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+{"metadata":{"id":"057a289e56449f79f1690a9bf536ceae","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/7f97e3a7-e0fc-404e-8428-65d240a4cfbd/retrieve"},"pageCount":48,"title":"Blending for agriculture","keywords":["CCAFS","CTA","SPC, 2016; 40 pp"],"chapters":[{"head":"T","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":93,"text":"he dramatic increase in the use of mobile phones has generated high interest in the potential of this connected network. A user can become an informant able to quickly transmit data via specific applications or SMS. This concept of drawing on peoples' knowledge and skills is called 'crowdsourcing', which is a blanket term that encompasses different practices, from outsourcing services to participatory production, similar to participatory science initiatives based on networks of amateur observers. In turn, ICTs facilitate the collection, processing and dissemination of information -activities that were previously complex and very time-consuming."},{"index":2,"size":50,"text":"Many agricultural initiatives involving crowdsourcing have emerged in recent years in ACP countries. According to Krishan Bheenick, Senior CTA Programme Coordinator for Knowledge Management, the diverse range of uses and applications reflect their vitality. \"Some initiatives focused on price collection are geared towards market information systems (MIS) and food policies."}]},{"head":"Others extend participatory science","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Magali Reinert","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":39,"text":"initiatives by using ICTs to facilitate participant involvement. Other social justice actions empower rural communities so as to help them meet their demands. They are supported by new collaborative or participatory working tools available on the internet,\" he says."}]},{"head":"An expanding data market","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":127,"text":"International organisations rely on large-scale collection of market price data to better inform food security policies. Summer Allen at the International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI) explains this interest, \"Using data from a large number of individuals could help reduce bias and shed light on overall market constraints in terms of food product access and availability, and on price volatility.\" IFPRI is conducting a pilot project on this topic. The Africa Food Prices Collection Project was launched under a similar initiative carried out by the African Development Bank, in collaboration with the European Commission's Joint Research Centre. Since 2015, networks of informants are being trained and paid to regularly send information on market prices in three African capital cities -Freetown (Sierra Leone), Kampala (Uganda) and Nairobi (Kenya)."},{"index":2,"size":109,"text":"With the development of MIS in sub-Saharan Africa, various NGOs, such as Afrique Verte International and RONGEAD, are also testing agricultural price collection models. Many pay their informants, but this practice often depends on external funding. RONGEAD has opted not to pay its contributors and, according to their ICT expert, Julien Gonnet, this has been successful thanks to the high quality of the service. \"RONGEAD offers a unique service. In addition to price information, we provide free-of-charge market analyses that are of interest to traders, thus justifying their investment in the project,\" says Gonnet. The service also relies on organised local collaborators (see N'kalo -an open-ended market analysis service)."},{"index":3,"size":42,"text":"Price data acquisition is certainly a rapidly evolving sector. This is reflected in the number of start-ups that have been focusing on this promising market. The Californian company, Premise, has developed a large network of price collectors who send photos of agricultural"}]},{"head":"Participatory data collection to benefit agriculture","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":21,"text":"What is crowdsourcing? Could this data collection strategy be beneficial for farmers in ACP regions, and how? An overview of practices…"}]},{"head":"C R O W D S O U R C I N G","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":17,"text":"SPORE 182 | 3 product prices taken in markets or shops, and in return they receive payment."},{"index":2,"size":73,"text":"The Premise website indicates that it is present in 30 countries, especially in large African cities, while showcasing several market studies based on its crowdsourcing. These include a study on the impact of Ebola on market food prices in Monrovia (Liberia), and another survey on price variations for meat and sweets during Ramadan in Nigeria. Premise sells its services to private investors and any other stakeholders interested in getting information on market conditions."}]},{"head":"Experiences from open source projects","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":219,"text":"Informant participation often comes with a financial reward or a phone credit. However, whilst a financial incentive boosts contributions it does not guarantee quality of the information, so a control system is needed to check the data. Reliability can be measured in two ways -automatically via software (collected data is checked against standard data to ensure consistency), or manually by All community members -younger and older people, men and women alikeshould be involved in participatory mapping. This creative activity is a crowdsourcing process. In the first step, a baseline map of the area to be analysed is drawn up using a GIS. In the next phase, everyone is asked to help build a 3D model by describing and portraying the land use and cover with pushpins, threads and paint. Finally, data generated by the community members is imported into a GIS and shared according to the targeted use, e.g. natural resource planning and management, climate change adaptation, etc. In each project, the participating community's empowerment is boosted through P3DM -a tool for decision-making, advocacy, action and monitoring. In Samoa's Maugas-o-Salafai National Park, on the island of Savai'i, a CTA-supported P3DM project raised awareness within the local community regarding the negative impacts of their encroachment activities (crop farming and grazing), as well as on the associated environmental risks and consequences."}]},{"head":"For further information, download a free copy of the CTA publication, The Power of Maps -Bringing the Third Dimension to the Negotiation Table: http://bit.ly/2a2gpO6","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":22,"text":"If you are unable to download, please email pdsorders@cta.int organisation is sometimes called 'crowdfeeding' to distinguish it from voluntary participatory data collection."},{"index":2,"size":178,"text":"Participatory experience from open source and social justice movements a moderator who validates the data. \"It is important to promote high quality data collection by paying informants on the basis of data quality,\" stresses Allen. This paid informant oriented network TRENDS also offers interesting examples of stakeholder mobilisation. The open-source software package Ushahidi, which means 'testimony' in Swahili, was developed in 2008 as a result of the postelection violence that took place in Kenya. Four young Kenyan bloggers living in the US developed this software to collect accurate eyewitness accounts of the situation. \"The idea is to gather information from different sources in a participatory way and via different sources (email, SMS, tweets, etc.), without an app to download. This tool is especially suitable when a community already exists -people just had to register to receive alerts, which anyone can do,\" says Nathaniel Manning at Ushahidi. A map application enables users who have witnessed a situation to describe and geotag it on an interactive map. Here again, the software ensures that the contributions are approved by an administrator."},{"index":3,"size":95,"text":"The Ushahidi management system can deal with all types of information and is currently available in 45 different languages and involves 100,000 users in 160 countries. Regarding agricultural uses of the system, Manning cites the example of Argentinian farmers who have used Ushahidi to monitor crop diseases and pests. Another instance is Indian farmers who have applied the system to locate landgrabbing operations -with the development of mining projects in northern India, farmers who have witnessed or have been victims of land dispossession send in their testimonies, which are then compiled on a regional map."},{"index":4,"size":51,"text":"This example of Ushahidi use in India illustrates that geotagged data can facilitate documentation of land-use patterns. CTA has been promoting participatory geographical information systems (GIS) and participatory 3D modeling (P3DM) in ACP countries as a way to empower rural communities and help them defend their lands (see Participatory mappingempowering communities)."},{"index":5,"size":58,"text":"Experiments have also been conducted in humanitarian response situations. The World Food Programme has distributed mobile phones in refugee camps to enable refugees to report on their food situation through monthly surveys. The UN has also worked with Ushahidi to produce interactive maps that constantly change through real-time acquisition of civilian witness accounts of the situation in Libya."},{"index":6,"size":71,"text":"Open Data Kit developers also propose free suites of tools for data collection and processing. These predesigned kits developed by the University of Washington allow users to design survey forms, collect responses sent by mobile phone and extract this data in a suitable form. This approach is more statistical and less collaborative than that of Ushahidi and has attracted the interest of institutional stakeholders such as the African Economic Research Consortium."},{"index":7,"size":69,"text":"Regarding agricultural initiatives, Pierre Bonnet, of the French agricultural research and international cooperation organisation, CIRAD, highlights a successful example of crowdsourcing field observations for tracking crop pathogens. Farmers send photos of survey forms they have filled in -including the date, place and type of pathogens observed -to the relevant research centre via their mobile phone. In exchange, they receive information \"Real-time surveys of invasive plants enable more targeted control.\""},{"index":8,"size":96,"text":"on disease outbreak patterns. \"Farmers participate so that their agricultural problems will be taken into better consideration and to help improve the disease control system,\" says Bonnet. Bonnet is also one of the pioneers of the Pl@ ntNet project, which has developed a mobile app for plant image recognition. Users identify plants via the app, while also contributing to local flora inventories by sending in their dated geotagged photos. Many users are amateur botanists, but farmers have also downloaded the tool for crop weed identifications. \"Real-time surveys of invasive plants enable more targeted control,\" states Bonnet."},{"index":9,"size":87,"text":"This mobile app has been downloaded 2 million times since it was first offered to the general public in 2013, and currently there are 20,000 daily users on average. \"This community generates data volumes that researchers alone could not produce,\" explains Bonnet, who acknowledges that the team was surprised by the overwhelming success of the app. Pl@ntNet surveys flora in many parts of the world, including the Indian Ocean region (Comoros, Mauritius, Seychelles). Caribbean and tropical African regions will also be covered within a year or two."},{"index":10,"size":80,"text":"Bonnet stresses the importance of the quality of the expertise provided by the different research organisations involved in the project. The botany teams are expanding the area covered and are refining the recognition of different plant growth stages. Computer expertise is also essential to enable a maximum number of users to benefit from the service: a free and quick to download app that can be used offline to limit costs (although of course a connection is necessary for data transfer)."}]},{"head":"Hacking and data privacy","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":37,"text":"This proliferation of digital data nevertheless raises the risk of their illicit use, especially in a crowdsourcing context where users' locations and data are shared. In contrast, Ushahidi app users remain anonymous for data source protection reasons."},{"index":2,"size":53,"text":"\"We do not know exactly who the users are. Many of the topics are related to human rights, so the users' anonymity must be respected,\" says Manning. When Ushahidi engineers are working with the UN to produce maps of countries at war, the information is encrypted to avoid providing information to the military."},{"index":3,"size":44,"text":"Ushahidi's stance is a reminder that international organisations, NGOs and companies that collect data must also address the issue of confidentiality. This is especially important in ACP countries where personal data protection legislation is generally non-existent, with a concomitantly higher risk of data misuse."},{"index":4,"size":199,"text":"The Ushahidi management system is currently available in 45 different languages and involves 100,000 users in 160 countries RONGEAD has been offering an open-ended MIS called 'N'kalo' over the last 6 years for the benefit of agricultural stakeholders in West and Central Africa. According to ICT expert Julien Gonnet, N'kalo's success is based on an original approach whereby innovative elements (trends, prospects, regional and global context) are integrated with conventional market information. Gonnet says that RONGEAD manages to collect data in the five countries covered by the service (Burkina Faso, Chad, Côte d'Ivoire, Mali and Senegal) thanks to the quality of the service provided and its field partners. Local collaborators in the different countries (professional agricultural organisations, local NGOs, etc.) retrieve the information by email. In all cases, the data are supplied free of charge by stakeholders in exchange for decrypted information on the market situation regarding different commodity value chains: cashew, shea nut, sesame, maize, onion, groundnut, cassava, yam, plantain and gum arabic. ICTs are used to provide efficient information dissemination via SMS, a mobile phone market price and trend consulting service, a weekly emailed commodity chain, specific newsletters, a dedicated website, and a permanent telephone advisory service."},{"index":5,"size":18,"text":"For further information, visit: Spore 175 'Information for better marketing', http://tinyurl.com/grd34mu; and ICTUpdate on 'Crowdsourcing and engagement', http://tinyurl.com/zq9jmba"}]},{"head":"N'kalo -an open-ended market analysis service","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":12,"text":"About 3,000 Timorese farmers trialled, tested and replicated the new seed varieties"}]},{"head":"AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION","index":11,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Timor Leste: better yielding crops S E E D S","index":12,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Wendy Levy","index":13,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"W","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":118,"text":"hen Timor Leste achieved independence in 2002, years of struggle for statehood had taken a toll on local agriculture. More than 63% of the country's population were farmers but war had isolated them from the advances and advantages of agricultural research. \"The best thing we could do was to get farmers access to new varieties from around the world,\" explains research agronomist Dr Rob Williams. Fourteen years on, the innovative 'Seeds of Life' project from the Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research (ACIAR) has produced 18 new high-yielding seed varieties of staple crops, including cassava, groundnuts, maize, rice, sweet potatoes, mung beans and red beans that have been trialled, tested and replicated by Timorese farmers for Timorese conditions."},{"index":2,"size":81,"text":"To get world class seed stock for testing, the project sent a mayday call to a range of CGIAR centres involved in agricultural research for development. Back came sacks of seeds from around the globe and about 3,000 Timorese farmers were involved in the early research phase, providing feedback on yields, storage abilities, taste and returns at market. \"We wanted to know if they could produce more food if they changed varieties -without changing anything else, no other inputs,\" states Williams."},{"index":3,"size":25,"text":"Using a new variety gave some farmers twice the crop yield in half the timesuch as sweet potato in 4 months instead of 8 months."},{"index":4,"size":52,"text":"More than 4,000 farm experiments tested the suitability of the new CGIAR varieties with different farmer practices, seasons and agricultural ecological zones. Superior yield, agronomic adaptability and social, environment and gender were also analysed. Top performers were given a Timorese name and launched by Timor Leste's Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries (MAF)"}]},{"head":"NEW VARIETIES","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":11,"text":"ACIAR has produced 18 new high-yielding seed varieties of staple crops."}]},{"head":"SPORE 182 | 7","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":58,"text":"A new pilot scheme launched in Mauritius involves 10 pilot farms, each using 'responsible' production techniques. The ultimate aim is to reduce and control the use of pesticides, herbicides, fungicides and insecticides in local crop production. This new approach seeks to deliver healthier, more environmentally-friendly products that meet consumer demands, while ensuring that farmers earn a decent income."},{"index":2,"size":89,"text":"The objective of the scheme, launched by the Mauritius Chamber of Agriculture, is to break farmers' dependency on agro-chemicals at three different levels. Level 1 involves optimising the use of pesticides and achieving better outcomes by improving knowledge, dosing, application and use. Level 2 involves replacing pesticides with alternatives such as biocontrol products, and using insects as part of disease control efforts. Level 3 involves overhauling the cropping system and implementing new concepts such as agroecology, crop diversification, crop rotation, disease-resistant crop varieties and alternative techniques including trap crops."},{"index":3,"size":26,"text":"Under this system, pesticides and fertilisers are used sparingly. The Chamber of Agriculture aims to reduce pesticide residues in soil and food products by around 75%."}]},{"head":"A G R O E C O L O G Y","index":17,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Nasseem Ackbarally","index":18,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Pesticide alternatives","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":182,"text":"-there were no hybrids and no issues with patents. To replicate and distribute these selected seeds, community groups multiplied 1 t of seeds into 6 t for community use. This method was used to establish Timor's National Seed System for Released Varieties, empowering farmers to breed seeds and distribute them through local groups. The groups receive starter seeds, a tarpaulin for spreading seeds on, and storage drums. \"They're usually family-based and can turn 5 or 10 kg of seed into 200 kg,\" says Williams. \"For sweet potato and rice, it was done via cuttings.\" By 2009, about 100 t of seed was distributed to 20,000 farming families. Now MAF contracts growers to produce 30 t of certified seeds. These seeds are provided to commercial seed producers -there are 69 of these large farmer groups across the country. The seeds are purchased by MAF, FAO and NGOs and distributed to farmers. Farmers can also buy seeds from shops run by their local production group. In 2014-15, sufficient seed was produced by commercial seed producers to replace 75% of the nation's seed import requirements."},{"index":2,"size":91,"text":"The Timor Leste seed programme has reduced the hungry season and almost doubled production, says ACIAR research manager for crop improvement and management, Dr Eric Huttner. In addition, quality seed of improved varieties has been shown to contribute 15-131% higher yields than traditional varieties. However, the macroeconomic climate is changing and young farmers are moving to work in the capital, Dili. \"While the yield has increased, some areas of production, particularly rice, have decreased. Cost of production remains too high compared to cheap rice imports from Thailand and Vietnam,\" says Huttner."}]},{"head":"For more information, visit: http://bit.ly/28MtCtj","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":15,"text":"Using a new variety gave some farmers twice the crop yield in half the time. "}]},{"head":"T","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":50,"text":"he Food and Agricultural Research and Extension Institute (FAREI) has introduced a new decision-making support system in Mauritius to give farmers muchneeded access to climate change data and allow them to adapt to it. The real-time figures come from seven automatic weather stations situated at key locations around the island."},{"index":2,"size":104,"text":"The system provides accurate precipitation, temperature, soil humidity, wind speed and direction, and solar radiation data, which are of critical importance to farmers. Using this information, farmers can take key decisions to protect or improve crops and productivity, minimise losses and keep production costs down. The data from each of the seven stations are stored on a server hosted by the Mauritian government's portal. They are then published online, free of charge, in table and graphic formats. The data are also fed into FAREI's mobile phone alert system, which is primarily used to issue warnings about epidemics or specific diseases in a given region."},{"index":3,"size":77,"text":"\"With up-to-date information about weather conditions in their region, farmers can now plan their field activities more efficiently,\" explains Indoomatee Ramma, a researcher at FAREI. \"For example, they can suspend irrigation when they know their region is receiving sufficient rainfall, thereby saving water. The system will also enable farmers to optimise fertiliser spreading and combat pests and diseases more effectively. Ultimately, this will improve productivity.\" Making the right call at the right time can save entire crops."},{"index":4,"size":115,"text":"As the body of information grows over time, it can also be used to identify trends and gain a clearer picture of how crops respond to climate variations. \"We can, for example, predict when the lychee and mango trees will flower, how insects will behave, and how diseases will develop,\" adds Ramma. Vijay Chutturdharee, a farmer from Triolet in northern Mauritius, is delighted with the new initiative. He explains how he decided to sow his chilli seeds on a different date in March last year, after the portal predicted 2 weeks of torrential rain in the region. \"Without this information, I would have lost around 2 ha of seeds to the heavy rains,\" he explains."},{"index":5,"size":79,"text":"Climate change is having an adverse impact on the food security situation in Mauritius, which relies increas-ingly on imports. The island now spends more than €900 million on food each year. \"For an island like ours -with a small economy and limited resources -this is simply too much,\" indicates Mahen Seeruttun, Minister of Agro-Industry and Food Security. FAREI Director Ramesh Rajcoomar claims that the decision-making support system will increase agricultural production and drive down the island's reliance on imports."},{"index":6,"size":5,"text":"For more information, visit: www.farei.mu/meteo."},{"index":7,"size":16,"text":"Seven weather stations transmit information to a server, which is provided free of charge to producers"}]},{"head":"THE SYSTEM","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":9,"text":"is based on obtaining water data in real time. "}]},{"head":"The risks of increasing consumption C H A R C O A L","index":23,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Romain Loury","index":24,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"R","index":25,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":35,"text":"esponsible for 90% of deforestation in Africa, wood fuels (charcoal, firewood, etc.) are more popular than ever: according to FAO, Africa may already account for 60% of charcoal and 35% of wood fuels consumed globally."},{"index":2,"size":56,"text":"Charcoal is used by 77% and 43% of rural and urban households, respectively, and is fuelling the African economy, despite it only rarely being legal. Less expensive than electricity (which is still in short supply in Africa), charcoalmade from burning living trees -is more practical than using dead wood which is more difficult to keep alight."},{"index":3,"size":168,"text":"According to United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) projections, demand in Africa may double or even triple by 2050. This level cannot be sustained by African forests, which are already shrinking rapidly: 35% of Africa comprises wooded areas, but around 75 million ha were lost between 1990 and 2010, with an accelerated rate in the past decade (loss of 0.5% of forested area per year). This loss of a valuable resource threatens the environment in many ways: soil erosion, loss of biodiversity and emission of greenhouse gases resulting in global warming, with Africa being one of the first regions to suffer. However, ever-increasing use of charcoal will also have a strong impact on health: burning the fuel, which often occurs within the home, decreases the air quality inside the building. According to the World Health Organization, this indoor pollution is one of the leading causes of death across the world: 4.3 million deaths per year -of which 600,000 are in Africa -are primarily due to cardiovascular diseases and cancers."},{"index":4,"size":126,"text":"In addition to the environmental and health impacts, charcoal can also cause severe political issues. In 2014, in a report titled The Environmental Crime Crisis, UNEP estimated that charcoal trafficking is funding criminal and terrorist group activities, in particular in the Democratic Republic of Congo and Somalia. This African charcoal does not stay in the domestic market. In September 2015, The Forest Trust NGO revealed that around 40% of the charcoal sold in France came from Nigeria -a country with one of the highest deforestation rates -despite the fact that it is very rarely labelled as such. Although the EU requires wood imports to be from legal sources, charcoal is not included in the European Union Timber Regulations, which have been in force since March 2013."}]},{"head":"El Niño Drought in the Pacific","index":26,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":116,"text":"A STATE OF EMERGENCY declared in early 2016 by Micronesian states, such as the Marshall Islands and Palau, following months of El Niño-linked drought, is still in effect. With wells and reservoirs drying and empty household water tanks, staple crops like breadfruit and bananas have withered and authorities have warned that food and water shortages could lead to increased spread of disease. In Papua New Guinea, the NGO Care has warned that tens of thousands of people are in need of urgent food aid due to severe drought. Whilst rain has returned to some regions and some vegetable crops are being grown, it will take more time for groundwater levels and staple crop production to recover."}]},{"head":"Erosion","index":27,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Bamboo barriers","index":28,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":118,"text":"THOUSANDS OF BAMBOO plants have been planted across Rwanda to combat erosion and protect the country's rivers and wetlands. Hundreds of kilometres of bamboo barriers have sprung up along the Nyabarongo River in the south, and around the Rugezi Marsh in the north. The efforts, undertaken by local NGOs and the Rwanda Environment Management Authority in the north and south respectively, are starting to deliver results. The bamboo plants form a physical barrier, containing the bodies of water and protecting surrounding areas. Bamboo also absorbs more carbonand therefore produces more oxygenthan broad-leaved trees, and is highly efficient at removing nitrogen from the environment (up to 99% absorption, compared with an average of 4 to 6% for other plants)."},{"index":2,"size":24,"text":"Charcoal, a low-cost fuel for many households, is a threat to Africa's forests. Across the continent, consumption could double or even triple by 2050."},{"index":3,"size":10,"text":"Wood fuels are responsible for 90% of deforestation in Africa"}]},{"head":"RESEARCH","index":29,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Food crisis prevention in Madagascar R E M O T E S E N S I N G","index":30,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":23,"text":"Food crises are a regular occurrence in Madagascar. Remote sensing -using technology to measure farmlandis helping the country to tackle this issue head-on."}]},{"head":"Mamy Andriatiana","index":31,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"M","index":32,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":66,"text":"adagascar is a vast country with many difficult-to-access areas. Remote sensing offers a viable alternative to ground-based agricultural production measurement systems. The system uses satellite imagery, spatial modelling and spatialised databases to gain a better understanding of the layout of environments and activities, optimise the spatial distribution of alternative technologies and available resources, and predict the aggregated impacts of major changes to activity and space management."},{"index":2,"size":85,"text":"Research has been carried out in the Antsirabe region, in the Madagascan highlands, 60 km from the capital Antananarivo. The aim of this research was to produce a land use map, focusing in particular on farmland and cropping systems, using satellite images from different sources. The researchers then developed a set of rice yield estimation methods by analysing satellite images taken at different times and carrying out spatial modelling calculations with a view to identifying the best ways to combat the spread of crop diseases."},{"index":3,"size":387,"text":"The research produced no fewer than three probing results. The first was a highly detailed map of farmland in the area of Antsirabe covered by the study during the October 2014 to May 2015 growing season. This precise information is particularly important given that farmland in the area is highly fragmented, mainly comprising of small plots of land surrounded by natural vegetation. It proved more difficult to produce a map of cropping systems (i.e. all processes used to farm the land), and the result was less accurate and is open to improvement. The researchers were then able to calculate rice crop yield estimates. They used 'Normalised Difference Vegetation Index' figures, calculated using the satellite images, to model the crop growing cycle in the region's rice fields. The first set of rice yield estimation models, produced via remote sensing (estimates of total biomass, straw and seed mass), is encouraging. The researchers, along with students and development partners, were then trained on how to use the quantum geographic information system (QGIC). These research activities -supported by substantial funding from the French national centre for space studies, Centre National d'Etudes Spatiale -were carried out under the auspices of the Joint Experiment for Crop Assessment and Monitoring, an international network that specialises in the use of remote sensing technology to monitor agricultural production. Free data from the European Space Agency's 'Sentinel-2' mission -a constellation of high-resolution land monitoring satellites -will soon be available. This should provide additional capability for monitoring and modelling agricultural systems in Madagascar. A soil fertility mapping projectthe first of its kind in Africa -is underway in Ethiopia. Using digital technology, the Ethiopian Soil Information System (EthioSIS) is gathering data on soil characteristics to support decision-making on balanced fertilisation. Over 40% of agricultural land in Ethiopia's three major regions is affected by acidity. Speaking at an International Potash Institute symposium, Dr Gidena Tasew from Mekele Soil Research Centre explained, \"Historically, Ethiopian soils were believed to contain certain nutrients that were actually deficient -in particular, potassium. This is changing as researchers in the country pioneer this digital soil fertility mapping project.\" \"EthioSIS will drive a better fertiliser approach,\" commented Professor Tekalign Mamo, EthioSIS programme leader. \"Just as it is important to ensure growing children receive a healthy diet, nutrition must start in soils, in the form of balanced fertilisation.\""},{"index":4,"size":72,"text":"The project is being coordinated by the Ethiopian Agricultural Transformation Agency (ATA). Senior project officer Tegbaru Bellete comments, \"We are using state-of-the-art technology that, in time, will give farmers an advisory service for which fertilisers to use. I'm excited because different African countries are coming to learn from the experiences of the EthioSIS project.\" ATA plans to move the project to the Ministry of Agriculture and Natural Resources as a permanent programme."},{"index":5,"size":108,"text":"A different approach is being rolled out in Kenya, where over 6,000 farmers are being served by four mobile laboratories. Operated by SoilCares, the laboratories have conducted over 10,000 soil tests since being introduced in 2013, with each soil test costing farmers around €12. Through use of remote sensing technologies, results are ready within 2 hours, supporting farmers to make informed decisions over fertiliser use. Announcements of mobile laboratory visits are sent by text alerts to registered users of the SoilCares SMS service and are also made available through social media. SoilCares advises farmers to have soils tested before the planting season or when switching to new crops."},{"index":6,"size":41,"text":"In late 2016, SoilCares will also be introducing SoilCares Scanners, which will be smaller, lighter and easier to use than the big laboratories. Available at approximately €2,000, the SoilCares Scanner will be appropriate for agro-dealers, extension officers, cooperatives or outgrower schemes."}]},{"head":"Tools for balanced fertilisation S O I L F E R T I L I T Y","index":33,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":21,"text":"A soil mapping project in Ethiopia and mobile laboratories for testing soil in Kenya are helping farmers to improve fertiliser use."}]},{"head":"Mike Davison and James Karuga","index":34,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Wild relatives","index":35,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Species collection needed","index":36,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":98,"text":"A GLOBAL MAPPING project has found major gaps in collections housed by plant genebanks. Researchers from the International Center for Tropical Agriculture, the Global Crop Diversity Trust and the Kew Royal Botanic Gardens, investigated 1,076 crop wild relatives of 81 major crops. They concluded that 70% of wild relative species should be urgently collected to preserve genetic traits needed to protect global food supplies against threats such as climate change, rising soil salinity and emerging diseases. Wild relatives for rice and wheat, in particular, possess a huge amount of genetic diversity, representing a valuable resource for crop improvement."}]},{"head":"Cassava","index":37,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Biodegradable plastic","index":38,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":92,"text":"IN AFRICA, research is currently under way to develop an alternative to plastic bags using cassava -a readily available local resource. Cassava starch can be used to produce biodegradable packaging. However, chemists are still looking for ways to make this fragile, water-soluble material more resistant. The inorganic chemistry laboratory at the University of Yaoundé, Cameroon, recently produced promising results by adding kaolinite (a type of aluminium silicate) to the formula. In Madagascar, manufacturer GasyPlast is already producing cassava-based biodegradable plastics on an industrial scale, thanks to a technology transfer partnership with China."}]},{"head":"NUTRITION AND HEALTH","index":39,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Romain Loury","index":40,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"How climate change is affecting crops M Y C O T O X I N S","index":41,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":23,"text":"Agricultural yields are not the only thing under threat from climate change. A warmer climate could also make staple food crops more toxic."}]},{"head":"A","index":42,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":52,"text":"t the UN Environment Assembly, held in Nairobi in May, the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) issued a stark warning to the international community about the potential hazards of toxic agricultural products. In a report entitled Frontiers, UNEP placed this environmental threat on the same level as plastic pollution and emerging diseases."},{"index":2,"size":70,"text":"The report focuses in particular on mycotoxins, a type of toxin produced by fungi that contaminate plants. There are said to be around 400 different types of mycotoxin, the most well-known of which are aflatoxins, ochratoxin A and fumonisins -strains found most commonly in maize, wheat, sorghum and groundnuts. UNEP estimates suggest that 4.5 million people will be exposed to mycotoxins in developing countries by consuming foodstuffs without quality control."},{"index":3,"size":102,"text":"At high doses, these toxins can be immediately poisonous. At lower, more regular doses, however, they can have a carcinogenic effect. Around 40% of cases of liver cancer in Africa are said to be attributable to aflatoxins. \"This is the most pressing health concern in hot, humid countries,\" explains Didier Montet, food safety specialist at CIRAD, the French agricultural research and international cooperation organisation. During Montet's field research, he claims to have observed mycotoxin doses some 1,000 times higher than the safe levels stated in the CODEX Alimentarius -a set of international standards published by WHO and FAO to protect consumer health."},{"index":4,"size":72,"text":"One of the effects of climate change is an increase in the risk of plant contamination. \"When a plant is stressed and in poor health -such as during a heatwave or drought -it can become more vulnerable to fungal infections,\" explains Catherine Bessy, food safety expert at FAO. Some types of fungus also infect plants via wounds caused by insectsanother phenomenon that may well become more common as the climate heats up."},{"index":5,"size":29,"text":"\"We need to develop disease and food contamination surveillance systems to cope with climate change,\" adds Bessy. These systems will have to monitor foodstuffs that are already in circulation."},{"index":6,"size":59,"text":"There is also a pressing need to promote best-practice principles among farmers to take action further up the food chain. \"We already have a number of simple techniques to reduce this type of contamination, such as drying seeds properly and avoiding storing them directly on the ground,\" adds Montet. \"Sadly, many countries lack the funding required to train farmers.\""},{"index":7,"size":55,"text":"The economic effects of crop toxicity are likely to be felt in the export and livestock farming sectors. In its report, UNEP points to the fact that drought can cause a build-up of nitrates in some plant species. If fed to livestock, these toxins can poison the animals and place the farmer's livelihood in jeopardy."},{"index":8,"size":10,"text":"Climate change could make plants more vulnerable to fungal infection"}]},{"head":"MILLION","index":43,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":13,"text":"people will be exposed to mycotoxins in developing countries by consuming contaminated foodstuffs."}]},{"head":"Mobile technology improves nutrition M H E A LT H","index":44,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":91,"text":"Rita Vaz da Silva I n sub-Saharan Africa, over one third of all child deaths under 5 years (1.5 million each year) are linked to malnutrition, states WHO. However, in Angola, as many as one child in five does not survive beyond the age of five. And many others that survive are severely stunted, failing to grow and develop into healthy, productive adults. Exclusive breastfeeding in the first 6 months of life makes babies healthier and stronger, but only one in 10 Angolan babies under 6 months benefits from this approach."},{"index":2,"size":52,"text":"To help tackle child malnutrition in Angola, and capitalise on one of the highest mobile phone penetration rates in Africa (74 subscribers per 100 people), a mobile health (mHealth) project has been launched by People in Need (PIN), a Czech-based non-profit organisation. PIN previously achieved success with a similar initiative in Cambodia."},{"index":3,"size":75,"text":"\"The mHealth project in Angola aims at improving the health and nutrition of newborns, and at reducing child mortality,\" explains Claudia Oliveira of PIN Angola. \"We send weekly pre-recorded messages, lasting 90 seconds, to mothers and caregivers. The information concerning child development, nutrition, vaccination, disease prevention and hygiene is sent to mothers during the first 6 months of the baby's life, a crucial moment to improve the health and nutrition of the newborn,\" she says."},{"index":4,"size":137,"text":"Traditional birth attendants, who oversee more than half of the births in Angola, generally have a limited education and follow cultural practices which are sometimes harmful to mothers and newborns. However, over 350 attendants have now received training from PIN to improve their good health practice skills, enabling them to attend to mothers and refer them to expert health advice when an issue exceeds their competencies. Those trained will soon receive the first messages concerning neonatal care. By September 2017, PIN expects to reach a total of 60,000 mothers in six municipalities in the Bié, Huambo and Huila provinces. Whilst mHealth projects are becoming more common across Africa, a 2015 study by the GSMA Mobile for Development Foundation in 10 African nations, reveals that only 8% of African mHealth projects, such as this PIN initiative, are nutrition-centered."}]},{"head":"Education","index":45,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":123,"text":"The importance of a varied diet LIMITED DIETARY DIVERSITY is one of the many known causes of malnutrition. In Zambia's Barotse floodplain, local residents live off a diet of fish during the rainy season, and maize and rice when the water recedes. However, climate change and dwindling fish stocks pose a threat to this way of life. Research institute Bioversity International carried out a 3-year initiative, working with the local population to establish more varied diets in an attempt to address dietary deficiencies and to improve food security. According to the institute's website, this nutritional education approach \"is one that can work anywhere, as it is adapted to a particular community -it is not specifically focused on one crop or one nutritional problem.\""}]},{"head":"Child health","index":46,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Linking schools with local farmers","index":47,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":117,"text":"SIX HUNDRED FARMERS in São Tomé and Príncipe who had previously abandoned their land have been encouraged to return to farming by a scheme linking them to government-run nurseries and schools. Led by two NGOs -Instituto Marquês de Valle Flôr, which focuses on Portuguesespeaking countries, and Federação das ONGs de S. Tomé e Príncipe, a federation of local NGOs -the project has seen farmers supply onions, tomatoes, cabbage and green beans, thereby benefiting more than 45,000 children through improved school meals, and providing livelihoods for farmers' families. The initiative comes at a time when the World Food Programme is scaling back its work in the country, despite undernourishment affecting over 30% of children under 5 years old."},{"index":2,"size":23,"text":"High child mortality and malnutrition in Angola are being tackled through the use of audio messages sent via mobile to mothers and carers."},{"index":3,"size":25,"text":"© TEREZA HRONOVA Pre-recorded messages of 90 seconds with valuable advice on nutrition and child health are sent to mothers and midwives by mobile phone"}]},{"head":"BLUE ECONOMY","index":48,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Reduced spoilage through solar techniques F I S H D R Y I N G","index":49,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":22,"text":"Fishing communities in Cameroon, Cabo Verde and Malawi are benefiting from new solar drying and solar-powered storage systems to better preserve fish."}]},{"head":"Mike Davison and Elias Katungwe","index":50,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":81,"text":"A new design of 'solar tent' fish dryer which significantly reduces the number of fish that are spoiled during the drying process is being tested by Lake Malawi fish processors. Currently, scientists estimate that for every 10 fish caught in Lake Malawi, four are spoiled during traditional drying processes by moisture or contamination from dust, insects or animals. With a wooden frame covered in thick, clear polythene sheeting, the solar dryer looks much like a shade house used to grow crops."},{"index":2,"size":96,"text":"Researchers from the University of Malawi and the Department of Fisheries are working at five sites on Lake Malawi to improve fish processing over a 30 month period. The new design allows fish processers to produce top quality dried fish that can be sold in supermarkets, thereby earning higher prices. Pelina Bande, a fish processor from Cape Maclear, is one of the first to try the new design. \"It's easy to use,\" she says, \"because it's inside the shade as compared to mine in the open sun, and I'm able to turn the fish without problems.\""},{"index":3,"size":93,"text":"Once the tent is in regular use, the research team will be able to learn whether using tents instead of open-air drying makes financial sense to processors, and what size of tent gives the biggest profit. Developing a business model that makes the tents affordable and prof-itable for processors and other entrepreneurs is another key focus of the project. The work, which continues until April 2017, is being supported by the Cultivate Africa's Future Fund, an initiative jointly funded by Canada's International Development Research Centre and the Australian Centre for International Agriculture Research."},{"index":4,"size":52,"text":"In Limbe, southwest Cameroon, over 2,000 fishermen and women are using solar-powered fish-drying ovens and refrigerators to preserve fresh fish. In 2015, seven fishing associations in Batoke and Idenau villages were each offered two solar-powered ovens and 30 refrigerators by the consultancy company, African Resource Group-Cameroon, working in collaboration with local councils."},{"index":5,"size":105,"text":"Previously, regular power outages had been responsible for large-scale losses during fish curing processes. Use of the solar-powered technology, however, has allowed many to increase their income, from less than €38 a day to €60. The use of solar power has also reduced health risks associated with fish smoking and helped to prevent the destruction of coastal mangroves, a traditional source of firewood for fish smoking. The fish preservation technologies are part of a project to provide reliable and affordable electricity to about 4,000 households and more than 2,000 people in the fish trade in order to boost opportunities for sustainable income in coastal villages."},{"index":6,"size":109,"text":"In Cabo Verde, an EU-funded solar power project is changing lives in the fishing village of Monte Trigo on Santo Antão Island. A photovoltaic power station launched in 2012 provides continuous electricity to homes and community institutions. In addition, surplus energy is used to make ice and is sold to local fishermen. In May 2016, ice production reached 1 t and represented 5% of total solar power used. Fishing is the most important economic activity for the island; previously, the fishermen had a 5 hour journey by boat to buy ice in the capital city Praia. The solar ice house has improved work conditions and profits for the villagers."},{"index":7,"size":12,"text":"OVER 2,000 fisherfolk are using solar-powered fish-drying ovens to smoke fishfresh fish"}]},{"head":"© MUFUNANJI MAGALASI","index":51,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":95,"text":"A new 'solar tent' fish dryer being used by Lake Malawi fish processors SPORE 182 | 15 Caribbean countries currently export the equivalent of €355 million of fish and seafood products each year to global markets C aribbean countries currently export about €355 million of fish and seafood each year to global markets. However, the EU proves a tough market due to its rigorous standards, which requires countries to have sanitary and phytosanitary (SPS) systems in place to ensure that exports are not only safe for consumption but also free from harmful pests and pathogens."},{"index":2,"size":108,"text":"Since Belize introduced such measures after the Belize Agricultural Health Authority was established in 2002, exports have increased three-fold and the country currently exports seafood to more than 30 markets, including shrimp to the EU. During 2016, Belize will also start exporting conch for the first time, states Endhir Sosa, Belize's senior food safety inspector. \"SPS could also stand for 'safe and profitable seafood,\" said Sosa at an SPS training held for the Caribbean countries in Iceland in May 2016. \"It is a series of procedures and requirements that need to be implemented to prove that our products are safe. SPS is about establishing confidence in our exports.\""},{"index":3,"size":62,"text":"The region-wide EU funded initiative to implement internationally recognised SPS standards for seafood will be implemented by the Inter-American Institute for Cooperation on Agriculture and the Caribbean Regional Fisheries Mechanism. The Bahamas, Belize, Grenada, Guyana, Jamaica, Suriname and Trinidad and Tobago will be part of the coordinated approach to meet SPS requirements and broaden the gateway to new regional and international markets."}]},{"head":"Improving Caribbean seafood safety F I S H E X P O R T S","index":52,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":21,"text":"An initiative to implement food safety measures will enable Caribbean countries to meet stringent requirements and increase exports to the EU."}]},{"head":"Onika Campbell","index":53,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Spirulina","index":54,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"New variety boosts production","index":55,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":107,"text":"A VARIETY of spirulina (an edible blue-green algae) introduced in the Lake Chad region by FAO has contributed to a doubling in annual production from 10 to 20 t since 2012. Locally known as dihe, the algae grows by the Lake's edges. The new variety can be consumed raw and has less sand contamination than indigenous spirulina. There were approximately 500 harvesters in 2010. However, with high consumer demand and the income generated, the new variety has created a livelihood for over 1,500 women working in 20 groups. According to the national project coordinator, the women are together earning more than €183,000 per year from spirulina sales."}]},{"head":"Aquaculture","index":56,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Food and employment","index":57,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":79,"text":"THERE ARE currently hundreds of trained aquaculture farmers -both men and women -in Mauritius. The purpose of offering training programmes is to encourage people to develop their own small aquaculture businesses, increase fish production and reduce the island's expensive reliance on imported food. Once trained, the farmers can access preferentialrate loans from the government and receive a quota of fish larvae, thereby enabling them to set up their own fresh-water aquaculture operations or establish fish farms in the lagoon."}]},{"head":"INTERVIEW","index":58,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"M","index":59,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":42,"text":"onique Barbut takes a critical look at the 2015 Paris Climate Conference (COP21) and outlines the priorities of UNCCD. Besides sustainable land management, enhancing the resilience of rural communities and food security are a few of the many goals of the Convention."}]},{"head":"Were the impacts of climate change on farmers in ACP countries adequately taken into account during COP21 in Paris?","index":60,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":133,"text":"Historic progress was achieved. An agreement has finally been reached between Party countries on the goal to keep the rise in average global temperature well below 2°C. The carbon sequestration capacity of land was also recognised for the first time, which is a major advance towards making sustainable land management a global priority. Land will therefore be pivotal in the implementation of Article 5 of the Paris agreement on carbon sinks -which I am very pleased about. Land is the basis of all goods and services provided by ecosystems. An additional 3.33 Gt of carbon could be sequestered annually by rehabilitating 12 million ha of land per year by 2030. Farmers in ACP countries will have a major role to play in this initiative through greater adoption of good sustainable land management practices."}]},{"head":"UNCCD has high expectations for the land degradation neutrality (LDN) concept developed in 2015. Why?","index":61,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":108,"text":"Achieving LDN will enable us to maintain or even increase our natural capital to support ecosystem services that are essential for our well-being, including the food, air, and clean water that we consume. Underlying this concept is the hope of completely halting the net loss of productive land and rehabilitating land. As restoring degraded land and achieving LDN are specific targets under Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 15, the international community is called upon to strengthen initiatives in favour of sustainable land management and restoration of degraded land. But achieving LDN also fulfils several other SDGs, such as ending poverty, achieving food security, and increasing carbon sequestration in soil."}]},{"head":"Is the Great Green Wall for the Sahara and Sahel Initiative (GGWSSI) still a source of hope despite the difficulties encountered?","index":62,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":164,"text":"Substantial time and human and financial resources are required to develop and implement a large-scale initiative like GGWSSI. Major progress was made, with the commitment of many countries at the first GGWSSI conference held in Dakar in May 2016. By 2030, the initiative aims to restore 50 million ha of land; sequester 250 million t of carbon; ensure food security for 20 million people, support 300 million people in Sahelian communities, create at least 350,000 jobs and provide 10 million smallholder farmers with access to climate smart agricultural technologies. Once accomplished, the Great Green Wall will be the largest living structure on the planet, three times larger than the Great Barrier Reef. I firmly believe that income generation and rural green job creation through this initiative or any project based on sustainable land management and restoration in rural areas, will strengthen communities' resilience to climate change and desertification, ensure food security and reduce rural out-migration. This offers real hope for all of sub-Saharan Africa."}]},{"head":"What are the most relevant techniques to promote sustainable agriculture while boosting yields?","index":63,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":72,"text":"UNCCD recommends over 250 good practices for sustainable management of land and useable water in various ecosystems, including: conservation agriculture, agroforestry, no-tillage farming, etc. There are many good examples. In southern Niger, over 5 million ha of degraded land were rehabilitated via farmer-assisted natural regeneration, which has led to supplementary production of 500,000 t of grain per year. This technique has already enhanced the food security situation for about 2.5 million people.  "}]},{"head":"A long version of this interview can be found on the","index":64,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"ANALYSIS","index":65,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"C","index":66,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":96,"text":"ompared with wild ancestors, most modern crops are unrecognisable; even the most basic crops are the result of some form of human induced genetic manipulation. The modern banana, for example, has a long history of genetic modification. It is thought that the first banana was cultivated around 7,000 years ago in Southeast Asia. The banana's ancient ancestor is Musa acuminate, a plant that had small okra-like pods. This was eventually crossed with M. balbisiana, which created plantains that -with further modification over thousands of years -has led to the more familiar yellow/green fruits of modern times."},{"index":2,"size":103,"text":"Domestication and development of plants and animals to produce the foods consumed today has, until recently, been predominantly dependent on selective breeding -a time-consuming process of cross-breeding crop and livestock varietiesand selecting for particular traits, e.g. productivity, disease resistance, abiotic stress tolerance, and quality. However, asexual production has also been used for centuries by farmers to perfect their crops. Domestic bananas, for instance, have long since lost the seeds that allowed their wild ancestors to reproduce -so the bananas we eat today are produced asexually, in other words by vegetative propagation, so that the new plant is genetically identical to the parent plant."},{"index":3,"size":171,"text":"So given that all our modern crops have been genetically modified in some way, how do we define biotechnology? The traditional definition is the use of living systems and organisms to develop or make products. However, a more modern, inclusive definition, used in the Convention on Biological Diversity, encompasses any technological application that uses biological systems, living organisms or their derivatives to make useful products or processes. Modern biotechnology has been driven by a revolution in cellular and molecular biology that occurred in the second half of the 20th century, which includes a range of tools involving gene manipulation and transfer that researchers have used to understand and modify the genetic makeup of crops and livestock. Biotechnology is therefore not just genetic engineering and, whilst the response to genetically modified organisms (GMOs) is complex and continues to be hotly debated, some of the less controversial techniques are making significant advances in producing more tolerant and resistant crops and livestock breeds to biotic (pests, diseases) and abiotic stresses (drought, high temperatures, etc.)."}]},{"head":"Making a mark","index":67,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":20,"text":"For example, in recent decades, crop and livestock breeding has been revolutionised by the development of marker-assisted selection (MAS), which"}]},{"head":"Susanna Cartmell-Thorp","index":68,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":7,"text":"New tools for improving crops and livestock"}]},{"head":"B I O T E C H N O L O G Y","index":69,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"With climate change and a rapidly growing global population, what are the latest innovations and debates in biotechnology for improving crops and livestock?","index":70,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":217,"text":"provides a short cut to identifying preferred traits by using a unique 'marker' gene (or genetic sequence) tightly linked to the gene of interest. The value of MAS lies in the potential to identify the presence of a trait in seedlings or even seeds which makes the breeding process far quicker and more cost-effective as new varieties can be brought to commercialisation in as little as four, instead of 10, generations under conventional breeding processes. In Africa, significant impact has also been achieved in breeding for resistance to maize streak virus (MSV), the most serious viral crop disease on the continent, which causes losses of more than 5 million t per year. Prior to MAS, seedlings had to be grown and subjected to virus carrying insects to identify resistance which was prohibitively expensive and time-consuming for can result in yield losses of up to 90%. Furthermore, as new tools and technologies (e.g. next-generation sequencing, high-throughput genotyping and genome wide selection) are making MAS increasingly based on the whole genome, rather than small segments, the number of crop species with sequenced genomes is steadily growing and it is likely that MAS will continue to become more widely adopted. For those against transgenesis (GMOs), MAS raises less safety concerns, is accepted by the public and permitted in organic farming."}]},{"head":"The various guises of GM","index":71,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":150,"text":"However, there are some important distinctions to be made with regard to GMOs and their application in improving crops and livestock. Genetic engineering enables the direct transfer of genes from one organism to another. This technique, known as transgenesis, is where a gene is taken from one organism and inserted in the genetic code of a particular crop to provide resistance or tolerance to biotic and abiotic stresses. For example, crop varieties can be engineered to express a bacterial gene (e.g. from Bacillus thuringiensis, a soil bacterium commonly used as a biological pesticide) that controls certain insect pests -as in the case of Bt cotton. Some of the most valuable applications have been achieved in confering resistance to bacterial and virus diseases. For example, viral resistance can be achieved by transferring certain viral genes that interfere with normal viral replication, thereby inhibiting spread of infection e.g. cassava resistant to CMD."},{"index":2,"size":172,"text":"In Africa, Uganda has a particularly diverse transgenic programme, particularly in bananas but also for other staple crops. However, despite this well recognised research, Uganda is the only country in Africa to have confined field trials (CFT) for GM crops with no biosafety law (see p26, A rich legacy in biotechnology). Conversely, Burkina Faso is one of three African countries that has commercialised GM crops and is well known for its Bt cotton developed by Monsanto, which it has been growing and selling since 2008. However, increasing concerns over cotton quality and decreased profitability of GM compared > Crop and livestock breeding has been revolutionised by the development of marker-assisted selection national breeding programmes. However, with MAS techniques, MSV resistant genes can be speedily identified and durable resistance has now been backcrossed into germplasm adapted to many diverse African environments, and these varieties are still being disseminated. For example, in May 2016, three high-yielding commercial breeds with resistance to MSV, rust and Striga hermonthica were registered in Nigeria and released by Monsanto."},{"index":3,"size":90,"text":"However, although MAS is already routinely applied by private seed companies, its wider use in the public sector, particularly in developing countries, is still facing some constraints. These include high costs, poor infrastructure, inadequate capacity and lack of breeder-friendly markers. to conventional cotton has led the country's biggest farmers' association to recommend abandoning the crop. But, with Bt cotton, it is yet to be seen whether farmers will be able to cope with bollworm attacks through conventional practises and maintain cotton yields (see p24, A temporary setback for GM cotton?)."},{"index":4,"size":121,"text":"In 2015, GM crops were grown globally in 28 countries and on 179.7 million ha -that is over 10% of the world's arable land; Argentina, Brazil and the US are the biggest producers of GM crops. In the US, over 90% of soybean and maize are GM. In Europe, only one GM crop has ever been approved and grown -a type of maize with resistance to European corn borer. In Africa, GM crops are grown in South Africa (2.3 million ha), Burkino Faso (0.4 million ha) and Sudan (0.1 million ha), with the main crop being GM Bt cotton. However CFTs for a variety of GM crops were also conducted in Ghana, Kenya, Malawi, Nigeria, Tanzania, Uganda, and Zimbabwe (see infographics)."},{"index":5,"size":104,"text":"But not all GM crops are developed through transgenic techniques. For example, Irish potato with resistance to bacterial late blight (Phytophthora infestans) has been developed through cisgenesis, which takes resistant genes from a wild relative. \"We transferred genes from wild relatives of the potato -Solanum bulbocastanum and S. venturii -into farmerpreferred potatoes and have achieved excellent results,\" states Dr Andrew Kiggundu, head of Uganda's National Agricultural Biotechnology Centre, Kiggundu. The advantage of this technique is that only the desired genes are transferred, so there is no 'gene drag' as in conventional breeding, where several backcrossed generations are needed to eliminate the unwanted genetic material."},{"index":6,"size":102,"text":"The key purpose of cisgenesis is to transfer disease resistance genes to susceptible varieties with the aim of significantly reducing pesticide application e.g in case of late blight. In the EU, cisgenesis (and intragenesis -a similar technique that involves a new combination of a partial or complete coding sequence) is currently governed by the same GMO laws as transgenesis. However, researchers at Wageningen University in the Netherlands, who have developed the technology, and the Dutch government who has supported the research, are strongly arguing for this to be changed so that cisgenesis is regulated in the same way as conventionally bred plants."},{"index":7,"size":375,"text":"Whilst the majority of GM technologies are used to improve/enhance crop traits, new gene editing techniques are being applied to livestock. At the University of Edinburgh's Roslin Institute, researchers have produced pigs that are potentially resistant to African Swine Fever, a highly contagious tick-borne disease which is endemic across sub-Saharan Africa and kills up to two-thirds of infected animals. The researchers used a gene-editing technique to modify individual letters of the pigs' genetic code. The 'modified' pigs carry a version of a gene that is usually found in warthogs and bush pigs, which show no disease symptoms when infected. \"We have used a gene-editing technique to change individual letters in the pigs' genetic code to speed up a process that occurs spontaneously in nature. Our goal is to improve the welfare of farmed pigs around the world, making them healthier and more productive for farmers,\" says Professor > > T aro, one of the most important staples in the Pacific, is one of a number of edible aroid crops that have to be clonally propagated as they rarely flower or set seed. Developing new cultivars to resist pests and diseases, meet changing market needs or withstand climate change presents a challenge. However, a 5-year EU-funded project ' Adapting clonally propagated crops to climate and commercial change' has resulted in Samoan breeding lines reaching 38 countries across the Pacific and around the world, with further requests coming from new countries, including most recently from Comoros. The Samoan taro lines provided by the Centre for Pacific Crops and Trees of the Secretariat of the Pacific Community have been highly rated worldwide for taste, yield and vigour over local varieties. Importantly, the lines are also tolerant to taro leaf blight disease. The cultivars were selected by farming communities in eight countries, including five in ACP regions: Burkina Faso, Cuba, Madagascar, Papua New Guinea and St Vincent and the Grenadines. Clonally propagated edible aroids which, besides taro, also include tannia, swamp taro, giant taro and elephant foot yam, are particularly important to the world's poor. This breeding project uses various biotechnological tools (including marker-assisted selection and DNA profiling), and is initially focusing on taro and cocoyam. It will -in time -provide a model that will benefit other orphan crops."},{"index":8,"size":105,"text":"For further information see: www.ediblearoids.org Bruce Whitelaw, head of Developmental Biology at the Roslin Institute. The team plans to use the same gene-editing techniques to produce cattle, chickens and sheep that are resistant to infections, but this research is at a much earlier stage. Steve Kemp, who leads the cross-cutting LiveGene initiative at the International Livestock Research Institute agrees that, \"The advent of genome editing technologies (e.g. CRISPR-CAS9) provides, for the first time, a toolbox to study the effect of a variant and then to introduce exactly the characteristics that we need into the strains that most need it,\" (see p23, Biotechnology advances for livestock)."}]},{"head":"Global impact of Samoan taro","index":72,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Where next for biotech?","index":73,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":188,"text":"With emerging genetic technologies blurring the distinction between GM and conventional plant breeding, a new study released in May 2016 by the American National Academies of Sciences, Engineering and Medicine (Genetically Engineered Crops: Experiences and Prospects) states that genetically engineered crops are as safe for the environment as conventionally bred crops. The evidence reviewed by the study committee also reveals that although GM crops have provided economic benefits to many small-scale farmers in the early years of adoption, enduring and widespread gains will depend on such farmers receiving institutional support, such as access to credit, affordable inputs such as fertiliser, extension services, and access to profitable local and global markets for the crops. UK's Royal Society has also produced a new guide which makes a case for GM crops to be judged on their individual merits (GM Plants: Questions and Answers). New developments in GM crops include enhancing the nutritional value of crops including an orange GM banana with elevated levels of betacarotene which is being tested in Iowa, beta-carotene-enriched cassava recently released in Nigeria, and iron-fortified beans in Rwanda (Note: biofortification will be covered in Spore 183)."},{"index":2,"size":79,"text":"In Africa, biosafety regulations are still being developed. After three previous attempts and years of debate, Nigeria passed the National Biosafety Agency Bill law to regulate GMOs. The National Biosafety Management Agency (NBMA) mandated to regulate GMOs is building capacity to support implementation of the law. As a result, Mosanto Nigeria recently submitted an application for release of Bt cotton and maize to the NBMA which is currently being reviewed. Nigeria's example provides potential lessons for other African countries. "}]},{"head":"GM CROP BREEDING TOOLS","index":74,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":31,"text":"Whilst transgenic crops use genes from unrelated organisms, cisgenic crops use genes from a wild relative. SPORE 182 | 23 S teve Kemp explains the benefits of biotechnological innovations in livestock."}]},{"head":"Where do you see the most exciting use of biotechnology for livestock?","index":75,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":88,"text":"Since the genome revolution of the 1980s, genetics has tried to understand how genes and gene variation determines the physical characteristics of an organism. We have made significant progress but, until very recently, we have not been able to deliver agricultural impact from this understanding in slow-growing livestock species. The advent of genome editing technologies (e.g. CRISPR-CAS9) provides, for the first time, a toolbox to study the effect of a variant and then to introduce exactly the characteristics that we need into the strains that most need it."}]},{"head":"How is this important for ACP regions?","index":76,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":100,"text":"Developing countries are under enormous pressure to improve efficiency of their food production systems to meet burgeoning populations' demands. It will be difficult for them to do this without adverse environmental impact and increased dependence on interventions to allow livestock to perform in tropical climates. For example, use and misuse of acaricides, antibiotics and toxic drugs allows residues to enter the food chain and encourages the development of resistance. Furthermore, the developing world is a critical reservoir of agricultural diversity. Intelligent biotechnology use offers ways of improving adaptation and hence improving productivity while minimising environmental impact and loss of diversity."}]},{"head":"Biosafety policy is a key issue. What other challenges do these regions face in realising the potential of biotechnology?","index":77,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":105,"text":"While biosafety policy is developing well in much of the developing world, the challenge will be for these regions to have the freedom to make their evaluation of the risk-benefit balance of a given technology. Currently, the external pressure to limit, for example, development of GM technologies is coming from rich countries that face completely different circumstances. However, achieving impact in biotechnological advances requires scale-out and delivery of improved strains which is, in some ways, harder than making the purely technical advance. To do so requires infrastructure, public and private sector players and scaled-up, more efficient farming systems which are simply absent in many areas."}]},{"head":"What do you think might be the new biotechnology developments for crops or livestock in the coming years?","index":78,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":144,"text":"If we can understand and make-use of functional diversity, we can make much more subtle genetic interventions which maintain diversity so that rather than empirically expanding the one best strain, we can transfer particular characteristics to otherwise well-adapted varieties which will allow us to, for example, have productive livestock which do not require expensive and toxic drugs to survive. For the first time we have an opportunity to use biotechnology to reverse loss of diversity and environmental damage that agriculture has previously driven. I look forward to a detailed repository of genome sequence representing the diversity of livestock and matched with a detailed understanding of its function. This can then be 'mined' for new variants and new combinations and will represent an in silico (computer) genebank so that we can respond quickly to new and unexpected demands on our livestock -a virtual genetic safety-net."}]},{"head":"INTERVIEW Steve Kemp: Biotechnology advances for livestock","index":79,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"By Susanna Cartmell-Thorp","index":80,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Steve Kemp is program leader for animal biosciences at the International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI) and leads ILRI's cross-cutting LiveGene initiative.","index":81,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"FIELD REPORT","index":82,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":6,"text":"A temporary setback for GM cotton?"}]},{"head":"B U R K I N A F A S O After 8 years of growing genetically-modified (GM) cotton, Burkinabe farmers are abandoning the crop, although not all growers agree.","index":83,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":14,"text":"Many producers choose organic cotton, judging the crop to be better for the environment"}]},{"head":"I","index":84,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":44,"text":"n 2003, Burkina Faso authorised trials on GM cotton, also called 'Bt cotton', and by 2008 the crop was being widely grown. Seeds developed by the US company Monsanto were supposed to resist bollworm attacks, which had been hampering cotton production for several years."},{"index":2,"size":134,"text":"At Koumbia, one of the main cotton-growing areas in western Burkina Faso, Boyou Bognini -President of the Koumbia departmental union and Secretary General of the Tuy provincial cotton growers' union -cultivates about 20 ha of cotton. \"I have already ploughed 20 ha and I'm waiting for the rains,\" he says. He slowly walks around his fields, stopping here and there to pluck a few cotton stalks that remain standing after ploughing. \"I've been growing GM cotton for 8 years, and this was to be my ninth,\" he says sullenly. Bognini states outright that he is not happy about the obligation to return to conventional cotton cultivation: \"Conventional cotton is fraught with problems.\" He feels that this decision represents a return to practices that have been given up for years. \"There will undoubtedly be difficulties.\""},{"index":3,"size":112,"text":"This year the country is expecting to produce 700,000 t of cotton, compared to 581,000 t harvested in 2015-2016. \"Will we be able to meet our expectations with the return to conventional cotton? I seriously wonder,\" adds Bognini, who fears a drop in yields since, \"most cotton growers no longer master the conventional cotton cropping techniques they abandoned years ago. I personally think that GM cotton was more advantageous. It's not about the price -which has just fallen on the world market -but I had good yields with GM cotton. All you have to do is sow the crop, and once the weeding is done, the field doesn't require any further maintenance.\""},{"index":4,"size":270,"text":"A few kilometres to the east, in the village of Kari-Lonkuy, cotton grower Lohan Wanhoun is heartened by the abandonment of GM cotton. \"In 2012, I started growing GM cotton on a 7 ha plot where I had been growing conventional cotton. At the end of the season, I noticed that my seasonal credit had increased but my crop harvest had stagnated,\" he says. He hesitates for a moment, to find the right words, and then adds, \"With conventional cotton, my seasonal credit was never above €1,220. But with GM cotton, for the same harvest volume, my credit was over €1,524.\" Despite this first negative experience with GM cotton, Wanhoun tried planting it again the next season. \"It didn't work. My crop yields fell. GM cotton was supposed to be resistant to caterpillars, but my field was infested with them and control treatments proved unsuccessful. I gave up GM cotton in 2014 and returned to conventional cotton. Then, on the same field area, I was able to harvest 1 t more cotton than I did with GM crops. I concluded that GM cotton was not at all good for growers.\" Pierre Bangou is also not upset about the abandonment of GM cotton. He is a representative for organic cotton growers from Fada N'Gourma in eastern Burkina Faso. \"I decided to start growing organic cotton in 2004 and I'm still at it. I opted for organic cotton because it seemed to be environmentally-and human-friendly.\" According to Bangou, the introduction of GM cotton cropping has had an impact on organic cotton production. \"Organic and GM cotton are two crops that don't mix."},{"index":5,"size":89,"text":"Measures taken to minimise contamination impose a distance of 50 to 100 m between organic cotton fields and GM cotton fields.\" Organic cotton growers did their best, but contamination always occurred. \"We don't know how it happened, but the problem was always present,\" he adds. These contaminations cause crop losses for organic farmers. \"When contamination occurs in an organic cotton field, the crop is downgraded and sold as conventional cotton, which represents a net loss of income because conventional cotton is marketed at a 28% lower price,\" explains Bangou."},{"index":6,"size":95,"text":"In April 2016, the Inter-professional Cotton Association of Burkina (AICB), which pools the cotton growers' union and three cotton companies, decided to suspend GM cotton production until further notice. One of the reasons was that, compared to the fibre produced by conventional cotton, GM cotton fibre is shorter, and less popular and profitable on the international cotton market. AICB has called on Monsanto to compensate for this loss. The association wants Monsanto, or any other partner, to come up with a technical solution to this problem before it will consider a return to GM cotton."},{"index":7,"size":80,"text":"Boyou Bognini is personally hoping for a quick return to Bt cotton. \"If they tell me next year that the problem has been solved, I'm ready to go back to growing GM cotton and hope for the best,\" he says. Meanwhile, Wanhoun is requesting compensation for the losses incurred. \"The industry leaders have told us that they will come back to us once Monsanto has compensated the losses. We're just waiting and keeping an eye on the situation,\" he concludes. "}]},{"head":"I","index":85,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":187,"text":"n May 2016, Uganda's 9th Parliament (2011)(2012)(2013)(2014)(2015)(2016) failed to approve the proposed National Biotechnology and Biosafety (NBB) Bill, which was initially tabled in 2013. While the country has had an NBB Policy since 2008, a law is needed to coy implementation and to assure safety in biotechnology research and development, with regard to human and animal health and the environment. In Africa, Uganda is the only country to have confined field trials (CFT) for genetically modified (GM) crops with no biosafety law. While GM research and CFTs are permitted according to the Uganda National Council for Science and Technology (UNCST) Act of 1990, no GM varieties can be commercialised or released to farmers' fields. Uganda has a rich tradition of biotechnology research: the National Agricultural Research Organisation (NARO) undertakes GM crop research under the auspices of the UNCST's National Biosafety Committee (NBC). Since 2007, NARO has developed 17 GM-crop varieties for six staple food-crops (bananas, cassava, Irish potato, rice, maize and sweet potato) and one cash-crop (cotton), with resilience to pests, diseases and severe environmental conditions, such as drought (see Ugandan CFTs conducted for GM staple crops)."},{"index":2,"size":174,"text":"Uganda is particularly renowned for its biotechnology research in bananas. Initial work involved developing resistance to the fungal Black Sigatoka (BS) disease (Mycosphaerella fijiensis) using a chitinase gene derived from rice to confer resistance to infection. A BS-resistant Gros Michel variety of banana was successfully developed at the National Agricultural Research Laboratories (NARL) at Kawanda during 2004-2007. The first CFT -the first for any GM crop in Uganda -was established in 2007 and two resistant lines out of 105 lines planted were subsequently registered. This pioneering work was key to building the capacity of Ugandan scientists in handling and managing GM crop technology, states Dr Andrew Kiggundu, head of NARO's National Agricultural Biotechnology Centre and the lead biotechnology researcher in Uganda for bananas. \"The first phase of our work on GM Gros Michel bananas ended in 2010 as its objective was to establish its efficacy in fighting the fungal infection. It was not particularly effective so we are continuing our work with new trails involving what is known as RNA interference technology,\" says Kiggundu."},{"index":3,"size":152,"text":"Another serious disease of bananas across Eastern and Central Africa is Banana Xanthomonas Wilt (BXW). First detected in Uganda in 2001, this devastating bacterial disease affects all banana cultivars, renders the fruit inedible and ultimately kills all infected plants. Despite the introduction of sanitary measures to control the disease, BXW now affects all major banana-producing regions, not only in Uganda but also in Burundi, the Democratic Republic of Congo, Kenya, Rwanda and Tanzania. NARO estimates that €385 million is lost annually in Uganda due to the impact of the disease. Genetic modification of banana to combat BXW involves using a sweet pepper gene that has already shown disease resistance in several other crops. CFT results have proved encouraging; at least 10 independent lines selected from a larger trial of 65 lines have been found to be completely resistant to BXW for several generations in two different trials, confirming durability of the trait."}]},{"head":"Recent innovations","index":86,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":89,"text":"In more recent years, Ugandan scientists have expanded GM research to address challenges in other staple crops. \"We've built human and infrastructural capacity in genetic engineering at our two major research institutes -NARL and the National Crops Resources Research Institute at Namulongeincluding state-of-the-art molecular biology and tissue culture laboratories, and biosafety level-II screen houses,\" emphasises Kiggundu. \"We've developed technologies via different methods of genetic engineering. They are assessed by UNCST's NBC, on a case-by-case evaluation for efficacy, safety and performance against challenges for which they were approved for engineering.\""},{"index":2,"size":92,"text":"Recent CFTs with maize, for example, under the Water for Efficient Maize for Africa (WEMA) project, have tested lines with stacked genes for drought tolerance, and Bt genes for resistance to stem borer. Trial manager for the WEMA CFT in Kasese, Dr Michael Otim, says the trial planted in May 2016 is performing well. \"It is too early to determine the success for drought-tolerance, as we have not yet entered a drought period. But, for Bt resistance to stem-borers, the maize has shown good resistance in this high pest-infestation area,\" he states."},{"index":3,"size":53,"text":"Since October 2015, the first CFTs for GM-potato resistant to late blight disease have also been conducted in Kabale, south-western Uganda. According to Kiggundu, 12 GM cisgenic potato plants of the Desiree and Victoria varieties exhibited high levels of resistance compared with non-GM plants of the same varieties. \"We transferred genes from wild "}]},{"head":"Ugandan CFTs conducted for GM staple crops","index":87,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":25,"text":"Since 2007, NARO has developed 17 GM cultivars of six staple crops and with resilience to pests, diseases and severe environmental conditions, such as drought."}]},{"head":"Biotechnology in banana: the jewel in the crown","index":88,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":118,"text":"The biggest biotechnology programme within NARO is for banana, a key staple crop in Uganda. The latest research includes pro-vitamin A biofortification to enhance vitamin A levels in bananas. This work is funded by the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation and conducted in collaboration with the Queensland University of Technology, Australia. \"We have extracted vitamin A enhancement genes from Asia's Asupina banana (rich in vitamin A) and inserted it into our local M-9 hybrid matooke varieties to provide six times the normal level of vitamin A,\" says Dr Jerome Kubiriba, head of the national banana research programme. It is hoped that these new vitamin A rich cultivars will join orange-fleshed sweet potato in helping Uganda reduce child malnutrition."},{"index":2,"size":19,"text":"relatives of the potato -Solanum bulbocastanum and S. venturii -into farmer-preferred potatoes and have achieved excellent results,\" enthuses Kiggundu."}]},{"head":"A time for action","index":89,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":298,"text":"However, while progress with CFTs for GM crops has proved promising, no varieties can be commercially released to farmers without the Ugandan parliament approving the NBB legislation. To help raise awareness of GM crops and to allow farmers to interact with scientists and policymakers, farmers interested in biotechnology and biosafety issues have recently formed the National Farmers' Forum on Agricultural Biotechnology and Biosafety (NAFFABB). NAFFABB chairman, Dominic Etellu, a former agricultural researcher and also ranked as one of Uganda's top 50 farmers in 2015, says that members will be encouraged to be 'biotechnology ambassadors' around the country, and to help other Ugandan farmers to petition their members of parliament (MPs) to pass the NBB law to allow the release of GM crops from research stations to farmers' fields. To help provide factual and evidence-based information on GM crops to the large intake of newly-elected MPs (64%) as a result of the 2016 general election, a dialogue -the first of its kind -was recently held on Uganda's biotechnology research and the aims of the NBB Bill. Convened by NARO, in collaboration with the Science Foundation for Livelihoods and Development and the International Food Policy Research Institute's Program for Biosafety Systems, tours of CFTs were also conducted. The newly appointed Minister of State for Agriculture, Christopher Kibanzanga, is among those who have pledged to support NARO's GM research and the NBB Bill, stating that \"These GM technologies promise great benefits to our farmers, especially resilience to devastating diseases in bananas, maize, cassava, sweet and Irish potatoes.\" Support for Ugandan research innovations has been further boosted by the creation in May 2016 of a new Science, Technology and Innovations Ministry by President Yoweri Museveni, and in June the president called for quick decision-making to support the work of Ugandan science innovation."},{"index":2,"size":114,"text":"In October 2015, Museveni had blamed the slow progress in passing the NBB Bill on a lack of legislator's knowledge and appreciation of modern biotechnology, which was frustrating Ugandan scientists' efforts to address the challenges faced by the country's farmers. However, Mr Matia Kasaija, Minister for Finance, Planning and Economic Development, under whose docket science falls until it is formally transferred to the new Science Ministry, has assured the nation that \"We will spearhead passage of the Bill before I hand over science matters to the newly-created ministry. Scientists and stakeholders should bank on me as a science champion.\" Meanwhile, the Bill remains on the government's priority list for re-tabling in the 10th Parliament. "}]},{"head":"M","index":90,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":76,"text":"any farmers operate in a vacuum, trying to produce as much of the same crop as possible, without necessarily knowing how strong demand is and where, states Janice McLeod, co-founder of AgroCentral, a cloud-based Supplier Relationship Management platform in Jamaica. \"What we envisage with AgroCentral is to create a perfect information system where all transactions are transparent, meaning farmers can be more strategic about what they produce to ensure they command the best price,\" she says."},{"index":2,"size":55,"text":"Another innovation that alerts farmers to market trends, helping them plan when and where to sell, is West Africa's Market Intelligence platform, notes Ben Addom, ICT4D Programme Coordinator at CTA. Although the nature of market forces means that farmers have no absolute guarantee that Market Intelligence's advice will prove correct, anecdotally it is working well."}]},{"head":"Transportation","index":91,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":51,"text":"However, it is no good giving information to a farmer if they do not have the means to act on it, emphasises Addom. Poor roads in many parts of rural Africa, as well as unsuitable vehicles and a lack of preservation facilities, means that produce often spoils before it reaches buyers."},{"index":2,"size":50,"text":"Nigeria's Chowberry platform helps overcome this by helping farmers find buyers for produce that is close to expiry. Distributors and retailers list everything from fruit and vegetables to canned goods on the site in order of expiry date and with a price that is discounted accordingly. By creating a 'quick"},{"index":3,"size":28,"text":"The G-Soko platform has over 1,000 farmers registered in the pilot phase and will be available to over 5 million farmer members of the Eastern African Grain Council"}]},{"head":"Advancing ICT use for market access","index":92,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":25,"text":"ICT applications are transforming ACP farmers' ability to access markets, helping them tap into information about prices and demand, bypass middlemen and find new markets."},{"index":2,"size":24,"text":"bridge' between producers and lowincome consumers, like orphanages and old people's homes, Chowberry helps reduce food wastage and tackle food poverty among low-income groups."},{"index":3,"size":17,"text":"At the same time, it helps farmers find new markets for their produce, explains founder Oscar Ekponimo."}]},{"head":"Middle men","index":93,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":59,"text":"The path from farmer to buyer is littered with middlemen who provide a useful service but shrink farmers' already thin margins. Reducing the need for intermediaries is a key goal for Senegal's mLouma, which uses a web platform plus SMS and unstructured supplementary service data (USSD) technology to connect the two sides directly, explains mLouma founder Aboubacar Sidy Sonko."},{"index":2,"size":25,"text":"AgroCentral's messaging system also allows agro-processors to alert farmers when they have an order they want filling. Farmers can then reply directly by text message."}]},{"head":"Power balance","index":94,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":119,"text":"Farmers often find themselves in a weak position when bargaining with big buyers and traders, especially when face to face, explains Andrianjany Rasoanindrainy at Madagascar's Farming & Technology for Africa (FTA). FTA's Rural eMarket platform allows farmers and buyers to advertise their respective supply and demand and matches them up automatically. The problem is often exacerbated by low levels of literacy and perceptions that farmers have a lower socio-economic status than their buyers. Interacting through a 'faceless' IT interface that relies purely on supplydemand data can help level the playing field, says Rasoanindrainy. ICT applications can also help reduce the number of intermediaries in the value chain between producer and end consumer, speeding up transactions and improving farmers' returns."}]},{"head":"Scaling up","index":95,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":83,"text":"Scaling up geographically remains a big challenge for agriculture-focused ICT platforms, with many struggling to grow beyond their pilot phase, states Addom. Launched in 2014, CTA's Building Viable Delivery Models for ICT4Ag project aims to identify common hurdles in this process, as well as solutions. The project has found that for developers to successfully scale up platforms, it is important for them to engage producers or traders from the start. Only with their full buy-in and understanding will it take off, Addom emphasises."},{"index":2,"size":60,"text":"Partnering with farmer organisations with a view to -in the longer termhanding project ownership over to them, is another model that CTA is testing in Uganda. Launched last year, the MUIIS initiative is an ICT-enabled information service that delivers extension and advisory services to farmers and which also integrates market information. It aims to reach 350,000 farmers within 3 years."},{"index":3,"size":54,"text":"The Chowberry team are continually working to expand the network of retailers and producers integrated into the platform, which already attracts 3,000 visits per day. Ekponimo aims to sign up 150 new retailers and distributors by the second quarter of 2017 but says that funding remains one of the biggest obstacles to scaling up."},{"index":4,"size":18,"text":"In addition, many ICT developers have to test out multiple approaches before they find one to run with."},{"index":5,"size":91,"text":"AgroCentral initially aimed for more than 5,000 users by the end of 2016 but, with currently only around 10% of that number, has decided to concentrate on finding a \"secret sauce that works everywhere\" before scaling up, says McLeod. The platform started by targeting farmers directly but found it hard to work with such a disparate group efficiently so switched its focus to agro-processors, which already have links with numerous farmers. \"It's been a continuous learning experience,\" she adds. \"Where we started from is completely different from where we are today.\""},{"index":6,"size":51,"text":"Scaling up successfully requires being able to adapt. Madagascar's FTA has done just that, re-engineering its Rural eMarket solution to meet the needs of different clients. Developed in partnership with CEFFEL, an advisory network for small farmers, its SIEL application, for example, uses only some of the functions of Rural eMarket."},{"index":7,"size":30,"text":"Although Rural eMarket had a tough first 3-4 years, it has outlived similar projects with big financial backers and, in March 2016, achieved its first return on investment, says Rasoanindrainy."}]},{"head":"mLouma: increasing local farmers' visibility","index":96,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":271,"text":"While internet coverage in ACP countries is growing fast, few farmers in deeply rural areas have internet access, meaning they cannot take advantage of ICT innovations designed to help them. This is no longer a problem for mLouma, whose user numbers have soared since it launched a USSD-based service in 2015 that does not require an internet connection. While it took mLouma nearly 3 years to sign up around 500 users to its original web platform -which works as an agricultural commodity exchange for buyers and sellers -the USSD service already has nearly 100,000 users, states founder Aboubacar Sidy Sonko. By dialling a three-digit number on their cell phone, farmers can research current prices for their crops at markets across Senegal and upload to mLouma's web platform details of how much produce they have to sell and their desired price. Buyers can also use the service to receive the contact details of farmers selling produce they want to buy by SMS. The service's simplicity means farmers in even the most remote corners of Senegal are now visible to buyers and can interact with them directly, notes Aboubacar, adding that transportation companies could also use it to identify potential customers. mLouma's turning point came in 2014, when it won the AMEA (Africa, Middle East and Asia) Orange Developer Challenge and was able to integrate the French telecom company's application programme interfaces to generate revenue more efficiently. By the end of 2016, mLouma plans to scale up to cover 10 of Senegal's 14 regions, from seven currently. From early 2017, the company then aims to expand into neighbouring African countries where Orange operates."}]},{"head":"TRADE","index":97,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"W","index":98,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":122,"text":"hat if an African drink were to top the global consumption chart? That is the dream of the founders of Bana-Bana, a company that produces and distributes Senegalese fruit juices. You have to go to the 18th arrondissement of Paris to find Youssouf and Mamadou Fofana, both 55 years old, who have just opened 'Les Oiseaux Migrateurs', an outlet for their flagship Bana-Bana (hibiscus beverages) and Maison Château Rouge (African wax print clothing line) products. These hibiscus drinks are manufactured and bottled in Senegal, in partnership with private company Esteval, in a factory with a staff of around 10, while the hibiscus is supplied by some 800 women based in the Thiès and Kaolack regions. Bana-Bana is such a resounding success -especially"}]},{"head":"A youthful spirit in Africa N E W B E G I N N I N G S","index":99,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":23,"text":"Daring young African entrepreneurs are taking the plungegiven a high profile and opportunities, they could get things moving in the African agribusiness sector."},{"index":2,"size":36,"text":"Marie-José Neveu Tafforeau* via sales at events in Paris -that the founders are considering boosting their production capacity. A glance at the media coverage shows that this is a budding trend, not just an isolated initiative."},{"index":3,"size":16,"text":"Africa hosts the youngest population in the world, representing a very substantial pool of potential entrepreneurs."}]},{"head":"According to a recent IPSOS-AFRICAP survey focused specifically on African","index":100,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":97,"text":"Young entrepreneurs working together at a meeting in Ghana © US EMBASSY GHANA SPORE 182 | 33 youth, 15-24 year olds hope to, \"learn, work, consume, have fun and uninterrupted access to electricity and internet,\" as mentioned by Florence de Bigault in an interview in the magazine Le Point Afrique. The survey (1,816 respondents) revealed that these young people do not expect anything from governments, preferring to build their own future via entrepreneurship and innovation. Should young people be allowed to go it alone in business? Not entirely, they also require essential funding, coaching and training assistance."},{"index":2,"size":111,"text":"Aïssata Diakité, the 24 year old founder of ZABBAN Holding, is part of this daring youth movement and her case illustrates that doors are opening for African youth. Born in Mali, she left for France to pursue university studies in agribusiness. That triggered this young woman's desire to launch a business venture in July 2016, focused on consulting, production and marketing of nutritional fruit juices in Mali. Her attitude is to courageously take initiatives and share experience, while surrounding herself with advisers -especially from Global Youth Innovation Network (GYIN) and the Campus France Entrepreneurs in Africa programme -which provide advice, research and development studies, technical support, feasibility studies and interest-free loans."},{"index":3,"size":158,"text":"A broad range of training initiatives are emerging like StartupBus, a competition where young talents hone their projects in groups during bus rides punctuated by meetings with inspiring entrepreneurs. Virtual venues of innovation and sharing also exist, especially through GYIN, an international youth network devoted to promoting youth services, supported by Columbia University (USA) and international bodies such as CTA and the International Fund for Agricultural Development. GYIN is also involved in negotiating seed loans for youth startups, enabling them to get more attractive interest rates. Similarly, the International Trade Center in Geneva launched an online course for young people wishing to create a small business. Finally, the Tony Elumelu Foundation offers a 12-month entrepreneurship training programme with the aim of creating 10,000 startups in 10 years. The Foundation regularly hosts 1 hour Twitter chats with agribusiness specialists, such as that held in June 2016 with Calestous Juma, an international development professor at Harvard, on 'Agripreneurship in Africa'."},{"index":4,"size":61,"text":"This plethora of initiatives should nevertheless not hide the fact that youth accounted for nearly 37% of the 199 million unemployed people in the world in 2014, according to the International Labour Organization. We now hope that many entrepreneurs with the spirit of Aïssata, Mamadou and Youssouf will emerge on the scene to inspire their generations and others towards new beginnings."},{"index":5,"size":67,"text":"*This is an abridged version of an article published on the website of Fondation FARM (www.fondationfarm.org), which is organising a conference to address the question of 'Could food provide a solution to the unemployment situation in Africa?' to be held in Paris on 8 December 2016. Cooperation between governments, the private sector and civil society can be highly effective in creating shared value throughout the supply chain."},{"index":6,"size":40,"text":"Susanna Cartmell-Thorp T hrough innovative public-private partnerships (PPPs), commercial companies operating in Africa are helping smallholder farmers increase their food production and income by facilitating access to the latest technologies and technical knowledge to help them adapt to climatic variability."},{"index":7,"size":98,"text":"For example, for Growth is a partnership between the Ethiopian government, NGO TechnoServe, and Meta Abo Brewery, a subsidiary of global drinks company, Diageo. Together with the Ethiopian government's Agricultural Transformation Agency, Meta Abo has been working to strengthen the barley value chain. A network of over 6,000 farmers has been created, which supplies seeds, fertiliser, agronomy training, and crop insurance through the programme. Over 50% of the brewery's raw material is currently sourced from smallholder farmers with an aim to increase to 100% by 2017 although farmers in 2016 have been hit hard by the current drought."},{"index":8,"size":93,"text":"To help African farmers adapt to climate shocks, Diageo is helping to support the supply of alternative local raw materials like sorghum and cassava, which are more climate resilient. Across the continent, over 50,000 farmers currently supply Diageo with 70% of its raw materials. However, David Croft, Diageo sustainable development director, states that while PPP collaboration is key to sustainability, it has to benefit the entire value chain. \"Farmers and producers need to be incentivised. To be truly collaborative, we need to get all parties around the table, including policymakers, to cement agreements.\""},{"index":9,"size":135,"text":"Nevertheless, developing successful partnerships often presents a challenge. Smallholder farmers are typically not well equipped to negotiate effectively with value chain actors, particularly with regards to price-setting mechanisms, enforcement of contracts, regulatory issues, payment modalities, ownership and coordination. To provide concrete examples of best practices and recommendations for working with farmers in effective value chains, a new guide Farmer Partnership Guide 2.0 has also been published by the Sustainable Agriculture Initiative Platform. The first version (1.0) released in 2014 has been tested by member companies, reviewed by expert external stakeholders and updated. \"There is no doubt this revised guide meets a real need,\" says Dr Kristin Davis, executive secretary, for the Global Forum for Rural Advisory Services, South Africa. \"This is a very good guide helping to address barriers to and opportunities for successful partnering."}]},{"head":"For more information, visit: http://bit.ly/28Ycktq","index":101,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":35,"text":"Meta Abo Brewery has set up a public-private partnership with the Ethiopian government and Technoserve to strengthen the barley value chain © J.J. MITCHELL/GETTY IMAGES 6,000 farmers are involved in a PPP network in Ethiopia"}]},{"head":"70%","index":102,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":10,"text":"of Diageo's raw materials are supplied by over 5,000 farmers"},{"index":2,"size":112,"text":"lended finance is essentially about injecting public sector, NGO or development financial institution (DFI) capital into a tool to reduce commercial investors' risk and increase their appetite. It remains a fairly loose concept though and agricultural investment funds define and apply it in different ways. Injaro Investments' West Africa Agricultural Investment Fund, for example, includes a first-loss tranche (instalment that absorbs initial losses) from the Alliance for a Green Revolution in Africa. Injaro expects to announce three or four new investments for the fund in the next 6 months and will probably announce in the second half of 2017 plans to start marketing a new fund, states Injaro managing director Jerry Parkes."},{"index":3,"size":75,"text":"The private-equity agRIF fund, for which the investment company Incofin is now actively fundraising, is funded by commercial investors including private individuals and targets aggressive 15% returns. A DFI-funded technical assistance facility, running alongside the fund, reduces risk without impacting performance, according to business development manager, Dana Roelofs. She says the fund is performing better than its forerunner, the Fair Trade Access Fund, which suffered bigger reductions in the value of its assets than expected."},{"index":4,"size":61,"text":"India's Lok Capital announced in June 2016 the first stage of its Lok Fund III, a US$40.5 million (€36.31 million) vehicle that -in a first for Lok -includes an agricultural component. The fund brings pension funds together with DFI investors like the UK's Commonwealth Development Corporation and, if successful, could herald further in-vestments in agriculture for Lok, says co-founder Venky Natarajan."},{"index":5,"size":58,"text":"The European Solidarity Financing Fund (FEFISOL) is a public-private fund founded by Italy's Etimos Foundation, France's SIDI and Belgium's ALTERFIN to funnel capital to microfinance and rural producer organisations in Africa. As well as a blend of private and public funding, grant-funded technical assistance is key to FEFISOL's success, argues Davide Libralesso, responsible for international relations at Etimos."},{"index":6,"size":40,"text":"Pearl Capital Partners' US$25 million (€22.4 million) African Agricultural Capital Fund (AACF) combines funding from the United States Agency for International Development with that of private foundations, and is also supported by a US$1.5 million (€1.3 million) technical assistance facility."},{"index":7,"size":73,"text":"Most of the 63 funds that FAO will cover in an upcoming report on agricultural investment funds could be defined as blended -involving a DFI or private foundation element -according to FAO agribusiness officer (finance and investment) Toshiaki Ono. However, while grant-funded technical assistance facilities play an important role in terms of identifying producer organisations or small and medium enterprises to invest in, few have attracted significant amounts of private money, notes Ono."},{"index":8,"size":58,"text":"One challenge for agricultural investment funds is the difficulty of measuring impact -a key consideration for DFIs as well as many private investors, emphasises Ono. Many agricultural investment funds are relatively new, meaning little historical impact data is available. Hiring specialists to measure impact is a cost that funds have to absorb and pass on as reduced returns."},{"index":9,"size":220,"text":"To some private investors, a blend-ed finance structure can actually raise a red flag rather than provide comfort, with some associating 'soft' capital as a marker of unacceptable risk, says Natarajan. Parkes too cites this as an unexpected challenge that requires education to overcome. Some investors could interpret the inclusion of a firstloss tranche as a form of insurance that would reduce returns, adds Roelofs. Blended funds must define their objectives clearly from the outset so all parties are aligned in their expectations, stresses Parkes. For example, an NGO may prioritise fast disbursement while a private investor prefers to wait for better financial returns. Different parties in a blended finance structure use different metrics to measure their success, so keeping all of them happy involves a careful balancing act, agrees Natarajan. CTA's Lamon Rutten, responsible for the organisation's work on agricultural finance, comments that the sector is similar to that of structured commodity finance in its early days, when the principles of redistributing risks were understood but support institutions were still weak and knowledge was not widely spread. He expects these teething problems to disappear over the coming 4-5 years, after which blending will be mainstream. Blended finance will also be addressed in the CTA organised event, Blending4Ag: Innovating Agricultural Finance, which will take place in Brussels, 7-8 November 2017."},{"index":10,"size":34,"text":"Blended finance may be fast becoming the new standard for agricultural investment funds and its promise is significant. However, for the structure to attract private capital in meaningful volumes, these challenges must be overcome."},{"index":11,"size":5,"text":"For more information, visit: http://blending4ag.org/en"}]},{"head":"The promise of blended finance I N N O V A T I O N","index":103,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":48,"text":"As blended finance moves centre stage in development, more agricultural investment funds are adopting the approach to attract private capital to an under-funded sector that is still considered high risk. Blended finance will be addressed in CTA's event Blending4Ag, which will take place in Brussels, 7-8 November 2016."},{"index":2,"size":29,"text":"Helen Castell T he cocoa chain -despite the booming market -is not sustainable for growers or the environment. How can this be rectified? Agronomist Marc Dufumier outlines his ideas."}]},{"head":"A grim picture of the cocoa value chain is presented in 'The Dark Side of Chocolate'deforestation, child labour, poverty amongst growers, etc. The fair trade label, like other types of certification, is far from being a panacea, as revealed in the report. How could the situation be reversed to the benefit of smallholders?","index":104,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":72,"text":"There are actually several cocoa bean production, collection and export chains, which depend on the negotiating skills of cocoa growers and growers' organisations when dealing with chocolate companies. But unfortunately many farmers are pushed to implement socially and environmentally unsustainable cropping systems in order to reduce their production costs and remain competitive on the international market. These practices have led to intense deforestation and the use of child labour in cocoa plantations."},{"index":2,"size":26,"text":"The fair trade movement seeks to reverse this negative trend by ensuring growers a guaranteed minimum price while offering development subsidies to growers' cooperatives or associations."},{"index":3,"size":70,"text":"Such benefits are normally offered on condition that human rights and environmental preservation measures are respected. These measures are, however, not implemented in the same way in all countries, depending particularly on the capacity of growers' organisations to stand up to the heavy pressure from transnational corporations. In Côte d'Ivoire, cocoa is thus still being produced in unshaded orchards, which has detrimental effects on the production potential of these agro-ecosystems."}]},{"head":"How could agroforestry help to better address environmental preservation concerns while boosting growers' incomes?","index":105,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":129,"text":"In agroforestry systems, various crops may be grown under tree cover in the same field. This overlap of several cultivated vegetation layers is designed to ensure that all sunrays reaching the canopy are intercepted by the crops to enable them to meet their photosynthesis needs. This strategy also helps protect the soil from rainwater erosion while curbing outbreaks of pest insects and pathogens. Cocoa trees are native to humid forest areas and are particularly well suited to such mixed cropping systems under tree cover. The diversity of crops produced can generate high income per hectare for growers, but sometimes at the expense of increased labour per unit area. Chocolate companies strive to make short-term profits and hence generally prefer to focus cocoa bean collection in specialised cocoa cropping areas."}]},{"head":"Could the especially dynamic Peruvian cooperatives serve as a model for growers' organisations in Africa?","index":106,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":50,"text":"Yes, they show that when growers grouped in democratic organisations are really mutually supportive and combative, farmers' interests can be properly defended and the production potential of agro-ecosystems preserved in the long run. However, some African organisations are still too subservient to the pressures placed upon them by chocolate corporations."},{"index":2,"size":37,"text":"Marc Dufumier has written a foreword to an uncompromising report entitled 'The Dark Side of Chocolate' where he promotes the idea of setting up a cocoa value chain that is more sustainable for growers and the environment."}]},{"head":"Marc Dufumier, agronomist and Professor Emeritus at AgroParis Tech","index":107,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":7,"text":"The cocoa value chain: a bittersweet affair"}]},{"head":"By Anne Perrin","index":108,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"PUBLICATIONS","index":109,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"How can we make sure that the expansion of the chocolate market does not occur at the expense of smallholder growers? Do chocolate consumers have a role to play and, if so, what and how?","index":110,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":94,"text":"There is a risk that new plantations will encroach on rainforests, in turn adversely affecting biodiversity and local climatic conditions. But rehabilitation of old plantations in degraded agro-ecosystems could turn out to be too difficult and costly. Consumers could help reverse this trend by purchasing fair trade chocolate, thereby ensuring farmers a decent and resilient income. It is important to showcase fair trade as a means to overcome poverty and environmental degradation, which is a good reason to promote conditions that are more favourable for growers when trading their farm products on global markets."},{"index":2,"size":188,"text":"A few figures that speak for themselves from this long study warrant mention -4 million t of cocoa are produced yearly, 5 million smallholders earn less than €1.81/day, 2 million children work in cocoa plantations, 7% of the selling price of a chocolate bar gets back to the growers, 5 multinational corporations share 80% of the chocolate market, and 1% of the chocolate produced in the world has fair trade certification. By focusing on Côte d'Ivoire and Peru -respectively the 1st and 9th largest cocoa producing countries in the world -the report presents the cocoa value chain through a very broad ranging literature search (academic publications, NGO and corporate contributions, media articles, statistical data) and interviews with experts and key stakeholders of the chain. It identifies the main social, environmental and economic impacts of the cocoa value chain and analyses them through a comparison of conventional and fair trade chains. The study concludes by proposing ways to enhance the conditions for growers who have been left behind, while clarifying the picture for consumers who sometimes find it hard to distinguish between the plethora of labels on the market. "}]},{"head":"The Dark Side of Chocolate","index":111,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":16,"text":"A study that comes clean on a booming value chain with questionable social and environmental impact. "}]},{"head":"Reforming Pacific island food systems C L I M A T E A L E R T","index":112,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":18,"text":"With extreme weather events worsening, Pacific island governments need integrated, community led, landscape-level approaches to protect food systems."}]},{"head":"Mike Davison","index":113,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"F","index":114,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":94,"text":"or Pacific island farmers, foresters and fishing communities, the threat from extreme weather events has increased dramatically in recent years as a result of global warming. But while protecting lives and livelihoods may be a top priority for government ministries across the region, their access to clear, succinct information on climate hazards has historically been poor. Mary Taylor, a researcher from the University of the Sunshine Coast, Australia, and one of the key authors of Climate Change and Pacific Island Food Systems goes further: provision of accessible information is not just poor, it's dire."},{"index":2,"size":93,"text":"At just 40 pages long, this new publication cannot hope to provide all the answers, but aims to deliver a number of urgent warnings. Ministries responsible for farming, fishing and forestry need to act now, together, to address the challenges facing food systems. 'Silo-thinking', where a single ministry plans and acts alone, is not the answer, tending to favour one group of citizens at the expense of another. Instead, landscape-level approaches to food production must be found, and evidence suggests that these work best when local communities are fully integrated within the process."},{"index":3,"size":89,"text":"Currently, the majority of agricultural policies in the Pacific focus on commercial production for export. This, says Taylor, has contributed to soil fertility problems, while the export markets on which such production depends are themselves becoming more vulnerable. High value crops such as coffee are at significant risk from climatic trends, so ministers in coffee-producing countries such as Papua New Guinea need to support alternative livelihood strategies. Taylor states that this should be done in a way that helps farmers across the spectrum, not just the big commercial producers."},{"index":4,"size":108,"text":"Given the extent of the challenges, ministries are unable to provide all the answers, so support for communitybased management will be key. In this context, the experiences of the fisheries sector may be helpful. Fish don't respect boundaries, and as a result, community management of marine resources has become a widely adopted practice. Learning how to apply such approaches to farming, forestry and water management across a watershed will be a valuable step forward for Pacific island governments and the people they serve. This timely publication, written with the constraints of busy policy and decision-makers in mind, will alert them to areas of particular urgency and inspire action."}]},{"head":"SPORE 182 | 39","index":115,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":77,"text":"Although industrial food systems have succeeded in supplying large volumes of foods to global markets throughout the 20th century, evidence is building in favour of a shift towards more ecologically-oriented farming methods. Intensive farming practices are associated with numerous detrimental environmental impacts including land degradation, air and water pollution, soil erosion and reduced biodiversity. However, a fundamentally different approach called 'diversified agricultural systems' is being heralded by the International Panel of Experts on Sustainable Food Systems (IPES-Food)."},{"index":2,"size":58,"text":"In order to move away from crop monocultures and industrial-scale feedlots which currently dominate farming landscapes, the IPES-food report says that ecological concepts and principles should be incorporated into the design and management of sustainable food systems. Increasing crop outputs and reducing chemical inputs will lead to greater diet diversification, and provide food and income security for farmers."},{"index":3,"size":40,"text":"The report is clearly laid out, and the informed narrative allows for direct comparisons of the two systems regarding socio-economic, environmental and productivity outcomes. Creative infographics and boxed off statistics break up the prose and provide interesting points of focus. "}]},{"head":"FROM UNIFORMITY","index":116,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Sustainable farming Successful innovation","index":117,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":7,"text":"Shifting the centre of gravity in food"}]},{"head":"Technology for value-chain transformation","index":118,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":162,"text":"Featuring 20 ICT-enabled ventures created by young innovators from African and Caribbean countries, this collection of case studies offers valuable lessons for aspiring entrepreneurs. Understanding your market is key. Spend time living and working in the community where you are trying to have an impact, keep your product open to as wide a market as possible, and get feedback as you develop your model, are all suggested as 'top tips' for would-be entrepreneurs. \"You can have the greatest technology in the world, but the key is the relationships -really understanding the farmers' needs, requirements, and business,\" says Cameron Goldie-Scot of Musoni Services, a financial inclusion platform. Young entrepreneurs hoping to succeed with an ICT-enabled venture must be business savvy: their ability to find the right team of dedicated people with diverse skills, stay focussed, learn when to say 'no', and protect their mental health from the emotional roller-coaster of new business development, will all play their part in determining success or failure."},{"index":2,"size":160,"text":"Lack of funding for ICT innovation, slow adoption of ICTs within organisations and lack of cross-sector data are highlighted as key constraints by many of the contributors, and areas that deserve attention. But ICT can be part of the solution. Financial inclusion for rural communities, for instance, is vital if farmers are to have necessary funds at the right point in the season to cultivate their land to its potential. In the future, accessing such funds is likely to depend on lenders devising new products that match the needs and capabilities of farmers who have variable crop cycles and income streams. But for farmers to engage with lenders, accurate and thorough record-keeping are a must, something that many small-scale farmers fail to achieve but for which ICTs could provide an answer. ICTs can also help agriculture become more environmentally friendly, for example by supporting greater precision in use of farm resources, thereby reducing waste and maximising production from smaller areas."},{"index":3,"size":135,"text":"Coming from different countries, such as Ghana, Kenya, as well as Barbados, Jamaica, Trinidad and Tobago, the case studies span the agricultural value chain, from preproduction and production to financing, marketing, trade and consumption. In each case, the young entrepreneurs describe what motivated them to innovate, the challenges they faced on the journey, and the strategies they developed in response to those challenges. One exciting conclusion to be drawn from their experiences is that ICT-based innovations have the potential to transform agriculture into a modern, 21 st century business that is linked to finance, responsive to the needs of its users, and an attractive career opportunity for the brightest, most ambitious young people. Reading these success stories will inspire many more to take up the challenge and play their own part in that agricultural transformation."},{"index":4,"size":112,"text":"In recent years, the African continent has witnessed a tremendous blossoming of social initiatives and enterprises touching every aspect of life, and offering countless case studies for development professionals and communities to learn from. But for those wishing to see large-scale social innovation and change, examples are scarce, and are generally documented as success stories without a thorough analysis of how that success came about. This 'practical guide' from Ndidi Nwuneli aims to fill that gap, mapping the pathway for taking social innovations to scale. Basic principles include having a clear vision of success, developing business models which are demand-driven, simple and low-cost, and gathering compelling evidence for impact throughout the process."},{"index":5,"size":89,"text":"Nwuneli is described as a 'serial innovator', and those hoping to emulate her will find plenty of practical guidance here. Addressing questions such as how to attract and retain talent, and how to form and finance strategic partnerships, the case studies will have relevance far beyond Africa. Later chapters focus on a number of 'big picture' issues, including how to create an enabling environment for scaling of high impact initiatives, how to support the emergence of more social innovators, and how to advance collective efforts to build stronger communities. "}]},{"head":"IN SEARCH OF FAIR TRADE","index":119,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Improved systems for grain trading","index":120,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":244,"text":"While the title refers to 'fair trade', the trading system described in this book does not involve 'fairtrade' products such as coffee, chocolate or bananas. Instead, it examines the structured grain trade, and how this has developed in recent years in Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda, particularly focussing on the role of the Eastern Africa Grain Council (EAGC). One key achievement of the Council has been the creation of 22 grain and cereal standards which have been recognised by the five member countries of the Eastern Africa Community. Maize, for instance, can now be graded according to maximum limits for pest damage, discolouration, broken kernels and aflatoxins. A trader or wholesaler buying 'Grade 1' maize can now be sure of what they are getting, enabling much more efficient transactions to take place. In Uganda, early attempts to introduce warehouse receipt systems -a desirable element of structured trade, through which farmers can store grain till prices rise and use their stored grain as collateral for loans from commercial banks -suffered from poor understanding of how such systems should work. Deborah Kyarasima, managing director of Uganda's Warehouse Receipt System Authority, pulls no punches in describing some of the causes of that failure. \"Most farmers, and for that matter most traders, are absolutely clueless when it comes to matters related to standards and quality,\" she says. In response, her organisation is now providing training for warehouse employees, traders and farmers' cooperatives, to improve post-harvest handling and grain storage."},{"index":2,"size":197,"text":"The introduction of structured trade in Tanzania has also had set-backs, particularly in terms of warehouse receipts. To avoid involving commerical banks, the Kware Savings and Credit Cooperative Organisation offers farmers loans of up to 50% of the value of maize stored in their warehouse. Of the three countries represented in this book, experiences in Kenya seem to have been the most positive. Norman Kareithi, a member of the Ng'arua cooperative, comments: \"We now use the best quality certified seeds, our grain is stored in the warehouse, we can wait till we get a good price, and we can get loans using our crops as collateral.\" With the finance available, Kareithi and his fellow cooperative members are able to afford certified seed, chemical fertilisers and mechanical ploughing; as a result, their yields have tripled to around 10 t/ha. EAGC programme officer Juma Ngomua is clear that the large-scale use of structured trading systems, currently confined to just a few crops such as tea and coffee, is vital to the future of African farming. \"We need young people to stay in farming,\" he says. \"One of the ways of doing that is by establishing successful structured trading systems.\""}]},{"head":"SPORE 182 | 41","index":121,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":97,"text":"Over the last 5 years, the use of unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs), or 'drones', to gather information to support farming, has grown apace. Most of this activity has taken place in Europe and the US, but the value of drone technology is beginning to be seen in developing countries too. This latest edition of ICT Update provides some cutting edge examples of how the technology is being used, and a discussion of the regulatory context which will play a large part in determining whether drones become a standard part of a farmer's toolkit in the coming years."},{"index":2,"size":122,"text":"One example comes from Nigeria, where a team charged with planning a new rice farm realised that their original configuration of paddies, irrigation channels and drainage ditches was a poor fit with the topography of the land, having studied drone-sourced images. Thus, as a planning tool, information from drones can help to avert costly mistakes and can also be gathered more quickly than using traditional survey methods. For cattle ranchers, drones can be used to locate animals, support efforts to protect them from theft, and even to check on the condition of fencing. They can be similarly empowering for local communities: by documenting illegal land occupation, communities can help government agencies target their inspection efforts and thereby improve the chances of prosecution."},{"index":3,"size":237,"text":"the potential for value added products such as moringa oil. Successful production of either species depends on the farmer understanding a number of basic principles and then applying these according to their needs, resources and environment. With quails, for example, keeping them together with chickens is not sensible, as they are likely to be killed. Cages must be of a certain height to allow natural jumping behaviour but discourage serious attempts at flight which will lead to injury. And farmers must know the correct course of action when aggressive behaviour between birds develops. Similarly with moringa, nursery propagation should be avoided if possible, as their roots are delicate and likely to be damaged during transplanting. Without such practical knowledge -clearly presented in these attractive, illustrated guides -These two Pro-Agro guides provide an excellent and very practical introduction to quail and moringa production. Both species have the advantage of being resistant to disease and relatively easy to cultivate. Japanese quail (the most commonly farmed variety) can produce up to 300 eggs per year, as well as providing meat that is increasingly prized by wealthier African consumers. Moringa is a fast growing tree species whose leaves can be harvested even within a few months, and which offers a valuable source of nutrition for the home, as well as farmers are likely to fail, with knock on impacts for their overall productivity and their ongoing willingness to innovate. Empowering technology"}]},{"head":"Practical guidance","index":122,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":4,"text":"Seeing the bigger picture"},{"index":2,"size":7,"text":"Learning about the birds and the trees"},{"index":3,"size":150,"text":"The possibilities offered by drone technology continue to expand. FAO, for example, is currently investigating their use to detect and eliminate locust swarms before they begin their devastating migrations. Drones could help marine authorities respond to illegal fishing activity, enable insurers to monitor crop failure, or be used by farmers for precision pest control. However, with both safety and individual privacy at risk from drones, appropriate regulation is important. Some countries, including India and Kenya, have imposed an outright ban until the issues can be thoroughly reviewed. In many others there are no regulations at all. If farmers are to benefit from drone technology, agricultural stakeholders and lawmakers need to work together to devise systems of regulation that are fair and reasonable, while protecting the rights of others and reducing safety risks to an acceptable level. The information in this ICT Update will provide a valuable contribution to that discussion."},{"index":4,"size":84,"text":"Our bee populations are under threat due to many factors including pesticide use, habitat loss and the spread of disease. Bees are a critical species within our ecosystems providing services through honey production and pollination. In the event of bee extinction, the large variety of crops dependent on pollinator services would need to be pollinated by hand. Approximately one-third of human food supplies are reliant on pollination by bees; their decline will therefore have a devastating effect on both our ecosystems and economies, worldwide."},{"index":5,"size":123,"text":"The Business of Bees provides a cross-disciplinary examination of the impacts bee population decline will have globally. The perspectives of academics from accounting, science and humanities are combined with those of practitioners in the finance industry, to express the great value of the economic service from bees. Hard hitting statistics help to drive home the message. Co-author, Jill Atkins says, \"If bees disappear entirely, it will cost US$90 million in the USA alone to pollinate by hand.\" Head of sustainability at financial services company, Standard & Poor's, and contributor the book, Martina states that, \"The global economic benefit of bee pollination amounts to US$265 (€240) billion.\" Estimates of the financial risk do not even take into account the cost of replacing natural pollination."},{"index":6,"size":256,"text":"The narrative considers the topic of bee population decline from a holistic standpoint and asks the question: if pollinator populations act as an indicator of the general health of our ecosystems, what does this mean for nature and humankind? Sensitive plants will be most comparable data from many countries and estimates are based on a subset of surveys. Poverty in a Rising Africa maps out the quality and availability of the data needed to track monetary poverty, whilst reflecting on the governance and political processes that underpin the current situation. The report also examines the progress that's been made in non-monetary aspects of poverty such as health, education and freedom from violence. Positive developments include a drop in chronic malnutrition in children under five, and that violence has diminished due Africa's economic growth has risen over the past 20 years and perceptions of the continent are changing, with a focus on ' Africa rising'. However, trying to determine whether this growth has accompanied a reduction in the monetary poverty of individuals is extremely challenging. There is a dearth of current and to a 75% decline in politically motivated attacks. Collated by a team of economists at the World Bank, the findings of this report are relevant to policymakers and the communities that influence them. It highlights the need to improve the quality and reliability of poverty statistics in Africa in order to track and reduce chronic poverty, but this is unlikely to happen in the absence of stricter regulations regarding the completion of household census surveys. "}]}],"figures":[{"text":" © N. ACKBARALLYPilot farms in Mauritius are producing healthy vegetables by reducing the use of pesticides.Ikhwan Savitree, from Petit Sable, a village in the south of Mauritius, has recently experimented with organic agriculture ENVIRONMENT Farmers in Mauritius are using targeted meteorological data to help them adapt to climate change. "},{"text":"A map of the cultivated area during the 2014-15 rainy season SOURCE: CIRAD/CNES SPORE 182 | 11 "},{"text":" Spore website: www.spore.cta.int/en Monique Barbut, Executive Secretary of UNCCD Sustainable land management: a global priority M O N I Q U E B A R B U T Monique Barbut, Executive Secretary of the UN Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD), calls for greater land protection by Anne Perrin © C. MAJANI D'INGUIMBERT Dossier In ACP countries, recent biotechnology developments are making significant advances in producing more climate tolerant and disease resistant crops and livestock breeds. "},{"text":" Nevertheless, achievements across Africa include MAS used in Sudan to tackle Striga in sorghum and to develop resistance to cassava mosaic disease (CMD), which 20 "},{"text":" KOLBE/GETTY IMAGESTaro is one of the edible aroid crops that rarely flower or set seed "},{"text":"\" Will we be able to meet our expectations with the return to conventional cotton? \" 26 | SPORE 182 FIELD REPORT A rich biotech legacy U G A N D A While Uganda has some of the most advanced biotechnology research in Africa, farmers are unable to benefit until biosafety legislation is passed. SPORE 182 | 27 SPORE 182 | 27 > \"We transferred genes from wild relatives of the potato into farmer-preferred potatoes and have achieved excellent results.\" "},{"text":" The Dark Side of Chocolate. An Analysis of the Conventional, Sustainable and Fair Trade Cocoa Chains By C Alliot, et al. Bureau for the Appraisal of Societal Impacts and Costs (BASIC), for the French Fair Trade Platform (PFCE), 2016; 112 pp. Full report (in French) downloadable as a PDF file from: http://tinyurl.com/jfrwsbf Abstract (in English) downloadable as a PDF file from: http://tinyurl.com/jv4uexh "},{"text":" Many cocoa farmers in Côte d'Ivoire are pushed to implement unsustainable cropping systems to reduce their production costs and remain competitive SPORE 182 | 37 © K. SIA/AFP/GETTY IMAGES the dark side of chocolate An AnAlysis of the conventionAl, sustAinAble And fAir trAde cocoA chAins. by bAsic (bureAu for the ApprAisAl of societAl impActs And costs), for the french fAir trAde plAtform "},{"text":" Routledge, 2016; 189 pp. ISBN 978-11-381-8284-4 £26.99 -€33 Routledge, 2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN, UK www.routledge.com In Search of Fair Trade By C Pye-Smith CTA, 2016; 20 pp. CTA no. 1933 Downloadable as a PDF file from: http://tinyurl.com/jmyc9lv "},{"text":" Cameroon, 2016; 40 pp.   ISBN 978-92-908-1599-0   CTA no. 1930    Downloadable as a PDF file from: http://tinyurl.com/j5euwlq "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "}],"sieverID":"4bef38fd-454e-4c1f-a0a4-3bac40a39d5d","abstract":"In many developing countries, lack of affordable finance is one of the major constraints limiting the transformation of smallholder agriculture into a profitable enterprise. The annual financing gap for agriculture is estimated at €140 billion. Current lending by formal financial institutions is €13 billion, of which only €1 billion is from commercial banks. In fact, for every €9 of public lending there is only €1 for commercial loans. But all this could change with blending -a financing scheme using public funds to 'de-risk' agricultural finance and thus catalyse private sector investment and loans. The instruments used include risk capital and guarantees, as well as the strengthening of mechanisms that can help manage risk in farming e.g. weather insurance (see also Spore 181 Blended finance: a new approach for funding agricultural value chains). Use of public finance to more effectively leverage -rather than displaceprivate sector finance is not new. It has been employed in infrastructure funding since the late 1990s, and has received a boost in recent years with the work of the OECD/World Economic Forum (WEF). However, 'blending' for agriculture has so far not received much attention -a 2015 OECD/WEF survey found that only 4.7% of blended finance was for food and agriculture. This is now changing with the new European Union Agricultural Finance Initiative -AgriFI. CTA and its partners have been working with central banks in Africa on how, through innovative blending vehicles, they can help unlock private sector funding for agriculture. Governments and funding agencies are considering how they can reach larger numbers of farmers and small and medium enterprises by judicious use of blending instruments. Blending for agriculture is more complex than for infrastructure because of the need for an aggregation mechanism; for a commercially viable transaction, tens of thousands of smallholder producers need to be brought together. This calls for cooperation among entities that can reach large numbers of farmers (such as large agribusinesses and developing country banks) and public financiers. CTA is organising a conference on blending for agriculture to be held in Brussels, Belgium, in November 2016. The conference will bring together key decision-makers and advisors involved in blending operations, and those from private sector financiers (banks, investment funds, agribusiness firms) who will be able to expand their agricultural finance activities. The conference will provide a space for sharing lessons and best practices more broadly than has been done so far, and will also enable discussions on innovative partnership opportunities, including new smallholder financing schemes that bring together developed and developing country public financiers."}
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