr 1 and bsr 2 , with an additive effect (Craenen & Ortiz, 1997;Ortiz & Vuylsteke, 1994). Segregation of the three loci result in progeny with a variable response to P. fijiensis (Ortiz & Vuylsteke, 1994), thus making progeny predictions based on parental phenotype unreliable. An understanding of the genetics of resistance of a parental cultivar can guide breeders to make informed decisions on the choice of parents to use in their breeding programmes, to minimize the risk of a breakdown in resistance."},{"index":9,"size":29,"text":"The accessions Saba, IC2, and Pelipita, which were susceptible to P. fijiensis in the current study, were previously reported as moderately resistant in Cameroon (Fouré, 1994;Guzmán et al., 2019)."},{"index":10,"size":35,"text":"Pisang Ceylan was reported resistant in this study, but moderately resistant in Cameroon (Guzmán et al., 2019). These results are prob-   1 and 2. The diagram was adopted and modified from Christelová et al. (2017) "}]}],"figures":[{"text":" : Stage 1, development of faint, minute, reddish-brown specks on the lower surface of the leaf; Stage 2, narrow reddish-brown streaks; Stage 3, streaks that change colour from reddish-brown to dark brown or black that are clearly visible at the upper surface of the leaf; Stage 4, streaks broaden and become spindle-shaped with water-soaked borders; Stage 5, lesions with dark brown or black centres that are slightly depressed with water-soaked borders; and Stage 6, grey lesions with dried out centres (Figure 1). "},{"text":"1 ABB "},{"text":"c YLS value on accessions without Stage 6 symptoms is number of standing leaves plus 1 (NSL+1). d Reaction type assigned based on hierarchical clustering using AUDPC, SSD, YLst, YLS, INSL, and DSI. "},{"text":" evaluated. The symptoms ranged from Stage 2 to the late necrotic stage (Stage 6) (Figure 1). In some accessions such as Calcutta 4, Pisang Awak, Pahang, Pisang KRA, Giahui, Malaccensis 0074, Tani, Balbisiana and M.A. Truncata (Trial 1, "},{"text":" YLS and INSL were positively correlated to YLst in Trial 1 (r = 0.85 and r = 0.64) and Trial 2 (r = 0.77 and r = 0.67), respectively, and DSI and AUDPC were positively correlated in Trial 1 (r = 0.82) and Trial 2 (r = 0.97), respectively. INSL was negatively correlated to SSD in the two trials (r = −0.87 and r = −0.81). DSI and YLst had the lowest correlation both in Trial 1 (r = −0.33) and Trial 2 (r = −0.48). For both trials, the most advanced SSD had the highest coefficient of determination (R 2 = 0.77 in Trial 1 and R 2 = 0.89 in Trial 2) (Table "},{"text":" sistance should be explored and incorporated into Musa breeding programmes. Symptom progression in other resistant varieties such as Pisang Lilin (ITC 1121) and Monyet (ITC 1179) stopped at Stage 3, and at Stage 4 in Cacambou (ITC 0058). Although these accessions grouped with Calcutta 4, their reaction is more appropriately described as intermediate or partial resistance comparable to reaction F I G U R E 3 Dendogram of hierarchical cluster analysis for the response of selected banana accessions and breeding materials (Trial 2) evaluated against Pseudocercospora fijiensis under field conditions at Sendusu, Uganda. Clustering is based on Euclidean distances for area under disease progress curve, index of nonspotted leaves, youngest leaf spotted, the youngest leaf with streak symptoms, and the stage of most advanced symptoms "},{"text":"TA B L E 4 Groups of banana accessions with resistant and susceptible response to Pseudocercospora fijiensis, the cause of black Sigatoka, in Uganda with the most advanced stage of symptom development (stage at which symptom progression stops) when screening banana accessions for resistance to P. fijiensis, even though YLS and INSL are still commonly used by researchers. The AUDPC and most advanced symptoms had a higher coefficient of determination and correlated well with YLS and INSL. Establishing how far an accession allows P. fijiensis symptom development (i.e., stage at which symptom progression stops) has not been used before and presents a fast and reliable selection criterion, especially when selecting potential breeding materials. "},{"text":" ably a reflection of differences in environmental factors, including different weather patterns, soil characteristics, and fertility regimes, and/or the presence of isolates differing in virulence profiles. It is therefore important that environmental factors and pathogen profiles be investigated at different locations to understand what other factors influence genotype response to infection. "},{"text":"F I G U R E 4 Simple-sequence repeat (SSR)-based genetic clusters (with a bold rectangle around them), into which the accessions assessed for response to infection with Pseudocercospora fijiensis were categorized. The 95 accessions grouped into Clusters I, III, VII, VIII, IX, X, XI, and XII as indicated by Christelová et al. (2017). The individual sets of the clustered accessions are indicated in Tables "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"ITC number Accession name Ploidy a Species b Cluster b Black Sigatoka assessment parameters Reaction type d AUDPC SSD YLst YLS c INSL DSI  ITC0093 Long Tavoy AA Musa acuminata subsp. I 39.8 a 2 7.9 11.0 100.0 5.7 Resistant ITC0093Long TavoyAAMusa acuminata subsp.I39.8 a27.911.0100.05.7Resistant    burmannica         burmannica ITC0249 Calcutta 4 e AA M. acuminata subsp. I 57.0 ab 2 6.5 9.7 100.0 7.0 Resistant ITC0249Calcutta 4 eAAM. acuminata subsp.I57.0 ab26.59.7100.07.0Resistant    burmannica         burmannica ITC0074 Malaccensis AA M. acuminata subsp. III 68.1 ab 2 5.9 9.5 100.0 9.2 Resistant ITC0074MalaccensisAAM. acuminata subsp.III68.1 ab25.99.5100.09.2Resistant    malaccensis         malaccensis ITC0609 Pahang AA M. acuminata subsp. III 60.2 ab 3 6.6 10.9 100.0 7.7 Resistant ITC0609PahangAAM. acuminata subsp.III60.2 ab36.610.9100.07.7Resistant    malaccensis         malaccensis ITC0253 Borneo AA M. acuminata subsp. X 61.7 ab 3 6.6 10.2 100.0 8.1 Resistant ITC0253BorneoAAM. acuminata subsp.X61.7 ab36.610.2100.08.1Resistant    microcarpa         microcarpa ITC1121 Pisang Lilin AA ISEA 1 III 79.0 bc 3 5.1 8.9 100.0 11.9 Resistant ITC1121Pisang LilinAAISEA 1III79.0 bc35.18.9100.0 11.9Resistant  02145/1320 AA   106.6 cd 3 4.6 9.8 100.0 15.9 Resistant 02145/1320AA106.6 cd34.69.8100.0 15.9Resistant ITC1179 Monyet AA M. acuminata subsp. X 68.8 ab 4 5.3 8.8 100.0 9.4 Resistant ITC1179MonyetAAM. acuminata subsp.X68.8 ab45.38.8100.09.4Resistant    zebrina         zebrina ITC1123 Yangambi KM5 f AAA Ibota III 107.5 cd 6 5.4 10.0 90.9 13.5 Intermediate ITC1123Yangambi KM5 f AAAIbotaIII107.5 cd65.410.090.913.5Intermediate  10969S-1 AA   116.1 d-f 6 5.5 7.4 74.8 17.5 Susceptible 10969S-1AA116.1 d-f65.57.474.817.5Susceptible  TMB2X5265-1 AA   116.1 d-f 6 4.9 9.1 87.2 17.8 Intermediate TMB2X5265-1AA116.1 d-f64.99.187.217.8Intermediate ITC0966 Zebrina GF AA M. acuminata subsp. X 126.2 d-g 6 5.6 10.8 83.4 17.8 Intermediate ITC0966Zebrina GFAAM. acuminata subsp.X126.2 d-g 65.610.883.417.8Intermediate    zebrina         zebrina  1438k-1 AAAA   126.9 d-h 6 4.6 7.1 74.0 19.2 Susceptible 1438k-1AAAA126.9 d-h 64.67.174.019.2Susceptible ITC1243 Kokopo AA AA cultivar  133.0 d-h 6 4.9 6.8 62.6 21.9 Susceptible ITC1243KokopoAAAA cultivar133.0 d-h 64.96.862.621.9Susceptible  222K-1 AAAA   134.6 d-h 6 4.2 5.7 63.4 22.7 Susceptible 222K-1AAAA134.6 d-h 64.25.763.422.7Susceptible  376K-7 AAAA   137.2 e-h 6 4.7 6.8 73.0 20.1 Susceptible 376K-7AAAA137.2 e-h64.76.873.020.1Susceptible ITC1545 Mwitu Pemba AAB Silk VIII 139.7 f-h 6 5.7 8.6 68.4 22.7 Susceptible ITC1545Mwitu PembaAABSilkVIII139.7 f-h65.78.668.422.7Susceptible MMC214 Cultivar Rose AA M. acuminata subsp. III 142.8 f-h 6 4.4 6.4 67.9 20.9 Susceptible MMC214Cultivar RoseAAM. acuminata subsp.III142.8 f-h64.46.467.920.9Susceptible    malaccensis         malaccensis MMC218 SH3217 AA Unknown  151.3 gh 6 5.2 7.1 67.9 22.0 Susceptible MMC218SH3217AAUnknown151.3 gh65.27.167.922.0Susceptible ITC059 Kasaska AA Unknown  159.8 hi 6 5.4 8.1 68.2 23.7 Susceptible ITC059KasaskaAAUnknown159.8 hi65.48.168.223.7Susceptible MMC414 SH3362 AA Unknown  188.5 ij 6 5.0 7.1 64.8 25.2 Susceptible MMC414SH3362AAUnknown188.5 ij65.07.164.825.2Susceptible MMC251 TMB2X9128-3 AA   208.3 jk 6 4.7 6.2 58.4 29.5 Susceptible MMC251TMB2X9128-3AA208.3 jk64.76.258.429.5Susceptible ITC0084 Mbwazirume g AAA Lujugira/Mutika X 214.9 jk 6 4.5 5.5 56.4 29.3 Susceptible ITC0084Mbwazirume gAAALujugira/MutikaX214.9 jk64.55.556.429.3Susceptible  Mchare Laini AA AA African cultivar IX 225.1 kl 6 4.9 6.2 58.9 34.8 Susceptible Mchare LainiAAAA African cultivarIX225.1 kl64.96.258.934.8Susceptible ITC0365 Williams g AAA Cavendish IX 253.2 l 6 4.6 5.6 49.7 36.3 Susceptible ITC0365Williams gAAACavendishIX253.2 l64.65.649.736.3Susceptible LSD       0.5 0.6 5.5 2.7  LSD0.50.65.52.7 Note: Accessions in bold are the improved diploids and tetraploids.         Note: Accessions in bold are the improved diploids and tetraploids. Abbreviations: AUDPC, area under disease progress curve; YLst, youngest leaf with streak symptoms; YLS, youngest leaf spotted; SSD, most Abbreviations: AUDPC, area under disease progress curve; YLst, youngest leaf with streak symptoms; YLS, youngest leaf spotted; SSD, most advanced stage of symptoms; INSL index of nonspotted leaves (%); DSI, disease severity index. Disease parameters collected at 3-month intervals advanced stage of symptoms; INSL index of nonspotted leaves (%); DSI, disease severity index. Disease parameters collected at 3-month intervals and averaged over three crop cycles.          and averaged over three crop cycles.  "},{"text":"Table 1 ) , as well as Long Tavoy, Calcutta 4, and Malaccensis 0074 (Trial 2,Table 2), symptoms did not progress beyond Stage 2. In 19 accessions, symptom progression stopped at Stage 3, including in Pisang Serun, Cameroun, Malaccensis 250, Zebrina 1177, Zebrina 1139, and Pisang Lilin (Trial 1, Table 1), as well as in Pahang, Borneo, Pisang Lilin, and 02145/1320 (Trial 2,  "},{"text":"Table 2 ) . In some entries, including Zebrina GF, Pisang Ceylan, FHIA 18, and Cacambou in Trial 1, and Monyet in Trial 2, symptoms developed to Stage 4, but did not progress to the late necrotic stage.  "},{"text":"Species Subgroup Genetic cluster No. of accessions Resistant a Intemediate b Susceptible c  Musa acuminata burmannica I 4 -d - Musa acuminataburmannicaI4-d-  malaccensis III 6 2  malaccensisIII62  zebrina X 5 - 2 zebrinaX5-2  microcarpa X 1 - - microcarpaX1--  Unknown e  4 1 8 Unknown e418  ISEA 1 III 1 - - ISEA 1III1--  ISEA 2 IX - 1 1 ISEA 2IX-11  banksii XI - 1 3 banksiiXI-13  Ibota III - 1 - IbotaIII-1-  Cavendish IX -  4 CavendishIX-4  Pisang Jari I - 1 - Pisang JariI-1-  Buaya     Buaya  Indon TriNG IX - -- 3 Indon TriNGIX---3  Indon TriPri X - 1  Indon TriPriX-1  AA African IX - - 14 AA AfricanIX--14  cultivar     cultivar  Lujugira/ X - 1 14 Lujugira/X-114  Mutika     Mutika Musa balbisiana M. balbisiana VII 3 - 1 Musa balbisianaM. balbisianaVII3-1  Ney Poovan VIII 1 - - Ney PoovanVIII1--  Mysore VIII 1 - - MysoreVIII1--  Pome f VIII 1 - 1 Pome fVIII1-1  Pisang Awak VIII 3 - - Pisang AwakVIII3--  Bluggoe/ XII 1 1 1 Bluggoe/XII111  Monthan     Monthan  Silk VIII - - 2 SilkVIII--2 Total 22 9 31 10 54 Total229311054 a Resistant refers to accessions with low disease severity and symptom progression stopped at a Resistant refers to accessions with low disease severity and symptom progression stopped at early streak Stage 2-4.     early streak Stage 2-4.  of resistance genes and avoid the overreliance of resistance genes of resistance genes and avoid the overreliance of resistance genes  from Calcutta 4.    from Calcutta 4.  Based on the AUDPC, the response of 31 accessions to P. fijiensis Based on the AUDPC, the response of 31 accessions to P. fijiensis , did not differ from the resistant check, Calcutta 4. Some of these ,did not differ from the resistant check, Calcutta 4. Some of these despite having a higher YLS and INSL. Partial resistance suggests accessions with a low AUDPC developed symptoms that progressed despite having a higher YLS and INSL. Partial resistance suggestsaccessions with a low AUDPC developed symptoms that progressed involvement of multiple resistance alleles or genes; thus, it is differ- to Stage 6. These accessions included Duningi (ITC 0947), Bagul (ITC involvement of multiple resistance alleles or genes; thus, it is differ-to Stage 6. These accessions included Duningi (ITC 0947), Bagul (ITC  "}],"sieverID":"9e29a906-6a0e-4a9d-9aa5-48fb4ebf88d3","abstract":"Black Sigatoka, caused by Pseudocercospora fijiensis, is one of the most devastating diseases of banana. In commercial banana-growing systems, black Sigatoka is primarily managed by fungicides. This mode of disease management is not feasible for resource-limited smallholder farmers. Therefore, bananas resistant to P. fijiensis provide a practical solution for managing the disease, especially under smallholder farming systems. Most banana and plantain hybrids with resistance to P. fijiensis were developed using few sources of resistance, which include Calcutta 4 and Pisang Lilin.To broaden the pool of resistance sources to P. fijiensis, 95 banana accessions were evaluated under field conditions in Sendusu, Uganda. Eleven accessions were resistant to P. fijiensis. Black Sigatoka symptoms did not progress past Stage 2 (narrow brown streaks) in the diploid accessions Pahang (AA), Pisang KRA (AA), Malaccensis 0074 (AA), Long Tavoy (AA), M.A. Truncata (AA), Tani (BB), and Balbisiana (BB), a response similar to the resistant control Calcutta 4. These accessions are potential sources of P. fijiensis resistance and banana breeding programmes can use them to broaden the genetic base for resistance to P. fijiensis."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"04aa4eae69b553e0f253681735d1045b","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/d837c7fa-1018-4550-b6e4-96b22fc2910a/retrieve"},"pageCount":18,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Budget phases","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":2,"text":"Phase 1:"},{"index":2,"size":41,"text":"• Initiative's proposals were submitted to the ISDC with aspirational budgets • FinPlan was prepared based on fundraising assumptions • Initiatives to ensure the principle of fund flow in such a way that one CG center cannot give sub-grant to another."},{"index":3,"size":17,"text":"• There might be adjustment of fund flow to ensure the implementing Entity received the fund directly."},{"index":4,"size":6,"text":"IITA EXAMPLE TO DELIVERING CG EXPECTATION "}]},{"head":"•","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":28,"text":"The detailed budget and POR will be submitted to the Initiative Leader after ensuring the total for all the WP agrees with the fund allocated to the entity."}]},{"head":"Questions from the initiatives team","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":32,"text":"1. BUDGET PERIOD AND TEMPLATE: Will there be a different process and template for the Initiatives that are not starting in January 2022? What are the periods covered by this budget exercise?"},{"index":2,"size":21,"text":"Answer: This process applies to all initiatives irrespectively of their starting dates and covers the period from January to December 2022. "}]},{"head":"INCEPTION COST:","index":4,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"BUDGET RECOMMENDATIONS AND SUPPORT COST:","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":31,"text":"Should initiatives have Project Management Units (PMU) or how finance, project management and other support costs should be included? Will Entities be allowed to include chargebacks/Full Cost Recovery in their budgets?"},{"index":2,"size":26,"text":"Answer: Each entity will prepare the budgets using their calculated overhead rates and cost allocation methodologies (Including Full cost recovery/chargeback methodologies), based on existing CGIAR guidelines."},{"index":3,"size":38,"text":"In the short-term, transitional structures will be implemented using Entities current capacity to support the Initiatives. As we transition to the new operational structure, global units will provide financial, project management, HR and other support to the Initiatives."}]},{"head":"INITIATIVES LEADER COST:","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":22,"text":"How should the Initiatives leaders be costed? And where should it be budgeted according to the Flow of Funds through Entities shared?"},{"index":2,"size":27,"text":"Answer: Initiative leaders should budget for the time dedicated to the Initiative. This cost will be captured at the \"Global Management\" section of the detailed budget template."},{"index":3,"size":21,"text":"The Initiative Leader's employer of record will receive an additional fund allocation to cover the Leader's costs included in the budget."},{"index":4,"size":11,"text":"Other team members should be fully covered by the Initiative budget."},{"index":5,"size":33,"text":"Questions from the initiatives team 10. POR vs POWB: A)Does the Plan of Results (POR) replace other documents like the Plan of Work and Budget (POWB)? B)Will the POR be a different template?"}]},{"head":"Answers:","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":31,"text":"-Yes, the POR will replace the POWB for this stage of planning, once it's approved (proposed timeline considers February 28 th as the date for POR reviewed and approved for circulation)."},{"index":2,"size":36,"text":"-The POWB template was not aligned with the financial structure/entities and therefore it would end up creating more work for review and adjustments. Additionally, the POWB template has more details than the must-haves at this stage."}]},{"head":"POR SUPPORT TEAM:","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":15,"text":"When will the support team be trained? and who will be part of this team?"},{"index":2,"size":35,"text":"Answer: The proposed timeline considers that support team members will be fully trained by the end of January. Team members are being identified and once these are formalized, names will be shared with IDT leads."}]}],"figures":[{"text":" Upload of detailed 2022 budgets to Anaplan (planning system)• Link of initiatives workplan with detailed budget -POR• The Initiative Leader is responsible for the budget consolidation and approval following FinPlan guardrails (Flow of funds to Entities). • The budget will follow CGIAR Entities cost allocation methodologies based on existing CGIAR guidelines. • The One CGIAR 2022 Budgeting Transition Task Team will support the Initiative Leader in coordination with the Entity Finance Partner. • The Initiatives POR will be developed in coordination with the project management team. At IITA      At IITA BUDGET, BUDGET CONTROL, FUND FLOW & DATA UPLOAD    BUDGET, BUDGET CONTROL, FUND FLOW & DATA UPLOAD CG PROCESS FLOW AND EXPECTATION WP/Results • Each Initiative focal point to develop POR in conjunction with the IDTs Implementation Timeline 2022 Budget CG PROCESS FLOW AND EXPECTATION WP/Results • Each Initiative focal point to develop POR in conjunction with the IDTsImplementation Timeline2022Budget • Break the POR into activities Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4  Approved FinPlan • Break the POR into activitiesQ1Q2Q3Q4Approved FinPlan Crosscutting across Work Packages Work Package 1 • Develop the budget details to deliver the POR  x x x x x x  Crosscutting across Work Packages Work Package 1 • Develop the budget details to deliver the PORx xx xx x Total Initiative • Detailed budget to Include Personnel, Other Direct cost, Chargebacks Work Package 2 Work Package 3 and Overhead Work Package 4 • Personnel to include all category of personnel required to deliver the POR  x x x x x x x x x  7,100,000 Total Initiative • Detailed budget to Include Personnel, Other Direct cost, Chargebacks Work Package 2 Work Package 3 and Overhead Work Package 4 • Personnel to include all category of personnel required to deliver the PORx x xx x xx x x7,100,000 Work Package 5  x x x  Work Package 5xxx Work Package 6      Work Package 6 Innovation packages & Scaling Readiness  x x x  Innovation packages & Scaling Readinessxxx TOTAL  x x x  TOTALxxx  "},{"text":" What is the Inception Cost and how is it incorporated in this budget exercise? What is this document and how does it relate to the Initiatives Proposals? What is the flexibility for this allocation per Initiative and Entity?Answer: The flow of funds indicate which entities will be implementing the Initiatives activities following a detailed consultation made by the IDT Leaders with Centers and approvals by the Global Science Directors and the EMT.Required reviews should be coordinated with the Global Science Directors and If approved, adjusted in the Forecast in Q2 2022.  "}],"sieverID":"83091e7c-2ea5-449c-81ae-ee0539ea9bfa","abstract":""}

data/part_2/04cfe09d458877c9df9b7fe8c653beb8.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"04cfe09d458877c9df9b7fe8c653beb8","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/b92c78cf-b67b-4df7-a646-f7b96283e0af/retrieve"},"pageCount":11,"title":"Field trial of Lablab (Lablab purpureus) genotypes under rain fed conditions in Ethiopia","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":19,"text":"ATTRIBUTION. The work must be attributed, but not in any way that suggests endorsement by ILRI or the author(s)."}]},{"head":"NOTICE:","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":86,"text":"For any reuse or distribution, the licence terms of this work must be made clear to others. Any of the above conditions can be waived if permission is obtained from the copyright holder. Nothing in this licence impairs or restricts the author's moral rights. Fair dealing and other rights are in no way affected by the above. The parts used must not misrepresent the meaning of the publication. ILRI would appreciate being sent a copy of any materials in which text, photos etc. have been used."},{"index":2,"size":11,"text":"Editing, design and layout-ILRI Editorial and Publishing Services, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. "}]},{"head":"Introduction","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":161,"text":"Livestock play a key role in food security and incomes, and the farming systems of millions of smallholder farmers in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) (Moyo and Swanepoel, 2010). However, the livestock sector in SSA is generally underperforming due to various reasons of which limited access to improved feeds and forages is the main one. Access to forage-based feed resources is not adequate in SSA, particularly during the dry seasons, and the situation is worse in lowland areas where pastoralists commonly dwell. Furthermore, adverse effects of climate change and dwindling arable land are making the situation worse, forcing livestock farmers to give up their herds. Thus, developing feed and forage resources is imperative in order to support already under performing small-scale livestock systems in the region and to develop forage varieties that are resilient to climate change. The identification, improvement and, ultimately, utilization of more productive, resilient and locally adapted forages is the first step forward to improve livestock performance in the region."},{"index":2,"size":142,"text":"Lablab (Lablab purpureus) is one of the traditionally grown forage legume species in SSA, known for its resilience to drought and heat stress conditions and demanding a minimum amount of inputs during production (Maass et al., 2010). Because of the aforementioned attributes of lablab, a study has been initiated and conducted to evaluate lablab accessions sourced from the International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI) forage genebank, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, under different agroecological conditions. In addition, the accessions will be genotyped, using the whole genome sequence (WGS) approach, to develop genomic tools for improved selection accuracies and enhanced genetic gains for the traits of interest by plant breeders. A comprehensive reference genome for lablab has also recently been assembled (C Jones 2021, pers. comm., 02 April) which will provide a useful tool for the application of modern breeding approaches for lablab in the future."}]},{"head":"Field trial establishment and data collection","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":171,"text":"An extensive phenotyping and agronomic evaluation of the lablab accessions grown under field conditions has been carried out at three different agroecological locations in Ethiopia, in collaboration with the Ethiopian Institute of Agricultural Research (EIAR). The locations were the ILRI Bishoftu field site, a mid-altitude (1,800 metres above sea level (masl)) location with 800 mm annual rainfall in a bimodal pattern and alfisol/vertisol soils, located 50 kilometres (km) away from Addis Ababa, and the EIAR agricultural research centres at Melkasa, (1,550 masl with 760 mm annual rainfall in a bimodal pattern and clay/loam and sandy loam soils) and Mi'eso (1,470 masl with 740 mm annual rainfall in a bimodal pattern and clay loam soils), 120 and 300 km away from Addis Ababa, respectively. No fertilizer was applied during the course of the trials but manual weeding was carried out regularly. Furthermore, no pesticides or fungicides were applied. The field trials were carried out under rainfed conditions, with minimal input, in order to develop varieties that can perform under farmer's field conditions."},{"index":2,"size":18,"text":"The accessions used in this study were obtained from the ILRI forage genebank collection in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia."},{"index":3,"size":148,"text":"One hundred and forty-three (143) lablab accessions were used for the study and the trials were laid out in 13 X 13 simple lattice design, where 26 accessions from the 143 were replicated as internal checks in each incomplete block to minimize the field heterogeneity effect. Each incomplete block has 13 rows 2.5 metres (m) in length with 0.75 m spacing between the rows. The seeds were direct sown in each row (plot), at a depth of 5 centimetres (cm), in July 2021 (03/07/2021 in Melkassa, 06/07/2021 in Bishoftu and 10/07/2021 in Mi'eso). After the seedlings established, the number of plants per plot were thinned to 12 whenever the number of plants exceed this number (Figure 1). Thinning was carried out two weeks after planting. Based on emergence data, all experimental accessions were successfully established and grown in the field except the lablab accessions shaded in Table 1."},{"index":4,"size":36,"text":"The phenotype data was collected using standard lablab descriptors (Byregowda et al., 2015) which include: days to emergence; days to 50% flowering; plant height; fresh and dry stem and leaf weights; leaf, stem, and flower colour."},{"index":5,"size":46,"text":"The collected data from all three trial sites will be used for further genomic analyses and to support breeding new varieties. Furthermore, to collect true to type seeds from the studied accessions, the flower buds of selected plants from the trial were covered with pollination bags."},{"index":6,"size":65,"text":"After 50 % of the accessions flowered, plant samples were harvested and dried in an oven at 60 0 C overnight, then taken for the analysis of feed quality parameters, including: dry matter; organic matter; acid detergent fibre; neutral detergent fibre; acid detergent lignin; crude protein; ash; fat; digestibility (in vitro gas production) and; metabolizable energy, at the ILRI Nutrition Laboratory in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. "}]},{"head":"Genotyping","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":63,"text":"Leaf samples were collected from each accession during the seedling establishment stage for whole genome sequencing (WGS). The DNA of these accessions is currently being sequenced. Once the sequence data is ready, it will be used to understand the polymorphisms among the accessions and carry out association mapping studies in order to identify SNPs/Indels for the application of markers-assisted selection or genomic selection."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure 1 . Figure 1. Field establishment, emergence and mature plots of lablab accessions in the trial sites. "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":" Photo credit: ILRI/Godfrey Manyawu.Citation: Habte, E., Gari, A., Lire, H. and Jones, C. 2021. Field trial of Lablab (Lablab purpureus) genotypes under rain fed conditions in Ethiopia. Nairobi, Kenya: ILRI. Field trial of Lablab (Lablab purpureus) genotypes under rain fed conditions in Ethiopia iii Field trial of Lablab (Lablab purpureus) genotypes under rain fed conditions in Ethiopiaiii Contents Table Figure Introduction Field trial establishment and data collection Genotyping Table 1. List of lablab accessions used in the trial References Table Figure iv iv 2 3 6 4 Contents Table Figure Introduction Field trial establishment and data collection Genotyping Table 1. List of lablab accessions used in the trial References Table Figureiv iv 2 3 6 4 Figure 1. Field establishment, emergence and mature plots of lablab accessions in the trial sites Figure 1. Field establishment, emergence and mature plots of lablab accessions in the trial sites  Patron: Professor Peter C Doherty AC, FAA, FRS  Patron: Professor Peter C Doherty AC, FAA, FRS Animal scientist, Nobel Prize Laureate for Physiology or Medicine-1996 Animal scientist, Nobel Prize Laureate for Physiology or Medicine-1996 Box 30709, Nairobi 00100 Kenya Phone +254 20 422 3000 Fax +254 20 422 3001 Email [email protected] ilri.org better lives through livestock ILRI is a CGIAR research centre Box 5689, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia Phone +251 11 617 2000 Fax +251 11 667 6923 Email [email protected] Box 30709, Nairobi 00100 Kenya Phone +254 20 422 3000 Fax +254 20 422 3001 Email [email protected] better lives through livestock ILRI is a CGIAR research centreBox 5689, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia Phone +251 11 617 2000 Fax +251 11 667 6923 Email [email protected] ILRI has offices in East Africa • South Asia • Southeast and East Asia • Southern Africa • West Africa ILRI has offices in East Africa • South Asia • Southeast and East Asia • Southern Africa • West Africa  "}],"sieverID":"7790086b-fd15-4f93-aaeb-ff39f8b7b01d","abstract":"CGIAR is a global partnership that unites organizations engaged in research for a food-secure future. The CGIAR Research Program on Livestock provides research-based solutions to help smallholder farmers, pastoralists and agro-pastoralists transition to sustainable, resilient livelihoods and to productive enterprises that will help feed future generations. It aims to increase the productivity and profitability of livestock agri-food systems in sustainable ways, making meat, milk and eggs more available and affordable across the developing world. The Program brings together five core partners: the International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI) with a mandate on livestock; the International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT), which works on forages; the International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas (ICARDA), which works on small ruminants and dryland systems; the Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences (SLU) with expertise particularly in animal health and genetics and the Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ) which connects research into development and innovation and scaling processes."}

data/part_2/05178d1c930273443c97abaead4da8fa.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"05178d1c930273443c97abaead4da8fa","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/eaf87834-04d4-400f-a619-3d4ad734e671/retrieve"},"pageCount":1,"title":"Characterisation of Wild Musa Accessions Recently Introduced to the International Gene Bank","keywords":["FISH","genome size","genotyping","musa","rDNA"],"chapters":[],"figures":[],"sieverID":"9bb62e5d-de09-4057-be0d-69b975694143","abstract":"Bananas and plantains (Musa spp.) are one of the most important world trade commodities and are a staple food for millions of people in countries of the humid tropics. The production of bananas is, however, threatened by the rapid spread of various diseases and adverse environmental conditions. The Musa genetic diversity, which is of paramount importance for breeding of resistant cultivars, needs to be preserved and better characterised. The world's largest banana and plantain collection is managed by the Bioversity International Transit Centre (ITC) in Belgium and contains more than 1500 accessions maintained in vitro. The collection is being continuously expanded by new accessions representing various edible cultivars, improved materials and wild species from different parts of the world. Recently new germplasm was collected in Indonesia and successively introduced into the international Musa gene bank. The aim of this work was to characterise the genotype of these accessions in order to shed light on their genome structure and to confirm their taxonomic classification. A total of 21 wild Musa accessions were analysed and their nuclear genome size and the genomic distribution of ribosomal RNA genes were determined, showing a high degree of variability in both characters. Genotyping with a set of 19 microsatellite markers identified Musa species that are closely related to the studied accessions and provided data to aid in their classification. Sequence analysis of their internal transcribed spacers ITS1 and ITS2 suggested that some of the accessions are of interspecific hybrid origin and/or represent backcross progenies of interspecific hybrids."}

data/part_2/05fc51693fcba727990a7594dceb01e1.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"05fc51693fcba727990a7594dceb01e1","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/20f2ecdb-a044-4e63-ac09-1bcbd155e37d/retrieve"},"pageCount":26,"title":"TOOLS4SEEDSYSTEMS: WORKING TOWARDS RESILIENCE THROUGH ROOT, TUBER AND BANANA CROPS IN HUMANITARIAN SETTINGS","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Acronyms","index":1,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"EXECUTIVE SUMMARY","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":12,"text":"Under the auspices of the USAID Bureau for Humanitarian Assistance-funded project, Tools4SeedSystems:"},{"index":2,"size":72,"text":"working towards resilience through root, tuber and banana crops in humanitarian settings, a two-day virtual workshop took place on 23 and 25 May 2023. The workshop brought together root, tuber, and banana (RTB) scientists, humanitarian organizations and a broad range of potential stakeholders to create mutual understanding, linkages and to design ways to explore the opportunities for RTB crops to contribute to food security, income and resilience in conflict and humanitarian settings."},{"index":3,"size":26,"text":"With over 180 registrants from 56 organizations and 29 countries, and almost 100 participants, the two days were a strong opportunity for networking and information sharing."},{"index":4,"size":116,"text":"The discussions covered three main areas 1. While there is currently minimal focus and investment in RTBs in humanitarian settings, the potential for these crops to create real benefit is huge, both for short term recovery and for building longer term resilience. In many contexts, RTBs are part of local agrifood systems, and hence some production knowledge already exists. The advantages of RTBs include short to medium maturity periods; high nutrient density and food per unit area of land; flexible management and harvesting options, which are often undertaken by women; and considerable climate and disaster adaptability and resilience. They provide a combination of diverse types of food, (e.g., leaf, fruit, and root) and offer micro-nutrient-rich varieties."},{"index":5,"size":49,"text":"Challenges include vegetative reproduction and recycling of planting material, which can lead to the accumulation and spread of pests and diseases and seed degeneration; bulky perishable planting material and crops; limited processing and product value addition; and mostly informal non-commercialized seed systems with limited uptake of new, clean varieties."},{"index":6,"size":44,"text":"2. Humanitarian actors and governments have focused on cereal and grains in emergency contexts and there is limited awareness and knowledge of RTBs, nor experience with these crops. Emergency seed assessment and delivery mechanisms have been established that could be modified to incorporate RTBs."},{"index":7,"size":62,"text":"The uncertain time horizon for interventions for internally displaced people (IDPs) or cross-border refugees, who may have little access to land, water, inputs, and agronomic technical support, provide considerable challenges. However, these crops provide good opportunities for contributing to resilient food security: potato and sweetpotato have shorter maturity periods, cassava offers relative drought resistance, and banana and plantain have low input requirements."},{"index":8,"size":57,"text":"3. Needs assessments carried out prior to the meeting highlighted the need for RTB technical assistance to initially intervene with humanitarian organizations to create sustainable value chains for quality seed production, while simultaneously exploring how to raise capacity, awareness, and knowledge with humanitarian actors, other national organizations and also with those they serve. The other key repeated "}]},{"head":"BACKGROUND","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":99,"text":"In complex, post-conflict humanitarian situations, there is consensus for the need to \"build back better\" and support efforts to strengthen resilience among farmers who are vulnerable to the impact of climate-related shocks. In many contexts (e.g., the Great Lakes region in sub-Saharan Africa), roots, tubers, and bananas (RTB) are crucial crops for food security, nutrition, and income. RTB crops are versatile, nutritious staples that produce more food per unit area of land compared to many other crops, contribute directly to household food security, are often under women's management, and are projected to be more climate resilient than grain crops."},{"index":2,"size":27,"text":"However, there is often limited awareness among humanitarian actors of the current role and contribution of RTB crops in local farming systems to re-build better, sustainable livelihoods.   "}]},{"head":"Opening session","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":84,"text":"After multiplication rates, diseases and pests, and their bulky and perishable nature. Given that humanitarian settings are complex, uncertain, and often insecure with multi-faceted issues, there are challenges to manage the spread of plant disease. There is a profound need to understand each humanitarian context and customize RTB skills, tools, and approaches to respond to the specific contextual requirements. Margaret shared details of the RTB Toolbox for working with root, tuber, and banana seed systems (tools4seedsystems.org) and the expectations for the virtual training process."},{"index":2,"size":102,"text":"Chris Ojiewo (Leader of the CGIAR Seed Equal Initiative) shared the context of the project within Seed Equal in the CGIAR system (presentation on event site). Given these realities, USAID currently support both certified and non-certified seed sourcing with additional quality assurance documentation. There is a significant opportunity to improve farmers access to improved, fitfor-purpose seed varieties. He reiterated how RTB crops are underinvested in humanitarian agricultural seed-borne diseases, regulatory frameworks, and increased availability of practical information. The appropriate approach for capacity strengthening is the creation of in-country capacity strengthening opportunities (with demonstrations) followed by learning networks, on-line webinars, and e-learning modules."}]},{"head":"Reflections and plenary discussion","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":19,"text":"Erik Delaquis (Research Team Leader, Alliance of Bioversity and CIAT) and Israel Navarrete (Associate Scientist, CIP) shared some reflections."},{"index":2,"size":38,"text":"• There is a high demand for support for RTBs in humanitarian settings and this workshop is an opportunity to start to create a functioning network to understand how to tailor and contextualize available seeds, tools, and technologies."},{"index":3,"size":45,"text":"• The types of humanitarian scenarios described (limited access to land, water, and resources, especially in refugee camps) and the implications for farming and seed systems varied widely-they would probably need multiple collaborative events if they wanted to get into specifics for all of them."},{"index":4,"size":20,"text":"• There is an emphasis on the need for accessible technological solutions by participants (need for seed production technologies, etc.)."},{"index":5,"size":32,"text":"• On the logistics side, what documents are needed for seed certification? What procurement documents and systems are compatible with seed certification regulations (or equivalent) of different organizations working in humanitarian response?"},{"index":6,"size":55,"text":"• Quality assurance is becoming an ever-larger issue. Not only does it cause problems in producing large amounts of seed quickly; it also hampers the importation of seeds from outside the area of the crisis as governments seek to follow phytosanitary norms yet may not have the capacity on the ground to implement precautionary measures."},{"index":7,"size":49,"text":"• Given the current emphasis on grains and cereals in humanitarian settings, there is an opportunity for RTB crops to be relevant that needs to be served. From the point of view of USAID BHA, Steven Walsh highlighted that humanitarian actors can usefully invest much more in this area."},{"index":8,"size":53,"text":"• Several times, the need for closer coordination and involvement of farmers in RTB seed system interventions emerged in the discussions, (including for DRC and Haiti). Even more so than for grains/vegetables, RTB seed systems face limitations from centralization, which create a critical need to involve farmers on the ground from the start."},{"index":9,"size":55,"text":"• The above two points combine to raise a third point-that building resilience over mid-long-term scales requires investment in people-centered seed systems, which short-term seed relief is not really designed to achieve. \"Most of the humanitarian organizations just distribute planting materials. The don't have accompanying important packages such as capacity building and related technology promotion.....\""},{"index":10,"size":34,"text":"• There is consensus building around the need for tools and approaches focused on building human capacity (whether this should be educational materials and manuals for distribution or training protocols was not imminently clear)."},{"index":11,"size":14,"text":"These reflections were followed by a plenary discussion. The main points that emerged included:"},{"index":12,"size":14,"text":"To focus BHA investment on working through the considerable challenges of ensuring quality seed."},{"index":13,"size":157,"text":"The current need is to source seed through both the formal and informal supply systems and to support the limited diagnostic and implementation capacity within the formal regulatory systems. place a strong emphasis on certain crops so it is important to first understand their action plan and then see where you are going to intervene. At the same time, the private sector needs to be involved from the start to plan and then implement actions. This project will learn much from the Cameroonian experience in developing training courses based on needs assessments in humanitarian contexts. A useful approach is the multistakeholder framework in the RTB Toolbox for working with root, tuber and banana seed systems (tools4seedsystems.org), which is designed to identify and map the stakeholders, their roles, as well as their main motivations to help create the logical link between the different actors who will then be able to coordinate and work together to strengthen the sector."},{"index":14,"size":23,"text":"The stakeholder mapping needs to include at least three public sector elements in terms of all seed system interventions and not just RTBs."},{"index":15,"size":46,"text":"1. There are research institutes that have the mandate to develop seed varieties. These play a crucial role in evaluating suitable varieties for different agroecologies. When it comes to RTB crops, these research institutes can produce early generation seed and to make seeds available to producers."},{"index":16,"size":31,"text":"2. Engaging with the regulatory authorities tasked with ensuring good quality seed reaches the farmer through seed regulations and inspections and to find a balance between formal and informal seed systems."},{"index":17,"size":27,"text":"3. Engaging with the agricultural extension services, who are very close to farmers, to discuss and provide them with technical support on crop production and seed production."},{"index":18,"size":69,"text":"Ideally, any intervention best partners with national research, regulatory and extension institutes to ensure that there is interconnection around the entire seed system including the private sector, where even using agrodealers creates another challenge. It takes a concerted, coordinated effort with the private and public sector together to bring us to the \"last mile\" and must involve all the key actors, both public and private, as well as donors."},{"index":19,"size":197,"text":"One reality to consider in humanitarian settings is that, in most interventions, very small packets of seeds are usually handed out to individuals. This can be practical for reaching more people, but in many contexts, the big producers are farmers who sell these seeds in the market. This holds true even in some of the situations where you have refugee camps and seed suppliers selling in formal markets. To respond to this, organizations such as Catholic Relief Services (CRS) do a lot of work on seed security assessments, in both humanitarian and development settings, not only to analyze the customer, public, farmers and growers but also to ask farmers for their opinions on what they want to buy, including the size, packages, etc. Just do your assessment, either in the emergency context or even in the development context. Matching the demand for the technology with the provision of the technology, especially in a market-based approach, is important in capacity building. Through this analysis, you can discover, for instance in Southern Madagascar, that sometimes improved varieties are not certified, cost more, farmers do not understand what they are getting and do not want to pay for these varieties."}]},{"head":"Country-based breakout rooms","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":65,"text":"Following the plenary, the participants then went into different country-based breakout rooms to briefly capture some key thoughts around the question: \"How can root, tuber and banana seed systems be more sustainable in humanitarian settings? List some of the technical, institutional, socio-cultural, and humanitarian opportunities and challenges in your contexts\". The countries included Bangladesh, Cameroon, a group of DRC, Haiti, Benin, Burkina Faso, and Niger."},{"index":2,"size":10,"text":"The written feedback from the groups can be found here:"},{"index":3,"size":1,"text":"https://docs.google.com/presentation/d/1IGABS33L-Ni7V9EG1PNHds0xfWZv_oc_TeCXmtKzazg/edit?usp=sharing"},{"index":4,"size":21,"text":"Overall, the key issues captured and discussed in the breakout rooms followed on from and reflected the initial presentations. They included:"}]},{"head":"Opportunities","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":36,"text":"• Overall, RTBs are high-calorie staple food crops, productive per unit area, relatively resistant to drought contributing to food and nutritional (and vitamin) security, and high value. Some have short maturity cycles like sweetpotato and potato."},{"index":2,"size":17,"text":"• All parts of the plant have different uses and are relatively easy to cook and consume."},{"index":3,"size":13,"text":"• They have potential in emerging markets but are new to humanitarian settings."},{"index":4,"size":25,"text":"• Small pilot tests show that interventions in the right places and contexts, e.g., marginal farmers' vegetable markets, have the potential to create profitable markets."},{"index":5,"size":21,"text":"• Increasing awareness, knowledge, access to seed and suitable varieties can introduce these crops into new suitable areas and food systems."},{"index":6,"size":14,"text":"• Farmers want new varieties if they can easily access them at affordable cost."},{"index":7,"size":9,"text":"• Potato and sweetpotato offer relatively short growing cycles."},{"index":8,"size":25,"text":"• Farmers need training on seed, vine, and root storage and there is an opportunity to identify varieties that combine disease resistance with market-appropriate traits."},{"index":9,"size":10,"text":"• There are existing seed systems that can be developed."},{"index":10,"size":25,"text":"• Strengthen the early generation seed (EGS) systems, fund research institutions in seed production, and support capacity building for actors involved in the seed sector."},{"index":11,"size":12,"text":"• Use the Open Data Kit (ODK) to support efficient data collection."},{"index":12,"size":18,"text":"• Collect local varieties that have degenerated for virus clean-up in Kenya then multiply and redistribute to farmers."},{"index":13,"size":10,"text":"• Facilitate the collection of pre-basic seed from research centers."},{"index":14,"size":38,"text":"• Use a public-private-partnership (PPP) approach and include and involve experienced producers in the development and extension stages of the varieties to provide quality seed to farmers and create increased access to new varieties in a demand-driven way."},{"index":15,"size":8,"text":"• Focus on straightforward opportunities with simple practices."},{"index":16,"size":13,"text":"• Recruit 'brave growers' who can help demonstrate effective methods for seed production."},{"index":17,"size":29,"text":"• Work with decentralized producers in different areas of intervention to identify practices using local resources to intervene in cultivation systems to avoid the spread of diseases between fields."},{"index":18,"size":14,"text":"• Take the knowledge, research, and seed production closer to where it is needed."},{"index":19,"size":26,"text":"• Respond to private sector demand (e.g., plantain in Madagascar) while finding ways to support farmers to meet that demand in terms of quality and quantity."},{"index":20,"size":24,"text":"• Improve diagnostic tools for pests and diseases to ensure quality seed delivery without reinventing the wheel (such as those developed by World Veg)."},{"index":21,"size":39,"text":"• There is an opportunity (such as this meeting) to bring multiple institutions (local and international) such as governments and NGOs, the private sector, universities, research centers and policy makers together to create scaling out strategies that include commercialization."},{"index":22,"size":15,"text":"• RTBs could be part of an agroforestry strategy with short-, medium-, and long-term benefits."}]},{"head":"Specific humanitarian opportunities","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":14,"text":"• Focus on working in refugee camps and IDP settlement areas and surrounding areas."},{"index":2,"size":19,"text":"• Increase collaboration and coordination between the different actors (government, private sector, and research institutions working in humanitarian settings)."},{"index":3,"size":24,"text":"• Engage with, restore, and work through existing national platforms such as the Ethiopian Agricultural Task Force that was set up during emergency time."},{"index":4,"size":59,"text":"• Create the opportunity for research and seed production institutions to work closely with the humanitarian community to design interventions and maximize resources to both identify specific preferred traits in these contexts (e.g., early maturing, nutrient dense, climate extremes and adaptability etc.) and focus on the right germplasm and facilitate access to seeds and training by encouraging local production."},{"index":5,"size":26,"text":"• The RTB group can select and define interventions and provide information characteristics on each of the crops and provide small, accessible demo-plots and continue replication."},{"index":6,"size":28,"text":"• Reinforce training at the farmer level for managing quality of planting material. Is there an opportunity for farmers to diagnose the quality of their planting material themselves?"},{"index":7,"size":20,"text":"• Identify and summarize why existing planting material technologies have not been taken up and create scale-out strategies where relevant."},{"index":8,"size":31,"text":"• Employ RTB tools that can assist rapidly assess and build out basic understanding of existing RTB systems (e.g., multi-stakeholder framework) in these contexts (e.g., assess seed systems and markets); https://tools4seedsystems.org/tools/multi-stakeholder-framework/."},{"index":9,"size":23,"text":"• There is an opportunity for humanitarian organizations to include management practices, capacity building and related technologies when distributing planting material and seed."}]},{"head":"General challenges","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":18,"text":"• A lack of awareness about the potential and conditions needed to successfully grow and manage these crops."},{"index":2,"size":12,"text":"• A lack of knowledge about planting techniques, variety information and marketing."},{"index":3,"size":14,"text":"• Some crops have long maturity times and require bulk storage, transportation, and delivery."},{"index":4,"size":11,"text":"• Different farmers have different perceptions on the value of RTBs."},{"index":5,"size":7,"text":"• The Government can support biofortified crops."},{"index":6,"size":27,"text":"• Lack of supportive national and governmental institutions including weak regulatory systems that do not yet have established RTB seed certification systems, even though there is demand."},{"index":7,"size":19,"text":"• It is difficult to track and identify existing and new varieties, even at the national and institutional level."},{"index":8,"size":23,"text":"• Farmer-to-farmer seed exchange in informal systems can spread crop diseases especially in conflict zones with no access to inputs and control mechanisms."},{"index":9,"size":30,"text":"• Cassava and other roots and tubers can be heavy to transport longer distances to processing plants or markets, and because they are perishable, quality can suffer in the heat."},{"index":10,"size":20,"text":"• In quite a few countries, existing varieties have already degenerated, making access to good quality seed a real challenge."},{"index":11,"size":12,"text":"• Shortage of land, water and underlying land access and ownership policies."}]},{"head":"Challenges in particular humanitarian settings and conflict zones","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":12,"text":"• Each context and which crops are suitable will be context specific."},{"index":2,"size":25,"text":"• There are usually a very limited number of actors in this area with high turnover and support actors are often focused on emergency needs."},{"index":3,"size":28,"text":"• Procurement is a challenge when it does not provide customized information. In humanitarian settings the environment means working under conditions of uncertainty. The toolbox could provide guidance."},{"index":4,"size":20,"text":"• How to provide the seeds to people who have been displaced and are no longer in their original locations?"}]},{"head":"Comments and observations from the side chat","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":14,"text":"• It is important to include FAO who remain strategic partners in many countries."},{"index":2,"size":19,"text":"• Can you share the rapid testing and tracing strategies you use for the RTB? Check these tools: https://tools4seedsystems.org/tools/seed-tracing/"},{"index":3,"size":14,"text":"• The capacity needs assessment will assist tailoring the training courses to country-specific contexts."},{"index":4,"size":15,"text":"• What kind of documents are needed or requested for seeds certification through BHA funding?"},{"index":5,"size":1,"text":"https://www.usaid.gov/sites/default/files/2022-05/USAID-BHA_Ag_Annex_A_-_Seed_Grower_Declaration_of_Quality_September_2020.pdf"},{"index":6,"size":20,"text":"• Q: Can you elaborate more on \"procurement systems are not compatible with organization regulations?\" E.g., which procurement systems, formal/informal?"},{"index":7,"size":45,"text":"A: One of the main issues in procurement systems is quality assurance, especially for planting materials coming from informal sources, but even for formal sources. One of the main reasons for this is the low capacity from local regulators to diagnose seed-borne pests and diseases."}]},{"head":"End of day Mentimeter evaluation","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":21,"text":"After submitting these insights and before closing these sessions, a few participants filled in a Mentimeter evaluation. Comments included the following."}]},{"head":"Q1: What I really appreciated about this session has been... /Ce que j'ai vraiment apprécié dans cette","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":2,"text":"séance, c'est..."},{"index":2,"size":8,"text":"• Information on seed systems in humanitarian settings."},{"index":3,"size":8,"text":"• Meeting with diverse groups around the world."},{"index":4,"size":3,"text":"• Experiences shared."},{"index":5,"size":3,"text":"• Breakout discussions."},{"index":6,"size":4,"text":"• Breakout room discussion."},{"index":7,"size":15,"text":"• It was interesting, especially to know more on seed support in the humanitarian context."},{"index":8,"size":8,"text":"• The presentations were precise and very informative."},{"index":9,"size":7,"text":"• The content and discussions were excellent!"},{"index":10,"size":3,"text":"• Great Discussion!"},{"index":11,"size":4,"text":"• Breakout room discussion."},{"index":12,"size":14,"text":"• Even with the tech challenges the presentation and the discussion were quite good."},{"index":13,"size":29,"text":"• The interpretation of the meeting in two languages: English and French. But also the small group discussion which focused on relevant questions for which more time was needed."},{"index":14,"size":3,"text":"• Information exchange."}]},{"head":"Q2: For me the most important outcome of this session is.../Pour moi, le résultat le plus important de cette session est...","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":11,"text":"• Participation of different humanitarian groups though they don't have experience."},{"index":2,"size":7,"text":"• Meeting new people with similar interests."},{"index":3,"size":18,"text":"• Realizing that there is a massive demand for capacity strengthening for RTB seed systems in humanitarian settings."},{"index":4,"size":15,"text":"• Stakeholders from different perspectives have shown us the challenges and opportunities with RTB crops."},{"index":5,"size":20,"text":"• Help participants share practices and reconsider what they are currently doing in terms of scope and approach to sustainability."},{"index":6,"size":9,"text":"Q3: Next time, can we... /La prochaine fois, pouvons-nous..."},{"index":7,"size":6,"text":"• Country-specific discussion with more time."},{"index":8,"size":7,"text":"• Fix the links for registration :)"},{"index":9,"size":13,"text":"• Next time I am sure the tech issue will be solved :)"},{"index":10,"size":17,"text":"• Next time try to include other donors too. It is good to see their perspective too."},{"index":11,"size":19,"text":"• Come back to the questions of groups on which everyone has not had time to share the experience?"},{"index":12,"size":33,"text":"Wouldn't it be convenient to send questions to registrants before the session? Systems Assessments, which was implemented to better understand the variation in uptake and usage of seed system assessments in BHA-funded programming."},{"index":13,"size":9,"text":"Key challenges with seed systems assessments in emergencies include:"},{"index":14,"size":15,"text":"1. Applications fail to include a seed system security assessment (SSSA) or equivalent seed assessment."},{"index":15,"size":10,"text":"2. Applications show an inaccurate understanding of the SSSA purpose."},{"index":16,"size":11,"text":"3. Central repositories of SSSAs are not widely accessed by implementers."},{"index":17,"size":7,"text":"4. Challenges with multi-agency coordination for assessments."},{"index":18,"size":19,"text":"5. Limited expertise or capacity of staff in understanding the purpose of the tools and methods for the SSSA."},{"index":19,"size":12,"text":"6. Potential strain on implementing partner (IP) resources to conduct the SSSA."},{"index":20,"size":13,"text":"7. Difficulties assessing informal seed market systems; program bias toward formal market activities."},{"index":21,"size":12,"text":"8. Limited awareness and availability of data analysis tools, resources, and research."},{"index":22,"size":67,"text":"The SERT is complemented by the Context Analysis Tool (CAT). This tool is designed to help stakeholders quickly grasp the environment and circumstances in which seed systems function, and then to identify practical entry points for designing and implementing interventions to bolster such systems, making them more resilient. The presentation left participants with the question: How can a RTB lens be overlaid on these principles and tools?"}]},{"head":"Presentations on RTB seed production technologies","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":115,"text":"This was followed by four excellent presentations on rapid multiplication techniques (RMT) for RTB seed production and quality management. Cassava, as a high-calorie, subsistence crop for the people, is consumed daily throughout many sectors of society and as such is vital for food security as well as income generation. To improve the whole value chain, producers need better access to good disease-resistant cassava cuttings to prevent the spread of diseases through contaminated cuttings. He outlined the current informal and formal seed systems and shared insights into a third emerging hybrid system called Community Seed Multipliers. Small quantities of improved, approved varieties are made available to seed producers in the informal system (peasant cooperatives, NGOs, etc.)."},{"index":2,"size":28,"text":"Relevant cassava varieties are identified and selected in each location using a participatory varietal selection (PVS) approach, accounting for the different client needs and preferences (NGO, agri-multiplier, famer)"},{"index":3,"size":66,"text":"and the type of beneficiary (on the move, quiet area, diet preferences). The PVS approach allows promising varieties to be tested in farmers' fields. He compared and described the different early generation seed (EGS) technologies and approaches, in particular the advantage of a semi-autotrophic hydroponics (SAH) technology. Participants raised questions on the affordability of seed using this method and explored how to bring the costs down."},{"index":4,"size":46,"text":"Kwame Ogero (Research Associate, CIP) followed with a presentation on sweetpotato production (presentation on event site). He emphasized that the goals, actors, product, technologies, location, and timing all need to be considered in effective seed production planning. He highlighted the questions to be asked and information    "}]},{"head":"Crop-based breakout rooms","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":44,"text":"After a short break, the participants went into five crop-and language-based breakout rooms to explore the question: 'What are the crop specific challenges with quality seed production technologies in humanitarian settings in your country/ies and how they can be addressed in the field? '"},{"index":2,"size":9,"text":"The feedback slides can be found here: https://docs.google.com/presentation/d/1WStySYUstEzi5F1F9qLWmcqNh_wu177w3p4cSUQWEsA/edit#slide= id.g224d0552762_0_16"},{"index":3,"size":48,"text":"Many of the same issues raised on the first day, such as lack of awareness, knowledge gaps, lack of training in and access to diagnostic and seed production technologies as well as clean, context-specific varieties were further contextualized and reiterated. Some additional key insights, challenges and opportunities included:"}]},{"head":"Observations and insights","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":46,"text":"• Governments and the private sector are usually more focused on providing higher value commercial grain as food rather than seed and they may be better suited to immediate emergency responses while RTBs may serve much better in providing longer term food security during recovery periods."}]},{"head":"Challenges","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":32,"text":"• Even in more formal RTB seed systems, the relatively few national actors do not always have the resources and capacity to identify exactly which varieties are being multiplied and potentially infected."},{"index":2,"size":17,"text":"• Successfully planting out and acclimatization of in vitro plants as healthy cassava cuttings are otherwise unavailable."},{"index":3,"size":25,"text":"• Long distances can mean costly in-country air transport for clean seed distribution where there are no conservation or research facilities integrated into local communities."},{"index":4,"size":25,"text":"• Need to find a way to create access to clean EGS in decentralized systems where it is most needed and there is high demand."},{"index":5,"size":23,"text":"• IDP translocation can contribute to the spread of degenerated seed if farmers do save seed rather than expect free seed next season."},{"index":6,"size":20,"text":"• If the price of RTB seed from accredited companies is too high, farmers will take seed from other farmers."},{"index":7,"size":17,"text":"• Prejudices and beliefs around some vegetatively propagated crops, e.g., that sweetpotato affects male virility in Madagascar."},{"index":8,"size":6,"text":"• Lack of modern processing units."}]},{"head":"Opportunities","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":53,"text":"• RTBs are relatively flexible with different parts of the plants being used for different uses. For instance, even though cassava can take five to six months to mature and bananas up to one year, cassava leaves can be consumed in the meantime, yet this practice is relatively unknown in some key countries."},{"index":2,"size":17,"text":"• Research centers need to be supported to engage with communities to understand and define research needs."},{"index":3,"size":30,"text":"• A better interaction between communities and research and extension services will lead to a better understanding of how to improve multiplication and seed production from a traditional knowledge base."},{"index":4,"size":45,"text":"• To reemphasize the benefits and creation of much stronger linkages, exchange and coordination between all research, NGO, humanitarian actors and seed-system partners especially in localized interventions, focused on increasing community awareness, benefits, and opportunities of multi-VPC seed production and of knowing the seed sources."},{"index":5,"size":29,"text":"• Support community-based organizations (CBOs) and cooperatives to be producers and distributors of clean seed and new variety producers with a business approach, while encouraging networking and sharing experiences."},{"index":6,"size":7,"text":"• Give humanitarian actors the tools required."},{"index":7,"size":18,"text":"• Focus where the crops are already seen as a daily essential, e.g., cassava (as fufu) in DRC."},{"index":8,"size":21,"text":"• Choose manageable scales of intervention to start with so as not to feel overwhelmed by the scale of increasing problems."},{"index":9,"size":34,"text":"• Support the creation of national gene banks for conservation and sustainable decentralized seed production while adapting to the range of possibilities, e.g., the availability of stem cuttings rather than tissue-culture seeds in Sudan."}]},{"head":"Final reflections and way forward","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":17,"text":"The session concluded with reflections and thoughts on the way forward from Margaret McEwan and Stephen Walsh."},{"index":2,"size":62,"text":"In her recap (presentation on event The aim is to create a learning network across the two core countries and extend to the five countries with virtual support and further to all the other countries or individuals who have shown interest. We will also continue to link with other seed system initiatives and networks and those that work on seed in emergencies."},{"index":3,"size":38,"text":"There will be opportunities to learn more about putting certain RTB diagnostic tools into practice, developing case studies about RTB interventions in different humanitarian contexts with the colleagues working on communication (Alain Ngono) and knowledge management (Bebel Nguepi)."},{"index":4,"size":83,"text":"Over the next one or two months, we propose country-specific meetings for Bangladesh, Ethiopia, Haiti, Mozambique, and Madagascar to discuss the findings from the capacity needs assessment and feasible virtual support (e.g., joint preparation of proposals, and in-country training if additional funds are available). It will be helpful to identify one or two focal people in each \"virtual\" country with whom to share this information. We also recognize the important role of the food security cluster coordinator where there are many implementing partners."},{"index":5,"size":188,"text":"Stephen Walsh then applauded all the work done over two days. With excellent presentations, the level of participation was immeasurable and encouraging. BHA funded the grant because they believe that humanitarian partners want to do better regarding roots, tubers, and bananas. The system encourages all of us to be able to try, however we can, to engage with the most vulnerable through our humanitarian partners. It goes without saying that most people do not self-select as a most vulnerable person and can be afraid to voice their issues or need for knowledge. It takes skills to be able to create an environment where people are comfortable to be able to share their vulnerability. Therefore, we need to work out how to meet our partners where they are and develop appropriate technologies and support. It is not always necessary to use high-end techniques or technologies in the humanitarian context as even small, improved steps in much more basic limited ways are improvements. The expectation is to see these efforts translate concretely and improve the capacity of our interventions and our responses in the humanitarian context and share the learning."}]},{"head":"End of day Mentimeter evaluation","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":7,"text":"A few people responded in the chat:"},{"index":2,"size":19,"text":"Q1: 'what I really appreciated about this session has been... /Ce que j'ai vraiment apprécié dans cette séance, c'est'."},{"index":3,"size":6,"text":"• Very good training, great information."},{"index":4,"size":10,"text":"• Very nice, productive and context-specific discussions in breakout rooms."},{"index":5,"size":6,"text":"• Open discussions and very informative."},{"index":6,"size":7,"text":"• The sharing and interactions are helpful."},{"index":7,"size":8,"text":"• The presentations were superb, clear, and concise."},{"index":8,"size":8,"text":"• I hope we reach out each month."},{"index":9,"size":24,"text":"• The session was interesting, participative, and informative and I look forward to seeing improvement in RTB crops as they are widely consumed worldwide."},{"index":10,"size":6,"text":"• Great participation from humanitarian actors."},{"index":11,"size":9,"text":"Q2: Next time, can we... /La prochaine fois, pouvons-nous.."},{"index":12,"size":13,"text":"• Give more time to this kind of sessions. Thank you very much."},{"index":13,"size":3,"text":"• More time."},{"index":14,"size":5,"text":"• Include a panel discussion."},{"index":15,"size":17,"text":"• Some presentations were so fast. Suggestion for next time -increase time for presentations and breakout session."},{"index":16,"size":29,"text":"The two translators, Erick Opon and Julie Tuyisenge from CITELS language services in Nairobi (https://www.citels.co.ke) were rated excellent and very good. They can be reached at [email protected] or [email protected]."}]},{"head":"ANNEXES","index":22,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Agenda","index":23,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":3,"text":"Link to agenda"}]}],"figures":[{"text":" challenge was the need to decentralize seed production, knowledge, and capacity away from central research organizations without compromising seed quality and technical backstopping. Plans for training in Cameroon and the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), and preliminary findings on the context and needs for Bangladesh, Ethiopia, Haiti, Madagascar, and Mozambique were shared. An online voluntary networking form was filled by over 60 participants to enable them to follow up with each other. The two meetings demonstrated the huge enthusiasm from humanitarian actors to understand how to best employ the right crops and varieties in each situation with technical support, knowledge and wide expertise in seed systems and rapid deployment with the research expertise and scientists. "},{"text":"Forty-six participants filled in a meeting specific voluntary networking google form (link) for participants to share their contacts and express what they can provide and what they need. The predominant requests covered needs: 1. To understand the humanitarian context 2. To understand RTB seed systems 3. To understand the opportunities for leveraging RTB crops to improve humanitarian interventions 4. To increase the opportunities for multi-stakeholder networking and coordination at local and organizational levels and contexts 5. To be technically trained on RTB value-chain segments (from seed multiplication, health quality, crop production, to market). "},{"text":" Focus of the dayThe objective for the first day's session was to introduce RTB crops and seed systems and the RTB Toolbox as aset of evolving resources to understand and share what interventions are needed to make the most of the opportunity that RTB crops and current seed systems offer in humanitarian settings. The group also discussed what interventions are most likely to improve access to relevant improved seed, technologies, and management practices in these contexts and given the specific challenges. "},{"text":" the facilitators set the scene, Margaret McEwan (Senior Scientist, CIP, and co-lead of the project) explored the potential of RTBs to support resilience, food and nutrition in humanitarian settings (presentation on event site). The potential advantages of RTB crops include their maturity period, flexible management and harvesting options, which are often managed by women, and considerable climate and disaster adaptability and resilience. They provide a combination of diverse types of food with micro-nutrient-rich varieties. The challenges include vegetative propagation, slow "},{"text":" interventions and that humanitarian partners are extremely interested in improving their knowledge and capacity. The project creates a great opportunity to share knowledge and expertise with technically competent RTB research and development organizations. The three main aims of the joint project are to strengthen the diagnostic capacity in deciding which seed is needed, increasing timely availability of seed, and improving coordination among seed stakeholders. Jorge Andrade-Piedra (Senior Scientist, CIP, and co-lead of the project) then shared the feedback from the capacity needs assessment in Cameroon and the DRC, as well as preliminary results from Bangladesh, Ethiopia Haiti, Madagascar, and Mozambique. Key points include a perception that RTB crops are very important and can be characterized by both a more formal and an informal farmer-managed seed system. The main challenges include plant disease, availability of clean planting material, transportation of bulky crops, limited quantities of seed purchased through seed fair modalities and land issues. Other issues included lack of funding, monitoring and slow adoption of new varieties. In the different seed systems, lack of information, procurement systems and uncertainty about seed quality stood out as the main concerns alongside the transportation of bulky planting material. Priority areas for capacity strengthening include Rapid Multiplication Technologies (RMTs) for RTB seed, diagnostics for "},{"text":" Abby Love (Agriculture Systems Technical Support Unit, Mercy Corps) started the session with an informative presentation on \"What we already know?\" (presentation on event site). Her focus was on how to improve emergency seed interventions and create resilient and improved seed systems over the long term. The aim was to identify the guidance and principles that will allow humanitarian actors to implement efficient and effective emergency seed responses. She provided details of the Seed Emergency Response Tool (SERT) developed by Mercy Corps, SeedSystem, and ISSD building on 30 years of experience with input from USAID and implementers. Key features are seed system fundamentals; charts on seed response types; decision trees to select specific actions; 10 principles for good seed-aid practice with additional resources. She also shared the SCALE Consultations on Seed "},{"text":"Doudou Dunia (Project Assistant, IITA) presented with Paul Dontsop (Project Coordinator and Impact Economist, IITA) on \"Building resilience through the cultivation of roots, tubers and bananas in humanitarian situations\" with a focus on cassava (presentation on event site). He emphasized how cassava serves not only as a staple crop but also as a source of income. "},{"text":" sources needed to select the best variety and site location for that context. He shared the different vine multiplication technologies that have been developed for screenhouses, open nurseries, and the Triple-S approach (storage in sand and sprouting) for use in dry areas. He touched briefly on pest and disease management practices, rotation and record keeping, highlighting best practices for harvesting and transportation. Bonaventure Aman Omondi (Scientist, Alliance of Bioversity and CIAT) then shared banana and plantain seed production practices (presentation on event site). He described what to consider and look out for in sucker mother gardens, and hardening nurseries as well as the factors likely to determine varietal selection and access to seed. He demonstrated how to plan for seed production and manage pests and diseases, giving links to support tools. He captured what can be done to mitigate the effects of the challenges presented by vegetatively propagated seed systems. This is shared in "},{"text":"4 . 3 As the final presentation in this set, Kwame Ogero (Research Associate, CIP) explained the need to manage seed quality, in particularly with vegetatively propagated crops where pathogens accumulate and can be spread when vines, roots and tubers are shared. He gave detailed descriptive and quantitative examples of the yield losses caused by different pathogen build ups and how they are transmitted. The challenge is enabling farmers to act to maintain quality seed. Demo plots demonstrating the benefits and tangible advantages have proved an important showcase in supporting farmers' awareness, knowledge and understanding. He described the formal quality assurance mechanisms and inspections that are beginning to be adopted in some countries as well as emerging accessible and affordable disease diagnostic tools and certification, such as LAMP (Loop-mediated Isothermal Amplification) SeedTracker, Plantvillage NURU for cassava and sweetpotato virus identification, Tumaini app for banana and the banana bacterial wilt training courses. Listing and acknowledging the existing challenges within the formal certification systems, he explored how, by taking the best of both the existing formal and informal seed systems, a hybrid system can be developed that builds the capacity for more formal quality assurance mechanisms while training informal seed producers and farmers in management practices on farm and linking them to disease-free early generation seed supplies. Planned activities in Cameroon and DRC Victorine Fornkwa (Potato Specialist, CIP) and Doudou Dunia (Project Assistant, IITA) then shared the realities and lessons for in country planning in Cameroon and DRC (presentation on event site ). Victorine described the harsh realities in the far north of Cameroon where village populations bordering Nigeria and government troops face severe harassment, disruption, and displacement from Boko Haram incursions. Herders are being attacked, their cattle stolen and villages burned, driving out the women, children, and elderly, with whole populations moving to new locations. This not only affects food security but also brings diseases such as cholera. In the east, World Food Program (WFP) and other local and international NGOs work to support and settle the entry of refugees from the Central Africa Republic who come with their cattle. A six-year conflict in the Northwest and Southwest has led to women, children, and older people often having to flee into Nigeria. Women form small businesses with village chiefs giving small parcels of land to grow short-cycle crops such as sweetpotato, potatoes, beans, and maize for survival. Due to the security issues, this project will start by focusing on the Northwest and Southwest regions and conduct a training of trainers (ToT) program for national and humanitarian organizations working in these regions, such as IRAD, MINADER and BHA implementing partners. The training will be held in the secure West Region and will focus on how to build quality sweetpotato and plantain seed production enterprises. Participants will develop their own action plans to further share or cascade the training in their contexts by sharing best agronomic and seed production practices and establishing demo plots and training farmers in agri-business skills. They will have a 'take-home' starter kit of planting materials and extension information and agree to on-going monitoring mechanisms to ensure the quality of the cascade training and technical backstopping. If further funding is confirmed, this ToT will be extended to the Adamawa and East regions next year with the potential to support the dissemination of orange-fleshed sweetpotato (OFSP) varieties through school gardens. "},{"text":" countries. She reflected that, over the two days, participants had gained a general overview of RTB Toolbox for working with root, tuber, and banana seed systems (tools4seedsystems.org) and perspectives from USAID BHA. The discussions were well informed by the feedback from the capacity needs assessments in Cameroon and the DRC and the initial findings from five other countries. The existing SERT and CAT tools for assessing need and seed systems in emergency settings have been shared and can be built on with an RTB lens. On the second day, there were very practical insights into quality rapid seed production technologies for different RTBs. After sharing links to resources and emphasizing the need for much greater and on-going in-country and inter-country learning, she outlined the next steps within the USAID BHA project countries. "},{"text":" The RTB Toolbox was launched in 2021 and is an evolving set of 11 tools (at present) and a glossary to diagnose, evaluate and improve seed systems of banana, cassava, potato, sweetpotato, and yam. The extension of the use  "},{"text":" Partners need to follow due diligence steps, such as analyzing cassava field protocols on diseases developed by IITA a decade ago. Putting such protocols in place before buying seeds can lead to a better outcome. At this stage, there are some partners who are reluctant to purchase seed, because they do not know what to do or the quality assurance mechanisms to follow in emergency contexts. the private sector when assessing what materials are available. For instance, in Cameroon, the Ministry of Agriculture and Institute of Research for Agricultural Development in charge of scientific research BHA prioritizes working with RTB colleagues to find and implement 'good enough' ways, within the BHA prioritizes working with RTB colleagues to find and implement 'good enough' ways, within the contextual limits, to trace verified planting materials and seed from source as the other quality contextual limits, to trace verified planting materials and seed from source as the other quality assurance processes outlined in USAID's agriculture in emergencies guidelines are flexible assurance processes outlined in USAID's agriculture in emergencies guidelines are flexible (USAID/OFDA Proposal Guidelines Seed Grower Certification Agriculture Annex A). This includes RTBs (USAID/OFDA Proposal Guidelines Seed Grower Certification Agriculture Annex A). This includes RTBs  "},{"text":" Table 1 below.  "},{"text":"Table 1 . Mitigating the effects of challenges presented with vegetatively propagated crops  "}],"sieverID":"5794e163-8b60-4b04-9527-2853b057f792","abstract":"CIP publications contribute important development information to the public arena. Readers are encouraged to quote or reproduce material from them in their own publications. As copyright holder CIP requests acknowledgement and a copy of the publication where the citation or material appears. Please send a copy to the Communications Department at the address below."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0618764ab1b03143c24f464a845abc67","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/94bbf081-a085-428d-a5b8-83f12dc917c9/retrieve"},"pageCount":5,"title":"Evaluation of Cassava Tuber Resistance to Deformation","keywords":["Hardness","penetrations","resistant","moisture","cassava Tuber"],"chapters":[{"head":"INTRODUCTION","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":207,"text":"Cassava (Manihot Esculenta, Crantz) is an important root crop grown in many parts of the world. A large population of the people in the less developed countries of the world depends largely on cassava food products as a major source of carbohydrates. Cassava is grown in the tropical parts of Africa, Brazil, Malagasy, Indonesia, South India, Philippines, Malaya, Thailand and China. It has become the most important crop in terms of both the total land area devoted to its production and the proportion it contributes to the human diet. The cassava root tuber is the main economically useful part of the cassava plant. Apart from the importance of the cassava tuber as a constituent of human food, it has many non-food uses and it has become a foreign exchange earner for the producing countries. China, the second largest producer of cassava in the world, earns over 2 billion dollars per year from the crop. This commercial potential of cassava is currently being under-utilized in Nigeria which is the largest producer of the crop in the world. Since 1990, Nigeria has surpassed Brazil as the world's leading producer of cassava (FAO, 1991). Other major producers of Cassava are Zaire, Thailand, Indonesia, China, India, Malaysia, Malawi, Togo and Tanzania."},{"index":2,"size":77,"text":"Cassava products are very useful industrially in form of perfume and pharmaceutical, with others usefulness in engineering application as fuel, glue and fibbers (Gabarba, et al., 2001). Industrial raw materials such as starch and alcohol have been reported. Cassava starch is an ingredient in the manufacture of dyes, drugs, glucose, chemicals and carpets also in coagulation of rubber latex. Cassava, which has previously been regarded as, a poor man's food is increasing in industrial and economic potential."},{"index":3,"size":128,"text":"To reduce the drudgery involve in cassava cultivation, so many engineering research is going on (Lungkapin et al., 2007). Cassava production in Africa is projected to grow at about 3% per year within the next 20 years and double current level by 2020 (FAO, 2002). The first step in processing cassava into any product begins with the peeling after harvesting which involves cutting. Unfortunately harvesting and peeling constitute a serious bottleneck in the processing of cassava (Odighoh, 1991). The design of equipment for handling and processing cassava requires a thorough understanding of the engineering properties. (Kolawole et al., 2007). The study of the physical properties and mechanical behaviour of some agricultural materials have been conducted by scientists, in order to improve their mechanisation, and commercial value (Agbetoye 1999)."},{"index":4,"size":117,"text":"In harvesting and processing of cassava, tubers are subjected to a number of forces without damage to the tuber; such are often determined in the laboratory for the purpose of predicting their resistance. Lilijedhal et al., (1991) concluded that moisture content had very little effect on shear energy even with the use of sharp blade. The importance of moisture content on some properties of crops was demonstrated by Tunde- Akintunde and Akintunde (2007). McRandal andMcNuty (1978 and1980) made it known that the minimum blade velocity of satisfactory impact cutting was independent to the blade type but emphasises was laid on shear properties of various grasses because of the importance of the cutting operation in forage crop harvesting."},{"index":5,"size":30,"text":"The objective of this study is to determine cassava tuber hardness and resistance to cutting, while evaluating the effect of tuber moisture content on the magnitude of the applied forces."}]},{"head":"MATERIALS AND METHODS","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":47,"text":"Freshly harvested cassava tubers, Oven, Penetrometer, Hand drill with saw and a stopwatch were used in the experiment. The ability of the tuber to resist indentation when subjected to a compressive force was evaluated at different moisture content using a penetrometer with electronic sensitivity and data logger."},{"index":2,"size":98,"text":"Resistance to cutting of the tuber was determined as another measure of hardness by cutting whole cassava tuber samples, relying on Robson (1966) technique which measures the force developed when a rotating blade cut a spiral path in cake. A circular saw blade was also used by Wade (1968) to find the time required to cut into a stack of biscuits as a measure of hardness. A digital stopwatch, a circular cutting blade, a fabricated holder and a drilling machine for applying the cutting action on the sample were made available as described in 2.1 and 2.2 below."}]},{"head":"Hardness Test Equipment Description","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":132,"text":"A cp20 cone penetrometer made by Agridmy Rimik Pty Ltd was used; it is a sophisticated cone penetrometer with data logger made primarily for use in soil laboratory for density, traffic ability and compaction studies. The instrument measures and records cone index data, it provides a flexible range of file recording formats for data up to 30,000 values. It stores and transfer to a computers via the in-built RS232 interface. Cone index measures down to a depth of 600 mm in soils with cone pressure values up to 500 kpa. The most important feature of this penetrometer is the use of an ultrasonic method for measuring depth. This unique feature allow for easier use of the instrument in the field, and the adaptability of it for cassava tuber hardness measurement without modification."}]},{"head":"Cutting Test Equipment Description","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":134,"text":"A frame was constructed to hold Black and Decker drilling machine with a variable speed down. A blade of 500mm diameter with a 2 mm thick was attached to a 10mm diameter stud, 150mm long, held in the drill jaw. The weight of the drill machine is heavy enough to provide easy penetrations of the rotating blade over the cassava tuber sample. The cutting plate was secured with a nut and a spring washer firmly to a threaded rod holding the blade some 80 mm from the tip of the drill. A clamping device was provided such that the cassava sample can be held down firmly. A stopwatch was made available near the switch to the drill such that both the switch and the stopwatch can be activated and stopped simultaneously in figure 1."}]},{"head":"Procedure","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":303,"text":"To carry out tests on the cassava tuber sample, an improved cassava from the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA) TMS 4(2) 1425 was used. The freshly harvested roots were sorted out for each class of test required, marked A B, C, D in that order for the one with the highest moisture content until E, the lowest for the penetrometer test. The cutting test samples were  marked F to K (omitting I to avoid error). Fresh samples were taken in ten replicates and placed in an oven and they were re-weighed after 30 min, 1 hr. 1.5 hr and 2 hrs and 24 hrs. Experiments were carried out at five moisture contents based on the reserved marks. The near bone-dried sample confirms the total moisture contained by samples. Hardness was determined at different moisture contents using a CP20 cone penetrometer. The features of the penetrameter includes maximum depth of penetration of 600 mm, height parameter of 80 mm; the depth interval over which cone index values are integrated was set at 25 mm, maximum local value set up to 60 kg. The recording process was stopped occasionally at a predetermined load and maximum speed made to comply with ASAE standard S313.2, which specifies a maximum insertion speed of approximately 2 m/min. The penetrometer and computer were connected with a cable for results down load. Steel cone was used as indenter; the angle of the cone was 15 0 . The cassava samples were placed on a concrete slab; the conical end of the penetrometer was forced into the sample. Force was applied at interval and the result was down loaded into the computer in the soil physics laboratory of IITA, Ibadan. The hardness was then measured as the resistance to penetration. The peretrometer set gave the result for every 25 mm penetration."},{"index":2,"size":106,"text":"The resistance to cutting was evaluated by cutting the sample with a disc as shown in figure 1, using a modified hand-drilling machine with a variable speed. Resistance to cutting was assessed as the time taken to cut through the samples, as Robson (1966) measured the force developed when a rotating blade cut a spiral path in the cake; Baryeh, (1990) cut stack of biscuit with a circular saw blade as a measure of hardness. A cassava tuber of 90-100 mm diameter was held down with clamp, and the speed of the drill was set at 250 rotations per minute with sharp blade of diameter 500mm."}]},{"head":"RESULTS","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":67,"text":"From Table 1, the results of the hardness test show that for given moisture content the load varies with the instrument penetration. The cord and the pith of the cassava samples are harder compared with the medullar zone. The penetration increased with the given sample moisture content. This indicated that the higher the moisture content the tenderer the crop. The crop is harder at low moisture contents."}]},{"head":"Discussion","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":240,"text":"Machine for harvesting and tuber handling will normally operate on the crop at 60 to 70% moisture content. It is seen from table 2 that resistance to cutting depends on moisture content that the higher the moisture contents the less resistance the crop is and hence the faster the cutting. The laboratory evaluation of the hardness properties of cassava tuber for equipment designers was investigated to simplify design for notable damages that can occur when handling cassava tuber such as crushing, bruises, cracks or breakages. This study conducted determined the hardness property of cassava and the safely load it can withstand before damages. Simple fabricated equipment was used. It was found out that the lower the moisture content the harder the tuber become and the more it resists cutting and abrasion. This means that engineer wishing to design a machine for slicing the crop must consider the moisture content of the tuber at the design stage. The equipment capable of slicing it soon after harvesting should be the choice when it is still tender and energy can be utilized. Slicing at low moisture contents will require more time, energy and stronger cutter. This suggest that during transportation handling, sharp edges and objects may touch the tuber, this need to be protected or cushioned whenever possible to reduce the damage. Other stages operations can be performed at 65% to 70% moisture content wet basis when the tuber is in tenderness condition."}]},{"head":"CONCLUSIONS","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":132,"text":"This study explains some engineering properties of cassava tuber, hardness and resistance to cutting was evaluated, the effect of tuber moisture content on the magnitude of the applied forces was Documented. The penetration force of 5.4 Newton at 70% moisture content wet basis was recorded while 9.2 Newton was recorded at 50% moisture content wet basis. The cutting time of 5.3 seconds was recorded for equal size tuber when the moisture was at 70%, at 50%moisture content 9.7 seconds was recorded. These are useful data in reducing the drudgery involve in transportations and processing. The result obtained indicated that hardness of cassava tuber increases with the reduction of moisture content. The implication is that all process handling of cassava tuber involving cutting must be carried out when the tuber is still tender."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure 1 . Figure 1. Experimental tool for resistance to cutting "},{"text":"Table 1 . Result of hardness test Sample %mc wb Force (N) Sample%mc wbForce (N) A 70 5.418 A705.418 B 65 5.916 B655.916 C 60 6.440 C606.440 D 55 8.157 D558.157 E 50 9.240 E509.240  "},{"text":"Table 2 . Cutting resistance result Sample %mc wb Time in Sec. Sample%mc wbTime in Sec. F 70 5.3 F705.3 G 65 6.6 G656.6 H 60 7.5 H607.5 J 55 8.4 J558.4 K 50 9.7 K509.7  "}],"sieverID":"921942ce-c7e3-411f-b361-ab2032b85fee","abstract":"A study was carried out, hardness and resistant ability of cassava tuber was investigated, the study involved the use of laboratory penetrometer and a data lodger. Hand-drilling machine was fitted with a 500mm diameter blade. These devices were powered manually and by application of electricity. Forces were applied by allowing direct cutting of the tubers using rotating sharp blade. The penetrometer was used to test the strength of fresh tuber. The result obtained indicated that cassava tuber hardness increases with the reduction of moisture content. The penetration force of 5.4 Newton at 70% moisture content wet basis was recorded while 9.2 Newton was recorded at 50% moisture content wet basis. The cutting time of 5.3 seconds was recorded for equal size tuber when the moisture was at 70%, at 50%moisture content 9.7 seconds was recorded. The implication is that all process handling of cassava tuber involving cutting must be carried out when the tuber is still tender."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"066fa9b1107ddf56826c9dda91e0b386","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/7b38ebb9-e84d-40e4-a6f4-15c7d2bf05e4/retrieve"},"pageCount":43,"title":"From Integrated to Expedient: An Adaptive Framework for River Basin Management in Developing Countries","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":89,"text":"practices, designed to match and accommodate the complex and 'mosaic' nature of the problem. IWRM gives managers a long list of activities to execute, many of them simultaneously. Based on this perspective, the World Bank's influential strategy booklet in 1993 led to projects being established that embodied this integrated thinking, also termed as a 'comprehensive approach' (World Bank 1993). This paper utilizes one particular case study in southern Tanzania and the literature to examine IWRM, to explore its evolving nature and to reflect on recent discussions regarding its design."},{"index":2,"size":236,"text":"We contribute to the debate by proposing a model which focuses relentlessly on 'problems' on the ground rather than on IWRM principles to be articulated. The framework for our paper can be referred to in figure 1, which contrasts two systems of designing and incorporating integrated water resources (or river basin) management. On the left hand side, we outline the manner in which governments and donor projects have in the recent past attempted to operationalize normative comprehensive IWRM programs (van Koppen et al. 2004;World Bank 1996) that incorporate the Dublin Principles (ICWE 1992). A defining feature of contemporary river basin management is the 'IWRM continuum' from the The management of water in large river basins represents a highly challenging task. It assembles a wide range of activities within a connected physiographic unit in order to move basin stakeholders, usually many thousands of them, collectively to new patterns of water use and allocation that provide for varying degrees of economic and environmental enhancement and protection. This requires the adjustment of fluctuating quantities and qualities of water supply to disparate users whose water demands tend to increase, and who derive from water a wide variety of benefits and outputs. River basin management entails complex 'project management activities' such as: establishing goals, policies and strategies; implementing decision-making frameworks; monitoring and enforcing compliance; promoting participation; improving infrastructure; leveraging finances; recovering costs; and monitoring outcomes in order to make necessary changes."},{"index":3,"size":9,"text":"Reflecting these multiple challenges, 'integrated water resources management' (IWRM)"},{"index":4,"size":202,"text":"1 has entered the lexicon of water managers and stakeholders as the mainstream approach to water management. IWRM in an idealized form denotes a set of principles, usually accompanied by a package of tools and 2 Dublin Principles, to the statement of National Water Policy, leading to a National Water Strategy, in turn leading to a strong connection between this strategic level of comprehensive thinking and the operational programs that are effected. Clearly, these operational programs differ from the comprehensive template because they cannot, without considerable funding, capture the whole picture. This is largely understood amongst most informed scientists; in large river basins, the constraints associated with scale, data availability, policing, knowledge, logistics, variability and systemic interfaces invalidates the pursuit of a complete 'integrated water resources management' as defined by the Global Water Partnership (GWP 2000), the European Commission (EC 1998) and others. Yet, we take the thinking further. On the right hand side of figure 1 we propose that the comprehensive framework of IWRM should not be the starting point for drawing up water operations, and that instead the main frame of reference should be the problems identified in the catchment, and the ongoing iterative relationships with stakeholders in the catchment."},{"index":5,"size":2,"text":"FIGURE 1."},{"index":6,"size":12,"text":"The deployment of IWRM policy and operations -a partial ideal or expedient?"},{"index":7,"size":383,"text":"Thus, in this paper, we argue that the challenge is not to attempt to deploy the comprehensive list of integrated solutions or to partially apply components if they do not fit the situation, but to formulate precise interventions to solve existing or foreseen problems in the pursuit of stated goals. We have termed this an 'interpretive, expedient process', which requires the capacity to generate new kinds of thinking, the identification of solutions that work effectively, the confidence to implement them, and the need to question some basic assumptions that underpin water resources management (WRM). Expedient WRM can be defined as 'advisable on practical rather than principled grounds' 2 -thus emphasizing a shift towards problem identification and solution, and away from the adoption of accepted normsincluding the Dublin Principles. Under this approach, the national water policy and strategy would be purposively cast to be more comprehensive than expedient basin operational plans and yet allow for local context to be fully 'expressed'. Our approach has clear links to \"adaptive management,\" an approach found more often in North America and Europe than in developing countries (discussed further below). Thus, while Biswas (2004) is correct in critiquing the vagueness of the concept of IWRM, the distinction between strategy and operation provides a mechanism for discussion, a point that Mitchell (2004) makes in his response to Biswas' paper. This distinction is well illustrated by reference to the UK and other 'northern' countries as well as to Australia and even South Africa, where despite considerable financial resources, implementation of full IWRM remains elusive. In these countries, using the IWRM concept to inform strategy, operational mechanisms have been created to steer water management to be increasingly integrated, with for example environmental management and land-use planning, and to manage and minimize water conflicts. When Biswas claims that the concept's use has been \"indiscernible in the field\" and that IWRM's \"impact to improve water management has at best been marginal\" he overlooks that it forms the central pillar of the European Water Framework Directive (WFD) (EC 1998). The WFD is widely accepted as the most significant piece of water legislation produced in the past 20 years and although still in its infancy in terms of implementation, it looks set to bring increasingly integrated decision-making and 'better' water outcomes (Fox et al. 2004)."},{"index":8,"size":291,"text":"The WFD is based on a model of integrated catchment management long used in the UK, which has a track record of bringing measurable environmental, social and economic benefits, for example, improved water quality, flood prevention and drought management, re-colonization by indicator species such as salmon and otters, the reversal of ecological decline, and economic regeneration and tourism benefits as documented by Wood et al. (1999) and the Environment Agency (2002). Thus, there is a strong case for the positive impact of the IWRM paradigm. However, success has been based on the gradual adaptation of existing management activities to tackle real problems such as the setting and monitoring of water quality objectives; the statutory consultations of water managers and local stakeholders on planning applications and regional strategic plans; targeting of investment programs on local priority issues; the issuing and policing of permits or temporary notices to control activities posing a risk to water use; and, the regular development of ostensibly 'participatory' integrated catchment management plans. Of course, this field-informed success must be contextualized, being driven by a requirement to meet EU legislation, made possible by significant infrastructure investment by privatized water companies, and overseen by a powerful regulator in the form of an Environment Agency with over 11,000 staff and an annual expenditure of £867 million (approximately US$1.6 billion) (Environment Agency 2005) -a luxury affordable only by very few wealthy nations. Nevertheless, a model of expedient WRM is provided. Perhaps, Biswas is frustrated at the failings of IWRM implementation where countries lacking the necessary capacity and financial resources have tried to map 'full IWRM'; this has led him to question the usefulness of the IWRM concept itself rather than addressing contextualization and interpretative issues, where scope for creativity and accuracy lies."},{"index":9,"size":215,"text":"Understanding the process by which operational programs arise has implications for the science of water resources management. In discussing, not the translation of strategic IWRM into operational IWRM, but an adaptive-expedient approach, we propose a more practical framework which relies on designing activities against stated and relatively short term (5-10 year) goals of allocation. Granted, equally important is political expedience; IWRM represents an opportunity to make political choices about allocation (Allan 2003;Swatuck 2005) and to influence stakeholders in that quest. While the authors acknowledge that water management at the river basin scale is an endeavor that is political 3 , we argue that river basin management can also be examined in scientific terms. This is a valid exercise because, although appearing to be a 'comprehensive' science, IWRM reveals, we argue, some scientific errors made in the pursuit of sensible outcomes. The problem is that river basin management is political and economic in nature, and is often constrained by a legal and institutional apparatus that cannot be transformed quickly. Thus, we agree it is possible to critique IWRM as a politically naïve discourse as Allan (2003) persuasively does, but in addition one can explore the scientific naivety of IWRM -in both theory and practice -and then ask how this further shapes the scope for political interpretation."},{"index":10,"size":436,"text":"On a more critical note, analysis of actual IWRM operations manifests itself as critiques of integrated water management or of specific and generic concerns regarding the appropriateness of river basin institutions to developing countries. For example, Shah et al. (2005) and Carter (1998) are concerned with the applicability of river basin management institutions and approaches that work in rich countries to resource-poor situations, and conclude that there are many risks in copying normative, fullyfledged IWRM to local situations. Shah et al. (2005) point out that the physical, social, institutional and economic conditions characterizing developing countries are totally different than those in the rich temperate zone countries, and also the objectives are usually completely different. An engagement with the size of the IWRM task has also been explored by Moriarty et al. (2004) where 'light' IWRM refers to its application by individuals, communities and sub-sectors, whereas 'full' IWRM envisions a sector-wide overhaul leading to a much greater level of coordinated application. Based on detailed field research in South Asia, Moench et al. (2003) conclude that attempts to implement classic IWRM are not likely to be successful as people focus on constraints and immediate tasks, and not on integration of numerous factors that may have an influence. Merrey et al. (2005) criticize the focus on environmental concerns and demand management at the expense of poverty issues in developing countries, especially underdeveloped areas such as sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). Jonker (2006) in a recent paper has described the \"perceived failure of implementing IWRM in South Africa.\" While South Africa has expended considerable effort to get the principles right, \"conceptual shortcomings\" as well as capacity limitations are inhibiting actual implementation. In the follow-up to the 1993 strategy, the World Bank 2002 review (Pitman 2002) identifies shortcomings in rolling out IWRM; however, this reads more as an eclectic list of 'lessons-learnt' rather than being grounded in a structure of how to generate meaningful operational strategies. Some of these practical concerns are being captured in an emerging body of research and theory around the term 'adaptive water resources management' (National Research Council 2004;Swanson et al. 2004) that in turn mirrors developments in adaptive natural resources management (NRM) (Hagmann and Chuma 2002;Stankey et al. 2005;Tompkins and Adger 2004). Nonetheless, as Stankey et al. (2005) conclude, even though adaptive NRM implies practical action, it \"remains primarily an ideal rather than a demonstrated reality\" (p. 56). Although effective and accurate practice remains an uncertain outcome, we attempt here to define strategic characteristics that foster pragmatism. One insight, that has parallels with the literature, is the central role of learning and social communication as drivers for adaptation."},{"index":11,"size":104,"text":"In the next section, we introduce the case study, which we believe is representative of the characteristics of many basins in sub-Saharan Africa and some Asian countries. We complete our critique of IWRM as practiced in many developing countries, and explain our 'expedient water management framework' under four headings: achieving basic understanding as a basis for intervention (acquiring knowledge); development of expedient water goals (creating goals); water management as an expedient response (establishing strategies); and social water management learning (guiding and enriching the WRM cycle). The final section reflects on the implications of the proposed framework for management of river basins in developing countries."}]},{"head":"Case Study: The Great Ruaha River Basin","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":150,"text":"The geographical context of this study is the Great Ruaha River Basin in the southern highlands of Tanzania, an area of 68,000 km 2 (figures 2 and 3). The basin contains the Upper Great Ruaha, synonymous with the Usangu Plains catchment, covering an area of 21,500 km 2 and forming the headwaters of the Great Ruaha River. The Great Ruaha Basin itself is a major sub-basin of the Rufiji River, and the subject of numerous studies (e.g., Danida/World Bank 1995;USBR 1967;FAO 1960). The Ruaha River Basin is a good candidate for research on the science of river basin management on the basis of its size, complexity, national significance, competing users and history of river basin initiatives (Hazelwood and Livingstone 1978). The case study is described in a number of articles (Baur et al. 2000;Lankford and Franks 2000;Lankford 2004;Franks et al. 2004)  1996) in its initial conceptualization addressed the wrong issues."},{"index":2,"size":228,"text":"The basin has a single rainy season but the rains are irregular, localized and spatially variable-in other words unreliable. The mean annual rainfall in the mountains is 1,600 mm, but only 700 mm in the plains, while mean annual evapotranspiration is 1,900 mm. The river is perceived as \"drying up\": the wetland is shrinking, and the previously perennial Ruaha River has become seasonal over the last decade, with dry periods lasting from 3-10 weeks. In the upstream areas on the alluvial fans above the wetlands, irrigated rice production has expanded rapidly to about 45,000 ha today. There are two large rice farms owned by the state, and increasing numbers of smallholder irrigators. The Usangu produces 14 percent of the total rice crop in Tanzania, about 60-80,000 tons worth $16 million per year. About 30,000 households depend on irrigated rice for their livelihoods. However, the expansion of irrigation in the upstream areas has led to increasing conflicts with downstream users, especially the wetland and National Park, and hydropower. As in many other developing countries, managing wetland ecosystems is a new concern for Tanzania, a signatory of the Ramsar Convention. Also in common with many other countries, Tanzania is developing and implementing water and policy reforms based on IWRM principles-but unlike many others it is also encouraging rapid expansion of irrigation. The size of the basin creates huge logistical problems."},{"index":3,"size":90,"text":"A more detailed review of institutional development in the area can be read in van Koppen et al. (2004), from which certain highlights are given here. In the early 1990s work by the World Bank lead to the planning of the River Basin Management and Smallholder Irrigation Improvement Project (RBMSIIP) that started in 1996 with a loan from the Bank. This program funded the Rufiji Basin Water Office (RBWO) in Iringa, which represented the new basin approach that the Ministry of Water, Location of Upper Great Ruaha Catchment in Tanzania."},{"index":4,"size":3,"text":"Source: RIPARWIN project."},{"index":5,"size":21,"text":"Livestock and Development (MoWLD) gradually implemented, with the Rufiji, the Pangani and Lake Victoria as the first pilot basins 4 ."},{"index":6,"size":29,"text":"RBMSIIP also helped develop a new National Water Policy (MOWLD 2002;Mutayoba 2002), followed by the National Water Strategy (MOWLD 2004) (See Appendix A of this report for further information)."},{"index":7,"size":99,"text":"These characteristics are broadly representative of many river basins in the semi-arid tropics, especially in sub-Saharan Africa 5 ; therefore lessons learned here provide important insights for solving similar problems in other basins. We provide further insights into the characteristics of the basin in the following sections to illustrate more general points. From Integrated to Expedient Water Resources Management maintained. In contrast, at the operational level, a more focused approach is needed.\" He went on to argue that at the operational level, attention should be directed to a smaller number of issues that account for most of the problems."},{"index":8,"size":79,"text":"Even the World Bank's comprehensive approach in 1993 acknowledged that \"the complexity of the analysis would vary according to the country's capacity and circumstances, but relatively simple frameworks can often clarify priority issues\" (p.10). Tapela (2002Tapela ( : 1003) ) felt that IWRM needs to relate to context: \"the prospects for river basin institutions achieving the envisaged outcomes of IWRM are more strongly determined by the embedded contexts than by institutional conformity to a given set of organizational criteria.\""},{"index":9,"size":116,"text":"A second aspect of IWRM reveals that water management is often seen as a meta-theory; that it is multi-dimensional rather than singledimensional in nature. Water management is 'framed' within an integrated approach that is constituted from many different sub-theories-as reflected in the quoted World Bank definition that includes, for example, pricing as a necessity for IWRM, or that water should be approached in an integrated fashion: \"Integrated water resources management expresses the idea that water resources should be managed in a holistic way, coordinating and integrating all aspects and functions of water extraction, water control and service delivery so as to bring sustainable and equitable benefit to all those dependent on the resource\" (EC 1998: 215)."},{"index":10,"size":55,"text":"Bringing those two aspects together, we argue that the nesting of sub-theories within an integrated framework gives rise to opportunities to partially reflect the comprehensive viewpoint by selecting some sub-theories without tailoring them to the situation on the ground. Thus, the act of operationalizing IWRM can be via partial selection of unadulterated application of some"}]},{"head":"The changing debate on integrated water resources management","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":177,"text":"Via lessons learnt in the past few years, and the debate surrounding integrated water resources management (IWRM), many commentators are becoming increasingly aware of the need to refine the concept so that it delivers effective outcomes. There are two key aspects to this debate. The first aspect is the relationship between an ideal and the actual -and indeed IWRM is usually discussed by comparing ideal IWRM (listing principles and what should be included) to actual IWRM (listing problems and what a project omitted to do). Thus, IWRM is defined by the Global Water Partnership as a process that promotes the coordinated development and management of water, land and related resources, in order to maximize the resultant economic and social welfare in an equitable manner without compromising the sustainability of vital ecosystems (GWP 2000). The World Bank (1993: 10) has a similar definition: \"[IWRM] … is the adoption of a comprehensive policy framework and the treatment of water as an economic good, combined with decentralized management and delivery structures, greater reliance on pricing, and fuller participation by stakeholders.\""},{"index":2,"size":231,"text":"6 van Hofwegen (2001: 141), as an example of the ideal, examines frameworks of IWRM, and explains that 'ideal IWRM' comes from the theory of IWRM and its principles. His paper outlines in detail the many requirements that constitute IWRM. By contrast, implementation is a balancing act, on the one hand reflecting the ideal and on the other hand reflecting the problems found. In an early analysis, Mitchell (1990: p.4) realized this pitfall, writing, \"At the strategic level, a comprehensive approach should be used to ensure that the widest possible perspective is component theories, giving an appearance of choice and focus. This is discernible in Tanzania when the Basin Office was unable to institute many components of WRM such as water quality control, and yet did administer a fixed water rights system against payment in the expectation that it would drive re-allocation; \"the use of a water user fee as a means of encouraging efficient use of the resource and for meeting the cost of regulatory functions\" (World Bank 1996 -see Appendix A of this report). A more fundamental starting point for drawing up an efficient and effective set of water management activities begins by analyzing the baseline, and determining local problems framed against regional and national priorities, and being informed by that. This then is our 'recursive, expedient' theoretical framing of water resources management, in contrast to an 'IWRM-continuum' framing."}]},{"head":"Expedient water management","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":48,"text":"We have used our fieldwork to reflect on a process of building expediency into water management. Although there are formulations of strategies of water management, few papers explicitly examine the process by which operational river basin activities are developed from or refer to the comprehensive template of IWRM."},{"index":2,"size":146,"text":"Figures 4 and 5 and table 1 propose an expedient approach to developing a water management program. Figure 4 combines with figure 5 to give the matrix in table 1, which represents the proposed framework. In Figure 4, we argue that the challenges of basin water management alter dramatically with changing 'wetness' and that this dynamic can be best reflected by a flow duration curve (FDC) whereby the basin's water resources can be divided into three water states or 'phases' 7 : 'critical', 'medial' and 'bulk'. The 'x axis' is frequency and the 'y axis' is a measure of water availability, represented here as river flow rate. This three-state analysis creates a simple classification of relative availability that allows managers to understand the situation of, and specify goals for, each state and as will be seen later on, to generate state-specific activities to fulfill these goals."},{"index":3,"size":151,"text":"'Critical water' is that required for vital needs such as health and domestic purposes, especially in drought situations. Medial water, particularly important during dry seasons and dry years, has to be shared among a number of sectors, including the environment and agriculture. Bulk or 'storable' water, which occurs during high-flow periods such as the wet season in many tropical river basins, provides ample amounts of water for a variety of purposes, including topping up of natural and artificial storage bodies. Strategies for bulk water allow inter-annual or at least inter-seasonal responses to demand and crisis, and therefore responses in one state (e.g., bulk) can affect how water is managed in another state. Table 1 explains in more detail the nature of the three states. Figure 5 is the cycle of management that applies to each of them to ensure that the goals, needs and problems arising in different sectors are met."},{"index":4,"size":312,"text":"The shape of the FDC line relative to the position of the three states or phases is important: although demand is not represented here, the shape reveals the degree of aridity of the basin (for example, given by the flow at 50% exceedence) and the extent to which the basin changes between states of extreme wetness and dryness. While frequency of exceedance does depict a mathematical reliability of a flow being exceeded in hydrologic terms, we wish to emphasize that interpreted correctly, regime analysis reminds scientists of the 'unreliable' nature of water inherent in sub-Saharan hydrology measured in terms of social and managerial expectations. In other words, it is important to distinguish between floodplain river regimes in a temperate zone with baseflows supported by groundwater (giving a flat curve for much of the exceedance time) and a floodplain river in semiarid climates where there is a low probability of very large flows, a much higher probability of low flows during dry periods and a sloping curve between the two extremes. It is possible to interpret water management in each state, and to facilitate transitions between the three statesi.e., via uses of water that might come from extra storage. On the graph in figure 4, line 1 shows a wetter basin while line 2 shows a drier one. While both basins might benefit from more storage, in Basin 2, the purpose of that storage would more likely be related to fulfilling livelihood and domestic needs during the longer and more frequent periods of low flow. The key argument being made here, with respect to water resources management, is to incorporate these natural behaviors into our thinking -our observations of responses in Tanzania lead us to suspect that formal institutions, in politically emphasizing a development agenda, have seen dryness as a temporary inconvenience rather than a normal state of affairs (Lankford and Beale 2007)."},{"index":5,"size":37,"text":"Operationally, a failure to appreciate the inherent transient nature of supply, as exemplified by line 2 in figure 4, was seen in selling fixed water rights/permits (e.g., of 250 liters/second) to users established under the RBMSIIP program."},{"index":6,"size":189,"text":"In figure 5, the cycle of expedient water management is divided into four main stages, discussed below. In keeping with our critique of the science of river basin management, these four translate into a science of 1) understanding and characterizing the land, water, people and institutional behaviors of the basin; 2) establishing goals; 3) developing a management response to those goals, and 4) generating activities that lead to and drive the first three steps. We have grouped the first two into a 'vision process', because in the Tanzanian case we noticed that consensus in understanding the causes of hydrological change is linked with a consensus on solutions and a goal of future water allocation and its role in achieving social and economic objectives. Figure 5 puts the fourth stage, the social learning, at the center of the other three. This is a critical part of how goals and responses are derived, and although it is the fourth stage, it  8 Experience in Usangu shows that the nature of local user participation in river basin management changes from sub-catchment to sub-catchment as influenced by catchment characteristics and objectives (Lankford 2001)."}]},{"head":"Application of the Framework for Expedient Management","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":5,"text":"Part 1: Precursor: Integrated understanding"}]},{"head":"Context","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":114,"text":"We argue that to pursue expedient water management requires an accurate understanding of the context and problems found in the river basin. Although we agree that political expediency, despite the targeted advising of policymakers, may lead to interpretations of causes and solutions that are not supported by studies (Lankford et al. 2004b), the scientific endeavor of capturing the nature of the hydrological and environmental change in an area the size of Usangu should not be underestimated. 9 In this regard, Hillman (2006) unpacks differing perceptions over context for accurately tailoring river basin management programs to situations; he found, echoing Briscoe (1997) that \"context matters (a lot!)\" when fitting water management to a given situation."},{"index":2,"size":284,"text":"Context covers an understanding of the biophysical nature of the challenge. The Great Ruaha River Basin reflects some biophysical conditions characteristically found in sub-Saharan Africa. These conditions have been noted by other authors (e.g., Carter 1998) as posing special risks for the application of IWRM. The size of the sub-basin (68,000 km 2 ) poses logistical problems for managing water by formal rights alone that require monitoring and policing. Multi-point, dispersed monitoring of both supply and demand is expensive, and to reduce these costs and to manage conflicts at the subcatchment scale suggests that meaningful forms of subsidiarity are required-for example, engaging users in determining their own means of assessing water distribution. The basin experiences a single rainy season, when rivers swell, but they shrink during the dry season between May and November, a period that suffers from water scarcity relative to demand, and conflict. In addition, the area experiences climate variability typical of sub-Saharan Africa, giving rise to periodic floods and droughts. This dissimilarity in water availability versus demand and associated dynamics suggests that flexibility is critical; that the three phases of critical, medial and bulk water exist here; and that the dry season needs special care when there is insufficient water to cater to demand from all sectors. In addition, the lack of aquifer buffering and re-routing in Usangu prevents downstream users in accessing water that is used in inefficient ways upstream. In other words, storage of water in aquifers for use in the dry season is not an option for geological reasons, and water that is used inefficiently by \"formal\" users like state rice farms is largely captured by \"informal\" users or evaporates unproductively and does not return to the river."},{"index":3,"size":147,"text":"As well as the physical attributes of a river basin, its 'political economy' has a major influence on water management. Formulating an effective response shows up inevitable gaps between legislation, institutions, organizations and desirable outcomes of water management -this has long been understood in river basin management. For example, Moss (2004) examines institutional gaps in river basin management and argues that strategies should recognize that land use affects water use. Cleaver and Franks (2003), based on detailed field research in the Ruaha Basin, argue that the embeddedness of local institutions in complex livelihoods renders designing institutions for water management highly problematic. As economic development continues, layers of complexity can be added. In Chile (Bauer 1998), the trade-off in uses is between irrigation and hydropower, which is arguably relatively straightforward compared to balances to be found between water pollution, protection of minimum flows, inter-basin transfer and groundwater management."},{"index":4,"size":126,"text":"Further, if IWRM strategies are to address issues that are of importance \"locally\", this can only be achieved by understanding the sociopolitical context and especially the conflicts that characterize the area. These conflicts are driven by the differential objectives and interests of the various stakeholders. The latter represent all the issues that matter to the different stakeholders and can be defined as \"values\" (Keeney 1994). As stated by Hermans (2001: 183), \"if these values are not characterized, analysis efforts by hydrologists and other experts are likely to have very little impact on actual decision making\". By defining the values that motivate different actors in each of the three flow phases, alternatives can be generated when defining articulated water goals and therefore lead to an expedient response."}]},{"head":"Causation -examining hydrological change","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":107,"text":"Investigations play a critical role in determining and isolating the factors affecting water distribution so that appropriate policies may be crafted. The studies we envisage goes beyond simply monitoring water flows to make the exercise explicitly part of 'problem-orientated' vigilance. This focus on simple monitoring of flows explains the fact that although the Ruaha River dried in the early 1990s, the causes of that change could not be explained until the SMUWC project began its work in 1999. In addition, the responses to the problems, perceived and real, illustrate the need to arrive at a consensus understanding of the causes of the changes (Lankford et al. 2004b)."},{"index":2,"size":156,"text":"The SMUWC and RIPARWIN projects found that the main reason for hydrological change was the increased abstraction of water into irrigation intakes during the dry season. This water meets important livelihood needs but also leads to much non-beneficial depletion. The ability to abstract more water arose from the increasing number of intakes constructed and changes in the design of intakes: new 'full-sill weirs' allowed uppermost intakes to abstract all the water during low-flow periods (Lankford 2004). This observation conflicted with other theories about hydrological change, some of which play a minor role. Good science was critical here; and although it need not be highly sophisticated, it should at the very least be underpinned by field observations. Work under the RIPARWIN project on the plains with flow-gauging equipment, satellite imagery and a GPS (Global Positioning System) revealed where the main losses of water were occurring on the rivers; something that until that moment, has remained a conjecture."}]},{"head":"Scope for water re-allocation -efficiency, productivity and storage","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":162,"text":"When demand for water either globally or seasonally exceeds the available supply, re-allocation of water from one use (say, agriculture) to another (say, ecological flows) becomes necessary. Moving to a consensus on how water is to be allocated and shared requires knowledge on the solvability of the proposed reallocation; whether water is 'available' either within the hydrological record for storing 10 , or within the net or gross demands of a particular water sector for saving and re-allocation. Water availability is not only assessed from the hydrograph of supply against consumption but also from developing a picture of ultimate goals, for example, of where water is working 'hardest', i.e., more productively and efficiently. Thus, the goal-making process is informed by a 'productivity maximization' perspective. Poverty reduction or equity in either water supply or benefits from water is another possible goal with rather different implications. Similarly, scoping must include a cost-benefit analysis to determine the economic gains and costs of pursuing various strategies."},{"index":2,"size":190,"text":"An important precursor is to determine whether water exists to be re-allocated on the basis of either subtracting from the net needs of a donor sector or from savings made within the gross water usage of that sector. The science underlying the 'scope' for re-allocation is critical -it is this that the experienced water manager is attempting to ascertain. In irrigation, a commonplace theory is that efficiency is low enough and gross volumes of water used high enough for ample savings to be made to provide water to other sectors. This logic is not certain, not least because the theory of irrigation efficiency is dependent on boundary conditions and its detailed measurement is rare (Lankford 2006). Conceptual work by the International Water Management Institute (IWMI) (Molden 1997;Perry 1999) shows that local losses need not be seen as consumptive losses from the basin. In other words, the real efficiency of all irrigation within a basin may already be high, and savings are unlikely to be forthcoming. Furthermore, even if possible, the outcome of transferred water is not guaranteed because of social costs involved and because local irrigators may recapture 'spare' water."},{"index":3,"size":157,"text":"The case study in Usangu provides an example of the errors in scientific understanding of irrigation efficiency. The River Basin Management and Smallholder Irrigation Improvement Project (RBMSIIP) (World Bank 1996) was based on the premise that the project could raise efficiency from 15 to 30 percent, allowing substantial re-allocation of water, as the quote below from the Appraisal Report explains, and that this would be achieved by improving intakes and training farmers. Yet, closer measurement indicates that effective efficiency was probably in the region of 45 to 65 percent precisely because of reuse of drain water by tailenders (Machibya 2003). The errors contained in this quote are that: a) the efficiency was very low; b) the losses were depleted from the basin; c) improving intakes would reduce losses; and d) savings would automatically move downstream to the hydropower reservoirs. The failure to ground-truth some of these assumptions is evident in that the project went ahead as planned."},{"index":4,"size":161,"text":"\"In order to illustrate this effect, the \"savings\" in water which result from the improvement of some 7,000 ha of traditional irrigated area under the project (this includes both basins) are valued using their capacity to generate electricity in the downstream turbines. An average \"in the field\" requirement of 8,000 m 3 of water, for one ha of rice production, implies withdrawal of 53,300 m 3 from the river, with an irrigation efficiency of 15 percent. Following improvements in irrigation infrastructure and an increase in irrigation efficiency to 30 percent, the withdrawal requirement from the river drops to 26,700 m 3 per hectare. This releases some 26,700 m 3 for every hectare of improved irrigation, to be used for hydropower generation downstream. For this exercise, the water is valued at 5 US cents per m 3 , the valuation for residential electricity use (34 percent of all electricity use, and intermediate point between the two alternate values)\" (World Bank 1996: 42)."}]},{"head":"Part 2: Development of expedient water goals","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":111,"text":"The second part of the framework generates goals of water allocation. The question is whether in a covertly (or overtly) political process, there is a science of creating goals for water allocation. By making this an open question, key problems can be addressed. First, breaking 'goal-making' into stages provides a more transparent knowledge-based approach. Second, the stages reveal where the 'principles of IWRM' (e.g., \"water is a basic right\") reside in this process. This allows us to, third, articulate goals that result in operable water management strategies but which might be quite disassociated with principles of IWRM. This step-change is solved by iteratively formulating expedient water goals, as is explained below."}]},{"head":"Principles of allocation","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":169,"text":"The conflicting range of principles of water allocation, and the priority and scale that they best apply to, make goal-articulation difficult -often it is not easy to discern what criteria are being pursued. Yet, at the same time, being aware of these principles, even ad hoc historical legacy types, is an important part of the debate about river basin management objectives -in this respect, this is one of the few places where our framework refers to some of the key thinking that underpins IWRM. Table 2 gives a number of drivers and principles in tension and lists the ways in which goals of water allocation can be argued for, including the commonly held notion that water should flow to users that generate the highest economic utility for the water used. This paper contends that these principles do not lend themselves to a more refined articulation of goals; rather, they retrospectively shore up goals that have been otherwise derived and then applied to different phases of the water supply regime."}]},{"head":"Allocation options","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":78,"text":"River basin science also requires an explicit definition of the allocation options to assist the process of creating goals for water allocation. Table 3 provides some of the allocation options, including basin-wide allocation. Classifying allocation in the Great Ruaha, we argue that it is a basin-wide approach in assessment terms, but is implemented in sub-basins. As explained under section 'Expedient goal-making,' it seeks a return to year-round flow via partial re-allocation amongst sectors, employing cross-basin and local solutions."}]},{"head":"Allocation scenarios","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":54,"text":"Allocation scenarios therefore provide a series of 'future options' where the main emphasis is on influencing economic patterns in the basin that emanate from the current water distribution pattern rather than by formulating a water distribution plan that strictly adheres to safeguarding idealistic IWRM 'principles' of water Principles of water allocation within river basins."}]},{"head":"Principle Explanation and definition","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":50,"text":"As before A priori rights determined by historical legacy may affect water use. This principle is behind riparian rights that allow users to claim water by dint of their location close to a river. \"Grandfather rights\" meant that water rights could not be revoked unless new water laws were passed."}]},{"head":"Precipitation-based","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":21,"text":"The Helsinki Protocol states that water may be allocated in accordance with rainfall amounts found within parts of the river basin."},{"index":2,"size":81,"text":"Higher economic utility Often cited to be the main reason for re-allocation, water should flow to its highest value user to (Principle of water as an maximize economic utility for the river basin/nation. An example is of water allocation out of economic good) agriculture (a low value user), and into industry or power generation (a high value user) or from low value to high value agriculture. A similar case, or sub-clause, is that water is redistributed to ensure higher water productivity."}]},{"head":"Drinking, health and","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":50,"text":"The principle that water is vital for life is often enshrined in domestic water rights that usually sanitation, and scalar have the highest priority call on available water. Growing domestic demand from towns and cities effects (Principle of water scale up this demand requiring re-balanced allocation. as a basic need)"}]},{"head":"Higher or wider livelihood","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":30,"text":"A concept arguing that water should be safeguarded for poverty-focused productive livelihoods; utility (Principle of e.g., water for irrigated agriculture. The argument is that poorer sectors cannot afford expensive affordability)"},{"index":2,"size":26,"text":"water yet poverty results in high social externalities and costs, whereas higher value sectors are better placed financially to afford more expensive water-saving or water-finding solutions."}]},{"head":"Environmental needs","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":66,"text":"Humans determine changing priorities of water use. The clearest example here is of the supply (Changing functional or for environmental needs, which in the last 10-15 years has come to be recognized as an value priorities and principle important if not priority demand for water. Thus, water in a river basin need not be fully allocated of societal values) in order for re-allocation to be required."}]},{"head":"Conflict resolution","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":39,"text":"A class of change in priorities mentioned above, has special mention because of increasing occurrence, significance and need for resolution. Here lie a complex interaction of behavior, fears and norms surrounding perceptions of demand, needs, wants, costs and benefits."}]},{"head":"Principles of equity","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":38,"text":"Issues related to scarcity of water and nature of the water body. Physical division according to (Fixed versus proportional, supply or value associated with the use of water. Or division according to proportions of available and value derived)"},{"index":2,"size":2,"text":"water (%'s)."},{"index":3,"size":180,"text":"allocation. Allocation categories or scenarios can encapsulate in words, new arrangements or goals of water use. One scenario is 'status quo' or 'business as usual', while another is 'ad hoc'. As an example, Shin (1999) developed a scenarioconsequence analysis, based on economic growth forecasts, to assess alternatives for water management in a northern China river basin. Another issue is that future allocation scenarios seem to underplay natural variability and security of supply. The Ruaha Basin Decision Aid (RUBDA), which can be set to reflect hydrologic variability, can be used to generate three main scenarios. These are termed 'Balanced' (ensuring year round flow through the Ruaha National Park, but also allowing water for rice and hydropower), 'Hydropower' (providing more water for Mtera-Kidatu Reservoir) and 'Irrigation' (favoring upstream irrigation to the detriment of downstream flows). We argue that scenario planning (in terms of one choice over another) for water is rarely implemented -instead it is economic planning and activity that tends to lead here. Instead, we suggest that water scenario planning helps inform the identification of more specific expedient goals (see below)."}]},{"head":"Time horizons","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":144,"text":"From the literature, scenarios are utilized to generate pictures of long-term consequences, and rarely are placed within a time frame, largely because the latter is a separate exercise initiated by political and institutional interests. For the Ruaha, the target of year-round flow has been set politically at 2010 (see next section). Time horizons necessarily provide stimulus for action, and although this is a target that might generate winners and losers, or may not in the end be realistic, the setting of a time horizon does enable a strategy to be developed that works towards that goal. In this respect, it provides a useful device for coordinating various players and institutional developments. Local supply solution. The user obtains water from the hydrological cycle; desalinization; boreholes, reservoirs -often this involves using water that was stored that in the longer run might have played an environmental role."}]},{"head":"Expedient goal-making","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":238,"text":"In Ruaha, the agreed water allocation goal is to return the river to year-round flow by 2010. This follows from the statement made by the Prime Minister of Tanzania, Frederick Sumaye, in London in March 2001, for the Rio+10 Summit 12 . Yet, how have the principles, options and scenarios translated into this articulated goal? It is difficult to see the linkages here, but the notion of expedient goals seems to answer this if we break down river basin management into three phases (figures 4 and 6). Expedient goal-making in the case of Ruaha functions by fitting goals to the likelihood of success in altering patterns of water use within each phase, and by finding that across all three phases, niches of water demand exist that cater for various principles and scenarios of water allocation. Thus, achieving year-round flow is seen as a 'medial' water goal that, while politically motivated in this instance, meets Tanzania's emerging environmental concerns but need not jeopardize agriculture and hydropower because it is predominantly a dry season goal. As figure 6 shows, the return to year-round flow means that the substantial use of non-or low-beneficial water in dry season agriculture has to be curtailed, something that is possible in the larger perennial sub-catchments given the predominant rice-fallow cropping pattern. In other smaller perennial sub-catchments, high value agriculture non-rice crop rotations are more normal. Adapting water goals to fit water supply and demand patterns."},{"index":2,"size":46,"text":"It is possible to articulate other goals and related principles; in the wet season, ample 'bulk' water could be apportioned between agricultural needs (giving water as a pro-poor livelihood right), environmental needs and hydropower storage, the latter fulfilling the principle of water as an economic good."},{"index":3,"size":127,"text":"Meeting small, timely and much-needed freshwater needs during the 'critical' state of the driest part of the dry season is a considerable challenge for basin authorities and often marks a period of intense conflict. In the dry season, critical water goals, (meeting the principle of water as a basic right) would come from a program of boreholes and piped supplies rather than the coarser instrument of attempting to adjust allocation via the current system of irrigation water rights and intake improvement. Improved secure village water supplies as 'replacements' for surface water could provide incentives for stakeholders to discuss surface water distribution. A nexus between village water supply and catchment management can then be made, hitherto often the remit of separate local authorities and river basin offices, respectively."}]},{"head":"Part 3: The expedient response -water management","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":41,"text":"In this section, and following figure 5, under a number of headings, we give examples of the expedient response by developing a multi-stage strategy for managing the Ruaha River Basin to achieve the vision of returning the river to yearround flow."}]},{"head":"River flow targets -routing the water","index":23,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":56,"text":"Having derived the expedient goals of water distribution in the basin, it is necessary to specify how they can be achieved. For each sub-catchment, this means specifying how much water is required in volume, time and place for a particular use/user. In this discussion, we use only medial water during the dry season as an example."},{"index":2,"size":170,"text":"We term this exercise 'routing the water.' It involves mapping out mathematically and geographically a cascade map to ensure water physically moves through the landscape from sources to users (tables 4 and 5 and figures 7, 8  and 9). In order to provide year-round flow for the Ruaha through the national park, target flows for the supply of the wetland in upstream perennial sub-catchments have been identified for each month of the dry season. Working backwards, this gives the allowable irrigation abstraction from the supply of water running off the high catchment. The same exercise can be conducted for a dry or wet year of rainfall, and for the wet season, if flows downstream for the hydropower reservoirs are required. The river basin decision-aid RUBDA (Cour et al. n.d.) based on hydrological modeling (Kashaigili et al. 2006), is ideal for this target creation for a given scenario, and can be compared to the current situation (table 4 and figure 8). Understanding uncertainty and risk is central to such scenario development."},{"index":3,"size":107,"text":"Table 5 and figure 9 indicate that in order to maintain a flow in the Ruaha National Park, approximately 5 to 7 cumecs on average need to be released below the irrigation intakes during the dry season (July through to November). Two factors relate to this. First, this is partly dependent on whether the wetland can be kept topped up during the latter part of the wet season, and therefore intake and canal regulation is also important in this season. Second, by revealing shortfalls, tables 4 and 5 allow us to determine whether storage is required to capture excess wet season water to augment dry season flows."},{"index":4,"size":143,"text":"The target of 5 to 7 cumecs can be compared to the pre-2001 situation where river flows of less than this target were recorded below the irrigation intakes entering the wetland during the latter half of the dry season (SMUWC 2001) 13 . In effect, it becomes increasingly less likely to find spare water above 4 cumecs, in effect requiring that water flowing into the irrigation systems is reduced, thereby curtailing productive and livelihood activities within the command areas of those systems. In the absence of additional storage, one solution would be to opt for 4 to 5 cumecs as a target flow, but to channel a portion of this through the wetland so that about 0.5 cumecs flows to the exit onward to the Ruaha National Park. This would entail a tradeoff in environmental benefits between the wetland and the National Park.  "}]},{"head":"Allocation management framework","index":24,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":67,"text":"In the previous section, a routing exercise indicated where and how much water was required. This quantifies the water goals. In this section, we explore a number of ways in which these goals can be met. We argue that rather than defining them in the normative language of IWRM, it is more relevant to build an \"expedient response\" in keeping with the three states of water flow."}]},{"head":"Key rivers in critical periods","index":25,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":144,"text":"An initial step is to identify key rivers where activities can lever as much benefit as possible (Lankford 2001). In 2001, the Rufiji Basin Water Office (RBWO) initiated an intake regulation program designed to ensure a reduction in dry season abstraction from the three key rivers feeding the wetland. To this end, negotiations with three large state farms led to reductions in their water supply during the dry season to give enough water for domestic use rather than for irrigation of fields that were visibly not producing crops of any type. This clearly focused on a 'medial water' problem. Lately, the RBWO has regulated intake flows during the latter part of the wet season to help keep the wetland topped up leading to both more wetland evaporation and higher downstream flows; a focus on 'bulk water' with a knock-on effect on the dry season."}]},{"head":"Infrastructure for river basin management","index":26,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":169,"text":"Water allocation is strongly mediated by the presence of infrastructure, often playing multiple roles in augmenting supply for one sector and reducing demand from another. For example, on the Usangu Plains, pipes to villages are a supply solution for domestic use but, in reducing the need to abstract water through the canals, they are also a demand solution for irrigation which leaves more water for in-stream environmental benefits. In problem-focused water management, infrastructure is added, removed or adjusted within sub-catchments to meet their target allocations. This is framed within each of the three phases of water supply, as table 6 shows. For example, in Usangu, there are few sites for cost-effective capture of bulk water using large reservoirs, though a case might be made on the Ndembera River for water supply to the Ruaha National Park during the dry season, a water-scarce period. Thus, bulk water would be taken from the wet season and re-allocated during the dry season to   Future adjustments to irrigation depletion to provide perennial flow."},{"index":2,"size":12,"text":"the environment, making more water available on other tributaries for productive use."},{"index":3,"size":119,"text":"The design of irrigation intakes by RBMSIIP and other programs (UVIP 1993; WER Engineering 1993) influences water allocation. Where conventionally designed 'full-sill weirs' are installed upstream, downstream users are subjected to extreme low flows in the dry season as a result of the uppermost intakes abstracting all the water. These conventional types of intake aggravate a delicate situation where dry season flows of only 100-200 l/sec have to be shared between intakes and in-stream users. One possible solution is to adjust the intake design so that, first, a volumetric cap allows excess 'bulk' water to flow downstream during the wet season, and second, a proportional cap allows sharing of medial water during the dry season (Lankford and Mwaruvanda 2006)."},{"index":4,"size":128,"text":"Tanzania proposes to establish Apex Bodies (the term for sub-catchment water user associations) to decide how water should be shared within the catchment and released downstream. One model (MOWLD 2004) represents an ideal by providing an institutional body for each river level. However, disadvantages arise from the requirement for four layers: 1) basin, 2) sub-catchment forums, 3) sub-catchment water user associations (WUA, i.e., 'Apex Bodies'), and 4) irrigation WUAs. In addition, user fees are required to support these institutions. A more serious critique is the comprehensiveness of the 'social engineering' underlying these proposals, i.e., the assumption that wholly new institutional frameworks can be imposed from outside without considering the inherently political, contingent and un-predictable nature of institutional reform processes; see for example, Cleaver and Franks (2003) and Merrey "}]},{"head":"Organizational and institutional set up","index":27,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":12,"text":"A pragmatic approach indicates that institutional design should be questioned and refined."},{"index":2,"size":139,"text":"Although handing over to the correctly-identified group, invoking the principle of subsidiarity, is seen as an integral part of integrated water management -the manner in which this group is supported and is provided with institutional space is critical to the success of that provision. et al. (2007). Instead of imposing such an overarching structure, it is more relevant to consider which of the tiers are most necessary (or indeed energetic), and thus how water management should be supported at this chosen level, allowing that tier to determine and evolve its institutional design and relationships with other tiers or organizations. It may be a matter of timescales and deployment; while the four-tier structure makes sense in the long-term, there is little in the national strategy of how the current institutional structure in different sub-catchments will be the basis for development."}]},{"head":"Legislative framework","index":28,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":214,"text":"A review of the water policy, strategy and legislation of Tanzania indicates a tendency for water legislation to put into 'legalese', or to encode, notions and principles of IWRM without examining how water is actually managed. This legal framework appears to foster a situation where water management is framed in terms of principles to be applied. Thus, the policystrategy-law continuum is internally coherent but in that continuum the strains that water rights and fees place on the governance of surface water management are not recognized. Thus, irrigation water in Tanzania legally attracts an annual 'economic water user fee,' a regulatory device that, as outlined below, either has no effect, or simply increases demand. In another example, institutional space for informal water rights is provided but no detail on their relationship to and precedence over formal water rights is given. It may be several years before this relationship is described by any further legal refinements. Expedient water management seeks much greater traction here and encourages local users to formulate byelaws and customary agreements to minimize conflict and to distribute water accordingly. The scalar challenge is to marry these agreements with formal water laws and with users further downstream who might not be represented, so that such agreements are allied to intra and inter-sectoral allocation needs."},{"index":2,"size":21,"text":"As explained in the next section, a proposal by Lankford and Mwaruvanda (2006) gives one way in which this might occur."}]},{"head":"Economic instruments","index":29,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":274,"text":"In Ruaha, the theory that formal economic instruments influence water allocation by costing the demand for water has been problematic, even perverse in its outcome (van Koppen et al. 2004). Fixed fees have not acted to dampen demand or associate a value with water use, as was intended, nor could they have since the fee is not directly linked to water use. Indeed they may have supported demand for water by augmenting perceptions of a 'right' as a result of having \"paid for the water\" that conflicts with the needs of downstream (paying) users. On the other hand, some farmers in Usangu have discussed and implemented their own land-based tax to help restrict overdevelopment of land. This contrast between the formal economic instruments and the self-introduction of informal charges informs an expedient approach in which water users are not against demand management incentives; their formulation and the means by which they are introduced and supported is more likely to produce a desired outcome. Building on current water permit legislation, Lankford and Mwaruvanda (2006) propose a framework of wet and dry season abstractions. During the wet season, the formal permit would fit the maximum abstraction through the cumulative intake capacity that curtails the irrigation use of bulk water (termed the volumetric cap). Adjusting the volumetric cap would require the intakes to be re-configured so that when set at their maximum opening, their discharge fits with the targets on bulk water abstraction 14 . During the remainder of the year, local users could negotiate informal rights as shares of medial water during the dry season, either as proportions of the river flow or as time scheduling."}]},{"head":"Recurrent water management","index":30,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":177,"text":"With regards to the practical implementation of the framework, this section describes two issues that feed into the day-to-day management of that framework. We omit other factors that support daily management such as logistics, finance, personnel, administration, training and resources, as they are adequately covered elsewhere in the literature. Cross-compliance mechanisms: Cross-compliance defines mutual agreements for progressively implementing an agreed schedule of initiatives between two or more partners (See for example, DEFRA 2006 15 ). Cross-compliance wraps all parties in such agreements, motivating and leveraging further action out of the parties involved. Appropriately designed conditionalities, such as the establishment of a water user association, are attached to project benefits. Thus, for example, water users 'comply' with some responsibilities in response to or parallel to work being completed by Government or NGO offices. However, the deployment of both the project benefit (the intake) and the facilitation and monitoring of the conditional response from the users requires us to consider the role and nature of 'service providers' under conditions of fiscal restraint, structural adjustment and governmental capacity (Batley 2004)."},{"index":2,"size":122,"text":"In the new Tanzanian Water Resources Strategy (MOWLD 2004), the role of the Government is worth examining. In the draft document, the Government believes that it should no longer be a service provider 16 (Section 3.1.3, page 14). However, under a cross-compliance framework this downscaling has to be thoroughly interrogated; the Government has to be a service provider, albeit a strategic and tactical one, because water users in Usangu are paying fees for water, and 'service return' becomes necessary for ongoing fee collection. Enhanced service provision does not automatically assume more time and money spent in the field by Government, but instead resources facilitate a range of other government and non-governmental services or agreements, some of which will be purchased 17 ."},{"index":3,"size":88,"text":"We envisage the following possibilities: bulk water rights to a single catchment on the assumption that the WUA will distribute it to users; sourcing conflict resolution facilitators; coordinating infrastructural changes to improve water management at the catchment level; sourcing funds to improve water source security (e.g., dams and boreholes); clarifying legislation for local user groups; locating specialists able to provide GIS and mapping services; and resolving water rights issues. Thus, the basin office collaborates with a given sub-catchment WUA to move it through various stages of water development."},{"index":4,"size":290,"text":"Cross-compliance applies to both the river basin and sub-catchment scale, but also, importantly to irrigation systems. Irrigation has special significance because, although government and donor institutions should be cautious about rolling out more irrigation schemes, there is a case for their involvement to facilitate improved water management. However, rather than this occurring because engineers dictate that irrigation efficiency is 'low' with little dialogue with users as has happened in the past (World Bank 1996), it is better framed as a response to requests by farmers who genuinely identify and verbalize water distribution problems. Such an approach has the important dimensions of being problem-focused, service-oriented, responsive, and demand-led. Various activities are envisaged; partnership engineering, facilitation sessions, game and role-playing, farmer training, problem ranking and participatory institutional analysis. It is likely that such an approach will further strengthen participatory skills amongst engineers whose current training tends to focus on conventional methodologies. The international community can play a role in facilitating such capacity reform and sharing of lessons among countries and regions, and in ensuring that existing budgets are partly used for these activities -implying little additional cost here. Working with local detail: Expediting allocation relies on marrying higher-level incentives with the cumulative outcomes of detailed water management at the field and irrigation intake level and a willingness to engage with and foster local knowledge. This is an important point in sub-Saharan Africa where formal and governmental processes of re-allocation are difficult to apply in the kinds of circumstances found (e.g., large distances, disparate many users, lack of government resources). Furthermore, detailed knowledge underpinned by field validation allows higher-level policies to be appropriately drafted and gives space for local users to explore their own methods for improving the productivity of water (Lankford 2006)."},{"index":5,"size":115,"text":"RBMSIIP (River Basin Management and Smallholder Irrigation Improvement Project) envisaged re-allocation coming about because of a combination of water rights and efficiency gains -yet with regards to the latter, the RBMSIIP program revealed a lack of engagement with detail, believing that Usangu irrigation systems depleted water via seepage within the hierarchical canal system. This is understandable given that most irrigation engineers are trained to conceive irrigation efficiency as being a product of canal-level efficiencies multiplied together. Yet, losses in Usangu irrigation schemes, which are not hierarchically canalized in nature, do not arise during the supply of water to the crop but rather because of evaporation before and after the window of evapotranspiration during crop growth."},{"index":6,"size":62,"text":"We believe that working with detail also solidifies agreements made between stakeholders and then helps take things forward incrementally, so binding in progress. Stankey et al. ( 2005) identify that incremental progress is a key feature of adaptive natural resource management. Thus, for example in Usangu, farmers first consider canal cleaning as a first step, prior to implementing other water saving agreements."},{"index":7,"size":218,"text":"Working with detail can be achieved in several ways, including by devolving responsibility for water management to farmers. Farmers are concerned about wasteful water practices that they themselves define and observe each day. For example, the River Basin Game (Lankford et al. 2004a) generates considerable discussion of what constitutes waste and what to do about it. These discussions build on an agreement that productivity of rice need not be reduced. In addition, some farmers, independently of the IWRM solutions forwarded by the Government, have explored economic solutions to demand management -they agreed to a land-based byelaw that encourages people to manage a few acres of land that can then be supplied with water rather than optimistically clearing land that remains dry (SMUWC 2001). The comparison between the Government-fixed charges for water rights and the marginal rules promoted by farmers speaks loudly about the ability of different 'players' to craft solutions based on intimate knowledge of how to dampen water demand in the face of shortages of supply. Benefits are gained from having experienced water professionals provide inputs here, but this is entirely different from a government call to provide training to farmers on water management as this is unlikely to reach the level of detail required by experienced irrigators that changes from place to place and over time."}]},{"head":"Water resources assessment and monitoring","index":31,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":137,"text":"Water resource assessment (WRA) and monitoring observes the efficacy of water management and is a critical part of the framework, enabling adjustment of the goals and devices. However, ways need to be found to obtain data sustainably and transparently on flows and supply and demand, for example, by eventually involving local users in the recording and utilization of those flows. Although this has not been tried in Usangu, there may be some appetite for exploring such a move. Sessions with the river basin game demonstrated that users, in the face of water scarcities, are increasingly interested in monitoring each other's water use, and that monitoring need not start with flow discharge measurement, but rather with simple depth recordings. WRA, and its costs and benefits, should be part of the water social learning by both users and professionals."}]},{"head":"Revisit water goals","index":32,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":55,"text":"The final part of the framework for expedient water management involves revisiting the water goals in order to pragmatically adjust it or add details that incorporate other principles of allocation. This accords with the finding by Stankey et al. (2005) that nearly all theories around adaptive natural resource management includes some notion of incremental adjustments."}]},{"head":"Part 4: Social learning in water","index":33,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":121,"text":"The previous sections describe the three stages of acquiring knowledge, establishing goals and creating water strategies. We posit that a fourth, social learning within a water-competitive environment, is at the heart of these. We understand that vibrant social learning selects appropriate activities and programs to expose issues, mediate conflict and deploy solutions. On the other hand, a dysfunctional social learning arises from inappropriate or infrequently held activities. Thus, at the center of expedient water management is the development of capacity and skills through iterative social and technical learning by all water stakeholders. Iterative learning and devices and tools to support it is also a feature of adaptive NRM (Natural Resources Management) (Tompkins and Adger 2004;Stankey et al. 2005;Hagmann and Chuma 2002)."},{"index":2,"size":214,"text":"A review of RIPARWIN's experience in Ruaha, and of the literature, points to some key elements of social learning in water: the cautious use of experts but a wider discussion of their findings; the use of inclusive stakeholder deliberative tools and processes (e.g., workshops based around the River Basin Game); support to the Basin Office via a river basin decision-aid that gives options for managing water and water rights while allowing the operator to see the outcomes of what-if scenarios without being overly didactic; and providing 'social learning' opportunities to local groups using educational and conflict resolution tools as well as farmers' own experimentation and observation as a means to determine perspectives on water sharing and management. Experimentation on a catchment scale is also to be considered (see also Gunderson 1999, on connections between experimentation and adaptive management), and might generate insights regarding how to share water, as evidenced by the experiments in the Mkoji sub-catchment facilitated by the RIPARWIN project (Vounaki and Lankford 2006). The River Basin Game has considerable potential here, as it elicits many suggestions, for example, on saving water while maintaining rice production. With respect to new (or adjustments to) devices to adjust allocation (e.g., infrastructure), these can be openly part of a locally negotiated process to sub-catchment water security."},{"index":3,"size":145,"text":"On the other hand, learning is curtailed when a particular water resources strategy is held up as 'finished'. 18 One antithesis to social learning, therefore, is an over-reliance on short-term consultancies framed within the pace of project progression dictated by donor agency schedules requiring demonstration of quick results. Combined, these create difficulties in developing long-term partnerships and expedient strategies that need to be seated within a dialogue between users and service providers. Indeed, it is the pace of programming that results in 'idealized' IWRM as compared to a slower and more reflective pragmatic and adaptive water resources management. How to develop relevant skills in social learning of all, or a necessary majority of the many stakeholders involved, is a question with few easy answers because serious challenges exist in moving from consultation of stakeholders to an adequate representation of their opinions (Wester et al. 2003)."}]},{"head":"Conclusions","index":34,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":223,"text":"Although the term 'integrated' in IWRM denotes a pragmatic and broad approach, IWRM becomes ideological in two ways at the operational level if, as can be observed all too often, it is not adapted to the circumstances. First, ideology is maintained if 'integrated' becomes the guiding principle to establish an all-encompassing holistic approach, precluding a more expeditious and sometimes even monodisciplinary 'objectives-guided' approach. Second, 'component ideology' occurs by applying a strand of IWRM theory without first determining if it is fit. In Tanzania, an example of misfit is the application of formal water rights designed (poorly) to act as an economic tool (van Koppen et al. 2004). Returning to our example of the Water Framework Directive implementation in Europe, we can also find evidence that supports a cautionary view of ideological IWRM. Here, the pursuit of public participation in river basin management, a core requirement of the WFD in line with IWRM ideology, was revealed during piloting as being potentially wasteful of significant resources that might be better spent on the task of managing the environment (Fox 2004  19 ). The UK WFD pilot phase concludes in support of an 'expedient' approach, promoting processes which fit the task and urging that the nature of local issues should determine the techniques employed and stakeholders to be engaged within the basin (Fox et al. 2004)."},{"index":2,"size":115,"text":"We posit that it is the choice of the starting point that determines how appropriate the subsequent iterations of water management become. Starting with and then aiming to institutionalize principles of water management (in other words refining ideal IWRM to craft operational IWRM) may not be sufficiently accurate or efficient. On the other hand, refraining from utilizing 'ideal IWRM' as a starting template but attempting to expedite effective strategies in water resources management that resolutely examine the conditions found in the river basin, might become more efficient, and requires and defines an adaptive process. Following this, the paper contains a practical framework to guide the interpretive, adaptive process of creating meaningful expedient water management programs."}]}],"figures":[{"text":" FIGURE 2. "},{"text":"FIGURE 3 . FIGURE 3.Location of Irrigated Lands within the Usangu Plains. "},{"text":"FIGURE 4 . FIGURE 4.The three-state challenge of creating goals and managing river basins. "},{"text":" FIGURE 6. "},{"text":"FIGURE 7 . FIGURE 7.Target flows in rivers and allowable abstractions to meet Ruaha goal. "},{"text":"FIGURE 8 . FIGURE 8. Dry season depletion in the Usangu catchment leading to zero flows (1998-2003). "},{"text":" FIGURE 9. "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"TABLE 1 . Framework for expedient water management of river basins.* Note: *While some of the points made in this table refer to Usangu only, most are broadly applicable to sub-Saharan African river basins.Issues and solutions best applicable to one state can be applied to others.** Setting or quantifying 'caps' represents a delineating of quantities for a given sector, and is not necessarily an activity of forcing down demand or use of water. Stage of Sub-stage and  Water availability state  Stage ofSub-stage andWater availability state framework aspects Bulk water Medial water Critical water frameworkaspectsBulk waterMedial waterCritical water 1) Precursor Main supply To top up storage bodies Meet agricultural, Meet living and drinking 1) PrecursorMain supplyTo top up storage bodiesMeet agricultural,Meet living and drinking understanding function and (artificial, natural, surface, livelihood and ecological needs understandingfunction and(artificial, natural, surface, livelihood and ecological needs  priorities of this sub-surface), to flush needs, protecting  priorities of thissub-surface), to flushneeds, protecting  phase systems minimum flows  phasesystemsminimum flows  Main period Wet season Dry season Throughout year, but dry Main periodWet seasonDry seasonThroughout year, but dry  during year   season is critical during yearseason is critical  Sectors Agricultural, Agriculture, industry, Domestic, urban SectorsAgricultural,Agriculture, industry,Domestic, urban  associated hydropower, environmental  associatedhydropower,environmental  with phase environmental,   with phaseenvironmental,  Amounts of water Medium to large Small stream flows, Very small amounts of water, Amounts of water Medium to largeSmall stream flows,Very small amounts of water,   flows >500 l/sec 10 to 500 l/sec 25-300 l/day/pp flows >500 l/sec10 to 500 l/sec25-300 l/day/pp  Timeliness and Seasonally important Daily to weekly Required daily Timeliness andSeasonally importantDaily to weeklyRequired daily  timing    timing  Quality of water Medium quality, Medium to high quality Highest quality required Quality of waterMedium quality,Medium to high qualityHighest quality required   sediments in   sediments in   flood water   flood water  Change and Investigate trends of water supply and demand, and study of driving factors within Change andInvestigate trends of water supply and demand, and study of driving factors within  causality each phase   causalityeach phase  Scope for Investigate scope for productivity and efficiency gains within each sector in each Scope forInvestigate scope for productivity and efficiency gains within each sector in each  further change phase   further changephase 2) Setting Principles that Water as an Water as an Water as a human/domestic 2) SettingPrinciples thatWater as anWater as anWater as a human/domestic expedient goals steer allocation environmental, productive environmental and right expedient goalssteer allocationenvironmental, productive environmental andright   and economic good productive right  and economic goodproductive right  Examples of Pro-industry and power, Pro-agriculture, Pro-poor connection Examples ofPro-industry and power,Pro-agriculture,Pro-poor connection  scenarios pro-agriculture pro-environment  scenariospro-agriculturepro-environment  Examples of \"Ensure a 50 cumec cap \"Aim for year round flow\" \"80% of rural users Examples of\"Ensure a 50 cumec cap\"Aim for year round flow\" \"80% of rural users  water goals on irrigation abstraction\"  connected\" water goalson irrigation abstraction\"connected\" 3) Water Routing the water Routing bulk water Routing medial water Amounts of water required at a 3) WaterRouting the water Routing bulk waterRouting medial waterAmounts of water required at a management    given time managementgiven time response     response  Type of cap** Total volumetric Proportional Volumetric, set by capacity of Type of cap**Total volumetricProportionalVolumetric, set by capacity of   abstraction cap abstraction cap supply infrastructure abstraction capabstraction capsupply infrastructure  Infrastructure Intakes, dams, barrages Irrigation intakes, Village boreholes, pipes, taps, InfrastructureIntakes, dams, barragesIrrigation intakes,Village boreholes, pipes, taps,  associated  boreholes, weirs, dividers bowsers associatedboreholes, weirs, dividers bowsers    and control structures  and control structures  Allocation Catchment and basin WUA Irrigation water user Village borehole committee, AllocationCatchment and basin WUA Irrigation water userVillage borehole committee,  institutions  association and water company or NGO institutionsassociation andwater company or NGO    sub-catchment WUA  sub-catchment WUA  Type of rights Formal water permit Customary agreements/ Customary agreements Type of rightsFormal water permitCustomary agreements/ Customary agreements  closely associated (volumetric) rights (proportional, time (village and household related) closely associated (volumetric)rights (proportional, time (village and household related)  with phase  schedule basis)  with phaseschedule basis)     (Continued) (Continued)  "},{"text":"TABLE 2 .   "},{"text":"TABLE 3 . Options for water distribution and allocation. Issue Comparative options IssueComparative options Allocation Capture. Water shares change as a result of Re-allocation. In cross-sectoral allocation or AllocationCapture. Water shares change as a result ofRe-allocation. In cross-sectoral allocation or  de-facto growth of allocation to one sector without re-allocation, water is actively moved out as a de-facto growth of allocation to one sector withoutre-allocation, water is actively moved out as a  forward planning. result of employment of allocation devices. forward planning.result of employment of allocation devices. Unit Hydrological. Usually the river basin or sub-basin, Political boundary unit. A political boundary (e.g., UnitHydrological. Usually the river basin or sub-basin,Political boundary unit. A political boundary (e.g.,  see below. region or district) is used as the unit of see below.region or district) is used as the unit of   management; this may cut across river basins management; this may cut across river basins   (international rivers) or be part of a river basin. (international rivers) or be part of a river basin. Hydrology Surface water Sub-surface HydrologySurface waterSub-surface Scale of river Large scale. The river basin is the unit of Smaller scale. Sub-basin or minor catchment. Scale of riverLarge scale. The river basin is the unit ofSmaller scale. Sub-basin or minor catchment. basin or water management or alternatively, a given aquifer Part of a hydrological body is the unit of management. basin or watermanagement or alternatively, a given aquiferPart of a hydrological body is the unit of management. body boundary is the unit of management.  body boundary is the unit of management. Basin versus Basin response Local response Basin versusBasin responseLocal response local response Intra-basin transfer. Water is moved within one basin User relocation. The user relocates in order to find local responseIntra-basin transfer. Water is moved within one basinUser relocation. The user relocates in order to find to water from one user to another. water, thereby acquiring it. Acquisition of irrigation to waterfrom one user to another.water, thereby acquiring it. Acquisition of irrigation shortages Inter-basin transfer. Water is moved out from or supplies by growing cities in Asia. shortagesInter-basin transfer. Water is moved out from orsupplies by growing cities in Asia.  into a basin from a neighboring basin or aquifer.  into a basin from a neighboring basin or aquifer.  "},{"text":"TABLE 4 . Average monthly flows between 1998 and 2003,Kashaigili et al. (2006).  June July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec JuneJulyAugSeptOctNovDec A. Natural Upstream river supply 18.74 11.98 9.73 8.12 7.01 7.15 17.86 A. Natural Upstream river supply18.7411.989.738.127.017.1517.86 (cumecs)        (cumecs) B. Recent irrigation abstraction 9 8 7.5 7.5 6.7 6.7 14 B. Recent irrigation abstraction987.57.56.76.714 (cumecs)        (cumecs) C. Downstream flows 9.74 3.98 2.23 0.62 0.31 0.45 3.86 C. Downstream flows9.743.982.230.620.310.453.86 (cumecs)        (cumecs) D. Losses in wetland 6 1.98 1.23 0.62 0.31 0.45 0.62 D. Losses in wetland61.981.230.620.310.450.62 (cumecs)        (cumecs) E. Downstream river flows in RNP 3 2 1 0 0 0 3.24 E. Downstream river flows in RNP3210003.24 (cumecs)        (cumecs)  "},{"text":"TABLE 5 . Calculations of water required to provide a perennial flow in the Great Ruaha.  June July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec JuneJulyAugSeptOctNovDec A. Natural upstream river supply 18.74 11.98 9.73 8.12 7.01 7.15 17.86 A. Natural upstream river supply18.7411.989.738.127.017.1517.86 (cumecs)        (cumecs) B. Allowable irrigation abstraction if 2.78 1.67 1.37 1.15 0.95 0.99 2.36 B. Allowable irrigation abstraction if2.781.671.371.150.950.992.36 downstream targets are met        downstream targets are met (cumecs)        (cumecs) C. Target downstream flows to meet 15.96 10.31 8.36 6.97 6.06 6.16 15.5 C. Target downstream flows to meet 15.9610.318.366.976.066.1615.5 wetland losses and exit flows        wetland losses and exit flows (cumecs)        (cumecs) D. Modeled losses in wetland 11.55 8.1 7.02 6.13 5.34 5.44 11.05 D. Modeled losses in wetland11.558.17.026.135.345.4411.05 (cumecs)        (cumecs) E. Target downstream river flows in 4.41 2.21 1.34 0.84 0.72 0.72 4.45 E. Target downstream river flows in4.412.211.340.840.720.724.45 RNP (cumecs)        RNP (cumecs)  "},{"text":"TABLE 6 . Classification of river basin infrastructure. Water flow Examples and sub-types Definitions and notes Water flowExamples and sub-typesDefinitions and notes state   state Critical flows Technology for poverty-focused water This class of infrastructure attends to critical flows Critical flowsTechnology for poverty-focused waterThis class of infrastructure attends to critical flows  acquisition (taps, pipes, boreholes, rainfall that meet and safeguard domestic and environmental acquisition (taps, pipes, boreholes, rainfallthat meet and safeguard domestic and environmental  harvesting) objectives harvesting)objectives Medial flows Irrigation intake design for water sharing, Water acquisition and sharing of medial flows between Medial flowsIrrigation intake design for water sharing,Water acquisition and sharing of medial flows between  proportional capping. intakes proportional capping.intakes  In-stream weirs Protecting major source of income for many people In-stream weirsProtecting major source of income for many people   (irrigation) (irrigation)   In-stream and storage environmental protection In-stream and storage environmental protection Bulk water Irrigation intake design for volumetric Capping of maximum amount of water taken by irrigation Bulk waterIrrigation intake design for volumetricCapping of maximum amount of water taken by irrigation flows abstraction cap.  flowsabstraction cap.  Large reservoirs Reservoirs capture floodwater for storage and release for Large reservoirsReservoirs capture floodwater for storage and release for   beneficial use during medial or critical water periods beneficial use during medial or critical water periods  "}],"sieverID":"5b0b7603-0716-47b7-b768-42308fe29a87","abstract":"In serving this mission, IWMI concentrates on the integration of policies, technologies and management systems to achieve workable solutions to real problems-practical, relevant results in the field of irrigation and water and land resources.The publications in this series cover a wide range of subjects-from computer modeling to experience with water user associations-and vary in content from directly applicable research to more basic studies, on which applied work ultimately depends. Some research reports are narrowly focused, analytical and detailed empirical studies; others are wide-ranging and synthetic overviews of generic problems.Although most of the reports are published by IWMI staff and their collaborators, we welcome contributions from others. Each report is reviewed internally by IWMI's own staff and Fellows, and by external reviewers. The reports are published and distributed both in hard copy and electronically (www.iwmi.org) and where possible all data and analyses will be available as separate downloadable files. Reports may be copied freely and cited with due acknowledgment. i i"}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0675fee58af18938d68416124993a63f","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/bd78f025-6910-4fd0-8830-c3ef2361e980/retrieve"},"pageCount":12,"title":"Biomass yield, quality and acceptability of selected grass-legume mixtures in the moist savanna of west Africa","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":399,"text":"The moist savanna region of sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) covers about 389 M ha, with over 60% falling in the west African region; typically, the region is defined with a length of crop-growing period of 180-270 days per annum (Jagtap 1995). Agriculture in the moist savanna region of west Africa is facing increasing pressure as a result of increases in both human and livestock populations (Smith et al . 1997). The introduction of forage legumes has been promoted as a possible option to improve the sustainability of livestock production in the region (Tarawali et al . 1999). In the wetter part of the moist savanna, increasing numbers of formerly nomadic herders are settling (Jabbar 1992) and combining arable cropping with cattle husbandry. Apart from the need to provide pasture resources for their livestock, forage species or combinations that could enhance soil fertility for improved crop yield would be appropriate. In this region, the intensity of agriculture does not preclude (except in periurban areas) maintaining a pasture. These pasture resources might be used for only a short duration, as most agropastoralists in the area do not have permanent ownership of land. It is therefore appropriate to assess options for pasture establishment, so the present study sought to build upon previous work using grass-legume mixtures and to introduce new options. Some of the most widely recommended species of forage legumes for animal production in moist savanna regions have become susceptible to diseases, such as anthracnose disease (caused by the pathogen Colletotrichum gloeosporiodes ) in Stylosanthes species (Adeoti et al . 1994) and leaf blight in Centrosema species (Ezenwa 1995). In addition, the number of recommended species is limited and appropriate species have not been identified for every farming system and the range of agroecological conditions found even within the moist savanna ecozone. Efforts to identify other species that could complement or replace the recommended species since the 1980s have revealed promising accessions with high dry matter yield potential, disease tolerance, high regenerative ability and persistence (Tarawali 1991(Tarawali , 1994;;Peters et al . 1994aPeters et al . , 1994b;;Tarawali et al ., 1999). While the indigenous/localised Panicum maximum , the dominant natural grass in rangeland, is often of reasonable quality (Aken'Ova and Mohamed-Saleem 1985), other grass species suitable for pasture improvement such as Brachiaria ruziziensis and Cynodon nlemfuensis (Ademosun 1973;Akinola 1981;Larbi et al. 1989) have been identified and included in the present evaluation."},{"index":2,"size":196,"text":"In the majority of evaluation experiments to date, cutting has been used to simulate grazing. However, cutting regimens do not satisfactorily simulate grazing effects ( e.g. Carlos 1982). In order to establish the suitability of these legumes for grazing, they must be subjected to grazing, especially in mixtures with grasses. This could provide valuable information for identifying appropriate mixtures and developing suitable management practices when the materials are eventually used in pastures. Mob-grazing (the grazing of a limited area of pasture with a much higher than normal stocking density of animals) has been widely used to study the response of forage plants to grazing effects (Mislevy et al . 1982). This approach provides information on the responses of the forage materials to various stresses, such as trampling, pulling and deposition of excreta by the grazing animals (Mislevy et al . 1982;Rhonda et al . 1987). It is assumed that species that are resilient under this relatively intense defoliation when selective grazing is considerably reduced could persist under normal grazing. The short duration provided by the grazing technique could also offer the opportunity to evaluate the performances of the grasslegume combinations if used in a short-term ley."},{"index":3,"size":82,"text":"This study, therefore, further evaluated some promising herbaceous legumes using the mobgrazing approach to determine their agronomic performance and forage potential in grass-legume mixtures. Most evaluation studies in southwestern Nigeria have used the locally available P. maximum and other tall-growing species due probably, to the relative ease with which the planting materials for such grasses can be sourced. We included other prostrate species in the evaluation in order to widen the available options of forage grasses for animal production in the area."}]},{"head":"Materials and methods","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Site description","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":120,"text":"The experiment was conducted at ILRI's research site, located at the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (7°30'N, 3°54'E), Ibadan in south-western Nigeria. The area has a subhumid climate with a mean annual rainfall of 1250 mm with a bimodal distribution lasting from March-October with peaks in June and September. Monthly rainfall at Ibadan during the period of the experiment is as shown in Figure 1. Soil at the experimental site was sandy (86% sand) with a pH of 6.5, organic carbon 1.34%, nitrogen 0.19% and phosphorus (Bray 1) 7.5 mg/kg. Other mineral element concentrations were 0.3 cmol/kg for potassium and sodium, 0.6 cmol/kg for magnesium and 2.1 cmol/kg for calcium, giving an effective cation exchange capacity (ECEC) of 3.3 cmol/kg. "}]},{"head":"Grass-legume associations","index":4,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Plot establishment and management","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":114,"text":"Mixtures were planted in 4 m × 5 m plots in July 1994 in a randomised complete block design with 4 replicates. Grasses were planted at a spacing of 25 cm × 50 cm within and between rows, respectively, and legume seeds were broadcast on the same day at seeding rates of 6.0, 3.07, 4.5 and 5.0 kg/ha for S. guianensis, A. histrix, Ce. pubescens and Ch. rotundifolia , respectively (Tarawali 1994). As is customary in experiments in southwestern Nigeria, the grass-legume mixtures received 200 kg/ha NPK (15:15:15) fertiliser at planting followed by 60 kg/ha single superphosphate (SSP) after cut-back in March 1995. Plots were hand-weeded at 4, 8 and 12 weeks after planting."}]},{"head":"Forage sampling and grazing","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":316,"text":"The mixtures were first sampled for estimation of dry matter (DM) yield at the end of the first growing season in the establishment year, in November 1994. Two 1 m 2 quadrats per plot were cut to 30cm stubble height and the cut material was sorted into planted grass, sown legume and weeds, then weighed. Replicates were bulked, and 300g sub-samples were taken and oven-dried at 65°C until weight was constant for percent DM determination and chemical analysis. Subsequently, estimates of DM yields were made immediately before and after each mob-grazing period, using the same method as described above for November 1994, except that the quadrat size was 0.25 m 2 . Dry matter disappearance was calculated as the difference between the pre-and post-grazing values expressed as percentage of the biomass on offer at the start of grazing. Grazing of plots commenced in June 1995. Mob-grazing periods, each lasting 2-3 days, took place at 8-weekly intervals between June-December 1995. Bunaji cattle at a stocking density of 150 TLU/ha (TLU = tropical livestock unit = 250 kg) were allowed to graze the plots for 8 h each day. A 30-minute adjustment period was allowed after animals were introduced, then the number of animals grazing each plot was recorded at 5-minute intervals for 3 h. The number of animals recorded grazing each mixture during the 3 h was calculated to obtain a value (X) for each pasture treatment, i.e. , X 1 , X 2 ,…, X 8 for Treatments 1-8 ( i.e. , the number of times a given mixture was eaten). A constant value (Y) was obtained as (X 1 + X 2 + …. + X 8 )/8 = Y ( i.e. , the number of times a given mixture was expected to be eaten if all mixtures had been of equal palatability). Relative palatability indices (RPI) were then obtained for the respective mixtures as:"}]},{"head":"In sacco DM digestibility and chemical analysis","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":167,"text":"Dried samples of the grass and legume components were ground to pass a 2.5 mm screen and 5 g of each was weighed into 9 cm × 18 cm nylon bags of pore size 41 µ m. The bags were incubated for 48 h in rumen-fistulated Zebu castrates. The animals were grazed on Panicum maximum pasture throughout the incubation period in order to create a uniform rumen environment for the incubated samples. Bags were withdrawn after the incubation period, washed under running tap water until the rinse water was clear, oven-dried and re-weighed. DM digestibility was estimated as the difference in weight pre-and post-incubation expressed as a percentage of the initial weight (Osuji et al. 1993). For chemical and fibre analyses, samples were ground through a 1.0mm screen. Total N was determined by the Kjeldahl method (AOAC 1990) and crude protein (CP) was calculated as % N × 6.25. Neutral detergent fibre (NDF), phosphorus (P) and calcium (Ca) were analysed according to Goering and van Soest (1970)."}]},{"head":"Statistical analysis","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":41,"text":"DM yield and relative palatability data were analysed by the analysis of variance procedure of the Statistical Analysis System package (SAS 1988) and means were separated and compared using the Least Significant Difference (LSD) procedure at a 5% level of significance."}]},{"head":"Results","index":9,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"DM yield","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":103,"text":"Figure 2 shows the DM yields 5 months after establishment (November 1994) and prior to each grazing assessment period (June, August, October and December 1995). In November 1994 (the end of the growing season in the establishment year), yields of mixtures with B. ruziziensis were generally higher than those with Cy. nlemfuensis with the exception of Cy. nlemfuensis-A. histrix. During this establishment period, the DM yields consisted almost entirely of the planted grass and legume species, with the former contributing at least half of the total DM with the exception of the Cy. nlemfuensis-A. histrix mixture, where the grass yield was very low."},{"index":2,"size":118,"text":"Highest yields over the entire period were in June 1995, when the pastures had regrown following the onset of the wet season. At this time, all yield estimates were in excess of 12 t/ha, highest yields (P < 0.05) being for B. ruziziensis-S. guianensis and Cy. nlemfuensis-A. histrix , both of which yielded more than 19 t/ha. B. ruziziensis dominated (P < 0.05) in the mixtures, except in combination with A. histrix where it contributed about half the DM yield. In mixtures with Cy. nlemfuensis , the legumes dominated the mixtures except for Ce. pubescens . In general, mixtures with Cy. nlemfuensis, except with S. guianensis, contained significantly more of other species (weeds) than those with B. ruziziensis."},{"index":3,"size":77,"text":"DM yields in August 1995 ranged from 4.1-5.5 t/ha with the exception of B. ruziziensis-A. histrix which yielded 7.8 t/ha. At this time, the legume component of the mixtures, except those with A. histrix, was small (less than one-third of the total DM yield), and Ch. rotundifolia had almost disappeared. Contribution to the DM yield from other species (weeds) was again significantly more in plots with Cy. nlemfuensis, but always less than one-third of the total yield."},{"index":4,"size":95,"text":"In October 1995, total DM yields of all mixtures with B. ruziziensis exceeded 7.5 t/ha with B. ruziziensis-Ce. pubescens yielding significantly higher than others. The legume component of these mixtures was negligible for S. guianensis and Ch. rotundifolia and less than 20% of the total yield for the other 2 species. Mixtures with Cy. nlemfuensis yielded between 5.2-6.4 t/ha with the contribution to total yield from the legume component exceeding that in the B. ruziziensis plots, with Ch. rotundifolia contributing the least. Almost half the DM yield from this treatment was made up of weeds."},{"index":5,"size":71,"text":"In December 1995, pasture yields were all below 8 t/ha, with the highest yield of 7.7 t/ha for Cy. nlemfuensis-Ce. pubescens being significantly higher than for other mixtures . A. histrix contributed no harvestable yield to the total DM yield in mixture with B. ruziziensis and very little with Cy. nlemfuensis. Ce. pubescens contributed the most (P < 0.05) of all legumes to pasture mixtures, about 40% of total DM yield."}]},{"head":"Palatability and DM disappearance","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":56,"text":"In general, cattle preferentially grazed mixtures with B. ruziziensis (Figure 3). Relative palatability indices for the mixtures with B. ruziziensis exceeded those for mixture with Cy. nlemfuensis with the exception of the mixtures with S. guianensis and Ce. pubescens in August. Dry matter disappearance during the 4 grazing periods was generally variable with no obvious patterns."}]},{"head":"Quality","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":146,"text":"Crude protein (CP), in sacco DM digestibility and NDF concentrations were used as measures of quality. Legume CP concentration was higher than that in grass throughout the experiment, with values falling slightly below 7% only for Ce. pubescens and Ch. rotundifolia in combination with Cy. nlemfuensis in October (Figure 4). Legume CP concentrations were highest during the August and October grazing periods. In contrast, CP concentrations for the grass components   In sacco DM digestibility for the legume and grass components of the mixtures during the 4 measurement periods is shown in Figure 5. Neutral detergent fibre, expressed as percentage of DM, for the grass and legume components at the 4 grazing times periods is shown in Figure 6. Variations between the mixtures and between measurement times were small with values largely falling between 60-70%. Grass NDF, in general, was slightly higher than that for the legumes."},{"index":2,"size":59,"text":"Phosphorus (P) concentrations (data not shown) varied from 0.10-0.21% over the experimental period, with values in the grass components being slightly higher than in the legumes at all harvest dates. Calcium (Ca) concentration (data not shown) also varied a little, and values for legumes tended to be higher than for grasses. The Ca:P ratio of mixtures ranged between 2.4:1-5.6:1."}]},{"head":"Discussion","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":341,"text":"Although Aeschynomene histrix and Chamaecrista rotundifolia have not been previously reported in grass-legume mixtures from this region, their performances in the present study were generally comparable with previous reports from elsewhere. The DM yields of mixtures with Brachiaria ruziziensis were higher than those with Cynodon nlemfuensis at the initial stages, but this situation was reversed towards the end of the study. This confirms other reports that, even though creeping, stoloniferous grasses, such as Cynodon nlemfuensis tend to be slow to established, they are more vigorous and productive over time than the tall, upright species (Oyenuga and Olubajo 1975). The legume species also showed varied changes over the trial period, with Aeschynomene histrix yielding more than the others during the initial stages and at levels similar to those reported from pure stands (Peters et al. 1994b;Tarawali 1994); yields of this species were the lowest of the legumes towards the end of the study. Again, these observations are consistent with previous reports that Aeschynomene histrix persisted poorly under cutting regimens (CIAT 1995;Peters et al. 1999). Rhonda et al. (1987) reported that grazing cattle selected, as for most other legumes, mainly the leaves, seeds and fine stem materials of Aeschynomene species, implying that the regrowth points of these legumes are heavily defoliated during grazing. Greater competition from B. ruziziensis might also have hastened the disappearance of A. histrix from the pasture (Curll and Jones 1989). Generally, the legumes grew better in Cy. nlemfuensis than in B. ruziziensis especially at the earlier stages of establishment as a result of reduced competition from the former grass at that time. Performance of Chamaecrista rotundifolia was disappointing relative to that in the preliminary evaluation trials at other moist savanna sites (Tarawali 1994;1995). This could be related to the effects of defoliation and trampling during mobgrazing, which could lead to negative reactions in forage species (Onifade et al. 1992). This species performs better in drier environments and tends to behave mostly as an annual, with regeneration from seed being important for persistence in subsequent seasons (Tarawali and Peters 1996)."},{"index":2,"size":96,"text":"Although the Centrosema pubescens and Stylosanthes guianensis accessions used in this study were not those evaluated in grass-legume pasture studies in south-western Nigeria (Akinola 1981;Akinyemi and Onayinka 1982), their performances are comparable with results of the earlier studies. Unlike the other legumes in the present study, and other reports of legume suppression by tropical grasses (Kretschmer 1985), DM yield of Centrosema pubescens increased over the evaluation period, contributing as much as 40% of total DM yield in December, an indication that it may be more tolerant of the heavy grazing intensity imposed than the other legumes."},{"index":3,"size":104,"text":"From the high DM yields in June, biomass production of the mixtures decreased over the evaluation period, as a result of the grazing pressure imposed. The exceptionally high DM yields of mixtures in June 1995 may be related to the fast growth during the first weeks of the wet season, from March onwards, in combination with the effects of the application of superphosphate early in the wet season which would have especially benefitted the legumes. Increases in DM yield in response to phosphate application to a grass-legume mixture have been attributed to good growth and health of the legume portion (Evans and Bryan 1973)."},{"index":4,"size":85,"text":"The P concentrations in the grasses and legumes were generally lower than levels recommended for tropical animals (Minson 1990). However, they were for whole plant samples and animals would select a much higher concentration. The Ca:P ratios were also greater than the 1.5:1-2:1 recommended by NAS (1980) for good animal performance, with the exception of the middle of the rainy season. This may have been related to the earlier application of P, stressing the importance of the addition of this element in maintaining pasture quality."},{"index":5,"size":181,"text":"Both methods of assessing the acceptability of the mixtures for cattle (palatability and DM intake) have their limitations, and are best used in combination to obtain an overall impression (Peters et al. 1999). Dry matter intake is often related to the amounts of material on offer, and may be distorted if, for example, there is very little of a particular component present. There seems to be no clear relationship between the measurements of DM intake and relative palatability in the present study although both assessments indicate that mixtures with Cynodon nlemfuensis are generally less well consumed, especially towards the end of the evaluation period. Mixtures with Centrosema pubescens tended to have the highest DM intake values, and were, to some extent, among the highest in terms of palatability indices. Overall, the DM intake values of mixtures were generally similar to those reported by Okorie et al. (1965) and Oyenuga and Olubajo (1975) for tropical forages. Low DM intake caused by poor quality is advanced as one of the main reasons for poor animal performance in the tropics (Oyenuga and Olubajo 1975)."},{"index":6,"size":258,"text":"Crude protein concentrations in the legumes were generally well above 7%, the level below which DM intake becomes depressed (Minson 1981;Humphreys 1991). Higher values during August and October reflect the optimum growth of the legumes during the wet season. By December, many would have commenced drying, hence the lower CP values. The CP concentrations in the grass components especially B. ruziziensis were generally lower than this critical level of 7%. Only at the peak of the wet season, in August, when the grass species would have been at maximum growth, was this value exceeded for both species in all mixtures. This partly underscores the importance of the complementary roles of grass-legume mixtures, as do the CP yields (data not presented), where the legume contribution to the total became more important as the experimental period progressed. The higher CP values of the grasses in mixture with A. histrix indicate that the legume probably had a positive effect on the quality of the associated species. Similar beneficial effects on quality have been reported by Peters et al. (1999). The mean CP concentrations in C. rotundifolia and A. histrix were similar to those reported by Peters et al. (1994a;1994b). C. pubescens maintained the highest CP level among the legumes throughout the trial period as earlier reported for Centrosema species (Ademosun and Kolade 1973;Adjei and Fianu 1985); this may, in turn, be linked to the better acceptance of mixtures with this species by the grazing animals. Reports have indicated that livestock are able to select positively for better quality feed (Joblin 1962)."},{"index":7,"size":257,"text":"Positive effects of A. histrix on the associated grass are again indicated by in sacco digestibility, although these are less marked as the differences between mixtures and harvest times for this value are not clearly apparent. Ndlovu (1992) noted that legumes when mature are higher in lignin than grasses and grass cell walls are thus more degradable than those of non-grass forages (van Soest 1982). Ademosun and Kolade (1973) reported an average digestibility value of 60% for C. nlemfuensis with a cutting interval of 6 weeks. Overall, legumes had somewhat better quality values and B. ruziziensis was of better quality (lower NDF and higher in sacco digestibility) than C. nlemfuensis. The generally low in sacco digestibility values for the mixtures were an indication that the materials were highly fibrous before the animals were introduced. Even though the presence of legumes in mixtures would enhance protein concentration in forage on offer, the limited legume DM yields as the season advanced would have limited this effect for most of the mixtures when the nitrogen contribution would be most needed. A general overview of the performances of the legumes showed that A. histrix was vigorous early but was less prominent as the season advanced and grazing intensified. Ch. rotundifolia was generally disappointing as it grew well early with Ce. nlemfuensis but produced insignificant yields late in the season. C. pubescens improved with time and showed considerable promise, especially as the plots were also well grazed by the animals. S. guianensis was also present in significant amounts late in the season."},{"index":8,"size":169,"text":"Amongst the 8 mixtures evaluated, no single one was outstanding in terms of biomass and quality for the entire trial period. Initially, mixtures of B. ruziziensis and A. histrix were superior, but these were superseded towards the end of the study by the more persistent C . nlemfuensis and better quality C. pubescens. The results suggest, therefore, that the intended duration of the pasture needs to be taken into account when selecting species, and that, for a persistent pasture over varied conditions, a mixture of options, including for instance, the 2 grasses with both A. histrix and C. pubescens would be a good option. Mixtures of species have been shown to be more successful in terms of persistence as well as being able to withstand variations in microenvironment and management (Peters et al. 1999;Tarawali et al. 1999). Meanwhile further studies would be needed to further assess the promising species over an extended period under normal grazing in this region, especially to ensure that the legumegrass balance could be maintained."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure 1 . Figure 1. Monthly rainfall at Ibadan, Nigeria during June 1994 to December 1995 "},{"text":"Figure 2 . Figure 2. DM yields (t/ha) of grass-legume mixtures 5 months after establishment in 1994 and before each grazing period in 1995. "},{"text":"Figure 3 . Figure 3. Relative palatability indices of grass-legume mixtures during each of the 4 grazing periods in 1995. "},{"text":" rarely exceeded 50% for either grass or legume. B. ruziziensis tended to be more digestible than Cy. nlemfuensis. "},{"text":"Figure 5 . Figure 5. In sacco DM digestibility (%) at 48 h of grass and legume components of mixtures at the onset of each of the 4 grazing periods in 1995. "},{"text":"Figure 6 . Figure 6. Neutral detergent fibre concentration (% DM) in grass and legume components of mixtures at the onset of each of the 4 grazing periods in 1995. "}],"sieverID":"60cbb8f2-da5a-4e42-8853-4edeeb1d98d0","abstract":"In order to identify options suitable for providing livestock feed in the wetter part of the moist savanna, the DM yield, botanical composition, crude protein, in sacco digestibility and neutral detergent fibre of combinations of 4 herbaceous legumes and 2 grasses were evaluated between June 1994 and December 1995 at Ibadan, southwestern Nigeria. The legumes, Stylosanthes guianensis , Aeschynomene histrix , Centrosema pubescens and Chamaecrista rotundifolia , were each planted in combination with Brachiaria ruziziensis and Cynodon nlemfuensis . Beginning from one year after planting, the mixtures were mob-grazed 4 times at 8-weekly intervals following DM yield estimation.Mixtures with B. ruziziensis recorded significantly higher dry matter yields at the early stages of evaluation than those with Cy. nlemfuensis . Dry matter yield and the legume content of mixtures generally declined with time. A. histrix, the most vigorous legume in the early stages, declined rapidly during the course of the experiment and disappeared from the B. ruziziensis mixture by the end of the year. In contrast, the proportion of Ce. pubescens with the grasses increased over the experimental period so that, by the end of the year, it had the highest yield of all legumes. Variations in quality were less marked than those of biomass yield, but legumes were superior in quality to grasses. No single mixture of grass and legume proved clearly superior to other combinations."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"06c459e89a8f1f2c3ed21b9afda6d098","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/60d6b7f4-5b35-4eeb-8366-1f72d7b2d8ee/retrieve"},"pageCount":16,"title":"","keywords":["CGI AR system linkages: Saving Biodiversity (40%)","Enhancement & Breeding (55%)","Training (4%)","Information ( 1%)"],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":9,"text":"CIAT: SB-1 /2 PROJECTLOG FRAME (2005)(2006)(2007) PROJECf: PROJECf MANAGER:"}]},{"head":"CONSERVATION ANO USE OF TROPICAL GENETIC R ESOURCES JOE TOHME (BRU)/ D.G. DEBOUCK (GRU)","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":66,"text":"Narrative Summary Goal To contribute to the sustainable increase of productivity and quality of mandated and other priority crops, and the conservation of agrobiodiversity in tropical countries. Purpose To conserve the genetic diversity and ensure that characterized agrobiodiversity, improved crop genetic stocks, and modern molecular and cellular methods and tools are used by CIA T and NARS scientists for improving, using, and conserving crop genetic resources."}]},{"head":"Outpull","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":16,"text":"Genomes characterized of wild and cultivated species of mandate and non-mandate crops and of associated organisms."},{"index":2,"size":19,"text":"Output 2 Genomes modified: genes and gene combinations used to broaden the genetic base of mandated and nonmandated crops."}]},{"head":"Output 3","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":6,"text":"Collaboration with public-and private-sector partners enhanced."}]},{"head":"Na rNOtive Summary","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":11,"text":"Output 4 Mandated crops conserved and multiplied as per international standards."},{"index":2,"size":9,"text":"Output 5 Genn plasm available, restored, and safely duplicated. "}]},{"head":"Activity area # 2: the Germplasm and its data available","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":159,"text":"In 2005, GRU has distributed 7,790 samples ofaccessions out ofthe FAO designated collections for the three commodity crops (beans, cassava and tropical forages). This figure is slightly lower as compared to last year (8,274 samples of accessions), but continues to be on the high side as a clear indication of continuing interest into the F AO designated collections. It would be therefore quite justified to celebrate an agreement with the Goveming Body of the Intemational Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture, at the moment ofits first meeting (12-16 June 2006, Madrid). A new web site has been designed in order to facilitate consultations of GRU databases by intemet users. To date, 21,676 digital images have been taken for seeds, cassava root sections, forage plants in the field, herbarium vouchers, in order to help internet users tailor clown their gerrnplasm requests. 83% of the entire cassava collection has been tested and certified against viruses of quarantine importance."}]},{"head":"Activity area # 3: the Genetic and Social relevance ofthe Conservation","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":172,"text":"After hurricane Katrina devasted severa! areas ofthe Caribbean in August 2005, GRU has replied positively to the restoration of cassava clones to Cuba. Contacts have been made with REMERFI to restare farrners' seed stocks in areas of Guatemala, Honduras and Nicaragua affected by hurricane Stann. On the other hand, research has advanced in seed physiology of species of tropical fruits, namely Passiflora and Carica, as models of interrnediate seed behaviour; this research will help our partners to conserve poorly known species at lower costs and for longer durations. A study has been done in cooperation with Corpolca about extent of diversity and redundancy in the national collection of avocado of Colombia. In view of expanding the cassava collection in the future, while reducing costs of maintenance in vitro, a research has been undertaken to track down the duplicated accessions. At the request of MADR of Colombia, a protocol has been developed to successfully conserve seeds of the peach palm in liquid nitrogen, with possibility to apply it also to other palm species."},{"index":2,"size":25,"text":"Activity area # 4: the International cooperation and capacity building Three courses received input from GRU Staffin 2005. Nine publications were published in 2005 ."},{"index":3,"size":52,"text":"Thirteen lectures and presentations were made by Staff during this year. Two thesis research were supervised by GRU Staff and well concluded. Ten Professionals were given specialized training in GRU facilities. Five posters were presented in national/ intemational scientific congresses. One workshop was carried out with the network ofbotanical gardens of Colombia."},{"index":4,"size":151,"text":"Activity area # 5: the Link with in si tu Conserva/ion on farm and in the wzld Phase 2 of the Gene Flow project supported by BMZ of Germany has started, along three perspectives. First, the methodology successfully developed to identify cases of gene flow in Costa Rica is now being applied to putative hybrid swarms identified in other countries ( e.g. Guatemala, Colombia, Peru, Bolivia) between cultivated common bean and its wild form. Second, although very rare, there seems to be a few cases of introgression with the p articipation of a sister species belonging to the same evolutionary phylum as P. vulgaris. These natural interspecific hybrids were spotted in Colombia and in Costa Rica because of their morphology. Microsatellites screened at 68 loci generated banding patterns shared among all taxa (those of the same evolutive phylum), but also specific to each species and thus found in their putative hybrids."},{"index":5,"size":68,"text":"In both localities the natural crossing involves P. dumosus and P. vulgaris, but might result without effect given the lack of fertility of the natural hybrids. Third, in localities of Costa Rica where hybrid swarms have been identified in the past, and where agriculture has been abandoned, we continued to analyze subsequent generations of weedy forms in order to see whether past gene flow has any lasting effect."},{"index":6,"size":61,"text":"This year we have collated information about the geographic distribution of wild bean populations in the following herbaria: BR, CR, CICY, ENCB, K , INB, M , SI and USJ. These data will help us to build up the pilot for the GEF project \"Conservation and sustainable use of Neotropical wild relatives of crops through an integrated understanding of functional diversity\"."}]},{"head":"Problems encountered and their solution","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":132,"text":"As indicated last year, for the upgrading of the facilities ( e.g. new lighting system in the in vitro subculturing room, shelving system, alarms), problems in delivery on time and as per agreed terms have been faced with high frequency. Apart from contracting in the US or Germany (but possibly at higher costs), it is not clear what GRU can do, as these services are not often required on the Andean market. Imports (reagents for the lab, equipment for the Upgrading, official mail) from Miarni have been noted with delays (frequency of delays, duration of delays). On the other hand, continuing reductions in the core (U S$ 36,414 to opera te in 2005!, the Upgrading Plan apart) raise doubts about operating the GRU wi thout externa! special funding, and make planning difficult."}]},{"head":"Plans for next year","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":168,"text":"• Continue to clear backlogs, namely that of the bean collection • continue with regeneration ofbean and tropical forage collections • continue the shipments of the security back-ups to CIMMYf and CIP • continue with the documentation of the 'institutional memory' by recovering elite germplasm released by CIA T and partners in the past in the countries • update the web site, namely with evaluation and herbarium data • expand the cryoconservation to a set of cassava clones beyond the core collection through vitrification technique • continue Phase 2 of the Gene Flow Project • publish in full results ofPhase 1 ofthe Gene Flow Project, and offloral biology • make appropriate follow-up to the pdf-B process for the GEF project • prepare for the ratification of the Intemational Treaty within SGRP (e.g. automatic documentation ofMTAs) • run international courses as it may be required ( e.g. electronic distan ce education on ex situ conservation in Spanish 2\"d version, and l 51 version in English for Africa and Asia)"}]},{"head":"Executive summary","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":166,"text":"The Upgrading Plan of the CGIAR Genebanks (' Rehabilitation of International Public Goods ', phase l) has progressed at full speed in 2005 . A total of 10,404 accessions of beans and 5,274 accessions of tropical forages have been planted for seed increase and regeneration because of aging seeds in four stations in Colombia. A total of 10,229 accessions have been harvested, processed and dried, while 2,333 accessions have been secured in the long-term vault. A 20% of the designate collections has been shipped to CIMMYT for the seed collections of beans and forages, and to CIP for the in vitro cassava collection, respectively, as safety back-ups. In 2005, GRU has distributed 8,480 samples of accessions out of the F AO designated collections for the three commodity crops. Research has advanced to get a better understanding of behaviour of seeds of Passiflora and Carica under different conservation conditions. A protocol has been successfully developed for the conservation of seeds of the peach palm in liquid nitrogen."},{"index":2,"size":89,"text":"Research has been carried out to identify the leve! of redundancy (i.e. genetic duplicate accessions) in collections of avocado and cassava, with help of AFLPs and SSRs markers, respectively. Three courses at national/ intemational leve] received input from GRU Staff in 2005. The special project on gene flow supported by BMZ of Germany has started its Phase 2, with emphasis on the participation of related species in the gene flow events, the ocurrence of gene flow over a large geographic range, and the persistence of its effects through time. "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Annex 2 CG Performance Measurement. Output Template Project # 5: the Link with In situ Conservation on Fann and in the Wild Output6 Designated Collections made socially relevan!. Output 7 Strengthen NARS for conservation and use of Neotropical pl.ant genetic resources. Project SB 1/2 Output (GRU) l. l. Backlogs cleared/ introduced 1.2. Materials planted 6,520 materials/ Output target 2005 2,000 materials/ year 2005 1.3. Materials 3,400 materials/ regenerated 2005 1.4. Materials 2,000 materials/ processed 2005 2.1. Materials 4,500 materials/ cleaned 2005 2.2. Materia1s Unpredictable distributed target 2.2. Data available Newwebpage 2.4. Safety back -ups 2,000 at CIMMYT 3.1. Publications 3 articles in refereed joumals 4.1. Training Course and NARS trained Categories of output targets to be used are materials, policy strategies, practices, capacity, and Category of Output Achieved? target materrals no(l ,636) materials yes (11 ,060) materials yes (7,852) materials yes (8,875) materials yes (4,710) materials yes (8,480) practice y es (information product) materials yes (3,400) Knowledge y es Capacity y es other kinds of knowledge. Genetic Resources Unit work breakdown structure Project Goal To improve conservation efforts in order to increase the social benefits of conservation practices 1 Project Purpose To integrate ex situ and in situ conservation 1 1 1 Subproject 1: Subproject 2: Subproject 3: To make the To make the To make the collection collection-collection-designate meet designated designated fully international available to users relevant to the standards (i.e. (i.e. farmers, purposes of viability, quantity breeders and conservation. and plant health agronomists ). aspects). 1 1 1 Outputs Outputs Outputs Improve Sets of Novel materials conservation germplasm acquired or techniques. restored to collected. NARS. 3.000 accessions Refined core Genetic erosion fully regenerated. collections monitored and including novel documented. materials. Status collection-1 Subproject 4: To contribute through training to capacity building in conservation sciences and techniques in the region. 1 Outputs NARS human resources trained. developed. genetic reserves techniques Longer periods between all collections Workshops and contribution conservation costs journa1s and Staff time vitro) GRU enabled to multiply made to five Improved Savings in maintenance Publications in refereed A vai1abi1ity of s tudents duplicated (incl. In allow effective shipments Output 1.5 Collections safe to CIMMYT and CIP CIP quarantine authorities CIAT GRU Systern F AO Designate Accessions sent annually Visits to CIMMYT and Agreements with products On-1ine consultations of Output 2.4 Public awareness 1 Subproject 5: To develop in si tu methodologies for farmer landraces and wild relatives. 1 Outputs Project proposals on in situ conservation prepared. Narrative Sumrnary Measurable Indicators Means of Verification Important Assumptions Goal To make the FAO ICER'95 and ICER'97 F AO Comm.ission Designa te recommendations met Narrative Summary Measurable Indicators Means of Verification lmportant Assumptions Sub-Narrative Summary Measurable lndicators Means of Verification Importan! Assumptions 3.3. Financial Resources So urce Amount (US$) Proportion (%) Sub-Project Narrative Sununary Measurable Indicators Means of Verification lmportant Assumptions Goal Unrestricted core 478,816 52 experts visits Goal Goal To develop in situ Wider gene pools List of taxa in protected Carryover from 2004 28,693 (1 04,000) 3 Collections complying with the International Standards Purpose Our purpose is to Germination rates for Visits to GRU Sustained and appropriate rnultiply and long stored materials multiplication To make the FAO ICER'95 and ICER'97 F AO experts visits Designa te recommendations met Consultations of users Collections Distribution records available to users, inside and outside CIAT To rnake the FAO Farmers recover Surveys oflandrace Designa te landraces from GRU methodologies for conserved in situ are as Sub Total 507,509 diversity Collections Breeders frnd novel genetically and genes in collections socially relevant Purpose farmer landraces Special projects and wild relatives Enhancing forages MADR 70,430 (110,000) 7 Purpose Our purpose is to Case studies and pilot in Contacts with Farmers' Gene Flow BMZ 51 ,280 5 Sustained and appropriate link the situ conservation associations and funding PalmsMADR 21 ,315 2 funding conserve the Costs per accession, per substations and Purpose Our purpose is to Landrace diversity Comparisons of landrace Sustained and appropriate conservation of projects Ministries of Intemational surveying Upgrading Plan Operations WB 285,242 (350,800) 31 Staff security guaranteed Designa te year as compared to conservation facilities Our purpose is to Number of germplasm Checks of Sustained and appropriate conserve Designate restored back to farmers diversity over time funding Designa te Environment possible Sub Total 428,267 Services delivered on time Collections under other genebanks Support in documentation the highest distribute the requests received and correspondence about funding Designa te satisfied annually MTAs Agreement with F AO Collections that ( e.g. Seeds of Hope Genes included in novel Staff security guaranteed meet users' needs project) varieties Collections with on-Support in documentation TOTAL 935,776 100 lntemational collecting farm conservation delivered delivered standards of quality Collections to any goes on bona fide user Services delivered on time today and tomorrow possible Support in documentarion efforts and protected 3.4. Research Highlights in 2005 are as and cost-effectiveness Output 1.1 Backlogs of Backlog materials Visits to quarantine Agreement ICA-CIA T introduced materials presented to ICA and glass-houses renewed and funded processed multiplied in quarantine On-line consultations of through MT As Support in documentation delivered Output 2.1 F AO Designa te Accessions tested in Visits to SHU delivered Ouput 3.1. Designa te Genepools and species Germplasm catalogs Collaborations with collections better relationships further On-line consultations on AROs, CIA T BRU and IP Ouput 5.1. Project proposals Concept Notes Concept Notes in Activity area # 1: the International Standards Collaboration with CIA T prepared distributed to potential The Upgrading of the CGIAR genebanks has progressed at full speed during 2005. A total of Project/ Business Offices Project Office donors 10,404 accessions of beans and 5,274 accessions of tropical forages have been planted for seed Participation of CIA T Collections cleaned SHL and cleaned in multiplication plots virologists and characterized defmed the InterNet projects Output 5.2 increase and regeneration because of aging seeds. GRU is now operating four stations: Palrnira Quarantine glass-house glass-houses GRU system against seed borne special multiplication Reports of externa! pathologists Publications Support in documentation Contribution rnade Wild relatives of CIA T Publications Interest by NARS and (9.5 Ha), Quilichao ( 10.2 Ha), Popayán (1 Ha; 11 mesh-houses) and Tenerife (3,5 Ha), with 75 space avai1ab1e in Backlogs of Multiplication g1ass-Visits to multiplication materials pending houses/ plots with plots in different on multiplication backlog materials Materials pending Regenerated accessions/ Visits to regeneration on regeneration year plots in different and field equipment regenerated (incl. In Materials processed Processed accessions/ Visits to cold store into final packing year facilities and 1ab equipment all collections characterized Breeders use novel genes catalogs A vailabi1ity of manpower GRU enabled to multiply sampled and varieties acts and national BRU, IP projects and GIS Output 1.4 allow effective shipments Unique genes better Farmers use new Plant Variety registration Collaboration with CIAT vitro) restored to NARS collections dispatched of original country quarantine authorities Output 3.4 substations/ in vitro Lab National collections Accessions of national Checks in genebank(s) Agreements with documented mapped regional projects Output 2.3 monitored and varieties identified/ Publications GIS laboratory and A vailability of manpower data bases Genetic erosion Endangered populations/ Comparative mapping Collaboration with CIAT conservation practices Output 1.3 available to users germplasm and data Budget for recovering Output 3.3 documented documentation of regional projects multiplied characterization data Users ask for novel engineering of data bases Publications conservation NGOs and NARS in Catalogs of landraces GIS laboratory and cleared substations passport and and data the InterNet contributes to the re-GRUsystem Practices on on-farm Participation ofFarmers, Publications Collaboration with CIA T Quarantine matters and field equipment Gerrnplasm, Users receive germplasm On-line consultations on CIA T Information Unit collected quarantine glass-houses On-line consultations of Output 5.3 CIAT A vailability of manpower Output 2.2 acquired or collected materials in glass-houses country of origin and Ame rica Output 1.2 vitro) Novel rnaterials Recently acquired/ Visits to quarantine areas in Latin protected areas Agreement between different altitudes diseases (incl. In plots/ glasshouses experts Output 3.2 towards protected crops included in Conservation Agencies Staff. A total of 10,229 accessions ha ve been harvested, processed and dried, while 2,444 Output6 Designated Collections made socially relevan!. Output 7 Strengthen NARS for conservation and use of Neotropical pl.ant genetic resources. Project SB 1/2 Output (GRU) l. l. Backlogs cleared/ introduced 1.2. Materials planted 6,520 materials/ Output target 2005 2,000 materials/ year 2005 1.3. Materials 3,400 materials/ regenerated 2005 1.4. Materials 2,000 materials/ processed 2005 2.1. Materials 4,500 materials/ cleaned 2005 2.2. Materia1s Unpredictable distributed target 2.2. Data available Newwebpage 2.4. Safety back -ups 2,000 at CIMMYT 3.1. Publications 3 articles in refereed joumals 4.1. Training Course and NARS trained Categories of output targets to be used are materials, policy strategies, practices, capacity, and Category of Output Achieved? target materrals no(l ,636) materials yes (11 ,060) materials yes (7,852) materials yes (8,875) materials yes (4,710) materials yes (8,480) practice y es (information product) materials yes (3,400) Knowledge y es Capacity y es other kinds of knowledge. Genetic Resources Unit work breakdown structure Project Goal To improve conservation efforts in order to increase the social benefits of conservation practices 1 Project Purpose To integrate ex situ and in situ conservation 1 1 1 Subproject 1: Subproject 2: Subproject 3: To make the To make the To make the collection collection-collection-designate meet designated designated fully international available to users relevant to the standards (i.e. (i.e. farmers, purposes of viability, quantity breeders and conservation. and plant health agronomists ). aspects). 1 1 1 Outputs Outputs Outputs Improve Sets of Novel materials conservation germplasm acquired or techniques. restored to collected. NARS. 3.000 accessions Refined core Genetic erosion fully regenerated. collections monitored and including novel documented. materials. Status collection-1 Subproject 4: To contribute through training to capacity building in conservation sciences and techniques in the region. 1 Outputs NARS human resources trained. developed. genetic reserves techniques Longer periods between all collections Workshops and contribution conservation costs journa1s and Staff time vitro) GRU enabled to multiply made to five Improved Savings in maintenance Publications in refereed A vai1abi1ity of s tudents duplicated (incl. In allow effective shipments Output 1.5 Collections safe to CIMMYT and CIP CIP quarantine authorities CIAT GRU Systern F AO Designate Accessions sent annually Visits to CIMMYT and Agreements with products On-1ine consultations of Output 2.4 Public awareness 1 Subproject 5: To develop in si tu methodologies for farmer landraces and wild relatives. 1 Outputs Project proposals on in situ conservation prepared. Narrative Sumrnary Measurable Indicators Means of Verification Important Assumptions Goal To make the FAO ICER'95 and ICER'97 F AO Comm.ission Designa te recommendations met Narrative Summary Measurable Indicators Means of Verification lmportant Assumptions Sub-Narrative Summary Measurable lndicators Means of Verification Importan! Assumptions 3.3. Financial Resources So urce Amount (US$) Proportion (%) Sub-Project Narrative Sununary Measurable Indicators Means of Verification lmportant Assumptions Goal Unrestricted core 478,816 52 experts visits Goal Goal To develop in situ Wider gene pools List of taxa in protected Carryover from 2004 28,693 (1 04,000) 3 Collections complying with the International Standards Purpose Our purpose is to Germination rates for Visits to GRU Sustained and appropriate rnultiply and long stored materials multiplication To make the FAO ICER'95 and ICER'97 F AO experts visits Designa te recommendations met Consultations of users Collections Distribution records available to users, inside and outside CIAT To rnake the FAO Farmers recover Surveys oflandrace Designa te landraces from GRU methodologies for conserved in situ are as Sub Total 507,509 diversity Collections Breeders frnd novel genetically and genes in collections socially relevant Purpose farmer landraces Special projects and wild relatives Enhancing forages MADR 70,430 (110,000) 7 Purpose Our purpose is to Case studies and pilot in Contacts with Farmers' Gene Flow BMZ 51 ,280 5 Sustained and appropriate link the situ conservation associations and funding PalmsMADR 21 ,315 2 funding conserve the Costs per accession, per substations and Purpose Our purpose is to Landrace diversity Comparisons of landrace Sustained and appropriate conservation of projects Ministries of Intemational surveying Upgrading Plan Operations WB 285,242 (350,800) 31 Staff security guaranteed Designa te year as compared to conservation facilities Our purpose is to Number of germplasm Checks of Sustained and appropriate conserve Designate restored back to farmers diversity over time funding Designa te Environment possible Sub Total 428,267 Services delivered on time Collections under other genebanks Support in documentation the highest distribute the requests received and correspondence about funding Designa te satisfied annually MTAs Agreement with F AO Collections that ( e.g. Seeds of Hope Genes included in novel Staff security guaranteed meet users' needs project) varieties Collections with on-Support in documentation TOTAL 935,776 100 lntemational collecting farm conservation delivered delivered standards of quality Collections to any goes on bona fide user Services delivered on time today and tomorrow possible Support in documentarion efforts and protected 3.4. Research Highlights in 2005 are as and cost-effectiveness Output 1.1 Backlogs of Backlog materials Visits to quarantine Agreement ICA-CIA T introduced materials presented to ICA and glass-houses renewed and funded processed multiplied in quarantine On-line consultations of through MT As Support in documentation delivered Output 2.1 F AO Designa te Accessions tested in Visits to SHU delivered Ouput 3.1. Designa te Genepools and species Germplasm catalogs Collaborations with collections better relationships further On-line consultations on AROs, CIA T BRU and IP Ouput 5.1. Project proposals Concept Notes Concept Notes in Activity area # 1: the International Standards Collaboration with CIA T prepared distributed to potential The Upgrading of the CGIAR genebanks has progressed at full speed during 2005. A total of Project/ Business Offices Project Office donors 10,404 accessions of beans and 5,274 accessions of tropical forages have been planted for seed Participation of CIA T Collections cleaned SHL and cleaned in multiplication plots virologists and characterized defmed the InterNet projects Output 5.2 increase and regeneration because of aging seeds. GRU is now operating four stations: Palrnira Quarantine glass-house glass-houses GRU system against seed borne special multiplication Reports of externa! pathologists Publications Support in documentation Contribution rnade Wild relatives of CIA T Publications Interest by NARS and (9.5 Ha), Quilichao ( 10.2 Ha), Popayán (1 Ha; 11 mesh-houses) and Tenerife (3,5 Ha), with 75 space avai1ab1e in Backlogs of Multiplication g1ass-Visits to multiplication materials pending houses/ plots with plots in different on multiplication backlog materials Materials pending Regenerated accessions/ Visits to regeneration on regeneration year plots in different and field equipment regenerated (incl. In Materials processed Processed accessions/ Visits to cold store into final packing year facilities and 1ab equipment all collections characterized Breeders use novel genes catalogs A vailabi1ity of manpower GRU enabled to multiply sampled and varieties acts and national BRU, IP projects and GIS Output 1.4 allow effective shipments Unique genes better Farmers use new Plant Variety registration Collaboration with CIAT vitro) restored to NARS collections dispatched of original country quarantine authorities Output 3.4 substations/ in vitro Lab National collections Accessions of national Checks in genebank(s) Agreements with documented mapped regional projects Output 2.3 monitored and varieties identified/ Publications GIS laboratory and A vailability of manpower data bases Genetic erosion Endangered populations/ Comparative mapping Collaboration with CIAT conservation practices Output 1.3 available to users germplasm and data Budget for recovering Output 3.3 documented documentation of regional projects multiplied characterization data Users ask for novel engineering of data bases Publications conservation NGOs and NARS in Catalogs of landraces GIS laboratory and cleared substations passport and and data the InterNet contributes to the re-GRUsystem Practices on on-farm Participation ofFarmers, Publications Collaboration with CIA T Quarantine matters and field equipment Gerrnplasm, Users receive germplasm On-line consultations on CIA T Information Unit collected quarantine glass-houses On-line consultations of Output 5.3 CIAT A vailability of manpower Output 2.2 acquired or collected materials in glass-houses country of origin and Ame rica Output 1.2 vitro) Novel rnaterials Recently acquired/ Visits to quarantine areas in Latin protected areas Agreement between different altitudes diseases (incl. In plots/ glasshouses experts Output 3.2 towards protected crops included in Conservation Agencies Staff. A total of 10,229 accessions ha ve been harvested, processed and dried, while 2,444 designate Output 2.5 Data (passport, regenerations Improved core technical courses in LA. designate Output 2.5Data (passport, regenerationsImproved coretechnical coursesin LA. improved against Refined core characterization Breeders and collections Requests for core carried out. GRU enabled to multiply improved against Refined corecharacterization Breeders andcollections Requests for corecarried out. GRU enabled to multiply vulnerability collections Alternate liable and affordable conservation methodologies Output 2.6 Improved disease indexing techniques and evaluation) agronornists use wider made available to representati veness. collections in terms users. Available spectrum of germplasm through core Core collections collections multiplied and shipped Communications all collections presented in international symposia. Cooperation with BRU for Landrace molecular assessment diversity in traditonal Savings in SHL costs Publications in refereed A vailability of students farming systems joumals Participation of CIA T Higher numbers of monitored. accessions processed by virologists and agrobiodiversity SHL pathologists vulnerability collections Alternate liable and affordable conservation methodologies Output 2.6 Improved disease indexing techniques and evaluation) agronornists use wider made available to representati veness. collections in terms users. Available spectrum of germplasm through core Core collections collections multiplied and shipped Communications all collections presented in international symposia. Cooperation with BRU for Landrace molecular assessment diversity in traditonal Savings in SHL costs Publications in refereed A vailability of students farming systems joumals Participation of CIA T Higher numbers of monitored. accessions processed by virologists and agrobiodiversity SHL pathologists developed. widened    developed.widened Genetic Resources Unit Logical Framework   Genetic Resources Unit Logical Framework Sub-Project # 1: The International Standards   Sub-Project # 1: The International Standards   6   6  "},{"text":" Accessions regenerated : 4,550 ofbeans, 3,302 oftropical forages 1.3. Accessions secured in long-term : 2,333 accessions secured 1.4. Accessions in security back-up: Shipment this year 3,400 seed accessions (CIMMYT) and l , 184 in vitro accessions (CIP) 4. Project performance indicators 4. Project performance indicators l .FLOWS, TECHNOLOGIES , METHODS & TOOLS l .FLOWS, TECHNOLOGIES , METHODS & TOOLS 1.1. Backlogs cleared: 1,636 accessions cleared 1.1. Backlogs cleared: 1,636 accessions cleared 1.2. 1.2.  "}],"sieverID":"673b60bd-2c71-4e50-9d46-cb5dd3834e5f","abstract":"Objective: To conserve the FAO Designated Collections and employ modern biotechnology to identify and use genetic diversity for broadening the genetic base and increasing the producti vity of mandate and selected nonmandate crops.O utputs: l. Improved characterization of the genetic diversity of wild and cultivated species and associated organisms . 2. Genes and gene combinations used to broaden the genetic base. 3. lncrease efficiency ofbreeding program using genomics tools 4. Mandate crops conserved, multiplied and distributed as per intemational standards. 5. Germplasm available, restored, an d safely duplicated. 6. Designated Collections made socially relevant. 7. NARS strengthened for conservation and use of Neotropical plant genetic resources. 8. Conservation of Designated Collections linked with on-farm conservation efforts and protected areas. M ilestones: 2005 Efficient transformation system devolved for cassava. Bean with high iron and zinc tested and transferred to CIA T Afiica program for bioavailability testing. Survey of cassava germplasm for beta carotene. SNP markers developed for bean and implemented for MAS. Targeted sequencing of cassava genome. Isogenic of QTL in rice developed and tested. Gene expression studies. Technology transfer for rapid propagation system to NARS. Testing of Ac/DS population for gene identification.2006 Scaling up of marker assisted selection and transformation established for rice bean and cassava. High through put screening for selected tropical fruits initiated. Marker assisted selected for multiple traits implemented in beans, rice and cassava. Target genes for drought identified and tested in beans. High iron and zinc bean lines developed through markers assisted selection released for field testing. Beta carotene cassava tested in Colombia, Brazil and selected countries in A frica.2007 Data mining (SNIPs) in ex si tul in si tu collections of wi ld relati ves of beans, cassava and forages for genes of economic importance (drought, starch). Field testing for transformed cassava. Gene flow studies diffused to NARS. Upgrading Plan completed. Safety duplicates at CIMMYT and CIP. Biofortified bean and cassava varieties in field tes~ing. Methods for rapid multiplication oftropical fruit gerrnplasm diffused to NARS. Genes for drought resistance in beans and cassava compared.Users: CIA T and NARS partners (public and private) in volved in gerrnplasm conservation and crop genetic improvement and agrobiodiversity conservation; AROs from DCs and LDCs, using CIA T technologies."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"06df8b9959ecbc879303c593bea6765c","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://www.tropenbos.org/file.php/2455/finance-integrated-landscape-mangement-credit-union-indonesia.pdf"},"pageCount":44,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Preface","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":57,"text":"This is one of a series of case studies implemented by partners of the CGIAR research programme on Forests, Trees and Agroforestry (FTA) and coordinated by Tropenbos International. These case studies of selected financial value chains provide insight into the strategies of their various stakeholders to increase the participation of smallholders in the transformation to resilient landscapes."},{"index":2,"size":50,"text":"Most tropical rural landscapes are subject to high rates of deforestation and forest degradation, which makes them more vulnerable to climate change and other shocks. Smallholders are important actors in these processes, but rarely benefit from existing financial flows. They need to be considered when investing in tropical rural landscapes."},{"index":3,"size":111,"text":"The methodology used by the case studies was designed to be implemented by FTA and its partner organizations, which are studying finance for integrated landscape management. The methodology is useful in a wide range of cases, although the authors specifically intend it to apply to the processes that key informants considered to be successful in supporting landscape initiatives and/or in increasing access to finance for all possible recipientsincluding marginalized and disadvantaged groups -within landscapes. Applying this methodology in a range of cases will contribute to generating an information base of comparable results. People can draw lessons from this information base to design processes that support inclusive financing for integrated landscape initiatives."},{"index":4,"size":113,"text":"The methodology comprises three phases. Phase 1 involves an in-depth interview with the implementing agency (IA), which plays a central role as broker of or intermediary for financial flows to landscape initiatives. This phase aims to define six things: 1) the main sources of finance and their characteristics; 2) the principal groups of recipients; 3) the financial flows associated with the various sources and recipients; 4) the process of managing and channelling funds; 5) the financial mechanisms applied and their underlying rules; and 6) the risks and barriers involved, from the perspective of the IA. In addition, the interview in Phase 1 will identify the stakeholders to be interviewed in the subsequent phases."},{"index":5,"size":126,"text":"Phase 2 involves collecting data related to the sources of finance, recipients (groups and individuals), and the providers of non-financial services who engage with them. It includes interviews with four types of key informants, who were identified during Phase 1: 2a) representatives of the finance sources; 2b) representatives of recipient groups; 2c) service providers engaged with recipients; and 2d) selected individual recipients and non-recipients (particularly smallholders). Phase 2 focuses on risk perceptions, the barriers perceived by each of the stakeholder groups, and ways to reduce the perceived risks and overcome barriers. Phase 2 efforts also seek to determine the extent to which the financial flows meet stakeholder expectations, as well as the perceived effects of the financial flows on sustainability goals in relation to the landscape."},{"index":6,"size":99,"text":"Phase 3 involves validating the information gathered in Phase 2. Focus group discussions held in Phase 3 involve representatives of principal recipients and groups of recipients, service providers, the implementing agency, and other stakeholders who are relevant to the financial flows. This case study focuses on the various types of productive loans provided by the Social Performance Management Unit of the Credit Union Semandang Jaya that are available to finance small-scale farmers and businesses, and analyzes how these are perceived to contribute to landscape objectives and integrated landscape management initiatives in the Ketapang-Kayong Utara landscape in West Kalimantan, Indonesia."}]},{"head":"SECTION I","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Introduction","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":175,"text":"In 2019, Tropenbos Indonesia and Tropenbos International conducted a Landscape Analysis of Financial Flows (LAFF) in Ketapang-Kayong Utara landscape, Indonesia (Rossanda et al. 2020) to generate an understanding of the landscape economy and to identify the most important financial flows within its sectors. The LAFF process identified the way that funds flow between actors within five key economic sectors in Ketapang-Kayong Utara landscape: conservation and sustainable use of forests; rice cultivation; swift house production; oil palm cultivation; and mining. The analysis also portrayed how these flows affect social and environmental landscape objectives. It found that both private and public financial flows were perceived to have positive effects on local economic development. The analysis found, however, that financial flows originating from public sources had neutral or positive impacts on other landscape objectives, while privately sourced funds were perceived to have much more negative effects on these other landscape goals. Identifying the interactions and effects of the existing financial flows within a landscape provides an understanding of the improvements needed to make it more sustainable and climateresilient."},{"index":2,"size":199,"text":"Although investing in sustainable land use in developing countries has growth potential, it often has, or is perceived to have, high risks and often requires more time to implement (Guarnaschelli et al. 2018). Furthermore, smallholders, local farms, and forest producer organizations -which are essential parts of the landscape, because they work directly in natural resource management -have limited access to finance. Thus, in order to achieve international commitments to a sustainable and climate resilient world, there is a need to do two things: 1) increase finance that contributes to sustainable agriculture, forest and other land uses, and that takes into account multiple activities; and 2) ensure that more of that finance benefits those people who need it most: smallholder farmers and agricultural and forest-based small businesses (Louman et al. 2020). Innovative financial mechanisms with non-conventional approaches are needed to address the barriers for smallholders and micro, small and medium enterprise (MSMEs) so they can have access to finance to transform their businesses into more sustainable land uses and value chains that support landscape objectives. Currently, three innovative financial initiatives have the potential to increase financial flows to sustainable landscapes: blended finance, green bonds and crowdfunding (Louman et al. 2020)."},{"index":3,"size":205,"text":"Within this context, the partners of the CGIAR research programme on Forest, Trees and Agroforestry (FTA), coordinated by Tropenbos International (TBI), carried out a series of case studies that analyze the arrangements and risk mitigating mechanisms applied by the financial entities that are considered to have positive impacts on smallholders and the landscapes they inhabit. Tropenbos Indonesia, in collaboration with Tropenbos International (TBI), conducted one of those case studies from October 2020 until January 2021. The case study analyzed an existing mechanism aimed at financing the people who most need it in the landscape economy: smallholder farmers, and agricultural and forest-based small businesses. The financial mechanism is provided by Credit Union Semandang Jaya in Simpang Dua Subdistrict, Ketapang District, West Kalimantan. The case study provides insight into the mechanism, one of the few financial flows that exist in Simpang Dua Sub-landscape, and one that supports integrated landscape management and processes for mitigating the associated barriers and risks for smallholder farmers and for micro, small, and medium enterprises (MSMEs). It is expected that this study will help participants to further develop and scale up existing innovative financial schemes and promote the improvement of similar financial schemes to support integrated landscape investments that apply a multistakeholder approach."}]},{"head":"Literature review","index":4,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Integrated landscape management","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":75,"text":"Under the conditions of a changing climate, integrated landscape management offers great opportunities for synergies between adaptation and mitigation activities in tropical agricultural landscapes and for exploring how agricultural systems and landscapes can be designed and managed to achieve these synergies (Harvey et al. 2013;Scherr et al. 2012;Locatelli et al. 2015). One of the major barriers to benefitting from these opportunities is the lack of finance for integrated landscape management initiatives (Louman et al. 2020)."},{"index":2,"size":51,"text":"Such initiatives have demonstrated promising potential to mobilize and support diverse stakeholders across sectors to work jointly toward shared landscape objectives for a wide range of human needs, economic goals, and ecosystem objectives in Africa (Milder et al. 2014), Latin America (Estrada-Carmona et al. 2014) and Asia (Zanzanaini et al. 2017)."},{"index":3,"size":51,"text":"Although the finance and conservation sectors are working on innovative mechanisms to achieve finance for landscapes (Shames and Scherr 2020) these mechanisms are still not of a scale to address the unequal distribution of finance for commercial purposes and finance for sustainable development and conservation (Tobin-de la Puente and Mitchell 2021)."}]},{"head":"Landscape finance","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":112,"text":"Despite a number of challenges, including limited access to finance, the agricultural sector and the agribusiness sector have been cited as driving forces for income generation and job creation, and as providing the backbone of most economies (Miller et al. 2010;Salami et al 2010;World Bank 2013). In developing countries such as Indonesia, some argue that economic development requires a shift from agriculture to manufacturing and services, a shift that is already occurring in Latin American countries. Landscape finance should probably be oriented both to more sustainable production and conservation and to the creation of more downstream processing and services at scale, in order to support existing trends in rural landscapes (Hecht 2010)."},{"index":2,"size":193,"text":"Access to financial services has been shown to strengthen capacity for economic growth and increase resilience to outside shocks (Demirgüç-Kunt et al. 2018). Smallholder farmers, local farms, and forest producer organizations encounter challenges in obtaining access to finance due to their lack of understanding of financial concepts, the nature of the financial instruments, the level of aggregation, and the distance to financial services in remote locations. These factors affect their ability to raise funds, not only to get or stay in business, but to move to more sustainable land-use practices (Louman et al. 2020). This lack of access to formal financial services affects the manufacturing, processing and marketing stages. Smallholder farmers also face several additional longstanding challenges that hinder their agricultural productivity and growth.  (Wattanapruttipaisan 2003). In some cases, commercial banks deem the collateral insufficient in view of the size of the loan requested; in other words, they see the proposed expansion as too large for the size of the firm (OECD 2004). Banks may also have insufficient information about some aspects of potential borrowers and have difficulty in assessing the creditworthiness of agribusiness entrepreneurs, especially those located in remote areas (OECD 2004)."},{"index":3,"size":43,"text":"Agribusiness entrepreneurs may lack a credit history and financial reports, which banks use to assess their creditworthiness. As a result, banks tend to require more collateral and set higher interest rates to compensate for these risks (Wattanapruttipaisan 2003;Coates et al. 2011;OECD 2013;MAFAP 2013)."},{"index":4,"size":192,"text":"In Ketapang-Kayong Utara landscape, in Ketapang and Kayong Utara districts of West Kalimantan, Indonesia, agriculture and forests are crucial parts of the landscape and major sources of income for local communities. Landscape finance for the agriculture and forestry sectors does not address several of the sustainability objectives for the landscape (Rossanda et al. 2020). Although financial flows originating from banks have positive impacts on the local economy, these flows have negative effects on landscape objectives due to the lack of strong environmental, social and governance (ESG) principles related to the loans (ibid.). In Ketapang District, palm oil has become the largest commodity for the agricultural sector, contributing about 15% of the district's GRDP (Gross Regional Domestic Product). However, financial flows to the palm oil sector have very negative impacts on landscape objectives. Although financial flows from the banking sector to palm oil companies, palm oil and crude palm factories, and outgrower cooperatives have benefited the economy of local people, they also contribute to land clearing, deforestation, reduction of local biodiversity, and water pollution (ibid.). This research uses the methodology from the manual developed by Primo et al. (2021), which proposes three phases:"}]},{"head":"Research methodology","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":17,"text":"1. In-depth interview with the implementing agency (IA); 2. Key informant interviews; and 3. Feedback and validation."},{"index":2,"size":22,"text":"The authors of this case study adapted the methodology to the conditions in the study area, including implications of the COVID-19 pandemic."}]},{"head":"Research objectives","index":8,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"General objective","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":38,"text":"The general objective of the case study was to provide insight into arrangements linked to financial flows for integrated landscape management, and mechanisms for mitigating barriers and risks, in support of multi-stakeholder negotiations on integrated landscape finance schemes."}]},{"head":"Specific objectives","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":25,"text":"1. Determine the expectations of various stakeholder groups with regard to landscape finance, underlying arrangements, and the extent to which these meet their respective expectations;"},{"index":2,"size":37,"text":"2. Identify risk perceptions in relation to financial flows and mitigation strategies and the resulting risk exposure for each stakeholder group; and 3. Define the main barriers for expanding integrated landscape finance and options for overcoming them."},{"index":3,"size":204,"text":"The research was conducted as a case study to generate an in-depth understanding that enables the participants to tell their story and to form a close collaboration between the researchers and the key informants. The case study method involves a range of tools to collect empirical material in order to allow participants to answer the research questions with maximum breadth. Semi-structured interviews were conducted, along with group meetings and document collection. Collecting empirical material from multiple sources allows it to be cross-checked (Yin 2009). The research focused on the financial flows from a credit union, a financial source in the landscape that is different from traditional forms of banking. Credit unions take the form of member-based cooperatives, and often have branches in subdistricts that are accessible and affordable for smallholders and local MSMEs. This study provides insights to the financial mechanisms that can support integrated landscape management within Simpang Dua Sub-landscape, and it focuses on the financial flows from CU Semandang Jaya (CUSJ), one of the most frequently accessed financial sources in the area. CU Semandang Jaya is also of interest since it has developed a Social Performance Management Unit that has specific loan products targeted to smallholders and farmers in the agricultural sector."}]},{"head":"Area of study","index":11,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Selection of key informants","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":139,"text":"Through the in-depth interview with the implementing agency (CU Semandang Jaya) in Phase 1, it was learned that CUSJ provides several types of loans. In addition, in 2017 CUSJ adopted an innovative financing scheme called Social Performance Management (SPM) that aims to support productive business activities, especially in the agroforestry and ecotourism sectors. However, this scheme has yet to be widely applied in the Simpang Dua area. This case study selected key 4 The borrowers of productive loans repay the lender from the income generated by the loan. Key informants from recipient and nonrecipient groups live in Semandang Kanan village and Gema village and were interviewed at their home/business in their respective village, while the district government officials were interviewed in their work base in Ketapang District. The General Manager of CUSJ was interviewed virtually, using the Zoom platform."}]},{"head":"Feedback and validation","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":34,"text":"A focus group discussion (FGD) was held in Phase 3 to validate the collected data and receive feedback. It also allowed team members to obtain additional information that was not captured during the interviews."},{"index":2,"size":96,"text":"To ensure that the discussion was effective, the FGD was limited to 15 people from relevant stakeholder categories. Participants included the management of CUSJ, members of CUSJ (both recipients and non-recipients), and relevant stakeholders who had been interviewed in Phase 2. Participants from the recipient group were selected based on gender, age group, type and scale of business and amount of loans, as well as their perceived risks and barriers. A resource person who understands financial flows from other financial institutions (in particular, banks) joined the FGD to provide external expert opinion and enrich existing perspectives."},{"index":3,"size":75,"text":"Since key informants had limited knowledge of the financial flows from CUSJ within Simpang Dua sub-landscape, the first session of the FGD discussed the overall financial flows within the landscape, the perceived risks of and barriers to these flows, and the support needed to overcome those barriers. More indepth discussions on the financial flows from CUSJ were conducted in a second session, to capture the impacts of the flows on economic, social, and environmental objectives."},{"index":4,"size":70,"text":"Limited resources and time, distance, as well as Covid-19 restrictions, made it difficult to gather all the participants in one place, so the FGD was a combination of face-to-face (offline) and online meetings. Participants who live in the Simpang Dua area joined an offline meeting, while participants outside the area joined the FGD through the Zoom platform. During the face-to-face meeting, all participants complied with the local Covid-19 health protocol."}]},{"head":"Main findings","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":34,"text":"5 Agreements are made to compensate labourers for their contributions to production. These vary in rates and terms of payment and are usually linked to crop cycle and marketing arrangements rather than regular payments."}]},{"head":"General background of key informants","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":39,"text":"Of the 18 key informants interviewed in this study, five are female and range in age from 29 to 58 years old. Of these five women, three were financial flow recipients (representing onethird of that group of key informants)."},{"index":2,"size":117,"text":"All the key informants who were CU members have established businesses, with sales ranging between IDR 1,000,000 and 20,000,000 per month. While some of the businesses are self-managed, sometimes with the help of a spouse, other businesses, especially in the oil palm plantations, provide jobs for an additional two to five workers, who are generally family members or local residents, with a kinship payroll system 5 . Palm oil is one of the main commodities in the landscape: three-quarters of key informants are independent oil palm farmers. This activity is sometimes combined with raising other crops; for instance, rubber, jengkol, paddy, and chilli. One of the key informant farms fish and sells both raw and grilled fish."},{"index":3,"size":99,"text":"Other key informants make a living from nonagribusinesses of trade and services such as a food supplies stall, local coffee shop, crafts, mechanical workshop, and small-scale building contractor.  TAMAN is a savings account with a minimum deposit of IDR 30,000,000 and a fixed interest rate, even when the member withdraws some of the money. TAMAN is used as the basis for applying for a loan and it automatically becomes collateral for the loan. If a member is unable to pay a loan instalment and interest payments, CU will immediately withdraw funds from TAMAN to pay the amount in arrears."}]},{"head":"TUAS (Tabungan Untuk Anak Sekolah)","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":19,"text":"TUAS is a savings account that aims to support education funds for schoolchildren, ranging from preschool to high school/equivalent."}]},{"head":"PASIMPONG","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":38,"text":"PASIMPONG is a savings account with daily interest; money can be withdrawn anytime during working hours. PASIMPONG can also be used as loan collateral. When used as collateral, funds cannot be withdrawn if the loan is considered high-risk."}]},{"head":"THR (Tabungan Hari Raya)","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":17,"text":"THR is a savings account that is commonly used to save money for annual religious holiday celebrations."}]},{"head":"TAMAPAN (Tabungan Masa Depan Pendidikan)","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":78,"text":"This is a savings account for parents who want to establish a higher-education fund for their children. TAMAPAN savings accounts can be financed through loans, meaning that members can borrow the money from the CU, deposit it in their TAMAPAN savings account and pay monthly instalments on the loan. The funds cannot be withdrawn until the loan is paid off. Members who have TAMAPAN savings accounts are eligible to be included in a scholarship program for higher education."}]},{"head":"TANDUR (Tabungan Darurat)","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":28,"text":"TANDUR is an emergency savings account to deal with urgent family or personal financial problems due to illness, accidents, house fires, natural disasters, layoffs, and repair of vehicles."}]},{"head":"TAJA (Tabungan Berjangka)","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":29,"text":"TAJA is a timed deposit savings account; i.e., it has a date of maturity. People must hold the money for a fixed term to receive the interest in full."},{"index":2,"size":7,"text":"CUSJ also provides six types of loans:"}]},{"head":"Productive loan","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":21,"text":"A productive loan can be used to generate income (from the activity generated by the loan) and provide returns for members."}]},{"head":"Consumptive loan","index":23,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":24,"text":"A consumptive loan is incurred to purchase or finance consumable goods and services, such as vehicles (motorcycle, car, speedboat), electronics, home renovations, and weddings."}]},{"head":"Capitalization loan","index":24,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":81,"text":"A capitalization loan is used to open a new savings account or to increase existing savings. This type of loan is often used by new members to finance Main Savings and fulfil the requirement for membership status. CU members can also use this type of loan to increase their savings, with the amount of the loan directly credited to the member's savings account. Capitalization loan also refers to a loan of an amount equal to or lower than the existing savings."}]},{"head":"Land and housing ownership loan","index":25,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":18,"text":"This type of loan can be used to purchase a house, land, or properties as a personal asset."}]},{"head":"Education loan","index":26,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":15,"text":"This type of loan can be used to finance higher education (high school and universities)."}]},{"head":"Medical loan","index":27,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":11,"text":"This type of loan can be used to pay medical bills."},{"index":2,"size":238,"text":"This case study focuses on the various types of productive loans provided by CUSJ that are available to finance small-scale farmers and businesses that contribute to integrated landscape management initiatives. See Table 2. The SPM focuses on providing assistance to recipients of a Green Economy Loan or Group Loan. A Green Economy loan (see Table 2) targets farmers who are starting small-scale agriculture and fisheries businesses. Most of its recipients are small-scale horticultural farmers (chilli, corn, cucumber, watermelon, green mustard and peanuts), fish farmers (catfish, parrot fish, goldfish), and chicken breeders who produce food supplies for the local market. Since the loan supports newly established small businesses, it provides a grace period, allowing the loan to be repaid after the first harvest, although the first instalment must be paid no longer than three to six months after the loan agreement has been signed. Green economy loans can be obtained by individuals or groups and can be provided as a double loan, meaning that beneficiaries are able to obtain another type of loan in the same loan period. Once the scale of the business improves and the recipient needs a larger loan, he or she is no longer eligible for a Green Economy Loan. All recipients of Green Economy Loans are entitled to business assistance from CUSJ. This aims to improve the capacity of the farmers regarding technical skills for farming, and to link the farmers with potential markets."},{"index":3,"size":56,"text":"Similarly to a Green Economy Loan, a Group Loan is also managed under the SPM unit. Group Loans target MSMEs, farmers, and agribusiness entrepreneur groups, and technical assistance is a mandatory component. Prior to the loan application, the group members must provide a signed document that states that they're obliged to accept technical assistance from CUSJ."},{"index":4,"size":102,"text":"The beneficiaries of this type of loan receive regular training associated with the business, such as in components of the agricultural system, including cultivation, raising seedlings, planting, treatment, harvesting, post harvesting, and primary product processing. Since the expertise of CU staff members in these specific subjects is limited, they collaborate with relevant government agencies to conduct the training. This helps them improve the skills and capacity of the loan beneficiaries so that they are able to develop their business by improving the quality and quantity of their yields. Furthermore, Group Loan beneficiaries also get coaching sessions in business management, accounting, and marketing."},{"index":5,"size":132,"text":"All type of productive loans can be accessed only by CU members, and each type of loan serves different segments. For instance, Green Economy loans can be used only to finance new agriculture business that require a small amount of capital in a short period (maximum 12 months). When businesses become more mature and need larger amounts of capital, individual members can access an Agriculture, Livestock, and Plantation Business Loan, which has no maximum amount and a longer repayment period. A PINTAR (short-term) loan is usually used by off-takers to purchase local commodities such as rubber, jengkol and durian during harvesting season. A project-based capital loan commonly targets the contractor of a government infrastructure project, so it requires a work order from the related project as part of the loan application documents."},{"index":6,"size":80,"text":"The basic requirements for the loans are the completed application form, ID card, business permit, and certificate of ownership of the collateral (if needed). When the amount of the loan is lower than the amount of money the applicants have in their savings accounts, no collateral is needed. Prior to the loan application, CU members can have a consultation session with loan officers, who provide information about the loans, help them assess their financial capacity, and calculate the repayment schemes."},{"index":7,"size":25,"text":"Once the application has been submitted, loan officers will analyze the creditworthiness of the applicant using a 5C framework: character, capacity, condition, capital and collateral."},{"index":8,"size":34,"text":"• Character refers to the credibility and reputation of the applicant. • Capacity considers the applicant's ability to repay the loan, including any additional source of income aside from his or her core business."},{"index":9,"size":45,"text":"• Condition considers the current state of the business as well the external trends that might affect it. • Capital considers the total capital needed by the business. • Collateral refers to the value of the asset that is being used to secure the loan."},{"index":10,"size":52,"text":"After this analysis, the application is brought to the Credit Committee, which consists of a loan officer, branch manager, and a member of the administration staff, to decide whether the application can be approved. If the amount of loan exceeds IDR 50 million, the approval must come from the head office level."},{"index":11,"size":297,"text":"In 2020, CUSJ disbursed a total of IDR 292.7 billion through several loan categories; 41.2% was for productive loans. See Table 3. A similar ratio of productive to non-productive loans also applied in Simpang Dua, where IDR 8.6 billion of IDR 20.8 billion went to finance local businesses. Of the total value of the productive loans in Simpang Dua, 94% was allocated for amounts higher than IDR 10 million, as shown in Table 4. The proportion of the total value of smaller loans (<10 million IDR) is lower in Simpang Dua (6%) than it is for all branches combined (16.3%). And although the amount of non-performing loans (NPLs) for financial flows to agribusinesses is considerably lower than for MSMEs, the agriculture sector obtained only 13.4% of total productive loans in Simpang Dua (IDR 1.1 billion); working capital obtained almost 80% (IDR 6.8 billion). See Table 5. This situation reflects the overall condition: farmers and entrepreneurs in agribusiness sector are still reluctant to seek financial support, mainly due to their lack of experience and knowledge of the financial system. In addition, the risks associated with agricultural sectors are perceived as being considerably higher, making this sector less attractive to financial institutions and other investors, even though the data in Table 5 show that in the case of CUSJ agricultural loans have a lower rate of non-payment than several other type of loans. Despite having a Green Economy Loan under the SPM unit in place, the CUSJ branch in Simpang Dua has yet to disburse loans to support the initiatives of small-scale businesses associated with green economy activities. By the end of 2020, the NPL ratio for all productive loans from CUSJ in Simpang Dua reached 2.25%, lower than the NPL ratio of commercial banks in Indonesia at 3.2%."}]},{"head":"Perceived risks and barriers","index":28,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":188,"text":"Investment in agricultural sectors is associated with high risks, especially because agricultural commodities are climate-sensitive, pricesensitive, and perishable. Moreover, the cycle of harvesting makes it hard for farmers to pay the monthly instalments required by financial service providers. In addition, a lack of financial management skills sometimes makes farmers less attractive to investors and may also exclude farmers from financial access. The risks of financial flows in Simpang Dua sub-landscape as perceived by the recipients during the interviews are shown in Table 6. These perceived risks were also confirmed by the financial institutions during the FGD. As shown in Table 6, the risk of a lower commodity price was perceived to be high by most of the FGD participants, especially for rubber, which remains the main commodity in Simpang Dua. One participant from the recipient group had already switched to another commodity and had no difficulties in paying back the loan even when the price decreases. A participant from a government agency perceived that the risk of fluctuating commodity prices is affected by global prices, market demand, and product distribution that may affect the quality of the products."},{"index":2,"size":47,"text":"A participant from the agricultural agency mentioned that the risks for fruit and vegetable farmers are greater since they produce perishable products that are easily ruined. And the fact that some agricultural commodities are perishable goods with uncertain yields can make financial institutions reluctant to provide credit."},{"index":3,"size":127,"text":"Low productivity is considered to be a high risk, especially due to a rainy season that prevents farmers from being able to tap the rubber trees from which they derive their daily income. The risk of harvest failure is perceived to be low. It is mainly due to a change of weather, or pests and diseases, but has rarely occurred. One informant who runs a fisheries business has never experienced harvest failure. The risk of financial mismanagement due to misuse of the loan money for personal purposes is considered to be low. One of the FGD participants with a background in the banking industry had found some cases where debtors use the productive loan for purposes other than financing their business. However, such cases are not common."},{"index":4,"size":169,"text":"Several other risks were identified during the FGD, although they did not specifically apply in the Simpang Dua area. According to a finance expert who had a longstanding managerial career at a local branch of a national bank, there are also external risks that might affect a debtor's ability to repay the loan, such as financial crises and other crises (natural, political, etc.) outside the influence of the debtor. Despite the risks, all loan recipients are confident that they have sufficient capacity to be able to repay the loan in a timely manner, and they have risk mitigation strategies in place, such as switching to commodities that offer a better price, alternative sources of income, separation between business and personal financial management, and savings that provide reserve funds. To avoid the risk associated with a fall in commodity prices, borrowers consider choosing commodities with a higher market price and high market demand. This has caused an increasing shift from rubber to oil palm plantations in the Simpang Dua sublandscape."},{"index":5,"size":57,"text":"From the lender's side, the CU perceived that financing agricultural businesses has considerably high risks. However, since CUSJ serves its members, who mostly make a living as farmers, it is committed to continuing to finance small-scale farmers, even those who are just starting their farming business, by taking several risk mitigation measures, as presented in Table 7."},{"index":6,"size":10,"text":"Table 7. Risk mitigation strategies of the financial flow source"}]},{"head":"Category of risk Mitigation strategy Market risk","index":29,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":41,"text":"Establish downstream industries with marketing support from CUSJ; for example, ginger instant drink production, which uses ginger commodities produced by farmers and enhances famers' market outreach. Encourage commodity diversification to avoid severe financial losses due to crop failure or price drop."}]},{"head":"Financial risk","index":30,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":13,"text":"Develop farming insurance to protect farmers from financial loss due to crop failure."},{"index":2,"size":9,"text":"Conduct financial education for members to prevent financial mismanagement."}]},{"head":"Liquidity risk","index":31,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":26,"text":"Provide an emergency savings product (TANDUR) that can be used for personal emergencies, so that these problems will not affect debtors' ability to repay their loan."},{"index":2,"size":19,"text":"Provide loan schemes that align with the farming cycle; for example, through grace periods and flexible times of repayment."}]},{"head":"Operational risk","index":32,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":58,"text":"Establish an SPM unit specifically to empower members, especially to improve their technical agricultural skills. Provide risk management training and capacity building for staff involved in loan disbursement (loan officers, managers, administrative staff). Conduct prudent loan approval processes (loan applications for more than IDR 50 million already require approval from the credit committee at the head office level)."},{"index":2,"size":76,"text":"As another risk mitigation measure, some types of loans provided by the CU require a minimum amount in the borrower's savings account, equal to 10-30% of the total loan. If the borrower falls behind in loan payments, the CU can deduct the payment from the savings account. Moreover, some types of loan do not pose any risk for CU since the amount of the loan is lower than the amount of savings accumulated by the borrower."},{"index":3,"size":13,"text":"Participants in the FGD discussed several barriers to receiving financial flows (Table 8)."},{"index":4,"size":225,"text":"Relevant stakeholders and informants from non-recipient groups identified that distance from financial institutions, lack of knowledge regarding the loan application process, lack of collateral, complicated procedures, high interest rates, absence of legality documents, and cultural barriers are still hampering access to finance in general. CU loan recipients, however, do not experience any significant barriers to obtaining their loans. Even when the interest rate from the CU is higher than that from banks, local people still prefer the CU since bank services are not widely available in Simpang Dua. Moreover, the high interest rate is not perceived as too burdensome since a significant part of the interest will flow back to the CU members in the form of Balas Jasa Pinjaman (loan repayment) and Sisa Hasil Usaha (dividend). The barrier of the absence of legal documents (a loan application requirement) was perceived as Low since CU staff members provide assistance for members to apply for identity documents and for an SKT (land ownership letter) to the village authorities when necessary. If the applicants do not own collateral in the form of a fixed asset such as land or a house, their savings account can serve as collateral, but only when the amount of the loan is lower than the amount of their savings. In that case, the requirements and the application process are a lot easier."},{"index":5,"size":86,"text":"Furthermore, no specific barriers that limit women's access to loans were identified by any of the informants from the recipient and non-recipient groups. However, one of the male informants perceived that women tend to go through a more complicated application process, with more questions from the financial institutions. One of the female recipients stated that she had to obtain approval from her spouse before applying for a loan, although during the FGD it was confirmed that approval from the spouse is also required for male applicants."},{"index":6,"size":189,"text":"Other relevant stakeholders, however, perceived that barriers for womens' group may not yet have been identified, because fewer women apply for credit in the first place. Interestingly, in the case of CUSJ, a higher proportion of productive loans is accessed by women, even though overall, women are less likely to obtain loans (see Table 9). Of 5,916 beneficiaries of productive loans in all CUSJ branch offices across Kalimantan, 61.2% are accessed by women beneficiaries even though women accounted for only 38.9% of the total (productive and non-productive) loan beneficiaries. Another barrier as perceived by a female informant from a district government office is that women often find it harder to access credit from formal financial institutions, because the asset that can be used as collateral is registered under the spouse's name. The situation is even more complicated for divorced women, especially when the legal status of the asset is not yet resolved. Despite the fact that its members perceive no significant barriers to access to financial support, CUSJ has taken the following five measures to enable local businesses, regardless of their size and scale, to access its financing products:"},{"index":7,"size":245,"text":"1. Provide the Green Economy Loan as a specific product with a lower interest rate than other type of loans provided by CUSJ, except for agriculture loans. This loan targets the small business segment. The Green Economy Loan finances newly established local businesses in the horticulture, fisheries, and livestock sectors and it provides business assistance as a package along with financial support. This type of loan accommodates a repayment period in accordance with the first harvesting period, up to three to six months after the loan has been received by the debtors. 2. Conduct an outreach strategy in which a credit officer will conduct a field visit so that the consumer can have financial support without having to come to the CU's office. 3. Provide education regarding the financial products available and general financial management for the local communities in the form of financial literacy training for its members. 4. Simplify administrative processes and requirements for loan applications. While other formal financial institutions such as banks need land certificates as collateral, CUSJ accepts an SKT (land ownership letter). Loans for less than IDR 50 million can be approved at the branch office level, which can speed up approval. For debtors who apply for a loan that is lower than their existing savings, the application process will take only one working day. 5. Assist members to apply for the necessary legal documents for credit applications, including personal identity documents, business registration, and land ownership letter (SKT)."},{"index":8,"size":58,"text":"Support from the CU has, therefore, become the key factor to overcoming recipients' barriers. They can now directly access financial services more easily. Especially for smallholders and small businesses, outreach and inclusiveness are provided by financial education and literacy efforts and also driven by direct engagement and assistance and by innovative products that are tailored to their needs."}]},{"head":"Effects of the financial flows on social, economic, and environmental objectives","index":33,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":119,"text":"Financial flows can cause positive and negative effects on social, economic and environmental objectives within the landscape. This study seeks to gain insights into the effects of existing financial flows from CUSJ on Simpang Dua sub-landscape, and to identify potential opportunities to improve their positive effects and reduce their negative effects on landscape objectives. In general, as highlighted by one of the key informants from the district-level government office, most local economies -especially those related to crop farming systems -are still traditionally managed, with limited or no access to financial services. However, the existence of CUSJ as an alternative financial source has enabled local communities to obtain finance to run their businesses or simply to own a saving account."},{"index":2,"size":178,"text":"In general, financial recipients perceived that access to financial flows from CUSJ have positive effects on increasing revenue, supporting job creation, contributing to food security, improving social solidarity, and equalizing access to financial services. See Table 10. These perceived effects were confirmed by other stakeholders during the FGD. One of the tangible impacts of financial flows from CUSJ can be seen in the growing businesses and increasing income. This directly and indirectly contributes to the improvement of housing conditions, increases asset ownership, and expands access to higher education for local communities in Simpang Dua. The impacts of access to higher education can be the indirect result of a growing economy, and can also be due to funding schemes to pursue higher education being available. This results in local people being more confident about obtaining education loans to help secure their children's future. The financial flows also have impacts on economic objectives (Table 11). Such financial flows contribute to job creation, especially in the palm oil sector, that is perceived to have a multiplier effect on the local economy."},{"index":3,"size":154,"text":"Increasing financial flows to the palm oil sector have enabled small-scale farmers to manage more land, purchase vehicles and equipment, and provide job opportunities. Similar impacts from flows to the food crop sector have yet to be identified. The impact of financial flows on the business management skills of recipient communities is perceived to be not significant, since a major part of these financial flows is oriented to the non-productive sector, and support for business management skills applies only to recipients of productive loans and not to communities in general. In a broader sense, the financial flows are also perceived to have no impacts on access to new markets for local commodities, since most local products target the local market. At the same time, some agricultural products do not have sufficient quality or quantity to meet the demands of the commercial market, although efforts have been made to link CUSJ-financed businesses to potential markets."},{"index":4,"size":167,"text":"All participants from the recipient group agreed that the loan enables them to acquire additional assets for their businesses. One participant, who joined CU only to save money, was in doubt about taking out a loan. Through a group loan, however, he began to develop confidence in his ability and resources to repay the loan and later he perceived that a loan from CU could be a means to improve his business and assets in the future. In an oil palm plantation, loans can be used to expand the plantation area or purchase a dump truck to transport fresh fruit bunches to the buyers. The latter opens up a job opportunity for a truck driver. Two loan recipients have hired workers in their oil palm plantation in addition to the core family members; usually these are neighbours hired through a kinship payroll system. Other recipients do not have additional workers, as the scale of their business is still small enough that they can run it by themselves."},{"index":5,"size":63,"text":"Table 11. Perceived effects of financial flows on the economic objectives of the businesses of the recipients on economic objectives The financial flows have positive effects on revenue. However, two FGD participants -one has a fisheries business and rubber plantation while the other has an independent oil palm plantation and rice mills -agreed that the increasing revenue is not stable and sometimes varies."},{"index":6,"size":86,"text":"Financial flow recipients perceived an improvement in their financial literacy. At first, some joined CU only to save money, but over time they gained the confidence to borrow money to develop their business and accumulate assets. They also perceived that their business skills have improved, as indicated by the variety of businesses and the innovation in business development. For example, the recipient who has a freshwater fish farm has been able to open a small grilled fish restaurant nearby, thanks to a loan from the CU."},{"index":7,"size":48,"text":"Access to markets has improved for recipients who run the grilled fish restaurant and rice mills. The local oil palm plantation business is still in the early stage and has not yet started its production cycle; therefore, its access to the market has not been affected by CUSJ."},{"index":8,"size":41,"text":"Currently, CUSJ also does not play any role in the supply chain of palm oil. 11 However, members expect CUSJ to pursue marketing opportunities for oil palm fresh fruit bunches, starting with collecting data on oil palm production from its members."},{"index":9,"size":90,"text":"Financial flows also have impacts on environmental objectives (Table 12). According to CUSJ management and members involved in the FGD, financial flows from CUSJ have enabled local people to plant abandoned land and grassland with shrubs to convert 11 CUSJ was offered an agreement to supply oil palm fresh fruit bunches to a nearby processing company with a production capacity of 20 tonnes/hour. Due to the lack of resources to meet the company's production capacity and a lack of staff to handle the arrangements, this offer had to be declined."},{"index":10,"size":130,"text":"them to more productive gardens, mostly for oil palm and smaller areas for vegetables/ horticultural crops. They perceived that this effort helps somewhat to increase biodiversity on the land and that oil palm plantations are not a threat to the forest area. However, there is a misconception among CU management that financing palm oil plantations by planting abandoned land can contribute to climate change mitigation, since crops with a solid stem are perceived to absorb more carbon than shrubs. One of the loan recipients did not know the direct impact of the financial flows on climate change mitigation and adaptation, while another thought that oil palm financing was not affecting the impacts of climate change (such as floods or uncertainty in the harvesting season) on local commodities such as durian."},{"index":11,"size":180,"text":"On the other hand, by supporting settled farming instead of conventional open rice fields, these financial flows also contribute to reducing slash-and-burn practices, and therefore have a positive environmental impact by reducing forest fires. Although it is not mandatory, loan recipients are expected to plant diverse commodities to serve as alternative sources of income and to reduce the risk of loss of income when crops fail or commodity prices drop; hence, the financial flows are perceived to have positive effects on crop diversification. CUSJ has a specific lending policy that bans financing for illegal activities, which is a positive gesture towards prevention of illegal logging and illegal mining in the forest areas. CUSJ even facilitated an agreement to prevent the communities from carrying out illegal mining in the upstream areas. The effects of financial flows from CUSJ on environmental objectives were perceived to be neutral to positive, mainly because the CU finances local businesses that cause no direct negative effects on the environment. Its lending policy specifically states that it will not finance large-scale monoculture plantations that remove forest cover."}]},{"head":"Room for improvement","index":34,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":31,"text":"The participants in the FGD suggested various improvements that could be made to CUSJ's provision of financial services. These improvements can be divided into six categories, as shown in Table 13. "}]},{"head":"Meeting the expectations of the different stakeholders","index":35,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":121,"text":"Globally, the market share of CUs is declining. This can be attributed to regulatory and compliance burdens, particularly those faced by smaller CUs in many countries, but also to the depersonalization of larger CUs, making that members felt less connected to the CU and the CUs were less able to develop client specific financial products (Chepkwei 2018). Sumarwan and Taruk (2017) note, however, that in Indonesia the market share of CUs has increased. They attribute this to an approach that is innovative and implemented by strategic leadership, and where financial and social performance complement each other. The same authors also mention (ibid.) the need to provide a diversified set of financial products that are tailored to the needs of the members."},{"index":2,"size":112,"text":"CU Semandang Jaya fits into the overall picture of successful CUs in Indonesia. It is growing rapidly, and from the interviews and focus group discussions it appears that members are content with the variety of financial products it provides. Members highly value being part of the organization and receiving benefits from the solidarity funds, thus combining financial and social objectives. Some authors (Sumarwan and Kusuma 2018) suggest that solidarity funds may be among the non-financial benefits that help maintain and increase membership. This particularly may be the case where these benefits and the financial products offered by the CU are not being delivered by the formal banking system (Sagwa and Kembu 2016)."}]},{"head":"Risks and mitigating strategies","index":36,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":183,"text":"CU Semandang Jaya is also similar to other CUs in Indonesia with respect to its proportion of loans to the agriculture, livestock and fisheries (ALF) sector. In one case in South Sulawesi, for example, only about 12% of loans are used directly for ALF investments, despite most members of credit unions being farmers (Sumarwan and Taruk 2017). CUSJ has assigned slightly more loans for ALF investments than the CU in South Sulawesi, but in Simpang Dua the proportion is slightly less. One of the constraints mentioned by FGD participants was physical remoteness. In follow-up conversations with farmers, however, potential recipients of loans also indicated that their commercial operations are small and that they prefer to use their own capital, or that of close relatives, rather than commit themselves to formal loans and run the risk of not being able to pay them back within the agreed period. This confirms the high importance that farmers and MSMEs give to risk and suggests that currently, reducing the risk of income fluctuations may be more important to them than reducing the risks of the financial instruments."},{"index":2,"size":113,"text":"In the study area, palm oil seems to address the desire for higher and more stable income, since it is considered to have a good market and relatively stable price (Widayati et al. 2021). At the same time, converting from traditional practices to oil palm cultivation introduces dependence on one crop and the related risks of reduced production due to droughts or other factors. Local stakeholders are looking into the costs and benefits of mixed cropping with or without oil palm to reduce these risks. Results look quite promising, 12 but only if local processing can add value and if these value chains can be organized so that their products reach attractive markets."},{"index":3,"size":196,"text":"Besides the risk of income fluctuation, FGD participants gave importance to health and emergency risks. The CU's health insurance is therefore highly appreciated. Participants thought that more should be done to develop agricultural insurance that could cover losses due to crop failure. This may be quite a challenge, considering the low degree of participation in an existing governmental scheme to subsidize an agricultural production cost insurance for rice producers in West Java (Mutaqin and Usami 2019). One of the limitations to developing insurance may be the lack of detailed and accurate information on past performance for the insured crops (Hess et al. 2016). This possibly limits its application to farmers who produce common commodities and have been doing this for some time; also, for producers of crops with more fragmented production areas and markets this information may not be available. Under climate change conditions that increase the number and intensity of extreme events, such insurance schemes will become more costly, and may always have to depend heavily on subsidies from government or philanthropic organizations. Some argue that in many cases other forms of risk reduction, including income diversification, may be more cost-effective (Louman et al. 2020)."},{"index":4,"size":104,"text":"On the other hand, looking at the CU's experience in contributions to solidarity funds, paying the fees for such an insurance run by the CU may be less of a barrier for farmers in Simpang Dua than it was for the farmers studied in West Java (Mutaqin and Usami 2019). This is possibly due to the identification of the Simpang Dua farmers with \"their own\" CU. In East Java a collaboration between an insurer, a CU and a foundation providing technical assistance to farmers resulted in a weather-indexed insurance scheme for rice farmers in 2019 (SFSA 2019); the CUSJ could learn from their experience."}]},{"head":"Barriers to expansion and greater positive environmental impacts","index":37,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":66,"text":"Participants in the FGD recognized the lack of production quantity, quality and diversity as major barriers to stabilizing their income and thus reducing their financial risks. They linked these barriers to the need for improved access to markets and for technical assistance on a range of topics, from financial literacy, good cultivation practices and primary processing techniques to value chain organization and marketing of the products."},{"index":2,"size":129,"text":"In general, despite efforts in this direction, financial flows from CUSJ have not significantly affected its recipients in terms of market outreach. Expanding markets is partly hampered by the lack of capacity of its members to provide consistent quantity and quality of their products in order to meet the needs of the commercial market. CUSJ is currently piloting support for the production and marketing of locally produced ginger products through Okomo Mart, a retail shop of the Semandang Jaya Group that aims to be the marketing channel for the products of CUSJ members. However, its capacity to do so is limited. This may limit further expansion of CUSJ's financial services to more farmers and to a more diversified set of agricultural options (different mixed cropping systems, primary processing, etc.)."},{"index":3,"size":72,"text":"Expansion may also mean depersonalization of the services, which in other countries was one of the factors that led to the reduced success of credit unions. A potential solution to this would be to involve more than one credit union in a landscape and seek complementary technical assistance services from locally active CSOs. This could be done in Simpang Dua through collaboration within the formal multistakeholder platforms recently established in West Kalimantan."},{"index":4,"size":146,"text":"In general, private-sector financial flows in the Ketapang area are considered to have a positive effect on income, but they rarely have a positive effect on the conservation of the natural environment (Rossanda et al. 2020). This may be due to the fact that local stakeholders do not recognize the contributions of, for example, palm oil companies to biological corridors or key environmental areas, because they do not directly see the benefits or because those benefits are long term and may not be felt locally but only at a larger scale. Similarly, Widayati et al. (2021) found, for example, that the potential negative effects of oil palm plantations on the availability of clean water was perceived as an important risk at the district level, but was not perceived locally. Any actions to reduce that risk may therefore not be perceived as important at the local level."},{"index":5,"size":110,"text":"Many of these private financial flows originate from banks. Participants in the case study also recognized the positive social and economic effects of the investments resulting from the CU cash flows and agreed that while they did not see negative environmental effects, such effects could be further improved; for example, by incorporating stricter environmental criteria in loan application assessments. This was also recognized by the board of the CU, who agreed to incorporate additional criteria in its lending policies that prohibit illegal mining, illegal logging, and illegal fishing activities. CU Semandang Jaya also states in its 2021 Lending Policy that it doesn't finance largescale monoculture plantations that clear natural forests."}]},{"head":"Conclusions","index":38,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":63,"text":"Credit unions can support integrated landscape management by developing, strengthening and expanding innovative financing schemes that can create positive effects on landscape objectives. This is possible due to their wide outreach to local communities, in particular smallholders and small-scale entrepreneurs. With this approach and availability at the village level, CUs can provide financial access to those who are excluded from traditional banking mechanisms."},{"index":2,"size":86,"text":"The CU in this case study is particularly well placed to expand its operations and make finance accessible to more smallholder farmers and local, agri-forest MSMEs. This is because through its representatives it brings services to the villages, provides a range of financial products that are better suited to local conditions than those of formal financial institutions, and because CU members feel they also benefit from some essential nonfinancial products that reduce the risks of their families in the case of health problems, death or retirement."},{"index":3,"size":198,"text":"However, looking at the risks, barriers and effects of financial flows in the landscape, it can be seen that providing access to affordable financing mechanisms is not sufficient. The risks of falling commodity prices and low crop productivity should be addressed by strengthening the capacity of local smallholders and MSMEs to increase the quality and quantity of their products, add value to their products, and be included in the value chain. One key strategy to address risk is to consistently support local businesses with technical assistance, training and capacity building, along with providing financial support to address the specific needs of the community while remaining economically viable. However, CUSJ's limited capacity to provide additional technical assistance that helps reduce the production risks and market risks of the farmers and MSMEs remains a factor that constrains the expansion of its financial operations. Furthermore, financial sources should ensure that the financial flows are not causing negative effects to landscape objectives, by establishing sufficient safeguards before the flow is disbursed. Integrating environmental, social and governance (ESG) principles into CUSJ's credit policy is essential and beneficial, not only to contribute to positive effects on society but also to enhance long-term financial values."},{"index":4,"size":76,"text":"In the case of the CUSJ, providing a range of financial products to meet the needs of farmers is not sufficient to increase investments in smallholder agriculture. Financial literacy support, technical assistance and support for access to markets are as important in meeting the needs of farmers and MSMEs. Since the CUSJ has limited means to provide this support to all farmers, multistakeholder approaches are necessary. These should involve government, financial institutions, CSOs, and local communities."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"  "},{"text":" informants for Phase 2 who are beneficiaries of productive loans 4 in the agroforestry and MSMEs sectors and whose financed activities are considered to have positive effects on social, economic and environmental objectives. In addition, CU members who are not beneficiaries of any loan products were interviewed in Phase 2 to provide insights on the risks, barriers and impacts of the financial flows. Potential key informants for both the recipient and non-recipient categories were suggested by CUSJ. Other key informants from the local and district-level government provided a more general overview of the existing financial flows in the sub-landscape. Key informants interviewed included: Key informants interviewed included: • one representative of CUSJ (financial flow • one representative of CUSJ (financial flow source); source); • nine CU members who receive productive • nine CU members who receive productive loans (financial flow recipients); loans (financial flow recipients); • three CU members who do not receive • three CU members who do not receive any loan products (financial flow non- any loan products (financial flow non- recipients); recipients); • one representative of local government • one representative of local government (Simpang Dua Head of Subdisctrict/ (Simpang Dua Head of Subdisctrict/ Camat); and Camat); and • four representatives of district-level • four representatives of district-level government (Agriculture, Animal government (Agriculture, Animal Husbandry and Plantation Office of Husbandry and Plantation Office of Ketapang District and Cooperatives, Ketapang District and Cooperatives, MSMEs, Industry and Trade Office of MSMEs, Industry and Trade Office of Ketapang District). Ketapang District).  "},{"text":" ). Table 1. Saving products, Credit Union Semandang Jaya Table 1. Saving products, Credit Union Semandang Jaya TAMAN (Tabungan TAMAN (Tabungan Masa Aman) Masa Aman)  "},{"text":"Table 2 . Productive loans provided by Credit Union Semandang Jaya Type of loan Characteristic Platform 7 Interest rate (on a monthly basis) Maximum time period Type of loanCharacteristicPlatform 7Interest rate (on a monthly basis)Maximum time period Working • Targeted to the MSME segment; Savings amount at 1.8% 60 Working• Targeted to the MSME segment;Savings amount at1.8%60 capital for instance, food supplies stall, a minimum of 30% effective months capitalfor instance, food supplies stall,a minimum of 30%effectivemonths  commodities trade (rubber, palm of the total loan rate 8  commodities trade (rubber, palmof the total loanrate 8  oil, vegetables), kiosks, automotive    oil, vegetables), kiosks, automotive  workshops, restaurants, and property.    workshops, restaurants, and property.  • Collateral is needed in the form of    • Collateral is needed in the form of  CU savings account, land and house    CU savings account, land and house  certificates, business permits/ letter of    certificates, business permits/ letter of  the cultivation registry.    the cultivation registry. Agriculture, • Targeted to independent and Saving amount at a 1.25% 60 Agriculture,• Targeted to independent andSaving amount at a1.25%60 livestock individual businesses in the minimum of 30% of effective months livestockindividual businesses in theminimum of 30% ofeffectivemonths and agriculture, livestock and plantation the total loan rate; 0.75%  andagriculture, livestock and plantationthe total loanrate; 0.75% plantation sectors.  flat rate 9  plantationsectors.flat rate 9 business     business loan     loan  "},{"text":"Table 3 . Total loan disbursement from CU Semandang Jaya as of 31 December 2020 (IDR) Type of loan Simpang Dua All branches Type of loanSimpang DuaAll branches Productive 8,642,160,400 120,756,737,375 Productive8,642,160,400120,756,737,375 Consumptive 6,451,342,000 65,850,627,075 Consumptive6,451,342,00065,850,627,075 Capitalization 406,454,200 20,174,614,500 Capitalization406,454,20020,174,614,500 Land and housing ownership 4,171,502,500 63,844,878,000 Land and housing ownership4,171,502,50063,844,878,000 Education 929,359,000 15,022,489,250 Education929,359,00015,022,489,250 Medical 214,199,500 7,115,341,500 Medical214,199,5007,115,341,500 TOTAL 20,815,017,600 292,764,687,700 TOTAL20,815,017,600292,764,687,700  "},{"text":"Table 4 . Total amount of productive loans (IDR) disbursed in Simpang Dua, 2020 Amount of loan Simpang Dua All branches Amount of loanSimpang DuaAll branches < 1,000,000 3,520,000 807,373,600 < 1,000,0003,520,000807,373,600 1,000,0001 -10,000,000 512,529,000 18,829,364,000 1,000,0001 -10,000,000512,529,00018,829,364,000 10,000,001 -50,000,000 4,063,800,900 54,926,046,575 10,000,001 -50,000,0004,063,800,90054,926,046,575 > 50,000,000 4,062,310,500 46,193,953,200 > 50,000,0004,062,310,50046,193,953,200 TOTAL 8,642,160,400 120,756,737,375 TOTAL8,642,160,400120,756,737,375 CUSJ disbursed loans under the SPM unit to   CUSJ disbursed loans under the SPM unit to a total amount of IDR 2,619,397,000 across   a total amount of IDR 2,619,397,000 across West and Central Kalimantan (2% of its total   West and Central Kalimantan (2% of its total disbursements). The disbursement of SPM   disbursements). The disbursement of SPM loans in Simpang Dua area is still limited. By   loans in Simpang Dua area is still limited. By the end of 2020, only one group of farmers   the end of 2020, only one group of farmers in Simpang Dua had accessed Group Loans   in Simpang Dua had accessed Group Loans through SPM schemes. It should be noted,   through SPM schemes. It should be noted, though, that the maximum amount of loans for   though, that the maximum amount of loans for agriculture, livestock, and plantation businesses   agriculture, livestock, and plantation businesses is low compared to working capital loans,   is low compared to working capital loans, which are commonly used to finance MSMEs   which are commonly used to finance MSMEs and trade activities.   and trade activities.  "},{"text":"Table 5 . Total amount of productive loans disbursed in Simpang Dua (IDR), number of beneficiaries disaggregated by gender, and NPL rate for each type of loan, 2020 Type of loan Male Female Total loans NPL (%) Type of loanMaleFemaleTotal loansNPL (%)  recipients recipients disbursed (IDR)  recipientsrecipientsdisbursed (IDR) Working capital 123 111 6,842,969,400 2.36 Working capital1231116,842,969,4002.36 Agriculture, livestock and plantation business 31 11 1,162,061,000 2.00 Agriculture, livestock and plantation business31111,162,061,0002.00 Green Economy - - - - Green Economy---- Short-term loan 12 7 513,100,000 1.27 Short-term loan127513,100,0001.27 Project-based capital 2 0 112,350,000 2.20 Project-based capital20112,350,0002.20 Group loan 1 0 11,680,000 3.00 Group loan1011,680,0003.00 TOTAL 169 129 8,642,160,400 2.25 TOTAL1691298,642,160,4002.25 While a similar number of men and women beneficiaries of project-based capital or group While a similar number of men and womenbeneficiaries of project-based capital or group receive Working Capital loans, only 26% loans.    receive Working Capital loans, only 26%loans. of recipients of Agricultural, Livestock and     of recipients of Agricultural, Livestock and Plantation Loans are from women's groups.     Plantation Loans are from women's groups. Short-term loans, which are often used for     Short-term loans, which are often used for trade businesses, are used by 36.8% of     trade businesses, are used by 36.8% of women beneficiaries. No women are the     women beneficiaries. No women are the  "},{"text":"Table 6 . Perceived risks of financial flows Type of risk Level of risk Remarks Mitigation strategy Type of riskLevel of riskRemarksMitigation strategy Decrease in commodity Medium to Commodity prices can be affected Switch to a commodity Decrease in commodityMedium toCommodity prices can be affectedSwitch to a commodity price high by fluctuating commodity prices with a better price pricehighby fluctuating commodity priceswith a better price   on the global market and by  on the global market and by   the risk of lowered quality due  the risk of lowered quality due   to transportation. The risk of a  to transportation. The risk of a   decrease in commodity price is  decrease in commodity price is   perceived to be high, especially for  perceived to be high, especially for   rubber.  rubber. Low crop productivity High Agricultural commodities are Find an alternative Low crop productivityHighAgricultural commodities areFind an alternative   susceptible to weather changes source of income susceptible to weather changessource of income   and pest attacks that might  and pest attacks that might   affect crop productivity. Also, for  affect crop productivity. Also, for   commodities such as rubber, the  commodities such as rubber, the   rainy season hampers farmers'  rainy season hampers farmers'   ability to tap the trees and therefore  ability to tap the trees and therefore   lowers productivity.  lowers productivity. Crop failure Low Rare -cases caused by weather Find an alternative Crop failureLowRare -cases caused by weatherFind an alternative   changes or pest attacks. source of income changes or pest attacks.source of income Financial Low Rare -cases where a loan was Separate business FinancialLowRare -cases where a loan wasSeparate business mismanagement  used for other purposes. and personal financial mismanagementused for other purposes.and personal financial    management management Urgent personal needs Low Rare, since CUSJ provides loans Have savings as a Urgent personal needsLowRare, since CUSJ provides loansHave savings as a   for urgent personal needs (e.g., reserve fund for urgent personal needs (e.g.,reserve fund   health, education, family matters) in  health, education, family matters) in   addition to productive loans.  addition to productive loans.  "},{"text":"Table 8 . Barriers to financial flows as perceived by participants in the FGD Type of barrier Type of barrier  "},{"text":"Table 9 . Number of loan recipients (all branches) Type of loan Male Female Total Type of loanMaleFemaleTotal Productive 2,295 3,621 5,916 Productive2,2953,6215,916 Non-productive * 13,233 6,259 19,492 Non-productive *13,2336,25919,492 Total 15,528 9,880 25,408 Total15,5289,88025,408 Note: Non-productive refers to the other five types of loans: consumptive, capitalization, land and housing Note: Non-productive refers to the other five types of loans: consumptive, capitalization, land and housing ownership, education, and medical.    ownership, education, and medical.  "},{"text":"Table 10 . Perceived effects of financial flows on socioeconomic objectives Type of impacts Opinion Type of impactsOpinion Increased income Positive Increased incomePositive Job creation Positive Job creationPositive Increased food security Positive Increased food securityPositive Business management skills Not significant Business management skillsNot significant Access to markets Neutral Access to marketsNeutral Social solidarity Positive Social solidarityPositive Access to finance Positive Access to financePositive Educational opportunities Positive Educational opportunitiesPositive Moreover, financial flows from CUSJ are death and house fires. These products are Moreover, financial flows from CUSJ aredeath and house fires. These products are perceived to have positive effects on social considered to bring a sense of social cohesion perceived to have positive effects on socialconsidered to bring a sense of social cohesion solidarity among community members, to its members. Loans for the agriculture and solidarity among community members,to its members. Loans for the agriculture and since its membership-based system enables fisheries sector are perceived to contribute to since its membership-based system enablesfisheries sector are perceived to contribute to members to recommend each other for food security. CUSJ has provided loans for rice members to recommend each other forfood security. CUSJ has provided loans for rice credit. As a cooperative, CUSJ has adopted farmers in Dusun Deraman, Semandang Kiri credit. As a cooperative, CUSJ has adoptedfarmers in Dusun Deraman, Semandang Kiri five pillars as the basis of its products Village, Simpang Hulu Sub-district, who meet five pillars as the basis of its productsVillage, Simpang Hulu Sub-district, who meet and services: education, self-subsistence, local consumption needs. and services: education, self-subsistence,local consumption needs. solidarity, innovation, and unity in diversity.  solidarity, innovation, and unity in diversity. Its products can be accessed by poor people  Its products can be accessed by poor people and minority groups who are left behind by  and minority groups who are left behind by conventional financial mechanisms. CUSJ has  conventional financial mechanisms. CUSJ has social and solidarity products that provide  social and solidarity products that provide health insurance and compensation for  health insurance and compensation for  "},{"text":"Table 12 . Perceived effects of financial flows on environmental objectives Type of effects Opinion Type of effectsOpinion Protect biodiversity Neutral to positive Protect biodiversityNeutral to positive Mitigate climate change impacts Neutral to positive Mitigate climate change impactsNeutral to positive Reduce forest fires and illegal logging Neutral to positive Reduce forest fires and illegal loggingNeutral to positive Prevent illegal mining in the forest area Positive Prevent illegal mining in the forest areaPositive Diversify crops Positive Diversify cropsPositive Reduce shifting cultivation agriculture Neutral to positive Reduce shifting cultivation agricultureNeutral to positive  "},{"text":"Table 13 . Suggested improvements Frank van Schoubroeck (lead expert, Farmtree services, 23 June 2021), pers. comm. Category Type of improvement CategoryType of improvement Policy • Diversify the types of businesses that can be financed, especially to Policy• Diversify the types of businesses that can be financed, especially to  enhance loan products that finance innovative, sustainable and climate- enhance loan products that finance innovative, sustainable and climate-  resilient businesses resilient businesses  • Take into account the character of the prospective members, not merely • Take into account the character of the prospective members, not merely  the value of the collateral the value of the collateral  • Increase the transparency of the policy and participatory decision- • Increase the transparency of the policy and participatory decision-  making processes making processes  • Add a loan portfolio focused on sustainable and climate-resilient • Add a loan portfolio focused on sustainable and climate-resilient  business business  • Adopt environmental, social and governance (ESG) criteria • Adopt environmental, social and governance (ESG) criteria Process • Provide sufficient information regarding the CU's products and services Process• Provide sufficient information regarding the CU's products and services  • Implement outreach at the village/sub-district level • Implement outreach at the village/sub-district level  • Simplify loan application procedures • Simplify loan application procedures Internal resources • Have additional staff available to provide assistance in the loan Internal resources• Have additional staff available to provide assistance in the loan  application process application process  • Hire additional field staff to conduct outreach for people in the more • Hire additional field staff to conduct outreach for people in the more  remote areas with limited access to financial services remote areas with limited access to financial services  • Hire additional staff to implement a more comprehensive loan • Hire additional staff to implement a more comprehensive loan  disbursement strategy with a more effective risk mitigation approach disbursement strategy with a more effective risk mitigation approach  • Create a research and development unit to map the market potential • Create a research and development unit to map the market potential  and to monitor the impacts of the financial flows and to monitor the impacts of the financial flows Cost • Provide interest rate relief for certain business sectors Cost• Provide interest rate relief for certain business sectors  • Lower the interest rate, especially for productive loans targeted to • Lower the interest rate, especially for productive loans targeted to  smallholder farmers and MSMEs smallholder farmers and MSMEs Products and services • Provide non-cash loan schemes (fertilizers, seeds, etc.) Products and services• Provide non-cash loan schemes (fertilizers, seeds, etc.)  • Increase linkages to the market • Increase linkages to the market Capacity building • Provide business assistance (production, post-production, financial Capacity building• Provide business assistance (production, post-production, financial  management, marketing, etc.) management, marketing, etc.)  • Provide training in technical skills (how to increase crop yields, how to • Provide training in technical skills (how to increase crop yields, how to  make organic fertilizer, digital marketing, craftsmanship, etc.) make organic fertilizer, digital marketing, craftsmanship, etc.)  • Provide training in financial literacy • Provide training in financial literacy  "}],"sieverID":"2da225d3-5a23-4312-b186-727cc98bcd00","abstract":""}

data/part_2/06fd03a868337b53a0fcecd3a7c1fd78.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"06fd03a868337b53a0fcecd3a7c1fd78","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/ad753a4e-5f97-49ed-84fa-f03be7d0327d/retrieve"},"pageCount":1,"title":"Rice yellow mottle virus (RYMV) resistance-breaking risk map for Africa","keywords":[],"chapters":[],"figures":[],"sieverID":"71322166-679f-40fc-b8e6-4afb97733be2","abstract":"Virulence mutations that are present in a small proportion of the virus population can be sufficient for resistance breakdown. RYMV strains can overcome the RYMV resistance genes and alleles. We established a resistance-breaking risk map to optimize strategies for the deployment of sustainable and resistant rice lines in Africa."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"075fecc44ec24f9d54636941184c4b4d","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/495de6a9-77ad-47bb-a782-ba200a553076/retrieve"},"pageCount":18,"title":"Characterizing the relationship between empowerment and economic outcomes in Guatemala","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Background","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":44,"text":"• Women's empowerment positively associated with improved own and household well-beings and better agricultural outcomes. • Positively associated with own nutritional status and with household food security (Bonis-Profumo et al., 2021;Malapit et al., 2015;Onah et al., 2021;Quisumbing et al.,2021b;Seymour et al., 2019). Wouterse 2017)."},{"index":2,"size":14,"text":"• Positive associations also with child-level human capital and nutrition outcomes (Bonis-Profumo et al.,"},{"index":3,"size":20,"text":"• Positively correlated with increased agricultural productivity and other agricultural outcomes (higher volume of outputs, diversified production strategies, input efficiency) "}]},{"head":"Women's empowerment and economic outcomes","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":24,"text":"• Less is known about the relationship between empowerment in agriculture and off-farm economic outcomes. • We use primary data from Guatemala to ask:"},{"index":2,"size":36,"text":"• Is women's and men's empowerment correlated with income diversification at the individual level? • Is women's and men's empowerment correlated with income diversification at the household-level? • Are there other factors that affect these relationships?"},{"index":3,"size":15,"text":"• Members of farmer-producer organizations (FPOs) • Focus on high-value and export-oriented crops (e.g., vegetables)"},{"index":4,"size":21,"text":"• Data collected in August 2022 in 7 departments of Guatemala (Sololá, Chimaltenango, Sacatepéquez, Alta Verapaz, Baja Verapaz, Huehuetenango and Quiché)"},{"index":5,"size":9,"text":"• Departments on average poorer with high indigenous population"},{"index":6,"size":15,"text":"• Sample: 788 households (723 with men and women respondents and 65 with only women)."}]},{"head":"Data","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":20,"text":"• In these FPOs, men are usually members, but women can participate in activities and trainings; some activities target women"},{"index":2,"size":30,"text":"• FPO members get through the organization trainings, inputs and business support, linkages to export markets, trainings on crop maintenance, input selection, business capacity building and gender equity among others."}]},{"head":"Project-level Women's Empowerment in Agriculture Index for Market Inclusion (pro-WEAI+MI)","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":6,"text":"• Pro-WEAI+MI includes 10 core (binary)"},{"index":2,"size":7,"text":"indicators and 21 standalone (binary) market-inclusion indicators"},{"index":3,"size":7,"text":"• The pro-WEAI allows us to calculate:"},{"index":4,"size":21,"text":"• Individual empowerment score for men and women (average across indicators) • Whether the individual is empowered (empowerment score > 0.75)"},{"index":5,"size":13,"text":"• 21 additional market inclusion (+MI) indicators being piloted and tested under ANEW"},{"index":6,"size":12,"text":"• +MI indicators measure agency related to FPO engagement and high-value commodities"},{"index":7,"size":14,"text":"• Focus on 8 indicators that we hypothesize may be associated with income diversification "}]},{"head":"Respondent characteristics","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":30,"text":"•Women respondents are, on average, 41 years old; men 43 years. •Less than half of the women (46.2%), but more than two-thirds of the men (68.9%) know how to read."},{"index":2,"size":13,"text":"•Average household has 6.6 members and 2 children under 15 years of age."},{"index":3,"size":28,"text":"•Most households are involved in the agricultural production of the focus high value crops, with 4.3% of the households not reporting any sales in the focus value chains."}]},{"head":"Participation in non-agricultural activities","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":55,"text":"• Fewer than 5% of the women participate in off-farm labor and around 10% operate an independent business. • Less than a quarter of the men participate in off-farm labor; ~7% operate an independent business. • 33% of the HHs have members in off-farm labor; only 17.8% have at least one member with a business."}]},{"head":"• In spite of the low participation in these economic activities, is higher women's empowerment is associated with household income diversification?","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":25,"text":"Association between women's and men's empowerment and their off-farm economic activities  Association between having a household member operating independent business and selected +MI indicators, women"},{"index":2,"size":16,"text":"• Access to information positively related to having a member of the HH operating independent business."},{"index":3,"size":10,"text":"• Involvement with the FPO, negatively related to the outcome. "}]},{"head":"Summary of findings","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":77,"text":"• We find no relationship between women's and men's empowerment in agriculture and their pursuit of off-farm additional income generation strategies. • Nonetheless, we find a positive associations between women's empowerment in agriculture and household economic diversification strategies (having members performing off-farm labor or operating independent business), but not on monetary results. • We see no evidence that the +MI indicators operate as moderating factors or that they change the relationship between empowerment and the regression outcomes."},{"index":2,"size":10,"text":"(Results not shown in the interest of time and space.)"},{"index":3,"size":17,"text":"• However, +MI indicators hold their own relationship with the HH-level economic outcomes when controlling for empowerment."}]},{"head":"Key messages","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":25,"text":"• When women are more empowered, their husbands and children are more likely to be involved in economic activities outside of the main agricultural activity."},{"index":2,"size":29,"text":"• Income diversification is a risk management strategy for poor households, if the FPO provides the tools for risk management, then there's less need for the HH to diversify."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"• Access to information • Participation in sales negotiations • Access to productive capital via FPO/co-op • Entrepreneurial mindset • Group collective agency • Access to reliable sanitation (women only) • Access to menstrual hygiene management (women only) • Critical consciousness about safe and healthy work environment Pro-WEAI+MI: market inclusion indicators Methodology: OLS regression analysis • Dependent variables -economic outcomes • Individual economic diversification strategies: • Individual participates in off-farm employment • Individual operates off-farm business • Household economic diversification strategies: • At least one member participates in off-farm employment • At least one member operates off-farm business • Total household revenue from off-farm employment • Total household revenue from off-farm business • Total sales from focus agricultural production "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"01 Association between women's and men's empowerment and household economic activities Men HH has a member with off-farm employment HH has a member with off-farm business Total income off-farm business Total income off-farm labor Total income from main VC sales       Off-farm employment  Off-farm business  Off-farm employmentOff-farm business Men           Men Empowerment score Empowerment -0.050 score (0.147) Empowered (1=yes, 0=no) 0.224* (0.118) N Empowered -0.071 (1=yes, 0=no) (0.050) 0.044 (0.041) 0.017 (0.133) 35243.58 (60065.30) 723 -0.028 4805.08 (13441.92) (0.045) 685 (17308.99) 1898.5 0.076 (0.079) 723 -2952.85 (4472.92) 0.032 (114368.92) 80573.93 (0.027) 685 -2684.18 (37681.53) Empowerment score Empowerment -0.050 score (0.147) Empowered (1=yes, 0=no) 0.224* (0.118) N Empowered -0.071 (1=yes, 0=no) (0.050)0.044 (0.041)0.017 (0.133) 35243.58 (60065.30) 723-0.028 4805.08 (13441.92) (0.045) 685 (17308.99) 1898.50.076 (0.079) 723 -2952.85 (4472.92)0.032 (114368.92) 80573.93 (0.027) 685 -2684.18 (37681.53) N Women Women Empowerment score 723 685 Empowered (1=yes, 0=no) Empowerment 0.232** 0.162** 723 score (0.100) (0.081) Empowered (1=yes, 0=no) 0.144*** 685 0.024 127 0.053 (0.045) 5163.23 (41914.28) 126 0.028 (0.022) 5009.70 242 (7994.34) -338.48 231 0.086 (0.064) 1678.92 723 -135287.77* (74816.40) 0.025 (0.033) -17711.33 685 N Women Women Empowerment score 723 685 Empowered (1=yes, 0=no) Empowerment 0.232** 0.162** 723 score (0.100) (0.081) Empowered (1=yes, 0=no) 0.144***685 0.024127 0.053 (0.045) 5163.23 (41914.28)126 0.028 (0.022) 5009.70 242 (7994.34) -338.48231 0.086 (0.064) 1678.92723 -135287.77* (74816.40) 0.025 (0.033) -17711.33 685 N  (0.050)  (0.041) 788 699 (17460.05)  788 (3629.01) 699 (34417.43) N(0.050)(0.041)788699 (17460.05)788 (3629.01)699 (34417.43) N 788 699 788 699 140 130 260 237 788 699 N788699788699140130260237788699  "}],"sieverID":"e5652206-26ec-48ba-a207-ed8d3cab1306","abstract":""}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"076c5409b295f732e75b54c62d0a9a48","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://publications.iwmi.org/pdf/H027866.pdf"},"pageCount":29,"title":"Operation of the Zhanghe Irrigation System","keywords":["4Zhanghe Irrigation Administration Bureau","Jingmen","448156","P. R. China Zhanghe Irrigation Administration Bureau"],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":99,"text":"The timing of the water releases from the reservoir depends on the weather situation. There are usually around three to five releases a year to any given branch canal. However in general, the third main canal receives water only twice a year, which is considerably less than what the fourth main canal receives. This difference is explained by the better local water sources (reservoirs and ponds) in the third main canal command area and light soils in some parts of the command area of the fourth main canal. The periods of water releases are almost the same every year."},{"index":2,"size":125,"text":"While farmers do order water, many of the decisions about when to release water comes from higher levels in the canal-operations hierarchy. Thus it appears that the management of canal water has not only an element of farmer demand but also a strong element of a supply approach where reservoir operators make decisions based on available storage, rainfall and on an overall view of when crops need water. The ponds and small reservoirs located within the irrigated area allow tanners to get a much more flexible supply of water on demand. So the entire system functions as an on-demand system because of its in-built flexibility to store water close to the water users, which is a prerequisite for adopting WSI techniques like the AWD irrigation."},{"index":3,"size":158,"text":"The Provincial Finance and Pricing Control Bureau detennines the price per unit of water per sector. The price for agricultural use has more than doubled over the last decade. The Zhanghe Irrigation Administration Bureau charges the water fee on a volumetric basis. The water user groups and villages pay the water fee on a volumetric basis to the section office of the lIS main canal. However, at the end of the season, the group and village heads convert this volumetric water fee into a water fee for the farmers based on area. The total volumetric fee paid to lIS is divided by the total area of the group or village. Besides this water fee, which is related to the volume used by the group or village, farmers pay another type of flat water fee based on area, to be paid to the local government. People have to pay this water fee even if they do not use water."},{"index":4,"size":81,"text":"Even though farmers pay a water fee per area they are quite aware of the link between the volume of water used and the price they have to pay for the water at the end of the season. For this reason, fanners minimize the amount of the lhanghe irrigation water and eatch rainfall to the maximum extent on their fields, use water from local sources that have no direct connection to lIS and reuse drainage water, since this is for free."}]},{"head":"Introduction","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":99,"text":"This paper explores the water management of lIS, tracing key decision points for water allocation and distribution. We outline the kinds of arrangements made at key points from the reservoir to fanners' fields, then consider the mechanism and the flow of money from the fanners' fields to reservoir operators for the payment of services. We feel that the delivery practices of the canal water are very important to facilitate on-farm WSI practices. It is important to understand how water deliveries and payments are made in a large, complex irrigation system, so that lessons can be derived and applied elsewhere."},{"index":2,"size":59,"text":"First, a short description of lIS is presented after which we explore the water management of ZIS described as the water flows: from the reservoir down to the fanners, first considering fanner requirements. We also trace the flow of payments for water services, which is described as the money flows: from farmers up to the lhanghe Irrigation Administration Bureau."}]},{"head":"Zhanghe Irrigation District","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":55,"text":"The ZID is situated in the Hubei Province in central China, north of the Changjiang (Yangtze) river. The area of the Zhanghe basin is 7,740 km 2 including a catchment area of2,200 km 2 • The ZIS accounts for most of the irrigated area within the ZID. See text box I for features of ZID."}]},{"head":"Text box 1. Features of ZlD.","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":45,"text":"Crops. The main grain crops are rice and winter wheat. The upland crops are beans, sesame oil and sweet potatoes. Rice cultivation accounts for about 80 percent of the total area of which about 85 percent is planted by the middle-season rice (May to September)."},{"index":2,"size":34,"text":"Climate. The average annual air temperature is 16 oC, varying from a minimum temperature of-19 °C in January to a maximum near 41 °C in July. On average, there are 246-270 annual frost-free days."},{"index":3,"size":73,"text":"Rainfall. The ZID is located in the SUbtropical zone and is affected by monsoonal rains. The average annual rainfall is 970 rum but it is unevenly distributed between years (the extreme values are 610 rum in 1966 and 1,330 rum in 1980) and over the year. On average, 82 percent of the annual rainfall occurs during the rice-and maize growing season (April to October). The average rainfall decreases from south to north inZIS."},{"index":4,"size":35,"text":"Topography. The ZID slopes from an elevation of 120 m above sea level in the northwest to an elevation of26 m in the southeast. About 80 percent ofthe irrigated area lies in the hilly region."},{"index":5,"size":14,"text":"Soil. The soil textures ofthe irrigated area are mostly clay (57%) and loam (43%)."}]},{"head":"Zhanghe Reservoir","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":99,"text":"The Zhanghe reservoir was built between 1958 and 1966 on the Zhanghe river, a tributary of the Juzhanghe river, which flows into the Yangtze river. The reservoir was designed for multipurpose uses of irrigation, flood control, domestic water supply, industrial use, aquatic culture and power generation. The primary purpose is still irrigation. The reservoir consists of three main reservoirs connected by open channels_ The main hydraulic structures are located along the southeast bank and include four main dams and one auxiliary dam (the highest about 67 m), three spillways and six diversion gates. See table 1 for reservoir features. "}]},{"head":"Zhanghe Irrigation System","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":125,"text":"The ZIS is one of the most important bases of commodity grain in the Hubei Province. It is one of the typical large-size irrigation systems in China and its total area is 5,540 km 2 of which about 160,000 hectares comprise the irrigated area. The ZIS incorporates nine classes of canals constituting one general main canal, five main canals and more than 13,000 branch canals with a total length of more than 7,000 kilometers and over 15,000 structures. Besides these, there are tens of thousands of medium-or small-size reservoirs, small basins and pump stations in the area partly incorporated into the system but sometimes operating independently. The Zhanghe reservoir supplies most of the ZIS irrigation water. The drainage system consists of natural streams and ditches."},{"index":2,"size":97,"text":"Since the 19805, a rehabilitation program has been carried out to improve the performance of ZIS. The strategies included popularization of WSI techniques like AWD irrigation, canal lining, volumetric charging of water, drainage waterTeuse and other management innovations. It is hypothesized that the popularization of the AWD technique, one of the strategies in the rehabilitation program, has enabled the reservoir to transfer water to other higher-valued uses without significant loss in crop production. Reservoir water. The average annual water supply from the Zhanghe reservoir is about 0.500 billion rri. There are about 86,000 small ponds and tanks."}]},{"head":"Water Resources of ZIS","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":20,"text":"Besides these, more than 300 medium-and small-size reservoirs have been constructed with a total beneficial storage capacity of0.819 billion rri."},{"index":2,"size":27,"text":"Precipitation. The average annual precipitation is 970 mm and the total average annual rainfall is 5.199 billion rri . The observed average annual runoff is 2.15 billionnf."},{"index":3,"size":48,"text":"Groundwater. Most of the data about the operation and payments for water services in ZIS were collected with the help of interviews with farmers and system operators at different levels. We also collected substantial data on long-term flow records of the Zhanghe reservoir and some main canals ."}]},{"head":"Operation","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":43,"text":"In this section we explore the management of ZIS, tracing key decision points for water distributions and the kind of arrangements made at these points. This is described as the water flows: from the reservoir down to the farmers, first considering farmer requirements."}]},{"head":"The Target-Meeting the AWD Demands","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":103,"text":"On-farm water-saving practices have been scientifically developed over time to reduce irrigation application requirements and to improve the growing conditions, thereby increasing yield. The practice calls for frequent light irrigation applications until late tillering. During this initial period, water levels on the field can drop until the soil is saturated (the soil is exposed) and then another irrigation application is required. During late tillering, a mid-season drainage is required. After late tillering, a series of wet and dry cycles is repeated until the milk ripening stage after which the soil can further dry to levels below saturation (see figure I).  ------------------------1 E 60 "},{"index":2,"size":1,"text":"(3)"},{"index":3,"size":145,"text":"(4) Given the variability in evaporative demand and rainfall, meeting such a schedule requires care and precision even under controlled conditions. In a large canal irrigation system the target is particularly difficult. A very flexible system in rate, duration and frequency is required to meet the irrigation requirements. An on-demand system, where water is delivered shortly after it is ordered would be ideal to meet such requirements. Farmers could predict when water is needed and order the volume required. If it rains they could delay the order. A rotation system would not work so well because farmers would not be easily able to tum off the water (they could divert it away from their fields, but this would counter benefits gained from reduced applications). Providing the required flexibility seems a daunting task in a large canal system serving thousands of smallholder farmers with variable demands."},{"index":4,"size":34,"text":"Two questions arise: i) To what extent do farmers at Zhanghe practice WSI (Le., what are the on-farm practices)? and ii) What are canal-management and water-management practices, and how do they influence on-farm practices?"}]},{"head":"Farmer Practices","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":62,"text":"The first step is to understand actual farmer practices. Detailed measurements were taken on six farmer's fields in TL and WJX (described in chapter 6 of this publication). Additionally, water levels were measured in 12 fields in the mezzo sites. Figure 2 represents farmer practices in a typical field. The remainder of the results is presented in the annex to this paper."},{"index":2,"size":78,"text":"Immediately apparent is that farmers do not practice an ideal system as presented in figure I, and as expected there is high variability in practices. But certain key elements ofWSI practices exist, and certain patterns emerge. Farmers do not require standing water all the time. They let water levels drop to the field surface but do not allow it to remain at this level for periods longer than a few days except during the period of mid-season drainage."},{"index":3,"size":120,"text":"From the water level measurements in 2000, it becomes clear that most farmers practice mid-season drainage. If there is rain during the mid-season drainage period, it looks as if some farmers opt to store the rainwater in their fields instead of letting it drain off. One explanation is that they perceive more benefits from keeping the water and thus not having to pay for additional supplies, rather than draining it and having to obtain supplies later. Farmers do not actually drain their fields for the mid-season drainage, but let them dry out for a period. In 1999, the mid-season drainage was not so obvious as in 2000, which can be attributed to less accurate measurements and rainfall in the period."},{"index":4,"size":51,"text":"The TL farmers come closer to meeting the ideal AWD practice than WJX farmers. We frequently heard that this was due to the flat topography and the ease of access to water sources in TL, as opposed to the hilly terrain, more difficult access to water and light soils in WJx."},{"index":5,"size":34,"text":"Farmers capture all rainfall possible and only drain it if the rainfall is very high. The irrigation schedule is very well adjusted to this capturing of rainfall and farmers rarely irrigate directly after rainfall."},{"index":6,"size":25,"text":"How is the canal managed? Do operations facilitate on-farm requirements? The next section focuses on allocation and distribution from the reservoir to the farmer's fields. "}]},{"head":"Tuanlin upper micro-site 2000","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":3,"text":"Water levels 200 "}]},{"head":"Decision Making on Allocation of Water among Sectors at the Zhanghe Reservoir","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":40,"text":"At the beginning of the irrigation season (end March, begin April) the Zhanghe Irrigation Administration Bureau makes a long-term forecast allocation plan based on irrigated area, weather forecast and the condition of water sources (mainly storage in the main reservoir)."},{"index":2,"size":11,"text":"The result is an overall scheme for water allocation and distribution."},{"index":3,"size":89,"text":"In the beginning of the irrigation season, the Zhanghe Administration Bureau sends water application forms to the main canal sections that pass them on to the stakeholders in their command area (townships and villages), which subsequently pass them on to the water users. Farmers can fill in their demand for the coming irrigation season. The forms are returned and a calculation is made of the total demand and the amount to be allocated to the different main canals. In a normal year, farmers are allocated the amount they request."},{"index":4,"size":30,"text":"After this, a more detailed allocation and distribution plan is made in meetings (30 to 40 people attending) with the heads of both the main-canal section and canal, and others."},{"index":5,"size":78,"text":"In general, the Zhanghe Irrigation Administration Bureau decides on the amount of water allocated to each sector, with one exception: during the flooding season, the Hubei Provincial Government has the power to decide on the amount of water to be allocated to hydropower and flood-control release. The water for hydropower is recycled for irrigation and municipal use outside of ZID. This water flows into the Juzhang river from a different outlet from the reservoir than the irrigation water."},{"index":6,"size":67,"text":"The objective of water supply is not only subordinate to flood control but also a prerequisite for reservoir safety. As much water as possible is stored to meet water demand for all users, but irrigation has first priority and all other sectors (hydropower, industries and municipalities) receive water after the irrigation requirements are met. However, in general, the Zhanghe reservoir has enough water to fulfil! all requirements."},{"index":7,"size":24,"text":"In a normal year, about half of the total water releases of the Zhanghe reservoir are allocated to irrigation (table 3 and figure 3).  "}]},{"head":"Timing and Amount ofWater Releases from the Zhanghe Reservoir","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":71,"text":"There is an annual meeting held in April at the main-canal level to discuss the ZIS plan for water releases, financial matters, and issues related to O&M. In the third main canal, the water users are represented at these meetings by representatives from the Irrigation Associations. It is not clear how the water users in the fourth main canal are represented at this meeting. Township Water Resources Bureaus are also represented."},{"index":2,"size":219,"text":"As stated earlier, the timing of the water releases from the reservoir depends on the weather situation. There are usually around three to five releases a year to any given branch canal. While farmers do order water, many of the decisions on when to release water comes from higher levels i? the canal-operations hierarchy. Thus it appears that the management of canal water has not only an element of farmer demand but also a strong element of a supply approach where reservoir operators make decisions based on available storage, rainfall, and on an overall view of when crops need water. The ponds and small reservoirs located within the irrigated area allow farmers to get a much more flexible supply of water on-demand. However, if users request to stop the water releases from the reservoir, because of ample supply by rainfall, ZIS will close the gates. The water already flowing in the canals has to be paid for by the users. So the entire system functions as an on-demand system because of its in-built flexibility to store water close to the water users, which is a prerequisite for adopting WSI techniques like A WD irrigation. If we look at figure 4 we see that, in general, there are three to five releases from the reservoir to the general main canal."},{"index":3,"size":78,"text":"After correlating the monthly rainfall with the monthly reservoir release to irrigation over the season, in a scatter diagram it becomes clear that there is a trend that in months with high rainfall the reservoir releases are lower. This is strongest in the period May to August, which is the main period for irrigation. '\" q> \\0 co q> ... ..... ... q> ..... '\" q> '\" '\" q> '\" '\" q> '\" q> C1I '\" 0 ';?"},{"index":4,"size":12,"text":"as '\" .!. a. :; .., '\" .., c: m '\" a."},{"index":5,"size":1,"text":".!."},{"index":6,"size":20,"text":":; .., '\" .!. c: m '\" .!. a. :; .., '\" c: m '\" .!. a. \"3 -. 8 "}]},{"head":"ZIS Operation","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":66,"text":"Part of ZIS is not directly operated by the Zhanghe Irrigation Administration Bureau itself. The third main canal is managed by the Jingmen City Water Resources Bureau. The second main canal delivers water to Jingmen city, Dang Yang county and Jingzhou city. The third main canal delivers water only to Jingmen city. The fourth main canal delivers water only to the Jingmen prefecture (city, district, county)."},{"index":2,"size":21,"text":"See table 4 for water releases per main canal and figure 5 for details about the distribution network of ZIS.  :..------------'"}]},{"head":"Third Main Canal","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":217,"text":"The third main canal is not managed by ZIS but by the Jingmen City Water Resources Bureau becaUse most of the command area is within the Jingmen city prefecture limits. In general, the third main canal receives water twice a year for about 20 days in a row. This is considerably less than what the fourth main canal receives, which is explained by the better local water sources (reservoirs and ponds) in the third main canal command area (see also figure 7). In dry years ,when the demand is higher the number of turns remains the same, but the flow period in the canal is extended. Figure 6 illustrates the daily releases of the third main canal for 1999 and 2000 from which it becomes clear that the releases occur in the same time period in both years.  Figure 7 shows the contribution oflocal water sources to the command area of the third main canaL Note that not all irrigation with local water sources is necessarily on the same area as the Zhanghe reservoir water is also used. There are reports that the third and fourth main canal command areas are partly irrigated by the third and fourth main canal, respectively, and that the other parts of the command area are irrigated with water from local sources."}]},{"head":"Fourth Main Canal","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":74,"text":"The fourth main canal bifurcates into the east main canal (direction of W JX) and the north main canaL It is possible to operate a sort of rotational schedule between the east and the north main canal. However this is rarely done. In the fourth main canal, the priority for allocation is as follows: domestic, industry, agriculture and hydropower. This is different from the priority setting at reservoir level where agriculture gets first priority."},{"index":2,"size":109,"text":"Water requests are handled according to the irrigation-management regulations. Before the irrigation season starts the management divisions of the fourth main canal, townships and counties have a meeting about the provincial government regulations. After this meeting, the management division of the fourth main canal has a one-day meeting from 10 to 15 April with all the users. Three topics are discussed: how much water from ZIS is to be allocated, water use plan for all sectors and how much water is to be allocated to each sector. In general, all demands can be met and it remains unclear how the decision-making process is working during periods of water shortage."},{"index":3,"size":198,"text":"During the irrigation season the water users request water from the sections of the fourth main canaL The section collects all information on demands (volume and timing). The fourth main canal office receives all water requests from all the sections in the fourth main canal and cumulates these after which a request is made to the Zhanghe reservoir to release water. The sections should apply to the fourth main canal office at least 3 days in advance. The fourth main canal office should apply to the Zhanghe Irrigation Administration Bureau at least 2 days in advance. The final decision about water releases from the reservoir remains with the Zhanghe Irrigation Administration Bureau. The periods of water release are almost the same every year. In general, the fourth main canal receives water four times a year (see table 5), because of a longer canal, complex topography and light soils in some parts of the command area: the first time for seedbed preparation, the second time for transplanting and the third and fourth times during the middle rice-growing season. The water in the main canals and branches flows for about 20 days and there is rotation of water among laterals."},{"index":4,"size":224,"text":"Table 5. General timing of water releases to the fourth main canal. Figure 8 shows that the year 1999 has especially deviated from the general schedule of releases as stated by ZIS (table 5). There were two main releases after the middle of May, the first lasting 29 days from 20 May to the middle of June (including 4 days without releases) and the second from the end of July to 20 of August. In 2000, the schedule was much closer to the general proposed schedule, except for an extra release in mid-June, which postponed the planned release by end of June by 3 weeks. Figure 9 shows the contribution of local water sources to the command area of the fourth main canal. This contribution is lower than in the third main canal but it is still considerable and, in most years, more than that from the Zhanghe reservoir. Note that not all irrigation with local water sources is necessarily on the same area as the Zhanghe reservoir water is also used. The average volume of \"city water\" released to the fourth main canal is about is 6 mcm per year. \"City water\" includes municipal and industrial water. It is taken from the same intake in the fourth main canal. Although it is impossible to differentiate between the two the total volume is known."}]},{"head":"Main Canal Section, Township, Village, Group, Farmer","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":100,"text":"At the level of the main canal there are regular meetings with water users to discuss the water delivery schedule. The Chinese local administration is organized along the line of townships, villages, groups and finally of individuals. Many villages and groups and most of the townships have a contract with the main canal section that specifies the command area, volume of water to be delivered, price and terms of payment. The advantage of having a contract is that it simplifies the application procedure. However, even without a specified contract between water users and ZIS it is possible to receive water."}]},{"head":"Toanlin Mezzo Site","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":30,"text":"The village has a good relationship with the section. Although they have no contract they just pay and, at the end ofthe season, they never owe money to the section."},{"index":2,"size":66,"text":"In general, farmers request water either directly from their village head or from their group head who will cumulate the request of the group members and inform the village head. Another path of request is that the group head directly contacts the section office of the main canal. Then the request goes up through the ZIS administrative layers (section, branch, main canal and the Zhanghe reservoir)."},{"index":3,"size":105,"text":"The reason for this different path of request is explained by a village head in TL who stated that if some groups within a village are not in good terms with one another it is better that the village head keeps an eye on the requests. On the other hand, it is clear that it is easier for all parties involved that the group head goes directly to the section, because it is easier to manage, especially when the village is big. However, it requires a good organized group. In our mezzo site in WJX, most group heads go directly to the main canal section."},{"index":4,"size":64,"text":"When it rains farmers can request the closure of gates, but they have to pay for the water in the canals (up to 3 days of lag-time). After heavy rains the authorities of the main canal section can close some gates but they have to inform the higher administrative unit directly. Generally, there is a rotational water supply to groups below the village level."}]},{"head":"Decision on Allocation of Water for Irrigation in Years of Shortage","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":136,"text":"During years of extreme water shortage (or flooding) the Flood Control and Anti-Draught (FC&AD) organization, headed by the Vice President of P.R. China, represented in ZIS by the Mayor of Jingmen city, takes over the water management from the Zhanghe Irrigation Administration Bureau and local governments. De facto, there is little difference between this organization and the local government; however, according to some people, it is better that the FC&AD organization gives an order in these times, since they carry more authority. The FC&AD organization gives orders to the second, third and fourth main canal. Local governments and ZIS are represented in the organization. In years with less water shortage, the Zhanghe Irrigation Administration Bureau solves the problems independently by rationing the various canals• and branch canals proportionally. On main-canal level the townships are rationed proportionally."}]},{"head":"Water Management Service Fee","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":54,"text":"In this section we explore the flow path of payments for water management services, which is described as the money flows: from the water users up to the Zhanghe Irrigation Administration Bureau. The following different levels are distinguished: the farmers, groups, village and township, the ZIS main-canal section and the Zhanghe Irrigation Administration Bureau."}]},{"head":"Farmers","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":210,"text":"There are two ways farmers pay for water. The first is a flat rate based on area to be paid to the local government. This \"water tax\" or \"basic water fee\" is included in the overall tax bill everyone gets from the village. The \"flow path\" of the basic water fee is from the farmers, to group, to village, to township after which it most likely goes to the county. People have to pay the basic water fee even if they do not use water. There are different reports on the amount of this basic water fee expressed either in yuan per unit area (varying from yuan 2 to IO/mu) or in kilograms of rice per unit area. The second way is a water fee related to the amount of water used and has to be paid to the Zhanghe Irrigation Administration Bureau via different administrative layers. In the following sections the main focus will be on this latter water fee. Almost all the farmers in ZIS pay their water fee on a per area basis. There are reports that farmers pay per volume of water; however this is confined to certain areas. In general, farmers either pay their water fee to their group head or to the village head."}]},{"head":"Groups, Village and Township","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":126,"text":"Groups, village and township pay the water fee on a volumetric basis to the section office of the the ZIS main canal. However, they convert this volumetric fee into an area-based fee for the farmers. Different group heads and village heads, both in the TL and WJX areas, state that, at the end of the season, they calculate the total amount paid to the section office of the ZIS main canal and divide this amount by the total area. After this, the water fee per area is known and is charged to the farmers. There is no money that remains somewhere at this level. Salaries of pump operators or village \"water people\" are not included in the per-area-based water fee but are paid from other taxes."},{"index":2,"size":60,"text":"There is a big difference between water fees for pumped water and gravity irrigation. In general, the price of pumped water is expressed as an amount of money per hour charged to the farmers. When water is pumped from a ZIS canal, the additional volumetric water fee has to be paid to the section office of the ZIS main canal."},{"index":3,"size":122,"text":"In the TL mezzo site the water fee to the groups is also expressed as a volumetric fee. However, the volume is derived from the recorded time the gate was open and the specific diameter of the pipe. The group head and the irrigator (from the village) go together to the gate and the irrigator opens the gate. Both of them record the time of opening and closure. After harvest, the group head pays to the village according to the calculated volume and the village passes this on to the section office of the ZIS main canal. The group head calculates the total fee paid and divides it by the total area. The farmers pay their water fee on a per-area basis."},{"index":4,"size":50,"text":"There are several statements that the use of water from both small ponds that have no direct connection to ZIS and drainage water is for free. The volumetric water fee from other reservoirs (although they may not be connected to ZIS) is the same as the ZIS volumetric water fee."},{"index":5,"size":38,"text":"There is no visible clear trend over time of the per-area fee since the price depends on the amount of water used by the group or village and this depends on the weather conditions of a particular year."}]},{"head":"ZIS Main Canal Section","index":23,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":77,"text":"The ZIS main canal section acts mainly as an intermediary between the group, village and township and the Zhanghe Irrigation Administration Bureau. However, as stated above, many villages and groups and most of the townships have a contract with the main canal section that specifies the command area, volume of water to be delivered, the price and terms of payment. However, even without a specified contract between water users and ZIS it is possible to receive water."}]},{"head":"Zhanghe Irrigation Administration Bureau","index":24,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":279,"text":"The Zhanghe Irrigation Administration Bureau is financially independent from the Hubei Provincial Government and is the final recipient of the water fees paid by the water users. However, the Provincial Finance and Pricing Control Bureau determines the price per unit of water per sector. Of late, the price per unit of water has been linked to the price of rice. This is to protect the farmers, since the price of rice has dropped dramatically and the water fee has more than doubled over the last decade (see table 6). Before 1984, the provincial government subsidized the water price, which was a fraction of the current price. After 1984, the reservoirs had to be financially self-sufficient and prices went up according to the regulations of the provincial government. Table 7 shows the water fees per sector in 2000. The price for municipal water is almost double that for irrigation water and the price for industrial water is almost three times that for irrigation water. The revenue from hydropower seems rather low.  According to the fourth main canal office, it is sometimes very difficult to distinguish between water allocated to the municipal and industrial sectors, because the water is taken from the same outlet in the main canal. The fourth main canal calls this water \"city water.\" For the calculation of the water fee a certain percentage is used to differentiate between the two sectors. In 2000, 23.3 percent of the total volume of city water was allocated to industry. The percentage comes from \"the statistics.\" It is not clear if the percentage has changed over time. However, it is clear that the use of city water has increased over time."}]},{"head":"Discussion and Conclusion","index":25,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":64,"text":"In general, we do have a broad idea of how ZIS is managed on different levels, how the water flows are managed and how the water fees are calculated, collected and passed on to different levels in the ZIS management organization. The closer the water gets to the farm, the more the variability in the operating procedures making it difficult to understand the process."},{"index":2,"size":107,"text":"During the study it was apparent that very few people could explain the entire functioning of this complex system. But it is also apparent that it is not necessary for any individual in the system to know all this. The system has been divided into several layers-reservoir operators, canal operators, townships, villages, farmer groups and farmers. The least a person has to know to be effective are the requirements to get water and make payment to the layer above, and the procedures for passing the water and collecting money from the layer below. Looking as an outsider into this maze, it is amazing that it all works!"},{"index":3,"size":42,"text":"The ZIS operates independently from the Hubei Province and has to be financially self sustainable. However, ZIS has to operate within regulations set by the Hubei Province. These regulations concern mainly the minimum water releases for downstream use and fixed water fees."},{"index":4,"size":47,"text":"On average, in the last decade, the Zhanghe reservoir has allocated about 42 percent of the released water to irrigation, 45 percent to hydropower and the rest to industrial and municipal uses. The reservoir operation is subject to flood control and is a prerequisite for reservoir safety."},{"index":5,"size":62,"text":"On-farm water-saving practices to reduce irrigation application requirements and to improve the growing conditions, thereby increasing yield, call for frequent light irrigation applications until late tillering. During late tillering, a mid-season drainage is required. After late tillering, a series of wet and dry cycles is repeated until the milk ripening stage after which the soil can further dry to levels below saturation."},{"index":6,"size":84,"text":"Given the variability in evaporative demand and rainfall, meeting such a schedule requires care under controlled conditions. In a canal irrigation system though, the target is particularly difficult. A very flexible system in rate, duration and frequency is required to meet the irrigation requirements. An on-demand system, where water is delivered shortly after it is ordered would be ideal to meet such requirements. Providing the required flexibility seems a daunting task in a large canal system serving thousands of smallholder farmers with variable demands."},{"index":7,"size":192,"text":"The timing of the water releases from the Zhanghe reservoir depends on the weather situation. There are usually around three to five releases a year to any given branch canal. While farmers do order water, many of the decisions on when to release water come from higher levels in the canal operations hierarchy. Thus it appears that management of canal water has not only an element of farmer demand but also a strong element of a supply approach where reservoir operators make decisions based on available storage, rainfall, and on an overall view of when crops need water. The ponds and small reservoirs located within the irrigated area allow farmers to get a much more flexible supply of water on-demand. However, if users request to stop the water releases from the reservoir because of ample supply by rainfall, ZIS will close the gates. The water already flowing in the canals has to be paid for by the users. So the entire system functions as an on-demand system because of its in-built flexibility to store water close to the water users, which is a prerequisite for adopting WSI techniques like A WD irrigation."},{"index":8,"size":117,"text":"The contribution of local water sources to irrigation is high. For the fourth main canal it is, in most years, more than the contribution from the Zhanghe reservoir. However, not all irrigation with local water sources is necessarily on the same area as the Zhanghe reservoir water is also used. There are reports that the third and fourth main canal command areas are just partly irrigated by the third and fourth main canals, respectively, and that the other parts of the command area are irrigated with water from local sources. The small ponds located close to the farmers' fields are not accounted for in official statistics, but from our observations, their contribution to irrigation is quite high."},{"index":9,"size":77,"text":"Actual farmer practices show that they are not able to follow the theoretical AWD techniques and, as expected, there is high variability in practices. But certain key elements of AWD practices exist and certain patterns emerge. Farmers do not require standing water all the time. They let the water level drop to the field surface but do not allow the level to remain for periods longer than a few days except during the period of mid-season drainage."},{"index":10,"size":99,"text":"From the water-level measurements at the field it becomes clear that most farmers practice mid-season drainage. If there is rain during the mid-season drainage period, it seems that some farmers opt to store the rainwater in their fields instead of letting it drain off. One explanation is that they perceive more benefits from keeping the water, and thus not having to pay for additional supplies; rather than draining it and having to obtain supplies later. In 1999, the mid-season drainage was not so obvious as in 2000, which can be attributed to less-accurate measurements and rainfall in the period."},{"index":11,"size":53,"text":"The TL farmers come closer to meeting the ideal A WD practice than the W lX farmers. We frequently heard that this was due to the flat topography and the ease of access to water sources in TL against the hilly terrain, more difficult access to water and light soils in W lX."},{"index":12,"size":35,"text":"Farmers capture all rainfall possible and only drain it only if the rainfall is very high. The irrigation schedule is very well adjusted to this capturing of rainfall and farmers rarely irrigate directly after rainfall."},{"index":13,"size":104,"text":"There are two ways farmers pay for water. The first is a flat rate based on area to be paid to the local government. This \"water tax\" or \"basic water fee\" is included in the overall tax bill everyone gets from the village. People have to pay the basic water fee even if they do not use water. The second way is a water fee related to the amount of water used, which has to be paid to the Zhanghe Irrigation Administration Bureau via different administrative layers. In general, fanners either pay their water fee to their group head or to the village head."},{"index":14,"size":50,"text":"Groups, village and township pay the water fee on a volumetric basis to the section office of the ZIS main canal. However, they convert this volumetric fee into an area-based fee for the fanners, by calculating the total amount paid to ZIS and dividing this amount by the total area."},{"index":15,"size":78,"text":"The section office of the ZIS main canal acts mainly as an intennediary between groups, village and township and the Zhanghe Irrigation Administration Bureau. However, many villages and groups and most of the townships have a contract with the section office of the main canal that specifies the command area, volume of water to be delivered, the price and tenns of payment. Even without a specified contract between water users and ZIS it is possible to receive water."},{"index":16,"size":121,"text":"The Provincial Finance and Pricing Control Bureau detennines the price per unit of water per sector. Of late, the price per unit of water has been linked to the price of rice to stabilize the water fees. The water fee has more than doubled over the last decade. Before 1984, the provincial government subsidized the water price, which was a fraction of the current price. After 1984, the reservoirs had to be financially self-sufficient and prices went up according to the provincial regulations. There is no visible, clear trend over time of the per-area fee, since the price depends on the amount of water used by the groups or village and this depends on the weather conditions of a particular year."},{"index":17,"size":78,"text":"The use of water from both small ponds that have no direct connection to ZIS and drainage water is for free. The volumetric water fee from other reservoirs, which may not be connected to the ZIS, is the same as the ZIS volumetric water fee, since the price is set for the whole Hubei Province by the Provincial Finance and Pricing Control Bureau. Some of the very strong points of the design and operation of this system are:"},{"index":18,"size":1,"text":"1."},{"index":19,"size":35,"text":"The division of the task of delivering water into several layers. It is not necessary for the main canal operators to deliver water to fanners. More decentralized decisions are made to better meet fanner needs."}]},{"head":"2.","index":26,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":15,"text":"Clear rules or understanding has developed at each point of water transfer and money transfer."}]},{"head":"3.","index":27,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":15,"text":"The strategy of making a few deliveries from the main reservoir at somewhat predictable intervals."}]},{"head":"4.","index":28,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":7,"text":"The reliance on local sources for flexibility."},{"index":2,"size":32,"text":"In our discussion with fanners, we found that an area that requires improvement is the communication to farmers when water is released. Several farmers were unsure of the timing of canal releases.  "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure 1 . Figure 1. Graphical description of AWD irrigation regime. "},{"text":" Transplanting, (2) Revival of green, (3) Early and middle stages of tillering, (4) Late state oftillering, (5) Elongating and booting, (6) Heading and flowering, (7) Milk ripening, (8) Yellow ripening (SMC = Saturated Moisture Content). "},{"text":"Figure 2 . Figure 2. Water levels on the upper micro-site in TL in 2000. "},{"text":"Figure 3 . Figure 3. Sector water allocation, Zhanghe reservoir (average values for 1989-1998). "},{"text":"Figure 4 . Figure 4. Daily Z/t(lIIghe reservoir releases for irrigation, 1999-2000.     "},{"text":" General main canal fill Rainfall,Tuanlin l "},{"text":"Figure 5 . Figure 5. Schematic presentation of the ZIS. "},{"text":"Figure 6 .Figure 7 . Figure 6. Daily operation of the third main canal near the TL mezzo site, /999 and 2000. "},{"text":"Fourth  "},{"text":"Figure 8 . Figure 8. Daily operation of the fourth main canal near the W JX mezzo site in 1999 and 2000.Fourth main canal operation near Wenjiaxiang mezzo site-1999 "},{"text":"Figure 9 . Figure 9. Fourth main canal water sources. "},{"text":" ... Rainfall _lrrlgaHon _ Drainage -+r-Plastic tube water depth __ Wooden .tiel< 3 -..LJ.1i dLL..L!LIII-'--_--'-\", .lJl.-'-c'~~~~. . . .L_ _.................Rainfall _Irrigation _ Doomage -<>-Plastic tube water depth -.-Wooden sUck 1 "},{"text":"Table 1 . Salient features of the Zlwllghe reservoir: reservoir   reservoir Descriptor   (in billion nf) Descriptor(in billion nf) Catchment area Area covered by water 2,212 km 104 km 2 2 Catchment area Area covered by water2,212 km 104 km2 2 Total storage capacity   2.035 Total storage capacity2.035 Normal water level 123.50 m 1.783 Normal water level123.50 m1.783 Dead water levels 113.00 m 0.862 Dead water levels113.00 m0.862 Average annual water   0.773 Average annual water0.773  "},{"text":" Water resources of ZIS include reservoir water, precipitation, groundwater and river water (see text box 2 and table 2). 71tble 2. Water sources of ZIS.   71tble 2. Water sources of ZIS.  Total water released for agriculture (%) Total water released for agriculture (%)  Zhanghe reservoir Small reservoirs Other sources Zhanghe reservoirSmall reservoirsOther sources 1966--1978 71 18 11 1966--1978711811 1979-1988 47 32 21 1979-1988473221 1989-1998 52 29  1989-19985229  "},{"text":" The groundwater resources are rich, distributed in a large area and are easy to exploit. No data are available about groundwater extraction. River water. Along the Yangtze river, the Hanjiang river and the Changhu lake River water. Along the Yangtze river, the Hanjiang river and the Changhu lake there are more than 430 pump stations with a total capacity 0.2 million kW. The there are more than 430 pump stations with a total capacity 0.2 million kW. The annual water withdrawal from rivers is about 0.112 billion fn3. annual water withdrawal from rivers is about 0.112 billion fn3.  "},{"text":"Table 3 . Annual Zlzaflghe reservoir inflow and releases (average ill[1989][1990][1991][1992][1993][1994][1995][1996][1997][1998]. No data available from 1997 and 1998. Sector Amount SectorAmount Irrigation 211 Irrigation211 Hydropower 225* Hydropower225* Industry 48* Industry48* Municipal 15* Municipal15* Inflow 927** Inflow927**  "},{"text":"Table 4 . Water releases for i rrigatiofl per main canal(average 1989-1998). Canal Water release for CanalWater release for General main canal 179* General main canal179* West main canal 1.8* West main canal1.8* First main canal 6.8* First main canal6.8* Second main canal 53 Second main canal53 Third main canal 101 Third main canal101 Fourth main canal 25 Fourth main canal25 *Average values over 1996-2000.  *Average values over 1996-2000.  "},{"text":"Table 6 . Agricultural water fee development over time.  Agricultural water fee Agricultural water fee Year  Year Before 1984 0.007* Before 19840.007* 1991 0.01610 19910.01610 1992 0.01933 19920.01933 1993 0.02002 19930.02002 1994 0.03126 19940.03126 1995 0.03850 19950.03850 1996 0.04158 19960.04158 1997 0.04235 19970.04235 1998 0.04235 19980.04235 1999 0.04235 (0.0385**) 19990.04235 (0.0385**) 2000 0.0371 ** 20000.0371 **  "},{"text":"Table 7 . Water fees in per sector ill 2000. Sect~o~r___ ~~t~r fee (Yuan/m3)* Sect~o~r___ ~~t~r fee (Yuan/m3)* Irrigation 0.0371 Irrigation0.0371 Municipal 0.068 Municipal0.068 Industry 0.105 Industry0.105 Hydro-old plant 0.017** Hydro-old plant0.017** Hydro-new plant 0.044 Hydro-new plant0.044  "}],"sieverID":"87c6957c-ca09-4f29-8362-a831ae05bd7b","abstract":"This paper explores the water management of the Zhanghe Irrigation System (ZIS) tracing key decision points for water allocation and distribution. We outline the kinds of arrangements made at key points from the reservoir to farmers' fields, then consider the mechanism and the flow of money from farmers' fields to reservoir operators for the payment of services. We feel that delivery practices of canal water are very important to facilitate on-farm water-saving irrigation (WSI) practices. It is important to understand how water deliveries and payments are made in a large, complex irrigation system, so that lessons can be derived and applied elsewhere.The ZIS, situated in the Hubei Province in central China, north of the Changjiang (Yangtze) river irrigates an area of about 160,000 hectares and is one of the most important bases of commodity grain in the Hubei Province. The main water supply is the Zhanghe reservoir. Apart from this reservoir there are tens of thousands of medium-and small-size reservoirs, small basins and pump stations in the Zhanghe Irrigation District (ZID) partly incorporated into the irrigation system 'but sometimes operating independently.At the beginning of the irrigation season (end March, begin April) the Zhanghe Irrigation Administration Bureau makes a long-term forecast allocation plan' for ZIS based on irrigated area, weather forecast and the condition of water sources (mainly storage in the main reservoir). The result is an overall scheme for water allocation and distribution. The water allocation to each main canal is based both on experience and on the requests coming from the water users in the command area. However, during the flooding season, the Hubei Provincial Government has the power to decide on the amount of water to be allocated to hydropower and flood control release. As much water as possible is stored to meet the water demand for all sectors, but irrigation has first priority. In general, the Zhanghe reservoir has enough water to fulfill all requirements. About 42 percent of the total water release is allocated to agriculture and about 45 percent to hydropower while the rest is for industry and municipalities."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"07c42c08a64b00d80fb28d4654e90dff","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/2ec54df1-47fe-44af-814e-bd726cb8b89d/retrieve"},"pageCount":10,"title":"Feeding the World in 2050: trade-offs, synergies and tough choices for the livestock sector","keywords":["Agriculture","food security","livestock","food systems","misperceptions","trade-offs"],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":112,"text":"By 2050 most of the world's population 10 billion or so inhabitants will be living in towns and cities. Feeding these people will require a 70 -100% increase in the amount of food produced today (Burney et al. 2010). Not only will the quantity of food that is needed increase, but requirements for quality will be more exacting, driven by both consumers and regulators. People who live in the rapidly emerging economies, and even those in countries currently categorized as poor, will demand better and more varied diets that contain far more meat, milk and eggs -the animal-source foods -than today. And increasingly food will be purchased in supermarkets, pre-packed and processed."},{"index":2,"size":42,"text":"Against a background of growing water scarcity, rising energy prices, the best land already being in production and impacts of climate change which are often detrimental, producing sufficient quantity and quality of food for nearly 10 billion people represents a huge challenge."},{"index":3,"size":91,"text":"It is estimated that by 2050 at least an additional one billion tonnes more cereals (IAASTD 2009), one billion tonnes of dairy and 460 million tonnes of meat (FAO 2011a) will be needed annually (based on consumption estimates). With the drivers of increased population, urbanization and higher incomes, value of and demand for animal-source products will increase faster than other agricultural sectors (Herrero et al. 2013a). Much of this increased production will have to come from the same land base which is currently producing food of both animal and plant origin."},{"index":4,"size":83,"text":"How will the world be fed? Where and by whom will its food be produced and at what cost to the environment, public health and animal welfare? Who will benefit from the global food system and who will lose out? How will agricultural and food systems adapt to meet these changes and challenges? The answer to these important questions will depend largely on the policy and institutional frameworks that nations, regions and the global community develop and the incentives and barriers these create."},{"index":5,"size":50,"text":"All too often livestock is ignored in the global agriculture and food debate: the focus of attention for agriculture is invariably crops and food usually means staples, mostly cereals. Even when nutrition is considered, an area where the animal-source foods have a real comparative advantage, livestock rarely gets a mention."},{"index":6,"size":131,"text":"This paper therefore sets out to position livestock as a key part of the solution to feeding the world in 2050: a source of nutrient-dense animal-source foods that can support normal physical and mental development and good health; an income stream that enables the world's billion poorest people to buy staple foods and other household essentials; and a means of underpinning soil health and fertility and increased yields, thereby enabling more sustainable and profitable crop production. In doing so, it acknowledges that livestock production has the potential to do harm to the environment as the sector is a significant source of greenhouse gases and can be detrimental to human health. However, on the positive there are real opportunities to mitigate such negative impacts as livestock systems transition in the coming decades."},{"index":7,"size":96,"text":"It will argue that the meat, milk and eggs, and other goods and services that livestock provide, can and must be produced in ways that are less damaging to the environment and with reduced risk to public health, whilst also supporting sustainable livelihoods for hundreds of millions of the world's poorest citizens who currently have few other options -at least while they transit to new occupations and livelihoods as economies grow, mature and diversify. In the process it will address some of the common misconceptions that surround livestock and which all too often cloud the debate."}]},{"head":"Feeding the world -what are the challenges?","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":57,"text":"With less than two years remaining to the 2015 deadline for the attainment of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), the international community is closely scrutinizing the progress made. Goal number one refers to the eradication of poverty and hunger, recognizing that these two dimensions are inextricably linked: the poor spend the majority of their income on food."},{"index":2,"size":62,"text":"The 2013 hunger report (Bread for the World Institute 2012) recently proposed a bold new goal, a successor to the MDGs -to eliminate poverty and hunger by 2040. It further recognised that the highest numbers of people living on less than $US 1.25 a day are in middle income (not poor) countries. Food prices matter and every country will need different solutions."},{"index":3,"size":82,"text":"The Global Hunger Index (Deutsche Welthungerhilfe e.V., International Food Policy Research Institute and Concern Worldwide 2012) is one measure of progress towards the target of eradicating poverty and hunger. The index combines three equally weighted indicators: the proportion of the population with insufficient calorific intake, the proportion of children under 5 years of age who are underweight and the mortality rate of under-fives. Globally, although the index has fallen steadily since 1990, the overall score for the world is categorized as 'serious'."},{"index":4,"size":120,"text":"The two poorest regions of the world are South Asia and sub-Saharan Africa. The hunger index for South Asia fell markedly between 1990 and 1996 but since then has failed to maintain this rate of improvement. In sub-Saharan Africa, improvements since 2000 mean that by 2012 the index score fell below that for South Asia. Of the top 10 countries which have made the most improvement in the index since 1990, none are in South Asia and only one, Ghana, in sub-Saharan Africa; of the six countries whose scores have deteriorated most over this period no less than five are in Africa and one other, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, only misses the list due to shortage of data."},{"index":5,"size":64,"text":"It is a shocking indictment of the global food system that, in the 21 st century, the majority of the world's population have sub-optimal diets: at least a billion going to bed hungry; two billion are vulnerable to food insecurity; a billion have diets which do not meet all their nutritional requirements; and another billion suffer the effects of overconsumption (Smith et al. 2012)."}]},{"head":"The shift to 'food systems'","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":88,"text":"Alongside increased attention to how the world will feed itself in the coming decades, there have been two other shifts in emphasis. Firstly, from quantity at all costs, to sustainable quantities at acceptable quality. It is no longer regarded by many as being acceptable to consider production of 'enough' food in isolation; food must be produced in ways that are environmentally, socially and economically sustainable. The second is that defeating hunger by providing enough energy is not enough; balanced, wholesome nutrition must also be part of the solution."},{"index":2,"size":84,"text":"So, in addition to addressing the overall hunger index, the Global Hunger Index 2012 report stresses that food supply must include the sustainable and responsible use of natural resources, food distribution and access, balanced nutrition and access and management of natural resources (Deutsche Welthungerhilfe e. V., International Food Policy Research Institute and Concern Worldwide 2012). It considers that addressing these aspects demands policy steps to include responsible management of natural resources, scaling up of technical approaches and addressing the drivers of natural resource scarcity."},{"index":3,"size":109,"text":"The High Level Task Force on global food security, established by the UN in 2008 1 One of the more recent trends in the global quest for food security is land acquisitions involving significant private and foreign investments. Rulli et al. (2013) report that some 46 million hectares of land (and the associated water) has been allocated in this way, with 90% of this as a response to the food price crisis that year, has a similarly broad goal and recognizes the importance of functional links between policy and actions for food, land, water and energy security, environmental sustainability, adaptation to and mitigation of climate change and ecosystem services."},{"index":4,"size":77,"text":"A number of studies also recognize that food security in the future needs to include managing risk and ensuring reduced vulnerability to the major food systems of the world. Especially in developing economies, food is produced in systems that are often fragile: for example, increased hunger since 1990 in Burundi, Comoros, and Côte d'Ivoire can be attributed to prolonged conflict and political instability, while the devastating earthquake of 2010 pushed Haiti back into the 'extremely alarming' category."},{"index":5,"size":50,"text":"The poor spend a disproportionate amount of their income on food. This means they are especially vulnerable both through limited access and food prices spikes. The Montpelier Panel stresses the need for agricultural growth (especially in Africa) to be underpinned by resilient markets, agriculture and people (The Montpelier Panel 2012)."}]},{"head":"Agriculture back on the agenda","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":53,"text":"Since 2008, when the fragility of national food systems and their susceptibility to the vagaries of trade and price fluctuations came to the fore, the role of agriculture, including the underpinning research and development efforts, has returned to the agenda as a crucial component of food security at global, regional and national levels."},{"index":2,"size":100,"text":"A recent FAO report (FAO 2012a) emphasizes the importance of agricultural investment for growth, reduction in poverty and hunger, and the promotion of environmental sustainability. Countries recognized as the poorest and hungriest are also those with the least agricultural investment. Governments have a crucial role in providing a conducive investment climate and helping farming communities, especially women, in governing large-scale investments and investing in public goods and services that generate high returns. A recent report from the World Economic Forum stresses the importance of agriculture as a driver for food security, environmental sustainability and economic opportunities (World Economic Forum 2013)."},{"index":3,"size":96,"text":"1 http://www.un.org/en/issues/food/taskforce/ distributed over just 24 countries. Efforts are underway to promote more positive development opportunities through such processes. Cotula et al. (2009) point out that such acquisitions are often based on the misperception that land is abundant and 'unused', and tend to overlook the complexities of land ownership and rights. In relation to the livestock sector, in many cases land that is apparently 'unused' may actually constitute critical dry seasonal grazing resources or migration routes crucial for the management and ecological integrity of pastoralists, their animals and the natural resources of which they are stewards."}]},{"head":"Smallholder agriculture -what role?","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":64,"text":"The role of agriculture in addressing future food needs is unquestioned. What is more contentious is how and in what time frame agricultural systems will evolve in relation to this. Today, a considerable amount of food is produced by smallholders: 500 million smallholders supporting more than 2 billion people (Conway 2012). This begs the question of whether, or for how long, this can continue."},{"index":2,"size":57,"text":"The roles of smallholders in providing future food, especially those who raise livestock, are complex, multidimensional and at times controversial. Hazell et al. (2007) and Wiggins et al. (2010) evaluated the pros and cons of smallholder development, recognizing the combinations of policy, market and institutional innovations that are demanded to make these enterprises viable in the future."},{"index":3,"size":71,"text":"One dimension where there is broad agreement is that as agricultural systems transition, one of the crucial though hitherto marginalized elements will be to address the role of women, in particular their access to information and inputs (FAO 2011b). Conway (2012) suggests that while the world's one billion hungry can be fed, 24 conditions are needed if that is to happen: one of them is more funding for mixed livestock systems."},{"index":4,"size":78,"text":"In south Asia more than 80% of farms are less than 2 hectares; in sub-Saharan Africa smallholders contribute more than 80% of livestock production; and globally farms with a few ruminants, such as two cattle and half-a-dozen sheep or goats (i.e. 2 tropical livestock units (TLU)) and 2 hectares of land contribute 50-75% of the total livestock production. South Asia and sub-Saharan Africa have 45% and 25%, respectively, of the world's 725 million poor livestock keepers (FAO 2012b)."},{"index":5,"size":50,"text":"Smallholder and extensive livestock keepers produce in fundamentally different ways from large scale industrial farmers. Industrial systems almost always rely on food that could potentially be eaten by people -mostly grains. Smallholder and extensive systems relay mostly on food that is not available to people (grass, fodder, residues and wastes)."}]},{"head":"Feeding the world -are livestock part of the solution?","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":102,"text":"Whilst livestock commodities and systems are rarely mentioned in the context of addressing food security, livestock are, and must be, part of the solution to global food security: significant amounts of the world's food supply, both crop and livestock products, comes from systems in which livestock are important. Livestock products play a critical role in nutrition and human health. Amongst agricultural commodities, livestock products are among the highest by value and fastest growing in terms of demand. However, the potentially negative impacts of livestock on human health and the environment must also be addressed along with equity issues as the sector grows."},{"index":2,"size":70,"text":"By 2050 it is projected that per capita consumption of meat and milk in developing countries will have increased by more than 57% and 77%, respectively, and total consumption of meat and milk in these regions will have increased by 2.4 and 2.6 fold (FAO 2011a). Yet even with this rate of increase, consumption levels of meat and milk will still be less than half those found in developed countries."},{"index":3,"size":97,"text":"More than 60% of all human diseases are shared by animals and for new and emerging diseases the number is as high as 75%. Diseases can pass from animals to people in many ways but one of the most common is through livestock products. Not only can animal source foods transmit pathogens present in the animal, they are often a vehicle for transmitting pathogens present in the environment or shed by people. Animal source foods are excellent sources of nutrition for people: unsurprisingly, they are also better at supporting growth of pathogens than staple crops (Grace, 2012)."}]},{"head":"Trajectories of livestock systems","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":50,"text":"The context for livestock development is rapidly evolving, driven by the continued rising demand for livestock products, particularly in Asia, and a greater recognition that the on-going transformation needs to be nuanced in relation to the roles of smallholders, their diverse economic situateions and the different livestock commodities they produce."},{"index":2,"size":101,"text":"Higher demand means that the private sector in developing countries has become much more dynamic, creating new types of opportunities for smallholder livestock production and marketing systems, and means for market development. Accompanying these, however, are rapid structural changes in scale and quality of livestock commodity production, marketing and consumption. As with all aspects of food production, there is a need to consider the diversity of livestock production systems and scale in developing country food systems and how they can evolve to improve food security while reducing poverty in a way that is environmentally sound and has positive human health outcomes."},{"index":3,"size":119,"text":"In order to better position research and development efforts to encompass the diversity of livestock systems, three potential livestock growth scenarios have been identified recently which better capture the dynamics of the sector than the conventional pastoral, mixed crop livestock and industrial categorisation. These emerged from a High-Level Consultation for a Global Livestock Agenda to 2020 co-convened by the International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI) and the World Bank 2 and were developed further in ILRI's strategy 2013-2022(ILRI 2013)). These trajectories also resonate with the categorization of livestock systems used in a recent FAO study of the role of livestock in food security (FAO 2011a): livestock dependent societies, small-scale mixed farmers and city populations. The three trajectories are detailed below."}]},{"head":"Strong growth systems","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":137,"text":"These address the need to develop sustainable food systems that deliver key animal-source nutrients to the poor while facilitating a structural transition in the livestock sector of developing countries. This will entail a transition from most smallholders keeping livestock in low-productive systems to eventually fewer households raising more productive animals in more efficient, intensive and marketlinked systems. These mostly mixed smallholder systems already provide significant livestock and crop products in the developing world and are likely to grow the most in aggregate. In some instances, strong growth will occur in rangeland systems where appropriate market connections and productivity increases can be facilitated. In many parts of Africa and Asia the transition is happening slowly, with smallholder marketing systems still largely informal, although there are pockets of more rapid change in higher potential systems with good market access."},{"index":2,"size":63,"text":"It is these rapidly changing scenarios where there are real opportunities to apply approaches such as sustainable intensification (Pretty et al. 2011) which describes seven key components to sustainable intensification summarised as \"…producing more output from the same area of land while reducing the negative environmental impacts and at the same time increasing contributions to natural capital and the flow of environmental services\"."}]},{"head":"Fragile growth systems","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":111,"text":"Rapid, market-focused growth will, however, not be the trajectory for all poor livestock keepers. In areas where growth in productivity is severely limited by remoteness, harsh climates or environments, or by poor institutions, infrastructure and market access, the emphasis will need to be on enhancing the important role livestock play in increasing the resilience of people and communities to variability in weather, markets or resource demands. Livestock-based livelihoods will continue to be important to feed families and communities, supported by protection of assets and conservation of natural resources. Payment for ecosystem services is also likely to become increasingly important although so far these schemes are still rare (Silvestri et al. 2012)."}]},{"head":"High growth with externalities","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":95,"text":"Where dynamic markets and increasingly skilled human resources are already driving strong growth in livestock production, fast-changing small-scale livestock systems might damage the environment and expose their communities to increased public health risks. Furthermore, in these scenarios participation of the poorest livestock keepers and other value chain actors is limited. This demands an understanding and anticipation of all possible negative impacts of small-scale livestock intensification. Incentives, technologies, strategies and product and organizational innovations that mitigate health and environment risks while supporting the poorest people to comply with increasingly stringent livestock market standards are important approaches."}]},{"head":"Livestock partial truths explored","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":116,"text":"Given the importance of livestock systems for food security, as well as their potential to impact on poverty, livelihoods, health and nutrition, and the environment, the relatively little attention paid to the sector is puzzling. This might, perhaps, be related to a number of misperceptions. Although true in some circumstances, none of them is globally true and there are invariably various trade-offs, synergies and tough choices that need to be to be addressed in developing livestock-based solutions to the global food security challenge. These often differ according to the most likely livestock growth trajectory. Below a series of livestock partial truths are explored and opportunities to address these in relation to different livestock trajectories are suggested."},{"index":2,"size":105,"text":"Livestock contribute to food security both directly and indirectly, and play a crucial role in the livelihoods of almost one billion of the World's poorest people. At the same time, animal production, marketing and consumption can have negative implications for human health, on the environment and climate change. Understanding and making appropriate choices amongst trade offs is essential if the positive attributes are to be realized whilst the negative ones are minimized. In this context, a number of perceptions about the livestock sector are explored in relation to food security, animal source foods and human health, how and where food is produced and the environment"}]},{"head":"Food security","index":12,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Food security is about staple cereals -animal-source foods are a luxury","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":118,"text":"It is true that the direct contribution made by livestock products to world food supply may appear modest: globally, 17% of the energy and 33% of the protein come from livestock commodities (FAO 2009). But the contribution of livestock to the world's food is often under appreciated. Mixed crop livestock systems, however, contribute significantly both to the global supply of animal products and also supply almost half of global cereal: in the developing world these systems supply 41% of maize, 74% of millet, 66% of sorghum and 86% of rice (Herrero et al. 2009). Developing countries now produce 50% of the world's beef, 41% of milk, 72% of lamb, 59% of pork and 53% of poultry (FAO 2011a)."},{"index":2,"size":158,"text":"In these mixed systems, livestock also play an important role in the production of crops. Livestock provide manure, a valuable soil nutrient, traction for land preparation and transport, and also generate income that can be used to purchase seeds of improved varieties, fertilizer, labour and other inputs. Manure provides 12% of the nitrogen used for crop production globally rising to 23% in mixed crop livestock systems (Liu et al. 2010). In many of these systems livestock consume and use crop byproducts as major feed resources (Blummel 2010). Livestock therefore have and will continue to have a major role in food security, especially for the poor in developing countries, and approaches such as sustainable intensification continue to play an important role (Pretty et al. 2011). In addition it has been estimate that 1.3 million people are employed in livestock value chains globally (Herrero et al 2013a); the incomes they gain therefore make a major contribution to their food security."}]},{"head":"Livestock compete with human food","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":135,"text":"It is often argued that livestock consume feedstuffs that people could benefit from directly, such as grains and legumes, and thus, impact negatively on the total amount of food available. It is true that today, about half the world's annual production of grain is fed to animals, especially monogastrics (IAASTD 2009), and 77 million tons of plant protein are fed to livestock to produce 58 million tons of animal protein (Steinfeld et al. 2006). Feed crops occupy an estimated half a billion hectares of land; including grazing land, livestock accounts for four-fifths of all agricultural land (Steinfeld et al. 2010). Extrapolating from current trends, by 2050 an additional 1 billion tonnes of grain will be needed for the world, about 40% of which will be required for livestock feed, mostly pigs and chickens (IAASTD 2009)."},{"index":2,"size":113,"text":"But it is often not realised that raising fewer livestock and consuming less animal products is unlikely to mean more grain is available for human consumption: for the billion undernourished people in the world, releasing grain by not feeding to animals would not make it available for their consumption: fundamental challenges would remain related to affordability and access to food (FAO 2011a). Msangi and Rosegrant (2011) explored the implications of 'healthier diets' with less meat in developed countries on improving nutrition in developing countries: they found little, if any positive results. And importantly, it is not the livestock of the poor who competed for their food, it is the livestock of the rich."},{"index":3,"size":158,"text":"For livestock systems based on grazing, which constitute 40% of the earth's surface and support some 120 million people (FAO 2011a; FAO 2012b), livestock are not consuming food that could be directly consumed by people; rather they are converting materials humans cannot eat into milk, meat and eggs that they can. Herrero et al. (2009) estimate that 7% of the milk and 37% of global beef and lamb production is from such systems. FAO (2011a) estimates are that such grassland based systems provide 12% of the milk and 9% of the meat annually. Differences are most likely due to the system boundaries used for such estimations. In some of these systems there is potential for strong growth if appropriate market arrangements coupled with productivity increases can be aligned. But for other regions, these will be systems with fragile growth prospects where a focus on safety nets, insurance function of assets and environmental stewardship must come to the fore."},{"index":4,"size":166,"text":"Overall in the mixed crop-livestock systems, livestock mostly do not compete directly with people for food and mainly convert inedible materials into milk and meat. The major feed resource for animals in these systems (notably ruminants) is crop residues -as much as 70% of animal diets being composed of such materials which are essentially a by product of food production and therefore not in competition with human food (Blümmel 2010). However, increasingly trade-offs between crop residue and biomass use for animal feed, soil fertility and biofuels are being highlighted as important issues to consider as crop-livestock systems evolve (Valbuena et al. 2012): a major challenge for the future is to address the looming biomass shortage and how livestock systems may be intensified in sustainable ways (Duncan et al. 2013). Especially in those systems that have the potential for strong growth, there are significant opportunities to improve animal productivity without introducing high grain based diets (Tarawali et al. 2011) thereby achieving win-win efficiency and greenhouse gas mitigation."}]},{"head":"Animal source foods and human health","index":15,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Poor people do not care what they eat","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":69,"text":"It is true that poor consumers are sensitive to price, but contrary to common belief, developing country consumers who shop in informal markets do care about quality attributes of food; they are even willing to pay a 5-15% premium for safer foods (Jabbar et al. 2010). Studies in Ethiopia have shown that, while the poorer sectors of society have less concern than the rich, they take food safety seriously."},{"index":2,"size":116,"text":"Food scares, whether bird flu in poultry or horsemeat in burgers, offer natural experiments in which peoples' attitudes towards food safety and quality can be tested. Even in poor countries, dramatic changes in consumption patterns have also been observed in response to food scares. ILRI's work in Vietnam showed that when 'blue ear' (porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus) made the news, the vast majority of consumers stopped eating pork, shifted to chicken or went to outlets perceived as safer (ILRI 2010). Assessments conducted in the context of Rift Valley fever outbreaks in Kenya showed consumers demanding to see butchers certificates and a drop in demand for ruminant meat as consumers switched to poultry (ILRI 2007)."},{"index":3,"size":42,"text":"All three growth scenarios require solutions to the challenges of food borne diseases and zoonoses, especially in the higher growth scenarios. The use of risk based approaches and complex institutional arrangements will be important in addressing such challenges (Randolph et al. 2007)."}]},{"head":"Animal-source foods are bad for your health","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":78,"text":"It is true that over a billion people suffer from the effects of over-consumption, including of animal-source foods, increasing their risk of non-communicable diseases such as cancers, cardiovascular disease and diabetes (McMichael et al. 2007). Understandably animal-source foods are often considered a threat to health. But it is often not appreciated how important animal source foods can be for the several billion who are undernourished, for whom consumption of too little animal-source food may have even worse consequences."},{"index":2,"size":36,"text":"Children are particularly vulnerable to nutritional deficiencies during the first 1000 days from conception and chronic under nutrition of young girls means that 'a vicious cycle of under nutrition repeats itself, generation after generation' (UNICEF 2008)."},{"index":3,"size":126,"text":"Several forms of malnutrition (protein-energy malnutrition, iron-deficiency anaemia and vitamin A deficiency) can be prevented if sufficient animal-source foods are included in the diet. Even small amounts of these foods can result in better cognitive development, growth and physical activity of children (Neumann et al. 2002;Sadler et al. 2012). Animal-source foods are a concentrated source of energy, protein and various essential micronutrients, including those absent or scarce in plant-based foods. They also match well with human dietary requirements (Young and Pellett 1994;Allen 2005). It has been estimated that to combat effectively under nutrition, 20 g of animal protein per person per day is needed -the equivalent of an annual per capita consumption of 33 kg lean meat, 230 kg milk or 45 kg fish (FAO 2009)."},{"index":4,"size":125,"text":"As people get wealthier, an important question to address is how much animal-source food should they eat? This is the subject of considerable debate, both from the perspective of the quantity as well as the practicalities of limiting the increased consumption of milk, meat and eggs: as people become less poor, the first manifestation is often an increase in consumption of animal-source foods. A range of figures has been proposed, ranging from 58 to 90 g of meat per person per day (McMichael et al. 2007;FAO 2011a;Westhoek et al. 2011). Livestock products themselves are not major contributors to the increasing burden of obesity in poor countries; but they are often fried or otherwise processed in ways that make them unhealthy choices (Ziraba et al. 2009)."},{"index":5,"size":41,"text":"As livestock systems evolve in strong and high growth scenarios, paying attention to an appropriate level of animal consumption will be a challenge. Meanwhile for fragile growth scenarios, ensuring that enough animal-source food is available and accessible will remain the challenge."}]},{"head":"How food is produced","index":18,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Large industrial livestock farms are the only answer","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":112,"text":"Smallholder livestock farms are often inefficient, producing at low levels and often with a high level of greenhouse gas emissions per unit of product (FAO 2010). Capper et al. (2009) assessed dairy production in the US and noted that, compared to 1944, in 2007 just 21% of the animals, 23% of the feedstuffs, 35% of the water and only 10% of the land were being used to produce one billion kilograms of milk. This period was characterised by significant increases in average herd and farm size, a phenomenon not yet observed to any great extent in developing countries, where it may be anticipated that a similar trajectory is likely over coming decades."},{"index":2,"size":62,"text":"More than 70% of the dairy products in India, the world's largest dairy producer, come from small-scale production enterprises and considerable amounts of livestock products are sold in informal markets (Costales et al. 2010). While smallholders may continue to be competitive in the dairy sector, for pig and poultry a more rapid switch to industrial systems is likely (Tarawali et al. 2011)."},{"index":3,"size":91,"text":"Disease management and biosecurity are also considered poor in smallholder systems. Hence, many recommend that future livestock farming must be based on large-scale industrial systems. Not all agree however. Industrialization of livestock systems may facilitate disease transmission, for example through high density populations and the challenge of managing large volumes of waste, and promote the use of anti-microbials and thus emergence of antibiotic resistance. It may also lead to reduced levels of genetic diversity which may promote evolution of pathogens and reduce options for an uncertain future (Jones et al. 2013)."}]},{"head":"Livestock and the environment","index":20,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Livestock are responsible for climate change","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":129,"text":"There is no doubt that livestock production contributes to greenhouse gas emissions. How much has been a matter of some debate; estimates range between 8 to 51% of total greenhouse gas emissions emanating from the sector (Herrero et al.2011a) although most estimates fall in the range of 12-18%. Within agriculture as a whole, it is the livestock sector where the greatest opportunities for mitigating the greenhouse gas emissions occur, both today and in the future. Herrero et al. (2013b) estimate that up to half of the global greenhouse gas mitigation potential of agriculture, forests and land use combined is in the livestock sector. Thornton and Herrero (2010) estimated that the mitigation potential from feeding improvements alone in tropical systems was around 7% of the global mitigation potential of agriculture."},{"index":2,"size":168,"text":"Milk production in sub-Saharan Africa produces more than twice the emissions per unit of production at the farm gate than the global average (FAO 2010) and similar inefficiencies are reported for beef (Capper 2011). In the US dairy sector, a four-fold increase in the efficiency of production, attributed to better feeding, breeding and animal health, took place over a six decade period (Capper et al. 2009). There are real opportunities in many mixed systems for similar efficiency gains even without moving fully to industrial style production systems (McDermott et al. 2010;Tarawali et al. 2011;FAO 2011a;2012b) especially for ruminant production in agrarian economies. There are also opportunities to improve efficiencies in all livestock production systems, given the wide range in the current values (de Vries and de Boer 2009). Developing country livestock systems, especially those on a strong growth trajectory, also present significant greenhouse gas mitigation potential and opportunities for carbon offsets. For fragile growth trajectories, carbon sequestration from rangelands and the associated co-benefits can be explored (see below)."},{"index":3,"size":120,"text":"Livestock systems are significantly impacted by climate change and sound adaptation strategies are required. This is especially critical in the grassland systems which are often undergoing fragile growth and where some of the world's poorest people rely entirely on livestock for their livelihoods. Recent crises in the Horn of Africa and Sahel bear witness to this and have resulted in major humanitarian and food security disasters. In many such cases, livestock are the only asset remaining on which to rebuild and attention needs to be paid to insuring the asset and mitigating loss. Innovative arrangements, such as weather-index based livestock insurance schemes, which are triggered by remotely sensed thresholds, are showing considerable promise in this regard (Carter and Janzen 2011)."}]},{"head":"Water scarcity is a result of livestock production","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":67,"text":"Until recently, livestock and water were considered almost exclusively from the perspective of the impact of livestock on water pollution (Steinfeld et al. 2006). Yet almost onethird of total agricultural water is used by the livestock sector: 840 m 3 annually in grasslands and 1340 m 3 growing feeds; direct consumption for drinking is relatively insignificant in comparison representing 10% of total usage (Herrero et al. 2013a)."},{"index":2,"size":78,"text":"For mixed crop livestock systems that are on a strong growth trajectory there are significant opportunities to increase productivity of milk and meat per unit of water used through feed, water and animal management strategies (Peden et al. 2007). If such approaches are combined they could improve livestock water productivity at least threefold (Descheemaeker et al. 2010a, b). For rangelands there are opportunities to improve water productivity by 45% through better rangeland management practices (Rockstrom et al. 2007)."},{"index":3,"size":66,"text":"Water use estimates for livestock production has been a hotly contested issue: highly diverse estimates of up to 4.6m 3 (Singh et al. 2004) and a global average of 0.77 m 3 per litre of milk produced (Chapagain and Hoekstra 2003) and a range of 10 to 100 m 3 water per kg of beef (Descheemaeker et al. 2009) suggest there is significant potential for improvement."}]},{"head":"Livestock production causes land degradation","index":23,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":81,"text":"Headlines often tell a grim story of land degradation due to livestock: extensive cattle raising in the Amazon accounts for at least 65% of the deforestation and up to 600,000 hectares per annum are reported to be cleared for crop production to produce feed for pigs, poultry and intensive dairy (Herrero et al.2011b). However, with rangelands occupying 40% of the Earth's surface, these resources, largely managed by livestock dependent people, are a potentially huge carbon sink similar in magnitude to forests."},{"index":2,"size":98,"text":"Carbon sequestration through rangelands, which is optimum under conditions of moderate livestock grazing (Conant and Paustain 2002), has the potential to sequester up to 8.6 million tonnes of carbon per year in Africa (compared to 1.9 with light grazing and 6.1 with heavy grazing). Supporting such schemes and implementing them in practice, however, is an area that requires new research and development efforts to address the complexities of institutional and certification mechanisms, benefit sharing and co-benefits (Silvestri et al. 2012;World Bank 2012). This is an area which could have significant dividend for livestock systems undergoing fragile growth scenarios."}]},{"head":"Conclusion","index":24,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":54,"text":"With the global population approaching 10 billion by 2050, the world is understandably concerned about how it will feed itself in the future. Increasingly, the solution to this challenge is being considered in relation to holistic 'food systems', in which producing food is considered in relation to environmental, health and sometimes also equity issues."},{"index":2,"size":41,"text":"Responding to rising food demand and uncertainty of supply and prices in recent years put agriculture firmly back on the development agenda. But it is only very recently that smallholder agriculture has been recognized as part of the food security equation."},{"index":3,"size":85,"text":"The role of livestock is seldom articulated in relation to global food issues, and yet it presents opportunities for important contributions to solutions that relate to food security and sustainable livelihoods, as well as health and environmental dimensions. Livestock are undoubtedly part of the solutions to feeding the world in 2050, but this will require a nuanced approach that takes cognizance of the different development trajectories of the livestock sector and encompasses solutions that combine a range of biophysical, institutional, market, infrastructure, and policy issues."},{"index":4,"size":41,"text":"In all these situations, better information about the true impacts of livestock and a balanced assessment of the benefits and dis-benefits of the sector will enable the livestock sector's role in global food security to be more appreciated, valued and addressed."},{"index":5,"size":39,"text":"The complexities of the livestock sector, the varied trade-offs and balances demand that research and development efforts to address food security must consider both biophysical and institutional solutions in relation to the potential transition of today's diverse livestock sector."}]}],"figures":[],"sieverID":"d769d75e-d9fa-4ea7-88bf-846120303085","abstract":"Feeding the World in 2050 is a major challenge at the forefront of the global development agenda. The importance of agriculture in addressing this challenge has re-emerged in recent years as food security issues are considered in a more holistic manner. The role of livestock as part of the solution is, however, often not considered. This article presents a brief overview of the global food security challenge, and considers the increased focus on holistic food systems. It contends that animal agriculture is relevant to this complex, multifaceted and dynamic global challenge. However, if livestock-based solutions are to become a reality a number of partial truths and trade-offs often associated with livestock and food need to be addressed. The role of livestock systems in future food security is considered in relation to different potential development trajectories of the sector, highlighting opportunities to ensure that livestock's contribution to global food security is a positive one that also addresses concerns of environment, equity and human health."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"08e6d5e75fad2b2acd9678f5cfa36088","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/07fe6785-7d73-4cde-a32f-fdf1d2434ccd/retrieve"},"pageCount":33,"title":"2 th %Meeting%(FC12)-Brussels,%Belgium%","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"DRYLAND CEREALS Response to Review Comments on Extension Proposal","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":185,"text":"Dryland Cereals (DC) welcomes the review, insight and guidance provided by the Independent Science and Partnership Council (ISPC) and the Consortium Office (CO) on our extension proposal. We greatly appreciate the comments that allow us to recognize both the strengths and the areas to improve in our proposal, and thank the reviewers for the opportunity to respond to the review. We have structured our response to address the review comments from both ISPC and CO. ISPC comments are addressed in adherence to the numbered comments elaborated from Page 4 onwards of the review, as well as to the numbering of the serious concerns listed on page 2. CO comments are addressed in adherence to numbering of the comments. Supporting information is presented in three annexes. This response also incorporates the Performance Matrix. In reference to the serious concerns by the ISPC, we have provided information on the results/reports to date as well as ongoing efforts on demand and constraint analysis, and towards prioritization. We submit that the Theory of Change is a work in progress, and yet to be defined further from its generic beginning."}]},{"head":"THE NEED TO DEFINE, TARGET AND FOCUS ISPC Serious Concerns 1 & 5; CO Comment 1","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":274,"text":"The primary demand for dryland cereals is for food in Africa, especially in the dryland regions where these are the principal crops. This continuing demand is reflected in the trend for increasing area under sorghum and millets in Africa over the last fifty years, as shown below against a backdrop of maize, wheat and rice. Also shown is a relatively flat yield chart across the last fifty years for these crops, again against the backdrop of maize, wheat and rice. The figure below emphasizes two points, the first, demand has been increasing in Africa for these crops over the last fifty years likely driven by the rising population, and the second, crop productivity has not kept pace with this increasing demand. This is due to both a lag in crop improvement efforts in these crops relative to maize, wheat and rice, and the extreme environmental conditions and the low-input agriculture under which these crops are grown, relative to maize, wheat and rice. Thus it is immediately evident that crop improvement efforts combined with improved agronomic practices is a must for these crops in Africa, especially in view of the reducing arability of land 1 . Interventions of the BMGF-supported HOPE project (Harnessing Opportunities for Productivity Enhancements) for sorghum and millets, that started its first phase in 2009, have demonstrated yield gains from as low as 17 to as high as 141 per cent for these crops through crop improvement and agronomy. In the case of barley, while global trends indicate stabilization in barley area and production, with slow but study increase in productivity, productivity in Africa is lagging behind at 50% of global productivity."},{"index":2,"size":193,"text":"Having stated the above, we recognize that further definition, targeting and focus are important as pointed out by the review. This is especially in view of end uses beyond food, and in view of emerging demand for these climate-resilient crops driven by changing climate. The identification of target countries in the original proposal was based on a combination of two factors, namely, cultivated area under dryland cereal crops, and size of the population under the poverty line. During the extension phase, we plan to re-evaluate and redefine the target countries and ecologies based on the proportion of dryland cereal crops grown relative to other cereal crops, while still weighing the size of the population below the poverty line. Towards this, we intend to use information from the ISPC commissioned foresight studies on land use and urbanization in Africa and Asia 2 , along with our own value chain analyses. Our focus on crop improvement for yield enhancement and yield stability (in the face of predominant biotic and abiotic constraints) will continue, while we will further define the quality traits that need to be prioritized for research based on existing or emerging value chains."},{"index":3,"size":72,"text":"Food and malting uses of barley in East and North Africa are observed to be on the rise. The baseline for barley in Ethiopia and research priority setting was completed, and reports are under compilation for baseline survey work undertaken in India, Morocco, Iran, Turkey and Kazakhstan in 2013-14. In relation to sorghum and millet value chains, preliminary analyses based on collected baseline data and other information point to the following information."},{"index":4,"size":77,"text":"A synthesis of the studies listed herein on sorghum and pearl millet demand and consumption trends to guide R4D priorities in India is presented in Annex 1. In summary, dual-purpose cultivars are a must for both sorghum and pearl millet since both grain and fodder are valued. For both crops the demand for fodder is growing faster. For pearl millet, higher yielding varieties need to be targeted for alternative uses to bring down unit cost of production."},{"index":5,"size":115,"text":"Finger millet flour: Growth in middle class demand for weaning foods and healthier blended flours; demand for finger millet flours by hospitals for diabetics, HIV Aids patients. Sorghum flour: Growth in middle class demand for ready-to-eat sorghum products. Sorghum beer: High price of imported barley and malt; lower excise duties than on malted beers; price incentives for smallholders; appropriate low-tannin varieties of sorghum. Poultry feed: Growth in consumer income increases demand for chicken; sorghum and millets are competitive with alternative feeds such as maize; appropriate millet and sorghum varieties with high nutrient content. Fodder: Growth in consumer income increases demand for beef; appropriate dual-purpose sorghum varieties that combine high grain yield with high fodder quality"}]},{"head":"Answers affect scientific objectives as follows:","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":96,"text":" Growth in value chains in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) starts from a low base. For WCA, it is estimated that only 5 % of sorghum and millets enters these value chains.  Commercialization is specific to the country and the crop. In Tanzania, most finger millet is sold, but not sorghum. In Kenya, both sorghum and millets are sold widely. In Ethiopia, very little is sold.  Sorghum fodder is important in Ethiopia, where short-stemmed early maturing varieties have not been widely adopted.  Resilience and food security will remain important farmer priorities in the drylands."},{"index":2,"size":170,"text":"We agree with the ISPC comment that the scope for value chain analysis should be defined carefully. The analytical focus of Dryland Cereals in value chain analysis has been on social inclusion, and the effectiveness of inclusive business models in making sure that poorer farmers (including women) benefit from commercialization. For example, the study of the value chain for sorghum beer in Kenya evaluated the performance of the Smart Logistics business model in terms of social inclusion. 3 Thus our emphasis is on studying \"value chains with high growth potential and the potential to raise incomes of poorer households\" (p. 8). Similarly, new work on commercialization of finger millet in Western Kenya has focused how collective marketing benefits women. 4 That is not a \"commercial development activity\" but a research activity to determine to what extent poorer smallholders benefit from value chain development. Dryland Cereals' Flagship 5 plans a number of value chain studies focused on this research question, which is critical for IDO # 4 (increased and gender-equitable income)."},{"index":3,"size":137,"text":"Since 2012, Dryland Cereals' partners in Ethiopia have also conducted short studies to measure marketing costs for sorghum and millets 5 and quantify demand for sorghum in different uses. 6 Again, this is not a \"commercial development activity\" but research that provides information on the sources of demand which helps research prioritization and on price incentives and transaction costs for smallholders. It is not \"market research\" of the type commissioned by the private sector. Any private firm commissioning market research on a specific value chain would have proprietary rights and likely no incentive to share the results with Dryland Cereals. Though Dryland Cereals does not currently have the expertise to conduct research on all aspects of value chain analysis, we will collaborate with appropriate partners including PIM for those aspects for which we currently lack in-house expertise."},{"index":4,"size":142,"text":"The Flagship 3 (Inclusive Value Chains and Efficient Trade) of PIM focuses on the development of tools for value chain analysis. The Lead Center, ICRISAT, is an active participant in this Flagship, and the research on the value chains for sorghum and millets will be done within Dryland Cereals. In terms of work planned on trade in ESA, we plan to contract a partner with expertise in this area. We have already had discussions with the Dept. of Agricultural Economics, University of Nairobi, which has conducted studies on cross-border trade. We also plan to link with PIM's Flagship 3 (Inclusive Value Chains and Efficient Trade), where David Laborde (IFPRI) is coordinating studies on cross-border trade which can provide advice on survey instruments and design. This has already been discussed with Laborde at the Flagship 3 meeting in Washington in June 2014.  Ongoing."}]},{"head":"DEMAND ANALYSIS, ADOPTION-CONSTRAINT ANALYSIS & PRIORITY","index":4,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Demand analysis","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":134,"text":"The original proposal provided information on demand in South Asia (SA) derived from the National Sample Survey database (1993/94-2009/10) to show trends in household consumption by rural/urban, by income category, and by state (Appendix 4 of original proposal). Since then, regional analyses of household sorghum consumption in India have been completed and reported 7 . Similar analyses have also been completed and reported for pearl millet in India 8 . Demand and supply projections for pearl millet grain and fodder for Western India covering the states of Rajasthan, Gujarat and Haryana indicate that by 2020 the share of food use in total grain production will decline from 46% to 40%, while the shares of cattle feed (37.5 to 38.6%), poultry feed (7.7 to 9.4%), and alcohol and other uses (8.8 to 11.7%) will increase."},{"index":2,"size":121,"text":"We have extended the demand analysis to Eastern and Southern Africa (ESA), where datasets were obtained for national household expenditure surveys from the national statistical offices in four countries (Ethiopia, Kenya, Uganda, and Tanzania), and analyzed. These studies provide descriptive tables analyzing number of consuming households and annual demand (in adult equivalents) disaggregated by demand by rural/urban, high/middle/low income, poor/non-poor, and producing/nonproducing districts. They also determine income elasticity of demand for sorghum and millets, but not using the Almost Ideal Demand Systems model, for which the CRP does not have expertise at present. Reports for these studies are available. 9 A report synthesizing the results across these four countries is in preparation, and is expected to be completed by Dec 2014."},{"index":3,"size":91,"text":"With regard to demand analysis in West and Central Africa (WCA), we are currently collaborating with the Sorghum and Millets Innovation Lab (SMIL; USAID-Funded Feed the Future Innovation Lab) at Kansas State University to conduct a regional demand system study that will integrate demand for sorghum, millets, maize and rice. A scoping study will identify the most suitable data sets, followed by an analysis of household demand and demand drivers. Dryland Cereals hopes to conduct this integrated demand analysis in partnership with AfricaRice, which has also expressed their interest to SMIL."}]},{"head":"Adoption studies","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":30,"text":"The original Dryland Cereals proposal synthesized results from 29 studies on constraints to adoption for improved varieties of sorghum and millets disaggregated by region (Appendix 5 of the original proposal)."},{"index":2,"size":79,"text":"A more recent study on adoption constraints to improved sorghum in Tanzania identified the availability of information as a key constraint in the adoption of improved varieties. 10 Yet another recent study explored the role of social networks in spreading information about improved sorghum varieties in Tanzania. 11 An adoption study of improved finger millet varieties in Western Kenya has also been recently completed. 12 A new study on constraints to adoption in Mali has been started in 2014."}]},{"head":"Priority setting","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":105,"text":"Baseline surveys were conducted in 2012-2013 for five countries in ESA (Kenya, Uganda, Sudan, Eritrea, and Tanzania) to identify farmer trait preferences and priorities. Reports for individual countries are being prepared by national partners, and Dryland Cereals is now undertaking a cross-country analysis, with an anticipated completion date of Dec 2014. Dryland Cereals also conducted a multi-disciplinary scoping study to identify research priorities for sorghum in Mozambique. 13 For WCA, new baseline survey data have been produced for Nigeria, Niger, and Mali. 14 Results from these studies will provide an updated overview of trait preferences and adoption constraints that will inform development of product lines."},{"index":2,"size":111,"text":"In ESA, we have also used the DREAM model to make ex ante and ex post studies of R&D impacts for Uganda and Tanzania, while a third study for Ethiopia is in the final stage of preparation. These studies provide detailed analysis of economic impacts by variety and by region. Reports are available for Uganda and Tanzania. 15 A major study has also begun in ESA on the competitiveness of sorghum with drought tolerant maize, which will use GIS mapping to identify regions of competitive advantage and use crop models to measure the economic advantage of sorghum over maize under different rainfall scenarios. This is scheduled for completion by Dec 2014."},{"index":3,"size":33,"text":"In SA, data-based analysis has been done on outlook and targeting for sorghum and millets in India, albeit with some emphasis on sweet sorghum for biofuel. Reports are available for these outlook 16  "}]},{"head":"THEORY OF CHANGE, IMPACT PATHWAYS & INTERMEDIATE DEVELOPMENT OUTCOMES ISPC Serious Concern 3; ISPC Comments 1.2, 1.3; CO Comment 1","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":176,"text":"The Theory of Change (ToC) presented for Dryland Cereals in Annex 1 of the extension proposal is in a generic form at present, and we are cognizant of the need to define clearly the specific dimensions of the Theory of Change of the program as indicated in the Extension Proposal. Four important dimensions identified for impact for the Dryland Cereals Theory of Change are (1) production of research outputs that meet farmers' requirements, (2) enabling environment for the dissemination of outputs and uptake by farmers, (3) access for farmers to the outputs of Dryland Cereals, and (4) adoption of Dryland Cereals outputs by farmers. Each of these dimensions needs yet to be elaborated, as suggested by both the ISPC and the CO, and we are in the process of doing this. Such elaborate definition of the ToC will enable the identification of necessary strategic expertise or partnerships currently missing, clear assessment of available human resources and infrastructure relative to the accepted scope of the program, and prioritization of efforts for impact and best value for investment."}]},{"head":"Theory of Change","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":222,"text":"Our analyses of demand, constraints and value chains so far have given a reasonably clear picture of the nature of research outputs required, especially the desirable crop traits to be improved. Information that helps define country-specific targets for research is now in hand, though further granular information on regions within countries is still a work in progress. Our ongoing cross-country/regional synthesis of available information will help determine commonalities in demand and constraints, thus helping prioritization of R4D targets within the program in balance with the budget. Flagship 1 will address these studies, from the socioeconomic perspective, in collaboration with Flagship 5, and the analytical data thus developed will be weighed by the Research Management Team for data-driven prioritization of R4D activities across Flagships 2 and 3. We anticipate and prepare for a feed-back loop of learning, updating and changing implementation as necessary, even as Flagship 1 evaluates prevailing conditions on an ongoing basis for recommendations of changes to the ToC as required. Additionally, it is also planned to conduct a market analysis for the different crops across the target regions/countries to prioritize R4D investments, during preparations for the second phase. The CRP Director does have experience in basic market analyses, with or without calculation of net present values, for commodity crop traits across countries to enable justification or prioritization of R4D investment."},{"index":2,"size":226,"text":"Impact of technologies developed as outputs is determined by their adoption. Improved seed is a key output from Flagship 2, and this is the first area we are focusing on to define an apt Theory of Change. Seeds of open pollinated varieties still predominate in cultivation in Africa, though hybrids are gradually being recognized for their enhanced yield, especially in WCA. Even with earnest effort in developing hybrids and producing hybrid seed, both open pollinated varieties and hybrids are likely to prevail in these regions over the next few years. Consequently, two separate avenues are being explored to enable the supply of seed of farmer-preferred varieties or hybrids. We are starting to develop a ToC with the Syngenta Foundation for Sustainable Agriculture (SFSA) which provides technical support to WASP's implementation of the ECOWAS procedures. During 2014, we are partnering with SFSA, which is currently in an exploratory phase of a program aimed at (1) the registration of four Malian sorghum varieties in Mali by their breeders (IER and ICRISAT), and (2) the facilitation of sub-regional acceptance of the newly registered varieties in four neighboring countries, namely, Senegal, Niger, Nigeria and Burkina Faso. In parallel, we are also in discussion with DuPont Pioneer for the development of a ToC, and a bilaterally funded project, for increased rigor in the development and dissemination of hybrid sorghum in Africa."}]},{"head":"Impact Pathway","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":70,"text":"We realize from the ISPC comment that the suggestion given by our Impact Pathway as illustrated in page 3 of the extension proposal is that \"one size fits all problems, cereals, farmer groups and regions\". This is quite contrary to the actual fact, where the five flagships or thematic areas that contribute to the Impact Pathway overlie seven Clusters of Activities, each of which is specific to crop and region."},{"index":2,"size":36,"text":"Evidence is present in the various reports cited in the earlier pages of this response, where studies and analytical reporting were specific to crop and country, and in a few cases even to regions within countries."}]},{"head":"Intermediate Development Outcomes","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":75,"text":"Annex 2 provides information on how most target estimates were derived; some are planned to be reformulated in light of more recent discussions on IDOs and SDGs. It is important to point out that since the submission of the extension proposal there have been ongoing discussions on common IDOs. We are in the process of evaluating with GRiSP, Maize, Wheat and GL how we can learn from each other on defining metrics and setting targets."}]},{"head":"FLAGSHIP PROJECTS & COLLABORATIONS ISPC Comment 2; ISPC Serious Concern 4; CO Comment 2","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":150,"text":"The recent restructuring of the CRP into Flagships and Clusters of Activities, through a simple flipping around of the structure in the original proposal, is expected to significantly enhance functional effectiveness and implementation efficiency. We recognize that our Flagships are thematic areas. Considering the fact that relatively very little research is done on these crops outside this CRP, especially for dryland farmers, it is critical to include all required R4D activities for these crops within these Flagships/Thematic areas of the CRP, with appropriate prioritization. The Performance Matrix presented herein identifies, but is not restricted to, important Flagship \"Projects\" in the exact definition of this term, for the extension phase. The Performance Matrix also recognizes the fact that benefits flow to R4D partners (NARS, NGOs, development partners) as well as to farmers as ultimate endusers. Feedback loops exist amongst all these Flagships/Thematic areas but most importantly between Flagships 1 and 5."},{"index":2,"size":204,"text":"It is recognized that budget and functional emphasis is still skewed towards Flagship 2, and we plan to rebalance this to the extent possible during the implementation of the extension phase such that a balanced R4D portfolio sets the stage for Phase II. Flagship 1 needs a leader yet, Flagship 2 is led by the CRP Director (and will be co-led by two partner organization leaders), Flagship 3 is led by Girish Chander (Resilient Dryland Systems, ICRISAT), Flagship 4 is led by Zewdie Bishaw (Seed Systems, ICARDA) and Flagship 5 is led by Alastair Orr (Markets, Institutes and Policies, ICRISAT). The leadership of Flagships 3 and 5 connects Dryland Cereals in close functional collaboration with Dryland Systems and PIM respectively, while the leadership of Flagship 4 connects Dryland Cereals with the partner Center, ICARDA. Potential co-leadership between ICRISAT and ICARDA is being explored for Flagship 1 for still further enhancement of ties with ICARDA. We do need to state that we are in an experimental phase currently with such leadership assignments for the extension period. Flagship 4 on Seed Systems and Input Services would benefit from private sector involvement by establishing model pipelines for, as example, medium-to large-scale seed multiplication, quality assurance and distribution."},{"index":3,"size":218,"text":"Shared or complementary activities between associated CRPs (especially DS, GL, PIM, A4NH, L&F and CCAFS) functioning within the participating centers are expected to contribute to the outputs and outcomes of Dryland Cereals. Capture of all information on shared or complementary activities within the associated CRPs at the participating centers is currently in progress for a clear assessment of work plans and budgets within Dryland Cereals. The information captured so far is presented in Annex 3, outlining existing, planned or potential collaborative activities with DS, L&F, PIM, A4NH and CCAFS. This is a starting effort to compile information on ongoing activities, and \"collaboration role\" is currently loosely presented and need to be defined based on additional information from the CRP offices. Attributions and contributions will be worked out in more in-depth discussions with CRP Directors. Collaborative efforts with Grain Legumes will essentially be in the context of mixed cropping or mixed farming opportunities as a three-way collaboration between DS, GL and DC. In addition to the listed collaborations in Annex 3, the commodity CRPs are currently discussing a Community of Practice for Commodity CRPs that will explore opportunities for collaborations or learning, especially in the areas of genomics, phenotyping protocols, seed systems and input services. This Community of Practice is also expected to improve interconnection between barley and sorghum/millets."}]},{"head":"GENDER ISPC and CO Comment 3","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":186,"text":"As recognized in the proposal and its reviews, Gender is in the early stages of mainstreaming. However, gender-relevant R4D activities do prevail even in current implementation that seems to be not fully recognized by the PIs and focal points for the Clusters of Activities. One major responsibility of the newly hired gender scientist is to work in collaboration with the focal points and PIs to identify such activities, as well as results and learnings from these, and integrate these into both ongoing planning and reporting. This will also enable delineation of budget allocation within each Cluster of Activity towards gender-related activities, and this is expected to be completed in October of 2014 to enable appropriate budget distribution for the extension phase. Another critical responsibility of the DC gender scientist before the start of the extension phase is to identify and assemble gender-disaggregated information available on all four dryland cereal crops, identify gaps, and plan/budget to fill them during the first year of the extension phase. This effort will also feed into further definition and prioritization of gender-related R4D activities within each Flagship and Cluster of Activity."},{"index":2,"size":134,"text":"We do recognize that women play distinct roles throughout the dryland cereal value chains, and our detailed planning and POWB for 2015 will prioritize gender-relevant R4D activities along the predominant value chains for each of the four dryland cereal crops. The metrics and targets for the IDOs as currently presented is primarily to ensure that we do not lose sight of the need for a gender dimension in each of our IDOs, and that we work towards gender equity within the IDO targets. Cross-CRP collaborations are already in discussion or early planning for gender research, and the Dryland Cereals gender scientist works closely with the Grain Legumes gender scientist. The Dryland Cereals gender scientist will also connect with gender-related research in Dryland Systems, and also with ICARDA for both barley and dryland-systems gender research."}]},{"head":"PARTNERSHIPS & REGIONAL COLLABORATIONS ISPC and CO Comments 4 and 5","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":94,"text":"It is very much recognized that internally, within the CRP, there is a need to identify roles of each FP and CoA, and to ensure a coordinated implementation across both participating centers. Flagship leaders, and to some extent the focal points for Clusters of Activities, have yet to fully recognize the need to collaborate across crops, regions and centers. However, Dryland Cereals being still in its early stages, and also relatively early in its exposure to the reform process, this is expected to be less of a challenge as we move forward in implementation."},{"index":2,"size":107,"text":"Our partnerships with other CRPs are outlined in Annex 3 as mentioned earlier. We do collaborate closely with Grain Legumes already in administration, including the establishment of a Monitoring and Evaluation platform, development of guidelines for implementation of key administrative activities, the CRP Commissioned External Review etc. We anticipate even closer collaborative functioning, especially in bioinformatics, genomics data management and quality control, once the BMGF and CO supported genomics effort becomes active for sorghum and chickpea at ICRISAT. Finally, the potential for threeway collaborations between GL, DS and DC in cropping and farming systems research in the dryland regions of Africa and Asia is very well recognized."},{"index":3,"size":117,"text":"The ISPC pointer towards less traditional partners is appreciated, and we will explore the suggested and similar partnerships. We are currently in discussion with the Javier Ekboir of the Institutional Learning and Change Initiative of the CGIAR regarding an effort in partnership mapping for Dryland Cereals as part of an IFAD-supported project. Among other things, this will allow identification of gaps in regional and strategic partnerships which allow the CRP to focus on developing crucial regional and strategic collaborations for the effective functioning of our impact pathway across all target regions. We are also collaborating with the Syngenta Foundation and discussing potential models of public-private partnerships especially in regard to general terms of agreement and intellectual property."},{"index":4,"size":69,"text":"Our efforts to leverage the capacities and models of the Agribusiness Innovation Platform (AIP) of ICRISAT during the extension phase will not be restricted to India. We appreciate and heed the CO's comments on the need for a balanced activities across both research and development partnerships within the CRP. The CO has also correctly indicated the possible reason for the research and development partnership representation within our Impact Pathway."}]},{"head":"PHASED WORKPLAN FOR THE EXTENSION PERIOD ISPC Comment 6","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":80,"text":"Strategic positioning and prioritization of CRP projects and activities, including those that are bilateral, are critical to its effectiveness in addressing farmer needs and achieving projected goals, as rightly pointed out by both the ISPC and the CO in this and earlier sections of the review comments. As indicated earlier in our response, we are in the process of further defining priorities based on demandconstraint analyses, and will be phasing out and/or adding activities/projects on the basis of data-driven decisions."}]},{"head":"BUDGETS ISPC and CO Comment 7","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":80,"text":"We recognize the significance of a balanced budget across the Flagship projects and the consequent balanced portfolio of R4D activities along the Impact Pathway, and are working towards this balancing even as we enter detailed planning of work and budget for the extension phase. As indicated by the CO, we will include and add to the budget two specific activities, namely, (1) driving forward an informatics/genomics data back office, and (2) setting up and implementing an informatics breeding management system."}]},{"head":"PERFORMANCE MATRIX","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":106,"text":"The Dryland Cereals Performance Matrix captures the best estimate of outcomes during the extension period, and it is on the basis of ongoing work or outputs prior to the extension phase, and in some cases even prior to the start of the CRP. A detailed list of output targets is presented in the extension proposal. R4D implementation during the first phase of the CRP is dealing with some challenges normal to any change process, and we are in the process of discussing and/or addressing the major challenges that have an impact on effective delivery of outputs and outcomes from the CRP. These are briefly stated here:"}]},{"head":"Staffing","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":72,"text":"Current staffing for Dryland Cereals, especially in Africa, is not at par with the scope of the program. Expertise is required beyond breeding (and also beyond traditional breeding) to execute program activities along the entire impact pathway and value chain, in all target regions. Further, some of the CRP focus countries are beyond those where the participating centers currently operate, and gaps exist in R4D interventions of the CRP in these countries."}]},{"head":"Testing locations","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":128,"text":"A full description of the various ecologies that the program addresses is pending. This information will provide the basis for the determination of the representation, relevance and sufficiency of current testing locations, and is extremely critical, since one significant expectation from this commodity CRP is the delivery of location-adapted cultivars. Planning based on mega-environmental information is reasonably good in the case of some Clusters of Activities (Finger millet, Pearl Millet in SA), but still needs to be improved especially for West and Central Africa for both sorghum and pearl millet. Availability of information on the full listing and description of agroecologies and available testing sites will however only be a first step, before determining site uniformity, and implementing statistical experimentation and analyses using mixed models, BLUPs and BLUEs."}]},{"head":"Performance evaluation of contributing scientists","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":100,"text":"The CRP Director is not currently involved in the performance evaluation of the contributing scientists. At present, this does not create an overly serious issue, but going into the future, the performance of the CRP will need to be further elevated both with regard to quality of science, as well as the comprehensiveness of and approach to research and development partnerships. Participation of the CRP director in performance assessment of all scientific staff contributing to CRP goals will therefore become very essential as the CRP moves into the extension phase, so that the delivery of outputs and outcomes meet expectations."}]},{"head":"W3 funds and bilateral projects","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":81,"text":"Information flow on plans, funds, and reports of bilateral projects need to be smoother and timely to facilitate holistic planning towards program goals, status check and reporting, as all bilateral activities related to the CRP are reported through the CRP. Increased hybrid sorghum seed production by 5% above 2015 baseline in 1 country each in WCA and ESA. Increased availability of improved seed to dryland cereal farmers in 1 country per region through the initiation or support of functional seed units."}]},{"head":"DRYLAND CEREALS PERFORMANCE MATRIX","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":18,"text":"Improved seed access to farmers of 1 dryland cereal crop in 1 target country through seed policy intervention."}]},{"head":"Flagship 5 Postharvest Value and Output Markets","index":23,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":91,"text":"Gender-preferred post-harvest mechanization option to reduce drudgery for 1 dryland cereal crop available for adoption in one country. Uptake of gender-preferred mechanization option to reduce drudgery for 1 dryland cereal crop by at least one local manufacturing company in one country. 20-30% substitution of wheat flour by sorghum in 5% bread-making in Senegal. 20-30% substitution of wheat flour by sorghum in 10% bread-making in Senegal. Increased awareness of market potential/investment opportunities and/or need for policy interventions through market /policy briefs for at least one crop in one target country per region."},{"index":2,"size":27,"text":"Increased awareness of market potential/investment opportunities and/or need for policy interventions through market /policy briefs for at least one further crop in one target country per region."}]},{"head":"Annex 1. Synthesis of demand and consumption studies on sorghum and pearl millet: India","index":24,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":136,"text":"Parthasarathy Rao P. Over the years, availability of subsidized rice and wheat through the public distribution system (PDS) has led to a decline in the food consumption of sorghum and millets in India. In addition, the perception of sorghum and millets as inferior food by the younger generation has further contributed to a decline in the use of these crops as food. Lack of awareness about the nutritional value, longer cooking time, low storability, non-availability of value-added products, and higher prices in recent years are some of the other factors contributing to the decline in the food use of sorghum and millets, particularly in urban areas. Despite this, these crops continue to be important staples in the major growing areas next to rice/wheat. Their consumption is higher among the lower income groups relative to richer consumers."}]},{"head":"Pearl millet","index":25,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":64,"text":"Demand and supply projections for pearl millet grain and fodder for Western India, covering the states of Rajasthan, Gujarat and Haryana, indicate that by 2020 the share of food use in total grain production will decline from 46% to 40%, while the shares of cattle feed (37.5 to 38.6%), poultry feed (7.7 to 9.4%), and alcohol and other uses (8.8 to 11.7%) will increase."},{"index":2,"size":169,"text":"Though there is a current shortage of pearl millet grain production in Western India, which is reflected in the higher prices, pearl millet grain in the region will become surplus by 2020 to the extent of 5% if it maintains the production growth trend of the recent past, which is very high (4.22% per annum). Dry fodder will, however, continue to be in short supply and a deficit of 10% is projected by 2020. Income growth, urbanization, and change in tastes and preferences are driving the growth in the derived demand for pearl millet grain in alternative uses like poultry feed. The same factors are driving the demand for pearl millet fodder as livestock feed. Color, size, softness, purity, cleanliness and variety are some of the parameters that are taken into account during negotiation and price determination of fodder. Fodder having uniform color, thin stalk and bright lustre is preferred. Leafy stems, storability of fodder and palatability (quality and taste) are important factors in determining the price of fodder."}]},{"head":"Alcohol industry","index":26,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":113,"text":"To address the bulk grain demand from brewery industries, there is a need for development and up scaling of low-cost innovative value chains to link widely dispersed farmers with the brewing industry. To meet the brewing industry demand it is also important to expand the cultivation of pearl millet in summer season, wherever feasible as the productivity of summer crop is about three to four times higher than the kharif crop. There is more scope for contract farming in the case of summer pearl millet, in view of its high-input and high-output production system, which provides favorable conditions for contract between farmers and industry. Varieties with higher starch content needs to be promoted."}]},{"head":"Food use","index":27,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":83,"text":"It is observed that consumption is declining in urban areas as the storability of pearl millet flour is poor and the grains have to be frequently milled to get fresh flour. The longer cooking time for pearl millet rotis and the high degree of skill required for preparing the dough are also responsible for the reduced consumption especially in the urban areas. Thus, the development of technologies for enhanced storability of the flour is a high priority for pearl millet use as food."}]},{"head":"Sorghum","index":28,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":94,"text":"Using data from NSSO, GOI, it is found that at the all-India level the per capita consumption of sorghum shows a declining trend during the period 1972-73 to 2009-10. The decline is less in the major growing regions. Demand projections at a more disaggregated regional level indicate that direct demand for sorghum from household food consumption in Maharashtra (the major sorghum growing state) is expected to increase marginally in rural areas by 2015 and 2020 compared to 2004-05. The per capita demand for sorghum in urban areas would however decline during the same period."},{"index":2,"size":69,"text":"NSSO surveys however, do not capture the consumption outside of the house. Majority of the hotels and restaurants serve sorghum rotis (flat breads) in the menu. The demand from urban households for sorghum is in the form of ready-to-eat food products like bhakris (sorghum roties) that are popular in urban localities. Our surveys indicate that consumption of sorghum bhakris in hotels and restaurants is expected to increase over time."},{"index":3,"size":109,"text":"Additionally, there is also a growing demand for sorghum value-added products although from a low base. The last two decades have seen significant changes in consumption habits in India. Urbanization, growing numbers of working women, diversification of diets, and the growth of the middle-class have increased demand for ready-to-use food products or convenience foods. Value addition in the existing value chain of sorghum is limited to physical processing. Processing as a specialized activity for product development in the chain is non-existent. Therefore, product upgrading through the production of ready-to-use products can provide benefits across the different stakeholders of the value chain including the small and marginal farmers growing sorghum."}]},{"head":"Consumer perceptions","index":29,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":100,"text":"Supply of sorghum through the public distribution system (PDS), especially for rural households, was one of the major suggestions given by respondents of consumer surveys. A second important suggestion in western Maharashtra, particularly by urban households, was to supply sorghum in small packages of 5-10 kg. This suggestion stems from the fact that urban households consume sorghum less frequently and buy in smaller proportions as and when required. This suggestion is also influenced by the consumer constraint in terms of non-availability of processed sorghum (cleaned, graded and packed) in comparison to other commodities (which are available in 1-2 kg packets)."},{"index":2,"size":69,"text":"Thus, for post-rainy season sorghum, the focus should be on enabling farmer groups to market the grain with proper cleaning and grading in the local and major consumption markets for food use. Simple value addition through cleaning and grading operations is the priority here. Certain specific names like 'Barshi-jowar', 'Shahbaad-jowar', 'Bijapur' and 'Bellary' are preferred for their unique taste and are region-specific, while also important in the export market."},{"index":3,"size":37,"text":"The biggest driver for sorhgum is, however, its fodder. This is reflected in the rising prices of sorghum fodder that is growing faster than grain prices, thereby leading to a decline in grain to fodder price ratio."}]},{"head":"Conclusion","index":30,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":28,"text":"For both sorghum and pearl millet, dual-purpose cultivars are a must, since both grain and fodder are valued. For both crops the demand for fodder is growing faster."}]},{"head":"Annex 2. Derivation of Target Estimates for IDOs IDO 1: Improved productivity of dryland cereals in smallholder farming systems in Africa and Asia","index":31,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":35,"text":"CoA 1 (Sorghum in WCA) and CoA3 (Sorghum in ESA): 30-40% increase in sorghum grain yield in 600,000 farmer fields in WCA and ESA, of which 50% of the increase is in women farmers' fields."},{"index":2,"size":117,"text":"The projections of 30-50% yield increases in sorghum WCA of IDO1 correspond to the expected changes in yield based on expert opinion. Based on the estimates made by plant breeders and agronomists, calculations were made on (1) the additional yield expected from crop improvement and from crop management, and (2) the expected adoption rate of new technology. Together, these gave an estimate of the increase in supply expected from new technology over a ten-year period. The credibility of expert opinion was evaluated by comparing this projected increase in supply with the projected increase in total demand estimated by the International Model for Policy Analysis of Agricultural Commodities and Trade (IMPACT) developed by IFPRI for millet and sorghum."},{"index":3,"size":89,"text":"West Africa, which produces roughly 25% of the world's sorghum, has seen a steady increase in total production over the past 25 years. Most of the increase up to 1995 is attributed to increases in area, although productivity increases also contributed; after 1995, yield increases explain most of the rise in sorghum production in the region. These gains may reflect increased use of improved varieties, better crop management practices (such as fertilizer micro-dosing), as well as increased demand due to population growth and higher world prices for major cereals."},{"index":4,"size":99,"text":"In ESA, this is based on the HOPE project projections and findings. HOPE had projected 35-40% increase in the first four years of the project through improved cultivars and associated management practices; it was able to achieve yield increase of 40% using only improved varieties and up to 60% combining improved varieties and improved management options. HOPE had projected to reach 110,000 households in sub-Saharan Africa in the first 4 years, and a jump to 1.1 million within ten years as efficient seed systems value addition/product development and markets are put in place. The four year target was met."},{"index":5,"size":116,"text":"CoA2 (Pearl Millet in WCA) and CoA 6 (Pearl Millet in SA and ESA): 20-30% increase in pearl millet grain yield in 800,000 farmer fields in WCA and ESA, of which 50% increase in women farmers' fields In the past, pearl millet cultivars developed at ICRISAT-Patancheru have adapted well in ESA countries. Hence pearl millet hybrids developed at Patancheru and found promising under Indian conditions are/will be tested for their performance in ESA countries. Based on recent results these identified hybrids have shown yield advantage of about 30-40% over local cultivars, hence it is projected that 20-30% increase in pearl millet grain yields will be achieved once the cultivars are identified and adapted in this region."}]},{"head":"CoA5 (Barley in Africa and Asia): 20-30% increase in barley yield in 300,000 farmer fields in Ethiopia, India, Iran, Kazakhstan, Morocco and Turkey","index":32,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":105,"text":"The 20-30% yield increase for barley has been driven from empirical assessment of barley technologies available, and is more realistic compared to 30-50% for other crops in CRP DC. Under drought conditions in dryland regions, new genotypes identified in recent years have demonstrated the potential to contribute 20-30% yield advantage. Further, farmers' participatory assessment of technologies and technology dissemination through participatory approaches are considered significant contributors to the achievement up to 50% yield advantages. In recent years, institutional, policy and market studies have indicated several seed-related issues. If these issues are addressed in the extension and second phases, the targeted yield increases can be achieved."},{"index":2,"size":37,"text":"Thus these are realistic targets that can be progressively achieved with the evolution of activities during the duration of the extension and second phases, and have been discussed and agreed upon by the ICARDA panel of scientists."}]},{"head":"Required technologies and promotional actions include:","index":33,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":108,"text":" Selection of new varieties; community-based promotion of high potential genotypes with community-organized quality seed production at village level (Village based Seed Enterprises).  Increased soil fertility and better crop nutrition with more integration of legumes as rotation crops or mixed cropping or relay cropping; fertilizers in the form of affordable micro-dosing, subsidized fertilizers and manures when possible with better integration of livestock.  Water productivity improvement technologies such as furrow and bed planting insuring water harvesting through increased water capture in the field and increased infiltration. Mulching techniques including dust mulching and conservation agriculture where ever adapted and community organized on the same principals of local enterprises."}]},{"head":"CoA6 (Pearl Millet in SA and ESA) and CoA7 (Sorghum in SA): 15-20% increase in pearl millet and sorghum grain and 5-10% stover yield in 3 million ha in India","index":34,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":35,"text":"Productivity of pearl millet in India has been increasing @ +1.8% per annum in the last 15 years and most of this gain has been achieved through the development of hybrids with improved yielding ability."},{"index":2,"size":57,"text":"In India, 60% of the pearl millet hybrids are based on ICRISAT-bred hybrid parents, and occupy about 3 million ha area of the total 5 m ha area under hybrids. Hence, considering the existing rate of productivity increase, 15-20% pearl millet grain yield enhancement and 5-10% stover yield is projected over a period of 10 years (2012-2022)."},{"index":3,"size":340,"text":"ICRISAT and Partners (National program, Govt., Public sector, Civil Society, Private Sector) are intensively working for productivity enhancement of postrainy sorghum in farmers' fields by transferring the improved cultivars, crop management practices, drought management methods, processing technologies to farmers and providing input and out market linkages under the Harnessing Opportunities for Productivity Enhancement (HOPE) Project on Sorghum and Millets funded by the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation. Our partnership efforts in last five years under the project helped >42,000 postrainy sorghum farmers directly in Maharashtra stage, India who recorded on an average 39% higher grain yields and 30% higher fodder yields compared to the farmers' practice. Early adoption studies in the project showed that for every primary beneficiary farmer in HOPE, 5-6 non-HOPE farmers benefitted; grain yields increased by 28-35% in different regions, the yield gaps were reduced by 25-30% and incomes enhanced by 33-44%. Improved varieties fetched higher market prices [INR 5000 (USD 85) per t of grain] over locals owing to their better grain quality. To strengthen the seed systems, building on the strength of the HOPE partnership a 'Seed Consortium' was formed in 2013 by roping in the Maharashtra state seed corporation (Mahabeej), a public sector seed production and marketing body in to this effort, which offered buy-back guarantee for seed farmers and the seed production was under taken in 500 ha area during 2013 postrainy season. The certified seed produced during 2013 season is sufficient to cover the requirement of 30,000 farmers in 2014 postrainy season taking the overall outreach of project to 300,000 farmers in five years including the direct and indirect beneficiaries under HOPE project. We targeted seed production in more 1000 ha in this year. Further with the help of International Livestock Research Institute we are monitoring the animal feed quality of all the new postrainy sorghum products in pipeline so that farmers get improved products with higher yield and higher feed quality. Keeping in the mind these activities and experiences we proposed the above IDO which we feel is realistic and achievable."},{"index":4,"size":131,"text":"CoA4 (Finger Millet in ESA): 30-50% increase in finger millet grain yield in 300,000 farmer fields, and 20% increase in premium quality marketable grain in Ethiopia, Tanzania, Uganda and Kenya This is based on the HOPE project projections and findings. HOPE had projected 35-40% in the first four years of the project through improved cultivars and associated management practices; it achieved yield increase of 40% using only improved varieties and up to 60% combining improved varieties and improved management options. A lot of emphasis is being placed on post-harvest handling and with introduction of threshers, tarpaulins and concrete threshing surfaces, farmers produce better quality grain. At the moment more than 10% of farmers have improved their quality grain through use of tarpaulins provided by the HOPE project and others are adopting."},{"index":5,"size":101,"text":"CoA3 (Sorghum in ESA): 10-20% increase in profitability of sorghum for industrial use in Nigeria, Kenya and Tanzania; 15-25% increase in profitability of barley for industrial use in Ethiopia, India, Iran and Morocco Sorghum profitability in Kenya and Tanzania will be mainly through sale of the grain to the breweries which are offering a ready market and eliminating middlemen. Higher yielding varieties targeting this market are being developed; these coupled with appropriate management options, efficient marketing system, will increase production and profitability. The figures were derived from current profitability increases from areas producing sorghum for the breweries in Kenya and Tanzania."},{"index":6,"size":63,"text":"The demand for high quality barley for malting and brewing industrial uses is continuously increasing in Ethiopia, India and Morocco. In India, recent releases of malt varieties (DWRB 91, DWRB 92, DWRB101 & RD2849), new improved barley germplasm selected from ICARDA by scientists of Iran, Ethiopia, Nepal, Kazakhstan, Turkey and Morocco will help in increasing the profitability of barley in these countries/ regions."},{"index":7,"size":51,"text":"IDO 2: Increased and stable access to dryland cereal food, feed and fodder by the poor, especially rural women and children CoA1 (Sorghum in WCA): 50% decrease in the length of the hunger period for 500,000 rural poor households producing sorghum and pearl millet in Mali, Niger, Nigeria and Burkina Faso"},{"index":8,"size":146,"text":"The increasing access to sorghum (IDO2) is based on results of opportunities to be pursued that include: creating hybrids to increase yields for a wider range of production systems in WCA, and new, improved plant types for \"dual purpose\" sorghums for grain, feed and fodder uses that would increase the value of the crop. These new sorghum types would strengthen the integration of animal husbandry with crop production, resulting in higher and more stable incomes while improving soil health through increased organic matter cycling. The availability of the full genome sequence and other genetic and genomic tools will enable efficient use of the crop's rich genetic diversity for the improvement of sorghum. This will facilitate the identification and transfer of favorable alleles for stress tolerance (such as phosphorus efficiency, aluminum toxicity and terminal drought), product quality (micronutrient content, digestibility and industrial qualities) and superior agronomic performance."},{"index":9,"size":30,"text":"CoA4 (Finger Millet in ESA): 20% increase in the stock of finger millet prior to harvest period for 250,000 rural poor households producing finger millet in Ethiopia, Tanzania and Uganda"},{"index":10,"size":59,"text":"Finger millet stores for long without insect damage and hence it is a food security crop and food secure households are determined by grain remaining in the granaries at harvest time. With increased production more households will store more grain. These figures were derived from the anticipated yield increases and the number of households to be reached stated above."},{"index":11,"size":32,"text":"CoA (Barley in Africa and Asia): 20% increase in the availability of food barley (grain), feed barley (grain and straw) and industrial use at more stable market prices in CRP focal countries"},{"index":12,"size":124,"text":"We have indicated 20% increase in availability in food and feed barley as realistic and achievable. Better information and linkage to markets at local regional and national level, and others ideas such as actions related to value addition are also assets that will be used. The IMPACT model indicates that for sorghum, per capita demand will grow strongly in WCA from below 24 kg in 2010 to 28 kg in 2050. This increased consumption combined with population growth and the moderately high levels of iron (> 40 ppm) and zinc (> 30 ppm) of sorghum grain with considerable variability in landraces (iron > 70 ppm and zinc >50 ppm) can complement the ongoing efforts on food fortification to reduce micronutrient malnutrition in WCA (IDO3)."},{"index":13,"size":17,"text":"In ESA, this estimate is primarily based on increased level of iron and zinc in improved material."},{"index":14,"size":230,"text":"Average annual sorghum consumption in India is close to 5 kg/head. However in predominantly sorghum eating populations the average consumption goes to more than 50 kg/head/year. Sorghum is now included in the food grains public distribution system (PDS) as per the National Food Security Act 2013, India under which sorghum is supplied at a highly subsidized price (INR 1 per Kg sorghum grain) lower than Rice and Wheat and there is marketable surplus of sorghum available for procurement by the Govt for this purpose. This is expected to increase the sorghum consumption. Considering the problem of dietary induced micronutrient malnutrition in India and elsewhere and the potential of biofortification in addressing the micronutrient malnutrition, ICRISAT and partners are working over years on sorghum biofortification with the funding support from HarvestPlus and Dept. of Biotechnology, Govt. of India. We have now improved sorghum cultivars possessing 50% higher grain Fe and Zn concentration than the base level in sorghum (30 mg kg-1 Fe and 20 mg kg-1 Zn). Biofortified sorghum cultivars are at on-farm testing stage and will be commercialized in 1-2 years. We identified rice-fallow sorghum areas in India where the productivity levels are up to 6 t/ha as promising areas for undertaking seed production of biofortified cultivars. With the consumption of biofortified sorghum products the grain Fe and Zn intake will be higher. Therefore we feel this IDO is achievable."},{"index":15,"size":28,"text":"CoA4 (Finger Millet in ESA): 30-50% increase in iron, zinc and calcium intake levels from nutrient-dense finger millet by women and children in Ethiopia, Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda"},{"index":16,"size":56,"text":"Finger millet is rich in the above nutrients (40 times higher in Ca and 5.5 times higher in Iron compared to maize, the other commonly consumed cereal and the one more likely to be replaced by finger millet). By just increased consumption of finger millet as a result of increased production this figure will be met."},{"index":17,"size":42,"text":"In addition a survey done under HOPE indicated that there is increased consumption of finger millet among the affluent urban community. This is increasing demand which will lead to more production. The 30-50% increase was derived from the projected increase in production. "}]},{"head":"CoA3 (","index":35,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"CoA5 (Barley in Africa and Asia): 10% increase in the use of iron and zinc fortified barley grain as food by nutritionally vulnerable women and children in rural and urban areas and for individuals with special dietary requirements in India, Iran, Ethiopia and Morocco","index":36,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":86,"text":"We have stated that 10-15% iron and zinc dense barley is realistic under dryland regions. The Zn and Fe as well as B-Glucan rich germplasm have been identified and genes controlling these traits are being introgressed into advanced breeding lines. Fe and Zn level in barley are high in our developed germplasm and the issue is to favor increased consumption and we have set a medium term strategy to achieve impact at the level of functional food, dietary food and drinks, and exotic new food products."}]},{"head":"IDO4: Increased and more equitable income from marketing dryland cereal grain, fodder and products by low income value chain actors, especially smallholder women farmers","index":37,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"CoA7 (Sorghum in SA): 20-30% increase in income for pearl millet and sorghum growers and processors in target regions of India, with 15-20% of the income by women growers and processors","index":38,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":99,"text":"The improved post-rainy sorghum cultivars by virtue of their large grain size and better grain luster (shininess) fetched higher price (20%) in the market. The improved grain and stover yields on farmers' fields increased per-ha returns up to 44% as indicated in HOPE project early adoption study. Further we are training the farmers to add value to grain and stover by cleaning, grading and packing the grain and by making stover in to small pieces at village level to increase their market value. Civil society organizations have established community stover processors at village level for the benefit of farmers."},{"index":2,"size":65,"text":"The Govt is establishing small-scale community grain processors so that the farmers can add value to their grain. Women play a major role in post-rainy sorghum production and we encouraged women selfhelp groups (SHGs) to undertake large scale post-rainy sorghum seed production and marketing under the HOPE project. Considering the potential for productivity increase, value-addition and women engagement, we feel that this IDO is achievable."},{"index":3,"size":37,"text":"CoA4 (Finger millet in ESA): 25% increase in income by finger millet, pearl millet and sorghum growers and processors in Burkina Faso, Mali, Nigeria, Ethiopia, Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda, with 35% of the income by women processors"},{"index":4,"size":109,"text":"Based on data from recent surveys showing that finger millet is a staple and cash crop and it fetches more money per unit area of all the cereals in Kenya and Uganda. It is also a cereal with least fluctuation in price hence more people are growing it as a commercial crop; also a number of value added products are now available in supermarkets. These products are mainly from cottage industries run by women. Sorghum has emerged as an important cash crop for the brewing industry and is now cultivated in areas which were not traditional sorghum areas; this has boasted income among the peasant farmers in these areas."}]},{"head":"IDO5: Increased capacity to adapt to environmental variability and longer term changes in low income communities in Africa and Asia","index":39,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":16,"text":"CoA7 (Sorghum in SA): 20% decrease in acreage of dryland cereals fields requiring re-sowing in WCA,"}]},{"head":"ESA and India","index":40,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":90,"text":"Postrainy sorghum is affected by a number of production constraints and drought is the most critical production determiner. Therefore we are managing the drought through improved rain waterharvesting and water-utilization methods, on-time planting, use of drought tolerant cultivars, application of fertilizers along with seed, seed treatment for effective shoot fly control, optimization of plant population and intercultivation practices and harvesting the crop at physiological maturity. We promoted these technologies to more than 300,000 farmers by now with the partnership efforts under HOPE project and we feel this IDO is achievable."},{"index":2,"size":62,"text":"CoA4 (Finger millet for ESA); CoA6 (Pearl Millet for SA and ESA): Increase by at least one the number of cultivars grown by 400,000 pearl millet and sorghum farmers in WCA, 25% of the pearl millet and sorghum farmers in Ethiopia, Sudan and Tanzania and 100,000 pearl millet farmers in India, 30% of the finger millet farmers in Ethiopia, Tanzania and Uganda"},{"index":3,"size":43,"text":"More emphasis is being placed on developing more varieties with multiple uses targeting different agrecologies and constraints. For example during the HOPEs 4 year span and average of two varieties per crop per country have been released and are being cultivated by farmers."},{"index":4,"size":101,"text":"SA-Pearl millet program is involved in development of abiotic stress tolerant hybrid parents, specifically for drought, heat and salinity tolerance. Both public and private sector institutions involved in pearl millet research are able to develop hybrids for such stressed ecologies using ICRISAT bred hybrid parents, and thus this program targets to increase the number of cultivars in stressed ecologies and increase the capacity to adapt to environmental variability (100,00 farmers in such ecology). Also, hybrids based on ICRISAT bred lines have been found promising in ESA countries like Tanzania and Sudan, and the program will identify promising hybrids for this region."},{"index":5,"size":19,"text":"CoA7 (Sorghum in SA): 150,000 households in India adopting improved sorghum cultivars and management practices to mitigate environmental variability"},{"index":6,"size":90,"text":"Post-rainy sorghum is affected by a number of production constraints and drought is the most critical production determiner. Therefore we are managing the drought through improved rain waterharvesting and water-utilization methods, on-time planting, use of drought tolerant cultivars, application of fertilizers along with seed, seed treatment for effective shoot fly control, optimization of plant population and inter-cultivation practices and harvesting the crop at physiological maturity. We promoted these technologies to more than 300,000 farmers by now with the partnership efforts under HOPE project and we feel this IDO is achievable. "}]},{"head":"LIVESTOCK","index":41,"paragraphs":[]}],"figures":[{"text":"  "},{"text":" The AIP works closely with FARA in Africa, specifically with its UniBRAIN unit, and has already established a Sorghum Value Chain Development Consortium (SVCDC) in Kenya in March of this year (http://www.faraafrica.org/apps/news/item/309/). We plan to pilot efforts for value-chain interventions and upscaling activities with AIP, and also with the newly started ICRISAT Development Center (IDC), during the extension phase. Our results could help formulate similar partnerships for other commodity CRPs and for upscaling of commodity-system CRP interventions.  "},{"text":"3: Increased consumption of nutritious dryland cereals by the poor, especially among nutritionally vulnerable women and children Pearl millet cultivars in India have 47 ppm grain Fe content and 30 ppm grain Zn (benchmark of 2010). The program targeted improved hybrids with about 60% more grain Fe and Zn (about 77 ppm Fe and 50 ppm Zn) through biofortification breeding by 2018. The program has already developed improved hybrids with about 70ppm grain Fe, hence projected consumption of nutrient-dense pearl millet with at least 25% higher grain Fe and Zn levels in areas where high pearl millet hybrids will be adopted in India by 2022. CoA6 (Pearl Millet in SA and ESA): 15-25% increase in iron and zinc intake levels from nutrient-dense CoA6 (Pearl Millet in SA and ESA): 15-25% increase in iron and zinc intake levels from nutrient-dense pearl millet by women and children in WCA, and in areas where high iron hybrids were adopted in India pearl millet by women and children in WCA, and in areas where high iron hybrids were adopted in India CoA1 (Sorghum in WCA), CoA3 (Sorghum in ESA) and CoA7 (Sorghum in SA): 30-50% increase in iron and CoA1 (Sorghum in WCA), CoA3 (Sorghum in ESA) and CoA7 (Sorghum in SA): 30-50% increase in iron and zinc intake levels from nutrient-dense sorghum by women and children in WCA and ESA, and 15-20% zinc intake levels from nutrient-dense sorghum by women and children in WCA and ESA, and 15-20% increase in predominantly sorghum consuming population in India increase in predominantly sorghum consuming population in India  "},{"text":" This is based on trends showing an increased consumption of finger millet, pearl millet and sorghum products in the region as they are now known to be high in micro nutrients and good for diabetic patients (because of slow release of nutrients). Major and minor supermarket outlets in the region now stock a variety of sorghum and millet composite flours.  "}],"sieverID":"1b02f65a-5b62-4a68-b8bb-453eb334f4ae","abstract":""}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"090115d5ecaf8fdaea9dd748a1e46eb8","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://digitalarchive.worldfishcenter.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.12348/860/WF_3601.pdf"},"pageCount":11,"title":"\"GENETIC IMPROVEMENT OF FRESHWATER PRAWN MACROBRACHIUM ROSENBERGII (DE MAN) IN INDIA -PHASE TWO\" CIFA-WORLDFISH PROJECT ON \"GENETIC IMPROVEMENT OF FRESHWATER PRAWN MACROBRACHIUM ROSENBERGII (DE MAN) IN INDIA-PHASE TWO\" [Annual Report for period","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":9,"text":"Freshwater prawn hatchery: 6. Date of commencement: October 2010."}]},{"head":"Date of completion:","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":8,"text":"December 2012 (may be extended to December 2013)."}]},{"head":"Total budget :","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":40,"text":"92.50 lakhs (USD $201, Budget to CIFA (First Year) $51842.56 (23.10 lakhs, received at CIFA in February 2011) (Second Year) $51842.56 (23.44 lakhs, received at CIFA in December 2011) (Third Year) $43312.00 (23.82 lakhs, received at CIFA in January 2013)"}]},{"head":"Targets (January to December 2012)","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":16,"text":" Tagging of 45 full sib families of Generation 3 (G3) of selectively bred M. rosenbergii."},{"index":2,"size":12,"text":" Grow-out of tagged juveniles from 45 full sib families of G3."},{"index":3,"size":5,"text":" On-farm testing of G3"},{"index":4,"size":11,"text":" Final data collection of G3 after 120 days of grow-out."},{"index":5,"size":10,"text":" Data entry and statistical analysis of G3 grow-out data."},{"index":6,"size":7,"text":" Final data collection of on-farm testing."}]},{"head":" Meeting and group discussion","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":14,"text":" Genetic evaluation and preparation of mating for the production of Generation 4 (G4)."},{"index":2,"size":10,"text":" Production of G4 progeny (mating of G3 brood stock)"},{"index":3,"size":7,"text":" Larval rearing and nursing of G4."},{"index":4,"size":6,"text":" Tagging and grow-out of G4."},{"index":5,"size":5,"text":" On-farm testing of G4."}]},{"head":"Brief account of achievements","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":45,"text":" Individually tagged 3628 prawn juveniles from 45 full sib families of G3 with visible implant alpha numeric tag and stocked in three 400 m2 ponds for grow-out. All prawns were measured individually for total length, carapace length, standard length and wet weight before tagging."},{"index":2,"size":32,"text":" Grow out evaluation of G3 was carried out in three 400 m 2 (0.04 ha) earthen ponds. The tagged prawns were stocked at 3/m2 and reared for 120 to 130 days."},{"index":3,"size":39,"text":" At harvest all survived prawns were collected and classified by sex and male morphotype, all prawns were measured for carapace length, standard length, total length and individual weight, tag numbers in those with readable tags were also noted."},{"index":4,"size":32,"text":" Data entry and genetic evaluation of grow-out data was carried out, estimated breeding values of G3 individuals and ranked families and individuals for undertaking fourth round of selection and mate allocation."},{"index":5,"size":8,"text":" Produced 58 full sib families of G4."},{"index":6,"size":21,"text":" Post larvae from all the 58 full sib families were nursed up to taggable size in nylon hapas (116 hapas)."},{"index":7,"size":84,"text":" The nursed juveniles from each of the 45 full sib families were divided into two groups and one group (140 individuals) stocked in two large nylon net hapas (5x2x1m) for grow-out. These hapas were fixed in 100 m 2 concrete tanks or ponds. The other group (60 individuals) was individually tagged and stocked in two 0.04 ha earthen ponds for communal grow-out. All tagged prawns were measured individually for total length, carapace length, standard length and wet weight before tagging. Grow-out is continuing."},{"index":8,"size":43,"text":" Four farms in Orissa were selected for on-farm testing of G3 and supplied with 9200 juveniles (2.8 g) for stocking. Prawns were stocked at 3 m -2 and reared for 120 to 130 days. Monitored the growth of prawns at monthly intervals."},{"index":9,"size":9,"text":" Completed final data collection of on farm testing."}]},{"head":"Detailed report of activities and achievements","index":7,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Grow out evaluation of Generation 3","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":125,"text":"The grow-out of the third generation was carried out in three 400 m 2 (0.04 ha) earthen ponds. A total of 3628 juveniles (1.73±0.65g) from 45 full sib families were individually identified with VIA tags and stocked in well prepared grow-out ponds. The tagged prawns were stocked at 3 m-2 and reared for 120 to 130 days. Prawns were fed twice daily with commercial pellet feed at 10% of the biomass per day in the first month. The feeding rate was modified every month based on the body weight obtained during sampling. Water quality was maintained by frequent addition of water. Dissolved oxygen, pH and ammonia levels were measured once every week using standard procedures. Ponds were provided with continuous aeration from an air blower."}]},{"head":"Harvest and data collection of Generation 3","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":69,"text":"After completion of the grow-out period, ponds were completely emptied and all surviving prawns were collected and classified by sex and morphotype. All prawns were measured for carapace length, standard length, total length and individual weight. Tag numbers in those with readable tags were also recorded. After measurement the prawns were released to another well prepared 0.04 ha pond until the completion of data analysis for genetic evaluation purposes."}]},{"head":"Survival and tag readability","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":76,"text":"Final survival rate of tagged juveniles ranged from 77.8 to 89.6 % with an average of 84%. The average retention of VIA tags was 60% and it ranged from 51.2 to 65%. Nearly 90% of the retained tags were readable. Those that were not readable due to tissue growth were removed and read, and a new tag was inserted before restocking the animal. The average harvest weight was 16.5±0.23 g. The proportion of females was 52.7%."}]},{"head":"Cement tanks and pond rearing facilities at CIFA","index":11,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Data analysis","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":41,"text":"The genetic evaluation of the third generation was conducted. The data set consisted of 2203 progeny that were the offspring of 45 dams and 32 sires. A mating list was designed to be used in the production of the fourth generation."}]},{"head":"Production of Generation 4","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":174,"text":"Based on data analysis, breeding values of G3 individuals were estimated and families and individuals were ranked for undertaking the fourth round of selection and mate allocation. The mating cycle among selected individuals of G3 was initiated in the third week of June 2012. Post larvae from 58 full sib families of G4 were produced and nursed to taggable size. Out of the 58 full sib families 45 full sib families were selected (representing each of the 45 families of G3). The nursed juveniles from each of the 45 full sib families were divided into two groups; one group (140 individuals) was stocked in two large nylon net hapas (5 x 2 x 1m) for grow-out. These hapas were fixed in 100 m 2 concrete tanks or ponds. The other group (60 individuals) was individually tagged and stocked in two 0.04 ha earthen ponds for communal grow-out. All prawns were individually measured for total length, carapace length, standard length and wet weight before tagging. Growout is continuing at the time of writing this report."}]},{"head":"On-Farm testing of Generation 3","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":304,"text":"Four farmers from the state of Orissa were selected for on-farm testing trials of G3. Samples of 400 to 500 post-larvae from each of the 45 full sib families were stocked in one 400 m 2 earthen pond to raise juveniles for on-farm testing. The prawns produced for on farm testing belonged to the CIFA selection (S) and control (C) lines. The post-larvae were fed daily with a commercial starter feed and reared for 70 days, after which the juveniles were collected and supplied to selected farmers. A total of 9200 juveniles (weighing approximately 2.8 g) were supplied to farmers in the last week of December 2011. The growth rate of prawns was monitored at monthly intervals. Final data were collected after 120 days of grow-out. Overall, the final average harvest body weight of the selection line was 44.5 ± 0.87 g, whereas that of the control line was 22.3 ±0.86 g. One farmer reported good survival (70%), comparable to on station results and excellent growth (51.5±1.24 g for the selection line and 22.5±1.04 g for the control line). Another farmer got good growth (39.3±1.0 g for selection line and 22.3±1.58 g for control line) but survival was not very good (30%). Due to water scarcity during the grow-out period (January to April), two farmers were not able to maintain the recommended water levels and lost most of the stocked animals. These preliminary on farm testing results are very encouraging. Farmers and administrators often fear that the superiority recorded in selected lines in research stations may not be expressed when the animals are grown out in a farming environment. Our results suggest that this was not the case, and that the selected line outperformed the control line at the farm level. In more technical terms, there was no evidence of genotype by environment interaction."},{"index":2,"size":72,"text":"Farmers that received prawns from the CIFA selected line expressed satisfaction with its performance. It is our intention to fine tune this assessment by conducting a rigorous comparison between the CIFA selected line and the stock that farmers would be normally using in its absence. In the event of a favorable outcome from such a comparison, we would initiate steps for the release of the improved strain to some carefully chosen hatcheries."}]},{"head":"Meeting and group discussion","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":91,"text":"Dr. Raul Ponzoni, project leader from WorldFish visited CIFA during 23 to 25 April 2012. Dr. Ponzoni visited the field facilities of CIFA and discussed with project team. Dr. Bindu R. Pillai, principal investigator of the project from CIFA, made a Powerpoint presentation on the status of the project and progress made so far. Detailed discussions were held regarding the future course of action. Dr. Ponzoni also visited the on-farm trial site and interacted with the farmer with the help of project team. Prawn sampling was carried out in his presence."},{"index":2,"size":23,"text":"On 13 October, Dr. Wagdy Mekkawy, project associate and scientist from WorldFish also visited CIFA and discussed technical matters with the project team."}]},{"head":"Future Targets","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":9,"text":" Grow out of G4 in hapas and ponds."},{"index":2,"size":11,"text":" Harvest, data collection and statistical analysis of grow out data."},{"index":3,"size":13,"text":" Genetic evaluation and preparation of mating for the next cycle of production."},{"index":4,"size":6,"text":" On farm testing of G4."},{"index":5,"size":5,"text":" Meeting and group discussion."},{"index":6,"size":5,"text":" Publication of research results."}]},{"head":"Concluding remarks","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":66,"text":"The project has been going well and the overall balance following its implementation to date is highly positive. Not only has a substantial amount of knowledge essential for the effective conduct of a genetic improvement program for this species been accumulated, but also and equally importantly, the on-farm trials are beginning to show the potential benefits to producers from the use of the genetically improved strain."},{"index":2,"size":94,"text":"However, a number of issues are of concern within the research team:  The physical facilities in which the project is conducted are good, but they consist of an absolute minimum in terms of the number of families and individuals that can be handled in each generation. To ensure success and long term viability of the improved strain the facilities should be upgraded so that at least twice the number of families can be accommodated each generation. Otherwise, low effective population number and inevitable inbreeding will begin eroding the genetic gains made so far."},{"index":3,"size":49,"text":" Research attempting to unravel the mechanisms underlying the occurrence of male morphotypes should continue in order to increase the potential productivity of the species. This should include not only genetic studies but also rearing and finishing experiments on production systems to avoid competition and attain greater growth rates."},{"index":4,"size":83,"text":" The number of scientific publications resulting from this project has been limited. It has to be realized, however, that this is as one would anticipate. In projects such as the one in question it takes several years before one has enough data to warrant a thorough analysis and subsequent publication of results. We now have sufficient data to justify a number of different analyses that will be reported in scientific papers. When analyses are conducted on limited data, rigor is inevitably compromised."},{"index":5,"size":80,"text":" There is room for improvement in administrative and financial aspects of the project. For example, it is now January 2013, and funds corresponding to the third year (2012) of project implementation have only just been received at CIFA. This will require granting an extension so that CIFA and WorldFish staff can adequately liquidate all expenses. In turn, this creates problems with WorldFish finance, which has been increasingly tightening the rules for accounting for expenses and accepts only small delays."},{"index":6,"size":75,"text":"As a genetic improvement project, the present one is still in its infancy. It has undergone two cycles of three years each. It is now beginning to show its potential benefit to producers. However, to achieve full impact and to capitalize on the fruitful past efforts, further support well into the future will be required. Our intention is to apply for a further round of three years of funding, focusing on the issues raised above."}]},{"head":"Farmer with his harvested prawns involved in on farm testing","index":18,"paragraphs":[]}],"figures":[{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "}],"sieverID":"b5197a6c-53dc-49a7-b172-ce59dc3ecc36","abstract":"Genetic improvement of freshwater prawn, Macrobrachium rosenbergii (de Man) in India (Phase Two).2. Participating Institutes: C.I.F.A., Bhubaneswar and WorldFish, Malaysia"}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"09861e71aeb4d70b58766c312ab57c3d","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/cb070b70-436c-4724-9f81-b2f3f6f9a09d/retrieve"},"pageCount":5,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"& ' &","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":104,"text":"As the year 2006 comes to an end, the Genetic Resources Policy Initiative (GRPI) project is also preparing to wind up its activities in the six pathfinder countries and two sub-regions. Phase I of the project began with a comprehensive Demand Analysis (DA) process where data regarding demand for capacity strengthening and research was collected and synthesized. This was followed by a stage of identifying gaps between those demands and existing information as well as training possibilities. Subsequent national policy research priorities were identified in each country and sub-region leading to the current Phase II stage of the project scheduled to end in 2007."},{"index":2,"size":135,"text":"One of the most significant events held within the last quarter of 2006 was the GRPI-Wide Phase II and International Steering Committee (ISC) meeting. The former brought together GRPI Task Force (TF) representatives from all GRPI pathfinder countries and sub-regions with an aim of sharing experiences and forging a way forward as the project approaches conclusion. The ISC meeting, an annual undertaking which provides strategic and operational guidance for the project, was held after the GRPI-Wide Phase II meeting. It was noted that overall implementation of Phase II activities has been on a steady course throughout this year. These activities, most of which began in the year 2005, also generated tremendous interest among stakeholders who attended the meetings with notable observations being been made in regard to sustainability and other related aspects of the project."},{"index":3,"size":127,"text":"In this edition of our newsletter, we will provide an overview of progress of these activities in an attempt to provide information on some of the substantial achievements in this last quarter. Our online information sharing initiatives and networking activities are also highlighted. Other significant developments that were not mentioned in the previous edition of our newsletter owing to the evolving nature of their tasks and which ultimately are intended to support longer term policy research objectives are also included. We hope that by addressing these developments, further opportunities for conducting policy research and providing leadership in the underrepresented genetic resources policy arena will be realised. We also hope that relevant stakeholders will adopt appropriate action plans in respect to specific policy priorities, goals and objectives accordingly."},{"index":4,"size":41,"text":"Finally, we acknowledge with thanks all contributions to this newsletter, especially from our stakeholders in various national programmes who shared the activities they carried out in the immediate past -and which gave us an in-depth insight into the current research course."},{"index":5,"size":200,"text":"The purpose of this newsletter is to inform all our national partners and stakeholders of activities and events that are taking place in the Project. The unique design allows for quick and easy access to articles of interest to you. New articles will be added every time we produce the newsletter. Older newsletters are available online at: www.pibs.info/data.php under GRPI public awareness section. There will be three editions of this newsletter for the purpose of targeting information that is relevant to your needs. For more information, do not hesitate to contact us by e-mailing [email protected]. As always, we would like to extend our gratitude to all national partners and stakeholders who have played an instrumental role in our efforts aimed at strengthening capacity to analyse national options.  GRPI is financially supported by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Netherlands, BMZ/GTZ (Germany), IDRC (Canada), Rockefeller Foundation, CIDA and Bioversity International. National and sub-regional partners are making contributions in kind. Administration is jointly overseen by IDRC and Bioversity International. An International Steering Committee (ISC) provides strategic and operational guidance for the project. More details can be found at w ww ww w. .g gr rp pi i. .o or rg g."}]},{"head":"Fifth Meeting of the International Steering Committee (ISC) and GRPI-Wide Phase II meeting","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":5,"text":"From the GRPI countries: Egypt"},{"index":2,"size":155,"text":"Implementation phase 2 activities continued as planned in the last quarter of 2006 notwithstanding some challenges in the implementation of Component 1 (Assessing the Impact on GRFA in Environmental Impact Assessment). Under this component a study on the economic valuation of GFA was commissioned. The study is intended to identify tools and methods for conducting the case studies envisaged under this component. Progress was hampered however after it became clear that there was lack of specialist expertise in the area of resource economics. In response, the GGCO in August/September 2006 organized a technical assistance mission to Cairo. As a result of this mission, the key methodologies for the component have been revised and work is now underway, including some aspects of the case studies that have been commissioned to a research team consisting of members from the Faculty of Agriculture at the University of Alexandria and from the local communities in the selected research site."},{"index":3,"size":27,"text":"Other notable achievements were also made by GRPI-Egypt in this quarter. These include data compilation under component 1 and field work under component 2 (strengthening farmers' rights)."}]},{"head":"Nepal","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":59,"text":"Considerable progress has been made in the implementation of Phase II activities. Notable achievements in this quarter included the linkage that was made under component 1 (Inter-Institutional Coordination and Linkages) on linking the work that GRPI-Nepal is doing with formal institutional structures such as the national mechanism for information sharing under the Leipzig Global Plan of Action on PGRFA."},{"index":2,"size":72,"text":"In relation to the development of a sui generis framework under component C (Development of a sui generis framework), a baseline research in the form of collecting existing material, papers and articles on GR management has been conducted. This will provide basis for action research in the form of case studies currently being conducted and which are intended to form the basis for revisions to the Nepal Plant Variety Protection (PVP) Bill."},{"index":3,"size":62,"text":"GRPI Nepal also produced outputs in this quarter in the form of a draft report on valuation of rice varieties in the country under component E (Commercialization and the development of market linkages to promote the use of genetic resources). The report estimates the value (use and non-use value) of local rice landraces with the intention of demonstrating its importance to policy-makers."}]},{"head":"Peru","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":158,"text":"GRPI-Peru has also been advancing Phase 2 activities proactively. The development of a process for the establishment of an agro-biodiversity protected area to a point that this can be codified in the form of implementing regulations under the existing legal framework has been particularly notable. GRPI-Peru's other 'flagship' activity, the development of a register of native crops, has also been progressing well, with efforts towards the development of relevant descriptors and increasingly detailed consideration of the policy objectives of the register being major features of activity. Research and baseline information and analysis were undertaken on the markets and in situ conservation and the Task Force (TF) will produce a paper assessing the market impacts on activities of in situ conservationist farmers An awareness raising strategy was defined in cooperation with Laocai Provincial Department of Information and Culture with the aim of encouraging local farmers and policy makers to consider the conservation of local plant seeds in their activities."},{"index":2,"size":49,"text":"GRPI-Vietnam also played host to a GRPI international workshop on Farmers' Rights that was held in Hanoi this quarter. The workshop brought together representatives from GRPI countries plus a representative from India. It also brought international experts in the field of genetic resources policy and farmers' rights in particular."}]},{"head":"Zambia","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":97,"text":"GRPI-Zambia has advanced considerably, with the development or revision of several key studies that will provide a foundation for the completion of planned work in 2007. Notable achievements in this quarter include the revision of a draft study of the laws and policies affecting the use of local genetic resources and a draft market demand analysis report under component 3 (Promotion and incorporation of traditional varieties and local breeds in local production systems). The completion of a field study of patterns of genetic resource exchange is also expected to provide interesting insights for analysis in early 2007."},{"index":2,"size":22,"text":"Preparations are also well underway for GRPI-Zambia to host a GRPIwide workshop on economic analysis in late February or early March 2007."}]},{"head":"From the GRPI sub-regions:","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":74,"text":"East Africa A regional training course for lawyers and policy makers on the ITPGRFA was organised in Uganda. In addition, a regional conference on the implementation of the ITPGRFA and development of a strategy to address sub-regional issues was also organised. The sub-regional strategy includes specific activities and responsibilities for the implementation of the ITPGRFA, as well as proposals for the convening of policy working group to support sub-regional initiatives in the longer term."},{"index":2,"size":32,"text":"Due to the immense interest generated by the previous conferences, GRPI-EA is exploring possibilities of holding a regional policy dialogue for members of parliament sitting in portfolio committees that deal in agriculture."}]},{"head":"West Africa","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":89,"text":"A sub-regional conference to consider the establishment of a network of 'nodal centers of excellence' for PGR conservation and options for the implementation of the ITPGRFA across the 21 countries covered by CORAF was held in Burkina Faso in September 2006. GRPI is supporting the initiative and will continue to promote the implementation of the declaration until mid 2007. A publication describing the rationales behind various aspects of the conference declaration and options for their implementation will be in collaboration with a broad group of authors in the region."}]},{"head":"From the GGCO: Meetings","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":6,"text":"GRPI secretariat organised the following meetings:"},{"index":2,"size":10,"text":"• GRPI-Wide Phase II meeting (Nairobi, Kenya; November 8-10, 2006)."}]},{"head":"•","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":35,"text":"International Steering Committee meeting (Nairobi, Kenya;November 11-12, 2006). GRPI secretariat in collaboration with GRPI-Vietnam organised an international workshop on exploring legal definitions of farmers' varieties in strategies to promote farmers' rights (Hanoi, Vietnam;26-28 October 2006)."},{"index":2,"size":31,"text":"The GRPI secretariat in collaboration with EAPGREN and ACODE organized a regional training workshop on laws and policies of relevance to GR for lawyers in Eastern Africa (Entebbe, Uganda; August 2006)."},{"index":3,"size":24,"text":"The GRPI secretariat in collaboration with EAPGREN and ACODE organized a regional conference on implementing the ITPGRFA in Eastern Africa (Entebbe, Uganda;September 20-21, 2006)."},{"index":4,"size":26,"text":"The GRPI secretariat in collaboration with CORAF and the GCDT organized a regional workshop on implementing the ITPGRFA in west and central Africa (Ouagadougou July 2006)."}]},{"head":"Visits","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":42,"text":"Michael Halewood, Isabel Lopez and Kwesi Atta-Krah visited the GGCO in November 2006. The purpose of this visit was to hold follow up discussions on both the outcomes of the GRPI-Wide Phase II and ISC meetings in collaboration with the GGCO-Nairobi staff."}]},{"head":"Appointments","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":67,"text":"No appointments were made at the GGCO office during the last quarter of this year. It is expected that Dr. Edilegnaw Wale, GRPI supported ZEF post doctoral fellow in economics, will be seconded to the GRPI team in early 2007, as a means of providing increased support in economic analysis to GRPI projects and assisting in the final preparations for the economics workshop planned for Feb/March 2007."}]},{"head":"Announcement","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":30,"text":"IPGRI has changed its name to \"Bioversity International\". The name echoes the organization's new strategy, which focuses on improving people's lives through biodiversity research. For more information please visit www.bioversityinternational.org."}]},{"head":"PIBS: News, resources and information on the Internet (www.pibs.info) Information brokerage","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":82,"text":"The National Partner's Library continues to attract an impressive number of visits from users all over the world. New documents are added on an ongoing basis and we therefore encourage you to continue using the service and send us your feedback through: [email protected]. At the moment the service is only available to our national partners. If you would like to utilize the service and do not have the login details, please get in touch with us using the contact e-mail provided above."}]},{"head":"Networking","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":124,"text":"The country hubs for Egypt, Uganda, Zambia, Nepal and Peru are in operation. The PIBS correspondents in the respective sites are available for information requests, comments or suggestions to improve the services. In collaboration with the GGCO, the PIBS correspondents are also working out a sustainability model as the project comes to an end. the idea is to make traditional landraces more rewarding and appealing for farmers on a sustainable manner. In practice, there is a huge resistance on the feasibility of financial incentives due to a concern about their sustainability and their implications for future genetic resources policy. If policy makers start to directly pay for farmers, what will happen when that fund stops? What can policy do for future genetic resources policy?"}]},{"head":"Events in pictures","index":15,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"GRPI","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":118,"text":"Let alone markets for traditional landraces, agricultural markets in SSA are segmented, fragmented, thin, incomplete, volatile, unreliable, risky, poorly functioning, and poorly connected to other businesses. Features of farmers' produce from traditional landraces (seasonality, poor quality and impurity, perishability, bulkiness, and inelastic demand, to list a few) have made it hard for farmers to benefit from production of these crops. Traditional varieties of crops are hardly connected to any local or global value chains. In most cases, there is no adequate market demand for unprocessed traditional varieties of crops. Consequently, the terms of trade will be against them. All these realities have resulted in sustainable poverty of traditional crop producers and loss of traditional landraces from farmers' fields."},{"index":2,"size":130,"text":"The purpose of market chain analysis is to study the nature of the chain with all its ingredients from its conception to its end, starting with farmers and ending with the final consumers. To that effect, one needs to understand the nature of the product itself, the actors involved in the market chain (farmers, local traders, international traders, transporters, wholesalers, processors, retailers, and consumers), functions performed at each point of the value addition, prices in and out at each point, the opportunities related to the flow of a particular landrace, the market constraints in the chain, and the potential entry points. The results of the analysis can inform policy on the areas of intervention so that new opportunities can be created on alternative market outlets for products of traditional landraces."},{"index":3,"size":148,"text":"If efficient value chains are placed for traditional crop varieties, every business involved in the whole chain (small-holder farmers, agro-processors, commercial farmers, exporters, transporters, wholesalers, supermarkets, retailers, consumers etc.) will benefit. This holistic approach will improve livelihoods and create sustainable demand for traditional landraces and their products. Through identifying critical constraints and opportunities in relation to the market chain, there will be a chance to see options / alternative policy interventions to better link farmers' traditional landraces with the market. Addressing the constraints might pave the way to address difficulty in market entry for products from traditional landraces. In some circumstances, there might be niche markets to address an existing demand gap for a limited number of consumers and products. In other cases, value addition on the products of traditional landraces which includes tasks like further processing, bulking, cleaning, grading, and bagging, could be the areas of intervention."},{"index":4,"size":35,"text":"To be sustainable, biodiversity policy has to address not only conservation but also farmers' livelihoods. The overall objective of market chain analysis, as it relates to genetic resources, will, therefore, have to be to improve "}]}],"figures":[{"text":" -Zambia Phase II: Component 1 dissemination seminar in Lusaka. GRPI-Egypt Phase II: Bedouins at a meeting in Saint Catherine, Egypt GRPI-Nepal Phase II: A workshop in San Marcos, Nepal (Sep. 2006).GRPI-Wide Phase II meeting: Some participants during a tea break(Nov.  2006). literature on crop biodiversity economics has concluded that creating incentives for farmers to grow traditional landraces is crucial for their conservation and sustainable use. The incentives could be financial or nonfinancial as they could be market-based or non-market-based. In all cases, "},{"text":" farmers' income from traditional crops and ensure the sustainable use of traditional landraces by farmers. Market chain analysis and commercialization of threatened landraces based on the results of the analysis will ensure not only sustainable conservation of crop varieties but also improve the livelihoods of farmers whose lives are by and large connected to the marketability of traditional landraces. Above all, this strategy is in line with the newly emerging strategy of linking genetic resources conservation with farmers' livelihoods such as that of Bioversity International: improving lives through biodiversity research. "},{"text":"Email: [email protected] www.grpi.org www.pibs.info C Co on nt ta ac ct t: : R Ro ob be er rt t L Le ew wi is s--L Le et tt ti in ng gt to on n  ( (r r. .l le et tt ti in ng gt to on n@ @c cg gi ia ar r. .o or rg g) ) ( (r r. .l le et tt ti in ng gt to on n@ @c cg gi ia ar r. .o or rg g) ) Project Coordinator Project Coordinator Nyasha Chishakwe Nyasha Chishakwe ([email protected]) ([email protected]) Legal Specialist Legal Specialist Michael Halewood Michael Halewood ([email protected]) ([email protected]) Project Management Project Management Angelina Mwashumbe Angelina Mwashumbe ([email protected]) ([email protected]) Program Assistant Program Assistant Kennedy Kamau Kennedy Kamau ([email protected]) ([email protected]) Web Developer Web Developer Editorial assistance of GRPI newsletters Editorial assistance of GRPI newsletters courtesy of courtesy of Elizabeth Elizabeth  "},{"text":"Obel Lawson Bioversity SSA-Scientific Assistant   "},{"text":" VietnamImplementation of phase 2 activities progressed well in Vietnam this quarter. Of considerable importance is the considerable effort that was put in the field surveys for Nep Cam rice and traditional vegetables in the Sa Pa district of North West Vietnam. Nep Cam is identified as bearing significant interest among the local communities especially for traditional ceremonies and events. Literature reviews and desk studies have also been undertaken under component II(Informal Seed Systems Policy  Research and Development). The TF expects to undertake work on the publication of a book of existing laws. . . *   *   *   *   *   *   *   *   *   *   *   * *   *   *   *   *   *   *   *   *   *   *   *  "}],"sieverID":"bc3500e7-d38b-49f6-b971-38df881b69a0","abstract":"Upcoming events GRPI workshop on economics (an event to consider issues relating to economic valuation of GRFA and the linkage with production and marketing concerns; Lusaka, Zambia; tentative date-February/March 2007)."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"09895e58bb424a5bf89382ddfa35954e","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/6cc8dbaa-e9eb-40d0-9cbb-9d1837b83597/retrieve"},"pageCount":134,"title":"UTILISATION SÛRE ET EFFICACE DES PESTICIDES DANS LA CULTURE DE LA POMME DE TERRE: MATÉRIEL DE FORMATION","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"INTRODUCTION","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":25,"text":"❖ La population mondiale continue de croître, tandis que les superficies des terres arables diminuent au profit de l'urbanisation et des travaux de génie civil."},{"index":2,"size":28,"text":"❖ Le plus grand défi est d'assurer une alimentation en quantité et qualité de cette population en croissance, sur les surfaces de terres qui diminuent avec le temps."},{"index":3,"size":23,"text":"❖ Pour surmonter ce défi, les hommes font recours à l'intensification agricole pour produire de la nourriture et le fourrage pour les animaux."},{"index":4,"size":42,"text":"❖ L'apparition des maladies et ravageurs sur les végétaux peut pour cette raison avoir des effets catastrophiques sur notre qualité de vie et sur l'économie. Selon la FAO, jusqu'à 40% de la production agricole globale est détruite chaque année par les nuisibles."},{"index":5,"size":30,"text":"❖ Outre la qualité du matériel génétique, il est important de veiller sur la bonne condition de la plante pour avoir un rendement optimal afin de garantir la sécurité alimentaire."},{"index":6,"size":23,"text":"❖ Les produits phytosanitaires, utilisés dans pratiquement toutes les activités professionnelles, sont donc employés dans l'agriculture, pour protéger les végétaux contre les nuisibles."},{"index":7,"size":23,"text":"❖ Ils sont aussi utilisés pour réduire l'intensité, le coût et le temps de travail lorsque la main-d'oeuvre agricole est rare ou coûteuse."},{"index":8,"size":18,"text":"❖ Malheureusement, de nombreux producteurs n'ont pas les compétences techniques nécessaires pour utiliser les pesticides correctement et efficacement."}]},{"head":"L'INTRODUCTION","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":28,"text":"❖ La mauvaise utilisation des pesticides chimique a de nombreuses conséquences malheureuses, sur les plantes, producteurs, les consommateurs, les animaux, la qualité des sols, des eaux et l'air."},{"index":2,"size":33,"text":"❖ L'étude pilote menée par Pouokam et al en 2017 dans les zones de production agricole les plus importantes des cinq zones agroécologiques du Cameroun montre plusieurs cas d'empoisonnement et d'intoxication aux pesticides."},{"index":3,"size":43,"text":"❖ Les causes étaient dû soit à: la mauvaise utilisation des pesticides, la qualité des pesticides utilisés, la mauvaise qualité du matériel de pulvérisation, l'absence d'équipement de protection individuelle, l'utilisation de contenants de pesticides par certains petits exploitants agricoles à des fins domestiques."},{"index":4,"size":24,"text":"❖ Les producteurs dans la chaine de valeur pomme de terre sont confrontés à toutes ces réalités liées à la mauvaise utilisation des pesticides."},{"index":5,"size":26,"text":"❖ Il est donc nécessaire de sensibiliser et former tous les producteurs, pour minimiser les effets négatifs de ces produits sur la santé humaine et l'environnement."},{"index":6,"size":53,"text":"❖ Le présent atelier est donc organisé par le CIP et GIZ/ProCISA pour renforcer les capacités des jeunes qui offrent leurs services en tant qu'applicateurs de produits phytosanitaires dans les zones de production de la pomme de terre à l'utilisation rationnelle des pesticides pour optimiser les rendements agricoles tout en préservant la santé"}]},{"head":"MODULE 1: INFORMATIONS GÉNÉRALES SUR LES PESTICIDES","index":3,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"FORMULATIONS DES PESTICIDES","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":28,"text":"• Les produits phytosanitaires sont formulés (transformés en produits utilisables) par les fabricants afin d'optimiser l'activité et la sécurité de chaque produit et de s'adapter aux modes d'utilisation."},{"index":2,"size":20,"text":"• Il existe différents types de formulations de pesticides, dont les formulations humides et les formulations sèches ou les fumigants."},{"index":3,"size":22,"text":"• La plupart des formulations doivent être diluées, généralement avec de l'eau, avant d'être utilisées, bien que certaines soient utilisées sans dilution."},{"index":4,"size":30,"text":"• Il est également important que les utilisateurs connaissent les caractéristiques des formulations de pesticides afin qu'ils puissent choisir le pulvérisateur approprié et le moment de leurs opérations de pulvérisation."}]},{"head":"CHOIX DU PESTICIDE","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":22,"text":"• Avant d'utiliser un pesticide, l'utilisateur doit identifier l'ennemi de plante à combattre et, si nécessaire, demander conseil à des personnes expérimentées."},{"index":2,"size":46,"text":"• L'utilisateur doit connaître le produit recommandé, le dosage, la dilution, la fréquence d'application, la méthode d'application et les précautions à prendre. • Les pesticides ne doivent être appliqués qu'en cas de nécessité, lorsque les méthodes de lutte non chimiques risquent de ne pas être efficaces."},{"index":3,"size":19,"text":"• Ils doivent être utilisés comme l'une des options de la stratégie de lutte intégrée contre les ravageurs (IPM)."},{"index":4,"size":12,"text":"• Le choix du pesticide à utiliser dépend donc des éléments suivants:"},{"index":5,"size":13,"text":"-la cible visée (types d'organismes nuisibles à contrôler) ; -la classe toxicologique ;"},{"index":6,"size":15,"text":"-du mode d'action (comment le pesticide agit sur l'organisme nuisible) ; et -de la formulation."}]},{"head":"MODULE 1: INFORMATIONS GÉNÉRALES SUR LES PESTICIDES","index":6,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"COMMENT LIRE UNE ETIQUETTE ET LA BANDE TOXICOLOGIQUE D'UN PESTICIDE","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":20,"text":"• Les instructions de base pour l'utilisation des pesticides sont généralement inscrites sur l'emballage ou fournies sur une notice séparée."},{"index":2,"size":19,"text":"• Les utilisateurs doivent toujours demander ces informations et les lire attentivement avant l'utilisation et pendant la période d'application."},{"index":3,"size":22,"text":"• Avant d'utiliser un pesticide, l'utilisateur doit savoir s'il s'agit du produit approprié pour l'usage prévu et connaître les précautions à prendre."},{"index":4,"size":25,"text":"• Les étiquettes contiennent également des informations sur les dangers potentiels associés au produit et les instructions à suivre en cas d'empoisonnement ou de déversement."},{"index":5,"size":20,"text":"• Le respect des instructions figurant sur l'étiquette permet à l'utilisateur de minimiser les risques et de maximiser les avantages. "}]},{"head":"LISEZ","index":8,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"MODULE 1: INFORMATIONS GÉNÉRALES SUR LES PESTICIDES","index":9,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"EMBALLAGE DES PRODUITS PESTICIDES","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":34,"text":"• Le conditionnement varie en fonction du type de formulation, des propriétés chimiques des ingrédients, des quantités vendues et des conditions auxquelles les emballages seront soumis pendant le transport entre le fabricant et l'utilisateur."},{"index":2,"size":23,"text":"• Lors de l'achat, il convient de choisir des emballages adaptés à la zone à traiter et d'éviter d'acheter des emballages trop grands."},{"index":3,"size":35,"text":"• Tous les emballages sont solidement scellés par le fabricant afin d'éviter les fuites et les pertes, et de permettre à l'acheteur de savoir si les emballages ont été altérés d'une manière ou d'une autre."}]},{"head":"MODULE 1: INFORMATIONS GÉNÉRALES SUR LES PESTICIDES MODULE 1: INFORMATIONS GÉNÉRALES SUR LES PESTICIDES","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":6,"text":"Voici quelques exemples de ces scellés"},{"index":2,"size":10,"text":"• Anneaux en plastique \"déchirables\" autour des bouchons à vis,"},{"index":3,"size":11,"text":"• les scellés métalliques pressés sous les bouchons à vis, et"},{"index":4,"size":11,"text":"• les scellés en feuille d'aluminium sous les couvercles en fer-blanc."},{"index":5,"size":20,"text":"• Les acheteurs doivent examiner attentivement ces scellés et ne doivent pas acheter des paquets dont les scellés sont brisés."},{"index":6,"size":45,"text":"• Les revendeurs ne doivent pas fractionner les emballages des fabricants en plus petites quantités ni les reconditionner pour la vente dans des bouteilles, des sacs ou des boîtes de conserve.  • L'application de pesticides joue un rôle important dans la lutte contre les parasites."},{"index":7,"size":21,"text":"• La bonne technique d'application des pesticides et l'équipement utilisé pour l'application sont essentiels au succès des opérations de lutte antiparasitaire."},{"index":8,"size":28,"text":"• L'application excessive de pesticides ou un équipement de pulvérisation inefficace peut entraîner de graves problèmes pour la santé humaine et l'environnement (Oskan, 2020 ;Fiaz et al., 2021)."},{"index":9,"size":15,"text":"• Un haut niveau de compétence est donc nécessaire pour garantir l'efficacité et la sécurité."},{"index":10,"size":25,"text":"Chaque culture peut nécessiter une approche légèrement différente de l'application des pesticides, mais certains principes généraux s'appliquent à presque toutes les situations de pulvérisation :"},{"index":11,"size":40,"text":"-Connaissance du problème des ravageurs (identification positive des ravageurs) ; -Sélection du pesticide spécifiquement conçu pour lutter contre le(s) organisme(s) nuisible(s) identifié(s) (exemple des insecticides contre la chenille mineuse, un ravageur qui n'est pas affecté par n'importe quel insecticide) ;"},{"index":12,"size":16,"text":"-Sélection de l'équipement approprié, en particulier du type et de la taille de la buse ;"},{"index":13,"size":15,"text":"-Connaissance de l'emplacement du (des) ravageur(s) sur la culture et du stade le plus sensible;"},{"index":14,"size":11,"text":"-L'application du pesticide au bon moment et dans les bonnes conditions."}]},{"head":"MODULE 3: TECHNIQUES D'APPLICATION DES PESTICIDES","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":23,"text":"-Vérifier périodiquement la précision de l'équipement (étalonnage) pour s'assurer que la quantité recommandée sur l'étiquette du pesticide est appliquée uniformément sur la cible."},{"index":2,"size":21,"text":"-Un pulvérisateur ne peut être efficace et sûr que s'il est correctement vérifié et calibré avant d'être utilisé sur le terrain."},{"index":3,"size":10,"text":"-Garantir la sécurité des personnes non ciblées et de l'environnement."}]},{"head":"Points importants pour garantir de bons résultats dans l'application des pesticides :","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":30,"text":"1. Calibrage : Il s'agit de la méthode de réglage de l'équipement d'application des pesticides afin de garantir la distribution uniforme d'une certaine quantité de pesticide sur la zone souhaitée."}]},{"head":"MODULE 3: TECHNIQUES D'APPLICATION DES PESTICIDES","index":14,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Étapes de calibration","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":16,"text":"• Étape 1 : Mesurez une surface de 10 m sur 10 m dans le champ."},{"index":2,"size":13,"text":"• Étape 2 : Remplissez votre réservoir de pulvérisation avec de l'eau propre."},{"index":3,"size":49,"text":"• Étape 3 : Pulvérisez à un rythme de marche normal en ligne droite et à une vitesse de pompage permettant de couvrir la zone mesurée. o Si la surface à traiter est connue, on calcule : ✓ Le volume de bouillie nécessaire pour traiter toute la surface ;"},{"index":4,"size":12,"text":"✓ La quantité de produit nécessaire pour la surface à traiter ;"},{"index":5,"size":13,"text":"✓ Le nombre de remplissages pour le traitement de toute la surface ;"},{"index":6,"size":82,"text":"✓ La quantité de produit pour un remplissage. • Un grand volume de bouillie est appliqué. Habituellement, le volume de pulvérisation est de 300 à 500 l/ha et parfois de 800 à 1000 l/ha • Le volume de pulvérisation requis dépend de nombreux facteurs, tels que la capacité du pulvérisateur, les caractéristiques des buses, le stade de croissance de la culture, l'écartement des cultures, le type de culture, etc. • Les pulvérisateurs à grand volume sont à la fois manuels et motorisés."}]},{"head":"MODULE 3: TECHNIQUES D'APPLICATION DES PESTICIDES","index":16,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"MODULE 3: TECHNIQUES D'APPLICATION DES PESTICIDES","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":32,"text":"• Les pulvérisateurs à compression manuelle, les pulvérisateurs à pied, les pulvérisateurs à étrier, les pulvérisateurs Rocker et les pulvérisateurs à sac à dos à levier sont des exemples de pulvérisateurs HV."},{"index":2,"size":13,"text":"• La pulvérisation à haut volume demande beaucoup de travail et de temps."},{"index":3,"size":36,"text":"• Dans les régions où l'eau est rare et dans les situations où il est important de traiter une grande surface en très peu de temps, il est difficile de pratiquer la pulvérisation à haut volume."},{"index":4,"size":36,"text":"• Presque tous les types de pulvérisateurs à haut volume sont équipés d'une pompe qui alimente en liquide de pulvérisation sous pression la buse hydraulique, qui brise le liquide en gouttelettes et rejette le produit pulvérisé."},{"index":5,"size":32,"text":"• . -La pulvérisation de 300 à 500 l/ha dans la technique de pulvérisation à haut volume est réduite à 50 à 150 l/ha dans la technique de pulvérisation à bas volume."}]},{"head":"MODULE 3: TECHNIQUES D'APPLICATION DES PESTICIDES","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":30,"text":"-Un pulvérisateur à dos motorisé, également appelé atomiseur, est un pulvérisateur à faible volume dans lequel une buse à énergie gazeuse est utilisée pour la fragmentation fine de la bouillie."},{"index":2,"size":18,"text":"-La force de l'air qui s'échappe à grande vitesse est utilisée pour cisailler la bouillie en fines gouttelettes."}]},{"head":"MODULE 3: TECHNIQUES D'APPLICATION DES PESTICIDES","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":25,"text":"-La taille des gouttelettes de pulvérisation dépend de la vitesse et du volume de l'air, du débit du liquide et des propriétés de la bouillie."},{"index":2,"size":14,"text":"-Les gouttelettes de pulvérisation sont ensuite soufflées loin de la sortie de la buse."},{"index":3,"size":21,"text":"-Le souffle d'air disperse les gouttelettes sur une large zone et facilite la pénétration de la pulvérisation dans le couvert végétal."},{"index":4,"size":19,"text":"-Le mouvement giratoire des gouttelettes dans le couvert végétal améliore le dépôt des particules de pulvérisation sous les feuilles."},{"index":5,"size":53,"text":"-Pour la pulvérisation à faible volume, les avions sont également utilisés pour pulvériser des pesticides à raison de 20 à 25 l/ha. -Dans cette technique d'application de pesticides, le volume appliqué par hectare est inférieur à 5 litres, ce qui est extrêmement faible par rapport aux méthodes de pulvérisation conventionnelles HV et LV."},{"index":6,"size":15,"text":"-Les gouttelettes de pulvérisation dans les méthodes de pulvérisation ULV sont de taille très fine."},{"index":7,"size":10,"text":"-Par conséquent, les buses utilisées dans ces procédés sont différentes."},{"index":8,"size":22,"text":"-La pulvérisation ULV est bonne dans les zones arides où l'eau est rare et donc la pulvérisation HV conventionnelle n'est pas faisable."},{"index":9,"size":14,"text":"-Cette technique est également appelée pulvérisation sans eau en raison de formulations ULV spéciales."}]},{"head":"MODULE 3: TECHNIQUES D'APPLICATION DES PESTICIDES","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":19,"text":"Les pulvérisateurs à très faible volume sont par exemple les brumisateurs d'air, les pulvérisateurs à dos et les atomiseurs."},{"index":2,"size":26,"text":"Un agriculteur utilise un atomiseur pour pulvériser un champ de pastèques. • Ils peuvent être de mauvaise qualité et commencer à fuir dès qu'ils sont utilisés."}]},{"head":"MODULE 3: TECHNIQUES D'APPLICATION DES PESTICIDES","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":14,"text":"• Il en va de même pour le choix des équipements de protection individuelle."},{"index":2,"size":21,"text":"• Le type d'équipement à utiliser dépend de l'échelle de l'opération et de la forme sous laquelle le produit est utilisé."},{"index":3,"size":31,"text":"• Il est essentiel de maîtriser le fonctionnement de l'équipement et les techniques de dosage afin de faire un choix judicieux et d'éviter les conséquences telles que le gaspillage du produit."}]},{"head":"AGAIN, USERS SHOULD REMEMBER","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":3,"text":"TO SEEK ADVICE."}]},{"head":"Quelques appareils de traitement phytosanitaire couramment utilisés","index":23,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":10,"text":"Les dispositifs de traitement les plus utilisés au Cameroun sont:"},{"index":2,"size":6,"text":"• Les pulvérisateurs à pression maintenue."},{"index":3,"size":6,"text":"• Les pulvérisateurs à moteur électrique."},{"index":4,"size":6,"text":"• Les pulvérisateurs à air comprimé. "}]},{"head":"Types de pulvérisateurs à dos à pression entretenue et les pièces. MODULE 4: QUELQUES APPAREILS DE TRAITEMENT PHYTOSANITAIRE UTILISÉS AU CAMEROUN","index":24,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":26,"text":"-Les éléments d'un pulvérisateur à dos à pression entretenue -La buse : permet de diviser la bouillie en fines gouttelettes en fonction de la pression retenue."},{"index":2,"size":10,"text":"-Le levier : donne l'énergie nécessaire au fonctionnement de l'appareil."},{"index":3,"size":10,"text":"-Les bretelles : permettent de stabiliser l'appareil sur le dos."},{"index":4,"size":66,"text":"-Le réservoir : contient les préparations, avec une capacité totale de 16 litres, mais son volume utile est de 15 litres. Il se compose d'un couvercle muni d'un joint en caoutchouc et d'un tamis. -La pompe à membrane : permet d'aspirer et de refouler le mélange et se compose principalement d'une chambre de compression. -La pompe à piston : permet d'aspirer et de refouler la bouillie."},{"index":5,"size":16,"text":"-Le tuyau : transporte la bouillie jusqu'à la lance et repose la pompe à la gâchette."},{"index":6,"size":14,"text":"-La lance : sert de prolongement au tuyau et se termine par une buse."},{"index":7,"size":15,"text":"-La gâchette : permet de démarrer ou d'arrêter le passage du liquide vers le bus."},{"index":8,"size":9,"text":"-L'agitateur : facilite l'homogénéisation du liquide dans la cuve."},{"index":9,"size":11,"text":"-Les joints : évitent les fuites aux différentes articulations du pulvérisateur."}]},{"head":"MODULE 4: QUELQUES APPAREILS DE TRAITEMENT PHYTOSANITAIRE UTILISÉS AU CAMEROUN MODULE 4: QUELQUES APPAREILS DE TRAITEMENT PHYTOSANITAIRE UTILISÉS AU CAMEROUN","index":25,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Le pulvérisateur est monté selon les étapes suivantes:","index":26,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":7,"text":"• Retirez les pièces de l'emballage ;"},{"index":2,"size":11,"text":"• Montez l'essieu pour les pulvérisateurs qui en sont équipés ;"},{"index":3,"size":5,"text":"• Montez le levier ;"},{"index":4,"size":8,"text":"• Montez la lance sur la gâchette ;"},{"index":5,"size":8,"text":"• Connectez le tuyau à la gâchette ;"},{"index":6,"size":9,"text":"• Serrez les écrous; et • Ajustez les bretelles."}]},{"head":"Pulvérisateur à moteur électrique","index":27,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":16,"text":"Un pulvérisateur électrique motorisé comprend les éléments suivants : courroie, crépine, batterie, prise de charge, interrupteur."}]},{"head":"Assemblage de la lance","index":28,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":65,"text":"Connecter le raccord du tuyau à la poignée, le raccord de la lance à la poignée et la buse, et s'assurer qu'ils sont bien vissés. Insérez délicatement la buse dans la poignée et serrez fermement l'écrou. Chargement de la batterie N'utilisez pas d'autre batterie ou chargeur que celui fourni avec l'appareil. Elle peut être rechargée directement sur le pulvérisateur ou détachée et rechargée à distance."}]},{"head":"MODULE 4: QUELQUES APPAREILS DE TRAITEMENT PHYTOSANITAIRE UTILISÉS AU CAMEROUN","index":29,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Pulvérisateur à moteur électrique Mise en marche","index":30,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":38,"text":"Placez l'interrupteur en position \"I\" (Marche) et appuyez simplement sur la poignée de la gâchette pour commencer à pulvériser. Arrêt Placez l'interrupteur en position \"0\" (Arrêt). Après avoir éteint le moteur, maintenez la gâchette enfoncée pendant quelques secondes."}]},{"head":"Remplissage du réservoir","index":31,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":84,"text":"Essuyez toujours l'extérieur de votre pulvérisateur si vous avez renversé du produit pendant le remplissage. Si vous versez du produit sur la batterie, retirez-la et séchez-la ainsi que les bornes à l'aide d'un chiffon. Une fois le remplissage terminé, serrez fermement le couvercle. Placez toujours le pulvérisateur sur un sol plat pour le remplir. Il est préférable de remplir le pulvérisateur du côté opposé à celui qui sera sur votre dos, afin d'éviter que des éclaboussures ne pénètrent dans la zone de la batterie."}]},{"head":"MODULE 4: QUELQUES APPAREILS DE TRAITEMENT PHYTOSANITAIRE UTILISÉS AU CAMEROUN","index":32,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Pulvérisateur à moteur électrique","index":33,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Mise en place du pulvérisateur","index":34,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":125,"text":"Une fois le pulvérisateur prêt à l'emploi, il est recommandé de le placer sur une surface plane, de passer les deux bras dans les sangles, de serrer les sangles, de boucler la ceinture et de tirer fermement. Dysfonctionnement Si la pompe fonctionne mais que le débit est réduit, vérifiez que la crépine d'entrée est exempte de débris. Si la pompe fonctionne mais ne s'arrête pas lorsque la poignée est relâchée, vérifiez que tous les raccords de tuyaux ne fuient pas et ouvrez légèrement la buse de pulvérisation jusqu'à ce que la pompe cesse de tourner. Si la pompe ne fonctionne pas, vérifiez le branchement de la batterie et nettoyez la sortie. L'air conduit par la lance permet à la bouillie de sortir par la lance."}]},{"head":"Pour alimenter le moteur","index":35,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":17,"text":"Placez l'appareil sur une surface plane dans un endroit bien ventilé, à l'écart de toute flamme nue."},{"index":2,"size":23,"text":"Ouvrez avec précaution le bouchon du réservoir de carburant, versez le carburant à l'aide d'un entonnoir équipé d'un filtre et refermez le réservoir."},{"index":3,"size":15,"text":"Si du carburant est renversé sur l'appareil, il faut l'essuyer immédiatement avant de démarrer l'appareil."}]},{"head":"MODULE 4: QUELQUES APPAREILS DE TRAITEMENT PHYTOSANITAIRE UTILISÉS AU CAMEROUN","index":36,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Pulvérisateur à pression d'air : Atomiseur (brouillard) Avant de démarrer le moteur","index":37,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":65,"text":"Assurez-vous que la machine est en bon état, vérifiez le serrage du câble d'allumage sur la bougie, l'étanchéité du système d'alimentation en carburant, du réservoir de pulvérisation et du système d'emboîtement du tuyau. Il est également nécessaire de vérifier l'état des sangles pour s'assurer que la gâchette peut être facilement actionnée et que le levier peut être facilement déplacé vers la position \"stop\" ou \"0\"."}]},{"head":"Mise en marche de l'atomiseur","index":38,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":65,"text":"Pour ce faire, placez-vous dans une position stable, tenez fermement le boîtier avec la main gauche et bloquez l'appareil avec le pied, puis tirez lentement le lanceur avec la main droite jusqu'à ce que vous sentiez le point dur et tirez vigoureusement d'un coup sec. Guider la poignée du lanceur dans le sens inverse de la traction afin que le câble puisse être enroulé correctement."}]},{"head":"MODULE 4: QUELQUES APPAREILS DE TRAITEMENT PHYTOSANITAIRE UTILISÉS AU CAMEROUN","index":39,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Pulvérisateur à pression d'air : Atomiseur (brouillard) Manipulation de l'atomiseur","index":40,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":24,"text":"L'utilisateur doit se tenir debout sur une surface stable et plane et tenir fermement l'appareil de manière à pouvoir le mettre sur le dos."},{"index":2,"size":20,"text":"Les bretelles doivent être portées sur les deux épaules et l'appareil ne doit pas être porté sur une seule épaule."},{"index":3,"size":15,"text":"La main droite doit tenir la poignée de commande et guider le tube de pulvérisation."}]},{"head":"Manipulation avec un assistant :","index":41,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":34,"text":"Assurez-vous que le moteur tourne au ralenti et que le robinet d'arrêt est fermé. Veillez également à ce que la deuxième personne ne se trouve pas à proximité de l'échappement et de la buse."}]},{"head":"Arrêt de l'atomiseur :","index":42,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":24,"text":"Déplacez le levier de commande en direction du repère \"0\", le moteur s'arrête immédiatement et le levier de commande revient à sa position initiale."}]},{"head":"MODULE 4: QUELQUES APPAREILS DE TRAITEMENT PHYTOSANITAIRE UTILISÉS AU CAMEROUN","index":43,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Entretien de l'atomiseur","index":44,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":11,"text":"Nettoyer le réservoir plusieurs fois avec de l'eau savonneuse si possible. "}]},{"head":"MODULE 4: QUELQUES APPAREILS DE TRAITEMENT PHYTOSANITAIRE UTILISÉS AU CAMEROUN","index":45,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Précautions à prendre","index":46,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":27,"text":"-Pour travailler avec un atomiseur, il est indispensable de respecter strictement les règles de sécurité. L'utilisateur doit être en bonne santé pour travailler avec un appareil motorisé."},{"index":2,"size":54,"text":"-Pendant le traitement : l'utilisateur doit porter des écouteurs, avancer à vitesse constante dans le sens du vent, éviter de se pencher en avant (pour ne pas renverser l'appareil) et marcher à reculons pour ne pas trébucher. Il faut toujours surveiller la zone de sortie pour voir quand la bouillie se vide du réservoir."}]},{"head":"MODULE 4: QUELQUES APPAREILS DE TRAITEMENT PHYTOSANITAIRE UTILISÉS AU CAMEROUN","index":47,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Précautions à prendre","index":48,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":45,"text":"Après le travail : L'utilisateur doit tourner le levier de commande en position de ralenti, fermer le robinet d'arrêt, décharger l'appareil et le placer sur une surface plane. Veillez à fermer le robinet de carburant et à ne pas toucher le tuyau d'échappement encore chaud."},{"index":2,"size":45,"text":"Gestion des excédents et précautions à prendre : Diluer le reste de la bouillie avec de l'eau propre (au moins 5 fois son volume) et pulvériser l'eau de rinçage sur les zones traitées ou les zones à moindre risque (loin de tout point d'eau, jachère)."}]},{"head":"MODULE 4: QUELQUES APPAREILS DE TRAITEMENT PHYTOSANITAIRE UTILISÉS AU CAMEROUN","index":49,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":5,"text":"Un atomiseur et ses pièces."}]},{"head":"Un agriculteur utilisant un atomiseur à dos a Rep Yanga, région de l'Adamaoua","index":50,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"MODULE 4: QUELQUES APPAREILS DE TRAITEMENT PHYTOSANITAIRE UTILISÉS AU CAMEROUN","index":51,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":2,"text":"Rep Yanga/V.Fornkwa,"}]},{"head":"Précautions à prendre","index":52,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Hygiène personnelle","index":53,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":29,"text":"• Pendant la manipulation et la transformation, évitez de manger, de boire, de fumer et de toucher votre visage ou votre peau avec des mains ou des gants souillés."},{"index":2,"size":28,"text":"• Lavez-vous toujours les mains et le visage avant de manger, de boire ou de fumer ; les vêtements de travail doivent être lavés séparément des autres vêtements."},{"index":3,"size":16,"text":"• N'utilisez jamais le pulvérisateur s'il n'est pas correctement et complètement assemblé ou s'il est endommagé."},{"index":4,"size":23,"text":"• Inspectez soigneusement l'appareil et assurez-vous qu'il n'y a pas de fuites. Vérifier le fonctionnement de la lance de pulvérisation avant de l'utiliser"}]},{"head":"MODULE 4: QUELQUES APPAREILS DE TRAITEMENT PHYTOSANITAIRE UTILISÉS AU CAMEROUN","index":54,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Entretien général des pulvérisateurs","index":55,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":19,"text":"• L'intérieur et les parties exposées du pulvérisateur doivent être soigneusement nettoyés après chaque utilisation et avant le stockage."},{"index":2,"size":21,"text":"• En règle générale, il faut d'abord laver le réservoir avec de l'eau et du savon, puis le rincer à l'eau."},{"index":3,"size":18,"text":"• Les poudres et les solutions mouillables se nettoient facilement des pulvérisateurs en les rinçant abondamment à l'eau."}]},{"head":"MODULE 4: QUELQUES APPAREILS DE TRAITEMENT PHYTOSANITAIRE UTILISÉS AU CAMEROUN","index":56,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":6,"text":"Nettoyez le pulvérisateur comme suit :"},{"index":2,"size":26,"text":"• Remplir le réservoir à moitié avec de l'eau propre et l'agiter vigoureusement. Rincer l'eau de nettoyage par la buse en faisant fonctionner le pulvérisateur ;"},{"index":3,"size":6,"text":"• Répéter la procédure ci-dessus ;"},{"index":4,"size":24,"text":"• Retirer les embouts de buse et les grilles. Les nettoyer avec du kérosène ou une solution détergente à l'aide d'une brosse douce ;"},{"index":5,"size":29,"text":"• Ne pas utiliser de couteau, de fil de fer ou d'autres matériaux durs pour nettoyer les embouts des buses, et ne jamais souffler dedans avec la bouche ;"},{"index":6,"size":20,"text":"• Remplissez à nouveau le réservoir à moitié avec de l'eau et ajoutez une petite quantité de savon ménager ;"}]},{"head":"MODULE 4: QUELQUES APPAREILS DE TRAITEMENT PHYTOSANITAIRE UTILISÉS AU CAMEROUN","index":57,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":21,"text":"• Actionner la pompe pour faire circuler la solution savonneuse dans le pulvérisateur, puis l'évacuer par la buse du pulvérisateur ;"},{"index":2,"size":37,"text":"• À la fin de la saison de pulvérisation, suivez les opérations de nettoyage énumérées ci-dessus et rincez enfin le pulvérisateur avec une huile légère pour protéger les parties métalliques et en caoutchouc de la corrosion ;"},{"index":3,"size":34,"text":"• Retirer les embouts de buse, les crépines et les grilles et appliquer une légère couche d'huile avant le stockage. • De plus, l'absence d'EPI joue un rôle clé dans l'ampleur de l'exposition corporelle."},{"index":4,"size":20,"text":"• En ce qui concerne les facteurs de risque pour la santé liés à l'environnement, il a été constaté que:"},{"index":5,"size":46,"text":"✓ plus de 60% des petits exploitants agricoles jettent les récipients vides de pesticides dans la rivière voisine, ✓ 25% lavent leurs pulvérisateurs à dos au point d'eau le plus proche, et ✓ certains déversent même le reste de la préparation de pesticides dans la rivière."}]},{"head":"Dangers pour l'homme","index":58,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":26,"text":"• De nombreux travailleurs et résidents, en particulier dans le secteur rural, sont en contact quotidien avec des pesticides et courent donc un risque élevé d'empoisonnement."},{"index":2,"size":14,"text":"• Cette exposition peut provoquer des troubles de l'humeur, des dépressions et de l'anxiété."},{"index":3,"size":20,"text":"• Les pesticides peuvent pénétrer dans le corps humain par la respiration, la boisson, l'ingestion et directement par la peau."},{"index":4,"size":29,"text":"• La pénétration des pesticides par l'aine et le dos est encore plus grave car plusieurs organes vitaux, tels que le foie et les reins, sont situés à proximité."},{"index":5,"size":28,"text":"• En raison de la facilité avec laquelle les pesticides peuvent pénétrer dans le corps humain, plusieurs ingrédients actifs les plus dangereux ont été interdits au niveau international."}]},{"head":"MODULE 5 : DANGERS LIÉS À L'UTILISATION DES PESTICIDES","index":59,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":21,"text":"Un applicateur de pesticides risquant d'inhaler du produit (G), un applicateur bien protégé (D).  Deux types de toxicité sont possibles :"},{"index":2,"size":55,"text":"✓ La toxicité aiguë (exposition de courte durée) qui signifie que les effets du contact ou de l'inhalation du pesticide une fois se feront sentir peu de temps après, ou au plus tard dans les 24 heures. Cela se traduit généralement par une irritation de la peau ou une sensation de brûlure dans les yeux."},{"index":3,"size":76,"text":"✓ La toxicité chronique (exposition prolongée) signifie que les effets ne se manifestent qu'après une exposition répétée au produit. Ces effets peuvent prendre la forme de cancers, de tumeurs, de malformations congénitales, des pathologies plus importantes peuvent apparaître telles que troubles respiratoires plus importants (asthme, bronchite, etc.). • Les insecticides sont généralement la catégorie de pesticides dont la toxicité est la plus aiguë, mais les herbicides peuvent également présenter des risques pour les organismes non ciblés."}]},{"head":"MODULE 5 : DANGERS LIÉS À L'UTILISATION DES PESTICIDES","index":60,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Contamination de l'air","index":61,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":44,"text":"Plus de la moitié des pesticides passe directement dans l'atmosphère lors de son application La présence des pesticides dans l'air se fait par: ✓Dérive lors de l'application, ✓ Volatilisation depuis la surface du sol, ✓ Entrainement par le vent des particules du sol contaminés."}]},{"head":"Les pesticides dans l'air sont:","index":62,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":26,"text":"-soient libres, -soient liées à des molécules d'eau ou à d'autres molécules et retournent au sol sous forme de pluies contaminées… Contamination de l'eau/pollution de l'eau"}]},{"head":"•","index":63,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":30,"text":"La plus grande partie des matières actives des pesticides passe dans: ✓ les eaux de surface (puits, étangs, rivières, lacs, fleuves, …), ✓ les eaux souterraines par ruissellement et infiltration."},{"index":2,"size":31,"text":"• Lors de l'épandage par avion, les canaux, les cours d'eau ne sont pas épargnés. • N'utilisez un pesticide que pour l'usage auquel il est destiné et au taux d'application/dilution correct."},{"index":3,"size":31,"text":"• Veiller à ce qu'une culture comestible bénéficie d'un intervalle de temps suffisant entre l'application et la récolte pour protéger le consommateur contre l'ingestion de niveaux inacceptables de résidus de pesticides."},{"index":4,"size":16,"text":"• Il est conseillé aux pulvérisateurs sous contrat de passer des examens médicaux tous les mois."},{"index":5,"size":9,"text":"Traiter aux heures les plus fraîches de la journée "}]}],"figures":[{"text":" TOUJOURS L'ÉTIQUETTE ET DEMANDEZ DES INSTRUCTIONS AVANT D'UTILISER UN PRODUIT PESTICIDE. "},{"text":"o • Étape 4 : Vérifiez la quantité d'eau que vous avez utilisée (en ajoutant de l'eau dans le réservoir jusqu'à ce qu'il soit à nouveau plein et en mesurant la quantité d'eau que vous avez ajoutée). • Étape 5 : Diviser les litres utilisés par 100 m 2 Exemple -Vous avez utilisé 9 litres pour pulvériser 10 m sur 10 m. -9 litres / 100 m 2 = 0,09 litre utilisé par m 2 -Multiplier par 1.000 pour obtenir ml = 90 ml par m 2 MODULE 3: TECHNIQUES D'APPLICATION DES PESTICIDES 2. Volume de la bouillie et dosage du produit Pour un pulvérisateur dorsal à pression entretenu par exemple : o Remplir la réservoir d'eau et vérifier le bon fonctionnement de l'appareil et de la buse. o Remplir à nouveau le réservoir et pulvériser 100 m 2 Mesurer le volume utilisé et le multiplier par 100 pour obtenir la quantité nécessaire pour 1 ha. "},{"text":" Pulvérisation à haut volume dans des champs de pomme de terre à Santa (à gauche) et à Bangou (à droite) MODULE 3: TECHNIQUES D'APPLICATION DES PESTICIDES L. Djatsa, Bangou R. Anagho, Santa Pulvérisation à faible volume -Les méthodes de pulvérisation à faible volume réduisent essentiellement la quantité de bouillie. "},{"text":"- La pulvérisation ULV est la méthode d'application de pesticides à un volume minimum pour obtenir une lutte antiparasitaire économique. "},{"text":" Après avoir rincé le réservoir, ajoutez de l'eau propre et videz le tuyau et la lance. Retirez la batterie et purgez la pression de refoulement. Entreposez le pulvérisateur en position verticale avec le réservoir vide, la pression relâchée et la batterie déchargée. Pièces d'un pulvérisateur à moteur électrique. Il s'agit d'appareils équipés d'un moteur et fonctionnant avec un mélange d'huile et d'essence dans les proportions définies par le fabricant. Lorsque le moteur tourne, l'impulsion du ventilateur génère de l'air à grande vitesse qui induit une pressurisation du réservoir et provoque le départ de la bouillie par le tuyau d'alimentation. "},{"text":"Filtre à air : son entretien prolonge la durée de vie de l'appareil ; il doit être nettoyé une fois par jour en cas d'utilisation quotidienne. Il doit être légèrement tapoté ou brossé avec une brosse douce. Bougie d'allumage : elle peut être responsable du manque de puissance du moteur, des difficultés de démarrage ou des perturbations au ralenti. C'est pourquoi elle doit être régulièrement nettoyée et vérifiée ; son emplacement diffère selon les appareils. Après le nettoyage, emballez-la et conservez-la dans le réservoir. Réservoir de carburant : le vider ou faire tourner le moteur jusqu'à ce qu'il soit vide. "},{"text":"• Il existe plusieurs types de risques potentiels liés à l'utilisation des pesticides.• Une enquête pilote menée dans les dix régions du Cameroun entre 2001 et 2002 par Mathews et al, a montré que la mauvaise qualité du matériel de pulvérisation était une cause non négligeable d'accidents. "},{"text":"➢ s'agir de l'ingestion d'aliments contaminés par des résidus de pesticides ou d'une ingestion accidentelle lors de la manipulation. • Le fait de ne pas se laver correctement les mains avant de manger est une cause fréquente, tout comme le fait de fumer pendant le travail. • Une autre mauvaise pratique consiste à essayer de nettoyer une buse de pulvérisateur bouchée en la plaçant entre les lèvres et en soufflant La peau (voie cutanée) • C'est l'une des voies les plus courantes d'empoisonnement par les pesticides. • Les déversements et les fuites lors de l'application et du transport des pesticides sont une cause de risque et de blessure. • Les pesticides contenant des substances pénétrantes comme le kérosène peuvent traverser les vêtements sans que l'applicateur s'en aperçoive. • De plus, par temps chaud, les pores de la peau sont plus ouverts et permettent une pénétration plus rapide. : C'est la capacité d'un pesticide à tuer ou à entraver le développement de l'organisme. "},{"text":"---• Généraux : faiblesse et fatigue extrêmes ; -Peau : irritation, brûlure, transpiration excessive ou décoloration ; -Yeux : démangeaisons, brûlures, larmoiements, vision difficile ou floue, pupilles rétrécies ou élargies ; Système digestif : brûlure dans la bouche et la gorge, salivation extrême, nausées, vomissements, douleurs abdominales et diarrhée; Système nerveux : réactions telles que maux de tête, vertiges, confusion, agitation, contractions musculaires, démarche chancelante, troubles de l'élocution, crises et perte de conscience, lésion de certaines organes, parfois la mort. MODULE 5 : DANGERS LIÉS À L'UTILISATION DES PESTICIDES d. Mesures à prendre en cas d'empoisonnement aux pesticides -Rester calme pour éviter toute contamination ; -Maintenir la respiration du patient par respiration artificielle s'il est inconscient ; -Retirer le patient du lieu de la contamination ; -Retirer immédiatement tout vêtement contaminé ; -Laver toutes les parties du corps touchées avec de l'eau propre ou les essuyer avec un morceau de tissu si disponible, ou même avec du papier ou des feuilles ; -Transporter le patient et le conteneur de pesticides à l'hôpital ou à la clinique la plus proche pour qu'il reçoive des soins médicaux. (Le contenant de pesticide peut aider le personnel médical à identifier l'empoisonnement et le traitement approprié à administrer). Les pesticides peuvent contaminer l'air, le sol, l'eau, le gazon et d'autres végétaux. En plus de tuer les insectes ou les mauvaises herbes, les pesticides peuvent être toxiques pour toute une série d'autres organismes, notamment les oiseaux, les poissons, les insectes utiles et les plantes non ciblées. "},{"text":"- Les restes y sont parfois jetés sans précaution, -Les récipients vides sont rincés dans les cours d'eau. CropLife MODULE 5 : DANGERS LIÉS À L'UTILISATION DES PESTICIDES • Des pluies soudaines lessivent les pesticides des feuilles et tout ceci par ruissellement et l'infiltration dans le sol diffusent ces pesticides. • La pollution des cours d'eau et des nappes phréatiques provoque l'intoxication de la faune aquatique (poissons, grenouilles, oiseaux, tortues…) Contamination du sol Pendant et après les traitement une proportion importante des pesticides est déposé sur le sol • La contamination des sols a un effet direct, soit indirect : ✓ Sur la faune (vers de terre, mille pattes, termites, collemboles, fourmis…) du sol car les résidus de ces pesticides peuvent les détruire, ou altérer leur activité, leur comportement, leur multiplication et leur métabolisme. • Il y a donc baisse de l'humus dans le sol et par conséquent la fertilité du sol, dont le rendement. autres êtres vivants (abeilles, ennemis naturels, oiseaux de …) subissent directement ou indirectement des intoxications parfois mortelles par les pesticides à large spectre; (ne pas faire la chasse ou la pêche avec les pesticides…) -Destruction/réduction de la biodiversité -Problèmes de Résistance, Résurgence, Rémanence et Résidus (4R). possible, les pesticides portant des bandes JAUNES ou ROUGES. "},{"text":" ingestion de pesticides : -Ajouter une cuillère à soupe de charbon en poudre ou de charbon de bois activé à un demi-verre d'eau claire ou de jus de fruit et boire. "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"conseils des techniciens agricoles locaux et de leur disponibilité sur le marché. Les fongicides homologués pour la pomme de terre : 1. Manga Plus : il  • Le gouvernement camerounais, par l'intermédiaire du Ministère de l'Agriculture et du • Le gouvernement camerounais, par l'intermédiaire du Ministère de l'Agriculture et du MODULE 2 : PESTICIDES COURAMMENT UTILISÉS SUR LA POMME DE TERRE AU CAMEROUN Développement Rural (MINADER), a homologué certains fongicides pour la pomme de terre au Cameroun ; ils sont également utilisés dans les essais du CIP et la liste est régulièrement mise à jour par le Gouvernement. • Les producteurs utilisent les pesticides en fonction de la connaissance préalable sur leur dont la matière active est le mancozèbe et qui est utilisé pour lutter contre le mildiou de la pomme de terre ; la formulation est une poudre mouillable (WP). On trouve également sur le marché d'autres produits ayant des noms commerciaux différents, mais contenant la même substance active et efficacité, des s'agit d'un fongicide de contact utilisés sur les pommes de terre, comme le MODULE 2 : PESTICIDES COURAMMENT UTILISÉS SUR LA POMME DE TERRE AU CAMEROUN Développement Rural (MINADER), a homologué certains fongicides pour la pomme de terre au Cameroun ; ils sont également utilisés dans les essais du CIP et la liste est régulièrement mise à jour par le Gouvernement. • Les producteurs utilisent les pesticides en fonction de la connaissance préalable sur leur dont la matière active est le mancozèbe et qui est utilisé pour lutter contre le mildiou de la pomme de terre ; la formulation est une poudre mouillable (WP). On trouve également sur le marché d'autres produits ayant des noms commerciaux différents, mais contenant la même substance active et efficacité, des s'agit d'un fongicide de contact utilisés sur les pommes de terre, comme le Penncozeb et le Maneb. Penncozeb et le Maneb.  "},{"text":"Les autres fongicides couramment utilisés par les producteurs de pommes de terre contre le mildiou mais non homologués pour la pomme de terre sont les suivants :  1. Ridomil : il s'agit d'un fongicide de contact et 1. Ridomil : il s'agit d'un fongicide de contact et d'un fongicide systémique qui contient deux d'un fongicide systémique qui contient deux ingrédients actifs, le métalaxyl et le mancozèbe, ingrédients actifs, le métalaxyl et le mancozèbe, et qui est formulé sous forme de granulés et qui est formulé sous forme de granulés mouillables. La formulation vendue au mouillables. La formulation vendue au Cameroun est recommandée pour le cacao, Cameroun est recommandée pour le cacao, mais les producteurs de pommes de terre mais les producteurs de pommes de terre l'utilisent contre le mildiou de la pomme de terre. l'utilisent contre le mildiou de la pomme de terre.  "},{"text":"MODULE 2 : PESTICIDES COURAMMENT UTILISÉS SUR LA POMME DE TERRE AU CAMEROUN 4. Banko Plus : systémique    et de contact, et de contact, substances actives Chlorothalonil et substancesactivesChlorothalonilet Carbendazime.   Carbendazime.  "},{"text":"La plupart de ces fongicides sont homologués pour la tomate. Ngaoundere, P. Teguefouet Les insecticides sont également utilisés par les producteurs de pommes de terre pour lutter contre certains ravageurs courants. C'est le cas, par exemple, des insecticides suivants : 1. Lamida Gold et K-Optimal peuvent être utilisés pour lutter contre les pucerons et la  Ngaoundere, P Ngaoundere, P mouche blanche. En cas d'attaques de mouche blanche. En cas d'attaques de mouches mineuses de feuilles, d'autres mouches mineuses de feuilles, d'autres insecticides contenant de l'abamectine comme insecticides contenant de l'abamectine comme IA, tels que Abalone, Biotrine et Abamex, sont IA, tels que Abalone, Biotrine et Abamex, sont recommandés. recommandés.  "},{"text":". Tegue Les producteurs utilisent les pesticides en fonction de leur connaissance préalable de leur efficacité, des conseils des techniciens agricoles locaux et de leur disponibilité sur le marché.   "},{"text":"Facteurs à prendre en compte dans le choix des appareils de traitement phytosanitaire  MODULE 4: QUELQUES APPAREILS DE TRAITEMENT PHYTOSANITAIRE MODULE 4: QUELQUES APPAREILS DE TRAITEMENT PHYTOSANITAIRE UTILISÉS AU CAMEROUN UTILISÉS AU CAMEROUN 4.1. 4.1. MODULE 4: QUELQUES APPAREILS MODULE 4: QUELQUES APPAREILS DE TRAITEMENT PHYTOSANITAIRE DE TRAITEMENT PHYTOSANITAIRE UTILISÉS AU CAMEROUN UTILISÉS AU CAMEROUN Rep Yanga/V. Rep Yanga/V. Fornkwa Fornkwa  "},{"text":"Étiquettes sur les appareils de traitement phytosanitaires utilisés au Cameroun.  4.2.1. Pulvérisateur à dos à pression 4.2.1. Pulvérisateur à dos à pression entretenue entretenue Ils se portent sur le dos et la pression Ils se portent sur le dos et la pression nécessaire à la pulvérisation est actionnée nécessaire à la pulvérisation est actionnée manuellement à l'aide d'un levier. manuellement à l'aide d'un levier. Il en existe deux types : les pulvérisateurs à Il en existe deux types : les pulvérisateurs à pistons et les pulvérisateurs à membranes. pistons et les pulvérisateurs à membranes.  "}],"sieverID":"1db49707-0c23-4c60-97a9-645043c8617c","abstract":"Les publications du CIP apportent des informations importantes sur le développement dans l'arène publique. Les lecteurs sont encouragés à citer ou à reproduire leur contenu dans leurs propres publications. En tant que détenteur du droit d'auteur, CIP demande une reconnaissance et une copie de la publication où la citation ou le matériel apparaît. Veuillez envoyer une copie au service des communications à l'adresse ci-"}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"098a10cb7d37579e1f83c53310a06fd0","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/36df5a22-9e12-4037-9dd5-ac9e1ef25d50/retrieve"},"pageCount":16,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"I","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":36,"text":"f music be the food of love, what shall we make of agriculture? The love of food or, more likely, the source of food for the body and some for the soul? Individually, socially, culturally, economically?"},{"index":2,"size":101,"text":"Can we, just for a few minutes, regard agriculture as an orchestra with a choir? Where the total agricultural output is the product of the combined efforts of all the instruments and voices, and the people who play and sing. Imagine that the string instruments and players are the cultivators, with their seeds, scythes and stores. The wind instruments and players could be the animal breeders and their livestock; the percussion section the traders, processors, bankers and researchers; the choir a motley crew of the voices of extension workers, communicators, political institutions, local communities and civil society representatives. Got the picture?"},{"index":3,"size":32,"text":"Most orchestras have an overall leader, and section leaders. They are entrusted, in our agricultural analogy, with sectoral coordination and overall leadership and policy guidance, aiming at a harmonious and coherent output."},{"index":4,"size":58,"text":"In agriculture, as in music, there are many different tunes, although some fundamentalists insist that there is only one basic tune in the world. Fundamentalists in agriculture could, arguably, advance a similar thesis, that there is only one agriculture, in the time-honoured definition of the \"science, art and business of cultivating the soil, producing crops and raising livestock.\""},{"index":5,"size":28,"text":"But just as there are many forms and approaches in music, so in agriculture we have commercial, emerging and subsistence farming; cash-crop, plantation, free-range, crop-livestock, slash-and-burn SPORE 104 "}]},{"head":"In this issue","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":153,"text":"The way something looks and feels is often telling in whether or not we accept it, and texture is an important topic in this Spore. We offer you a major article about food additives and their role not only in preserving food but also in improving its texture. With 'natural' additives often grown in ACP countries, they offer special opportunities for ACP farmers. We pay tribute to farmers' newspapers, and how they add texture to the information fabric spread before their readers. And the main article on a new way of blending agricultural and ecological goals could add a new feeling to development policies. The real piece of feeling is the Viewpoint on the art of negotiating ACP interests in world trade. Add these all together to the usual mix of news, views and reviews, and we believe that you have the Spore you have come to want. So, once more, with feeling."},{"index":2,"size":7,"text":"Illustration Terri Andon/Source Betty Press, Panos Pictures"}]},{"head":"Ecoagriculture","index":3,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"The music of soundness","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":30,"text":"After a generation of fresh and not so fresh farming philosophies which have failed to meet the challenges of food security and biodiversity, is the newcomer -ecoagriculture -likely to work?"},{"index":2,"size":26,"text":"Illustration Terri Andon/Source Betty Press, Panos Pictures systems; organic, low-input, zero-tillage; sound, ecological, permaculture approaches. And so on. (See some definitions in In Brief, page 9)"},{"index":3,"size":26,"text":"The latest approach is known as ecoagriculture, and it lends itself particularly well to the musical analogy, since it seeks to harmonise agricultural and ecological needs."},{"index":4,"size":94,"text":"Much hope is being placed on ecoagriculture as a way of meeting the challenges of food security and adequate nutrition. The notion was originally defined in the late 1990s as \"land-use systems designed to produce both human food and ecosystem services, including habitat for wild biodiversity\". As it has moved towards the centre in current agricultural thinking, it has been weighed down with a fairly hefty definition, worthy of any solid symphony: \"Ecoagriculture is sustainable agriculture and associated natural resource management systems that embrace and simultaneously enhance productivity, rural livelihoods, ecosystem services and biodiversity.\""}]},{"head":"Farmer, fauna, flora","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":129,"text":"The notion is a noble attempt to move beyond the confrontation between, on the one hand, agricultural practice and the demand for food and, on the other, the importance of preserving biodiversity and a rich, ever-evolving diversity of fauna and flora. The positions are often characterised, on the side of agriculture, by its spread into new areas which are either vulnerable and prone to swift degradation or are natural habitats such as forests whose clearance destroys biodiversity. On the side of fauna and flora, the standard policy is to create parks and reserves and strive for an accommodation of or with local communities. Each sod turned, each river dammed, each tree felled, each flock fenced in resounds with a thump, much like a beat on a poorly tuned drum."},{"index":2,"size":132,"text":"In many national and international fora, the two parties seem to be locked in an endless wrestling match. Spore has long put forward the position that, when push comes to shove, it is food production that should rise above biodiversity concerns. (See 'First, Food!' in Spore 95). This, though, is ulti-mately an untenable argument. When one stands back from the tussle, it becomes clear that a drastic shift has to take place in policy thinking and in both agricultural and ecological practices. No longer can the goal be an uneasy co-existence of the two parties; it has to be their co-habitation. Instead of a stand-off, far better to seek to share \"common ground, common future\", a phrase borrowed from the title of a recent report sponsored by IUCN -the World Conservation Union."}]},{"head":"Which way to turn?","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":128,"text":"That report, which included the definition of ecoagriculture quoted earlier, stresses that many farmers, especially those in intensive farming systems, have faced a difficult trade-off between production and biodiversity. \"If they want to protect a little more biodiversity, they must sacrifice a lot of production; if they want a little more production, they must sacrifice a lot of biodiversity.\" For poor producers in developing countries, the options have not been benign: \"a lack of advanced technologies often leads to biodiversity loss -more land and resources are used for agriculture than would be needed using more sustainable and productive techniques. In more highly capitalised farming, it is often an excess of modern techniques -methods that create too much pollution or compact the soilthat leads to the loss of biodiversity.\""},{"index":2,"size":79,"text":"The challenge, from a policy perspective, is how to manage ecosystems as a whole, with protected areas as reservoirs of wild biodiversity within a 'matrix' of land managed to protect its habitat value while also providing food and income. How can agriculture gain a much higher profile in biodiversity planning? The report stresses that \"when farmers, conservationists, and policy-makers manage landscapes with both food production and species conservation as essential values, dramatic progress can be made on both fronts.\""}]},{"head":"Open door for farmers' groups","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":123,"text":"As usual, it is at the institutional level that much has to be achieved. There are already helpful signs of success from new approaches, many in ACP countries, which could encourage new rural institutions, such as federations of farmers' organisations, to join the established bodies in working out practical approaches. Among the measures put forward by the ecoagriculture community are the reduction of habitat-destructive practices by improving yields on existing land; the acceptance of wildlife habitats on farms; increasing protected wetland areas alongside farming areas (as in Zimbabwe and Senegal); mimicking natural habitats by integrating productive perennial plants (as in South Africa); and insisting on improved fallow periods which can support more wild species than continuous annual planting (as in Zambia and Kenya)."},{"index":2,"size":151,"text":"One type of agriculture which is often offered as a fundamental solution in such approaches -organic -is not necessarily part of the ecoagriculture set of approaches. The advances made in sustained yield increases in what was previously regarded as a low-yield form of farming do make the organic approach an important one, but it is not , warns the Common Ground report, the only one. \"In many cases, farms where agrochemicals are used can still protect precious habitat through careful management (such as using filter strips to prevent excess nutrients from entering waterways), supplemented with other strategies, such as increased crop diversity or establishment of wildlife corridors. In impoverished soils, such as many found in Africa, some chemical fertiliser is often needed in combination with organic nutrients to build up soil organic matter for sustainable production. Strategic, but limited, use of non-persistent pesticides is part of many integrated pest management systems.\""},{"index":3,"size":112,"text":"Could ecoagriculture open a new chapter in agricultural productivity and biodiversity management? Could it orchestrate a new overture? Its willingness to overcome dilemmas, instead of feeding them, is refreshing, and augurs well, as does its clear aversion to purism. Within very clear limits, it is open to consideration of chemical inputs and some highly controlled applications of genetically modified crops. Like many emerging schools of agricultural thought, including organic and permaculture, it is strong on mood and weak on the maths. If it can produce the right equations that reassure farmers about the risks involved, and planners about the way it enables sustainable improvements in productivity, then it will attract many devotees."},{"index":4,"size":70,"text":"In an effort to move the approach along, a coalition known as Ecoagriculture Partners has been launched by the agricultural research advocates Future Harvest and IUCN. It may seem to have come from the top and, to be sure, it is not a grassroots initiative. Yet it has opened its doors to cooperation with farmers' organisations, producer groups and the progressive agricultural media. As the song says, 'Walk Right In'. "}]},{"head":"W","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":64,"text":"e share this planet with a nation whose culture has created a demand for microwave ovens in cars, for radio-frequency ovens that cook and brown in seconds and for new levels of consistency and convenience from the food manufacturer. We may regret this estrangement from simple, sometimes slow, food and simple cooking, but it is part of reality in the market of urban diets."},{"index":2,"size":146,"text":"Most foods simply do not have the consistent quality that these markets now demand. And so additives are used to smooth out variations in food characteristics. Among the many definitions of 'food additive', a decent but distilled one (adapted from Codex Alimentarius, see Links) is \"a substance or ingredient not normally present in that food that is added to enhance the quality or safety of that food\". This covers a wide range of substances in the product developer's cupboard. Some are synthetic, based on chemical mixes, such as those extracted from coal tar; others are naturally-occurring, such as berry juice. Some additives such as sugar and salt are very familiar; others less so, such as calcium disodium ethylenediamine tetra acetate (E 385), used in canned shellfish but banned in some countries. Additives are commonly classified by their function in foods -colouring, emulsifying, preserving, flavouring or extending."}]},{"head":"Molecules make a meal","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":70,"text":"About 10 synthetic colours find their way into our food, with tiny quantities being required to achieve the required cosmetic effect. Although approved under the strict safety conditions set by the de facto standard-setter, the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA), many of these colours are derived from distillates of coal tar, other components of which make toxicologists nervous. The list is shortening as more natural colour alternatives are approved."},{"index":2,"size":79,"text":"Most naturally occurring foods contain both water and oil (or fat) in some sort of stable association -an emulsion. Emulsions are responsible for some of the attributes of food relating to texture and mouth-feel. Flavour additives tend to be more soluble in lipids (fats) than in water, and they retain the flavours we enjoy most in the so-called non-aqueous phase -the non-watery part. Emulsifiers are used by food scientists in such foods as chocolate, salad cream, sausage and ice-cream."},{"index":3,"size":82,"text":"Many emulsions are unstable, as when cream rises to the surface of milk. They can be stabilised by increasing the viscosity -the clinging nature -of the aqueous phase in the emulsion. This prevents oil droplets coalescing, and involves using such stabilisers as starch, guar gum or proteins such as gelatin. The slightest addition of, say, a thickener known as carrageenan, derived from a simple moss, can make the difference between a consistent, and therefore saleable, bottled sauce and an unsettled, unsaleable one."},{"index":4,"size":41,"text":"Preservatives are a more controversial form of additives. These are anti-microbial compounds which retard microbial growth. Suspicion surrounds preservatives because they interrupt the biochemical processes of cells. Sceptics also argue that if foods were diluted less they would not require preservatives."},{"index":5,"size":61,"text":"Other additives such as flavourings are either extracts or synthetic 'look-alike' analogues of natural flavours. Compounds such as acids, sweeteners and flavour enhancers, such as monosodium glutamate (the famous MSG on Chinese restaurant menus), boost naturally occurring flavours. Their use as extenders for more expensive ingredients has besmirched the name of additives, raising suspicions that additives are present to mask fraud."}]},{"head":"True colours","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":125,"text":"Faced by a public wary of possible health risks in synthetic additives, and with the production costs of these additives rising, it is no wonder that many foods are enjoying new-found fame as additive substitutes. Turmeric (Curcuma) and beetroot (Beta vulgaris) have been propelled to stardom because of their colouring properties -yellow and dark red, respectively, although they fade when exposed to light over long periods. Dried carrot powder, with its beta carotene components, makes a bright orange-red colouring, but it too bleaches in light. A sturdier dark red colourant is amaranth (Amaranthus sp.)just 1 part in 4,000 will turn a bland jelly dark red. Also stable in light, but prone to darkening in darkness, are the theaflavins in tea which give a rust-red colour."},{"index":2,"size":69,"text":"The use of purely chemical additives is also retreating in the face of equally effective natural sources. Peanut and soy flour, for example, are rich sources of the baker's widely used natural emulsifier lecithin, and the resulting emulsions can be stabilised using okra or tamarind extracts. Beware, however: peanut derivatives may face problems in such international markets as the EU which have raised barriers against peanuts on health grounds."}]},{"head":"Grow into additives","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":57,"text":"It is, indeed, market forces and trade regulations which will dictate the future of additives. Most industrial producers, partly in awe of the 'organic' genre, know that the discovery of a safe and effective natural alternative will spell the demise of their synthetic one. The transnational corporation Roche, for example, searches continuously for natural ingredients through bio-prospecting."},{"index":2,"size":79,"text":"'Natural' does not mean safe, however. Mildly sweet glycerrhizin from licorice (Glycyrrhiza glabra) has disturbing physiological effects, and the steviocide sweetener from the honey leaf (Stevia rebaudiana) (the topic of the phenomenally popular article on Stevia in Spore 94) is endorsed by the FDA not as a food additive but as a dietary supplement. Much of the agitated debate around Stevia as an additive is about how health laws are applied, allegedly, as a way to protect trade interests."},{"index":3,"size":51,"text":"Additives make for a complex topic, biologically speaking. Yet, economically speaking, they add value to existing foods, making them last longer, go further and have greater appeal to more customers. The move towards using natural alternatives presents an opportunity for many an ACP producer, covering much more than ACP foods alone."},{"index":4,"size":4,"text":"See Links, page 10"}]},{"head":"Food additives","index":12,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Old foods for new","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":27,"text":"For producers and consumers, the food experience is about taste, and looks and texture too. If you can grow the additives they want, you're onto a winner. "}]},{"head":"Amaranth leaves (top) have been in use for thousands of years as colouring, the resin of liquorice plants for chewing, and the bright powder of turmeric roots as a saffron substitute","index":14,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Medium or mediator?","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":151,"text":"We, in agriculture, shall not be where we must without the passion of the agricultural press of ACP countries. Read all about it. T he end of the month is always a critical time in farming. It's the time to review sowing campaigns, check forage stocks, plan weeding, maintain tools and machines. Much depends on the weather, and on whether such inputs as fuels, fertiliser and cash are obtainable, all of them having become less reliable -with some believing that even the climate has been given a dose of structural adjustment, so variable has it become! Depending on the nature of the agricultural business, salaries and bills are due to be paid, reports written, funding proposals delivered, even tax or insurance forms completed. All in all, a familiar pattern, shaped by deep-rooted farmer savvy and by bureaucracy, and often recorded in those little diaries known as farmers' almanacs (see green box)."}]},{"head":"Many drums, one beat","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":67,"text":"The same regularity, quarterly, monthly, weekly or even daily, dominates the life of a newspaper or magazine publisher. This holds whether you're in charge of a community broadsheet, or one of the recently emerged papers in many an ACP country which have been welcomed as flag-bearers of plurality and press freedom. And it also holds for the new wave of farmers' magazines sweeping through our rural landscapes."},{"index":2,"size":131,"text":"Take the case of The Farmer's Voice (see Spore 101), the Cameroonian monthly which is a role model for many agricultural newspapers. In the last week of each month, the editors of the French and English editions get together with the publisher and editor-in-chief, in their orderly and none-too-spacious offices in central Yaoundé, the nation's capital. So it was with their meeting at the end of February 2003. They reviewed last-minute adjustments to the layout and content of the March issue. Then they turned their minds to the April issue; they finalised stories; they selected as many readers' letters as they could; they discussed the impact of a recent Spore article about their Website; and they caught up on the report about the distribution of the February edition (see yellow box)."},{"index":3,"size":152,"text":"Similar scenes take place in the editorial offices of hundreds of agricultural periodicals across the globe, be it the editorial conference of the daily agricultural bulletin in Suva, Fiji, or Spore's own bi-monthly committee, described in Spore 99 and 101 respectively. Or the monthly sessions of the new Farmers' Monthly magazine, striving to develop a niche in South Africa's new sector of emerging farmers. The most recent wave of publications has come from the now ubiquitous federations of farmers' organisations (FFO), typified by La voix des producteurs, produced by the Fédération des unions des producteurs du Bénin (FUPRO). They carry an FFO's multiple burdens, with an esoteric mix of market information, crop guidelines and reports on changes in the organisation. The same mixture is found in Ground-Up which promotes the messages of the Participatory Ecological Land-Use Management (PELUM) Association, a network of 130 FFOs and other civil society bodies in southern Africa."}]},{"head":"Six senses, standards and a pen","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":44,"text":"As these federations grow into their multi-task roles of being service-provider in the village and field, and representative in local and national political fora, they will no doubt separate the institutional from the technical in their range of publications. These are best kept apart."}]},{"head":"Do you believe?","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":78,"text":"What keeps these publications going? Faith, faith, and more faith. Their financial viability is their weakest point but the demand, if not a paying market, is strong. The sums are simple enough: major income does not come from sales, but from grants, loans and increasingly advertising. In a measured way, this is the only way to keep income at a level that will allow investment in new production technology, in the crucial distribution chain and in sustainable staffing."},{"index":2,"size":81,"text":"Information is in better supply, in part through sharing news through the Internet. The transformation of information into knowledge is a skill that will develop as training in agricultural journalism and professional networks grow. As the mighty World Association of Newspapers is expected to conclude at its June 2003 meeting in Ireland on 'Strengthening the Future of Newspapers', the viability of any newspaper will depend on its ability to develop additional information services and use new media. Then it will thrive."},{"index":3,"size":91,"text":"And in the brittle world of agricultural periodicals in ACP countries, thrive they must. When Spore interviewed the editor of The Farmer's Voice for this article, the talk was not about the newspaper's image or its editorial process. We talked for hours about how it is used by readers as a forum to settle, or record the settling of, the occasional tensions and stresses that are inevitable in the dynamics of local development initiatives. When readers make a mediator of the press, the publishers must make sure they stay in business."}]},{"head":"Vital signs","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":59,"text":"There are many unsung heroes in the back offices of the agricultural media. Vital Okomé, of The Farmer's Voice, is typical: a lithe lad in his mid-20s, ambitious, dedicated, and a bit of a rap artist. In his mail room jammed full of orderly piles of back issues, he suddenly launches into a song-like chant. His job description, rapstyle."},{"index":2,"size":29,"text":"\"OK, see, my job is to distribute the newspaper in the Centre province, which includes Yaoundé, but in fact I'm involved with all the copies, no matter their destination."},{"index":3,"size":65,"text":"Near the end of each month, the production people call me and I take the printcopy off to the printers. Two or three days later, they call and I go off with my mate Bernard in one of the cars to collect the result -16,000 copies. It takes a couple of trips to get them all back here -nearly 50 packs of 250 copies each."},{"index":4,"size":63,"text":"First I pack up the parcels to go to the [10] regional offices like in Baffoussam and N'gaounderé [they get around 500] -they distribute copies locally, including to local government representatives. Nowadays a shipping company picks them up; before we used to take them to the railway station. That's made a big difference to us, even if the copies get there no faster."},{"index":5,"size":53,"text":"The next day, I do the kiosks here in town. We used to have a list of 52, but we've cut it down to about 15 heavy sellers, some sell more than 100; in all, I sell 1,075 like this. They sell for FCFA 300 a copy, and they give me FCFA 225."},{"index":6,"size":39,"text":"Then I go off to all the villages roundabout, 50 in all; it takes a long day, dropping off 10 here, 20 there, to little stockists. I do two numbers together, and collect the money at the same time."},{"index":7,"size":89,"text":"The postal subscribers -280, including our friends abroad -take me a day to do what with all the folding, cutting the labels, sealing the envelope tight. I only get to the post office the day after. Then it's time for subscribers here in Yaoundé, they've each paid FCFA 5,000 for a year, and I take them their copy by hand, one by one, knock knock, knock knock. I've got the labels and everything all sorted out by neighbourhood, and it still takes me 4 days to do them all."},{"index":8,"size":24,"text":"Next, the bulk orders, like the offices of the German or Dutch development agencies, who take 70 and 50 each, and the institutional ones."},{"index":9,"size":102,"text":"The National Assembly gets 180 copies, one for each member. The Office of the President takes 19, I take them there personally, they expect me. And the Prime Minister 5, Ministry of Culture 6, Justice 6, Industry and Commerce 7, External Affairs 8, Agriculture 6, Women's Affairs 6 …\" \"I finished all that today for the February issue,\" he beams. \"Now I have to do my accounts for the petrol, wrappers and sticky tape, and sign off on the inventory [a painstakingly filled ledger of who got what]. Look, add them up, I did 3,303 copies this month in the province alone."},{"index":10,"size":15,"text":"And tomorrow, I'm off back round the kiosks to make arrangements to collect their payments.\""},{"index":11,"size":5,"text":"FCFA 650 = t 1"}]},{"head":"• Agricultural press","index":20,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Almanacs then and now","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":45,"text":"Almanacs, or yearly calendars, have been used by farmers and others dependent on natural cycles for thousands of years. The first versions, developed in what is now called the Near East, and in Egypt and Ethiopia, were notched sticks for measuring astrological changes and seasons."},{"index":2,"size":61,"text":"Printed versions appeared in Europe in the 1480s, America in 1639: the African-American Benjamin Banneker's Almanac, published in 1791, was soon followed by the Farmer's Almanac, still published today. Gradually, almanacs grew into diaries full of tips on the best day to plant out seedlings, to harvest fruit, to check the livestock -a rich blend of scientific data and rural wisdom."},{"index":3,"size":65,"text":"A leading contemporary almanac -not emulated elsewhere in ACP countries -is the Tropical Farmers Almanac, covering the Caribbean. It has less in the way of astrology than its predecessors, but is equally full of truisms (\"many a bee has drowned in his own honey\"). It brims with market information, input measurements, weather data, pesticide poison charts, export guides and monthly things-to-dolists per crop or vegetable."}]},{"head":"✍ Tropical Farmers Almanac is published by","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":13,"text":"Caribbean Marketing and Consulting, AMC Complex, 188 Spanish Town Road, Kingston 11, Jamaica."}]},{"head":"Whose news?","index":23,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":63,"text":"How much are they all one of a kind, these newspapers and magazines? Some belong to a particular sector, such as CitriNews of the Citrus Growers Association of Belize or the well-endowed and colourful Horticulture in Malawi magazine. A few, such as The African Farmer and Benin's monthly Agri-Culture, are explicitly commercial, struggling to stay above the break-even point in a fragile market."},{"index":2,"size":74,"text":"The standard model of an ACP farmers' magazine is not just about farming but about rural life and environments in general. An example is Communautés Africaines, published by the APICA NGO enterprise in Douala, Cameroon (again!), and approaching its third decade as a newsletter about small-scale agricultural technologies, with handy hints for improving village infrastructures in water supply, lighting or education. It has never erred from the classical model of a simple standard design,"}]},{"head":"In brief •","index":24,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":117,"text":"■ It has long been thought that cocoa plants have had a damaging effect on dense rain forests, but now it seems that planting them can help reforestation. According to research conducted in southern Cameroon by the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA), local farmers have a net positive impact on the environment whilst managing to grow food and cash crops. They grow their cocoa in an area of great biodiversity which is near the forest and contains a lot of fruit trees, medicinal barks and wood for carving. Furthermore, the thousands of hectares that have been laid bare by slash-and-burn are now put to use in a fallow system for growing cassava, groundnuts, maize and more."},{"index":2,"size":122,"text":"But demand for food is still on the up, and the farmers find themselves having to make inroads into the forest. The researchers from IITA have been working with the farmers to intensify their work in the cultivated areas, and to convert fallow areas into permanent cropland. They are searching for the best way to grow cocoa trees in the forest, whilst growing annual crops to provide food and a cash income for the first few years, waiting for the cocoa trees to mature. The overall approach has several advantages: crops are being diversified, soils are being better protected, greenhouse gas emissions are being cut back and, since demand for cocoa is rising again, the basis is being laid for sustainable incomes."},{"index":3,"size":19,"text":"The research is supported by two consortia, one for Alternatives to Slash-and-burn Agriculture, the other for Sustainable Permanent Crops. "}]},{"head":"Cocoa plant good for forest","index":25,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":75,"text":"■ The value of locally available herbs in cost-challenged health systems grows by the day. In several countries, herbal medicine is being matched up with conventional (also called modern, Western or allopathic) medicine and official medicinal research. In Mozambique, a government programme encourages liaison between traditional medical practitioners and its National Health Service; herbal and conventional medicines may now be put on a par with each other. A survey of medicinal herbs is in progress."},{"index":2,"size":53,"text":"In South Africa, the role of traditional medicine has been recognised with the formation of a National Traditional Healers Council. Traditional healers have to sit qualifying examinations and those who pass receive certificates. Provincial and national structures are being set up and the Council is advising the South African government on traditional healing."},{"index":3,"size":66,"text":"In Kenya, however, the government's intention to introduce herbal drugs in public hospitals has caused controversy. The Kenya Medical Association, allopathic to the core, claims that the effectiveness of most herbal drugs has not been scientifically proven. But at the School of Alternative Medicine and Technology herbal practitioners can update their knowledge of traditional medicines, bringing it in line with the demands of allopathic medical practice."},{"index":4,"size":40,"text":"Herbal and allopathic remedies can work with each other, giving the patient the benefit of allround treatment. And, in a sense, the 'marriage' between the two disciplines took place long agoherbal plants are the basis of many conventional pharmaceutical drugs. "}]},{"head":"Marriage of medicines","index":26,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Small farmer, big contribution Beach doctor. A Sangoma woman waves the tail of a bull across a candle during a healing ceremony in Durban, South Africa.","index":27,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Oncho has gone","index":28,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Development prize","index":29,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":63,"text":"■ The international King Baudouin Prize for Development has been awarded every 2 years since 1980. It is granted to a person or an organisation for their lasting and sustainable achievements in improving the quality of life in developing countries. Previous winners have been active in a wide range of areas: adult literacy, microenterprise loans, HIV/AIDS, agrarian reform, food security and vaccine development."},{"index":2,"size":11,"text":"The next prize will be awarded at the end of 2004."},{"index":3,"size":15,"text":"✍ The King Baudouin Foundation rue Brederode 21 B-1000 Brussels Belgium Email: [email protected] Website: www.kbprize.org"}]},{"head":"Calling young vets","index":30,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":81,"text":"Nearing the end of your veterinary studies, or just graduated? The World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE) regularly selects qualified young vets for internships of 1 to 6 months at their headquarters, although it offers no financial support. The internships focus on principal animal diseases, food safety, animal welfare, veterninary health standards in international trade, Website design and information systems. The stakes are high: the preservation of the world's second largest forest area (2,300,000 km 2 ) and its renowned biodiversity."},{"index":2,"size":3,"text":"• In brief"},{"index":3,"size":87,"text":"■ A farm-based fish-farming project is making good headway in the forest area of Guinea, providing both additional income and proteins to local families. The area is poor in animal protein and fish is an essential source. Until now, local people have had to fall back on imported frozen fish, brought in through the port of Conakry, 1,000 km away. In 1999, a fishfarming project was set up in the department of Nzérékoré by APDRA, the association for fish farming and rural development in humid tropical Africa."},{"index":4,"size":100,"text":"Drawing on its earlier experiences in Côte d'Ivoire, APDRA focuses on extensive fish-rearing. Fish are raised, eating naturally, in ponds created in unused depressions in the landscape. The ponds cover an area of about 3,000 m 2 , or 10 times the size of ponds used for intensive fish-rearing. This reduces the size of start-up investment and running costs. The association makes no financial contribution, leaving the farmers to meet their expenses. It does, however, provide the nursery fish and training and monitoring. The farmers have managed to make their activities viable, and a good complement to their other work."},{"index":5,"size":56,"text":"Local consumers win too, preferring to buy the locally produced fish: 80% of the output is sold on the spot, and the rest is taken by nearby villages. At the end of 2002, when the project closed, the results were impressive: 50 farmers were fish-farming 15 hectares of fish ponds, on both extensive and intensive scales."},{"index":6,"size":86,"text":"A transition phase will soon be completed and a new, 3-year project is set for launch later in 2003 with support from the French development agency AFD. It will cover a larger area. According to Christophe François, who has run the APDRA project for 3 years, the key to success is in the variety of models on offer: \"show people a range of models, each one matching a certain type of farm. That's what makes it work, and that's why it needs time to take off.\""},{"index":7,"size":18,"text":"✍ APDRA, 3 square Guimard F 78690 Voisins-le-Bretonneux France Fax: +33 1 42 37 88 65 Email: [email protected]"}]},{"head":"Fresh fish","index":31,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Micrografts for mega jujube trees","index":32,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":88,"text":"■ With a variety of uses in dry areas, the jujube tree (Ziziphus mauritania Lam.) is always a candidate for propagation, and now micrografting techniques are offering prospects of massive production. The tree is very common in the Sahelian-Sudano belt of sub-Saharan Africa; its small fruits -also known as Chinese datesare much liked and an important source of income. It has many other uses too, and is thus a good choice for reforestation, being able to contribute to environmental protection and to a reduction in poverty and malnutrition."},{"index":2,"size":64,"text":"Grown wild in Africa, the jujube is a native of India where its fruits are 10 to 20 times larger. A group of researchers in Senegal are looking at how to introduce Indian varieties which are adapted to arid conditions. The technique of micrografting is a fast track to large-scale and rapid propagation -all in the short term. Pigeon Pea Leaves 1 -Rinderpest 0"},{"index":3,"size":54,"text":"■ Will the final whistle soon blow on rinderpest, one of the oldest known diseases of livestock? It can be eliminated by 2010, believe FAO animal health experts, making it the second disease to be eradicated in history, after smallpox. Also known as cattle plague, it is a highly infectious and fatal viral disease."},{"index":4,"size":34,"text":"Efforts are now underway to locate and eliminate the last traces of the virus which cause the disease; these appear to be limited to herds in the semi-arid rangelands of the Horn of Africa."},{"index":5,"size":37,"text":"A vigorous policy of vaccination has eradicated rinderpest from most parts of the world, but not all farmers can afford to vacci-nate. An alternative approach has been developed at the Indian Institute of Science (IIS) in Bangalore."},{"index":6,"size":62,"text":"The IIS has developed a transgene pigeon pea which could be beneficial in countries where cattle are fed with pigeon pea leaves. These contain virus proteins. When these leaves were fed to animals, as an edible vaccine for rinderpest, the animals' immune response suggested that the leaves could provide immunity. If there is sufficient interest, the project may be pursued for commercialisation."}]},{"head":"Five of the original fish in Nzérékoré; thousands followed","index":33,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":62,"text":"Photo Bernard Favre © Louma productions Some like it hot ■ Chickens have a better chance of surviving a heat wave if they have been exposed to high temperatures in their infancy. This is important to know, since a heat wave during the last week of breeding can be fatal to many meat chickens, at least to those selected for fast growth."},{"index":2,"size":65,"text":"Researchers from Venezuela and France have demonstrated that if a 5-day-old chick is exposed to a temperature of 36 to 40°C for 24 hours, it will better survive a heatwave during its sixth week. This has been shown in actual working conditions in tropical rearing of small livestock, but the technique is still being refined before being applied to flocks of 12,000 to 20,000 chicks."},{"index":3,"size":13,"text":"✍ M. Picard INRA, Station de recherches avicoles 37380 Nouzilly France Email: [email protected]"}]},{"head":"Beans under threat","index":34,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":125,"text":"■ Beans are a vital vegetable in eastern Africa, but are under threat from the bean common mosaic virus (BCMV), transmitted by aphid insects. In a study in the Lake Victoria basin area of Tanzania, the incidence of the disease was found to be 100% in some fields. Symptoms consisted of leaf malformation, plant stunting and vein banding. The affected plants produced very few pods and these had fewer seeds per pod than healthy plants. BCMV-resistant varieties of beans have been developed, but farmers in the region have not adopted them, often because they are unaware of the disease. The study, carried out by the Department of Microbiology and Plant Pathology at South Africa's University of Pretoria, showed the need to inform farmers about BCMV."}]},{"head":"You like cooking books?","index":35,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":176,"text":"■ With many traditional foods from ACP and other developing countries finding their way into the world's supermarkets, demand is growing for recipes. A new FAO post-harvest Website has an interactive database -with 800-plus recipes from 54 countries for starters. In French, Spanish and English. The ■ A cattle feed supplement that significantly raises milk production has been developed during a 3-year joint research effort between the Australian Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO) and India's National Dairy Development Board (NDDB). The supplement, in the form of protein meal, is produced after oil is extracted from oilseed crops such as sunflower and rapeseed. These products are not normally efficiently utilised by dairy cattle \"because most of the protein in the feed is degraded in their rumen, or first stomach,\" says CSIRO scientist, Dr Suresh Gulati. With the new protein meal, larger quantities of proteins will by-pass the cow's rumen, allowing nutrients such as essential amino acids to be absorbed from the small intestine, boosting milk production. India's 11 million village dairy farmers stand to gain."},{"index":2,"size":66,"text":"\"The milk yield has gone up about 1 litre per cow/buffalo per day, thereby providing producers with additional income of around 9 Indian rupees (US$0.33) a day, per animal,\" according to the NDDB's Senior Scientist, Dr Manget Ram Garg. A feed supplement plant has now opened in India's Gujarat State and trials are taking place to assess the viability of establishing similar plants in other areas."}]},{"head":"More milk, thanks to oil seeds","index":36,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":190,"text":"■ A regional workshop held in Paramaribo, Suriname at the end of January 2003 proposed the establishment of a policy network with a view to contributing to \"the fundamental transformation of the agricultural sector of the CARICOM/CARIFORUM countries though strengthening the process of agricultural policy decision making\". The network is to be launched in October 2003 and is intended to supplement the work of the some 20 existing agricultural networks, mostly product-and process-focused, in the region. The need for more cohesive regional cooperation on agriculture has become more urgent in the Caribbean, as in other regions, in the context of regional participation in multilateral trade negotiations. The proposed network therefore has two goals: to operate a system of information exchange for promoting effective agricultural and rural development policies in line with national development objectives; and to support the formulation of common negotiating positions with regard to extra-regional agricultural trade agreements and the promotion of intra-regional trade. The launch of the Caribbean network, and a Pacific equivalent which is likely to emerge in the next year or two, will mean that all six ACP regions have a regional agricultural policy network."},{"index":2,"size":59,"text":"While the indicators for the desired 'fundamental transformation' have yet to evolve, the workshop and the resulting network were boosted by a host government paper on the repositioning of agriculture and the enhancement of rural life. In all, 32 participants from 14 Caribbean countries attended the event, co-organised by CTA and the Inter-American Institute for Cooperation in Agriculture (IICA)."}]},{"head":"Visionary fountains","index":37,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Rust-resistant coffee","index":38,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":36,"text":"■ A spontaneous hybrid of robusta and arabica coffee plants has been discovered in New Caledonia in the western Pacific. It is noted for its strength of taste, fertility and resistance to the Hemileia vastatrix rust."},{"index":2,"size":51,"text":"Coffee cultivation started in New Caledonia in 1878, but was abandoned because of a failing economy and the sensitivity of arabica plants to rust. The plantation areas lived on, however, and the two species Coffea canephora (which provides robusta coffee, resistant to rust) and Coffea arabica jointly developed a spontaneous hybrid."},{"index":3,"size":18,"text":"The old plantations thus took on a second lease of life as a centre for natural plant diversification."},{"index":4,"size":78,"text":"The French development research institute IRD has conducted several prospecting campaigns to seek out these resistant hybrids, renowned also for their productivity and quality. The most interesting find so far has been a hybrid quite similar to the Laurina species (also known as Le Roy or the Pointed Bourbon), which is an arabica with a high quality taste and aroma, and low in caffeine. It is resistant to rust and, unlike some other hybrids, has a good yield."},{"index":5,"size":47,"text":"At present, the IRD is studying 2,500 young plants which have been collected with the agreement of the authorities in the southern province of New Caledonia. In the long term, they could serve to improve the taste of other varieties and to combat rust.  • In brief"},{"index":6,"size":28,"text":"■ If ever proof was needed that the impact of an on-the-spot study visit can be worth several times that of an abstract distancelearning seminar, here it is."},{"index":7,"size":76,"text":"In late January 2003, while drought-prone parts of Ethiopia were suffering from acute food insecurity, and the world's press was grasping that food security is more than a question of the market, 16 specialists from Ethiopia, Ghana, Kenya, Malawi, Tanzania and Zambia were absorbed in an intensive study tour of small-scale irrigation around the country. In particular, they were looking at how to expand irrigation to mitigate the effects of drought and to increase cropping intensity."},{"index":8,"size":27,"text":"They clambered over dykes and channels, walked uphill and down dale, sat for hours with producers, drew lines in the soil and drew conclusions in the evening."},{"index":9,"size":109,"text":"The actual irrigation technology was but a small part of their focus: they were looking also at production systems, financial arrangements, marketing, policy and regulations, support systems and social and environmental issues. Among the questions that kept them busy -and continue to exercise their minds as they now transfer their lessons to their own working environment -were: How can farmers better modulate production and incomes by not all growing the same product? How can lending agencies get closer to farmers, to ease the credit process? And just what are the practical indicators that extension workers can use in their gender analyses, aimed at fostering more leadership roles for women?"},{"index":10,"size":39,"text":"The study visit, organised by CTA with the support of the Tigray Water Resources Development Bureau, was a follow-up to the seminar 'Private sector participation and irrigation expansion in Africa', the report of which was announced in Spore 103. "}]},{"head":"How green was our classroom","index":39,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Even the smile is organic","index":40,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Seeing is believing","index":41,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"G","index":42,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":101,"text":"o any day to the harbours or any other downtown area of Tema in Ghana, or Suva in Fiji, or Maputo in Mozambique, or Kingston in Jamaica, and you cannot miss the lines of ramshackle stalls on wheels serving streetfood to local workers. Whether our food is produced at the roadside, or we select from the enormous array in our local supermarket, much of it has been prepared by some other person. As consumers we must rely on the good offices of those producing our food. As producers, local vendors or exporters, betraying that consumer trust will result in business failure."},{"index":2,"size":122,"text":"The marketplace has always been the engine room driving the movement towards high quality, safe and wholesome food. The retail lobbies in the United States, Japan, the United Kingdom and elsewhere in Europe were responsible for improved food standards in supermarkets through the 1960s and 1970s. More recently, standards have been set at international levels. Food standards -especially those involving any sort of quarantine risk -are often policed at borders. As a result, many ACP countries are updating their food legislation in the form of Food Safety Bills. These will increase protection for local consumers, reduce the drain on domestic economies through food-related absenteeism and health care, strengthen a country's reputation as a wholesome tourist destination, and improve its international trading position."}]},{"head":"Quality control","index":43,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":142,"text":"Maintaining food quality, however, is a continuum, and standards are always changing. In 1998, it became mandatory for food processors around the world to demonstrate that they had attended to issues relating to quality matters before acquisition -at the point of harvest. This was formalised through the system of quality maintenance known as Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points (HACCP) -fortunately pronounced 'hassip'. Using this system, each step in the chain between harvest and consumption is evaluated for the effect it has on ultimate quality. The step is carefully documented and cross-checked records must show compliance with predetermined limits. For the horticulturalist this may mean in the field, sometimes even before harvest. Although currently only mandatory for a limited number of products and crops, the practicality of the system is now demonstrable and is finding its way into the fresh produce industries."},{"index":2,"size":83,"text":"This is good news for farmers who go to a lot of trouble to produce top quality merchandise only to lament deterioration as a result of delays, poor post-harvest handling and indifferent processing techniques. HACCP is now a reality in many horticultural industries and will be increasingly important to primary producers around the world. The impact on farmers will be that their produce must be treated with the greatest care possible -not only during its nurture but, more importantly, during the post-harvest stage."},{"index":3,"size":104,"text":"For the smaller farmer and processor, looking at the question of quality and the HACCP chain is like working in a vacuum. But they ignore it at their peril, since it defines their opportunities to sell. Increasingly, the first indication for small exporters that their quality standards have become unacceptable is the collapse of the market, and an inability to dispose of produce. How can this be anticipated? What quality standards are required of their crops? It is clear that a priority task for farmers' organisations and other support bodies is to assist groups of producers and processors to familiarise themselves with these standards."},{"index":4,"size":119,"text":"For producers and processors, your first ports of call are the national trade and food safety bodies (since each country has specific circumstances and procedures) and the Codex Alimentarius, a collection of internationally adopted standards on food. Codex aims at protecting the health of consumers and ensuring fair trade practices in the food trade, and promoting coordination of all food standards work undertaken by international governmental and non-governmental organisations. Codex specifies the quality requirements not only in processed foods in all their forms but also -more recently -in fresh horticultural commodities. Codex standards offer an instant guide to the standard which is commonly achievable in competing countries and provide the framework for grower/processor specifications, an essential part of HACCP. "}]},{"head":"For further information Codex Alimentarius","index":44,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"The road map from plough to plate","index":45,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":67,"text":"What goes into people's food, whether on your own plate or your customer's 10,000 km away, has become a hot issue in health, nutrition and international trade. There's much more to food safety than additives (see page 3). An introduction to a highly complex area, where the once-simple rules of the market are now piled high in massive volumes that are affecting the lives of ACP producers."}]},{"head":"Links •","index":46,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":34,"text":"Do you remember this photo caption in Spore 93: 'Many African farmers have no land rights -their husbands do'? In a nutshell, this reflects the uncertain legal status of most women in agricultural economies."},{"index":2,"size":59,"text":"Changing both formal and customary laws in favour of women's rights is only one side of the coin, the awareness of women of their rights and their ability to claim these rights is the important other. These issues were in the limelight at a CTA co-seminar held in Kampala, Uganda in 2001, reported in Spore 93, with that photo."},{"index":3,"size":28,"text":"The seminar proceedings have been re-worked into a comprehensive book on the legal environment of women and their role in the agricultural economies of Eastern and Southern Africa."},{"index":4,"size":104,"text":"It is a good reader on the topic with some practical and absolutely do-able recommendations, such as setting up legal literacy programmes, establishing legal aid centres and using all kinds of available media to disseminate legal information to women.  Tapping the Green Market aims at keeping the two in balance. It provides profiles of major NTFPs throughout the world and pays attention to the ongoing search for sustainable ways of managing forests, including the certification of NTFPs. It warns, rightfully so, against optimism about certification -this requires a wealthy and environmentally conscious group of consumers and that rules out many of the world's NFTPs."},{"index":5,"size":11,"text":"An interesting new tome in the People and Plants conservation series. "}]},{"head":"Right rights, right?","index":47,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":135,"text":"■ A child's work is seldom an individual strategy. The chores children undertake benefit not only themselves, but the whole family. The Zimbabwean twins, Tinotenda and Tafadzwa are 6 years old and not yet at school. Tinotenda helps fetch water and firewood, herds the goats and chases the baboons from the fields. His twin sister helps look after her younger siblings, collects firewood, sweeps and helps wash plates. This is just one example from the interesting collection of essays in Women, Men and Work, written by researchers from the University of Zimbabwe on rural livelihoods. Just like the role of children in the household economy, the essays deal with the coping strategies of families, often leading to tensions between priorities. Nature conservation giving way to making money from it through crafts or firewood, for example."},{"index":2,"size":27,"text":"Other cases, such as a fruitdrying programme, confirm the need for development workers to fully understand local social dimensions and dynamics before any intervention can be successful. "}]},{"head":"Publications •","index":48,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":39,"text":"■ Growing crops in greenhouses can increase off-season availability of vegetables and improve product quality through better control against damage from pests and weather. However, greenhouse cultivation is a labour-and time-intensive way of farming, and requires considerable financial investment."},{"index":2,"size":132,"text":"A group of NGOs in Dominica, having joined forces to encourage diversification of the island's agriculture, set out to promote greenhouse cultivation. With support from CTA, they published a practical manual on growing crops in greenhouses, covering all the steps, from construction to marketing the yields. A booklet which will also be useful for neighbouring islands. The recipes look and are tasty (our editor can attest to that!) and the book is graphically attractive, as one would expect from a recipe book. This kind of initiative is worthy of being taken up by other countries -and their Ministers. It shows how to establish links between basic level CAHWs, private veterinarians and State veterinary services. It will be especially useful for countries with remote pastoral and mountainous regions, where veterinary services are lacking."},{"index":3,"size":15,"text":"The book definitely fills a gapthere is not much written material available for these workers. "}]},{"head":"How to obtain these publications","index":49,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":55,"text":"Hooked on coffee ■ Not a word on growing coffee, just its marketing and export, including to niche markets for fair trade and organic coffees. With import and export profiles, information on trade organisations and treaties, quality issues and a glossary of terms, making this guide a must for everyone involved in the coffee trade."}]},{"head":"Coffee: An Exporter's Guide","index":50,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":9,"text":"International Trade Centre UNCTAD - WTO, Geneva, 2002. 310  "}]},{"head":"How lies the land?","index":51,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":66,"text":"■ The proceedings of a meeting on developing quantitative methods for assessing the degradation of the dryland areas of the world. The CD-ROM includes keynote papers, country experiences and regional approaches.  He calls it a handbook, but it is more than that -rather a work-book for community groups such as reading clubs, radio listening and youth groups. Each chapter ends with questions or points for discussion."},{"index":2,"size":34,"text":"The book promotes the establishment of Community Information Resource Centres as active centres, representing the community and serving as focal points for projects and brokers for information, organising discussions, field visits and training workshops."},{"index":3,"size":49,"text":"A useful workbook with a refreshing look at information sharing. The result? Little more than a counter-productive compensation of 'lacking skills', where little sticks and little stays. And all this when TC is often lauded as the most effective form of development assistance, as it used to be called."},{"index":4,"size":48,"text":"Already well known for moving Beyond Aid: From Platitude to Partnership (an earlier book of his), Stephen Browne insists that TC must be applied only to develop national capacities and run by countries themselves. South-South skill swaps have their place, but are secondary to scholarships and national training."},{"index":5,"size":57,"text":"It's all done in the assertively honest style that reflects recent rethinks by the UN Development Programme (see Spore 103) whose poverty reduction programme Browne leads. His arguments are not always new, but his overall framework serves to reevaluate some old donor dogmas. In all, he breathes new life into the now weary mantra of 'capacity development'."},{"index":6,"size":45,"text":"The added value of the book are six country case studies: the Ugandan, Bolivian and Philippino ones are the most pertinent to most ACP states. In any case, this is a must for ACP planners and policy-makers striving to build up their homegrown national capacity. "}]},{"head":"Still waters can be sickening","index":52,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":95,"text":"The article on wetlands ecosystems in Spore 100 focused on their multiple uses and how they could be better managed and conserved for future generations. Samuel Zeleke from Gambella in Ethiopia writes that wet-lands are an underutilised resource in most ACP countries, poorly managed and conserved and \"simply left as a swimming pool. This negligence and mis-use have made wetlands suitable areas for breeding and spread of troublesome diseases like malaria and bilharzia.\" He argues that better management of these resources \"will go hand and hand with controlling the spread of these diseases better too.\""},{"index":2,"size":82,"text":"Oh, very young \"The exodus of rural youth to towns to find work is as old as the hills but where is the solution? Politicians only care about what is going on in the cities. They are even ashamed to visit the rural areas and stay instead in town and their meetings in luxury hotels, telling rural youth to stay in the villages. Some even come from rural areas themselves, but as soon as they have acquired such a position, they're lost.\""},{"index":3,"size":89,"text":"African agriculture still really needs a technical transformation. \"I think that the opinion of Cyprien from Cameroon raises serious questions for an agricultural technician. Here we have a brother who is cultivating 5 hectares with modest means and instruments (hoe, axe, pickaxe, baskets, perhaps a couple of oxen and a straw hut). Looking at those rudimentary tools, 5 hectares is too much for a family if you take into account all the different operations involved. To me, the reasons are clear for the exodus of kids to the cities."},{"index":4,"size":43,"text":"Unless we put all the evils from which Africa suffers high on the agenda and take courageous civil and political measures -for agriculture is the foundation of any country's development -the failure of agriculture will provoke a total collapse of society for generations.\""}]},{"head":"Pushing for agriculture","index":53,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":147,"text":"It's not just youth that latched onto Spore 100. The main article on media has been echoing around the world of writers and communicators, among them Chris Cottorone, the associate information officer at the Asian Vegetable Research and Development Center in Taiwan. \"Spore addressed an issue recently of major importance when it discussed Media and Agriculture. While I am not sure why agriculture was pushed off the world's major agenda, the article will certainly help it to be pulled back into the limelight. More importantly, issues such as food security, biotechnology, and urbanization are making many around the world see that to understand these issues, one needs to understand agriculture and the important role it plays in human life. Pushing outward for greater public awareness while pushing internally for higher standards seems like an excellent approach to ensuring agriculture and agricultural research stay on the stagefor good.\""}]},{"head":"Mailbox","index":54,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":96,"text":"We got mail, you got mail! -this time from and about readers in four ACP regions -including one from our growing number of correspondents in Haïti. Welcome all, especially to an 'outsider' from east Asia. Does it matter where you're from when we know where you're going? @ W ith the growing complexity of the issues faced by CTA's partners, and the related key information-oriented tasks CTA has to undertake, there has grown, too, a need for the staff at the Centre's headquarters to be on top of these issues and their implications for CTA's programmes."},{"index":2,"size":37,"text":"It's not just the ever-rich diversity of the type of partners with whom CTA workscentral government, decentralised structures, NGOs, public-private research partnerships, civil society bodies, federations of farmers' organisations and so forth -but the substantive topics too."},{"index":3,"size":54,"text":"Some CTA staff members have much experience in specific areas of agriculture and rural development and are content specialists; others are more concerned with such processes as communication techniques or partnership-building strategies. Some are bits of both. Together -and we're looking at 38 people from 19 countries here -they form a powerful composite whole."},{"index":4,"size":148,"text":"No fear of flying H e has always had something special about birds, has Alan Jackson. Not just a dedicated scientist, he also is the archetypal bird-watcher. In the main, they are rather canny people, birdwatchers, with a sharp eye for detail. After all, you have to be someone special to stand in a field, hear 27 species of birds at once and recite their characteristics to any passer-by. Now, after a decently long career devoted to tropical agriculture and science for development, Alan is no longer at CTA, which he joined in 1984 as a technical advisor. Previously, after a degree in agricultural botany from Reading University and a post-graduate year on plant breeding in Cambridge in his native England, he worked on insect resistance for the Cotton Research Institute in Tanzania, on cocoa research in Ghana and on science liaison in India with the British Council."},{"index":5,"size":83,"text":"His broad scientific and field experience, and a passionate belief in the emergence of young well-trained scientists, were well used in selecting the people, themes and publications for CTA's programmes of seminars, study visits and publishing -many of which he initiated. During 18 years of solid toil, very few unfounded scientific works got past this watchman. Among his peaks of satisfaction: a programme on the role of women in agricultural extension in the late 1980s, an issue then entering the ever-changing policy environment."},{"index":6,"size":89,"text":"In 1996, he became head of the Publications and Dissemination Department, home to Spore -whose editorial committee he had joined in the mid-1980s. If Spore has indeed flown to new heights in recent years, it is to a great extent thanks to the way Alan managed the process. He steered the team into those new spaces where innovative thinking, straight talking and writing, and scientific and political exactness (not the same as correctness!) could blend into excellence. Such light but firm-handed management can work wonders at the right time."},{"index":7,"size":21,"text":"He was, whichever way other people's winds blew, the wind beneath our wings. Somehow, flying will never be the same again."},{"index":8,"size":55,"text":"Measuring impact: tell us how you do D oes your work have anything to do with disseminating and exchanging information? Are you, for example, involved in extension work, rural radio, a library, a question-andanswer service, a network, a newsletter? If so, you could be involved, now, in a book which CTA is preparing for publication."},{"index":9,"size":51,"text":"The book is about the impact of information projects, services and products on development. It will ask such questions as \"How do we measure impact?\", \"Who should measure impact?\" and \"Why do we need to measure impact?\". To answer them, it will feature impact stories and case studies, and analyse them."},{"index":10,"size":101,"text":"Can you help us to gather these stories and studies? The stories should relate your personal experience of an impact study of a service or a product; the impact studies should be ones that have already been completed. In Mailbox in Spore 103, you will have read a letter from Martin Francis Arko, an extension agent in Ghana, relating how Spore helped him make \"quite an impact in the farming community\". Clearly, he has a story to tell. Do you? Or do you know of a suitable case study? If you do, please send a brief outline of it to ... "}]},{"head":"• Between us","index":55,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Refreshing course","index":56,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":17,"text":"At times, though, there is a need for what the process people call 'a lot of facilitating'."},{"index":2,"size":94,"text":"And so was born the practice of holding CTA internal seminars, three or more times a year, for all staff. The 1-day seminars are led by external speakers and discussion leaders. The topics tend to be broad, important to all of CTA's programmes whether in publishing, communicating or capacity building. In 2001 and 2002, they included modes of networking, genetic modification and gender and agriculture. Early in 2003, a session was held on 'social capital' -essentially the pooled knowledge of, and links between, the people of a community -and how to exploit this capital."},{"index":3,"size":21,"text":"The topics being considered for coming months are youth, NEPAD, knowledge management, participatory technology development and biosafety and intellectual property rights."},{"index":4,"size":34,"text":"For the staff of CTA to engage in discussions about the real issues, as part of their regular 'duties', is part of the organisation's strategy of becoming a 'learning organisation' -and a real refresher."}]},{"head":"T","index":57,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":51,"text":"he elections in Jamaica a few weeks previously hadn't worked out too well, he was now an ex-MP. Losing your seat is part of the process, he said. \"My long absences on foreign trade issues had taken their toll. It's difficult to have a rural constituency with this sort of work.\""},{"index":2,"size":99,"text":"He'd been using vivid language about the EU that morning, about it not being as altruistic as it might wish to be seen, and about ACP issues being subsumed by greater issues. Whence, from where, did he draw his enduring commitment to the cause when the playing field was obviously not very level at all? \"It's part of the reality, you recognise it, it's in the back of your mind. I don't complain, I try to understand and internalise it. It's a fact of life. But I'm not resigned to it because I do believe that it can change.\""}]},{"head":"Our lack of clarity","index":58,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":128,"text":"His face is calm, but you can see the energy racing, focused, within. Everything has a precise meaning. \"When I say they're not altruistic, in fact I appreciate much of what the EU has done. Paradoxically, to have concluded the Cotonou Agreement in the light of all the other EU objectives was itself a response by the EU to address some legitimate concerns. At the heart of it, I believe the EU wants it. There are a number of constraints -some are on our side, in terms of capacity to implement, and sometimes in our lack of clarity and coherence. I do not ascribe any ill will to the EU, in fact there's quite a bit of good will. But it does have its own agenda and objectives."},{"index":2,"size":43,"text":"What is absolutely necessary is that we sit down together at the highest level and look at each others' agenda. You've got to understand it, otherwise what comes out instead is confusion or worse, anger, and anger has no place in these discussions.\""}]},{"head":"A global asset","index":59,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":156,"text":"That's a bit smooth maybe? Doesn't he really think that the ACP-EU relationship is like the dying embers of the old colonial fire? \"Well, whether it's dying embers or an opportunity for renewal, is one way or the other. We have over 25 years of what I consider to be a global asset. What will we do with that? In the WTO there is an excellent opportunity for cooperation with the EU. The EU has spent quite a lot of time, effort and resources in building this up at a time when it itself recognises the value of unity. That's why my point to Lamy (the EU Trade Commissioner) and all the others is that it is silly to do anything that will undermine ACP unity. You need ACP strength; you can't have a fragmented ACP in your negotiations for regional economic partnerships (REPAs) and at the same time ask for coordination at the WTO level."},{"index":2,"size":98,"text":"You have to sit down in honest dialogue and consultation, rather than dictate, and you work it through as honest partners. Before the ink was dry on Cotonou, they came with the EBA [which would allow 'everything but arms' to be imported into Europe at no duty from the least-developed countries]. I negotiated that and immediately called for an impact assessment. We felt that the EU wanted to be seen, in the run up to Seattle, to be doing something for LDCs. I said, fine, but if you want to do something, do something substantial, not another gimmick.\""},{"index":3,"size":38,"text":"So had the EU, in going for the EBA initiative and returning to a preferential agenda, been listening to the wrong voices within Europe? Was there a moment when he'd thought 'if only they had done something differently'?"},{"index":4,"size":49,"text":"He corrects again with precision. \"I don't know that there was a moment in time, there were things done then and even now that can be done. It's two years since we signed Cotonou. We have a negotiating time-line and we need some critical resources to build our capacity."},{"index":5,"size":49,"text":"There's a saying that the way to Hell is paved with good intentions, but even if [some EU positions] are well-intended yet -and this is the sum and substance of my point -the effect is to kill me, then I don't give a rat's arm; I'm dead, I'm dying.\""}]}],"figures":[{"text":" Photo N. Cattlin © Holt Studio "},{"text":"From: Bois et Forêts des Tropiques, 2002, Number 272 "},{"text":" Cookbook's contributors are nutritionists and cooks, who can submit extra recipes on the site. Go on -it's a great way to promote your sales! www.fao.org/inpho/en/ informations/cookbook In brief • SPORE 104 • PAGE 8 "},{"text":"■■ Eritrea's barley crop has long occupied 20% of the country's farmland, but it has only been cultivated for food and for producing Siwa, a lightly alcoholic drink. A 2-year research project has shown that the country can also produce varieties of barley used for making beer. Three varieties have been earmarked for improvement through hybridisation and breeding. This new market will provide extra income for farmers, as well as cutting back on the import bill for the annual volume of 3Two forms of the insecttransmitted African cassava mosaic virus (ACMV) have combined to result in a destructive virus, ruining thousands of hectares of cassava crops in Uganda and threatening southern Nigeria. The Democratic Republic of Congo is also seriously affected. Early in 2003, the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA) started deliveries of resistant plants to farmers for planting before the disease strikes. "},{"text":" Photo C. Hughes © Panos Pictures "},{"text":"\" I have Spore 100 in front of me and I would like to convey my personal thanks to the entire editorial team of Spore,\" writes Gaffoh Kpekpassi, an agricultural engineer from Togo, a self-professed keen reader of Spore. The Viewpoint on youth in Spore 100 by Cyprien Essong Zé recalled the article 'Should I go or should I stay?' in Spore 90. "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"• PAGE 1 Ecoagriculture The music of soundness 1 Food additives Old foods for new 3  Agricultural press  Agricultural press Medium or mediator? 4 Medium or mediator?4 IN BRIEF 6 IN BRIEF6 LINKS 10 LINKS10 PUBLICATIONS 11 PUBLICATIONS11 BETWEEN US  BETWEEN US  "},{"text":"cta.int Information for agricultural development in ACP countries Number 104 APRIL 2003   "},{"text":"dykes save water and stop erosion at the front line in Mali.  Ecoagriculture • Ecoagriculture • ✍ Ecoagriculture Partners ✍ Ecoagriculture Partners c/o Future Harvest Foundation c/o Future Harvest Foundation PMB 238 2020 Pennsylvania Avenue NW PMB 238 2020 Pennsylvania Avenue NW Washington DC 20006-1846, USA Washington DC 20006-1846, USA Fax: +1 202 473 8110 Fax: +1 202 473 8110 Email: [email protected] Email: [email protected] Ecoagriculture seeks a balanced set of land- Ecoagriculture seeks a balanced set of land- use systems for producing human food and use systems for producing human food and managing biodiversity. The key challenges managing biodiversity. The key challenges are: are: • gaining acceptance of the new mix of • gaining acceptance of the new mix of ideas; ideas; • mobilising resources for capacity building; • mobilising resources for capacity building;  "},{"text":"The feverish calm of the editing room of the African Eye News Service in Nelspruit, South Africa  once typed but now produced using simple once typed but now produced using simple desk-top publishing software. The AgriPro- desk-top publishing software. The AgriPro- mo bulletins of INADES-Formation in mo bulletins of INADES-Formation in Côte d'Ivoire and Ecoforum from the Envi- Côte d'Ivoire and Ecoforum from the Envi- ronment Liaison Centre International in ronment Liaison Centre International in Kenya have shown similar staying power. Kenya have shown similar staying power. They are all driven by a service attitude, They are all driven by a service attitude, with an almost evangelical fervour, and with an almost evangelical fervour, and external funding. external funding. Maintaining high standards is essential Maintaining high standards is essential in the press, agricultural versions includ- in the press, agricultural versions includ- ed. Harvests, incomes, communities, sec- ed. Harvests, incomes, communities, sec- tors, animals, ecosystems, national tors, animals, ecosystems, national economies and more all depend on economies and more all depend on them. That credo of reliability overrides them. That credo of reliability overrides any of the temptations of prepared sto- any of the temptations of prepared sto- ries, per diems or sheer laziness that ries, per diems or sheer laziness that sometimes dangle in front of a weary or sometimes dangle in front of a weary or weak writer. weak writer. As well as general principles, each sector As well as general principles, each sector or publication has its own codes. Spore or publication has its own codes. Spore writers, for example, are implored to use writers, for example, are implored to use six senses in researching stories, to triple- six senses in researching stories, to triple- check references and to treat a press check references and to treat a press release as a possible point of departure release as a possible point of departure for a story and not as a model of the for a story and not as a model of the final text. That the founders of the final text. That the founders of the World Summit Task Force of Agricultural World Summit Task Force of Agricultural Media Professionals (see Spore 101) Media Professionals (see Spore 101) made such ethics a cornerstone of their made such ethics a cornerstone of their policies suggests room for professional policies suggests room for professional improvement here. improvement here. The advent of more information The advent of more information through the World Wide Web has made through the World Wide Web has made the life of an honest journalist harder. the life of an honest journalist harder. \"The Web is a maze of dead-ends, scams \"The Web is a maze of dead-ends, scams and mis-information. We try to sort out and mis-information. We try to sort out the credible sites, based on information the credible sites, based on information from journalists, researchers, etc in the from journalists, researchers, etc in the news industry. It's a communal effort.\" news industry. It's a communal effort.\" Welcome words from The Journalist's Welcome words from The Journalist's Toolbox, recommended by RAP21, the Toolbox, recommended by RAP21, the African Press Network run African Press Network run by the World Associa- by the World Associa- tion of Newspapers. tion of Newspapers. A future issue of A future issue of Spore will cover Spore will cover resources and stan- resources and stan- dards for agricultural dards for agricultural journalists. journalists.  "},{"text":"■ Cola nutshells are a good foodstuff for poultry, small producers in Nigeria have discovered. Feeding hens this way releases more cereals for human consumption. The Cocoa Research Institute of Nigeria confirms that ground cola nutshells can substitute up to 60% of the poultry's ration of maize. No doubt about it, Belize is working hard on its aquaculture. Shrimp production has more than doubled since 1998. In 2001, it almost reached the level of 4,000 t and generated revenues of $US 50 million (t 46 million). Further annual increases of more than 50% are expected until 2005. The aquaculture sector is diversifying too: in December 2002, a tilapia farm was opened. Occupying 160 hectares, initial production is set at 1,300 t, providing 80 jobs. It is planned to grow to a capacity of 2,600 t, and to employ 200 people. ✍ Kolawole, Oluwatyin Dare ✍ Kolawole, Oluwatyin Dare Centre for Rural Development Centre for Rural Development (Lagos State Government) (Lagos State Government) PMB 029, Festac Town PMB 029, Festac Town Lagos State, Nigeria Lagos State, Nigeria Email: [email protected] Email: [email protected] After shrimps, tilapia After shrimps, tilapia Doing down drought Doing down drought ■ Developing food production ■ Developing food production despite droughts, that is the despite droughts, that is the goal of DRENSA, the new goal of DRENSA, the new Drought Research Network for Drought Research Network for Southern Africa. Membership is Southern Africa. Membership is free and open to all. free and open to all. ✍ Kazhila Chinsembu ✍ Kazhila Chinsembu Faculty of Science, Department of Faculty of Science, Department of Biology, University of Namibia Biology, University of Namibia Private Bag 13301, Windhoek Private Bag 13301, Windhoek Namibia Namibia Fax: +264 61 206 3791 Fax: +264 61 206 3791 Email: [email protected] Email: [email protected] Protecting the Congo Basin Protecting the Congo Basin The Congo Basin Forests The Congo Basin Forests Partnership is now hard at Partnership is now hard at work after its launch at the work after its launch at the Johannesburg World Summit Johannesburg World Summit in September 2002. Its focal in September 2002. Its focal point is now the Conference of point is now the Conference of Ministers responsible for Central Ministers responsible for Central African Forests. African Forests. An implementation meeting was An implementation meeting was held in Paris in January 2003 held in Paris in January 2003 with 14 governments with 14 governments participating, including six from participating, including six from the region (Cameroon, Congo, the region (Cameroon, Congo, Central African Republic, Central African Republic, Democratic Republic of Congo, Democratic Republic of Congo, Equatorial Guinea and Gabon), Equatorial Guinea and Gabon), plus representatives of the plus representatives of the European Union, donors, the European Union, donors, the timber sector and NGOs. timber sector and NGOs.  "},{"text":"■ Farming systems, like rainbows and banana plants, come in various forms, colours and interpretations. New terms, such as ecoagriculture (see Main article) are forever emerging. In general, sustainable agriculture is the ability to sustain production over time. There are several types and many overlaps: Sustainable agriculture  Crop technologies conference Sustainable agricultureCrop technologies conference Organic agriculture: Agriculture   Organic agriculture: Agriculture without the use of chemical   without the use of chemical fertilisers and pesticides.   fertilisers and pesticides. Techniques such as mulching   Techniques such as mulching and composting are used   and composting are used to provide natural inputs. Emphasises local farming knowledge and techniques adjusted to different local con-ditions. Permaculture: Often seen as a development of the organic sys- Ecoagriculture: Seeks to help farmers to grow more food while conserving habitats criti-cal to wildlife, based on an understanding of wildlife biolo-gy and ecology, on-the-ground Sixth ACSS Conference Dept. of Crop Protection University of Nairobi P O Box 30197 00100 GPO Nairobi, Kenya Fax: +254 2 226673/ 632121/ 631957 Email: [email protected] to provide natural inputs. Emphasises local farming knowledge and techniques adjusted to different local con-ditions. Permaculture: Often seen as a development of the organic sys-Ecoagriculture: Seeks to help farmers to grow more food while conserving habitats criti-cal to wildlife, based on an understanding of wildlife biolo-gy and ecology, on-the-groundSixth ACSS Conference Dept. of Crop Protection University of Nairobi P O Box 30197 00100 GPO Nairobi, Kenya Fax: +254 2 226673/ 632121/ 631957 Email: [email protected] tem, it is basically an abbrevia- experimentation and scientific Website: africancrops.net tem, it is basically an abbrevia-experimentation and scientificWebsite: africancrops.net tion of 'permanent agriculture'. advances. Adherents claim that  tion of 'permanent agriculture'.advances. Adherents claim that Permaculture farmers do not the approach breaks with both New code on pesticides Permaculture farmers do notthe approach breaks with bothNew code on pesticides generally use inputs, even traditional conservation policies ■ The revised International Code generally use inputs, eventraditional conservation policies■ The revised International Code organic, from outside their and modern agricultural tech- of Conduct on the Distribution organic, from outside theirand modern agricultural tech-of Conduct on the Distribution farms. Some actions are linked not only to local micro-climates but also to lunar cycles and astrology, sometimes known as 'cosmovision'. (See also: www.permaculture.net) niques. (See Main article) Low-external-input and sustain-able agriculture: LEISA seeks to minimise the use of external inputs and make optimal use of local resources. Stresses the and Use of Pesticides was adopted by the FAO in November 2002. It significantly reduces the threats posed by agrochemicals and promotes practices that minimise health and environmental risks. It embraces not only distribution farms. Some actions are linked not only to local micro-climates but also to lunar cycles and astrology, sometimes known as 'cosmovision'. (See also: www.permaculture.net)niques. (See Main article) Low-external-input and sustain-able agriculture: LEISA seeks to minimise the use of external inputs and make optimal use of local resources. Stresses theand Use of Pesticides was adopted by the FAO in November 2002. It significantly reduces the threats posed by agrochemicals and promotes practices that minimise health and environmental risks. It embraces not only distribution  application of knowledge rather than inputs. and use, but also such issues as regulation, management, packaging and labelling, application of knowledge rather than inputs.and use, but also such issues as regulation, management, packaging and labelling,   application and disposal. application and disposal.   The Pesticides Action Network, The Pesticides Action Network,   which had campaigned for the which had campaigned for the  Illustration Lukino Code's adoption, said that it \"sets improved global standards\". Illustration LukinoCode's adoption, said that it \"sets improved global standards\".  "},{"text":"✍ Secretariat of the Joint FAO/WHO Food Standards Programme Food Standards Programme Food and Agriculture Organization Food and Agriculture Organization Viale delle Terme di Caracalla Viale delle Terme di Caracalla 00100 Rome, Italy 00100 Rome, Italy Fax: +39 06 5705 4593 Fax: +39 06 5705 4593 Email: [email protected] Email: [email protected] Website: www.codexalimentarius.net Website: www.codexalimentarius.net HACCP HACCP A clear and A clear and comprehensive comprehensive i n t ro d u c t i o n i n t ro d u c t i o n to the principles to the principles and practice of and practice of HACCP is pro- HACCP is pro- vided by one of its main pro- vided by one of its main pro- tagonists, the United States tagonists, the United States Food and Drug Administration Food and Drug Administration and the FDA's Center for Food and the FDA's Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition Safety and Applied Nutrition For the hard task of For the hard task of climbing up the climbing up the HACCP learning HACCP learning curve, for mutual curve, for mutual support and some support and some solidarity, try the international solidarity, try the international HACCP Alliance. HACCP Alliance. ✍ HACCP Alliance, ✍ HACCP Alliance, 120 Rosenthal, 120 Rosenthal, College Station, College Station, TX 77843-2471, USA TX 77843-2471, USA Fax: +1 979 862 3075 Fax: +1 979 862 3075 Website: haccpalliance. Website: haccpalliance.  "},{"text":"org Food safety in general A wonderfully clear gateway to most food safety issues is the Food Microbiology Information Centre (FMIC). More essential reading, especially with an eye on trading standards, is available from the Food Safety office of the Commission of the European Union. ✍ FMIC, c/o Nottingham Trent ✍ FMIC, c/o Nottingham Trent University, Burton Street, University, Burton Street, Nottingham, NG1 4BU, UK Nottingham, NG1 4BU, UK Fax: +44 1636 817000 Fax: +44 1636 817000 Email: Email: [email protected] [email protected] Website: Website: www.ntu.ac.uk/external/ www.ntu.ac.uk/external/ fhc/hottop.htm fhc/hottop.htm  "},{"text":"small world Sell apples on the trees? More on moringa  All the papers from the All the papers from the international workshop international workshop on moringa held end- on moringa held end- 2001 in Tanzania (see Spore 96), 2001 in Tanzania (see Spore 96), plus bibliography and plus bibliography and databases of the major players databases of the major players and Websites. and Websites. Development Potential of Moringa Development Potential of Moringa Products Products Edited by A de Saint Sauveur, Edited by A de Saint Sauveur, V Appora, F Besse & L Fuglie, V Appora, F Besse & L Fuglie, CIRAD -PROPAGE -SILVA, 2002. CIRAD -PROPAGE -SILVA, 2002. 1 CD-ROM, ISBN 2 87614 516 2 1 CD-ROM, ISBN 2 87614 516 2 CTA number 1126. CTA number 1126. 40 credit points 40 credit points Full and frank debates Full and frank debates ■ These proceedings are an ■ These proceedings are an excellent account of debates excellent account of debates at a broad breakthrough at a broad breakthrough conference held in Brussels conference held in Brussels in 2001. in 2001. Sustainable Agriculture in the New Sustainable Agriculture in the New Millennium. The Impact of Millennium. The Impact of Biotechnology on Developing Biotechnology on Developing Countries. Countries. Edited by K Plenderleith & Edited by K Plenderleith & P de Meyer. Friends of the Earth P de Meyer. Friends of the Earth Europe -Oxfam -Bund -Dag Europe -Oxfam -Bund -Dag Hammarskjöld Foundation, 2002. Hammarskjöld Foundation, 2002. 168 pp. 168 pp. Free Free FOE Europe FOE Europe Rue Blanche 29 Rue Blanche 29 B-1060 Brussels B-1060 Brussels Belgium Belgium Email: [email protected] Email: [email protected] Fax: +32 2 537 5596 Fax: +32 2 537 5596  "},{"text":"Ask for the sake of asking  Science, Agriculture and Research. Science, Agriculture and Research. A Compromised Participation? A Compromised Participation? W Buhler, S Morse, E Arthur, W Buhler, S Morse, E Arthur, S Bolton & J Mann. Earthscan, S Bolton & J Mann. Earthscan, London, 2002. 176 pp. London, 2002. 176 pp. ISBN 1853836915 ISBN 1853836915 GBP 17.95 • h 26.50 GBP 17.95 • h 26.50 Earthscan Publications Ltd Earthscan Publications Ltd 120 Pentonville Road 120 Pentonville Road London N1 9JN London N1 9JN UK UK Fax: +44 171 278 1142 Fax: +44 171 278 1142 Email: [email protected] Email: [email protected] Net working Net working ■ These proceedings of a ■ These proceedings of a forum on the implementation forum on the implementation of national export strategies of national export strategies present best practices and present best practices and guidelines for national trade guidelines for national trade networks in developing networks in developing economies. economies.  "},{"text":" In Jamaica, if we eat what we grow and grow what we eat, then the Ministry of Agriculture's mandate of providing access to safe, nutritious foods for our people would be greatly advanced.\" With these words in his preface, Roger Clarke, Jamaica's Minister of Agriculture, hits the nail right on the head. What better way is there to promote a nation's agricultural sector and healthy food for its population than by publishing a cook book? ■\" ■\" PO Box 6247 PO Box 6247 Kampala Kampala Uganda Uganda Fax: +256 41 56 76 35 Fax: +256 41 56 76 35 Email: [email protected] Email: [email protected]  "},{"text":"the bull by the horns Under cover Seeds of change  Cook Up Jamaican Style. Eating What  Cook Up Jamaican Style. Eating What We Grow  We Grow Rural Agricultural Development  Rural Agricultural Development Authority, Ministry of Agriculture, Jamaica, 2002. 116 pp. ■Where there is no vet, there Authority, Ministry of Agriculture, Jamaica, 2002. 116 pp.■Where there is no vet, there ISBN 976 601 312 7 US$ 9 • h 8.45 RADA Hope Gardens very well could be a community-based animal health care worker (CAHW). The new publication, ISBN 976 601 312 7 US$ 9 • h 8.45 RADA Hope Gardensvery well could be a community-based animal health care worker (CAHW). The new publication, Kingston 6 Jamaica Fax: +1 876 927 15 92 Community-based Animal Health Care, is full of practical guidance for the design and management Kingston 6 Jamaica Fax: +1 876 927 15 92Community-based Animal Health Care, is full of practical guidance for the design and management  of community-based animal of community-based animal  health services, including the health services, including the  training and deployment of training and deployment of  CAHWs. CAHWs.  "},{"text":"The weakest link Two know more… Between us • The tree of life is dead My postcard pictures a dead tree,\" writes Jeannis Fritzner (rue Sylvio Gator/imp. Exumé 15, Delmas, Haïti), \"but I sent it anyway, since it would please you more than a picture of a painted concrete cathedral.\" \"CTA equals the soil, the soil equals trees and trees equal life. I do not know why this tree is dead. If you could shed any light on the cause of its death, please tell me. It is a Azadirachta indica or neem tree.\" It is difficult to tell from just a picture of the trunk what caused the death of the tree, Jeannis. In general, neem trees are real sur- Developing Capacity Through Technical Developing Capacity Through Technical Cooperation. Country Experiences Cooperation. Country Experiences By S Browne, Earthscan -UNDP, By S Browne, Earthscan -UNDP, 2002. 224 pp. ISBN 1853839698 2002. 224 pp. ISBN 1853839698 GBP 17.95 • h 26.50 GBP 17.95 • h 26.50 Earthscan Publications Ltd Earthscan Publications Ltd 120 Pentonville Road 120 Pentonville Road London N1 9JN London N1 9JN UK UK Fax: +44 207 278 1142 Fax: +44 207 278 1142 Email: [email protected] Email: [email protected]  "},{"text":"In so many words Agnes Maska, (Post Restante, Kasese Post Office, Kasese, Uganda) is looking for a penpal. \"I'm a farmer and my husband is a farmer too. I have five children and bring them up by selling my farm products. I would like the penpal to advise me about farming, so that I can develop my farm to get more products. The real spelling is Blighia with an 'h' after The real spelling is Blighia with an 'h' after the 'g'! And in the word 'ackee', the 'a' is the 'g'! And in the word 'ackee', the 'a' is pronounced as in apple, and 'ckee' as in key. pronounced as in apple, and 'ckee' as in key. And yes, there are a lot of names! Some And yes, there are a lot of names! Some regions' names have a similar sound to the regions' names have a similar sound to the Caribbean ackee: akee, akye, akyen (various Caribbean ackee: akee, akye, akyen (various African countries), aki (Costa Rica) and akie African countries), aki (Costa Rica) and akie (Suriname). Other languages are more (Suriname). Other languages are more descriptive, as in the Spanish seso vegetal descriptive, as in the Spanish seso vegetal (vegetable brain) and huevo vegetal (veg- (vegetable brain) and huevo vegetal (veg- etable egg) or arbre a fricasser (ragout tree) etable egg) or arbre a fricasser (ragout tree) in French-speaking Haïti. in French-speaking Haïti.  "},{"text":"Spore is a bi-monthly publication providing information on agricultural development for ACP countries. Spore is available free-of-charge to relevant organisations and individuals in ACP and EU countries. Subscriptions may also be purchased from ITDG (see page 13). Marcel Chimwala, Didier Chabrol, O'Neil Cuffe, Bernard Favre, Erik Heijmans, Louise Kibuuka, John Madeley, Patrick Maitland, Paul Osborn, Jacques Sultan. ✍ Kay Sayce ✍ Kay Sayce Sayce Publishing Sayce Publishing West Hill House West Hill House 6 Swains Lane 6 Swains Lane London N6 6QS, UK London N6 6QS, UK Fax: +44 20 7485 7957 Fax: +44 20 7485 7957 Email: [email protected] Email: [email protected] Publisher: Technical Centre for Agricultural Publisher: Technical Centre for Agricultural and Rural Cooperation (CTA) -ACP-EC and Rural Cooperation (CTA) -ACP-EC Cotonou Agreement Cotonou Agreement CTA: Postbus 380, 6700 AJ Wageningen, CTA: Postbus 380, 6700 AJ Wageningen, The Netherlands The Netherlands Tel: +31 317 467100 Tel: +31 317 467100 Fax: +31 317 460067 Fax: +31 317 460067 Email: [email protected] Email: [email protected] Website: www.cta.int Website: www.cta.int Email for readers' letters: [email protected] Email for readers' letters: [email protected] Compiler: Spore is compiled by a Compiler: Spore is compiled by a consortium formed by Louma productions consortium formed by Louma productions and Médiateurs and Médiateurs Louma productions, 3 rue Neuve, Louma productions, 3 rue Neuve, 34150 Aniane, France 34150 Aniane, France Fax: +33 467 570 180 Fax: +33 467 570 180 Email: [email protected] Email: [email protected] Médiateurs, W-Alexanderpoort 46, Médiateurs, W-Alexanderpoort 46, 1421 CH Uithoorn, The Netherlands 1421 CH Uithoorn, The Netherlands Fax: +31 297 540 514 Fax: +31 297 540 514 Email: [email protected] Email: [email protected] This issue was compiled by This issue was compiled by Layout: Louma productions Layout: Louma productions Printer: Imprimerie Publicep, France Printer: Imprimerie Publicep, France © CTA 2003 -ISSN 1011-0054 © CTA 2003 -ISSN 1011-0054  "},{"text":"Material published in Spore can be freely reproduced. Please always credit it as coming from Spore.   "}],"sieverID":"5af7cc44-6880-46ec-96c8-ff27136774f0","abstract":""}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"09a2b0fd93d53a9a12ae2edc202c43ec","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/af3b71d6-d5d5-4224-ba43-8dd70c30741f/retrieve"},"pageCount":10,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":93,"text":"In commemoration of this year's World Agriculture Day held on March 22, USAIDfunded Feed the Future Nigeria Integrated Agriculture Activity honored 169 partners in Adamawa and Borno States. These partners include government officials, lead farmers, community-based seed producers, seed companies, field agents, extension agents, community development officers as well as nutrition liaison officers who have supported the Activity's efforts since its inception in 2019 in ensuring food security in Nigeria's northeast. The various award categories included awards for excellence, best smallholder farmer, best extension agent, farm waste to wealth technology award among others."},{"index":2,"size":75,"text":"In his opening remarks, Chief of Party, Integrated Agriculture Activity, Dr. Prakash Kant Silwal, spoke on the theme of this year's celebration: \"Growing a Climate for Tomorrow\". He particularly appreciated the partners for their unrelenting support in seed production, crop production, nutrition interventions alongside youth and women enterprises. \"The Activity will not stop at helping to make food available in the northeast and contributing to the livelihood of the people\", the Chief of Party emphasized."},{"index":3,"size":90,"text":"The Adamawa State Commissioner for Livestock and Aquaculture, Hon. Umar Diyajo who was also a recipient of the award for excellence commended the Activity on various feats in agriculture. He reiterated the state government's commitment to ensuring that smallholder farmers receive the needed assistance. The event also included an exhibition by partner agriculture seed companies and producers. At the flag-off ceremony, the Activity displayed improved variety of seeds, poultry, cosmetics, and briquettes. The nutrition team also demonstrated several meal production procedures including the production of the signature orangefleshed potato juice."}]},{"head":"IAA","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":66,"text":"Delivering the opening remark, the Market Systems & Livelihood Specialist, Mr. Bassey Archibong explained that the Activity's aim of bringing such intervention to the Barracks is to help improve the lives of soldiers' wives who may not have a steady source of income. He stated that subsequent to the flag-off, the women will be trained in home-gardening and other nutrition-beneficial processes which will assist them economically."},{"index":2,"size":50,"text":"23 Armoured Brigade Commander, Brigadier-General Aminu Garba (right) and his wife, Mrs Fauzihat Garba inspecting one of the nutrition stands at the flag-off of the campaign, \"Improving Food Diversity and Nutrition for All\". They are accompanied by CoP, Dr. Prakash Kant Silwal and Field Security Coordination, Captain (rtd) Palash Abul-Kawser."},{"index":3,"size":49,"text":"The Chief of Party, Dr. Prakash Kant Silwal, who declared the event open praised the collaboration and hopes that the joint effort will produce lasting financial results for the families of the women at the cantonment. The NAOWA 23 Brigade Coordinator, Mrs. Fauzihat Garba expressedher excitement about the partnership."},{"index":4,"size":34,"text":"She promised to ensure that the women benefit maximally from the intervention. The Brigade Commander, 23 Armored Brigade, Brigadier-General Aminu Garba was also present at the event to support the women of the cantonment."},{"index":5,"size":14,"text":"23 Armoured Brigade Women waiting to visit the exhibition stands during the flag-off ceremony"}]},{"head":"WHEN NUTRITION MEETS INNOVATION","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":66,"text":"Rebecca (Becky) Tumba is the Nutrition Officer at Feed the Future Nigeria Integrated Agriculture Activity. She was appalled when on a certain day, a young child went to a community drinking pot and dipped a dirty container to obtain water. She felt the child had not only contaminated the water for himself but also for the community. The water could spread diarrhea and other water-borne diseases."},{"index":2,"size":88,"text":"\"From that moment, I continued to ponder on a cheap way a rural community can access safe, clean healthy water\", Becky said. \"That was how Becky's Pot was birthed\". To achieve these objectives, the Activity works with a coalition of public and private sector partners to facilitate improved agro-input and extension advisory services to serve vulnerable populations; strengthen the institutions that form the market system and the networks that serve smallholder farmers disenfranchised by conflict, and facilitate the engagement of youth and women in economic and entrepreneurial activities."}]}],"figures":[{"text":" Recognizes 169 Partners on World Agriculture Day 2022 Some award recipients with staff members during the World Agriculture Day Celebration in Yola Veronica Absalom, 30, and Theresa Paul, 35 have a lot in common. They both have 4 children. They reside in Demsa LGA of Adamawa State. Both women are rice farmers. Their youngest children are 6 months old. Ultimately, they learned the importance of breastfeeding through the USAID-funded Feed the Future Nigeria Integrated Agriculture Activity while pregnant. Both have been on exclusive breastfeeding since the birth of their chubby children, Kewapwa and Annabel. Since its inception in July 2019, IAA has reached about 60,000 under 5 children with various nutrition interventions. From training mothers on how to prepare nourishing meals (e.g., Tom Brown) to the use of Mid-Upper Arm Circumference (MUAC) for screening children, the Activity has contributed immensely to reducing malnutrition among in each of the intervention LGAs work with nutrition promoters who meet fortnightly with a group of 25 to 50 people (expectant mothers inclusive) with messages on hygiene, micro-processing of cereals, and legumes, homestead farming, and exclusive breastfeeding. They emphasize the early initiation of breast milk and help debunk local myths about breastfeeding. \"I had a very nasty experience with my third child\", Veronica said. \"Tradition has always condemned giving a baby the first substance from the breast after delivery. This caused me a sore breast that landed me in the hands of a traditional healer. I learnt that you start breastfeeding a child immediately he is born and that is exactly what I did. No regrets whatsoever.\"Exclusive breastfeeding presents a whole new motherhood experience for these mothers who were influenced by the constant campaigns. \"My last child is the healthiest\", explained Theresa. \"I am not experiencing the supposedly usual baby sicknesses with Annabel. My baby has turned into a star that everyone wishes to carry\".IAA's Nutrition Liaison Officer, Ngunan Samuel Ukor and volunteeer nutrition promoter, Itapwa Teneke explaining effective nutrition patterns to the mothers. On Saturday, 26th March 2022, USAIDfunded Feed the Future Nigeria Integrated Activity flagged off a nutrition campaign tagged \"Improving Food Diversity and Nutrition for All\" at 23 Armoured Brigade, Yola, Adamawa State. The event which was organized in collaboration with Nigeria Army Officers' Wives Association (NAOWA), had in attendance military men and their wives at the Gibson Jalo Cantonment. "},{"text":" Becky's pot is a water container made out of clay. Call it Clay Water Dispenser (CWD) or 'Claypenser'. Unlike the traditional water pots, Becky's pots do not have a wide opening. The smaller opening has a clay covering with a tap by the side for dispensing water. Clay pots are generally alkaline in nature. This alkalinity interacts with the acidity of water thereby improving the PH balance. In fact, clay pots are not only natural but eco-friendly. Their use guarantees proper hygiene and convenience in water storage. They are preferred by rural dwellers because of their cooling ability even in the absence of electricity. With just N3500urban centers are now demanding Becky's pot. It is no longer for just rural communities. Everyone desires a good source of clean water\", Becky stated. The Feed the Future Nigeria Integrated Agriculture Activity (IAA) issued under the US Government's Global Food Security Act was awarded by USAID Nigeria to the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA) and its partners in July 2019 towards the economic recovery of North-East Nigeria, in the wake of the devastation caused by the ongoing insurgency in the region. The Activity supports vulnerable populations in 12 Local Government Areas of Adamawa and Borno states to re-engage in basic farming activities and aims to advance the objectives of inclusive and sustainable agriculture-led economic growth, strengthened resilience among people and systems, and a wellnourished population, especially among women and children in targeted locations. "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "}],"sieverID":"d3d6bf46-1baa-4217-b5bd-da8128123d4c","abstract":""}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"09b2f54150ae099125fd77e67dd56400","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://www.iwmi.cgiar.org/Publications/IWMI_Research_Reports/PDF/PUB017/REPORT17.PDF"},"pageCount":34,"title":"AllocationRules:Lessonsfrom inPakistan'sPunjab Warabandi","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"v","index":1,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Summary","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":79,"text":"The conventional wisdom of the application of water allocation rules in irrigation systems is rarely questioned. The major reason for this complacence is a lack of interest in considering water distribution as a dynamic socio-technical process. A study on a sample of 22 tertiary level irrigation subsystems (watercourses) located in 6 secondary canals in 3 different major canal systems of Pakistan's Punjab Province clearly showed that the actual practice of warabandi water allocation schedules differed substantially from the design."},{"index":2,"size":108,"text":"Warabandi is a rotational method for equitable allocation of the available water in an irrigation system, by turns fixed according to a time roster, specifying the day, time, and duration of supply to each irrigator. The warabandi provides a continuous rotation of water in which one complete cycle of rotation generally lasts 7 days. The duration of supply for each farmer is proportional to the size of the farmer's landholding to be irrigated within the particular watercourse command area. A certain time allowance is also given to farmers who need to be compensated for conveyance time, but no compensation is specifically made for seepage losses along the watercourse."},{"index":3,"size":111,"text":"Warabandi as an irrigation water allocation method has been practiced in Pakistan and Northern India for more than 125 years, and covers an area of about 24 million hectares of irrigated land in the two countries. While many environmental factors would have contributed to the difference in how warabandi is currently practiced in the two countries, the basic concepts of warabandi can be traced to a common origin. This report, however, does not attempt to compare the historical developments of warabandi in the two settings, but focuses on the existing gap between the original design of warabandi as a water allocation method and the way it is practiced in Pakistan today."},{"index":4,"size":85,"text":"Not a single watercourse in the study sample had its official warabandi schedule adhered to in daily water distribution operations. Instead, all watercourses with officially sanctioned warabandi had their schedules subsequently modified according to mutual agreement among the water users. All modified warabandi schedules displayed a fair degree of flexibility in terms of time allocation per unit of land, and resulted in yet greater flexibility in their actual application in the field. Thus, a distinction could be made between \"official,\" \"agreed,\" and \"actual\" warabandi schedules."},{"index":5,"size":100,"text":"In practice, there were deviations in the list of water users, the timing of water turns, and the duration of water turns. The exchange of water turns was a common feature in all the watercourses studied, while the trading of water turns was observed only in 5 percent of them. Despite the apparent mutual agreement by the water users, the practiced warabandi schedules did not relate to a high degree of equity in water distribution. In the absence of any organized water user groups, the initiative for these unofficial modifications appears to have been taken by a few influential individuals."},{"index":6,"size":52,"text":"Although considerable inequity has crept in through this process of locally effected modification, no strong feeling can be discerned among the water users against the flexibility that has been achieved. Interviews with farmers served to clarify that this phenomenon is not different from what exists in other sectors of the rural economy."},{"index":7,"size":108,"text":"The flexibility in the application of warabandi is a direct response by the water users to an increasing variability in the water flow in the canals. The variations of the water flow into the watercourses have a combination of spatial and temporal dimensions. The field data collected in the study indicate diverse water flow rates on a daily basis. Interviews with farmers confirmed that the flow variability is a common occurrence throughout the cropping season. With such flow fluctuations, the individual water turns for different farm plots within the watercourse command area during a 7-day warabandi rotation period have widely varying quantities of water per unit of land."},{"index":8,"size":66,"text":"Warabandi, as a water allocation method, is assumed in its design to foster an \"integrated water management system,\" with high water use efficiency and equity in water distribution as objectives. Water use efficiency is to be achieved through the imposition of water scarcity on each and every user, and equity in distribution through an enforced equal share of scarce water per unit area among all users."},{"index":9,"size":144,"text":"However, the warabandi in practice, while deviating from its design, seems to provide more water to some of the users and some of the areas. The reasons for this inequity are many, and are related to both physical and social factors. The study shows that some inequity exists in the water allowances themselves assigned to different distributaries and watercourses. Part of this discrepancy is attributable to post-design changes in the command area and some ad hoc changes in the hydraulic structures. Although this design-related discrepancy does not affect the operations of warabandi within individual watercourse commands, it imposes substantial inequity in water distribution among different sets of water users within the whole system and tends to induce corresponding behavioral strategies to circumvent the individual disadvantages. In addition, the availability of groundwater seems to have encouraged the water users to disregard the discipline of warabandi."},{"index":10,"size":52,"text":"This report highlights the existence of an increasing divergence between design and practice of allocation rules, and points towards some of its institutional implications. It also raises the important research need to evaluate the economic implications of this divergence and the associated flexibility in water use under conditions of overall water shortage."}]},{"head":"Introduction","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":116,"text":"One of the least known aspects of irrigation is how the water is actually distributed and applied by the users. Many officials, researchers, and evaluators associated with irrigation often believe that water is distributed strictly according to the allocation rules formulated during the design of the irrigation systems, and they often proceed to conduct their respective activities based on that belief. They use this design assumption when systems are operated and maintained, rules are applied and adjudicated, and when performance indicators are developed and used. Whenever the systems need to be rehabilitated and remodeled, only the changes in the physical conditions are usually considered, and the original allocation principles are assumed to be intact, and adequate."},{"index":2,"size":157,"text":"The lack of knowledge on the actual water distribution and use can be mainly attributed to the physical and psychological distance between the water users and the other actors of irrigation. The dominance of physical infrastructure and related physical measurements sharply contrasts with a general lack of interest in appreciating what happens beyond the irrigation outlets in the system's tertiary units. The diversity of farm structures and tenurial relations and the dynamics of overall farmer behavior within the tertiary subsystem seem to defy measurement. Aspects such as social differentiation, political influence, and changing socioeconomic factors escape the attention of many who generally prefer to focus on what can be eas-ily observed and measured. Perhaps for this reason, studies on water allocation practices at the tertiary level have been relatively rare. A recent publication draws attention to this lacuna and highlights the need to evaluate water distribution as both a physical and social process (Diemer and Huibers 1996)."},{"index":3,"size":157,"text":"In an irrigation system, water allocation principles are directly related to its established water rights. Often in this context, the term \"rights\" is used almost synonymously with \"allocation rules.\" The concept of irrigation development being perceived as an act of creating hydraulic property (Coward 1986) implies that the right to use water is derived from the property rights linked with the developed irrigation system, and the water is allocated accordingly. Extending this idea to state-built, large-scale gravity irrigation systems in developing countries, such as Pakistan, the allocation rules are seen to be framed by the designers on behalf of the state (which owns the property) to provide the water users with a right to use water. In such large canal irrigation systems, particularly when the water availability is limited, the allocation policies are based on the need to provide equity in water rights to the users, often depending on the size of their lands to be irrigated."},{"index":4,"size":146,"text":"In the concept of property creation through irrigation development, the primary consideration is for the proprietary rights for water acquired. To give effect to agreed water rights, the physical distribu-tion system is laid out and water allocation to the legitimate water users is determined through appropriate rules. The primacy of the water rights is also reflected in Perry's (1995) formulation for functional irrigation systems, which specifies three interacting prerequisites for functionality: well-defined water rights, infrastructure capable of giving effect to these rights, and assigned operational responsibilities to manage the system. Even though a balance among these three elements is highlighted as essential, the issue of water rights is portrayed as the dominant factor. However, in the development and management of large-scale irrigation systems in recent times, the direction of this relative importance has been reversed, with the aspects of water rights being given an insignificant consideration."},{"index":5,"size":65,"text":"Warabandi is a rotational method for equitable allocation of the available water in an irrigation system by turns fixed according to a roster, or a predetermined schedule, specifying the day, time, and duration of supply to each irrigator in proportion to the size of his or her landholding in the outlet command (Singh 1981;Malhotra 1982). The term warabandi means \"turns\" (wahr) which are \"fixed\" (bandi)."}]},{"head":"1","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":68,"text":"The warabandi water allocation method practiced in Pakistan's large-scale canal irrigation systems offers some empirical evidence of the relative neglect of water rights as a major issue in agricultural production. In the current practice of warabandi, the actual water distribution is found to deviate substantially from the design stage expectations. The implications of this gap between the design and practice of warabandi are yet to be fully explored."},{"index":2,"size":192,"text":"Preliminary field observations in two irrigation systems (the newly established Chashma Right Bank Canal and the recently remodeled old Lower Swat Canal) in the North-West Frontier Province of Pakistan indicated that the ideal warabandi system, as understood in its traditional concepts, was no longer observed in actual practice (Levine 1991;Bandaragoda et al. 1993). Both these systems had some special reason for this situation. In the former, the water allocation and distribution methods were still evolving, whereas in the latter, the established practices were disrupted due to prolonged construction activities of system rehabilitation. However, the observations in these two systems led to the hypothesis that the deviations from the theoretical concepts of warabandi could be more widespread than commonly understood, as the technical and institutional imperatives to make warabandi fully operational in its original form appeared to have gradually eroded with the changes in the physical, social, and economic environment of Pakistan's irrigation. To test this hypothesis, field investigations were conducted in 22 sample watercourses in 3 of the well-established canal systems (Upper and Lower Gugera Branches of the Lower Chenab Canal, and the Fordwah Branch Canal) of the Punjab Province of Pakistan."},{"index":3,"size":64,"text":"Several studies have already reported on various aspects of warabandi in Pakistan. Some focused on its social dynamics (Lowdermilk, Clyma, and Early 1975;Merrey and Wolf 1986;Merrey 1987Merrey , 1990)), some on its economic aspects (Chaudhry and Young 1989;Qureshi, Hussain, and Zeb-un-Niza 1994), and yet some others on its performance implications (Bhatti and Kijne 1990;Latif and Sarwar 1994) and warabandi-related irrigation management strategies (Vehmeyer 1992)."},{"index":4,"size":48,"text":"This report, which is based on intensive field work, focuses simply on the existing gap between the traditional design concepts of warabandi and its actual practice. Within this focus, it also outlines some institutional implications of the present practice of warabandi and identifies further research and policy needs."}]},{"head":"Physical Environment of Warabandi","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":131,"text":"The warabandi water allocation method has long been practiced in the northern part of the subcontinent. Despite some doubts about the validity of warabandi as an efficient method of water allocation to meet crop water requirements (Reidinger 1980), an attempt was made recently to popularize it in the subcontinent. The efficiency of warabandi allocation method was supported by field studies which indicated that, when the method was correctly applied, warabandi was capable of producing yields comparable with the output of a perfect demand system (Narayanamurthy 1985). The proponents of the warabandi method point out that its validity has not diminished in any way as the supply constraints have continued to characterize irrigated agriculture in this region (Malhotra 1982). Water scarcity is considered an important physical condition for the application of warabandi."},{"index":2,"size":127,"text":"Pakistan's canal irrigation systems operate largely in a water-short environment. A major constraint is that the country's water resources are unevenly distributed in time and space. The regulatory reservoirs (Tarbela, Mangla, and Chashma) are unable to fully compensate for this unevenness, particularly at the start of the kharif (summer) season when river flows are low. About 84 percent of the total annual river flow occurs during the full kharif season, whereas, 36 percent of canal head withdrawal takes place during the rabi (winter) season (Government of Pakistan 1993: 36). In addition to the incompatibility between streamflows in the major rivers and the pattern of water requirements of the main cropping seasons, the relative abundance of water in a few areas coexists with severe shortages in other areas."},{"index":3,"size":71,"text":"The need to use the scarce water resources judiciously and economically has been the main concern of system designers from the early days of irrigation development in Pakistan. The design was for a run-of-river system with an objective to command a maximum area with the available supplies in the river, ensuring equitable distribution 2 at all levels of the system-canals, branches, distributaries, and outlets, and also among the individual water users."},{"index":4,"size":7,"text":"According to this design, the \"water allowance\""},{"index":5,"size":188,"text":"3 was fixed relatively low to maximize the irrigated command area using the available water. However, the design assumed a low cropping intensity of about 75 percent to make irrigation reasonably productive in these systems. Over the years, more and more commandable land was placed under irrigation in both seasons, and these design cropping intensities have now exceeded considerably. Increased cropping intensity has made the design supply of canal water rather inadequate. The canals were to run most of the time at the authorized full supply level and be closed when the supplies fell to 70-75 percent of the full supply discharge to avoid silting. The equitable distribution of water was to be effected without much operational control (e.g., the distributary outlets had no gates, but had fixed structures to provide constant discharges proportional to the area to be irrigated in each of the watercourse commands). Within a limited range of flow variability within the distributary, the watercourses were expected to obtain an almost constant discharge. With the system being structured at the distributary head, only passive management was required for proportional distribution of water by the distributaries."}]},{"head":"The Case of Warabandi in Pakistan","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":13,"text":"2 Equity attempted was in terms of allocation of water proportional to land."}]},{"head":"3","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":84,"text":"Water allowance is the design discharge assigned to the head of a distributary or a watercourse on the basis of the area to be irrigated and is given in cusecs per acre in local use, and in liters per second per hectare (l/s/ha) in this report. 4 On a 100 percent cropping intensity, an average water allowance of 0.28 l/s/ha (4 cusecs for 1,000 acres) works out to a meager irrigation depth of 2.4 millimeters/day from canal water, representing a considerable water-short situation indeed."}]},{"head":"Social Environment of Warabandi","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":87,"text":"South Asia's long history of irrigation development and associated irrigation culture (Bandaragoda 1993) contributed to the original design as well as the eventual quality and shape of irrigation institutions such as warabandi in the region. The origin of warabandi is traced to the early period of irrigation development by the British in the northwestern part of the subcontinent in the mid-nineteenth century (Malhotra 1982). However, the origins of warabandi concepts could well have occurred much earlier, although no recorded history can be found referring to this linkage."},{"index":2,"size":160,"text":"The legal framework for water distribution seems to reflect some local traditions, which may have been transferred from various cultural influences of many different eras, such as those of the Indus Civilization, the Aryans, the Greeks, and the Arabs. The preference for social control of natural resources, the ruler's responsibility for social welfare, local participation in resource management, ready compliance with regimented and formalistic administration, adherence to legalism, and subservience to local feudalistic power are only some of the features of a highly complex cultural milieu. In this amalgam, the principle of equity in water distribution that is central to irrigation laws in this region has the stamp of an influence by the Islamic principles, such as communal ownership and equitable sharing of water, and the ethics of social control over water. The legislative enactments of the mid-nineteenth century have benefited from the same principles, which the British discovered in the Moorish elements of the irrigation traditions found in Spain."},{"index":3,"size":56,"text":"In sum, warabandi can be seen as part of the local culture, which has evolved through centuries of association with irrigation including its formalized administration since 1873. Also, the colonial irrigation administration could have been partly modeled on the earlier irrigation development experiences of Europe, which the British studied before introducing irrigation laws in the subcontinent."},{"index":4,"size":162,"text":"However, just as equity was related to some facets of local culture, the erosion of equity in its application was also caused by other facets of the same culture. In this region where warabandi was first introduced, the social conditions largely determined how the system operated, and how the flexibility of warabandi's initial version was used. Malhotra (1982:1), referring to the pre-1873 situation, opines that \"the arrangement could have fitted well with the then political system,\" when the administration found it more convenient to use the few big landlords for settling local disputes and maintaining law and order. As the big landlords \"managed to arrange some sort of consensus,\" field-level water distribution posed no difficulty, but the flexibility could have been used at the expense of the weaker sections of the community. A more recent assessment of warabandi in Pakistan's southern Punjab and Sindh is that any flexibility in warabandi \"suits the irrigation needs of large farmers\" (Qureshi, Hussain, and Zebun-Niza 1994)."},{"index":5,"size":429,"text":"With increased political awareness and social development, and also with the gradual subdivision of large landholdings, the role of the big landlords was increasingly challenged, and the disputes started to undermine their authority. With increasing cropping intensities, the demand for water increased, thereby causing greater competition, and obviously more conflicts. Disputes among farmers led to greater agency involvement. Agency staff intervened to assess the ownership of land, its size and proximity to water, and also filling and drainage times, before fixing the time 5 During 1867-68, the Government of India sent Lt. Col. C. C. Scott-Moncrieff on a study tour of France, Spain, and Italy to study the irrigation systems then in use. His 1868 report, running to 380 pages and 27 plates with an amazing account of his travels in Europe, described in minute detail the physical infrastructure, water allocation principles, operating procedures, and irrigation fees. He found that nearly all the systems were supply-based, with a schedule fixed at the beginning of the season. His chart for the Marseilles Canal is almost identical to a warabandi schedule. The crucial difference between the European systems reported on by Moncrieff and the warabandi system as adopted in the 1873 Northern Indian Canal Act was that the warabandi supply was given through proportional modules and not rigid modules that provided fixed flows in many of the European systems (personal communication from B. Albinson). turns and durations. 6 Once fixed, it assumed common agreement; the turns were supposed to be followed unaltered and became binding on all the farmers who had to take water at their turn irrespective of their need. Even when water flow was disrupted due to some physical condition in the canals, the time schedule was not to be altered; in which case, the loss had to be absorbed by the unlucky individual farmer or farmers who happened to be rostered for that particular time interval. The authority and influence of the big landlords were replaced in some instances, and supplemented in others, by the officials. The rigidity of warabandi was meant to ensure equity and \"to prevent exploitation of the weak by the strong, or of tail-enders by head-enders\" (Chaudhry and Young 1989). Merrey (1987Merrey ( , 1990) ) questions the sustainability of this rigid centrally determined warabandi system in Pakistan. He acknowledges, however, the limitations of available technical alternatives, particularly in view of the \"imbeddedness\" of warabandi in rural Pakistan. More than this cultural fixation, the pressures inherent in equitably distributing scarce water resources tend to determine the continued value of warabandi as an allocation method."},{"index":6,"size":83,"text":"Generally, the concerns on its sustainability and criticisms against the continued practice of warabandi (Reidinger 1980) are based on the assumption that official warabandi (as originally conceptualized and described in manuals) is actually being practiced today. On the contrary, the situation in Pakistan is characterized by the existence of a dualism between a set of formally established rules and organizations, and a parallel set of informal institutions, with the latter appearing to have an overriding effect over the former (Bandaragoda and Firdousi 1992)."}]},{"head":"Design of Warabandi","index":9,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Concept of Warabandi as an Allocation Method","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":164,"text":"Warabandi is a continuous rotation of water in which one complete cycle of rotation lasts 7 days (or in some instances, 10½ days), and each farmer in the watercourse receives water during one turn in this cycle for an already fixed time duration. The cycle begins at the head and proceeds to the tail of the watercourse, and during each time turn, the farmer has the right to use all of the water flowing in the watercourse. Each year, preferably at canal closure, the warabandi cycle or roster is rotated by 12 hours to give relief to those farmers who had their turns during the night in the pre-ceding year's schedule. The time duration for each farmer is proportional to the size of the farmer's landholding to be irrigated within the particular watercourse command area. A certain time allowance is also given to farmers who need to be compensated for conveyance time, but no compensation is specifically made for seepage losses along the watercourse."},{"index":2,"size":82,"text":"In the large canal irrigation systems in Pakistan, which are jointly managed by government agencies and farmers, warabandi rules and traditions act as the binding glue for an agency-farmer interface. A central irrigation agency manages the primary main canal system and its secondary level \"distributary\" and \"minor\" canals, 6 Appendix E of the Punjab's Public Works Department Revenue Manual (Reprint of 1987:3) provides detailed instructions for preparation and modification of wahr-bandis, and explains the responsibilities of Patwaris, Zilladars, and the Canal Officers."},{"index":3,"size":162,"text":"and delivers water at the head of the tertiary level \"watercourse\" through an outlet, popularly known as a mogha, which is designed to provide a quantity of water proportional to the watercourse's culturable command area (CCA). The agency has to ensure a uniform flow in the watercourse so that it continuously receives its allotted water duty (quantity of water per unit area). Farmers within the watercourse are expected to manage the on-farm distribution of water according to a warabandi schedule, officially \"sanctioned,\" or established solely on the basis of mutual agreement by the farmers. Once this arrangement of turns has been agreed upon, the agency does not interfere unless a dispute arises among the farmers and it is brought to official notice. The dispute is resolved through an adjudication process according to prescribed rules leading to either an amendment of the existing official warabandi schedule, or the sanctioning of a new one if an official schedule had not existed before the dispute."},{"index":4,"size":109,"text":"Popularly, the term \"warabandi\" has been associated with the water allocation and distribution within the tertiary subsystem (watercourse). However, considering the conditions for equitable water distribution, some analysts have pointed out that \"warabandi\" is an integrated water management system extending from the source to farm gate (Malhotra 1982:38). The need to equitably distribute the limited water resources available in an irrigation system among all the legitimate water users in that system is a basic premise underlying the principle of warabandi. Clearly, in that sense, it involves more than the watercourse, although the literal meaning of warabandi prompts one to focus attention on the roster part of the warabandi system."},{"index":5,"size":12,"text":"The warabandi system, among other things, has the following characteristics as well."},{"index":6,"size":29,"text":"• The distributing points of the main canal operate at supply levels that would allow distributary canals to operate at no less than 75 percent of full supply level."},{"index":7,"size":19,"text":"• There is rotation of distributaries, in some instances, when the supply in the main canal system falls further."},{"index":8,"size":17,"text":"• Only \"authorized\" outlets draw their allotted share of water from the distributary at the same time."},{"index":9,"size":15,"text":"• Outlets are ungated and deliver a flow of water proportional to the area commanded."},{"index":10,"size":11,"text":"• Water users have to maintain the watercourse in good condition."},{"index":11,"size":14,"text":"• The operating agency has to ensure proper hydraulic performance of the conveyance system."},{"index":12,"size":64,"text":"Two types of warabandi are frequently mentioned. The warabandi which has been decided by the farmers solely on their mutual agreement, without formal involvement of any government agency, is known as kachcha (ordinary or unregulated) warabandi, whereas, the warabandi decided after field investigation and public inquiry by the Irrigation Department when disputes occurred, and issued in officially recognized warabandi schedules, is called pucca warabandi."},{"index":13,"size":85,"text":"Kachcha warabandi became increasingly unpopular as it was prone to exploitation by large landowners. Wherever this pressure could be challenged openly, disputes were registered with the canal authorities, and after prescribed adjudication processes, the kachcha warabandi was converted to official pucca warabandi schedules. The reason for having kachcha warabandi still in operation in some areas of southern Punjab and Sindh is attributed to the more skewed distribution of land favoring larger landowners in these areas. In central Punjab, the majority of watercourses have pucca warabandi."}]},{"head":"Objectives of Warabandi","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":69,"text":"As an \"integrated water management system,\" warabandi is expected to achieve two main objectives: high efficiency, and equity in water use (Malhotra 1982). Water use efficiency is to be achieved through the imposition of water scarcity on each and every user, and equity in distribution through enforced equal share of scarce water per unit area among all users. Both objectives are to be guaranteed by the \"self-policing\" rotation system."},{"index":2,"size":177,"text":"An All-India Workshop on Warabandi held at Hyderabad in April 1980, listed a number of other advantages including increased cropping intensity, greater irrigation discipline, common interest, and greater economy and dependability (Singh 1981). Further, its transparency and the simplicity of implementation were identified as two of its main positive features. However, the equity issue dominated the analyses on what warabandi could conceivably bring about as benefits. In sum, the Workshop noted, warabandi was to introduce \"some kind of system, some kind of fair play\" into the use of water, to make sure that the available water is really used in \"every plot in the area being irrigated, not simply the plots that belong to the most powerful individual in the village\" (Singh 1981:iii-iv). Makin (1987) identified equity of distribution as warabandi's primary objective. He found that warabandi, with some minor modifications, was still operating successfully in Indian Punjab, and despite several externally imposed factors, the farmers in the Mudki Distributary study area were finding ways of maintaining equity, which they see as the underlying spirit of warabandi."},{"index":3,"size":99,"text":"Relying on the many virtues of warabandi as theoretically framed, particularly its fairness, the tendency of many people is to believe that warabandi \"ensures equity in distribution to each farmer's field, regardless of whether the land is situated at the upper reaches of the outlet or at the tail end, whether the farmer is economically or politically powerful or not, and whether he belongs to a low or high caste\" (Singh 1981: 23). With the usual preference to rely on conventional wisdom, very little investigation has been made to explore how well the theory is applied in the field."},{"index":4,"size":191,"text":"In Pakistan, the equity in water distribution is commonly perceived as the central operational objective for the management of its large canal system through warabandi (Government of Pakistan 1988 ;Kirmani 1990;Bhutta and Vander Velde 1992;Latif and Sarwar 1994). Equity is usually assumed to occur if the system functions as designed, or if each water user gets the share that was intended in the design (Levine and Coward 1989). In this sense, equitable water distribution in the Indus Basin Irrigation System can be interpreted as an intention to deliver a fair share of water to all users throughout the system using warabandi. There is a recognition of the need for head to tail equity in terms of equalizing the delivery of water between the extremities in the conveyance system; there is also the need to see equitable distribution among various distribution points in the system, as well as among the various categories of water users. The term \"equity\" was interpreted in a restricted sense in that the idea was to equitably distribute water per unit of land. This would mean that larger landowners would have access to larger quantities of irrigation water."},{"index":5,"size":77,"text":"Interestingly, the disputes related to the application of warabandi are uncommon, and whenever they occurred, there was no major disruption of the warabandi practice. Considering the usual turmoil and social tension that would be normally associated with a shortage of irrigation water, that warabandi has continued as \"a method of imposing such extreme scarcity, over such large areas, and for such a long time has been considered little short of a miracle\" (Malhotra, Raheja, and Seckler 1984)."}]},{"head":"Formulation of Warabandi Schedules","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":47,"text":"The warabandi schedule is framed under Section 68 of the Canal and Drainage Act (VIII of 1873) in which rights to form and maintain water distribution schedules for watercourses are vested with the Canal Officers of the Irrigation Department. Several amendments and departmental rules were added later."},{"index":2,"size":105,"text":"Theoretically, in calculating the duration of the warabandi turn given to a particular farm plot, some allowance is added to compensate for the time taken by the flow to fill that part of the watercourse leading to the farm plot. This is called khal bharai or watercourse \"filling time.\" Similarly, in some cases, a farm plot may continue to receive water from a filled portion of the watercourse even when it is blocked upstream to divert water to another farm or another part of the watercourse command. This is called nikal or \"draining time,\" and is deducted from the turn duration of that farm plot."},{"index":3,"size":51,"text":"The calculation for a warabandi schedule starts with determining by observation, the total of such filling times (T F ) and the total of such draining times (T D ). Then, for a weekly warabandi rotation, the unit irrigation time (T U ) in hours per hectare can be given by:"},{"index":4,"size":9,"text":"where, C = culturable command area of the watercourse."},{"index":5,"size":26,"text":"The value of T U should be the same for all the farmers in the watercourse. A farmer's warabandi turn time T t is given by:"},{"index":6,"size":23,"text":"where, A is the farm area, and T f and T d are filling time and draining time, respectively, for the farm area."},{"index":7,"size":55,"text":"Only some of the farms in a watercourse may be entitled to either filling time, or draining time, or both. The warabandi schedule is prepared on the basis of the different turn times calculated for each farm plot on the basis of these values, wherever they occur, and on the area of each farm plot."},{"index":8,"size":63,"text":"The main obstacle to achieving equity as defined above has been varying seepage losses along the watercourses. Theoretically, this problem could have been dealt with readily by creating a virtual imaginary land area for the tail enders, but such a strategy has not been tried, probably because it would have involved some ad hoc decisions and destroyed the transparency of the original concept."},{"index":9,"size":109,"text":"Warabandi, as a water allocation method with its underlying primary objective of distributing the restricted supplies of canal water equitably over a large command area, typically suited the \"protective irrigation\" in Pakistan. The original system design was meant to maintain a steady pattern of hydraulic performance for the canal system; the application of an official warabandi had to heavily rely on this original system design. However, the deterioration of the required physical and social conditions made the original assumptions for equity-based warabandi increasingly invalid. A 1988 field study reported that discharge variation at the head of the distributaries greatly exceeded the original design criteria (Bhutta and Vander Velde 1992)."},{"index":10,"size":106,"text":"The deviations from the design concept of equity appear to be arising from three major sources: (1) some aberrations in the design and construction of the physical system, which make some channels get more water per unit area than the others; (2) flow variability in the conveyance system, which makes the concept of equity through fixed time-turns invalid; and (3) variations in the water turn roster. The first two sources are associated with the conditions for warabandi, which are directly related to the quality of design, construction, and maintenance efforts. The third source of deviations is related to the way the water users apply warabandi schedules."},{"index":11,"size":60,"text":"The allocation of the Indus Basin water among the various canals and their branches (main canal system) and the distributaries (secondary canal system), and from there to the large network of watercourses (tertiary subsystem) was decided by a set of design rules. The structures were built accordingly. A scrutiny of the design data relating to this allocation shows that a"}]},{"head":"Effects of Design, Construction, and Maintenance","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":16,"text":"fair degree of inequity has crept in during design and construction, and possibly during subsequent rehabilitation."}]},{"head":"Inequities in the Main System","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":45,"text":"The six distributary (secondary) systems covered by the study sample belong to two main canals, the Lower Chenab Canal (LCC) and the Fordwah Canal. The design information given in table 1 indicates that the \"water allowances\" 7 given to the two main systems vary substantially."},{"index":2,"size":110,"text":"Table 1 also shows that the four selected distributary canals in the LCC have a wide range of water allowances that vary from a very low 0.19 l/s/ha in the Mananwala Distributary to a high 0.32 l/s/ha in the Pir Mahal Distributary. More importantly, there is a marked difference in water allowances between the Pir Mahal Distributary (0.32 l/s/ha) and its own Junejwala Minor (0.24 l/s/ha). The indication is that the design itself has caused significant differences in water allowances per unit area between the different distributaries or minors. Alternatively, it is also likely that command areas under some canal systems were subsequently increased while their supply levels remained unaltered."}]},{"head":"Inequities at the Secondary Canal Level","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":71,"text":"Table 2 gives the water allowances assigned to the 22 sample outlets. 8 Data in tables 1 and 2 show that there are both inter-and intra-canal differences in water allowances. Differences between the distributary canals can be attributed to design errors, but the   In a further analysis of design data, table 3 gives the ranges and averages of design water allowances of all of the watercourses in the six distribution systems."},{"index":2,"size":54,"text":"In table 3, a wide variation can be seen in water allowances assigned for individual watercourses along each of the six distributary/minor canals. The results show a substantial divergence between the common design intention of providing a uniformly low water allowance and the application of this design parameter during construction of the physical system."},{"index":3,"size":122,"text":"In the case of the Mananwala Distributary, the maximum water allowance given to a watercourse is exceptionally high, almost three times the average, whereas the minimum is at 86 percent of the average. Similarly, in the Pir Mahal Distributary, the maximum water allowance given to a watercourse is 311 percent of the average and the minimum is 75 percent of the average indicating that a few outlets were given an exceptionally high water allowance. Informal pressure brought about by some influential people during design or construction of the irrigation system cannot be overruled. Irrespective of the causes, these intercanal supply differences and sporadic supply increases to a few watercourses greatly affect the overall equity in water distribution within the whole irrigation system."}]},{"head":"Inequities at the Tertiary Level","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":100,"text":"Theoretically, the total flow in a watercourse should be available to each water user during his or her warabandi water turn. Therefore, once the design water allowance is established for the watercourse, a design-related inequity does not arise within the watercourse command area. However, during the design of the warabandi schedule specifying the time and duration of each water turn, some inequity can enter the formulation. In an analysis of time allocations in official warabandi schedules, the coefficient of variation of time allocations was found to be significantly low. Evidently, the designrelated inequity is least within the tertiary subsystem (watercourses)."}]},{"head":"Variability of Flow into the Secondary Canal","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":211,"text":"The design concepts of warabandi assume that each distributary canal, by and large, maintains a flow close to about 75 percent of the full supply level. To test this assumption, the actual discharges into the six selected distributaries and minors were measured once a day for the 1993 kharif season. The results of this exercise are given in table 4, which includes the standard deviation for each monthly average, and the monthly average as a percentage of the design discharge for the respective distributary canals. Monthly average flows in the Mananwala Distributary varied from 85 to 103 percent of the design discharge level, while flows in its Karkan Minor ranged from 70 to 86 percent. The Minor's monthly average supply did not reach the design discharge level during this period, and lagged behind that of the parent distributary. A similar situation was seen in the Pir Mahal Distributary and its Junejwala Minor. Seasonal flow variability was also quite high in the Pir Mahal, the flows varying from 66 to 106 percent of the design discharge, whereas its Junejwala Minor had a much greater fluctuation of supplies ranging from 29 to 66 percent of the design discharge, remaining constantly below the required minimum flow level of 75 percent of the design value."},{"index":2,"size":40,"text":"Similarly, the Azim Distributary received low flows from 28 to 65 percent of the design discharge, while the Fordwah Distributary had relatively favorable monthly average supplies, although with a high variability ranging from 56 to 117 percent during the season."},{"index":3,"size":120,"text":"Generally, the distributaries frequently remained consistently below the design supply level. Monthly averages and their standard deviations show considerable daily variations in the actual discharge. The consequences of distributary water-flow variability on the warabandi practice are twofold: First, the flow variability during the season imposes severe inequity in water distribution within the watercourses, as the irrigation time per hectare does not change according to this variable flow. Second, when the flow drops substantially, say below 70 percent of the design discharge, some watercourses receive very little water or no water at all, causing inequitable water distribution among the watercourses. Any attempt to circumvent this by effecting a rotation along the distributary would also cause a disruption of the warabandi schedules."}]},{"head":"Variability of Flow into the Tertiary Subsystem","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":134,"text":"To assess the actual water distribution, the daily discharges were monitored in the 22 sample outlets. Part of the results of this monitoring effort, related only to the Mananwala Distributary and its Karkan Minor, is shown in table 5. Because the design discharge is closely linked with the irrigable area of a particular watercourse, the parameter for assessing the performance is the percentage of design discharge actually delivered (also known as the Delivery Performance Ratio). The data show that the actual average discharges into watercourses deviate significantly from their design discharges. The average actual discharge as a ratio of design discharge for a watercourse varies from a very high 214 percent in September for the Mananwala Distributary's Watercourse No. 87-R, to a zero percentage in September and October for its tail-reach Watercourse No. 141-R."},{"index":2,"size":120,"text":"Figure 1 represents a summary of the analysis of data collected from 22 sample watercourses (outlets) for the period May to July 1993. Of the 22 watercourses, 6 had an actual average discharge at the outlet over 120 percent of the design discharge for this period, 5 had an average discharge less than 80 percent of the design, and 11 were within 80-120 percent of the design value. Both in terms of time (daily discharges and monthly averages) and space (between watercourses within each distributary canal), there was considerable variation in water delivery at the mogha head. Thus, one of the most critical conditions for warabandi has ceased to exist when the flow into the watercourse has fluctuated so widely."},{"index":3,"size":101,"text":"Few allocation methods can be effective in providing sufficient irrigation if there is high variability in the flow of water in the channels. A method such as warabandi, which relies on a constant flow in the watercourse for its time allocations proportional to land size, is much less effective when confronted with the extent of variability as shown in the above data. One hypothesis at this stage is that the widespread modification of official warabandi schedules by the water users (discussed later in this report) may have been prompted by the high variability of the water supply at the farm gate."},{"index":4,"size":68,"text":"A graphic presentation of the extent of flow variability at the watercourse head can be seen in figures 2 and 3, which show the pattern arising from some field data collected for another year (1991). The two graphs are for Watercourse No. 24-R of Mananwala and Watercourse No. 133-L of Pir Mahal and they confirm the extent of flow variability found at the watercourse head during kharif 1993.   "}]},{"head":"From Design to Practice of Warabandi","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":62,"text":"In theory, the official warabandi is to be implemented according to an officially determined fixed schedule, which is meant to be strictly adhered to by all water users so that its underlying objective of equitable distribution can be achieved. If properly executed, the schedule is determined on the basis of an equal share of water per unit of land to be irrigated."},{"index":2,"size":160,"text":"However, the study revealed that, contrary to the common belief, the rigidity of the official pucca warabandi had almost ceased to exist. None of the watercourses in the study sample followed the official warabandi schedules in actual practice. The practical meaning of the official warabandi appears to lie in the fact that it fixes the right to irrigation water for the participating water users, a right they can continue to exercise if they have to, or can relax in actual practice, but use in any litigation, or in any appeal for further arbitration or adjudication, when their access to water is jeopardized in any way. Farmers refer to this function of warabandi as haqooq. The form of rights defined by an official warabandi assumes a formal \"legal right.\" The official warabandi is accepted by the majority of small farmers as more equitable than the traditional kachcha warabandi schedules, as the latter were often determined by a few powerful rural elites."},{"index":3,"size":48,"text":"Given that an adequate legal and institutional framework can ensure the recognition and compliance of official warabandi schedules when needed, and mitigate the informal pressures from the local elites who try to supersede them, the warabandi method would serve to provide inalienable water rights to the poorer farmers."}]},{"head":"Official Warabandi and Agreed Warabandi","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":90,"text":"For the purpose of this report, two terms are used to represent two different versions of warabandi schedules, official warabandi and its second-generation agreed warabandi. 9 They refer, respectively, to the warabandi schedule officially determined and recorded in official documents, and the schedule of water turns derived after this official warabandi has been adjusted through mutual agreement by the water users for practical purposes. The agreed warabandi schedules are sometimes not available in recorded form. For this study, the field teams developed them through extensive farmer interviews in the field."},{"index":2,"size":30,"text":"Field investigations showed that the officially sanctioned warabandi schedules were often not adhered to in practice, and were superseded by substantially modified schedules. The reported reasons for these modifications were:"},{"index":3,"size":5,"text":"• changes in water supply"},{"index":4,"size":54,"text":"• changes in the physical layout of the watercourse • changes in landownership and tenurial status • other power relationships among the water users Unless a strong dispute arises in the process of modifying the official warabandi, a general consensus among the water users in the watercourse would lead to this agreed rotation schedule."},{"index":5,"size":72,"text":"Most of the official warabandi schedules are not updated for a number of years even though the number of water users 9 Agreed warabandi is a derivative of the official warabandi and is mutually agreed upon by the people for their convenience. For instance, a big landowner may divide his water turn into several component turns with the consent of other farmers. This new schedule is not reflected in the official schedule."},{"index":6,"size":62,"text":"have increased substantially since the last official amendment. This delay itself could lead to unofficial modifications of the schedules by the water users themselves. As long as they are not disputed by an individual water user, or a group of water users, the procedure does not allow any official intervention. The two inter-related reasons explain the present high prevalence of agreed warabandi."},{"index":7,"size":59,"text":"Data collected from official records and through farmer interviews were analyzed to compare the official and agreed warabandi schedules for one watercourse (at RD 89250 of the left bank of the Pir Mahal Distribu-tary). Table 6 gives the variation in the two sets of time allocation values for different turns in official and agreed warabandi schedules for this watercourse."},{"index":8,"size":29,"text":"Table 6 shows that the modifications made on the official warabandi have generally resulted in an increase in the irrigation time per unit of land (defined as \"time allocation\""},{"index":9,"size":86,"text":"10 in this report). The average value for this measure derived from the official warabandi schedule having 36 water turns is 0.69 hours per hectare. In the agreed warabandi schedule, in which the number of turns had increased to 156, the time allocation had increased to 0.82 hours per hectare. This is mainly because some farm plots were not receiving any water at all. The increases in coefficients of variation also suggest that changes from the official to agreed warabandi schedule have resulted in increased inequity."},{"index":10,"size":129,"text":"The case study of the Watercourse No. 89250-L of Pir Mahal suggested that, despite the consensus reached among the water users, the agreed warabandi may not correspond to a high degree of equity. To assess this proposition, agreed warabandi data for the 22 sample watercourses were analyzed to calculate the variability of the time allocations given to individual farm plots of each watercourse. The results of this analysis are given in table 7, which includes the minimum, maximum, and average water allocation values derived from agreed warabandi water turns for various farm plots within each watercourse, as well as the average water allocation assessed on the basis of the design CCA of each watercourse (i.e., duration of rotation period divided by CCA). Figure 4 represents the coefficients of variation."},{"index":11,"size":114,"text":"These results show a high variability in the water allocated according to the mutually agreed schedules. Common agreement among the water users implies that they are Equity in water allocation through agreed warabandi sample watercourses (kharif 1993). 10 The \"time allocation\" is defined, in this report, as the irrigation time per unit of land on the basis of a constant discharge to the watercourse. The time allocation in the warabandi system is usually understood in hours per acre. It varies from one watercourse to another, depending on the command area to be irrigated. For equitable distribution, the time allocation measure should not vary too widely among the different farm plots in a given watercourse."},{"index":12,"size":210,"text":"generally content with variations in the water allocation, or are unaware of the extent of inequity that exists. The differences between the two average values relate to the discrepancy between design intentions and the present situation. Table 7 also shows that, except in the case of the Azim Distributary, the variability is generally lower in the head reach watercourses in each canal. In the Mananwala Distributary, the watercourse at RD 24873-R has low variability in the agreed water allocation among the water users indicated by a coefficient of variation of 0.24, which has substantially increased towards the tail reaches of the distributary-0.61, 0.44, and 0.43 in watercourses at RDs 87670-R, 121735-R, and 141542-R, respectively. Similarly, in the Karkan Minor, the coefficient of variation of water allocation has increased from 0.19 in the head reach to 0.28 in the tail reach watercourse. In the Pir Mahal Dis- tributary, the increase is from 0.28 to 0.45, and in its minor Junejwala, from 0.14 to 0.87, whereas, in the Fordwah Distributary, the coefficient of variation has increased from 0.22 in the head reach watercourse to 0.30 in the tail reach watercourse. The Azim Distributary appears to be an exception to this behavior, probably because of the seasonal abundance in the non-perennial canal supply."}]},{"head":"Agreed Warabandi and Actual Warabandi Practices","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":98,"text":"Field observations of the actual application of water turns by farmers showed that even the agreed warabandi was not strictly followed, and frequent changes took place on timing and duration of turns almost on a daily basis. While the reasons for introducing some flexibility in developing a more functional warabandi on mutual agreement can be easily understood, the divergence between the official warabandi schedules and what is actually practiced in the field is unexpectedly large. Table 8 shows the changes in duration for the selected head, middle, and tail watercourses of the Upper Gugera and Lower Gugera systems."},{"index":2,"size":20,"text":"Table 8 indicates two important features of the deviations from agreed warabandi durations in the Lower Chenab Canal command area:"},{"index":3,"size":29,"text":"• Generally, there is no tendency for either an increasing, or a decreasing trend of these deviations from head to tail of both Upper and Lower Gugera Canal commands."},{"index":4,"size":17,"text":"• In both areas, the incidence of small deviations is greater than that of the longer deviations."},{"index":5,"size":77,"text":"The majority of the irrigation turns that have undergone some deviation in terms of their duration are in the category of 0-0.50 hour in terms of deviated time. These statistics indicate that the farmers supplement the irrigation of their fields by mutually sharing time when the allocated time is short of 15 to 30 minutes of the required time for irrigation. This type of deviation is seen to be a daily irrigation practice in the study area."}]},{"head":"Deviations from Warabandi Traditions","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":135,"text":"In the beginning, when the warabandi system was introduced in this area, the rigidity of the fixed schedule was designed to prevent the exploitation of water rights. However, with increased cropping intensities and changes in the cropping pattern, the water allocation per unit of land became inadequate. Generally, the warabandi schedules have been found unable to provide sufficient irrigation per unit area for the average cropping intensity (Bhatti and Kijne 1990). Due to the increasing demand for water, some users have started to develop strategies to overcome supply inadequacy through flexibility in water turns. Since overall availability of surface water has not changed, the flexibility is very often at the expense of some part of the irrigable area within the watercourse command for some part of the rotation period. The main strategies are outlined below."},{"index":2,"size":52,"text":"• Rotation of turns. Two to three farmers, and sometimes more, rotate their water turns to improve equity, and concomitantly the flexibility of using the sanctioned supplies. This way, each week, a farmer will share the effects of aberrations in physical conditions that may apply to a number of individual water turns."},{"index":3,"size":35,"text":"• Merger of turns. In this type of operation, water is used by two to three farmers or more during a single water turn. This often happens when the farmers belong to the same family."},{"index":4,"size":56,"text":"• Substitution of turns. This type of operation is prevalent in instances where a farmer has a small landholding with a short-duration water turn. This farmer gives the water turn to the nearby large landowner, and after two or three turns, the large landowner gives sufficient water to irrigate the entire plot of the small landowner."},{"index":5,"size":22,"text":"• Exchange of turns. Farmers have the practice of increasing the flexibility of water supply by exchanging canal turns (lending and borrowing)."},{"index":6,"size":22,"text":"• Trading of turns. When farmers cannot meet their water requirements for one reason or another, they start buying canal water turns."}]},{"head":"Water Transactions","index":23,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":175,"text":"To distinguish between informal exchanges from financial transactions, the term \"trading\" is used to specifically mean purchasing and selling of water turns, or parts thereof. Generally, farmers have a tendency to increase the flexibility in their access to water through exchange of their assigned turns. Field observations in sample areas indicated that almost all farmers exchanged water turns at one time or another. Table 9 shows that the propensity to exchange turns is seen to be mostly towards tail reaches of the distributaries or minors. The borrowing of turns increases from 14 percent in the head watercourse to 39 percent in the tail watercourse. Similarly, the lending of turns in the head watercourse was 20 percent while it was 50 percent in the tail watercourse in the Upper Gugera area. Likewise, the exchange of partial as well as full irrigation turns significantly increases from 3 to 12 percent (borrowing) and 5 to 33 percent (lending) in the Lower Gugera sample areas. In the Junejwala Minor, lending and borrowing of water turns constitute a moderate activity."},{"index":2,"size":111,"text":"Purchasing or selling of canal water turns is not provided for in the Canal and Drainage Act, and is generally considered nonlegal. Based on this common perception, the water users tended to be reluctant in divulging information on the sale and purchase of canal water, but the persistent field observations during the study found that the operation of a water market was not a common occurrence. Trading (purchase and sale) of canal water took place only in 5 percent of the total number of turns in 17 selected sample watercourses. Usually, trading of turns takes place during the kharif season, because high waterconsuming crops (rice, sugarcane) are grown during this season."}]},{"head":"Intervening Causes of the Present Situation","index":24,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":130,"text":"In the foregoing, the reasons for the increasing gap between the design and practice of warabandi were traced to a combination of factors related to warabandi's physical and institutional environments. The physical system inherited some inequities which made it difficult to maintain essential flow conditions. The deterioration of the physical system, which was caused by a neglect of maintenance due to increased costs and reduced budgets, along with the related lack of motivation among the agency staff, contributed substantially to the flow variability in the conveyance system. The noncompli-ance of operational rules by some water users and some agency staff became another major cause for the deviations from the agreed procedure. Apart from these, there are a number of complementary causes for the incompatibility between design intentions and actual operations."}]},{"head":"Role of Groundwater","index":25,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":113,"text":"Since the days of the original design, there has been no substantial increase in water availability in the canal systems. The upstream reservoirs mostly helped store water and reduce the seasonal fluctuations; if they contributed to any increase in farm-gate availability, it was minimal compared to the increased demand for water. However, with the advent of private tube wells (now over 300,000 in number), the groundwater contribution to the overall water supply was large enough that it caused a significant change in the environment of warabandi. Apart from extracting additional supplies, the water users have increasingly resorted to use ground-water mainly as a response to the daunting fluctuation of the canal water supply."},{"index":2,"size":91,"text":"The development of groundwater resources in Pakistan, particularly in the Punjab, could also be described as a main benefit of the warabandi system. The proportional distribution of water has enabled some farmers to reach a level of adequacy where at least part ownership of a tube well is possible. This contrasts with the typical demand-based system where a portion of the commandable area is irrigated and has no need of tube wells, and the other portion has descended to a poverty level where the financing of tube wells is not possible."},{"index":3,"size":160,"text":"Tube well data collected in the sample command areas were analyzed to quantify the private tube well utilization. The peak utilization of tube well water is during the kharif season. For the Mananwala and Pir Mahal distributary command areas, groundwater use varied between 26 and 100 percent of the total water supply. For the Fordwah and Azim areas, the groundwater utilization rates were in the range of 8 to 100 percent of the total water supply, and overall, showed an increased use towards the tail portions of the distributary command. Table 10 highlights the important role that groundwater plays in the irrigated agriculture in different canal commands in the study area. While groundwater helped improve the farmers' reliance on water supplies, it also tended to create anomalies in the warabandi schedules concerning canal water. Deviations from the warabandi procedure in terms of changed turn durations, water trading, and exchanges of turns mostly occurred in watercourse commands with access to groundwater."}]},{"head":"Changed Socioeconomic Conditions","index":26,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":164,"text":"Historically, small-scale irrigation development was associated with the interest, demand, and involvement of groups of local people or communities. This linkage was reduced when the large-scale canal irrigation systems were built during the colonial period. Two main factors contributed to the weakening of this linkage between local community interests and the system management efforts. First, at least initially in these large systems, as the demand for water was generally less than the supply, canal water was not immediately considered an essential ingredient for the existing systems of rural production. Second, in formalizing the original inundation canals into the new irrigation systems, the mathematical calculations for more equitable water distribution patterns superseded the old traditional water rights (haq), which were often based on local political power, thus offending the entrenched local elites (Gilmartin 1994). As the society was basically feudalistic, the resentment of the local elites was matched by an enthusiasm among the new settlers who preferred to accept the more formalistic agency-controlled management practices."},{"index":2,"size":128,"text":"After independence, it appears that this process was again reversed. With no meaningful land reform in place, the large landowners had retained considerable power. With the Green Revolution measures and related technological diffusion in rural areas, a new rich class had emerged. These elements combined to form a group of \"influentials\" with political and economic power, who started to exert their pressure generally on the law and order situation in the canal environment. Part of the deviations observed in the official or agreed warabandi schedules is attributable to these changed socioeconomic conditions. In the present stage of warabandi operations, the rather rigid, but more equitable, official warabandi schedules have been replaced by a flexible pattern of behavior among the water users despite the increased inequity associated with it."},{"index":3,"size":219,"text":"The stabilization of this pattern in the actual practice of warabandi can be explained in two ways. The first is that the lack of enthusiasm to bring out any dispute over warabandi before the relevant authorities is matched by a bureaucratic inertia in general, which represents the ineffectiveness of agency staff to address such equity-based issues. Meanwhile, for reasons such as the subdivision of land, tenancy arrangements, and change of ownership, several informal changes have been incorporated into the application of these schedules. The informal character of these modifications has a tendency to encourage other changes that are linked with the convenience and the social interrelationships. The second reason is, thus, the increasing influence of informal institutions in the rural society, like caste, biraderi, 11 political affiliation, and elitism (Bandaragoda and Firdousi 1992), which tends to favor the more influential people who can also afford to resolve minor disputes informally. 11 The tradition of biradari in many parts of Pakistan remains a strong social norm, often operating against the formal rules of irrigation. The term biradari refers to a behavioral pattern based on a feeling of brotherhood, and is generally among members of an endogamous group who consider themselves related to each other. This term is of Persian origin and a derivative of the word biradar which means \"brother.\""},{"index":4,"size":92,"text":"In a supply-oriented irrigation system, the water users invariably respond to the quantity and quality of the supply, including its reliability, adequacy, and timeliness. In such a context, the primary cause of the flexibility in the application of fixed water allocations can be identified as the flow variability in the conveyance system. The study results show that in canals where the water flow was highly variable over time, the flexibility in the use of allocation schedules was also high. So were the deviations from the norms and traditions underlying the allocation rules."},{"index":5,"size":120,"text":"The water allocation rules (water rights) are closely related to the design of the physical infrastructure and the organizations established for operating the system. A balance is required among these three factors to make the irrigation system functional (Perry 1995). When substantial deviations occur in the actual application of allocation rules, as is happening in the case of warabandi in Pakistan, the required balance ceases to exist and the system tends to become dysfunctional. Increasing inequity is an indication that the balance among infrastructure, water rights, and the organizational responsibilities as envisaged by the design is steadily declining. The resulting inadequacy and unreliability of irrigation water, particularly in the tail-end areas of the system, threaten the sustainability of the system."},{"index":6,"size":88,"text":"Given that warabandi is basically an allocation of time for irrigation in proportion to the size of the land to be irrigated, the effective application of warabandi presupposes a flow of water in the watercourse at a constant rate. One of warabandi's primary objectives, which is to distribute the scarce water resources equitably among the water users, also implies that the water flow rate is uniform among the different watercourses. However, the present study shows that both these criteria are at stake in practiced warabandi and its environment."},{"index":7,"size":146,"text":"While the flexibility in water use in itself may be a desirable feature for productive irrigated agriculture, it has to be achieved with appropriate changes in the infrastructure and associated organizations. Besides, a demand-oriented flexibility in water use may need adequate supplies for achieving system-wide productivity. The general water-short conditions in this region made the warabandi system an ideal water allocation method in a physical system appropriately structured to require minimum management effort at the distributary level. The study indicates a substantial gap between the warabandi's original design and its current practice. While there are some easily identifiable physical factors causing these discrepancies, there are some socioeconomic factors which are not easily observable. It is in the latter that most of the adverse implications of this flexibility may lie, and therefore, in-depth studies are necessary to evaluate the implications of warabandi as it is practiced today."},{"index":8,"size":11,"text":"This report, though limited in scope, leads towards the following suggestions:"},{"index":9,"size":41,"text":"• Even within a flexible framework, an officially recognized water allocation system should be retained to represent the \"rights\" of the water users, so that in case of major disputes it can be used as a basis for arbitration or adjudication."},{"index":10,"size":18,"text":"• A regular updating of officially recognized allocation rules should be made possible to make the rules more"}]},{"head":"Conclusions and Recommendations","index":27,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":11,"text":"realistic in terms of changes in tenure, ownership, and physical infrastructure."},{"index":2,"size":49,"text":"• To improve the water allocation operations in all parts of the physical system, the formulation of the rules, such as the calculations of water turns in the case of warabandi, should be made on a more scientific basis, taking into account seepage losses, as well as conveyance losses."},{"index":3,"size":66,"text":"• For actual water allocation practices to be as close as possible to design expectations, the necessary physical conditions (infrastructure in good order) should be maintained so that the related organizational and institutional conditions will also be appropriately made compatible with them. This means that operation and maintenance should be substantially improved to ensure that the necessary water flow conditions are established in the conveyance system."},{"index":4,"size":36,"text":"• The flexibility of water use, whenever necessary and wherever feasible, can be maintained by allowing the exchange and trading of water turns among water users, on the basis of their water rights linked to landownership."},{"index":5,"size":24,"text":"• Further field studies on the application of warabandi allocation methods should be encouraged to cover a substantial area in both Pakistan and India."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"4  "},{"text":"FIGURE 1 FIGURE 1Actual average discharge for the kharif 1993 season as a percentage of the design discharge for 22 sample outlets. "},{"text":"FIGURE 2 . FIGURE 2.Daily discharges in Watercourse No. 24-R of Manawala. "},{"text":"FIGURE 3 . FIGURE 3.    Daily discharges in Watercourse No. 133-L of Pir Mahal. "},{"text":"TABLE 1 . Characteristics of sample distributaries and minors. Distributary/Minor CCA (ha) Status Design discharge Water allowance Distributary/MinorCCA (ha)StatusDesign dischargeWater allowance    (m 3 /s) (l/s/ha) (m 3 /s)(l/s/ha)   Lower Chenab Canal Irrigation System  Lower Chenab Canal Irrigation System Mananwala 27,160 P 5.2 0.19 Mananwala27,160P5.20.19 Karkan 9,460 P 2.0 0.21 Karkan9,460P2.00.21 Pir Mahal 14,890 P 4.7 0.32 Pir Mahal14,890P4.70.32 Junejwala 4,050 P 1.0 0.24 Junejwala4,050P1.00.24   Fordwah Branch Canal Irrigation System  Fordwah Branch Canal Irrigation System Azim 12,200 NP 6.9 0.57 Azim12,200NP6.90.57 Fordwah 14,940 P 4.38 0.30 Fordwah14,940P4.380.30  "},{"text":"TABLE 2 . Characteristics of 22 sample watercourses. Watercourse CCA (ha) Design discharge Water allowance No. of No. of WatercourseCCA (ha)Design discharge Water allowanceNo. ofNo. of   (l/s) (l/s/ha) landowners cultivators (l/s)(l/s/ha)landownerscultivators  LOWER CHENAB CANAL (LCC) IRRIGATION SYSTEM  LOWER CHENAB CANAL (LCC) IRRIGATION SYSTEM   Upper Gugera Branch of LCC   Upper Gugera Branch of LCC MW 24873-R 171 24.4 0.14 30 41 MW 24873-R17124.40.143041 MW 43506-R 225 29.7 0.13 74 81 MW 43506-R22529.70.137481 MW 71683-R 289 38.2 0.13 114 116 MW 71683-R28938.20.13114116 MW 87670-R 240 47.9 0.20 48 58 MW 87670-R24047.90.204858 MW 121735R 255 33.7 0.13 237 254 MW 121735R25533.70.13237254 MW 141542R 514 68.0 0.13 153 158 MW 141542R51468.00.13153158 KN 10435-R 158 31.4 0.20 71 70 KN 10435-R15831.40.207170 KN 54892-R 231 46.2 0.20 124 92 KN 54892-R23146.20.2012492   Lower Gugera Branch of LCC   Lower Gugera Branch of LCC PM 70076-R 187 37.1 0.20 93 77 PM 70076-R18737.10.209377 PM 89250-L 174 46.2 0.27 103 124 PM 89250-L17446.20.27103124 PM 133970-L 223 44.2 0.20 186 180 PM 133970-L22344.20.20186180 JW 6619-R 118 31.1 0.26 131 122 JW 6619-R11831.10.26131122 JW 27290-R 140 29.2 0.21 56 51 JW 27290-R14029.20.215651 JW 41234-L 159 31.7 0.20 92 81 JW 41234-L15931.70.209281  FORDWAH BRANCH CANAL IRRIGATION SYSTEM  FORDWAH BRANCH CANAL IRRIGATION SYSTEM AZ 20610-L 119 45.9 0.39 26 26 AZ 20610-L11945.90.392626 AZ 43260-L 66 25.5 0.39 16 16 AZ 43260-L6625.50.391616 AZ 63620-L 121 59.2 0.49 20 20 AZ 63620-L12159.20.492020 AZ 111770-L 119 45.9 0.39 27 27 AZ 111770-L11945.90.392727 FW 14320-R 196 52.1 0.26 82 82 FW 14320-R19652.10.268282 FW 46725-R 172 44.7 0.26 47 47 FW 46725-R17244.70.264747 FW 62085-R 133 33.4 0.25 47 47 FW 62085-R13333.40.254747 FW 130100-R 256 68.0 0.26 58 58 FW 130100-R25668.00.265858  "},{"text":"TABLE 3 . Variations in water allowances given to watercourses in 6 selected distributary and minor canals. Distributary/Minor Range of water Average water Coefficient Distributary/MinorRange of waterAverage waterCoefficient  allowance (l/s/ha) allowance of variation allowance (l/s/ha)allowanceof variation  Minimum Maximum (l/s/ha) (%) MinimumMaximum(l/s/ha)(%) Mananwala (n=74) 0.13 0.52 0.15 35 Mananwala (n=74)0.130.520.1535 Karkan (n=47) 0.17 0.30 0.20 8 Karkan (n=47)0.170.300.208 Pir Mahal (n=47) 0.20 0.84 0.27 58 Pir Mahal (n=47)0.200.840.2758 Junejwala (n=19) 0.14 0.28 0.21 13 Junejwala (n=19)0.140.280.2113 Azim (n=75) 0.38 0.67 0.44 14 Azim (n=75)0.380.670.4414 Fordwah (n=87) 0.24 0.55 0.26 14 Fordwah (n=87)0.240.550.2614  "},{"text":"TABLE 4 . Monthly averages of actual discharges for sample distributaries during kharif 1993. Distributary/ Design Actual discharge: Monthly average, its standard deviation (in parentheses), Distributary/DesignActual discharge: Monthly average, its standard deviation (in parentheses), Minor discharge  and as a percentage of design discharge  Minordischargeand as a percentage of design discharge  (m 3 /sec) May June July August September October (m 3 /sec)MayJuneJulyAugustSeptemberOctober Mananwala 5.21 4.64, (0.17), 4.59, (0.85), 4.45, (1.59), 5.32, (0.14), 5.38, (0.57), 5.10, (0.25), Mananwala5.214.64, (0.17),4.59, (0.85),4.45, (1.59),5.32, (0.14),5.38, (0.57),5.10, (0.25),   89 88 85 102 103 98 89888510210398 Karkan Minor 1.98 1.42, (0.08), 1.56, (0.08), 1.39, (0.59), 1.61, (0.08), 1.70, (0.28), 1.70, (0.08), Karkan Minor1.981.42, (0.08),1.56, (0.08),1.39, (0.59),1.61, (0.08),1.70, (0.28),1.70, (0.08),   71 79 70 81 86 86 717970818686 Pir Mahal 4.70 4.02, (1.56), 3.96, (1.76), 3.12, (2.24), 4.47, (2.27), 4.98, (2.32), 4.64, (2.89), Pir Mahal4.704.02, (1.56),3.96, (1.76),3.12, (2.24),4.47, (2.27),4.98, (2.32),4.64, (2.89),   85 84 66 95 106 99 8584669510699 Junejwala Minor 0.99 0.37, (0.14), 0.42, (0.14), 0.37, (0.20), 0.28, (0.14), 0.59, (0.17), 0.65, (0.14), Junejwala Minor0.990.37, (0.14),0.42, (0.14),0.37, (0.20),0.28, (0.14),0.59, (0.17),0.65, (0.14),   37 43 37 29 60 66 374337296066 Azim 6.91 3.57, (1.61), 4.50, (1.67), 1.95, (2.15), 3.60, (1.90), 3.77, (2.46), 2.95, (2.44), Azim6.913.57, (1.61),4.50, (1.67),1.95, (2.15),3.60, (1.90),3.77, (2.46),2.95, (2.44),   52 65 28 52 55 43 526528525543 Fordwah 3.99 4.19, (0.31), 3.74, (1.05), 2.24, (2.24), 3.88, (1.59), 4.28, (1.50), 4.67, (1.25), Fordwah3.994.19, (0.31),3.74, (1.05),2.24, (2.24),3.88, (1.59),4.28, (1.50),4.67, (1.25),   104 94 56 97 107 117 104945697107117  "},{"text":"TABLE 5 . Monthly averages of actual discharges for sample outlets in Upper Gugera (LCC) during kharif 1993. Outlet no. Design  Actual discharge: Monthly average, its standard deviation (in parentheses),  Outlet no.DesignActual discharge: Monthly average, its standard deviation (in parentheses),  discharge  and as a percentage of design discharge   dischargeand as a percentage of design discharge  (l/sec) May June July August September October (l/sec)MayJuneJulyAugustSeptemberOctober MW 24-R 24.4 32.8, (6.5), 34.3, (15.6), 38.2, (18.4), 47.6, (14.4), 51.5, (9.1), 42.8, (9.1), MW 24-R24.432.8, (6.5),34.3, (15.6),38.2, (18.4),47.6, (14.4),51.5, (9.1),42.8, (9.1),   135 141 157 195 212 176 135141157195212176 MW 43-R 29.7 33.1, (0.6), 33.4, (0.6), 29.2, (11.3), 34.5, (0.6), 34.5, (1.4), 34.3, (0.6), MW 43-R29.733.1, (0.6),33.4, (0.6),29.2, (11.3),34.5, (0.6),34.5, (1.4),34.3, (0.6),   114 112 98 116 116 115 11411298116116115 MW 71-R 38.2 43.3, (0.6), 43.3, (0.8), 37.9, (14.7), 44.5, (0.8), 44.2, (2.3), 44.5, (0.6), MW 71-R38.243.3, (0.6),43.3, (0.8),37.9, (14.7),44.5, (0.8),44.2, (2.3),44.5, (0.6),   113 113 99 116 116 116 11311399116116116 MW 87-R 47.9 88.6, (4.8), 90.6, (4.0), 84.1, (36.5), 99.1, (6.8), 102.2, (9.9), 101.7, (7.1), MW 87-R47.988.6, (4.8),90.6, (4.0),84.1, (36.5),99.1, (6.8),102.2, (9.9),101.7, (7.1),   185 189 176 207 214 212 185189176207214212 MW 121-R 33.7 43.6, (3.1), 43.0, (1.4), 31.4, (3.7), 44.7, (2.3), 43.3, (2.0), 43.6, (0.8), MW 121-R33.743.6, (3.1),43.0, (1.4),31.4, (3.7),44.7, (2.3),43.3, (2.0),43.6, (0.8),   129 128 93 133 129 129 12912893133129129 MW 141-R 68.0 26.1, (7.1), 16.1, (6.8), 15.0, (11.0), 16.7, (7.4), 0 0 MW 141-R68.026.1, (7.1),16.1, (6.8),15.0, (11.0),16.7, (7.4),00   38 24 22 25 0 0 3824222500 KN 10-R 31.4 32.0, (2.8), 33.4, (3.4), 27.2, (12.7), 31.4, (8.5), 37.9, (9.1), 33.4, (2.3), KN 10-R31.432.0, (2.8),33.4, (3.4),27.2, (12.7),31.4, (8.5),37.9, (9.1),33.4, (2.3),   102 106 87 100 121 106 10210687100121106 KN 54-R 46.2 36.0, (3.7), 37.9, (4.2), 27.5, (5.9), 44.5, (4.8), 45.3, (4.5), 47.3, (3.1), KN 54-R46.236.0, (3.7),37.9, (4.2),27.5, (5.9),44.5, (4.8),45.3, (4.5),47.3, (3.1),   78 82 60 96 98 102 7882609698102  "},{"text":"TABLE 6 . Variability of water allocation, on hours per hectare basis, through warabandi turns in Watercourse No. 89-L Pir Mahal. Description Official warabandi Agreed warabandi DescriptionOfficial warabandiAgreed warabandi  (n=36) (n=156) (n=36)(n=156) Range 0.42 -0.93 0.47 -3.29 Range0.42 -0.930.47 -3.29 Average 0.69 0.83 Average0.690.83 Standard Deviation 0.09 0.25 Standard Deviation0.090.25 Coefficient of Variation (%) 13 31 Coefficient of Variation (%)1331 FIGURE 4.   FIGURE 4.  "},{"text":"TABLE 7 . Variability of water allocation in 22 sample watercourses. MW = Mananwala Distributary; KN = Karkan Minor of Mananwala Distributary; PM = Pir Mahal Distributary; JW = Junejwala Minor of Pir Mahal Distributary; AZ = Azim Distributary; FW = Fordwah Distributary. Watercourse Assessed Minimum Maximum Average Coefficient of WatercourseAssessedMinimumMaximumAverage Coefficient of  average allocation allocation allocation allocation aariation average allocationallocationallocationallocationaariation  (hrs/ha) (hrs/ha) (hrs/ha) (hrs/ha)  (hrs/ha)(hrs/ha)(hrs/ha)(hrs/ha)  LOWER CHENAB CANAL IRRIGATION SYSTEM   LOWER CHENAB CANAL IRRIGATION SYSTEM  Upper Gugera command area   Upper Gugera command area MW 24873-R 0.98 0.62 1.85 0.91 0.24 MW 24873-R0.980.621.850.910.24 MW 43506-R 0.75 0.27 2.47 0.82 0.38 MW 43506-R0.750.272.470.820.38 MW 71683-R 0.87 0.42 2.72 1.01 0.39 MW 71683-R0.870.422.721.010.39 MW 87670-R 0.70 0.44 3.58 0.86 0.61 MW 87670-R0.700.443.580.860.61 MW 121735-R 0.66 0.27 4.13 1.06 0.44 MW 121735-R0.660.274.131.060.44 MW 141542-R 0.33 0.37 2.92 0.72 0.43 MW 141542-R0.330.372.920.720.43 KN 10435-R 1.06 0.64 1.90 1.04 0.19 KN 10435-R1.060.641.901.040.19 KN 54892-R 1.09 0.30 2.82 1.14 0.28 KN 54892-R1.090.302.821.140.28  Lower Gugera command area   Lower Gugera command area PM 70076-R 0.90 0.67 3.04 1.04 0.28 PM 70076-R0.900.673.041.040.28 PM 89250-L 0.96 0.47 3.29 0.83 0.31 PM 89250-L0.960.473.290.830.31 PM 133970-L 0.75 0.20 3.29 0.86 0.45 PM 133970-L0.750.203.290.860.45 JW 6619-R 1.42 0.74 1.85 1.19 0.14 JW 6619-R1.420.741.851.190.14 JW 27290-R 1.20 0.84 3.29 1.33 0.44 JW 27290-R1.200.843.291.330.44 JW 41234-L 1.09 0.32 8.23 1.51 0.87 JW 41234-L1.090.328.231.510.87  FORDWAH BRANCH CANAL IRRIGATION SYSTEM   FORDWAH BRANCH CANAL IRRIGATION SYSTEM AZ 20610-L 1.41 1.01 4.94 2.00 0.53 AZ 20610-L1.411.014.942.000.53 AZ 43260-L 2.54 1.70 3.46 2.59 0.16 AZ 43260-L2.541.703.462.590.16 AZ 63620-L 1.39 0.35 4.37 1.70 0.59 AZ 63620-L1.390.354.371.700.59 AZ 111770-L 1.41 0.40 2.59 1.46 0.26 AZ 111770-L1.410.402.591.460.26 FW 14320-R 0.86 0.59 1.80 0.86 0.22 FW 14320-R0.860.591.800.860.22 FW 46725-R 0.98 0.59 1.73 1.04 0.22 FW 46725-R0.980.591.731.040.22 FW 62085-R 1.26 1.06 3.11 1.38 0.21 FW 62085-R1.261.063.111.380.21 FW 130100-R 0.65 0.54 2.13 0.96 0.30 FW 130100-R0.650.542.130.960.30  "},{"text":"TABLE 8 . Deviations (%) from agreed duration of water turns observed in 11 selected sample watercourses of the LCC System during kharif 1993. W/Cs   Duration of deviations (hours)   W/CsDuration of deviations (hours)  Zero deviation 0-0.50 0.50-1.0 1.0-2.0 2.0-3.0 3.0 and above Zero deviation0-0.500.50-1.01.0-2.02.0-3.0 3.0 and above MW 24-R 59 11 9 4 7 10 MW 24-R591194710 MW 71-R 80 9 4 5 1 1 MW 71-R8094511 MW 121-R 9 57 19 12 2 1 MW 121-R957191221 KN 10-R 15 18 24 22 6 15 KN 10-R15182422615 KN 54-R 15 34 17 15 9 10 KN 54-R15341715910 PM 70-R 45 29 8 11 1 6 PM 70-R452981116 PM 89-L 9 51 15 14 4 7 PM 89-L951151447 PM 133-L 10 34 27 21 4 4 PM 133-L1034272144 JW 06-R 33 33 18 9 4 3 JW 06-R333318943 JW 27-R 41 19 8 13 4 15 JW 27-R4119813415 JW 41-L 35 18 13 19 5 10 JW 41-L35181319510 Notes: MW = Mananwala Distributary; KN = Karkan Minor of MW; PM = Pir Mahal Distributary; JW = Junejwala Minor Notes: MW = Mananwala Distributary; KN = Karkan Minor of MW; PM = Pir Mahal Distributary; JW = Junejwala Minor of PM.       of PM.  "},{"text":"TABLE 9 . Trading and exchange of turns by the farmers in the LCC during kharif 1993. Description Mananwala Distributary  Karkan Minor  DescriptionMananwala DistributaryKarkan Minor  24-R 71-R 121-R 10-R 54-R 24-R71-R121-R10-R54-R Total agreed turns 37 107 242 68 113 Total agreed turns3710724268113 Turns in practice 37 109 230 60  94 Turns in practice371092306094 Borrowed (%) 14 9 39 29  37 Borrowed (%)149392937 Lent (%) 20 9 50 34  48 Lent (%)209503448 Trading (%) 0 0 0 48  0 Trading (%)000480 Description Pir Mahal Distributary Junejwala Minor  DescriptionPir Mahal DistributaryJunejwala Minor  70-R 89-L 133-L 6-R 27-R 41-L 70-R89-L133-L6-R27-R41-L Total agreed turns 77 156 186 122 53 91 Total agreed turns771561861225391 Turns in practice 82 167 181 104 54 88 Turns in practice821671811045488 Borrowed (%) 3 6 12 12 11 8 Borrowed (%)361212118 Lent (%) 5 2 33 15 12 11 Lent (%)5233151211 Trading (%) 8 12 8 8 2 2 Trading (%)8128822  "},{"text":"TABLE 10 . Contribution of groundwater (%) to irrigation supplies. Watercourse No. of   Contribution of groundwater (%)   WatercourseNo. ofContribution of groundwater (%) details tube  in comparison with canal supplies  detailstubein comparison with canal supplies  wells May June July August September October wellsMayJuneJulyAugustSeptember October Mananwala and Pir Mahal areas (LCC)      Mananwala and Pir Mahal areas (LCC) MW 71-R 53 58 63 80 76 70 75 MW 71-R53586380767075 MW 121-R 17 34 26 100 33 35 40 MW 121-R173426100333540 PM 70-R 12 40 56 63 68 65 50 PM 70-R12405663686550 PM 133-L 34 64 71 70 78 73 59 PM 133-L34647170787359 Azim and Fordwah areas       Azim and Fordwah areas AZ 63-L 13 28 16 21 46 34 31 AZ 63-L13281621463431 AZ 111-L 11 78 77 88 100 94 97 AZ 111-L117877881009497 FW 62-R 14 8 9 13 37 14 10 FW 62-R148913371410 FW 130-R 18 12 15 45 50 38 30 FW 130-R18121545503830  "}],"sieverID":"f37a8d3d-6807-43f3-97d1-ac9498d43ad7","abstract":"IIMI's mission is to foster and support sustainable increases in the productivity of irrigated agriculture within the overall context of the water basin. In serving this mission, IIMI concentrates on the integration of policies, technologies and management systems to achieve workable solutions to real problems-practical, relevant results in the field of irrigation and water resources.The publications in this series cover a wide range of subjects-from computer modeling to experience with water users associations-and vary in content from directly applicable research to more basic studies, on which applied work ultimately depends. Some research reports are narrowly focused, analytical, and detailed empirical studies; others are wide-ranging and synthetic overviews of generic problems.Although most of the reports are published by IIMI staff and their collaborators, we welcome contributions from others. Each report is reviewed internally by IIMI's own staff and Fellows, and by external reviewers. The reports are published and distributed both in hard copy and electronically (http:// www. cgiar.org/iimi) and where possible all data and analyses will be available as separate downloadable files. Reports may be copied freely and cited with due acknowledgment."}

data/part_2/09d869cfa6f7b1c0d43e06bb18f02c27.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"09d869cfa6f7b1c0d43e06bb18f02c27","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/4ee46e7c-011b-454c-a3da-a5faad8d6505/retrieve"},"pageCount":10,"title":"Total cost of Project (SLP Funds, USD): $ 39,998.00","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":172,"text":"No specific pre-existing demand for this specific project proposal exists. However, collaborative work on feed technologies with other CG centres and national partners through SLP funded projects reveal that feed is a major constraint for smallholder commercialization of livestock and that feed technology research on its own is unlikely to ensure adoption and innovations in diffusion process without adequate knowledge about characteristics and performance of feed markets. The proposed partnership between ILRI, ICRISAT and IFPRI for conducting this background study towards development of a full proposal is a response tot hat realization. Moreover, as proposed 5-6 case study contributors from national institutions will be identified to derive perspectives of the feed market issues from a wide range environments and situations. Positive response to this call by national institutions will constitute a form of demand from users and potential beneficiaries. Further, the proposed workshop for sharing the results of the case studies and using the results for full proposal development jointly will also be a manifestation of demand for this kind of study."}]},{"head":"Project purpose (Max. 200 words):","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":6,"text":"State project purpose simply and directly."},{"index":2,"size":103,"text":"The main purpose is to understand the dynamics of feed/fodder markets and explore how smallholder livestock keepers may benefit from these markets as producers of feeds/fodder and/or as buyers of feeds/fodder. The specific objectives are to identify actors who participate in traditional fodder markets; the structure, organization and performance of these markets under different production systems, market development levels, policy and institutional environments; specific constraints and opportunities for smallholders to benefit from these markets, and identify the key interventions that can improve sustainable smallholder access to high quality fodders and feed, and also that raise smallholder benefits from production of high quality fodders."}]},{"head":"Project outputs:","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":11,"text":"a) List the outputs that will be delivered by the project."},{"index":2,"size":63,"text":"The principal output will be a set of preliminary results and evidence on feed market characteristics and performance in a set of diverse situations, which will allow development more precise questions and hypotheses for development of a full proposal to undertake a study on feed markets in Sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia. The specific outputs from the seed grant activities will be : "}]},{"head":"Activities and milestones to develop the research proposal:","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":16,"text":"The activities to be undertaken for development of a full proposal will include the following steps:"},{"index":2,"size":17,"text":"1) Literature review of feed/ fodder markets studies in target developing countries (SSA, South Asia) -months 1-3"},{"index":3,"size":17,"text":"2.) Identification of potential contributors to case study/proposal development workshop, as well as potential donors -months 1-3"}]},{"head":"3.)","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":16,"text":"Conduct the identified case/scoping studies in Ethiopia (see Appendix A for details) and another in India."},{"index":2,"size":4,"text":"-2 -6 months 4.)"},{"index":3,"size":16,"text":"In month 8 conduct a 4 day workshop in (Addis Ababa or Nairobi) with following objectives:"},{"index":4,"size":41,"text":"• presentation of 5-6 case studies on fodder/feed markets, including the Ethiopia scoping study • use the findings from the case studies and the discussions to identify major researchable issues and draft a full proposal for submission to an identified donor"}]},{"head":"5)","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":9,"text":"Complete new proposal development and submit proposal month 10"},{"index":2,"size":4,"text":"Project users and beneficiaries:"},{"index":3,"size":33,"text":"The principal users and beneficiaries of this research will be smallholder livestock producers, smallholder crop and fodder producers, and small scale market agents as well as feed manufacturers, livestock policy makers, and researchers."},{"index":4,"size":104,"text":"The project will be implemented in consultation with various stakeholders related to the livestock sector in general and feed production and marketing in particular. In each case study country, key informants will be consulted to identify major feed production areas, feed market chains and market actors, and their views on key issues related to feed production and marketing will be solicited, which will be used, in combination with any knowledge from literature review to design specific field studies. Stakeholders in selected study communities will be consulted for further probing the macro or meso level information. The study results will be shared with the stakeholders."}]},{"head":"Project location:","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":15,"text":"a) Indicate the countries and agro-ecological zones in which the proposed project will be implemented."},{"index":2,"size":40,"text":"Four-six case studies on feed market will be conducted in South Asia and sub-Saharan Africa. At least one case each will be conducted in Ethiopia and India in collaboration with on-going project activities of the principal and a partner institutes."},{"index":3,"size":39,"text":"Other case studies and country locations will be chosen on the basis of a search of potential contributors from places where commercialization of livestock is a rising trend and feed constraint is an apparent constraint based on secondary information."},{"index":4,"size":10,"text":"b) Explain the criteria to select countries and project sites."},{"index":5,"size":44,"text":"The proposed case studies will be conducted in South Asia and sub-Saharan Africa. Both the regions have high incidence of poverty and livestock, have high potential for poverty reduction through livestock activities, and feed is a major constraint for increasing market oriented livestock production"},{"index":6,"size":131,"text":"Of the proposed case studies on feed markets, one will be conducted in Ethiopia where a large multi-institutional multidisciplinary research-for-development project is on-going. ILRI is coordinating this project on behalf of the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development and the project is being implemented in 10 Pilot Learning Sites in 10 woredas in four regions of Ethiopia. Apart from those four regions, Addis Ababa will be studied because of the presence of urban/peri-urban dairy as major activity facing severe feed problem. Similarly, the case study in India will be conducted within an on-going project being implemented by ILRI and ICRISAT in collaboration with national partners in Andhra Pradesh, where dairy is major commercial activity among smallholders in rural areas as well as in urban areas and feed is a major constraint."},{"index":7,"size":40,"text":"The location of the other case studies will be chosen on the basis of a search of potential contributors from places where commercialization of livestock is a rising trend and feed constraint is an apparent constraint based on secondary information."},{"index":8,"size":30,"text":"These case study countries or sites will be considered for final selection of study sites for the full proposal but other sites may also be considered from these two regions."}]},{"head":"Research approach and indicative research activities in relation to Outputs (Max. 300 words):","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":17,"text":"The activities to be undertaken for development of a full proposal will include the following steps :"},{"index":2,"size":18,"text":"1.) Literature review of feed/ fodder markets studies in target developing countries (SSA, South Asia) (months 1-3) 2.)"},{"index":3,"size":54,"text":"Identification of potential contributors to case study/proposal development workshop, as well as potential donors. Among the case studies one will be conducted in Ethiopia (see appendix A for details) and another in India. In both countries ILRI, IPMS and ICRISAT have established diverse contacts and networks that will contribute to this study (months 1-3)"}]},{"head":"3.)","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":142,"text":"Conduct the case studies including the scoping study in Ethiopia and India. These studies will be written up either based on an earlier or on-going work. Mostly participatory rapid appraisal approach will be used for data collection but where feasible small detailed surveys will also be conducted. Generally, locations with intensifying market oriented smallholder systems will be targeted with a view to assess the feed supply chains connecting rural and urban/peri-urban production environments and markets. Both tradition feeds like crop residues, tree fodder and meals as well as produced forage and manufactured concentrates will be covered so long as they are used in the chosen systems and environments. The competition and complementarity between fed types will be explored along with other questions on market characteristics and performance (months 1-6) 4.) Conduct a 4 day workshop in Addis Ababa or Nairobi (month 8)"}]},{"head":"5.) Complete new proposal development and submit proposal (month 10)","index":10,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Scientific impact and International Public Goods expected from the project (Max. 200 words):","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":107,"text":"Feeds typically constitute 50-70 percent of cost of production of livestock enterprises. The ratio varies according to species and generally increases as more intensive production system is adopted. Therefore, overcoming constraints in the production and marketing of feeds to ensure supply of quality feeds year round at least cost has a great potential to impact on the livelihood of smallholder livestock producers. Understanding feed/fodder market dynamics under different production systems, market development levels, policy and institutional environments will generate a set of knowledge that will expected to have wider application beyond the case study countries and sites. Experiences from different situations will allow cross learning and adaptation."}]},{"head":"Expected impact on beneficiaries (poverty reduction, food security, environmental protection -Max. 250 words):","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":18,"text":"a) State, preferably in quantitative terms, what development impact might be achieved in the short or medium term."},{"index":2,"size":77,"text":"Knowledge about feed market performance will allow better targeting by extension agencies of feed technologies for diffusion, by feed producers/manufacturers for better targeting of feeds for marketing. These are expected to enhance feed availability, increase productivity of animals and lower cost for livestock producers making them profitable and competitive in the market. Impact can be demonstrated by looking at adoption rate of feed technologies, differences in feed prices across markets based on quality, productivity improvement of animals."}]},{"head":"Scaling out strategy (Max. 150 words):","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":17,"text":"a) Describe the strategy, processes and institutional alliances that can or will be used to upscale findings."},{"index":2,"size":10,"text":"Several stepwise and/or overlapping steps will be taken as follows:"},{"index":3,"size":52,"text":"a) Policy dialogue/workshop will be held with top policy makers, researchers, extension experts/agents, NGOs, private entrepreneurs in the feed industry and market, bankers, donors to share findings and their implications; publications of project report and policy brief setting out options and issues for smallholder market participation through better access to feed markets."},{"index":4,"size":57,"text":"b) The results of multi sites studies will be synthesised and published in various forms including policy briefs; researchers and other stakeholders in each country will be invited to other country's workshop for cross learning; a final workshop with selected key stakeholders from the participating countries and policy makers will be held for wider sharing of findings."},{"index":5,"size":13,"text":"Publications will be disseminated through SLP and others' websites and other electronic networks."}]},{"head":"Systemwide nature of proposed project:","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":20,"text":"a) State why this is a systemwide activity and why the SLP is the appropriate mechanism for collaboration and funding"},{"index":2,"size":77,"text":"Feed is problems across countries and regions and production systems. That is why several CG centres are collaborating on feed technology and policy research addressing problems and opportunities related to both the specific mandate commodity (commodities) and geographical region as well as more generic issues that have cross-cutting or wider applications. This study intends cover a selection of those diverse commodity and production systems and policy environments to document both specific and generic knowledge about feed markets."}]},{"head":"b) State what inter-center and system synergies are expected","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":177,"text":"Three CG centre and several NARS participating in case study contributions will build a synergy of inter-regional and local knowledge about emerging issues and problems that need to be addressed. Among the CG centre, ILRI's Livestock Market Opportunities theme jointly managed with IFPRI address market constraints and potentials for smallholders. Input market is a major focus of research under this theme as it is a major constraint limiting smallholder participation in markets. ICRISAT is conducting food-feed research under semi-arid environments in collaboration other CG centres and national partners and have in the past undertaken exploratory studies on feed markets in India, which will be very useful for this study. ILRI and Improving Productivity and Market Success of Ethiopian farmers (IPMS project) will conduct a scoping study on feed markets in Ethiopia to contribute as a case study at the proposed workshop for full proposal development. Cost of this scoping study estimated at US$10,000 will be borne by IPMS and ILRI (see Appendix A). Matching fund for the full proposal will be decided at the proposal development workshop."}]},{"head":"Funding strategy:","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":22,"text":"a) Indicate which major funding agency is being targeted by the seed money period and the amount of funds sought per source."},{"index":2,"size":14,"text":"We have BMZ in mind targeting joint proposal submission of ILRI, ICRISAT and IFPRI."},{"index":3,"size":19,"text":"b) Indicate if official contact with these agencies has been initiated and the outcome of this contact, if any."},{"index":4,"size":94,"text":"Discussion about funding strategy is at this stage between the participating institutes c) Explain why this proposed Concept Note has a good chance of success in being turned into a major project proposal.  and Adudgna, 2006). Underdeveloped feed markets exacerbate the problem. Data and information is required to guide the development of policies and strategies to improve the feed markets. However, there is scarcity of information on the operation of these markets in Ethiopia. This scoping study is aimed at contributing to the alleviation of the dearth of data and information on feed markets."}]},{"head":"Objectives of the study","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":24,"text":"The overall objective of the study is to understanding the structure and operation of the feed markets. More specifically, the study aims at :"},{"index":2,"size":44,"text":"1.) identifying the actors in the feed market and their roles, including intermediaries and regulatory bodies, in rural and peri-urban production systems 2.) assessing the functioning of these market 3.) identifying the constraints limiting the development of the market, and opportunities to improve it."}]}],"figures":[{"text":" b)State what indicators will or can be used to demonstrate impact. "},{"text":" smallholder mixed farming systems in Ethiopia, the major feed resources include crop residues (straw, stover), grazing lands, browse, and crop aftermath. Most of the crop residues used as feed are own production. Grazing lands are either common property resources or private feed lots. Use of cultivated feed resources and commercially manufactured feed supply remains limited in rural areas. Urban/peri-urban production systems are important and they are more market oriented, and they depend a lot on straw/Stover supplied from distant rural areas and also on manufactured feds. A transient feed market covering both crop residues and commercially manufactured feeds is being observed functioning in the country. Teff straw is the most commonly marketed feed. Maize and sorghum stover are being marketed in several parts of the country where the crops are becoming increasingly important.Due to the market oriented agricultural development strategy of the country, market oriented livestock production is emerging in many parts of the country. The extension service is working on package programs for fattening, dairy and poultry development. A recently conducted rapid appraisal on constraints to market oriented livestock production in four woredas in four states identified shortage of feed as the most critical constraint (Gebremedhin "},{"text":"Sub-total 33,332 Overheads 6, 666 Total 39, 998 Matching funds to develop the proposal, if any (USD by source): a. Knowledge about characteristics and performance of selected fodder/feed and fodder planting materials markets Personnel 10,000 Personnel10,000 Consumables 1,000 Consumables1,000 Workshops 18,000 Workshops18,000 Background research, if any 2,332 Background research, if any2,332 Travel 2,000 Travel2,000 ILRI and Improving Productivity and market Success of Ethiopian farmers (IPMS project) will ILRI and Improving Productivity and market Success of Ethiopian farmers (IPMS project) will conduct a scoping study on feed/fodder markets in IPMS pilot learning sites in Ethiopia to conduct a scoping study on feed/fodder markets in IPMS pilot learning sites in Ethiopia to contribute as a case study at the proposed workshop for full proposal development. Cost of this contribute as a case study at the proposed workshop for full proposal development. Cost of this scoping study estimated at US$10,000 will be borne by IPMS and ILRI (see Appendix A). scoping study estimated at US$10,000 will be borne by IPMS and ILRI (see Appendix A).  "},{"text":"Contribution to CGIAR goals (Yes/No and if Yes, how). Refer to System Priorities for CGIAR Research 2005-2015, Science Council Secretariat, December 2005):  a) Sustaining biodiversity : NA a) Sustaining biodiversity : NA More and better food through genetic improvement: Yes, in an indirect way since experience More and better food through genetic improvement: Yes, in an indirect way since experience from India shows that information from fodder market research informs and influences crop from India shows that information from fodder market research informs and influences crop breeders about desired traits for future genetic enhancement breeders about desired traits for future genetic enhancement b) Reducing rural poverty through agricultural diversification and high value commodities: b) Reducing rural poverty through agricultural diversification and high value commodities: Yes, by helping to adopt better livestock production methods for market Yes, by helping to adopt better livestock production methods for market c) Poverty alleviation through sustainable management of water, land and forest resources. c) Poverty alleviation through sustainable management of water, land and forest resources. NA NA d) Policies and institutional innovations to support sustainable reduction of poverty and d) Policies and institutional innovations to support sustainable reduction of poverty and hunger: Yes, by improving feed market institutions and efficiency hunger: Yes, by improving feed market institutions and efficiency  "},{"text":"Approximate cost of project that will be requested from donor (USD):  Salaries 120,000 Salaries120,000 Consumables 80, 000 Consumables80, 000 Workshops 80,000 Workshops80,000 Background research 400, 000 Background research400, 000 Travel 60, 000 Travel60, 000 Sub-total 740,000 Sub-total740,000 Overheads use 20% 148, 000 Overheads use 20%148, 000 Total 888, 000 Total888, 000  "},{"text":"Approximate research matching funds from partner institutions (USD):   "}],"sieverID":"62430f0a-5475-4d6c-b0b1-5176ca36d58d","abstract":"March 2007 start, duration 1 year Background/Justification (Max.300 words) a) State the reasons that justify the conduct of the proposed research and the current state of knowledge and gaps.There is very little current or past research on feed/fodder markets, especially those serving smallholders, in the developing countries. Recent work in India (Blümmel and Rao, 2006) has suggested that fodder market research can aid in understanding key problems of feed availability and shortages for example by identifying suppliers, following supply routes, kind and availability of feed and feed price: quality relationships and their seasonal variations. Smallholders may face different nature of feed market constraints compared to large scale producers. National and international research agencies including the International Livestock Research Institute have developed several feed production and utilization technologies and strategies to address the problems of inadequacy and poor quality of feeds but adoption of these technologies have been so far slow and poor. Among other reasons, lack of suitable and adequate seeds and planting materials is often mentioned as a reason for poor diffusion and adoption of feed/fodder technologies. But unlike crop seeds, markets for forage seeds and planting materials for fodders have been rarely explored.Fodder and feed markets will be increasingly important as smallholder systems intensify to capture an increasing share of the expanding livestock product market. Understanding the dynamics of these markets under different production systems, market development levels, policy and institutional environments will be helpful for improving feed technology research, feed/fodder market organisation and efficiency. (workshop, interviews, surveys, etc)  that show that the proposed work responds to a demand by beneficiaries and users of project outputs. If evidence of the demand for the project is not available indicate what activities will be undertaken to ensure that the proposed work is demand-led."}

data/part_2/0a5c121f603a63278421522d67a68b69.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0a5c121f603a63278421522d67a68b69","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://digitalarchive.worldfishcenter.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.12348/490/3807_WF-3807.pdf"},"pageCount":9,"title":"Fisheries Research Using Digital Tablets in Myanmar","keywords":["digital tablet","Android application","remote data entry","database systems","field research","fisheries management","natural resources"],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":309,"text":"The ACIAR-funded project \"Improving Research and Development of Myanmar's Inland and Coastal Fisheries\" (short name: MYFish) aims at building the capacity of Department of Fisheries in Research and Development, characterizing the fisheries sector and identifying new approaches to increase productivity, efficiency, sustainability and equity in the Myanmar fisheries. The Fish Migration study is one of the studies facilitated under MYFish. The migratory Hilsa fish (Tenualosa ilisha) is a major resource in the Gulf of Bengal and the stock of this species is shared between multiple countries. This anadromous species breeds inland, where it ascends up to 1,200km up rivers for spawning (Karamchandi, 2012). Identifying breeding sites and main inland migration routes in each country in order to implement adequate management measures is critical for the sustainability of the resource. The Fish Migration study undertook the identification of Hilsa main spawning grounds in the Ayeyarwady Delta and along the Ayeyarwady River. The extent of its migration is studied through a systematic and structured gathering of local knowledge, using a questionnaire-based approach developed and tested in the Mekong (Baird 2007). Qualitative and semi-quantitative data gathering in Myanmar relied so far on paper-based questionnaires, with data subsequently entered manually in a computer database. Such method inconveniently requires a lot of time, is costly in labor and the duplication of operators increases the probability of errors in the final database (Marsh, 2005). However, recent progress in digital technologies has paved the way for more efficient approaches in recording data. The health sector was the first one using digital assistants, pen tablets and handheld computers (Spain et al. 2001;Green 2001, Main et al. 2004). Later on the marketing sector revolutionized the use of portable digital devices and initiated its conceptualization (Pace & Staton 2005;Wells et al.2013); nowadays digital tablets are also used in environmental sciences in developed countries (Peppard et al.2004;Gutowsky et al. 2013)."},{"index":2,"size":90,"text":"In the present paper we introduce a tablet-based application developed for scientific surveys and implemented by the Department of Fisheries (DoF) in Myanmar. The method has proven its comparative advantages: its time-and cost-efficiency and its road-tested reliability allowed Government fisheries research teams to save time and money while improving data consistency at the same time. The benefits of using this technology, already emphasized by the Asian Development Bank with reference to socioeconomics studies (ADB 2013) have been confirmed in the Myanmar context characterized by a quickly expanding mobile phone network."}]},{"head":"Material and Methods","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":116,"text":"As part of the study of fish migrations along the Ayeyarwady River, a questionnaire was developed to survey local fishermen communities and capture their knowledge for a better understanding of Hilsa migration patterns and reproduction sites. The comprehensive survey was developed to collect biological information on Hilsa as well as 30 other target fish species of commercial interest. It included i) an identification by the interviewees of migratory fish species present in their location, and ii) questions about ecological parameters such as seasonal occurrence, seasonal size of catches or breeding areas, for each target species. The questionnaire was used with 160 fishermen in 32 different locations in the delta and along a 1000km long river segment."},{"index":2,"size":66,"text":"A particular feature of this questionnaire is that it is in digital format: DoF surveyors used digital tablets on the field to ask questions, record answers and send data to a remote server. Thus, the digital survey system includes two modules: i) a tablet-based questionnaire, and ii) a Back Office application for questionnaire management and compilation of answers gathered. Each of those components is described below. "}]},{"head":"The Tablet Application","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":32,"text":"The methodology was developed for a 10 inch (25 cm) screen Android-operated Samsung digital tablet. Designing a flexible application to handle the questionnaire was the main development challenge, especially given the need:"},{"index":2,"size":54,"text":"-of an application able to process different questions in various order (e.g. coming back to a question A for complements after question B is answered); -to add, delete or modify questions remotely; -for a database model to handle a new type of question (e.g. based on experience with fishermen) without resorting to an update."},{"index":3,"size":130,"text":"In terms of programming, the tables 'Question' and 'AnswerQuestion' are the core components (Wei 2012). Table 'Question' includes all the questions asked and defines how the questionnaire is displayed. The specific fields of this table are: -'TypeQuestion': defining the display and storage of the question in the application; -'ParentID': linking any parent question to daughter questions, with no limitation in the number of levels (e.g. question on the size of Hilsa fish in January linked to the parent question on presence of Hilsa in January, itself linked to the question on Hilsa occurrence in the location surveyed); -'LinkedQuestionID': this feature allows the same subset of questions to be repetitively asked (e.g. questions about fish catch and fish size repeated for each species harvested and for each month of the year)"},{"index":4,"size":14,"text":"Table 'AnswerQuestion' stores all the answers collected. The specific fields of this table are:"},{"index":5,"size":18,"text":"-'QuestionID': relating a given answer to the corresponding question; -'AnswerSurveyID': relating a given answer to a given survey;"},{"index":6,"size":28,"text":"-'ParentAnswerID': linking, when the same subset of questions is repetitively asked (e.g. occurrence of Hilsa each month of the year), each subset of answers to a parent answer."},{"index":7,"size":97,"text":"The questionnaire application was also designed to allow grouping in one table multiple data points (e.g. table Fisherman x Month x Fish yield), which is much more natural and user friendly than the default scroll-down list in which all combinations are successively listed (in that case Fisherman 1, Month 1, Fish yield; Fisherman 1, Month 2, Fish yield; etc). We managed to reduce the response time of the table option by optimizing the general performances of the whole application and by rethinking the way to display tables. Thus, tables can now be used in 3 different ways:"},{"index":8,"size":61,"text":"-As fixed tables, in which the number of rows is fixed; -As dynamic tables, in which only one row is fixed but several rows can be added; -As linked tables, related to a question that can handle multiple answers (e.g. a question listing all species a fisher knows) where the number of rows corresponds to the answers of the related question."},{"index":9,"size":66,"text":"Designing a user interface able to adapt to the dynamic nature of the questionnaire (i.e. ability for the surveyor to enter the questionnaire in various sections, to skip or come back to a specific question) represented an important challenge; that challenge was addressed by using \"fragments\": these Android components confer dynamism to the code whereas the display is supported by some static xml layouts (Wilson 2013)."},{"index":10,"size":53,"text":"An additional function was developed, allowing the interviewer to display upon completion of the questionnaire a summary version of the questionnaire together with all answers. This allows the surveyor to review the answers, to fill gaps, and to amend possible mistakes before the corresponding final data set is exported to the Back Office."}]},{"head":"The Back Office","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":89,"text":"The Back Office is the server-based software managing blank questionnaires and receiving filled questionnaires from tablets. More specifically, that Back Office must be able to i) update in each tablet the blank questionnaire possibly modified by survey designers, ii) automatically store and compile the data sets received from each individual tablet, and iii) export to scientists' computers, ready for analysis, the database of all questionnaires gathered (which is done in MS Excel format for user-friendliness). The communication, synchronization and compilation procedure developed is illustrated in Figures 2 and 3."},{"index":2,"size":204,"text":"In order to avoid overloading the system with useless updates and be able to double-check revisions made to the questionnaire before sending them to the tablets, the updates are stored first in the Back Office. The user can then initiate the synchronization with the tablets when all revisions have been made and verified. During this synchronization, the tables defining the survey questions are uploaded in csv format, which is simpler, more effective and preferred for wider use. The newly generated blank questionnaires then automatically replace the former ones in all tablets. When the surveyor triggers the export button, data are exported in csv format and transferred to an ftp server. Subsequently data are uploaded in the Back Office database. A combination of time and tablet identifiers is used to make sure that the same questionnaire, if exported twice, is not compiled twice in the Back Office. Converting multiple large csv datasets into a single Excel file matrix can be time-consuming in some cases (3,500,000 Excel cells required over 1 hour for compilation) so we addressed this limitation by programming a routine task running and compiling questionnaires every night (i.e. the whole set of data becomes available for analysis the morning after the last survey). "}]},{"head":"Results and conclusions","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":249,"text":"The methodology described in this paper, used to collect information from 160 fishermen in 32 locations in remote Myanmar, has proven effective to reduce time and costs compared with manual data collection methods. In some of the places visited, there was no access to electricity but the battery capacity of the digital tablets allowed the surveyors to collect data day long while activating both the Energy saving and Flight modes on the tablets. During the night, the survey team could charge the digital devices using 220V electricity in places where it was available or 12V car batteries instead. Data collected were sent to the Back Office server using mobile telephone networks or Wi-Fi when available. A significant advantage of the system was the time and costs saved in entering data: for a similar study implemented by the same research team with the traditional paper-based data collection, nine weeks were allocated to data entry, with a database design and data entry budget slightly higher than the budget needed to purchase tablets and develop the application presented here. The fact that one step is saved in the data entry process (from verbal → paper → digital to verbal → digital) also reduces the chances of introducing errors in the final database. Another major benefit of using digital tablets was the capacity for the DoF team, unfamiliar with database management, to generate familiar Excel tables, and to review patterns and trends in data while details and memories from interviews were still fresh."},{"index":2,"size":92,"text":"The present paper demonstrates the potential for using digital approaches to record interviews while implementing scientific surveys in countries such as Myanmar where infrastructure is limited but 3G networks are available. The fact that the methodology was adapted from a socioeconomic survey in Cambodia illustrates the adaptability of the tool which is not limited to a given type of study or discipline. Thus, the digital approach to data collection has already proven successful in various contexts and such methodology is recommended for research and also for monitoring and extension in rural environment."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Fig. 1 . Fig.1. Overview of the system described. "},{"text":"Fig. 2 . Fig.2. Synchronization: Updating questionnaire in each individual tablets from the Back Office. "},{"text":"Fig. 3 . Fig.3. Synchronization: Exporting data from individual tablets and storing them into the Back Office. "},{"text":"  "}],"sieverID":"8af3c252-f95e-45e9-8938-24a93d7ce83f","abstract":"The present paper introduces a new method for data gathering using digital tablets in the field. The method is part of a fisheries study aimed at identifying migration patterns and breeding sites of key commercial fish species in Myanmar. The research is based on systematic and structured gathering of local knowledge along a 1,000 km long segment of the Ayeyarwady River, from the southern Delta to the northern Central Dry Zone. Digital tablets are used to convert local indigenous knowledge into data. The system developed includes two modules: i) Android-based tablets with digital questionnaires for data collection on the field, and ii) a Back Office application for questionnaire management and data compilation. The tool allows data collected from different tablets to be uploaded through a ftp server and combined into a single matrix ready for analysis. In addition, the survey software can be updated in real time on the individual tablets. The system bi-passes the time-consuming manual data entry process, data become available for analysis immediately after the last survey, and the cost is similar or lower than that of manual data entry. Time-and costefficiency along with road-tested reliability makes this approach an effective one for field research in developing countries where there is good telephone network coverage."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0a8073da1ed51fcb902962d33b110f50","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/3229001d-b23c-4b17-a0b0-4c20f1c31096/retrieve"},"pageCount":28,"title":"IITA Research Guides IITA Research Gu ides provide information and guidance to agricultural researchers, technicians, extension specialists, educators and students involved in research and training. The Research Guides are periodically updated to meet advances in scientific knowledge. IITA permns reproduction of this Research Guide for nonprofit purposes . For commercial reproduction, contact the liT A Publications Unn","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"No-till farming in the humid and subhumid tropics of Africa","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":9,"text":"Objectives. This guide is intended to enable you to:"},{"index":2,"size":21,"text":"• explain the relationship between food production and soil management; • explain the causes of soil erosion ; • control weeds;"},{"index":3,"size":18,"text":"• practise n o-till farming; • avoid or reduce soil compaction; • describe sustain ability in no-till farming."}]},{"head":"Study materials","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":22,"text":"• Slides of soil cover, soil erosion, and all aspects of till and no-till farming. • Equipment and chemicals for weed control."},{"index":2,"size":3,"text":"• No-till planters."}]},{"head":"PracticaJ.s","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":21,"text":"• Study the effects of soil cover and soil erosion in the field . • Practise mechanical and chemical weed control."},{"index":2,"size":4,"text":"• Practise no-till planting."},{"index":3,"size":152,"text":"No-till farming in the humid and subhumid tropics of Africa 1 Food production and soil management 2 Soil erosion 3 Weed control 4 No-till farming 5 Soil compaction 6 Sustainability of minimum-tillage farming 7 Bibliography 8 Suggestions for trainers Abstract_ Tropical soils are generally low in fertility , physically fragile and easily eroded when cleared of natural cover. Cultivation is carried out in the tropics purely for weed control, but this leads to accelerated soil erosion, as cultivated soil)!as no protection. Gully erosion can be minimized by the use of graded contour banks. Sheet erosion can be reduced by the use of chemical weed control, as soil cover is maintained in the form of dead mulch and soil disturbance is avoided . This is termed zero-tillage or conservation farming . The frequent use of zero-tillage can lead to soil compaction which can be alleviated with the use of planted leguminous fallows ."},{"index":4,"size":37,"text":"1 Food production and .011 management Sustaining crop yields in the humid and s ub-humid tropics is difficult beca use tropica l soil s arc poorer for crop production than soil s in tempe ra te zone\""},{"index":5,"size":40,"text":"• The clay in most tropical soils (ca lled ' Iowactivity clay' or LAC ) does not expand and contract rea dil y with moisture ch a nges , and th e soil is therefore susceptible t o compaction ."},{"index":6,"size":31,"text":"• LAC soi ls have a low cation exchang~ capacity, which means that nutri ents a re not held by the soi l, but quickly leached below the crop roots ."},{"index":7,"size":22,"text":"• Because of high temperatures, orga ni c matter (another site of cation excha nge) is s usceptible to rapid mineralization ."},{"index":8,"size":33,"text":"Under forest , the natural cover of the humid tropics, a stable ecosystem exists . Nutrient recycling by forest trees e nsures that soil nutri e nts are nev er lost (Figure 1)."},{"index":9,"size":34,"text":"Roots intercept nutrients leach ed by rain . Trees use the nutrients to produce new leaves . Leaves eventua lly fall to the ground, where they mineralize and release nutrients back to the soil."},{"index":10,"size":154,"text":"Under forest, soil is always shaded and relatively cool. The mineralization of organic matter is therefore s low and the organic matter content higher than in uncovered soils. Thus the soil under forest has a higher moisture holding capacity, which together with the high organic matter, encourages earthworm activity beneficial to the soil.  The structure of forest soils is fragile. Soil particles aggregate into crumbs (Figure 2a) be tween which numerous ai r spaces exi st . Earthworms form many channels in t he soil (Figure 2bJ. Also, dead roots decay an d leave chan nels in the soil (Figure 2c). The result is a soil with numerous air spaces permitting rapid entry of water. Soil under forest therefore bas a low bulk dens ity and a hi gh water infiltration rate . Poor forest clearing and cultivation destroy the soil air spaces and reduce water infiltration, causing water run-ofT and soil erosion ."},{"index":11,"size":26,"text":"Tree cover also protects soil from raindrop impact which breaks down soil aggregates and causes crusting of the soil s urface, so r educing water infiltration."},{"index":12,"size":99,"text":"In summ ary, under forest cover , the soil has: When man clears tropi cal forests t o cultivate food crops , the results are normally disappointing. After three to fou r years, crop production often becomes uneconomical beca use of soil erosion and degradation (Figure 3). Where population press ure res ults in land sca rcity, small-scal e fa rm e rs may replace sh iftin g cultivati on by alley cropping a nd in -situ mulch . On large r , mechanized farm s, however, sustainability often becomes a question of tillage or n o-ti ll age. "}]},{"head":"Soli erosion","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":22,"text":"One of the biggest problems a fter clearing tropical forest is erosion of the top-soil. Soi l erosion is of two types:"},{"index":2,"size":6,"text":"• gully e rosi on ,"},{"index":3,"size":4,"text":"• sheet erosion ."},{"index":4,"size":33,"text":"Gully erosion results when water fl ows at high speed over the soil surface to gouge out gullies or deep depressions. Gully erosion is the most spectacular type of eros ion (Figure 4)."},{"index":5,"size":69,"text":"Sheet erosion results when water moves s lowly over the soil surface. The results are not spectacula r to the eye, but over a short period , sheet erosion results in loss of fine clay particles which carry much of the soil's fertility . Slope affects soil erosion significantly. It is even less advisable to farm slopes in the tropics tha n in temperate clim a t es :"},{"index":6,"size":31,"text":"• s lopes greater than 1.5 % s hould be protected with soi l conservation measures; • s lopes greater than 8 % s hould not be cultivated at a ll."},{"index":7,"size":31,"text":"Population pressure acce lerates soi l erosion, b~cause of increasing land need for cu ltiva tion . As a result, often s lopes in excess of 8 'lY a re cultivated."},{"index":8,"size":74,"text":"When severe soi l erosion occu rs, land becomes incapable of producing a decent crop a nd may have to be abandoned . Farmers have successfu lly prevented gully erosion by practis ing contou r farming (Figure 5). They build banks across the slope to slow down water run-off so that it never r eaches speeds to gouge out the soil. Contour banks minimize gully erosion, but they do not prevent sheet erosion ."},{"index":9,"size":4,"text":"To prevent sheet erosion:"},{"index":10,"size":6,"text":"• minimize disturbance of soil ,"},{"index":11,"size":10,"text":"• keep soil covered with mulch or a living crop,"},{"index":12,"size":8,"text":"• use chemical rather than mechanical weed control."},{"index":13,"size":23,"text":"At present, n o-till farming is the most promising method of sustaining yields under mechanized crop production in the humid and subhumid tropics."}]},{"head":"Weed control","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":29,"text":"In the tropics, the purpose of soil cultivation is weed cont rol. However , weeds ca n be controll ed by seve ra l m ea n s :"},{"index":2,"size":3,"text":"• mec hanically,"},{"index":3,"size":4,"text":"• chemica ll y,"},{"index":4,"size":5,"text":"• bi olog ically ."},{"index":5,"size":62,"text":"Mechanical weed control. In tropical Mrica, mechanica l weed co ntrol (Figure 6) has ca used seve re soil eros ion and degradation . Thi s has resul ted in the failure of most mechanized farming projects , for exampl e, the Groundnut Sche me initiated in Tanzania after the Second World War. Mechanical weed control is carried out as follows :"},{"index":6,"size":45,"text":"• In temperate countries, mouldboard ploughing inverts slices of soil so that living weeds are turned over, buried, and killed. But in tropical countries, mouldboard ploughs are not normally used and are replaced by disc ploughs which can roll over roots and stumps without damage."},{"index":7,"size":49,"text":"• Most weeds are killed in this way but the soil surface is left in a rough condition . Disc harrowing is needed to break down lumps of soil and to further bury weeds. Harrowing may be carried out several times to control germinating weeds and to incorporate fertilizers."},{"index":8,"size":23,"text":"• The crop is then planted and may be sprayed with a pre-emergent herbicide to prevent weeds growing whilst the crop is establishing."},{"index":9,"size":105,"text":"• The crop emerges, but interrow soil is unprotected from rain storms and erosion (Figure 7). ehelllical weed control. Zero-tillage, no-till farming, conservation farming are terms that imply that weeds are controlled by purely chemical means. With the development of paraquat (Grammoxone) in the early seventies, chemical control of weeds became practical. paraquat is a contact herbicide which kills all vegetative material which it touches within 24 hours. This spray replaces ploughing and harrowing of conventional tillage (Figure 8).  Before the discovery of paraquat, there were other contact herbicides which persisted in the soil for several weeks after application, resulting in unacceptable delays to planting."},{"index":10,"size":45,"text":"Paraquat becomes inactive on contact with organic matter, and is tightly bound to soil particles so that crop planting can be carried out just before or immediately after application. Some countries have banned the use of paraquat, so check whether the product is still available."},{"index":11,"size":46,"text":"Some weeds have stolons (Cynodon spp.) or rhizomes (Imperata cylindrical which are not killed by paraquat. In these cases, an application of the herbicide glyphosate (Roundup) may be necessary. Glyphosate is translocated to all parts of the plant including underground parts. Glyphosate kills the whole plant."},{"index":12,"size":20,"text":"Because it is an expensive chemical, glyphosate is normally used only as a one-time treatment for a specific weed problem."},{"index":13,"size":21,"text":"Biological weed control. In-situ mulching helps to control weeds and to improve moisture retention, alleviating soil compaction and improving soil fertility."},{"index":14,"size":11,"text":"MUCUTUl pruriens and Pueroria phaseoloides suppress many weeds during fallow periods."}]},{"head":"No-till fermlng","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":18,"text":"No-till farming replaces mechanical weed control with chem ical weed control. Typical steps in a no-till operation are:"},{"index":2,"size":3,"text":"• spray paraquat;"},{"index":3,"size":7,"text":"• slash down crop residues and weeds;"},{"index":4,"size":32,"text":"• plant crops within 24 hours of paraquat application; • apply fertilizer, insecticide and pre-eme rgent herbicides at the same time; • spray inter-row herbicid es during crop growth, if required ."},{"index":5,"size":62,"text":"A contact herbicide kills the living weeds, and the seed can be sown using a no-till planter. No-till planters are designed to sow seed with good seed/soi l contact in uncultivated areas (Figu re 9 ). No-till planters are heavier than conventional planters and are normally trailed on the swinging drawbar, rather than mounted on the three point hitch of a tractor."},{"index":6,"size":52,"text":"The no-till planter cuts through surface tra sh and crop residues with a fluted disc. Using double disc openers, the n<>-till planter opens up a furrow into which fert ilizer is applied. A second set of double discs opens another furrow into which seed is dropped at the appropriate depth and spacing."},{"index":7,"size":53,"text":"Granular insecticides can be applied at the same time, and in some cases a granular herbicide can be banded over the crop row. Finally, a press wheel firms the soil around the seeds ensuring good seed/soil contact. A pre-emergent herbicide may then be applied to prevent weed growth whilst the crop is establishing."},{"index":8,"size":32,"text":"For the small-scale farm e r, hand-pushed, rolling injedor planters have been developed at IIT A. These machines are inexpensive and can be maintained and repaired by a village black-smith (FigUre 10)."},{"index":9,"size":34,"text":"The n<>-till system causes minimal disturbance to soil. Soil in the inter-row space has a protective cover of dead weeds or residues of a previous crop. These two factors minimize sheet erosion (Figure 11).  "}]},{"head":"Soli compaction","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":34,"text":"Soil compaction may occur in mecha nized no-till farming . Tractors pass over the land many times during a cropping sequence, ca rrying out sprayi ng, fertilizer appJication, planting and harvesti ng operations ."},{"index":2,"size":8,"text":"Soil compaction can be alleviated by two means:"},{"index":3,"size":8,"text":"• m ech a nically, • biologically ."},{"index":4,"size":62,"text":"Mechanical alleviation. Use a chisel plough, sub-soiler or para-plow t o shatter compacted soil. The paraplow is particularly suitable, but with three tines requiring a 100 h .p. tractor to pull , it is ex pensive to use. Also, on recently cleared la nd , where stumps, roots and rocks are present, the para-plow is difficult and expensive to u se ."},{"index":5,"size":38,"text":"Biological alleviation. Plant a cover crop. Most suitable, and tested at IITA, is the velvet bean or mucuna (Mucuna pruriens). Mucuna is an aggressive, viny legume which gives fast ground cover and s uppresses most weeds (Figure 12)."},{"index":6,"size":45,"text":"Fur maximum effect, plant mucuna at the start of the rains and leave it until the end of the rains. As mucuna leaves fall to the ground, they form a thick mat of biomass. This biomass conserves moisture and provides organic matter, encouraging earthworm activity."},{"index":7,"size":34,"text":"Earthworm activity reduces soil bulk density and adds nutrients to the soil surface, alleviating soil compaction and restoring fertility . Mucuna is best flailmowed, and the following crop direct-drilled into the mucuna mulch ."},{"index":8,"size":111,"text":"Mixed fa rming a lso may help to a lleviate soil compaction . If a n a rea is cr opped for three or four years and yield decli nes, it may be left unde r pasture for two or more years. Hi gh a nim al stocking ra tes, however, may a lso ca use com paction d ue to t he tra mpling effect. Li ghter s tocking ra tes a nd cu t-an d-carry feeding of a nimal s in a feed-lot in mixed fa rm ing, could solve the problem of soil compaction resulting from no-till mecha ni za ti on . 6 SustalnabUity of minimum-tillage fennlng"},{"index":9,"size":35,"text":"Many fields on the UTA research fa rm at Ibadan have been cropped for 20 years and the yields today are similar to those obtained twenty years ago. The reasons for this sustained yield are:"},{"index":10,"size":40,"text":"• gully erosion is prevented by soil conservation measures; • sheet erosion is prevented by zero-tillage; • soil compaction is alleviated a nd fertility built up by mucuna fallows; • leached nutrients are replaced by routine applications of fertilizers ."},{"index":11,"size":33,"text":"Under high rainfall , or where erosion is likely to take place, it is recommended to adopt no-till farming. The alternative is to continue conventional tillage, resulting in erosion that renders cropping uneconomical."},{"index":12,"size":11,"text":"In the drier areas of Africa, no-till farming has particular problems:"},{"index":13,"size":18,"text":"• Surface mulch is virtually impossible to maintain due to wandering livestock, termites, and mineralization of organic matter."},{"index":14,"size":28,"text":"No-till farming, however, can be practised by controlling weeds which eltlerge at the start of the rains, chemically rather than mechanically. In this way, sheet erosion is minimized."},{"index":15,"size":32,"text":"• Gully erosion can be minimized by contour farming, as in the wetter areas. Where cultivation is unavoidable, tie ridges have a beneficial effect on both water and soil conservation (Figure 13)."},{"index":16,"size":32,"text":"• Wind e rosion is also a problem in the drier areas . Control wind erosion by planting belts of trees at right angles to the prevailing wind and by strip cropping."},{"index":17,"size":17,"text":"Mechanized alley farmin g has been successfully carried out at IITA and is a feasible farming method. "}]},{"head":"Generally:","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":26,"text":"• Distribute handouts (including this Research Guide) to trainees one or several days before your presentation , or distribute them at the end of the presentation."},{"index":2,"size":20,"text":"• Do not distribute handouts at the beginning of a presentation, otherwise trainees will read instead of listen to you."},{"index":3,"size":29,"text":"• Ask trainees not to take notes, but to pay full attention to the training activity. Assure them that your handouts (and this Research Guide) contain all relevant information."},{"index":4,"size":19,"text":"• Keep your training activities practical. Reduce theory to the minimum that is necessary to understand the practical exercises."},{"index":5,"size":26,"text":"• Use the questions on page 4 (or a selection of questions) for examinations (quizzes, periodical tests, etc.). Allow consultation of handouts and books during examinations."},{"index":6,"size":14,"text":"• Promote interaction of trainees. Allow questions, but do not deviate from the subject."},{"index":7,"size":6,"text":"• Respect the time allotted ."}]},{"head":"Specifically:","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":19,"text":"• Discuss with trainees their experiences about weed control, erosion a nd no-till farming unde r local condition s."},{"index":2,"size":18,"text":"• Present and discuss the content of this Research Guide, using the study materials listed on page 3"},{"index":3,"size":20,"text":"(1 Y, hours). You may photocopy the illustrations of the Research Guide on transparencies for projection with an overhead projector."},{"index":4,"size":49,"text":"• Conduct the practicals suggested on page 3 (one afternoon) in groups of 3-4 trainees per group; 2 hours). Have r esource persons available for each group and practical. Make sure that each trainee has the opportunity to practice. Keep trainees busy. Prevent trainees from scattering around the field."},{"index":5,"size":8,"text":"Observe safety regulations when working with machines ."},{"index":6,"size":19,"text":"• You m ay visit other farms , research stations etc., if you cannot demonstrate everything at your place."},{"index":7,"size":9,"text":"Organize the visits as carefully as your own practicals."}]}],"figures":[{"text":" Figure1 "},{"text":"Figure 2 . Figure 2. Air space .1------s In forest soil. "},{"text":" Soils erode and degrade because: o poor clearing technique removes top soil into windrows; • poor cl ea ring brea ks down so il s tru cture a nd destroys air s paces; • re mova l of forest co ver raises soil temperature and redu ces organic matter, soil mois ture. and ea rthworm activity; • remova l of forest co ve r res ults in soil dam age by raind rop impact; • remova l of fore st and culti vation ra ise the so il bulk dens ity and redu ce the water infiltration rate. leading to water run -ofT and soil erosion . "},{"text":"Figure 3 , Figure 3, Poor maize crop due to soil erosion and degradation. "},{"text":"Figure 4 . Figure 4. Gully erosion . "},{"text":"Figure 5 . Figure 5. Contour farming . "},{"text":"Figure 6 . Figure 6. Mechanical weed control. "},{"text":"Figure 7 . Figure 7. Unprotected soil in emerging crop. "},{"text":"Figure 8 . Figure 8. Soil protection due to chemical weed control. "},{"text":"Figure 9 . Figure 9. No-till planter. "},{"text":"Figure 10 . Figure 10. Injector planter for the small-scale farmer. "},{"text":"Figure 11 . Figure 11. Soil protection resulting from no-till planting. "},{"text":"Figure 12 . Figure 12. Mucuna cover crop. "},{"text":"Figure 13 . Figure 13. Tie ridges. "},{"text":"• good soi l mois ture,  o high organic matter, ohigh organic matter, o good earthworm activity, ogood earthworm activity, o good crumb structure, ogood crumb structure, o low bulk density , o low bulk density , o high water infiltration rate, ohigh water infiltration rate,  "}],"sieverID":"30788719-dbbc-45ee-94ee-46266f156729","abstract":"Couper, D.C. 1995. No-tiU fanning in the humid and subhumid tropics of Africa. IITA Research Guide 3. Training Program, Intemalionallnstilute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA), Ibadan, Nigeria. 26 p. Third edition. Questions 1 Why are tropical soils poorer than soils in temperate zones? 2 What does low cation exchange capacity mean? 3 Why is organic matter in tropical environments susceptible to rapid mineralization? 4 How does nutrient recycling by forest trees ensure that soil nutrients are never lost? 5 Why is organic matter in forest soils higher than in uncovered soils? 6 List seven advantages of forest cover. 7 What is the normal r esu lt of clearing tropical forests? 8 List the reasons for soil erosion and degradation. 9 What may be a replacement for shifting cultivation? 10 What are two types of soil erosion? 11 How can you prevent sheet erosion ? 12 What is the purpose of soil cultivation in tropical situations? 13 Name three means to control weeds. 14 Discuss disadvantages of mechanical weed control. 15 What weeds are hard to control by Paraquat? 16 Describe biological weed control. 17 What are the typical steps in a no-till operation? 18 How can you alleviate soil compaction? 19 What is a suitable method to alleviate soil compaction biologically? ~ What are the particular problems of no-till farming in drier areas?"}

data/part_2/0a99af62a211fdb4828e3a34e47c6010.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0a99af62a211fdb4828e3a34e47c6010","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/d9571893-04aa-44eb-be08-19aec4794b19/retrieve"},"pageCount":9,"title":"Genetic Diversity of White Yam (Dioscorea rotundata Poir) Accessions Maintained in Tissue Culture and Cultivated in Field using Simple Sequence Repeat (SSR) Markers and Morphological Characterization","keywords":["Dioscorea rotundata","Field","Genetic diversity","Morphological characterization","In vitro","Simple sequence repeats (SSR)"],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":206,"text":"Dioscorea rotundata is the most popular and economically important yams in West and Central Africa where they are indigenous and represent the largest depository of biodiversity [1]. The diversity in Dioscorea rotundata provides plant breeders with the necessary options to develop, through selection and breeding, new and more productive crops that are resistant to virulent pests and diseases, and adapted to changing environments as well as quality traits introgression. Breeders have put effort to address issues on yam production through many methods. However, the extent of genetic diversity and relationship of Dioscorea rotundata germplasm maintained at different growth conditions (tissue culture and field) has not been investigated using DNA based markers to understand possible variation of genetic material. Molecular marker information can help monitor the level of genetic diversity in breeding materials and assist breeders to more efficiently choose genetically diverse parents for breeding scheme. Such diversity assessment could provide a means for identifying potential gaps in the species collection and further guiding target collecting missions. Molecular markers such as restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP), random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD), amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP) and simple sequence repeat (SSRS) have been applied in white yams (Dioscorea rotundata) for taxonomic, phylogenetic, diversity and mapping studies [2][3][4][5][6][7][8][9]."},{"index":2,"size":154,"text":"Plant tissue culture techniques are known to induce somaclonal variations. Frequency of these variations differ with the source of explants, their regeneration methods, composition of culture medium and cultural conditions [10]. DNA based markers have been used for individual identification, genome mapping, pedigree and phylogenetic diversity analysis in numerous taxa including yam. Molecular biological tools can accelerate artificial breeding processes and clarify variation between the germplasm [11]. The molecular marker technique efficiency is based on the amount of polymorphism it can detect in a given germplasm [12]. Specifically, this study evaluated the level of genetic diversity between in vitro and field -maintained Dioscorea rotundata and attempted to determine the main cause(s) of this divergence, characterize genetic variability within and among populations (in vitro and field) of Dioscorea rotundata for the improvement of conservation strategies for further breeding purposes while addressing the issue of misslabelling within Dioscorea rotundata germ plasm from in vitro to field."}]},{"head":"Materials and Method","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":84,"text":"The experiment was carried out on the experimental field of International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA), Ibadan, Nigeria. Ibadan is situated at the northern fringe of the tropical forest with mean annual rainfall of 1,200mm. Forty-two cultivars of Dioscorea rotundata were planted at a space of 1m x 1m in an augmented design with 5 plants per accessions. Each of the yam cultivar was represented by both in vitro and field maintained plant. Table1 shows the list of the materials used and their origin. "}]},{"head":"DNA Extraction","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":109,"text":"DNA was isolated from Intermediate leaves using CTAB (Cetyl trimethyl ammonium bromide) method of extraction [13] with slight modification. The leaves were collected into a lyophilized bags and placed on ices, the samples were store at -80° C for 4 days and it was lyophilized at the lyophilization machine for 5 days. The lyophilized samples were grinded using the genogrinder at 3500 rpm for 2 minutes. Similarly, in vitro plantlets grown in Murashige and Skoog's (MS) medium (1962) were carefully removed from the test tubes and the leaves of the plantlets of each accessions were placed in a mortar with a volume of 5ml of liquid nitrogen for grinding."},{"index":2,"size":199,"text":"1ml of Hepes buffer was added and centrifuged at 3500 rpm for 13 minutes and supernatant decanted. 400 µl of Cethyl Trimetyl Ammonium Bromide (CTAB) and 10 µl of proteinase K were added and incubated in the water bath for at 65°C for 1 hour, and at 10-minute intervals the samples were checked and shaken to ensure proper homogenization. Thereafter 600 µl of Chloroform Isoamyl Alcohol (CIA) 24:1 was added and centrifuged at 3500 rpm for 13 minutes. The aqueous phase was carefully transferred into another set of well-labelled extraction tubes and 500 µl of CIA added and centrifuged at 3500rpm for 13minutes. Then 300 µl of cold isopropanol and 50 µl of Nacl were added and shaken properly and incubated at -80°C for 1hour. The samples were centrifuged at 3500 rpm for 13 minutes and supernatant was decanted to obtain the pellet of DNA. Afterwards 500 µl of 70% ethanol was added and centrifuged for 10 minutes at 3500 rpm. The DNA pellets were dried for 30 minutes and 50 µl of low salt TE and 10 µl of RNase were added to suspend the DNA, and incubated at 4°C for 1 hour and later stored at -20°C."}]},{"head":"Polymerase Chain Reaction","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":122,"text":"PCR was conducted using 10 µl volume in a 96 well micro titer plate with an automated thermal cycler. The reaction volume was 3 µl of DNA template, 2.54 µl of autoclaved distilled water, 1 µl of 10x reaction buffer, 0.6 µl of 2.5 mM dNtps, 0.8 µl of 50 mM MgCl2, 1µl of primer forward, 1 µl of primer reverse, 0.06 µl of taq polymerase enzymes. The PCR cycles consisted of denaturation at 94.0°C for 3 minutes, followed by 10 cycles of 94.0°C for 0.30 seconds at 60.0°C for 0.30 seconds and 72.0°C for 1.0 minutes and followed by 25 cycles at 94.0°C for 0.30 seconds, and at 50°C for 0.30 seconds the final extension step at 72.0°C for 15 minutes."}]},{"head":"Data Analysis","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":70,"text":"Phenotypic data collected were analyzed using minitab software (version 9.3). Principal component analysis was performed to identify the first and important factors which were used for clustering the clones base on the proximity. Correlation as heat map was performed to identify the best traits for yam characterization. Data generated through phenotyping was also used for clustering analysis where all the clones was grouped using Ward method based on UPGMA [14]."},{"index":2,"size":43,"text":"Principal component analysis was generated using prcomp function in R. The matrix data generated through the phenotype was used to generate Eigen values, percentage of the variation accumulated by the PCA and the load coefficient values between the original characters and respective PCA."},{"index":3,"size":115,"text":"Alleles were scored based on presence and absence (1/0) and converted to binary matrix for the eleven polymorphic SSRSs primers. Genetic parameters such as major allele frequency (MAF), heterozygocity (He), polymorphic information content (PIC) and number of effective alleles (Ne) were performed using power marker software (version 4.0). Hierarchical Clustering Analysis (HCA) was constructed by unweighted paired group method using arithmetic average (UPGMA), in R software using hclust function based on shared common Allele. To assess the diversity of the two population (Field versus In-Vitro), Molecular Variance Analysis (AMOVA) was carried out using GeneAlex (version 6) software. Clones maintained both in In-vitro and in field were then pair and compared though their respective genetic distance."}]},{"head":"Result","index":6,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Phenotypic Trait Association","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":225,"text":"The first six principal components which accounted for 63.60% of the total variation (Table 3) and the first two were used to plot the two-dimensional dispersion or scatter diagram of the accessions. The scores on the first principal component (PC-1) which accounted for 17.3% of the variability in the data set were significantly correlated (correlation coefficient >0.3) with four traits namely canopy architecture estimation, internode length measurement, spines on sprout presence estimation nominal, cataphyle (Table 4). The second principal component (PC-2) accounted for 12.70% of the total variation and was highly associated with inflorescence type estimation (0.417), plant sex estimation (-0.416), spines on stem estimation (0.308), young leaf color estimation (0.350). The third components (PC-3) contributed 9.60% of the total (Table 4). While the fourth component (PC-4) was loaded with canopy architecture estimation (0.451), flowering intensity (-0.334), stem per plant computation (0.512). The fifth component (PC-5) was related to stem hairiness estimation (-0.416), twining habit (-0.452) and accounted for 8% of the variation (Table 4). Principal component six (PC-6) was dominated by springiness (0.506) and twining habit (0.383) and contributed 7% of the total variability (Table 3). Out of the 23 variables used for the phenotyping analysis, 13 showed high variation (>0.30) across all the first six principal components. Trait with high variation can be used as key variables for quick yam assessment in field."},{"index":2,"size":200,"text":"Dendrogram for the Hierarchical Cluster Analysis (HCA) grouped the 42 accessions into 4 main clusters: I, II, III and IV with Euclidean distance dissimilarities ranging between 1.0 and 7.0 (Fig. 2); and it was truncated at the dissimilarities distance of 5.8 (Fig. 1). Cluster I comprise of 10 accessions including TDr2271, TDr2076, TDr1100396, TDr9700793, TDr9601817, TDr8900672, TDr2225, TDr9902607, TDr2540 and TDr8902157. Members of this cluster are characterized by dark green mature leaves, presence of spine on new sprouts and moderate tolerance to yam anthracnose disease. Cluster II which contains a single accession (TDr114007) is unique for exhibiting high tolerance to yam anthracnose disease. The third group (Cluster III) is made of 16 accessions including TDr00000371, TDr1765, TDrHembakwase, TDr100101, TDr1100396, TDr1100278, TDr1100492 and TDr9902562. Other members of the cluster are Amula, Ogoja, Pouna, TDr1918, TDr04-219 and TDr1956. The members of this cluster are basically characterized by possession of acute leaf apex and a climbing nature. The cluster IV with 16 accessions have canopy characterized by several vines and many short branches with presence of spine base color. Members of this cluster include TDr892665, TDr2595, TDr1100497, TDr1100421, TDrAlumaco, TDr1820, TDr1100835, TDr2337, TDr1634, Danacha, TDr1100585, TDr9501932, TDrOmiefun, TDr9519177, TDr1100582 and TDr2315. (Figure 1). "}]},{"head":"Population Genetic Diversity for In-vitro and Field Populations","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":82,"text":"Eleven SSR markers were used to assess genetic diversity of 42 yam genotypes maintained both in Field and in vitro. A total of 97 alleles were recorded for 11 SSR markers. An average of 8.81 alleles was observed per marker, which varied from 6(DrM31) to 12 (DRM147) alleles (Table 4). The average allele frequency was 0.19 and varied from 0.05 (DrM69) to 0.25 (DRM32). Average polymorphic information content (PIC) value was 0.91 and ranged from 0.79 (DrM31) to 0.97 (DrM69) (Table 5).  "}]},{"head":"Discussion","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":109,"text":"This study represents an attempt that investigated possible genetic variability of the same yam genotypes maintained in vitro and in the field using microsatellite primers and morphological descriptors with a view of ascertaining the stability of genotypes across the two conservation enviroments. Several other studies on genetic diversity have been conducted on this species using different types of molecular markers including random amplified polymorphism DNAs [2,15], amplified fragment length polymorphism [3,7,16], and simple sequence repeat (SSRs) markers [4,17,18] and single nucleotide polymorphism [12]. However, none of these previous studies on yam have looked at the possible variation of the same clone from In vitro storage to field over time."},{"index":2,"size":220,"text":"The eleven microsatellite primers used for this study were effective for identifying polymorphism and for evaluating the genetic relationship among the 42 accessions analyzed with regards to all SSRs loci being investigated, the primers gave a total of 97 polymorphic, reproducible and scorable bands. Though the eleven SSR primers used for discriminating the genetic diversity between these two sets of accessions is reasonable but further study should involve more numbers of primers for effective and accurate result [19]. The number of alleles amplified per primer per locus is considerably high 6-12. This is in agreement with similar work done by [20], who reported a total number of 131 alleles when they analyzed 187 accessions of Kenya yam using 12 SSR markers. Obidiegwu, et al. [21] reported a total of 121 amplified alleles with 15 SSRs primers with the number of alleles observed per locus varying from 6 to 9 alleles when they analyzed 219 of Guinea yam germplasm from Benin, Congo, Cote d'Ivoire, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Nigeria, Sierra Leone and Togo. However low number of alleles was obtained by Otoo, et al. [17], who reported 27 alleles using 13 SSR primers in a study of Pona complex yam in Ghana. High diversity obtained from the breeding line can be explained by the progeny parentage and selection history during population development."},{"index":3,"size":125,"text":"Out of the 42 accessions used in this study 33 were found to be true-to-type and 9 were off-type on the basis of SSR scoring pattern and genetic distance. This insight will enhance yam breeding program as it highlights the fact that same accessions maintained under different environmental conditions (in vitro to field) might be variable as a result of gene rearrangement this may be hinged on somaclonal variation, so further studies should involve more advanced type of primers such as DArT (Diversity Array Technology), SNP (Single nucleotide polymorphism) or whole genome sequencing that will fully establish the fidelity of materials distributed from in vitro to field. In this regard due precausion should be taken to eliminated variation that is due to mixtures of genotypes."}]},{"head":"Conclusion","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":116,"text":"In this study, we employed 11 SSRs markers and 23 most discriminate morphological descriptors to assess variabilities between and within two sets (in vitro and field) of 42 genotypes of Dioscorea rotundata. 13 phenotipic traits contributed significantly to observed variations across six principal components. These traits will be useful for efficient phenotyping in yam vegetative characterization. Also dissimilarities were observed in 9 genotypes between in vitro and field clones. This could be associated to somaclonal variations or limitation in the number markers deployed for this study. The information obtained in this study will be an important insight towards development of effective in vitro germplasm conservation and management strategy for yam both for breeding and exchange purposes."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Fig- 1 . Fig-1. Clustering analysis for morphological traits "},{"text":"Figure- 2 .Figure- 3 . Figure-2. Molecular characterization of yam clone maintained in field and in vitro through SSR genotyping. The \"I\" after the clones name stand for in-vitro while the \"F\" stand for field "},{"text":"Table - 2 . Morphological descriptors used for the study and their codes SN 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 6 SN 17 Table-1. List, status and origin of the clones evaluated Status Breeding line Market variety Market variety Market variety Market variety Canopy architecture estimation Clones TDr8902665 TDr1956 Amula Danacha TDr4697 Traits Flowering intensity estimation Inflorescence type estimation Internode length measurement Leaf apex shape estimation Leaf shape estimation Mature leaf color estimation Petiole length measurement Plant type estimation Plant vigor Spine base color estimation nominal Spines on sprout presence estimation nominal Spines on stem estimation Springness estimation Stem color estimation Stem hairiness estimation Stems per plant computation per plant Origin Nigeria Cote d'Ivoire Nigeria Unknown Benin Codes CAE FLRI Inf IntL LeA LeS MLeCo PeL GH PLNV SBC SSpC Sstem Springness StCo StH StP SN 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 6 SN 17Table-1. List, status and origin of the clones evaluated Status Breeding line Market variety Market variety Market variety Market variety Canopy architecture estimation Clones TDr8902665 TDr1956 Amula Danacha TDr4697 Traits Flowering intensity estimation Inflorescence type estimation Internode length measurement Leaf apex shape estimation Leaf shape estimation Mature leaf color estimation Petiole length measurement Plant type estimation Plant vigor Spine base color estimation nominal Spines on sprout presence estimation nominal Spines on stem estimation Springness estimation Stem color estimation Stem hairiness estimation Stems per plant computation per plantOrigin Nigeria Cote d'Ivoire Nigeria Unknown Benin Codes CAE FLRI Inf IntL LeA LeS MLeCo PeL GH PLNV SBC SSpC Sstem Springness StCo StH StP 18 Twining habit estimation TWNH 18Twining habit estimationTWNH 19 Upper surface vein color estimation USVCo 19Upper surface vein color estimationUSVCo 20 Virus severity VRSS 20Virus severityVRSS 21 Yam anthracnose disease severity estimation YAD 21Yam anthracnose disease severity estimationYAD 22 Young leaf color estimation YoL 22Young leaf color estimationYoL 23 Cataphyle Ca 23CataphyleCa  "},{"text":"Table - 3 . Relationship between variable and vectors Traits PC 1 PC 2 PC 3 PC 4 PC 5 PC 6 TraitsPC 1PC 2PC 3PC 4PC 5PC 6 CAE 0.319* 0.071 -0.070 0.451* -0.068 0.101 CAE0.319*0.071-0.0700.451*-0.0680.101 FLRI -0.157 0.102 0.117 -0.334* -0.279 0.150 FLRI-0.1570.1020.117-0.334*-0.2790.150 Inf -0.169 0.417* 0.031 0.205 -0.174 0.031 Inf-0.1690.417*0.0310.205-0.1740.031 IntL -0.316* 0.170 -0.098 0.111 -0.153 -0.140 IntL-0.316*0.170-0.0980.111-0.153-0.140 LeA 0.084 0.166 -0.139 -0.042 -0.291 0.144 LeA0.0840.166-0.139-0.042-0.2910.144 LeS -0.031 -0.049 -0.301 0.131 0.137 0.197 LeS-0.031-0.049-0.3010.1310.1370.197 MLeCo 0.208 0.139 -0.180 -0.268 -0.242 0.134 MLeCo0.2080.139-0.180-0.268-0.2420.134 PeL -0.252 0.063 -0.256 0.240 0.180 -0.144 PeL-0.2520.063-0.2560.2400.180-0.144 PSD 0.222 0.416 -0.066 -0.223 0.144 0.064 PSD0.2220.416-0.066-0.2230.1440.064 PlV -0.222 -0.328* -0.154 0.111 -0.243 0.127 PlV-0.222-0.328*-0.1540.111-0.2430.127 GH -0.171 -0.252 -0.244 0.102 -0.015 -0.295 GH-0.171-0.252-0.2440.102-0.015-0.295 SSpC 0.244 0.121 -0.454* -0.166 -0.157 0.102 SSpC0.2440.121-0.454*-0.166-0.1570.102 Sstem 0.301* -0.004 -0.434* -0.110 0.011 -0.164 Sstem0.301*-0.004-0.434*-0.1100.011-0.164 Spring 0.222 0.308* -0.131 0.063 0.209 -0.180 Spring0.2220.308*-0.1310.0630.209-0.180 StCo -0.105 0.043 0.097 -0.046 -0.211 0.506* StCo-0.1050.0430.097-0.046-0.2110.506* StP 0.104 0.252 -0.065 -0.093 -0.014 -0.159 StP0.1040.252-0.065-0.093-0.014-0.159 StH 0.194 -0.162 0.127 0.066 -0.416* -0.278 StH0.194-0.1620.1270.066-0.416*-0.278 StP 0.203 -0.078 0.006 0.512* -0.048 0.255 StP0.203-0.0780.0060.512*-0.0480.255 TWN 0.187 -0.171 0.142 0.068 -0.452 -0.383* TWN0.187-0.1710.1420.068-0.452-0.383* VRSS 0.203 0.109 0.233 -0.211 0.296 -0.047 VRSS0.2030.1090.233-0.2110.296-0.047 YAD -0.123 -0.112 -0.343* -0.126 -0.010 0.151 YAD-0.123-0.112-0.343*-0.126-0.0100.151 YoL -0.027 0.350* 0.059 0.001 -0.081 -0.140 YoL-0.0270.350*0.0590.001-0.081-0.140 Ca -0.331* 0.002 -0.198 -0.155 -0.046 -0.235 Ca-0.331*0.002-0.198-0.155-0.046-0.235 Eigen value 3.313 2.785 2.314 1.998 1.822 1.456 Eigen value3.3132.7852.3141.9981.8221.456 Variability 17.3 12.7 9.6 9.00 8.00 7.00 Variability17.312.79.69.008.007.00 Cumulative 17.3 30 39.6 48.6 56.6 63.6 Cumulative17.33039.648.656.663.6 *significant correlated value (>0.30) CAE-canopy architecture estimate, FLRI-Flowering intensity, Inf -Inflorescence type, LeA -Leaf *significant correlated value (>0.30) CAE-canopy architecture estimate, FLRI-Flowering intensity, Inf -Inflorescence type, LeA -Leaf apex estimation, LeS -Leaf shape estimation, MLeCo -Mature lea colour estimation, PeL-Petiole length measurement, PSD -Plant sex, apex estimation, LeS -Leaf shape estimation, MLeCo -Mature lea colour estimation, PeL-Petiole length measurement, PSD -Plant sex, PlV -Plant vigour, SSpC -Spine on sprout, Sstem -Spine on stem, StCo -Stem colour, StP -Stems per plant, StH -Stem hairiness, PlV -Plant vigour, SSpC -Spine on sprout, Sstem -Spine on stem, StCo -Stem colour, StP -Stems per plant, StH -Stem hairiness, TWN -Twinning habit, VRSS -Virus severity score, YAD -Yam anthracnose disease, YoL -Young leaf colour, Ca -Catapyl TWN -Twinning habit, VRSS -Virus severity score, YAD -Yam anthracnose disease, YoL -Young leaf colour, Ca -Catapyl  "},{"text":"Table - 4 . SSR primers used for the study Marker Allele Frequency Allele No. PIC MarkerAllele FrequencyAllele No.PIC DrM 69 0.05 11 0.97 DrM 690.05110.97 DrM 588 0.23 9 0.88 DrM 5880.2390.88 DrM 31 0.32 6 0.79 DrM 310.3260.79 DrM 98 0.10 8 0.93 DrM 980.1080.93 DrM 135 0.14 7 0.93 DrM 1350.1470.93 DrM 163 0.17 10 0.91 DrM 1630.17100.91 DrM 574 0.25 7 0.86 DrM 5740.2570.86 DrM 541 0.10 10 0.94 DrM 5410.10100.94 DrM 421 0.13 9 0.93 DrM 4210.1390.93 DrM 147 0.10 12 0.95 DrM 1470.10120.95 DrM 345 0.14 8 0.92 DrM 3450.1480.92 Average 0.19 8.81 0.91 Average0.198.810.91  "}],"sieverID":"f8d6fb4d-f70e-4a9b-97b3-7fee2e969124","abstract":"Dioscorea rotundata is a staple food crop for millions of people in the tropical and subtropical regions. In vitro germplasm conservation is a very useful tool in yam improvement strategies but very little is known about the genetic integrity and stability of in-vitro conserved yam plants. In this study, 42 accessions from in vitro and field populations were genotyped using 11 microsatellite markers and 23 morphological descriptors to assess variability within and between accessions. Out of the 23 morphological variables used, 13 were identified as most discriminate and were used to cluster the accessions into 4 clusters using the unweighted pair group arithmetic mean average (UPGMA). Accession maintained in field as well as in in-vitro showed high genetic similarity (R2 = 0.91, p-value: 1e-04). Out of the 42 accessions analyzed, nine accessions maintained in the field and in-vitro displayed different genetic profiles. This study provided basic information on the possible somaclonal variation of yam accessions maintained through in-vitro. Further study with advanced tools such as next-generation sequencing is required to elucidate the nature of the observed variation within clones."}

data/part_2/0aa43165821acf06d6ceb07cbba6fb22.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0aa43165821acf06d6ceb07cbba6fb22","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/6ad169e5-ebce-47f9-b1bf-0c4275a8238d/retrieve"},"pageCount":13,"title":"Genomic Tools in Cowpea Breeding Programs: Status and Perspectives","keywords":["cowpea","genomics","marker-assisted breeding","Vigna unguiculata","blackeye pea"],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":206,"text":"Young cowpea leaves are used as spinach in eastern and southern Africa while green immature pods and green mature seeds are also used in Senegal and some other African countries. The most economically important part of the crop remains the dry grain, which is commonly boiled and eaten as beans. The grain can be processed as flour or paste, which is used to make akara (deep-fried) or moin-moin (steamed), eaten as snacks in several western and central African countries. Based on evaluation of 1541 germplasm lines, Boukar et al. (2011) reported that cowpea grains contain on average 25% protein, 53.2 mg/kg iron, 38.1 mg/kg zinc, 826 mg/kg calcium, 1915 mg/kg magnesium, 14,890 mg/kg potassium, and 5055 mg/kg phosphorus. In addition to the grain, the biomass (haulms) from cowpea plants provides important nutritious fodder for ruminants mainly in the Sahel regions of West and Central Africa. Through its ability to fix atmospheric nitrogen, cowpea, like other legumes, contributes to the fertility of soil. Cowpea fixes between 70 and 350 kg nitrogen per hectare and contributes 40-80 kg nitrogen/ha to the soil (Quin, 1995). The estimated potential impact of cowpea research on fixed nitrogen in SSA, for the period 2011-2020 would be about 77,320 tons (CRP GL, 2012)."},{"index":2,"size":285,"text":"Although accurate statistics are generally unavailable, cowpea production worldwide is estimated at about 6.5 million metric tons annually on about 14.5 million hectares. About 83% of the global cowpea production is obtained in Africa, with over 80% of African production in West Africa. Nigeria, with an estimated 45% of the world cowpea production and over 55% of the production in Africa, is the world's largest producer and consumer of cowpea, followed by Niger (15%), Brazil (12%), and Burkina Faso (5%). Over the last three decades, global cowpea production grew at an average rate of 5%, with 3.5% annual growth in area and 1.5% growth in yield, and the area expansion accounting for 70% of the total growth during this period (Fatokun et al., 2012b). Globally, the share of cowpea in total area under pulses grew from <10% in 1990 to nearly 20% in 2007. In West Africa, cowpea occupies over 85% of the area under pulses and 10% of the total cultivated land (Fatokun et al., 2012b). If these past trends in cowpea area expansion and yield continue into the future, the global cowpea supply is projected to reach 9.8 million tons in 2020 and 12.3 million tons in 2030, against the projected global demand of nearly 8.5 million tons in 2020 and 11.2 million tons in 2030. Increased investments in research are needed to generate an increase in yield to meet the projected increasing demand for the crop and to forestall any possible deficit. Through the sales of cowpea products, smallholder farmers in SSA generate some income despite the fact that information about cowpea trade is very scanty. Abate et al. (2012) attributed this lack of information to the limited international trade involving cowpea."}]},{"head":"PRODUCTION CONSTRAINTS","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":124,"text":"The production of cowpea is limited by several biotic and abiotic stresses. The biotic stresses include insect pests, diseases, parasitic weeds, and nematodes. At every stage in the life cycle of the crop there is at least one major insect pest that may cause yield losses. Aphid (Aphis craccivora) attacks cause the highest amount of damage to the plants mainly at the seedling stage. Flower bud thrips (Megalurothrips sjostedti) at flowering stage cause the destruction of flower buds and failure of pod formation. Pods and young shoots are destroyed by pod borers (Maruca vitrata) while a complex of pod-sucking bugs (Clavigralla tomentosicollis, Anoplocnemis curvipes, Nezara viridula) penetrate and damage seeds in pods. In storage, bruchid weevils (Callosobruchus maculatus) cause serious damage to the grains."},{"index":2,"size":88,"text":"In the case of diseases, cowpea is attacked by bacteria, viruses, fungi, and nematodes. Bacterial blight caused by Xanthomonas vignicola and bacterial pustule (Xanthomonas sp.) are the main bacterial diseases of cowpea. ), damage cowpea root systems and cause yield suppression in many cowpea production areas. These diseases may occur singly or in combinations of two or more pathogens, and in some cases are strongly influenced by the growing environment, for example, ashy stem blight caused by Macrophomina is much more prevalent and severe in droughtstressed cowpea plantings."},{"index":3,"size":38,"text":"Parasitic weeds, Striga gesnerioides and Alectra vogelii, can cause significant damage to cowpea production. Striga is mainly present in the dry savannah areas of West and Central Africa while Alectra is found predominantly in eastern and southern Africa."},{"index":4,"size":83,"text":"Abiotic stresses affecting cowpea production include drought, heat, and low soil fertility. Although the crop is known to be drought tolerant, its yield can be reduced significantly when exposed to seedling, mid-season or terminal drought. Heat may cause serious damage during the off-season cropping. High night temperatures lead to flower abortion thereby preventing pod formation and a consequent reduction in grain yield. Soils that are deficient in phosphorous, an element required for nitrogenfixation in legume root nodules, may lower the productivity of cowpea."}]},{"head":"GENETIC LINKAGE GROUPS, BREEDING BEHAVIOR, WILD SPECIES","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":49,"text":"Cowpea is a diploid with 2n = 22. Thus, there are 11 linkage groups as revealed by several reports on genetic linkage mapping based on molecular markers. More details about the development and current status of cowpea linkage groups are provided in Section Available Genomic Resources of this review."},{"index":2,"size":135,"text":"Cowpea is a highly self-pollinating crop. The extent of outcrossing is therefore low and varies with environment. The development of improved varieties has been mainly through pure line selection, mass selection, pedigree breeding, singleseed descent, and backcross methods. The genetic base of most of the improved varieties that have been released to farmers for planting is narrow. This is no surprise because improved lines are mostly used as parents in developing populations from which new varieties are derived. In the study reported by Li et al. (2001), the level of SSR polymorphism among improved breeding lines was found to be low when compared with those lines generated using newly acquired germplasm lines as parents. The need for varieties with broad genetic base in farmers' fields should be given priority attention in SSA cowpea breeding programs."},{"index":3,"size":283,"text":"Cowpea belongs to the genus Vigna, comprised of several sections, species, sub-species, and varieties. Cowpea belongs to section Catiang, species unguiculata, sub-species unguiculata. All cultivated cowpea and its close cross-compatible relatives belong to Vigna unguiculata (Marechal et al., 1978). Three wild subspecies of V. unguiculata, namely subspecies dekindtiana or spontanea, subspecies stenophylla and subspecies tenuis are recognized. Several taxonomists have proposed different subspecies and names for some of the cowpea wild relatives. There appears to be no consensus yet on the proper classification of the cowpea wild relatives and this has complicated efforts to define the primary and secondary gene pools for cowpea. It should be noted that varying levels of success have been achieved in efforts to make crosses between members of subspecies belonging to V. unguiculata. Fatokun and Singh (1987) had to apply embryo rescue in order to successfully cross a cultivated cowpea line with the wild relative V. unguiculata subspecies pubescens. The hybrid that was rescued through in vitro culture was partially fertile. In the several crosses that have been made between cowpea and its wild relatives, the hybrids always showed varying levels of partial fertility. Backcrossing of the hybrids to cultivated cowpea should however improve the level of fertility in subsequent generations. A major drawback to the use of wild cowpea relatives in cowpea breeding is the small seed-size associated with the wild forms. Since small seedsize is dominant to large seed several backcrosses are required in order to recover the desired seed-size of the cultivated type. This is necessary because consumers prefer large seed-size. The application of now available molecular marker tools (Table 1) should facilitate progress in rapid recovery of the genome of the cultivated parental lines."}]},{"head":"TARGET TRAITS","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":52,"text":"To alleviate the devastations caused by numerous cowpea production constraints, breeding programs in SSA and USA are implementing both molecular and conventional breeding to develop improved lines with high grain yield potential, resistance to biotic stresses, tolerance to abiotic factors, adaptation to major production agro-ecologies, and traits preferred by consumers and producers."},{"index":2,"size":91,"text":"Sources of genes for several of these traits have been identified through screening of the germplasm available in different countries. The International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA) is maintaining in its genetic resources center about 15,000 accessions of cultivated cowpea and more than 2000 wild relatives. Mining these resources has resulted in the identification of several sources of resistance to biotic and abiotic stresses. Several authors have reported on those germplasm lines that are important sources of resistance for use in breeding programs (Ferry and Singh, 1997;Singh, 2002;Boukar et al., 2015)."},{"index":3,"size":309,"text":"Sources of new traits continue to be identified in cowpea germplasm, and the traits defined at high genetic resolution with the new genotyping resources available for identifying markertrait associations as described in more detail in Section Marker-Trait Associations. As recent examples, Souleymane et al. (2013) confirmed the tolerance to aphids of the improved line IT97K-556-6, in which two resistance loci were mapped (Huynh et al., 2015) and also identified a new source of aphid resistance from a cowpea wild relative, TVNu 1158. The cowpea accession \"Sanzi\" was identified as a source of genes for resistance to flower bud thrips in Nigeria, Mali and Cameroon. A recent screening of about 200 accessions identified TVu 1272 from Uganda and TVu 16514 from Nigeria as resistant to S. gesnerioides. Out of 1300 accessions screened for drought tolerance, 20 were identified with higher levels of tolerance than others (Fatokun et al., 2012a). Six of these accessions have been used in multiple crosses including Danila, TVu 557, TVu 1438, TVu 4574, TVu 6443, and TVu 11982. A set of 1541 cowpea germplasm lines were evaluated for the content of protein and minerals (Fe, Zn, Mg, Ca, and K) in grains (Boukar et al., 2011). Lines rich in grain protein included TVu 10425 (32.2%), TVu 2822 (31.8%), TVu 16531 (31.3%), TVu 450 (31.1%), and TVu 16616 (31.0%). Lines exhibiting high levels of Fe included TVu 2723 (79.5 mg/kg), TVu 14878 (79.5 mg/kg), TVu 2852 (78.7 mg/kg), TVu 526 (78.1 mg/kg), and TVu 10342 (77.0 mg/kg). Lines with high zinc content were TVu 10342 (58.0 mg/kg), TVu 1732 (56.1 mg/kg), TVu 9576 (55.3 mg/kg), TVu 2651 (54.5 mg/kg), and TVu 1877 (54.0 mg/kg). Interestingly, lines with high iron content were also rich in zinc and protein content, implying that these desirable minerals could be selected for concurrently in breeding programs to develop nutrient dense improved varieties."},{"index":4,"size":154,"text":"These genetic sources of desirable traits have been used in hybridization programmes to generate several segregating populations, which were used to select plants with good combinations of target traits (high yield potential, resistance to biotic and abiotic stresses, and consumer preferences). Different breeding methods applicable to self-pollinated crops are employed in cowpea genetic improvement including mass selection and pure line breeding, pedigree selection, single seed descent, bulk selection, backcrossing, mutation breeding, and farmer-participatory varietal selection. Generally, combinations or modifications of these breeding methods are also adopted as necessary. More than 20 IITA breeding lines were released in about 10 countries from 2005 to 2015 (Table 2). Many of the varieties combine high grain yield with resistance to Striga For molecular breeding (http://breedit.org/) and https://www.integratedbreeding.net/ and Alectra. An example is the breeding line IT97K-499-35, which has been released in Niger, Nigeria, Ghana, and Mali; many farmers have adopted this line because of its superior performance."},{"index":5,"size":109,"text":"Cowpea is grown mainly for the protein-rich grains for human consumption. There are now cowpea varieties classified as dual purpose because they produce high grain yield as well as high biomass. The biomass of the haulm, which remains after harvest, is a source of quality fodder for ruminant livestock especially in the Sahelian region of SSA. Cowpea is prone to attack by a myriad of insect pests. These insects cause appreciable grain yield reductions if not controlled using insecticides. It is not uncommon for some farmers in the Sahel to make some income selling fodder from their cowpea fields, which may have suffered serious insect damage to grain yield."},{"index":6,"size":113,"text":"M. vitrata is a Lepidopteran insect pest of cowpea. It is the most cosmopolitan of cowpea insect pests and farmers need to apply insecticides to their fields to protect their cowpea crop. Efforts had been made to develop cowpea varieties with resistance to this insect but without success, as there are no resistant lines among accessions of cultivated cowpea. Genetic transformation of cowpea was embarked upon in order to obtain Maruca resistant lines. Popelka et al. (2006) reported successful transformation of cowpea with the Bt gene that is efficacious against Maruca. Currently efforts are ongoing to transfer the Bt gene to cowpea varieties with high grain yield and farmers' and consumers' preferred attributes."}]},{"head":"AVAILABLE GENOMIC RESOURCES","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":208,"text":"The development of genomic resources for cowpea has been more recent than those developed for many other crops. Most early efforts in cowpea were focused on molecular diversity and genetic linkage mapping. Genetic diversity studies have used different marker systems as technologies have advanced, including allozymes (Panella and Gepts, 1992;Pasquet, 1999Pasquet, , 2000)), seed storage proteins (Fotso et al., 1994), chloroplast DNA polymorphism (Vaillancourt and Weeden, 1992), restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) (Fatokun et al., 1993), amplified fragment length polymorphisms (AFLP) (Fatokun et al., 1997;Tosti and Negri, 2002;Fang et al., 2007), DNA amplification fingerprinting (DAF) (Spencer et al., 2000;Simon   (Mignouna et al., 1998;Fall et al., 2003;Nkongolo, 2003;Ba et al., 2004;Diouf and Hilu, 2005;Xavier et al., 2005;Zannou et al., 2008), simple sequence repeats (SSRs) (Ogunkanmi et al., 2008;Uma et al., 2009;Xu et al., 2010), cross species SSRs from Medicago (Sawadogo et al., 2010), inter-simple sequence repeats (Ghalmi et al., 2010), sequence tagged microsatellite sites (STMS) (Choumane et al., 2000;Li et al., 2001;Abe et al., 2003;He et al., 2003), and single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) markers (Huynh et al., 2013). Reports from these studies provide information about origins, taxonomy, domestication, and patterns of genetic variation of cowpea. The development of genome resources in cowpea is now progressing with marker technology advancement."},{"index":2,"size":459,"text":"Linkage mapping provides a framework for downstream analyses including quantitative trait loci (QTL) identification, map-based cloning, diversity analysis, association mapping, and molecular breeding (Lucas et al., 2011). The first linkage map for cowpea was developed using a mapping population of 58 F 2 plants derived from a cross between IT84S-2246-4 and TVNu 1963 (Fatokun et al., 1993). The map had 89 loci including 79 RFLP, five RAPD and four cDNA markers as well as one simply inherited morphological trait. These markers were distributed on 10 linkage groups that spanned 680 cM of the cowpea genome. Menendez et al. (1997) developed the second cowpea genetic linkage map using 94 F 8 recombinant inbred lines (RILs) derived from a cross between two cultivated genotypes IT84S-2049 and 524B. A total of 181 loci, comprising 133 RAPDs, 19 RFLPs, 25 AFLPs and three each of morphological and biochemical markers were assigned to 12 LGs spanning 972 cM with an average distance of 6.4 cM between markers. This second map was improved with the addition of 242 new AFLP markers, which generated 11 LGs spanning a total of 2670 cM, with an average distance of 6.43 cM between markers (Ouédraogo et al., 2002a). A third genetic map was developed using 94 F 8 RILs derived from the cross between an improved cultivated cowpea line, IT84S-2246-4, and a wild relative (V. unguiculata spp. dekindtiana var. pubescens) TVNu 110-3A (Ubi et al., 2000). This map consisted of 80 mapped loci (77 RAPD and 3 morphological loci) spanning 669.8 cM of the genome making 12LGs with an average distance of 9.9 cM between marker loci. With the development of an Illumina GoldenGate Assay, a SNP consensus map with 928 SNP markers on 619 unique map positions distributed over 11 LGs, covering a total genetic distance of 680 cM was established based on the genotyping of 741 members of six bi-parental RIL populations derived from the following crosses: 524B×IT84S-2049, CB27×24-125B-1, CB46×IT93K-503-1, Dan Ila×TVu-7778, TVu-14676×IT84S-2246-4, and Yacine×58-77 (Muchero et al., 2009a). This first consensus map resulted in a resolution of 0.73 cM average distance between two adjacent markers or 1 SNP per 668 kbp considering the cowpea genome to be 620 Mbp. The resolution of this consensus genetic map was improved by genotyping 579 individuals from additional populations consisting of five RILs (from UCR-US, IITA-Nigeria, ISRA-Senegal, ZAAS-China) and two F4 populations (Lucas et al., 2011). This new map contained 33% more bins (856), 19% more markers and had an improved order compared to the first consensus genetic map. Updated versions of cowpea consensus maps are accessible via HarvEST:Cowpea (http://harvest.ucr.edu/). Now that linkage maps for cowpea with this marker density are available, there are increased opportunities for QTL resolution, map-based cloning, assessment of genetic diversity, association mapping, and marker-assisted breeding."},{"index":3,"size":125,"text":"The genetic linkage maps that have been published for cowpea are based mainly on molecular markers which are not yet aligned with physical cowpea chromosomes. However, synteny has been reported between cowpea and mung bean (Vigna radiata; Menancio-Hautea et al., 1993) based on RFLP derived separate maps of both crops. These authors also reported that 90% of the RFLP probes they tested hybridized with both cowpea and mung bean. Some RFLP markers that mapped in both crops were found to be co-linear on linkage groups of the two crops. Lucas et al. (2011) also reported that 941 of 1107 total SNP markers i.e., 85% that mapped in cowpea show homologs with soybean (Glycine max). The markers also showed synteny and co-linearity in the soybean genome."}]},{"head":"Marker-Trait Associations","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":80,"text":"Several linkage maps have been used to identify QTLs for desirable traits in cowpea (Table 3). Omo-Ikerodah et al. (2008) used a cowpea linkage map of AFLP and SSR markers to identify QTLs for resistance to flower bud thrips. Gioi et al. (2012) identified and validated a QTL for cowpea yellow mosaic virus (CYMV) resistance using SSR markers. Molecular markers linked  PV % represents ranges of phenotypic variation of the given QTLs. Adapted and updated from (Abhishek et al., 2014)."},{"index":2,"size":228,"text":"to S. gesnerioides race-specific resistance genes in cowpea were reported in different studies. Ouédraogo et al. (2001Ouédraogo et al. ( , 2002b) ) identified three AFLP markers that are tightly linked to the gene designated Rsg2-1 which confers resistance to Race 1 of S. gesnerioides in Burkina Faso. The AFLP markers were: E-AAC/M-CAA 300 (2.6 cM), E-ACT/M-CAA 524 (0.9 cM), and E-ACA/M-CAT 140/150 (0.9 cM) and they mapped to the lower portion of LG1 published by Menendez et al. (1997). These scientists also reported the identification of six AFLP markers [E-ACA/M-CAG 120 (10.1 cM), E-AGC/M-CAT 80 (4.1 cM), E-ACA/M-CAT 150 (2.7 cM), E-AGC/M-CAT 150 (3.6 cM), E-AAC/M-CAA 300 (3.6 cM), and E-AGC/M-CAT 70 (5.1 cM)] mapped to LG6 and associated with resistance to Striga Race 3 (SG3) from Nigeria. Two of the AFLP markers were associated with resistance to both Striga Races 1 and 3. To facilitate the use of these AFLPs, Ouédraogo et al. (2002a) converted one of these markers to a SCAR (sequence-characterized amplified region) that has been used as an effective and reliable marker in selection for resistance to Striga Races 1 and 3. Boukar et al. (2004) identified two AFLP markers closely linked to resistance to Striga Race 3 from Nigeria, and converted one (E-ACT/M-CAC 115 located 4.8 cM from the resistance locus) to a SCAR marker to facilitate its use in breeding programs."},{"index":3,"size":180,"text":"In the genetic map published by Ouédraogo et al. (2002a), some resistance genes and biochemical characteristics were mapped. Blackeye cowpea mosaic potyvirus (B1CMV) and southern bean mosaic virus (SBMV) resistance were mapped to LG8 and LG6, respectively, and resistance to cowpea mosaic virus (CPMV) and cowpea severe mosaic virus (CPSMV) were mapped to opposite ends of LG3. The CPSMV resistance mapped near a locus conferring resistance to Fusarium wilt. Ouédraogo et al. (2002a) also mapped resistance to root-knot nematode to one end of LG1 on their genetic map. The biochemical trait dehydrin protein, found in cowpea seed and associated with chilling tolerance at emergence, was mapped to LG2. Agbicodo et al. (2010) identified three QTLs for bacterial blight resistance: CoBB-1, CoBB-2, and CoBB-3 on linkage groups LG3, LG5, and LG9, respectively. The genetic map developed by Ubi et al. (2000) also positioned QTLs for several agronomic and morphological traits, including days to flower, days to maturity, pod length, seeds/pod, leaf length, leaf width, primary leaf length, primary leaf width, and derived traits such as leaf area and primary leaf area."},{"index":4,"size":110,"text":"Two unlinked regions of the cowpea genome carry QTLs explaining 52.7% of variation in seed weight while four unlinked regions of mung bean carry QTLs accounting for 49.7% of variation in the same trait (Fatokun et al., 1992). These authors further reported that in both cowpea and mung bean the QTL regions with strong effects on seed weight were spanned by same RFLP markers in the same linkage order. Their study thus suggests that this genomic region of cowpea and mung bean has remained conserved in both crops through evolution. The earlier-developed genetic maps described here require additional reconciliation with the new SNP-based linkage maps for positioning key trait determinants."},{"index":5,"size":310,"text":"Recently, SNP-based linkage maps have been used to map several additional traits. From a RIL population developed from a cross between IT93K-503-1 (tolerant) and CB46 (susceptible) differing in their tolerance to seedling-stage drought, 10 QTLs were identified (Muchero et al., 2009b). Some of these QTLs coincided with QTLs for stem greenness (stg) and recovery dry weight (rdw) after drought stress under greenhouse and field conditions. The 10 QTLs were located on LG1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 9, and 10 and accounted for 4.7-24.2% of the phenotypic variance (R 2 ). Using the same RIL population, Muchero et al. (2010) identified nine QTLs, accounting for 6.1-40.0% of the phenotypic variance (R 2 ) for resistance to Macrophomina using mortality data from 3 years of field experiments and disease severity scores from two greenhouse experiments. QTL Mac-1 was located on LG2, Mac-2, Mac-3, and Mac-4 on LG3, Mac-5 on LG11, Mac-6 and Mac-7 on LG5, and Mac-8 and Mac-9 on LG6. This number of QTLs and the relatively low contribution of individual loci suggest a quantitative nature of Macrophomina resistance. Pottorff et al. (2012a) identified a major QTL affecting cowpea leaf shape, which may also influence tolerance to drought. More recently, using phenotypic data from 13 experiments conducted across four countries, Muchero et al. (2013) identified SNPtrait associations based on linkage disequilibrium association mapping, with bi-parental QTL mapping as a complementary strategy. Seven QTLs were associated with stay-green and five of these loci exhibited evidence suggesting pleiotropic effects between delayed senescence, biomass, and grain yield. Among the five putative stay-green QTLs, Dro-1, Dro-3, and Dro-7 were identified in both RILs and diverse germplasm, each spanning 3.2 cM or less, suggesting that they may be valuable targets for marker-assisted breeding. Targeting subsets of loci with higher additive effects in marker-assisted breeding would enhance drought tolerance and Macrophomina resistance in economically important cultivars."},{"index":6,"size":99,"text":"For heat stress, Pottorff et al. (2014) identified three QTLs, Hbs-1, Hbs-2, and Hbs-3, associated with heat-induced browning of seed coats using the cowpea RIL populations derived from IT93K-503-1 × CB46 and IT84S-2246 × TVu 14676. The identification of SNP markers co-segregating with the heatinduced browning of seed coats phenotype in the Hbs-1 and Hbs-3 loci will help indirect selection in breeding cowpea with better quality grain. In addition, the study revealed ethylene forming enzyme as a cowpea candidate gene for the Hbs-1 locus and an ACC synthase 1 gene as a cowpea candidate gene for the Hbs-3 locus."},{"index":7,"size":142,"text":"For cowpea insects, Muchero et al. (2009b) identified three QTLs for resistance to foliar thrips. Thr-1, Thr-2, and Thr-3, were identified on linkage groups 5 and 7 accounting for 9.1-32.1% of the phenotypic variance. In addition, these authors reported that the peaks of these QTLs are respectively co-located with AFLP markers ACC-CAT7, ACG-CTC5, and AGG-CAT1 that could be used in marker-assisted selection for resistance against foliar thrips. These QTLs were subsequently positioned on a SNP consensus map by Lucas et al. (2012). Huynh et al. (2015) identified one major and one minor QTL conferring aphid resistance on LG 7 and LG 1, respectively, with both of the favorable alleles contributed by IT97K-556-6. The major QTL appeared dominant in a related F2 population. SNP markers flanking each QTL are being used to introgress resistance alleles from IT97K-556-6 into susceptible varieties using markerassisted backcrossing."},{"index":8,"size":105,"text":"A major QTL conferring resistance to root-knot nematodes has been mapped on linkage group 11 of different mapping populations (Huynh et al., 2016). Root-knot nematodes can be a component of disease complexes with other root pathogens such as Fusarium wilt and root rots. Through their efforts to develop Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. tracheiphilum resistant cowpea lines, Pottorff et al. (2012b) mapped a Fot race 3 resistance locus (Fot3-1) to a 1.2 cM region and identified SNP marker 1_1107 as co-segregating with Fot3-1. Pyramiding QTLs for resistance to root-knot nematodes and fusarium wilt in breeding programs could enable development of cowpea varieties with healthy root systems."}]},{"head":"Genome Sequence Efforts in Cowpea","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":171,"text":"The genetic map is being used to anchor an initial wholegenome shotgun (WGS) assembly of cowpea accession IT97K-499-35, which includes sequences for about 97% of all known cowpea genes. Genomic DNA from the reference genotype was shotgun sequenced to ∼65× coverage (one 5-kb library included) using Illumina paired-end technology on GAII, and then assembled together with Sanger BAC-end sequences and \"gene-space\" sequences (Timko et al., 2008) using SOAPdenovo (Luo et al., 2012). The assembly contains 323,048,341 bp of non-N sequences, with an N50 of 6322. These sequences may be searched by BLAST via harvest-blast.org and downloaded via harvest-web.org. A physical map was developed from BAC libraries of IT97K-499-35 by high information content fingerprinting and computational assembly. This physical map is accessible through http://phymap.ucdavis.edu/cowpea/ and is in the process of being linked to the genetic map and genome sequence. Ongoing work to improve the genome assembly using sequenced BACs, long-read shotgun sequencing and optical mapping is in progress, with a goal of 11 pseudomolecules and an average scaffold length of 56 Mb."}]},{"head":"THE USE OF GENOMIC TOOLS IN BREEDING PROGRAMS","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":109,"text":"During the implementation of the Tropical Legumes I (TLI) project, resources for SNP genotyping and QTL-based selection were developed and applied to marker-assisted recurrent selection (MARS) and marker-assisted backcrossing (MABC) populations (Figure 1). Collaboration between the co-authors, others in the Generation Challenge Program team and LGC Genomics led to conversion of SNP assays to the KASP system. This included 1022 mapped SNPs. Other support tools include the improved cowpea consensus genetic maps (version There have also been efforts within the West African Cowpea Consortium (WACC), funded by Kirkhouse Trust, targeting the development by MABC of new cowpea varieties with resistance to the parasitic weed S. gesnerioides in six countries."},{"index":2,"size":180,"text":"In Senegal, ISRA at Bambey is applying MAS in breeding new resistant varieties of cowpea to Striga, aphid, and Macrophomina root rot. In Mali, the Institut d'Economie Rurale (IER) at Bamako is using molecular breeding to develop cowpea lines resistant to the two prevalent strains of Striga present in Mali. In Burkina Faso, INERA at Ouagadougou is using MAS to develop cowpea varieties with resistance to Striga and possessing farmer's preferred traits in different ecological zones. The project has reported the release of four varieties with Striga resistance to farmers in Burkina Faso. Efforts are continuing to apply MAS to develop Striga-, aphid-, and Colletotrichum capsicii-resistant cowpea lines. In Ghana, the Savanna Agricultural Research Institute (SARI) at Tamale is using MAS to introgress aphid resistance into known Striga resistant varieties. In Nigeria, the University of Agriculture Makurdi (UAM) is using MAS to develop varieties resistant to Striga, Alectra, aphid, and Fusarium wilt. In Cameroon, the Institut de la Recherche Agronomique pour le Developpement (IRAD) at Maroua is also targeting the development of Striga, aphid, and thrips resistant varieties using MAS."}]},{"head":"PERSPECTIVES","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":255,"text":"Progress in the development of genomic resources for cowpea was achieved recently through the CGIAR Generation Challenge Programme's (GCP) \"Tropical Legumes I\" project. A highthroughput SNP genotyping platform was established through this project (Muchero et al., 2009a). This platform genotypes simultaneously 96 DNA samples at 1536 SNP loci. Using this, a consensus genetic map was established, which provides the opportunity of determining marker positions with some precision across the cowpea genome. This will facilitate markertrait association analyses needed for marker-assisted breeding. Currently, efforts are underway to improve both the robustness of the genotyping and the utility of the consensus genetic map through a Feed the Future project entitled, \"Innovation Lab for Climate Resilient Cowpea.\" Fingerprinting of cowpea breeding programs' preferred accessions are ongoing using nearly 50,000 SNPs. As described above in the genomic resources section, SNP markers and QTLs have been identified for some key biotic and abiotic stresses. Molecular breeding approaches have been initiated in some cowpea breeding programs using LGC Genomics, which converted about 1100 mapped SNPs for use with the KASP platform. Efforts will continue to generate more trait-linked markers, which are intended for breeding applications. The availability of facile genotyping platforms, which may proceed by outsourcing, will accelerate QTL discovery for important traits of cowpea. We anticipate that cowpea breeders will use molecular breeding routinely for the foreseeable future to harness important traits from wild and nonadapted cowpea accessions available in genetic resources centers. Through the implementation of modern breeding, improved lines with higher yield potential may be developed more efficiently."},{"index":2,"size":96,"text":"To increase success, cowpea breeding programs need to address additional challenges, the most significant of which is phenotyping. Phenotyping approaches need to be high-throughput, cost-effective, and precise. Data handling and analysis, and decision support tools such as the BMS of the IBP need to be available to and utilized by cowpea breeders. Also, as discussed by others (Varshney et al., 2014), we must integrate training across scientific fields, including genetics, plant breeding, computer science, mathematics, engineering, biometrics and bioinformatics, and evolve new forms of communication and professional organizations so that genomics-assisted breeding can achieve its potential."}]},{"head":"SUMMARY","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":283,"text":"Cowpea is one of the most important grain legumes in SSA. It provides strong support to the livelihood of small-scale farmers through its contributions to their nutritional security, income generation and soil fertility enhancement. Worldwide about 6.5 million metric tons of cowpea are produced annually on about 14.5 million hectares. The low productivity of cowpea is attributable to numerous abiotic and biotic constraints. The abiotic stress factors comprise drought, low soil fertility, and heat while biotic constraints include insects, diseases, parasitic weeds, and nematodes. Cowpea farmers also have limited access to quality seeds of improved varieties for planting. Some progress has been made through conventional breeding at international and national research institutions in the last three decades. Cowpea improvement could also benefit from modern breeding methods based on molecular genetic tools. A number of advances in cowpea genetic linkage maps, and QTL associated with some desirable traits such as resistance to Striga, Macrophomina, Fusarium wilt, bacterial blight, root-knot nematodes, aphids, and foliar thrips have been reported. An improved consensus genetic linkage map has been developed and used to identify QTLs of additional traits. In order to take advantage of these developments SNP genotyping is being streamlined to establish an efficient workflow supported by genotyping support service (GSS)-client interactions. About 1100 SNPs mapped on the cowpea genome were converted by LGC Genomics to KASP assays. Several cowpea breeding programs have been exploiting these resources to implement molecular breeding, especially for MARS and MABC, to accelerate cowpea variety improvement. The combination of conventional breeding and molecular breeding strategies, with workflow managed through the CGIAR BMS, promises an increase in the number of improved varieties available to farmers, thereby boosting cowpea production and productivity in SSA."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"FIGURE 1 | FIGURE 1 | Scheme of molecular breeding in cowpea. "},{"text":" Several viruses infect cowpea including Cowpea aphid-borne mosaic virus (CABMV, genus Potyvirus, family Potyviridae); Bean common mosaic virus-blackeye cowpea mosaic strain (BCMV-BlCM, genus Potyvirus, family Potyviridae); Cowpea mosaic virus (CPMV, genus Comovirus, family Secoviridae); Southern bean mosaic virus (SBMV, genus Sobemovirus); Cowpea mottle virus (CPMoV, genus Carmovirus, family Tombusviridae); Cucumber mosaic virus (CMV, genus Cucumovirus, family Bromoviridae); Cowpea mild mottle virus (CPMMV, genus Carlavirus, family Betaflexiviridae); and Cowpea golden mosaic virus (CGMV, genus Begomovirus, family Geminiviridae). The main fungi known to cause diseases in cowpea plants include Colletotrichum sp. causing anthracnose and brown blotch, Macrophomina phaseolina causing charcoal rot, ashy stem blight and stem canker, Cercospora canescens causing cercospora leaf spot, Elsinoe phaseoli causing scab, and Rhizoctonia solani causing web blight. Plant-parasitic nematodes, especially root-knot nematodes (Meloidogyne spp.  "},{"text":"TABLE 1 | Some cowpea genomics resources. Resources Short description Use References ResourcesShort descriptionUseReferences Physical Map of 60,000 BACs from IT97K-499-35 were Tool for gene discovery Close et al., 2011; http://phymap. Physical Map of60,000 BACs from IT97K-499-35 wereTool for gene discoveryClose et al., 2011; http://phymap. cowpea fingerprinted. The final physical map is an  ucdavis.edu:8080/cowpea/ cowpeafingerprinted. The final physical map is anucdavis.edu:8080/cowpea/  assembly of 43,717 BACs with a depth of 11×   assembly of 43,717 BACs with a depth of 11×  genome coverage.   genome coverage. HarvEST:Cowpea EST database with gene function analysis and Online cowpea genomics browser Muchero et al., 2009a,b; HarvEST:CowpeaEST database with gene function analysis andOnline cowpea genomics browserMuchero et al., 2009a,b;  primer design.  http://harvest.ucr.edu/ primer design.http://harvest.ucr.edu/ Cowpea Genetic markers, gene-space, metabolic Tool for gene discovery; enzyme and Chen et al., 2007; http:// CowpeaGenetic markers, gene-space, metabolicTool for gene discovery; enzyme andChen et al., 2007; http:// Genespace/Genomics pathways, mitochondrial, and chloroplast metabolic pathway cowpeagenomics.med.virginia.edu/ Genespace/Genomicspathways, mitochondrial, and chloroplastmetabolic pathwaycowpeagenomics.med.virginia.edu/ Knowledge Base sequences.  CGKB/ Knowledge Basesequences.CGKB/ (CGKB)    (CGKB) The Cowpea Some advances in cowpea genomics. Tools for gene discovery and cowpea Chen et al., 2007; http:// The CowpeaSome advances in cowpea genomics.Tools for gene discovery and cowpeaChen et al., 2007; http:// Genomics  improvement cowpeagenomics.med.virginia.edu/ Genomicsimprovementcowpeagenomics.med.virginia.edu/ Initiative (CGI)    Initiative (CGI) Microarray chip 41,949 EST sequences from drought stressed For expression analysis in cowpea Contact S. Hearne, CIMMYT, Mexico, Microarray chip41,949 EST sequences from drought stressedFor expression analysis in cowpeaContact S. Hearne, CIMMYT, Mexico,  and non-stressed drought susceptible and  [email protected] and non-stressed drought susceptible [email protected]  tolerant cowpea materials generated,  The ESTs are all available in Harvest tolerant cowpea materials generated,The ESTs are all available in Harvest  representing 16,954 unigenes.  database of cowpea (UCR and representing 16,954 unigenes.database of cowpea (UCR and    GENBANK on NCBI) GENBANK on NCBI) Validated SSR    Validated SSR marker kit    marker kit  "},{"text":"TABLE 2 | List of IITA varieties released from 2005 to 2015 in sub-Saharan Africa. Year of Variety Country Year ofVarietyCountry release   release 2005 IT93K-452-1, IT90K-277-2 Nigeria 2005IT93K-452-1, IT90K-277-2Nigeria 2008 IT97K-499-35 Nigeria 2008IT97K-499-35Nigeria 2009 IT89KD-288, IT89KD-391 Nigeria 2009IT89KD-288, IT89KD-391Nigeria  IT97K-499-35, IT97K-499-38, IT98K-205-8 Niger IT97K-499-35, IT97K-499-38, IT98K-205-8Niger 2010 IT97K-499-35, IT93K-876-30 Mali 2010IT97K-499-35, IT93K-876-30Mali  IT99K-573-1-1 Niger IT99K-573-1-1Niger 2011 IT82E-16, IT00K-1263, IT97K-1069-6 Mozambique 2011IT82E-16, IT00K-1263, IT97K-1069-6Mozambique  IT99K-494-6 Malawi IT99K-494-6Malawi  IT99K-573-1-1, IT99K-573-2-1 Nigeria IT99K-573-1-1, IT99K-573-2-1Nigeria 2012 IT99K-7-21-2-2-1, IT99K-573-1-1 Tanzania 2012IT99K-7-21-2-2-1, IT99K-573-1-1Tanzania 2013 IT99K-573-2-1, IT98K-205-8 Burkina Faso 2013IT99K-573-2-1, IT98K-205-8Burkina Faso  IT95K-193-12 Benin IT95K-193-12Benin 2015 IT00K-1263, IT99K-1122 Tanzania 2015IT00K-1263, IT99K-1122Tanzania  IT07K-292-10, IT07K-318-33 Nigeria IT07K-292-10, IT07K-318-33Nigeria  TVx 194801 F, IT05K-321-2, IT97K-390-2, Swaziland TVx 194801 F, IT05K-321-2, IT97K-390-2,Swaziland  IT82E-16, IT82E-18, IT99K-494-4  IT82E-16, IT82E-18, IT99K-494-4  IT99K-573-1-1, IT99K-573-2-1 Sierra Leone IT99K-573-1-1, IT99K-573-2-1Sierra Leone et al., 2007), random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) et al., 2007), random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD)  "},{"text":"TABLE 3 | Mapping of some cowpea traits. Trait Population Type Marker No. Locations PV % References TraitPopulationTypeMarkerNo.LocationsPV %References    type markers/QTLs    typemarkers/QTLs Cowpea golden IT97 K-499-35 × F 2 AFLP 3 Same linkage group  Rodrigues et al., 2012 Cowpea goldenIT97 K-499-35 ×F 2AFLP3Same linkage groupRodrigues et al., 2012 mosaic virus Canapu T16       mosaic virusCanapu T16 Striga resistance TVx 3236 × IT82D-849 F 2 AFLP 3 LG1  Ouédraogo et al., 2001 Striga resistanceTVx 3236 × IT82D-849F 2AFLP3LG1Ouédraogo et al., 2001  Tvu 14676 × F 2 AFLP 6 LG 1  Ouédraogo et al., 2001 Tvu 14676 ×F 2AFLP6LG 1Ouédraogo et al., 2001  IT84S-2246-4       IT84S-2246-4  IT84S-2246 × F 2 SCAR (61R 2 LG 1  Ouédraogo et al., 2012 IT84S-2246 ×F 2SCAR (61R2LG 1Ouédraogo et al., 2012  Tvu14676; TVx 3236 ×  and     Tvu14676; TVx 3236 ×and  IT82D-849  61R-M2)     IT82D-84961R-M2)  IT93 K-693-2 × F 2 AFLP/SCAR 4/1 Same linkage map  Boukar et al., 2004 IT93 K-693-2 ×F 2AFLP/SCAR4/1Same linkage mapBoukar et al., 2004  IAR1696       IAR1696 Cowpea DanIla × TVu7778 RIL SNP 3 LG3, LG5, LG9 10-22 Agbicodo et al., 2010 CowpeaDanIla × TVu7778RILSNP3LG3, LG5, LG910-22Agbicodo et al., 2010 bacterial blight        bacterial blight resistance        resistance Drought-induced IT93K503-1 × CB46 RIL AFLP 10 LG1, LG2, LG3, LG5, LG6, 5-24 Muchero et al., 2010 Drought-inducedIT93K503-1 × CB46RILAFLP10LG1, LG2, LG3, LG5, LG6,5-24Muchero et al., 2010 senescence     LG7, LG9, LG10   senescenceLG7, LG9, LG10 Maturity IT93K503-1 × CB46 RIL AFLP 2 LG7, LG8 25-29 Muchero et al., 2010 MaturityIT93K503-1 × CB46RILAFLP2LG7, LG825-29Muchero et al., 2010 Foliar thrips CB46 × IT93 K-503-1 RILs SNP 3 LG2, LG4 and LG10 9-32 Lucas et al., 2012 Foliar thripsCB46 × IT93 K-503-1RILsSNP3LG2, LG4 and LG109-32Lucas et al., 2012  and CB27 × IT82E-18       and CB27 × IT82E-18 Foliar thrips CB46 × IT93 K-503-1 RILs AFLP 3 LG 5 and 7 9-32 Muchero et al., 2010 Foliar thripsCB46 × IT93 K-503-1RILsAFLP3LG 5 and 79-32Muchero et al., 2010  and CB27 × IT82E-18       and CB27 × IT82E-18 Hastate leaf Sanzi × Vita 7 RIL SNP 1 LG 15 74.7 Pottorff et al., 2012a Hastate leafSanzi × Vita 7RILSNP1LG 1574.7Pottorff et al., 2012a shape        shape Seed size 524B × 219-01 RIL SSR 6 LG1, LG10 9-19 Andargie et al., 2011 Seed size524B × 219-01RILSSR6LG1, LG109-19Andargie et al., 2011 Pod fiber layer 524B × 219-01 RIL SSR 4 LG1, LG10 6-17 Andargie et al., 2011 Pod fiber layer524B × 219-01RILSSR4LG1, LG106-17Andargie et al., 2011 thickness        thickness Pod length (JP81610 × TVnu457) BC 1 F 1 SSR 9 LG1, LG2, LG3, LG4, LG5, 31 Kongjaimun et al., 2012a Pod length(JP81610 × TVnu457)BC 1 F 1SSR9LG1, LG2, LG3, LG4, LG5,31Kongjaimun et al., 2012a  × JP81610    LG7, LG8, LG9, LG11   × JP81610LG7, LG8, LG9, LG11 Domestication- (JP81610 × JP89083) BC 1 F 1 SSR 1-11 for most LG3, LG7, LG8, LG11 3-57 Kongjaimun et al., 2012b Domestication-(JP81610 × JP89083)BC 1 F 1SSR1-11 for mostLG3, LG7, LG8, LG113-57Kongjaimun et al., 2012b related × JP81610   traits    related× JP81610traits traits        traits Seed weight IT2246-4 × TVNuI963 F 2 RFLP 2 LG 2 LG6 37-53 Fatokun et al., 1992 Seed weightIT2246-4 × TVNuI963F 2RFLP2LG 2 LG637-53Fatokun et al., 1992 Seed weight 524B × 219-01 RIL SSR 6 LG1, LG2, LG3, LG10 8-19 Andargie et al., 2011 Seed weight524B × 219-01RILSSR6LG1, LG2, LG3, LG108-19Andargie et al., 2011 Charcoal rot IT93 K-503-1 × CB46 RIL SNP/AFLP 9 LG2, LG3, LG5, LG6, LG11 8-40 Muchero et al., 2011 Charcoal rotIT93 K-503-1 × CB46RILSNP/AFLP9LG2, LG3, LG5, LG6, LG118-40Muchero et al., 2011 resistance        resistance Flower and seed ZN016 × Zhijiang 28-2 RIL SNP and 1 each LG8 - Xu et al., 2011 Flower and seedZN016 × Zhijiang 28-2RILSNP and1 eachLG8-Xu et al., 2011 coat color   SSR     coat colorSSR Time of flower 524 B × 219-01 RIL SSR 5 LG1 9-30 Andargie et al., 2013 Time of flower524 B × 219-01RILSSR5LG19-30Andargie et al., 2013 opening        opening Days to flower 524 B × 219-01 RIL SSR 3 LG1 6-19 Andargie et al., 2013 Days to flower524 B × 219-01RILSSR3LG16-19Andargie et al., 2013 Days to first ZN016 × ZJ282 RIL SNP 3 LG11, LG10, LG3 10-32 Xu et al., 2013 Days to firstZN016 × ZJ282RILSNP3LG11, LG10, LG310-32Xu et al., 2013 flowering        flowering        (Continued) (Continued)  "},{"text":"TABLE 3  | (Continued)       | (Continued) Trait Population Type Marker No. Locations PV % References TraitPopulationTypeMarkerNo.LocationsPV %References    type markers/QTLs    typemarkers/QTLs Nodes to first ZN016 × ZJ282 RIL SNP 4 LG11, LG4, LG2, LG6 11-22 Xu et al., 2013 Nodes to firstZN016 × ZJ282RILSNP4LG11, LG4, LG2, LG611-22Xu et al., 2013 flower        flower Pod number per ZN016 × ZJ282 RIL SSR 3 LG3, LG2, LG4 11-20 Xu et al., 2013 Pod number perZN016 × ZJ282RILSSR3LG3, LG2, LG411-20Xu et al., 2013 plant        plant Leaf senescence ZN016 × ZJ282 RIL SNP 2 LG11, LG3, LG7 11-29 Xu et al., 2013 Leaf senescenceZN016 × ZJ282RILSNP2LG11, LG3, LG711-29Xu et al., 2013 Floral scent 524 B × 219-01 RIL SSR 63 LG1, LG2, LG4 60 Andargie et al., 2014 Floral scent524 B × 219-01RILSSR63LG1, LG2, LG460Andargie et al., 2014 compounds        compounds Heat tolerance CB27 × IT82E-18 RIL SNP 5 LG2, LG7, LG6, LG10, LG3 12-18 Lucas et al., 2013a Heat toleranceCB27 × IT82E-18RILSNP5LG2, LG7, LG6, LG10, LG312-18Lucas et al., 2013a Seed size Eight different RILs SNP 10 LG5, LG7, LG2, LG6, LG8, 47 Lucas et al., 2013b Seed sizeEight differentRILsSNP10LG5, LG7, LG2, LG6, LG8,47Lucas et al., 2013b  populations    LG10   populationsLG10 Fusarium wilt CB27 × 24-125B-1 RIL SNP 1 LG6 28 Pottorff et al., 2012b Fusarium wiltCB27 × 24-125B-1RILSNP1LG628Pottorff et al., 2012b resistance (Fot        resistance (Fot race 3)        race 3) Fusarium wilt IT93K-503-1 × CB46, RIL SNP 1 LG8 19-47 Pottorff et al., 2014 Fusarium wiltIT93K-503-1 × CB46,RILSNP1LG819-47Pottorff et al., 2014 resistance (Fot CB27 × 24-125B-1 RIL SNP 1 LG9 32-40 Pottorff et al., 2014 resistance (FotCB27 × 24-125B-1RILSNP1LG932-40Pottorff et al., 2014 race 4) CB27 × IT82E-18 RIL SNP 1 LG3 18-27 Pottorff et al., 2014 race 4)CB27 × IT82E-18RILSNP1LG318-27Pottorff et al., 2014 Pod tenderness (JP81610 × JP89083) BC 1 F 1 SSR 3 LG 7, LG8, LG11 6-50 Kongjaimun et al., 2013 Pod tenderness(JP81610 × JP89083)BC 1 F 1SSR3LG 7, LG8, LG116-50Kongjaimun et al., 2013  × JP81610       × JP81610 Pod tenderness JP81610 × JP89083 F 2 SSR 2 LG 7, LG8 6-45 Kongjaimun et al., 2013 Pod tendernessJP81610 × JP89083F 2SSR2LG 7, LG86-45Kongjaimun et al., 2013  "}],"sieverID":"e4cb9b5b-6ce7-4b47-b1cb-165e89638b3c","abstract":"Cowpea is one of the most important grain legumes in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). It provides strong support to the livelihood of small-scale farmers through its contributions to their nutritional security, income generation and soil fertility enhancement. Worldwide about 6.5 million metric tons of cowpea are produced annually on about 14.5 million hectares. The low productivity of cowpea is attributable to numerous abiotic and biotic constraints. The abiotic stress factors comprise drought, low soil fertility, and heat while biotic constraints include insects, diseases, parasitic weeds, and nematodes. Cowpea farmers also have limited access to quality seeds of improved varieties for planting. Some progress has been made through conventional breeding at international and national research institutions in the last three decades. Cowpea improvement could also benefit from modern breeding methods based on molecular genetic tools. A number of advances in cowpea genetic linkage maps, and quantitative trait loci associated with some desirable traits such as resistance to Striga, Macrophomina, Fusarium wilt, bacterial blight, root-knot nematodes, aphids, and foliar thrips have been reported. An improved consensus genetic linkage map has been developed and used to identify QTLs of additional traits. In order to take advantage of these developments single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) genotyping is being streamlined to establish an efficient workflow supported by genotyping support service (GSS)-client interactions. About 1100 SNPs mapped on the cowpea genome were converted by LGC Genomics to KASP assays. Several cowpea breeding programs have been exploiting these resources to implement molecular breeding, especially for MARS and MABC, to accelerate cowpea variety improvement. The combination of conventional breeding and molecular breeding strategies, with workflow managed through the CGIAR breeding management system (BMS), promises an increase in the number of improved varieties available to farmers, thereby boosting cowpea production and productivity in SSA."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0af1e7c15329adc76bf5d5b3c82a718c","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/6b280c3f-0148-4fe6-8427-fee2f829cbab/retrieve"},"pageCount":11,"title":"Workshop Report: Toward synthetic learning across the CCAFS Flagship on Climate Services and Safety Nets","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"About the authors","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":17,"text":"Catherine Vaughan is a senior staff associate at the International Research Institute for Climate and Society (IRI)."},{"index":2,"size":16,"text":"Alison Rose is the Science Officer for the CCAFS Flagship on Climate Services and Safety Nets."},{"index":3,"size":12,"text":"Stephen Zebiak leads the CCAFS Flagship on Climate Services and Safety Nets.  "}]},{"head":"Contents","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Initial discussion","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":47,"text":"To generate grist for discussion, six speakers presented their perspective on pressing research questions in the field of agricultural climate services. showed that there is a growing demand for tailored climate information services among farmers in targeted villages in India, where information was particularly useful for planning."},{"index":2,"size":28,"text":"Jim Hansen, senior research scientist at IRI, presented some concepts from the CCAFS proposal that he suggested might be useful to help the group think about synthetic learning."},{"index":3,"size":34,"text":"He reminded the group of the two hypotheses that underpin the Flagship. These are: Overall, Hansen reported, the Flagship has made less progress in generating evidence of the first hypothesis than of the second."}]},{"head":"Brainstorming","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":44,"text":"With these initial discussions over, each member of the group submitted ideas for synthetic papers that they might like to use to explore learning within and across the Flagship. This led to the creation of more than 15 ideas, presented in Table 1, below."},{"index":2,"size":27,"text":"In each case, a number of Flagship representatives showed interest in each paper; those topics garnering the most interest were related to: trade-offs, communication channels, and bundles."},{"index":3,"size":42,"text":"The group also explored commonalities between topics. For instance, communication channels may be some of the many trade-offs that climate service providers face. Scaling, sustainability and trade-offs might also be integrated, and bundling may also involve integrating climate services and climate-smart agriculture."}]},{"head":"Key word Short description","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":29,"text":"and lays out a research agenda for agricultural climate services; and (2) a special issue that allows for joint papers to highlight both synthetic insights and more project-based papers."},{"index":2,"size":11,"text":"This is expected to develop over the course of the 2020."}]}],"figures":[{"text":" Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 7 Initial Discussion ........................................................................................................................ 7 Brainstorming ............................................................................................................................. 8 Way Forward .............................................................................................................................. 9 Appendix1 ................................................................................................................................ 10 "},{"text":" Describing the connection from outcome to impact: Effective use of relevant climaterelated information by farming communities; and by the insurance providers, agricultural planners, food security safety net interventions that serve them; enables more climatesmart agricultural systems and climate-resilient farmer livelihoods. ▪ Describing the connection between output and outcome: Overcoming key gaps in available climate information, in knowledge and methods to effectively target and implement climate-informed services and interventions, and in the evidence of their benefits, leads to more effective use of climate information by farmers and the institutions that serve them. Research toward these hypotheses was specifically intended to target: ▪ Key gaps in the information, knowledge, methodology and capacity needed to develop effective, equitable climate services and climate-informed safety nets (including insurance) at scale ▪ Innovations that address major bottlenecks to the delivery of effective services at scale, within the comparative advantage of CCAFS and its partners ▪ Evidence on the role that these interventions can play in building resilience and enabling climate smart agriculture (CSA). "},{"text":" These included a wide gap between the needs and expectations of climate information users and providers; a lack of financial and human resources needed to facilitate the kind of dialogue that would bring these different groups together. also referenced several of CCAFS outcome statements, some of which report very large target audiences. Julian Ramirez-Villegas, research fellow at the International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT), referenced Kolstad et al. 20191, in identifying common challenges to climate ▪ What makes large-scale climate services interventions (un)successful? ▪ Are our current climate services approaches really capable of reducing climate risk? ▪ What is the typology of 'users' of climate services and how does it change depending on the context? services. Based on this, he suggested three questions to explore: Tatiana Gumuccio, post-doctoral researcher at IRI, presented on gender and social inclusion Julian Ramirez-Villegas, research fellow at the International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT), referenced Kolstad et al. 20191, in identifying common challenges to climate ▪ What makes large-scale climate services interventions (un)successful? ▪ Are our current climate services approaches really capable of reducing climate risk? ▪ What is the typology of 'users' of climate services and how does it change depending on the context? services. Based on this, he suggested three questions to explore: Tatiana Gumuccio, post-doctoral researcher at IRI, presented on gender and social inclusion  "}],"sieverID":"f0cf3511-5212-4c35-851f-5d8875ffee13","abstract":"CCAFS Workshop Reports aim to disseminate interim climate change, agriculture and food security research and practices and stimulate feedback from the scientific community. The CGIAR Research Program on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security (CCAFS) is led by the International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT) and carried out with support from the CGIAR Trust Fund and through bilateral funding agreements. For more information, please visit https://ccafs.cgiar.org/donors."}