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+{"metadata":{"id":"0016befd4ac2192aed2623ced0ba237a","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/812ddbbe-d430-4478-b17f-261b59f8d8a2/retrieve"},"pageCount":28,"title":"Mapping spatial distribution and geographic shifts of East African highland banana (Musa spp.) in Uganda","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":230,"text":"East African Highland Banana (Musa acuminata genome group AAA-EA; hereafter referred to as banana) provides food and income for over 30 million inhabitants of the African Great Lakes Region [1]. The plant's asynchronous fruiting habit allows farmers to harvest throughout the year [2], providing a continuous supply of food in contrast with seasonal crops. Also, banana provides soil cover to control soil erosion on hilly landscapes [3]. Uganda has been the leading producer of banana in Africa for over five decades [4], although current yields of 5 to 30 t ha -1 yr -1 are well below attainable yields of more than 60 t ha -1 yr -1 [5,6]. Several abiotic and biotic factors are underlying causes of the yield gap of banana on smallholder farms in Uganda. Nutrient deficiencies combined with drought stress are the primary abiotic constraints [6,7], with potassium and nitrogen deficiencies accounting for up to 68% of the banana yield gap [8][9][10]. Banana is also affected by pests, notably banana weevil (Cosmopolites sordidus) and nematodes (Radopholus similis; Pratylenchus goodeyi) [11][12][13], and by diseases such as Xanthomonas wilt (Xanthomonas campestris pv. musacearum), Fusarium wilt (Fusarium oxysporum fsp. cubense) and Black Sigatoka (Mycosphaerella fijiensis) [14,15]. The effects of these constraints are exacerbated by poor agronomic management [6,7]. Interventions to address these constraints need to be tailored to the biophysical conditions and socioeconomic opportunities that vary across agroecological zones."},{"index":2,"size":174,"text":"Wortmann and Eledu [16] used county-level agricultural, economic, demographic, climatic and soil characteristics for delineating and defining Uganda's 14 agroecological zones (AEZs). The differences in acreage of staple food crops (banana, maize (Zea mays L.), cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz), sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas [L.] Lam.), potato (Solanum tuberosum L.), finger millet (Eleusine coracana Gaertn.), common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.), groundnut (Arachis hypogaea L.), sorghum (Sorghum bicolor [L.] Moench), and rice (Oryza sativa L.)) across the country highlight differences in biophysical suitability and socioeconomic importance of specific crops across AEZs. The principal AEZs for banana are characterised by even rainfall distribution with less than three dry months each year [17,18]. A geographic shift in banana coverage has been reported with reductions in traditional growing areas in the central region and expansion in the southwestern region [19]. In some districts of the eastern region, annual crops (i.e., cassava, sweet potatoes, common bean, maize, and groundnut) have replaced banana [20]. However, the magnitude of change and underlying drivers of these observed changes are yet to be determined."},{"index":3,"size":90,"text":"We set out to map the current distribution of banana in Uganda and to understand how this has changed over the past five decades. Our specific objectives were to i) map the current distribution of banana in Uganda, ii) identify approaches for predicting the spatial distribution of banana using remote sensing data, iii) determine biophysical factors that influence the spatial distribution of banana, iv) assess the geographic shift in banana production areas, and v) evaluate the biophysical factors associated with geographic shift in banana distribution over the past five decades."}]},{"head":"Materials and methods","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Banana-based cropping systems in Uganda","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":148,"text":"Banana-based cropping systems in Uganda consist of landscapes where thick banana groves extend from the lowlands and rise onto upper slopes and hilltops. Banana cultivation is particularly important in the Lake Victoria region, Mount Elgon, the interior plateau south of Lake Kyoga, the Ankole ridges and downlands, and the rift valley shoulder [21]. This staple food crop is cultivated by resource-poor and risk-averse farmers who use traditional farming methods and have poor access to quality fertilizers to improve soil fertility or crop protection inputs to reduce crop losses to pests and diseases. The percentage contribution of bananas to the total food acreage demonstrates the importance of the crop. Often farmers mix multiple cultivars of cooking bananas ('Matoke'), beer bananas ('Mbide'), roasting bananas ('Gonja'), and dessert bananas ('Ndiizi' and 'Bogoya') within fields, farms or across landscapes [22]. However, the cooking type banana dominate the mixed stands across the country."}]},{"head":"Digitizing the historical map of banana","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":316,"text":"A hand-drawn map from 1958 [21] depicting banana areas using a dot equivalent to 2.02 km 2 (500 acres) with a total of 2400 dots or 4,856 km 2 across Uganda (Fig 1) was digitised in two steps. First, the scanned map was processed into a black and white image. Georeferencing was performed using the Georeferencer plugin in Quantum GIS (QGIS) version 2.18.13 for Mac [23]. A series of positions on the black and white image were identified that corresponded to positions on the current administrative boundaries of Uganda. These ground control points were used for matching x and y pixel coordinates on the image with the longitude and latitude coordinates. A second-order polynomial transformation and nearest neighbor resampling were used to georeference the image to Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) zone 36N. Borders were manually erased from the georeferenced image using the GNU Image Manipulation Program (GIMP) version 2.10.2 for Mac [24] resulting in an image that retained only the dots representing banana locations. Second, the dots were vectorised, geometries cross-checked, and anomalies fixed. Centroids of the dots were determined and buffered with 800 m, thereby creating vectorised circles with areas matching the original dot areas of 2.02 km 2 presented in Fig 1 . The hand-drawn nature of the 1958 banana distribution map resulted in a mismatch between boundaries of the georeferenced image and the Global Administrative Areas (GADM) boundaries. Visual inspection revealed that average boundary deviation was between 1 and 2 km, rarely more than 5 km. This meant that 1:1 overlay of the historical (1958) and latest (2016) banana distribution maps would be unreliable. Hence, the nearest accuracy that we could achieve for the 1958 distribution map was to superimpose a vector grid of 5 km × 5 km on the vector layer of circles to account for the 1-5 km deviations, with each grid cell indicating the cover of banana area inside."}]},{"head":"Geosurvey presence/absence data","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":134,"text":"Geosurvey is an online platform that facilitates the collection of geospatial data through assessment of high-resolution satellite imagery [25]. A team of 15 analysts examined images of randomly chosen locations within Uganda and determined the presence/absence of banana inside a 100 m × 100 m quadrat. Google Earth is the default image option for the Geosurvey platform, but analysts can switch to alternative image sources (i.e., Bing Maps, DigitalGlobe, PlanetLabs, and MapBox) whenever cloudiness obstructs the visibility of the land surface for a given image. This resulted in a dataset of 19,130 banana presence/absence observations. Of these, 181 observations were invalid because 174 observations fell outside the boundaries of Uganda and 7 observations were duplicates. Consequently, the sampled locations were reduced to 18,949 comprising 16,522 absence and 2,427 presence of banana (Fig 2 )."}]},{"head":"Point filtering to remedy spatial dependence","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":196,"text":"The proximity between presence/absence points means the biophysical conditions at these locations would probably be more related than if the points were distant from each other. Point clustering or dispersal invalidates the assumption of spatial independence, which is vital for unbiased predictions. Hence, spatial filtering was performed to attain the required random point pattern. First, we created 5 km × 5 km pixels to facilitate a quadrat count of unique presence/absence points. The polygon of unique point counts aided random sampling of points, so that no more than one point remained within a 5 km × 5 km pixel. Second, we determined point patterns through average nearest neighbor analysis executed using the ArcGIS Desktop version 10.6.1.9270 [26]. The approach involves measuring distances between points and their nearest neighbors and compares them against a hypothetical random distribution. A clustered or dispersed pattern exists if the observed mean distances are less or greater than the expected mean distance of the hypothetical random distribution, respectively. A positive or negative average nearest neighbour index and statistically significant z-score or p-value indicate a less than 1% likelihood that a clustered or dispersed pattern in the dataset results from random chance, respectively."}]},{"head":"Gridded covariates and multicollinearity","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":132,"text":"Spatially continuous data that are readily available on the internet were acquired. The 71 remotely sensed and gridded covariates consisted of 21 climatic, 19 edaphic, 19 vegetation, 6 socio-economic, and 6 topographic variables. Respective covariates, sources, resolutions, and time frames are presented in the S1 Table . All covariate variables were resampled to 250 m resolution, consistent with the global gridded soil information [27]. The covariates were centered (mean minus values) and scaled values divided by standard deviation) to ensure zero mean and unit variance using the R package raster [28]. We determined an optimal number of independent covariates because multicollinearity among covariates could affect model stability and approximation quality [29]. For this purpose, we employed two approaches for selecting relevant and independent covariates, i.e., recursive feature elimination and subjective feature selection."}]},{"head":"Approaches for selecting independent relevant covariates","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":183,"text":"Recursive feature elimination with resampling. Recursive feature elimination is a wrapper algorithm that assesses multiple covariate subsets while iteratively removing the weakest covariates until the optimal number of covariates is reached [30]. The algorithm uses ten-fold cross-validation to score the covariate subsets and select the best ranked collection of covariates that maximises model performance. Applying this approach led to the selection of 29 covariates that describe the biophysical and socio-economic environments of banana in Uganda. Visual inspection of the correlation matrix of the 29 covariates was done to identify and eliminate covariates with correlation coefficient (r) greater ± 0.7 [31]. Consequently, 17 uncorrelated covariates were retained for machine learning prediction (Table 1, Fig 3). Subjective feature selection. Biophysical covariates related to light, nutrients, temperature, and water, the factors known to strongly influence crop growth, were selected subjectively from the set of 71 variables. Correlation analysis was then performed to identify and exclude covariates that were strongly correlated (r > ± 0.7). The approach led to the selection of 12 uncorrelated covariates believed to directly affect banana growth and development (Table 2, Fig 3)."}]},{"head":"Extraction of covariate values at sampled point locations","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":75,"text":"We extracted values from the 12 and 17 independent covariates at the filtered presence/ absence locations using the function extract of the package caret [55]. All missing values were omitted since most tree and rule-based models only consider complete information. The resultant datasets were partitioned into training (67%) and testing (33%) using the createDataPartition function of the package caret [55]. Table 2. List of 12 covariates selected subjectively and their underlying reasons for their selection."}]},{"head":"Covariate type The 12 selected covariates Reason for selection Reference","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":6,"text":"Climatic AMT, annual mean temperature (˚C)"},{"index":2,"size":41,"text":"The annual mean and range of temperature discriminate areas with minimum temperatures below which banana cannot grow. [49,50] ATR, annual temperature range (˚C) PREC, annual precipitation (mm) Annual amount and distribution of rainfall is important for a perennial crop like banana."},{"index":3,"size":38,"text":"[ 18,22] PSEA, precipitation seasonality (%) Edaphic pH, soil pH in solution pH, CEC and SOC are indicators of soil fertility. [51,52] CEC, cation exchange capacity (cmol kg -1 ) SOC, soil organic carbon (g kg -1 )."},{"index":4,"size":25,"text":"BD, bulk density (kg m -3 ) Bulk density and sand fraction are indicators of rooting conditions, drainage, and soil workability. SAND, Sand fraction (%)"}]},{"head":"Vegetation","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":13,"text":"FAPARvar, fraction of absorbed photosynthetically active radiation-variance (μmol m −2 s −1 )"},{"index":2,"size":17,"text":"FAPARvar is indicative of the rate of photosynthesis, while the evapotranspiration rate is quantified using net photosynthesis."},{"index":3,"size":25,"text":"[53] RB3BLUE, Blue Reflectance (Band 3) Blue reflectance helps to eliminate atmospheric noise (cloudiness, smoke) that could affect accurate observation of banana presence or absence."},{"index":4,"size":1,"text":"[54]"},{"index":5,"size":25,"text":"Topographic SLOPE, slope gradient (%) Slope gradient influences water infiltration versus runoff. Steep slopes are prone to erosive forces that affect nutrient uptake. [47,52] https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0263439.t002"}]},{"head":"Approaches for prediction and mapping banana","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":269,"text":"We compared two analytical methods, machine learning and logistic regression, to identify the most efficient approach for predicting the distribution of banana using remotely sensed presence/absence data and multiple independent covariates. Machine learning algorithms. Three machine learning algorithms: random forests (RF), gradient boosting machine (GBM), and neural network (NN) were used to identify patterns in the dataset of banana presence/absence observations related to the selected covariates. Random forests generate an exhaustive number of binary decision trees and allows each tree to cast a random unit vote for the most popular class [56]. The algorithm is computationally effective, a characteristic that is enhanced by the ability to score and rank input features based on their importance. Overall, this embedded dimensionality reduction capability ensures better model stability, reduces risk of overfitting, and increases accuracy of prediction. By contrast, GBM uses an iterative stagewise process whereby weak predictors are sequentially added or removed from the training dataset [57]. A special emphasis is put on learning the instances that were misclassified during the previous training sequence, which decreases the variance of the final prediction. The risk of overfitting is averted by having a smaller learning rate and larger number of trees [58]. Neural networks are adaptive models capable of learning the inherent patterns of the input data by mimicking the neuronal structure of the human brain [59]. The algorithm is particularly effective in handling binary classification problems in which the predictor variables exhibit strong non-linear relationships with the target variable [60]. However, it is critical to scale input values prior to training to prevent the process from converging to the local minimum [61]."},{"index":2,"size":198,"text":"Training of algorithms. The algorithms were trained with the 12 and 17 covariates. Class imbalance in our dataset meant that trained algorithms could have a bias towards detecting the majority class (banana absence) and a poor recognition of the relatively rare minority class (banana presence). To address this problem, we explicitly specified the subsampling method inside the trainControl function of the package caret [55]. The performance estimates were produced using 10-fold cross-validation repeated five times and default tuning of the relevant hyper-parameters [62]. Performance of the trained algorithms with oversampling (OS), with undersampling (US), and without sampling (WS) was compared using assorted metrics. Accuracy, Kappa, Sensitivity, Specificity and Receiver Operating Characteristic Area Under Curve (ROC AUC) were calculated across resamples by explicitly specifying the defaultSummary and twoClassSummary arguments in the caret trainControl function. ROC AUC was the metric of preference due to its scale-invariant and classification threshold-invariant measure of prediction quality [63]. However, Adjusted F-measure, Brier score, Geometric mean, and Precision Recall Area Under Curve (PR AUC) were also calculated to establish comparative advantage of ROC AUC. Passing the list of trained algorithms to the caret resamples function led to extraction of 50 resampled estimates per calculated metric."},{"index":3,"size":244,"text":"Ensemble machine learning. The training outputs of RF, GBM and NN were stacked together to produce an ensemble model that includes a reasonable weighting of each algorithm during prediction using the testing dataset. This helped to compound the variability existing in the training predictions of individual algorithms and thus increase the accuracy of mapping the occurrence of banana in Uganda. The ensemble was fitted using 10-fold cross-validation repeated 5-times. Elastic net regularization of the R package glmnet [64] resulted in a sparse model which allows better interpretation [65]. We evaluated performance of the ensemble models using the metrics Adjusted F-measure, Brier score, Geometric mean, Kappa, PR AUC, and ROC AUC. Statistical comparisons of the ensemble models from training algorithms on 12 and 17 covariates were done using the Wilcoxon rank sum statistic. Probability maps of banana distribution were generated from the ensemble predictions based on algorithm training on 12 and 17 covariates. The ensemble model by default depicted the spatial coverage of banana in terms of the probability of banana presence. The major drawback relates to the several colours in the map which make it difficult to explicitly discriminate the areas with low, moderate, and high coverage of banana. Hence, created ensemble prediction maps were converted from probability to categorical using the probability threshold at which the ensemble model maximises the true positive rate and true negative rate (Max TPR+TNR). We further refined the maps using the SAGA majority filtering tool in QGIS [23]."},{"index":4,"size":39,"text":"Logistic regression. We ran a separate prediction of banana distribution with the logistic regression model. Banana distribution in the logistic regression model was expressed by the binary response variable with '0' and '1' representing banana absence and presence, respectively."},{"index":5,"size":6,"text":"Substituting Eq 2 into Eq 1"},{"index":6,"size":7,"text":"The general expression of the logistic regression"},{"index":7,"size":85,"text":"Where: p is the likelihood of banana presence; β 0 , β 1 , β 2 , . . ., β n are coefficients of the factors influencing banana spatial distribution; X 1 , X 2 , . . ., X n are factors influencing banana distribution; z are the linear combinations of β i and X i ; Y is the response variable with values of p 2 [0:1]; ε is the error term (mean 6 ¼0 and variance dependent on X i )."},{"index":8,"size":149,"text":"Our training dataset with 12 covariates was used for fitting logistic regression models representing different complexities: the null model without covariates (M0-12); the full model with all covariates (M1-12); expansion of M1-12 that includes significant two-way interactions (M2-12). All terms that would not maximise predictive power of M2-12 were iteratively excluded via stepwise regression implemented with the stepAIC function of the R package MASS [66]. Model goodness-of-fit was determined based on the smallest values of log-likelihood, deviance, Akaike Information Criterion (AIC), and Bayesian Information Criterion (BIC) [67]. The best performing model was used to identify covariates that best explained the variance in the presence/absence of banana. We also made predictions using the testing dataset to evaluate the performance of our logistic regression models using the metric ROC AUC. Prediction maps of banana distribution were generated through indicator regression kriging [68] while the presented figures were created using QGIS [23]."}]},{"head":"Geographic shifts and the associated biophysical factors","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":372,"text":"Analysing geographic shifts in the occurrence of banana and potential underlying factors can help different stakeholders along the banana value chain to design strategies to increase productivity and enhance sustainability for the future. In this study, the years 1958 and 2016 were the basis for analysing spatial changes in the distribution of banana in Uganda over a period of 50 years. First, the current (2016) map of banana distribution was resampled from 250 m to 5 km resolution, matching the gridded map of historical (1958) banana distribution. From our assessment, we noticed that if banana presence was due to a single banana field, then it would be much easier to find it in a 250 m × 250 m pixel compared to a 5 km × 5km pixel. The regional share of banana in both 1958 and 2016 were computed using counts of pixels with banana in each region divided by the total number of pixels with banana in Uganda. Second, the gridded maps were overlaid to determine the areas where banana cultivation has decreased (-1), increased (1) and remained stable (2). Third, the geographic shift map was overlaid using spatial polygons of administrative regions, and agroecological zones (S1 Fig) [16]. This facilitated computation of the percentage of the geographic shift in each region and agroecological zone, determined by dividing the number of pixels corresponding to the different shift categories by the total number of pixels of the geographic shift map of Uganda. Fourth, classification and regression trees (CART), a nonparametric method that recursively splits distribution categories in terms of the extracted values of the covariate variables [56] was performed to identify key biophysical factors that could have contributed to geographic shift in banana. Data used for CART comprised of geographic shift categories and significant covariates of the best performing logistic regression model. We performed CART using the rpart model using the rpart function of the R package rpart because it keeps track of the complexity of the tree (i.e., size of the tree) and separates the classes of the target variable [69]. Model fitting used geographic shift categories for the dependent variable and normalised covariates as the explanatory variables. Visualization of rpart model outputs was done using the rpart plot [70]."}]},{"head":"Results","index":14,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Effect of spatial filtering on point pattern distribution","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":79,"text":"Spatial filtering resulted in the retention of 7,632 unique data points (1,518 presence; 6,114 absence). Average nearest neighbour analysis implemented with the unfiltered 18,949 data points revealed a clustered point pattern with less than 1% likelihood of being due to random chance (Table 3). However, the change in the z-score from -56.117 to 0.056 indicates that spatial filtering helped to achieve the random point pattern required to ensure that extracted covariates satisfy the assumptions of spatial independence (Table 3)."}]},{"head":"Algorithm performance under different subsampling scenarios","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":329,"text":"Resampling of the training data helps to resolve the disparity in the frequencies of presence/ absence observations (class imbalance) which can have significant negative impact on model fitting and subsequent predictions. We examined the performance of RF, GBM, and NN trained on the 12 and 17 selected covariates under diverse resampling scenarios (Figs 4; 5). Effects of oversampling (OS) (i.e., adjusted F-measure, Brier score, Geometric mean, PR AUC, and ROC AUC) suggest that it significantly affects the performance across algorithms. RF-OS outperformed GBM-OS and NN-OS for all metrics except for the Geometric mean and Kappa.  Results for undersampling (US) show no significant difference between RF and GBM evaluated using all metrics apart from the Geometric mean. We found that NN-US consistently registers significantly poor results with all evaluation metrics (Fig 4A -4F). Without sampling (WS) did not cause a significant difference among algorithms as regards the Geometric mean. However, it did significantly influence algorithms when measured using the adjusted F-measure and PR AUC. RF   . Both ensemble prediction maps reveal that banana is scarce in the northern region but common in a band that extends from the western through central into the eastern region (Fig 7A and 7B). The foothills of Mount Ruwenzori, Southwestern Highlands, northern and western shores of Lake Victoria and the foothills of Mount Elgon standout as the hotspots of banana production (Fig 7A and 7B). Additionally, there is some correlation between the accentuated banana zones with a high presence probability and densely populated cities and towns (Fig 7B). The socio-economic variables (population density and travel time to a market of 500,000 people) represent better market prospects for crop products and improved access to inputs and services due to the physical proximity to populated cities and towns [71]. Only five of the biophysical variables appeared to have a direct relationship with presence or absence of banana. Therefore, logistic regression model fitting was restricted to the 12 covariates connected with banana growth chosen via subjective feature selection."}]},{"head":"Comparison of ensemble models","index":17,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Performance of the fitted logistic regression models","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":75,"text":"The goodness-of-fit statistics indicate that the M2-12 model with significant two-way interactions between covariates included had better performance with respect to the log-likelihood, deviance, AIC, BIC, and ROC AUC (Table 4). We found that adding significant three-way interactions to M2-12 increased the likelihood and ROC AUC, but the model would suffer a penalty on the BIC (results not included). M2-12 was thus selected as the most parsimonious and interpretable model for explaining the banana distribution."}]},{"head":"Key factors explaining banana distribution","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":252,"text":"The estimates obtained from fitting the model M2-12 reveals a significant positive influence of BD, RB3BLUE, PH, PREC, SLOPE and SOC and a significant negative influence of AMT and PSEA (Table 5). Significant interactions of certain covariates that appear to have no significant influence demonstrates the cross-over existing between covariates in the real world (Table 5).  Fig 8 shows the latest banana distribution map created using indicator regression kriging [72] with prediction outputs of the logistic regression model M2-12. This was selected because its predictor variables had a direct role in banana growth unlike in the ensemble model and yet its performance indices were similar to those for the ensemble model with 12 covariates. The map highlights active banana production on the northern and western shores of Lake Victoria, the Southwestern highlands, the foothills of Mount Ruwenzori and of Mount Elgon (Fig 8). This is consistent with what was revealed by the ensemble prediction maps.  At the agroecological zone level, a geographic shift is significant in five of the fourteen agroecological zones of Uganda: Southern and Eastern Lake Kyoga Plains, Western Medium High Farmlands, Western Mid-Altitude Farmlands and the Semuliki Flats, Southwestern Grass Farmlands and Lake Victoria Crescent and Mbale Farmlands (Fig 10C). What stands out is that the Lake Victoria Crescent and Mbale Farmlands accounts for about 40% of the stable cultivation at the national level, Southern and Eastern Lake Kyoga Plains for about 32% of the decreased cultivation, and Southwestern Grass Farmlands for 30% of the increased cultivation (Fig 10C)."}]},{"head":"Biophysical factors associated with geographic shifts of banana","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":392,"text":"We performed the CART analysis using the geographic shift classes and the eight significant covariates of the model M2-12 (BD, RB3BLUE, PH, PREC, SLOPE, SOC, AMT, and PSEA) for the dependent variable and explanatory variables, respectively. CART selected PSEA, AMT, BD, PREC, and RB3BLUE for tree construction (Fig 11). The root node of the tree represents areas where banana cultivation remained stable. The criteria PSEA < 40% splits the root node into the left and right-hand branches if true and false, respectively (Fig 11). The lefthand branch shows a probability of 69% that banana cultivation remained stable in areas with mild dry periods (PSEA < 40%), characteristic of the Lake Victoria Crescent and Mbale Farmlands and Western Medium High Farmlands. In contrast, the right-hand branch indicates a probability of 55% that banana cultivation increased in areas that experienced severe dry periods (PSEA � 40%). A probability of 63% at terminal node 12 reveals that banana cultivation decreased in areas where high temperature (AMT � 23˚C) worsened the negative effects of severe dry periods (PSEA � 42%). On the contrary, terminal node 13 indicates a 62% probability of stable cultivation in locations where mild dry periods (PSEA < 42%) reduced the negative effects of high temperature (AMT � 23˚C). Similarly, the right-side split of node 3 reveals a 62% probability that banana cultivation increased in locations where lower temperatures (AMT < 23˚C) offset the negative effects of severe dry periods (PSEA � 40%) ( Fig 11). The terminal node 14 associates 76% probability of stable cultivation with PSEA � 40%, AMT < 23˚C, and BD � 1398 kg m -3 . Additionally, a series of right-side splits that terminate at node 31 show significant increase in the probability of increased cultivation from 62% to 78% when PSEA � 40%, AMT < 23˚C, BD < 1398 kg m -3 and PREC < 938 mm. The left-side split at node 15 coupled with a right-side split at node 30 that terminated at node shows a 66% probability of increased cultivation. Moreover, the left-side split at node 30 that terminated at nodes 120 and 121 indicates a 65% and 74% probability of stable and increased cultivation, respectively. The above evidence intimates that factors associated with crop water requirements have facilitated geographic shift (or lack of it) in the banana cropping system over the past five decades."}]},{"head":"Discussion","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":129,"text":"We mapped the distribution of banana by collecting presence/absence data from high-resolution satellite imagery. Coupling the presence/absence information with multiple gridded covariates resulted in a robust geospatial dataset for predicting the spatial distribution of banana. Performing data pre-processing was prudent to deal with general issues often associated with large spatial datasets for prediction modelling. Multicollinearity detected among the acquired 71 covariates underscored the need to select relevant and independent covariates so that built models are not subject to overfitting. Other issues we identified were spatial autocorrelation and class imbalance of response variables. These two problems are often ignored in spatial prediction modelling, yet they can increase spatial bias and uncertainty especially when model predictions must be made outside the scope of learned relationships between covariates and response outcomes [73]."},{"index":2,"size":234,"text":"Our second objective was to identify approaches for predicting the spatial distribution of banana using remote sensing data. Spatial filtering helped to ensure randomness of the outcome but could not eliminate class imbalance and residual spatial autocorrelation. We accounted for class imbalance and residual autocorrelation by resampling. The effects of oversampling and undersampling on the accuracy of random forests (RF), gradient boosting machines (GBM) and neural networks (NN) were compared. Unlike oversampling which caused fluctuations in performance between the algorithms, the results from undersampling were more consistent which favoured its selection to resolve class imbalance. Robinson et al. [74] found that undersampling increased the accuracy of machine learning models when both spatial filtering and resampling are used to correct for class imbalance and spatial bias. Compared with the algorithms trained on 12 and 17 covariates with undersampling, the performance of the ensemble models was superior based on the metrics Adjusted F-measure, Brier score, Kappa and PR AUC and ROC AUC. Others have documented the robustness and accuracy of ensemble models [75]. This is in line with various studies of ecosystem services that have endorsed ensemble models as a cost-effective decision support tool in formulating evidence-based policies and actions in sustainable development [76]. Yet, the logistic regression (ROC AUC = 0.879) performed nearly as well as the ensemble models (ROC AUC = 0.895; 0.907 with 12 and 17 covariates, respectively), as others have observed [77]."},{"index":3,"size":245,"text":"The third objective focused on determining biophysical covariates that influenced the spatial distribution of banana. Logistic regression facilitated making inferential statements about the relationship the 12 subjectively chosen covariates and the presence or absence of banana. Model estimates revealed a positive influence of blue reflectance, soil organic carbon annual precipitation, slope gradient, soil pH and soil bulk density, and a negative relationship with mean annual temperature and precipitation seasonality. The reasons associated with crop growth and development that guided subjective selection of 12 covariates helped to rationalize the importance of these covariates. Unlike other covariates that have direct influence on banana growth and development, we incorporated blue reflectance among covariates primarily to correct for atmospheric disturbances due to smoke and cloudiness that occasionally obstructed visual interpretation of satellite images [54]. Banana requires well-drained soils with at least 2 m depth to develop an extensive root system for better water and nutrient uptake [78]. Soil physicochemical factors like bulk density and organic carbon influence growth and development via their effect on water and nutrient availability [51]. Reducing bulk density through tillage can improve soil structure and infiltration with the benefits of enhanced banana root and shoot growth [79]. Banana is very sensitive to water stress and a good yield under rain-fed conditions requires an annual precipitation above 1000 mm evenly distributed over the year. A combination of adequate rainfall and minimum precipitation seasonality explain the banana concentrations at elevations between 900-2000 meters above sea level [80]."},{"index":4,"size":385,"text":"For the fourth objective, we assessed geographic shifts in banana production areas using spatially explicit differences between maps of banana distribution in 1958 and 2016. Most bananas were grown in the central region in 1958 but the western region is now the main hub of banana cultivation. Reports on geographic shift of banana have mostly provided details of production timelines, magnitudes of changes, and hypothetical causal factors but limited spatial evidence of the changes [19]. Our results show that banana cultivation has mostly declined in the eastern region, remained stable in the central region, and expanded in the western region. The lifespan of well-managed banana plantations used to exceed 30 years in the central and eastern regions, however, they now last for less than 10 years. Farmers have responded in various ways to the deterioration of their banana plantations by i) replanting within existing fields, ii) establishing new plantations, iii) replacing banana with other crops. The first response is prevalent in the central region, where it is common to encounter gardens integrating banana, coffee, cereals, root crops, and shade trees into an agroforestry system. Increased competition between urban land use and agriculture prevents both expansion of existing plantations and the establishment of new plantations in the central region. A blend of the first and second responses is noticeable in the western region, where market opportunities induced area expansions with marked conversion of native vegetation, rangeland, and other croplands into banana plantations. Most of the banana in the region was grown for domestic consumption but it later evolved into a commercial crop. Existing evidence shows that production declines in the central region provided the impetus for the booming domestic trade witnessed today in the western region. The third response is evident in the eastern region where banana has been replaced with cereals and root crops [20]. The success of coffee on the slopes of Mount Elgon reflects a historical preference for a crop with a higher profit to volume ratio that was relatively easy to transport on foot to markets downhill [81]. The disappearance of banana in some areas has serious implications for food security. Famines are rare where banana is the primary staple crop. The loss of the permanent canopy and self-mulch cover that banana provides can lead to greater soil erosion on hilly landscapes."},{"index":5,"size":230,"text":"In the fifth objective, we used the classification and regression tree (CART) to evaluate the biophysical factors associated with geographic shifts in banana distribution over the past five decades. Our results indicate that the expansion of banana cropping system has largely occurred in either marginal areas with relatively poor soils and low rainfall or in ecologically sensitive areas like the tropical rain forests of western Uganda and erosion-prone steep foot slopes of Mount Ruwenzori. Main drivers of decline in banana cropping system are variables linked to soil water supply. Uganda's banana cultivation is rain-fed [82] and highly dependent on rainwater capture and retention in the soil for crop uptake. Drought prone areas are found in the Southern and Eastern Lake Kyoga Plains where the soils are derived from lacustrine parent material, which tend to be highly sorted with either fine texture in the valleys or coarse texture on the upslopes. The valleys are generally unsuitable for growing banana due to waterlogging [83]. Meanwhile, the sandy nature of the soils on the upslopes renders them prone to rapid drainage and leaching. It is thus likely that the primary cause of decline in banana coverage in the eastern region was drought stress. Although soil cover with organic mulches helps to conserve moisture there is an urgent need to enhance resilience of banana to climate change induced temperature rises and dry spells [84]."},{"index":6,"size":84,"text":"Climatic and edaphic factors alone cannot account for geographic shifts in banana. The role of various biotic and cultural factors cannot be ignored. Banana weevil and nematodes have for several decades contributed to the reduced lifespan of banana plantations in the central and eastern regions. The most damaging and costly diseases are Black Sigatoka, Fusarium wilt and Xanthomonas wilt. Also, transitions in dietary habits of people have influenced the crops cultivated as banana is a staple food in the central, eastern, and western region."}]},{"head":"Conclusions","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":195,"text":"We set out to map the current distribution of banana in Uganda and to understand how this has changed over the past five decades. The resulting map revealed that banana cultivation was concentrated in the western (44%) and central (36%) regions, with small proportions in the eastern (18%) and northern (2%) regions. A logistic regression model showed that banana distribution was positively influenced by annual precipitation, bulk density, soil organic carbon, soil pH and slope gradient, but negatively influenced by mean annual temperature and precipitation seasonality. Geographic shifts in banana cultivation were defined by areas where the crop has decreased (8%), increased (46%), or remained stable (46%). About 60% of increased cultivation was in the western region, a half of decreased cultivation in the eastern region, and 44% of stable cultivation in the central region. The key variables associated with geographic shifts were biophysical factors related to soil water supply, which signifies the importance of irrigation and soil water conservation to mitigate impacts of climate change induced temperature rises and dry spells. The nature of the geographic shifts emphasises the need to enhance resilience to climate change in the agenda for sustainable intensification of banana."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Fig 1 . Fig 1. Scanned map of historical locations with banana in 1958. Each dot represents 2.02 km 2 of standing banana. A total of 2400 dots are spread across Uganda equivalent to 4,856 km 2 of banana. Image reproduced with permission of Giles Clark, the copyright holder. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0263439.g001 "},{"text":"Fig 2 . Fig 2. Sampled locations with banana in 2016. Each dot represents the centroid of a quadrat of 10,000 m 2 used for collecting banana presence/absence information during the Geosurvey. Data acquired with permission of Markus Walsh, Africa Soils Information Service (https://doi.org/10.17605/OSF.IO/ J8Y3Z). https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0263439.g002 "},{"text":"Fig 3 . Fig 3. Correlation among selected covariates A) 29 covariates after recursive feature elimination; B) 17 covariates with Pearson's correlation coefficient (r) less than ± 0.7; C) 12 covariates selected using a subjective approach. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0263439.g003 "},{"text":"Fig 4 .Fig 5 . Fig 4. Performance metrics (A: Adjusted F-measure, B: Brier score, C: Geometric mean, D: Cohen's Kappa, E: PR AUC, F: ROC AUC) for random forest (RF), gradient boosted machines (GBM) and neural networks (NN) trained on the 12 covariates chosen via subjective feature selection. Each algorithm was trained under three different sampling scenarios: Oversampling (OS), and undersampling (US) and without sampling (WS). The black line and red dot inside the box are the median and mean, respectively. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0263439.g004 "},{"text":"Fig 6 Fig 6  shows that the number of covariates on which the algorithms were trained has significant influence on the performance of the built ensemble model. The ensemble from algorithms trained on the 17 covariates had significantly better performance with respect to the Adjusted F-measure, Brier score, Kappa, PR AUC, and ROC AUC (Fig 6A, 6B; 6D; 6E and 6F). Recursive feature selection of the 17 covariates enabled the unbiased selection of 2 socio-economic and 15 biophysical variables that best explained the observed banana presence/absence variation. In contrast, Geometric mean reveal no significant difference between ensembles from algorithms trained on 12 and 17 covariates (Fig6C). Our predicted spatial coverage of banana demonstrates that the ensemble of algorithms trained on 12 covariates highlights locations of low and moderate presence probabilities, and few patches of high presence probability particularly within Isingiro district in western Uganda (Fig7A). In contrast, the ensemble of algorithms trained on 17 covariates emphasises the presence locations with a high probability (Fig 7B). Both ensemble prediction maps reveal that banana is scarce in the northern region but common in a band that extends from the western through central into the eastern region (Fig 7Aand 7B). The foothills of Mount Ruwenzori, Southwestern Highlands, northern and western shores of Lake Victoria and the foothills of Mount Elgon standout as the hotspots of banana production (Fig 7Aand 7B). Additionally, there is some correlation between the accentuated banana zones with a high presence probability and densely populated cities and towns (Fig7B). The socio-economic variables (population density and travel time to a market of 500,000 people) represent better market prospects for crop products and improved access to inputs and services due to the physical proximity to populated cities and towns[71]. Only five of the biophysical variables appeared to have a direct relationship with presence or absence of banana. Therefore, logistic regression model fitting was restricted to the 12 covariates connected with banana growth chosen via subjective feature selection. "},{"text":"Fig 6 . Fig 6. Performance metrics (A: Adjusted F-measure, B: Brier score, C: Geometric mean, D: Cohen's Kappa, E: PR AUC, F: ROC AUC) for the ensemble models. The black line and red dot inside the box are the median and mean, respectively. Wilcoxon rank test significance values: Not significant (ns) p > 0.05; � p < 0.05; �� p < 0.01; ��� p < 0.001; ���� p < 0.000. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0263439.g006 "},{"text":"Fig 7 . Fig 7. Predicted banana distribution map (2016) using an ensemble model from RF, GBM and NN trained on A) 12 covariates and B) 17 covariates. The maps were refined using the SAGA majority filtering tool within QGIS. Probabilities were converted into categories of banana presence using the probability threshold of 0.25 that maximizes the true positive rate and true negative rate (Max TPR+TNR). https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0263439.g007 "},{"text":"Fig 8 . Fig 8. Predicted banana distribution map (2016) using logistic regression model M2-12 fitted using 12 covariates and significant two-way combinations. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0263439.g008 "},{"text":"Fig 9 .Fig 10 . Fig 9. Spatial distribution of banana A) historical banana distribution (1958); B) latest banana distribution (2016) predicted using ensemble model of RF, GBM and NN trained on the 12 covariates; C) percentage share of banana among administrative regions: Northern, Eastern, Central and Western. The share of banana was computed using counts of pixels with banana in each region divided by the total number of pixels with banana in Uganda. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0263439.g009 "},{"text":"Fig 11 . Fig 11. Classification and regression tree (CART) showing the biophysical factors associated with geographic shift in banana at national level. Probabilities for each geographic shift class are included within the coloured boxes. The node number at which a split occurs are shown above the coloured boxes. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0263439.g011 "},{"text":"Table 1 . List of 29 covariates selected from a list of 71 variables using recursive feature elimination and further selection of 17 uncorrelated covariates (shaded grey). Covariate type The 29 selected covariates The 17 uncorrelated covariates References  Climatic AMT, Annual Mean Temperature (˚C) ClimaticAMT, Annual Mean Temperature (˚C)  "},{"text":"Table 3 . Average nearest neighbour analysis before and after filtering of data points.  Average nearest neighbour Before After Average nearest neighbourBeforeAfter  (n = 18,949) (n = 7,632) (n = 18,949)(n = 7,632) Observed mean distance 1725.313 3453.793 Observed mean distance1725.3133453.793 Expected mean distance 2192.531 3452.629 Expected mean distance2192.5313452.629 Nearest neighbour ratio 0.786905 1.000337 Nearest neighbour ratio0.7869051.000337 z-score -56.11747 0.056336 z-score-56.117470.056336 p value 0.000000 0.955074 p value0.0000000.955074 Type of point pattern Clustered Random Type of point patternClusteredRandom  "},{"text":" All algorithms trained had similar average values of Kappa, PR AUC, and ROC AUC for the scenarios examined. The significantly lower Geometric mean for algorithms without sampling indicates that doing nothing to resolve the problem of class imbalance has a negative impact on performance. In general, OS results in fluctuations in performance among algorithms compared to US which provides more consistent results among algorithms. This demonstrated the appropriateness for US to resolve class imbalances in our spatial data. Prediction maps generated from training the algorithms on 12 and 17 covariates without sampling, oversampling and undersampling are available in S2 and S3 Figs, respectively. had significantly better average values of adjusted F-measure, Brier had significantly better average values of adjusted F-measure, Brier score, Kappa, PR AUC, ROC AUC (Fig 4A-4F). Similarities in the results presented in Figs 4 score, Kappa, PR AUC, ROC AUC (Fig 4A-4F). Similarities in the results presented in Figs 4 and 5 relate to oversampling (i.e., adjusted F-measure, Briers score and Kappa) and undersam- and 5 relate to oversampling (i.e., adjusted F-measure, Briers score and Kappa) and undersam- pling (i.e., adjusted F-measure, Briers score and Kappa, PR AUC, and ROC AUC). Algorithms pling (i.e., adjusted F-measure, Briers score and Kappa, PR AUC, and ROC AUC). Algorithms performed significantly better without resampling (WS) with respect to the adjusted F-mea- performed significantly better without resampling (WS) with respect to the adjusted F-mea- sure and Brier score. sure and Brier score.  "},{"text":"Table 4 . Comparison between logistic regression models of different complexity and structure derived from the 12 covariates chosen using subjective feature selection.  Model a DF Model fit statistics c Model aDFModel fit statistics c  "},{"text":"Table 5 . Summary results of the logistic regression model M2-12 including the significant two-way interactions to maximise loglikelihood.  Variable a Estimate Standard error Pr(>|z|) b Signif. c Variable aEstimateStandard errorPr(>|z|) bSignif. c (Intercept) -1.54678 0.13822 0.00000 ��� (Intercept)-1.546780.138220.00000��� AMT -1.88570 0.20330 0.00000 ��� AMT-1.885700.203300.00000��� ATR 0.17487 0.15941 0.27264 ns ATR0.174870.159410.27264ns BD 0.32422 0.11068 0.00340 �� BD0.324220.110680.00340�� RB3BLUE 0.87111 0.27957 0.00183 �� RB3BLUE0.871110.279570.00183�� CEC -0.12797 0.18768 0.49535 ns CEC-0.127970.187680.49535ns FAPARvar -0.12381 0.10350 0.23159 ns FAPARvar-0.123810.103500.23159ns PH 0.39193 0.18416 0.03332 � PH0.391930.184160.03332� PREC 0.92522 0.14596 0.00000 ��� PREC0.925220.145960.00000��� PSEA -1.23541 0.14284 0.00000 ��� PSEA-1.235410.142840.00000��� SAND 0.01594 0.12305 0.89692 ns SAND0.015940.123050.89692ns SLOPE 0.30466 0.09359 0.00113 �� SLOPE0.304660.093590.00113�� SOC 0.57015 0.17837 0.00139 �� SOC0.570150.178370.00139�� AMT:BD -0.49688 0.11945 0.00003 ��� AMT:BD-0.496880.119450.00003��� AMT:RB3BLUE 1.10388 0.19493 0.00000 ��� AMT:RB3BLUE1.103880.194930.00000��� AMT:CEC 0.37685 0.17479 0.03108 � AMT:CEC0.376850.174790.03108� AMT:PH -0.99216 0.19456 0.00000 ��� AMT:PH-0.992160.194560.00000��� AMT:PSEA 0.32788 0.18623 0.07831 ns AMT:PSEA0.327880.186230.07831ns ATR:RB3BLUE -0.36877 0.24932 0.13912 ns ATR:RB3BLUE-0.368770.249320.13912ns ATR:PH 1.08080 0.18943 0.00000 ��� ATR:PH1.080800.189430.00000��� ATR:PREC 0.40241 0.13002 0.00197 �� ATR:PREC0.402410.130020.00197�� ATR:PSEA -0.50433 0.13405 0.00017 ��� ATR:PSEA-0.504330.134050.00017��� ATR:SAND 0.29075 0.10360 0.00501 �� ATR:SAND0.290750.103600.00501�� ATR:SOC 0.24250 0.14119 0.08587 ns ATR:SOC0.242500.141190.08587ns BD:CEC -0.41079 0.11244 0.00026 ��� BD:CEC-0.410790.112440.00026��� BD:PH 0.38239 0.15333 0.01264 � BD:PH0.382390.153330.01264� BD:PSEA 0.18451 0.09654 0.05598 ns BD:PSEA0.184510.096540.05598ns BD:SAND -0.15018 0.08712 0.08475 ns BD:SAND-0.150180.087120.08475ns BD:SOC -0.21739 0.11208 0.05244 ns BD:SOC-0.217390.112080.05244ns RB3BLUE:CEC 0.85900 0.26187 0.00104 �� RB3BLUE:CEC0.859000.261870.00104�� RB3BLUE:FAPARvar 0.40279 0.14081 0.00423 �� RB3BLUE:FAPARvar0.402790.140810.00423�� RB3BLUE:PH -1.47099 0.27023 0.00000 ��� RB3BLUE:PH-1.470990.270230.00000��� RB3BLUE:PSEA 0.66855 0.19178 0.00049 ��� RB3BLUE:PSEA0.668550.191780.00049��� RB3BLUE:SAND -0.39036 0.12896 0.00247 �� RB3BLUE:SAND-0.390360.128960.00247�� CEC:PH -0.47655 0.14682 0.00117 �� CEC:PH-0.476550.146820.00117�� CEC:PSEA -0.28238 0.16449 0.08604 ns CEC:PSEA-0.282380.164490.08604ns CEC:SAND -0.23913 0.15338 0.11899 ns CEC:SAND-0.239130.153380.11899ns CEC:SLOPE -0.41289 0.11396 0.00029 ��� CEC:SLOPE-0.412890.113960.00029��� CEC:SOC -0.34385 0.17305 0.04693 � CEC:SOC-0.343850.173050.04693� PH:SOC 0.29831 0.18076 0.09888 ns PH:SOC0.298310.180760.09888ns PREC:PSEA 0.31757 0.12801 0.01311 � PREC:PSEA0.317570.128010.01311� PREC:SAND -0.15627 0.09509 0.10030 ns PREC:SAND-0.156270.095090.10030ns PREC:SLOPE -0.11390 0.06906 0.09908 ns PREC:SLOPE-0.113900.069060.09908ns PREC:SOC -0.38969 0.12277 0.00150 �� PREC:SOC-0.389690.122770.00150�� PSEA:SOC 0.37027 0.14591 0.01116  PSEA:SOC0.370270.145910.01116  "},{"text":"Table 5 . (Continued) Table2for the full names and units of the variables. The sign ':' indicates the interaction between terms. ��� p < 0.001; �� p < 0.01; � p < 0.05; not significant (ns) p > 0.05 https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0263439.t005 Variable a Estimate Standard error Pr(>|z|) b Signif. c Variable aEstimateStandard errorPr(>|z|) bSignif. c SAND:SOC -0.20258 0.10779 0.06019 ns SAND:SOC-0.202580.107790.06019ns  "}],"sieverID":"d2b84791-9e71-41a8-a280-1ca74f8bbc88","abstract":"East African highland banana (Musa acuminata genome group AAA-EA; hereafter referred to as banana) is critical for Uganda's food supply, hence our aim to map current distribution and to understand changes in banana production areas over the past five decades. We collected banana presence/absence data through an online survey based on high-resolution satellite images and coupled this data with independent covariates as inputs for ensemble machine learning prediction of current banana distribution. We assessed geographic shifts of production areas using spatially explicit differences between the 1958 and 2016 banana distribution maps. The biophysical factors associated with banana spatial distribution and geographic shift were determined using a logistic regression model and classification and regression tree, respectively. Ensemble models were superior (AUC = 0.895; 0.907) compared to their constituent algorithms trained with 12 and 17 covariates, respectively: random forests (AUC = 0.883; 0.901), gradient boosting machines (AUC = 0.878; 0.903), and neural networks (AUC = 0.870; 0.890). The logistic regression model (AUC = 0.879) performance was similar to that for the ensemble model and its constituent algorithms. In 2016, banana cultivation was concentrated in the western (44%) and central (36%) regions, while only a small proportion was in the eastern (18%) and northern (2%) regions. About 60% of increased cultivation since 1958 was in the western region; 50% of decreased cultivation in the eastern region; and 44% of continued cultivation in the central region. Soil organic carbon, soil pH, annual precipitation, slope gradient, bulk density and blue reflectance were associated with increased banana cultivation while precipitation seasonality and mean annual temperature were associated with decreased banana cultivation over the past 50 years. The maps of spatial distribution and geographic shift of banana can support targeting of context-specific intensification options and policy advocacy to avert agriculture driven environmental degradation."}

data/part_3/00439b81e9fdc86771ba5823e405327f.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"00439b81e9fdc86771ba5823e405327f","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/c5719597-1378-4341-aa72-f495c008ad5d/retrieve"},"pageCount":2,"title":"Writing for gender equality","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Problem Example of what not to write Example of what to write instead","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":11,"text":"Things/animals/ins�tu�ons don't \"empower\" women. Women empower themselves. Saying otherwise is patronizing."},{"index":2,"size":12,"text":"Women benefit from research or ac�on they are not \"empowered\" by it."},{"index":3,"size":16,"text":"'Empowering women farmers to par�cipate in agricultural research is a key strategy for sustainable agricultural development.'"},{"index":4,"size":8,"text":"'Suppor�ng women farmers to par�cipate in agricultural research…'"},{"index":5,"size":33,"text":"Loose use of the term 'empowerment' as a magic fix to entrenched gender inequali�es 'The research led to the empowerment of women who were then enabled to sell their pigs in the marketplace.'"},{"index":6,"size":43,"text":"'The researchers worked with policymakers to look at how to dismantle some of the barriers that perpetuate gender inequality in the economy and wider society.\" Patronizing words/tone/a�tude which ignores the social norms or ins�tu�onal inequali�es that have put women in their current situa�on."},{"index":7,"size":63,"text":"'Women need help in developing their socio-emo�onal skills. They need to be convinced not to simply be sa�sfied with minimum performance.' 'Due to local cultural norms, women may need support to par�cipate in women-only groups so their views can be heard.' Saying 'female' or 'ladies' instead of women. 'Female' reduces women to their biological sex compared to recognizing them as whole human beings."},{"index":8,"size":62,"text":"'Female farmers o�en work small garden blocks at the back of their dwellings compared to male farmers who work the larger cropping areas further afield.' 'Women farmers…. compared to men farmers… (But the sentence below is even beter) Saying 'women farmers' instead of 'farmers', which prevents the use of the term of 'farmers' from being normalized to represent both men and women."},{"index":9,"size":68,"text":"'Women farmers o�en work small garden blocks at the back of their dwellings compared to men farmers who work the larger cropping areas further afield.' 'Farmers working the small garden blocks at the back of dwellings tend to be women, while farmers working the larger cropping areas further afield tend to be mostly men.' Women described as impassioned. Men are less likely to be described in this way."},{"index":10,"size":93,"text":"'… head of plant biotechnology Leena Tripathi has made an impassioned plea for genome edi�ng and its poten�al' '… head of plant biotechnology Leena Tripathi has made a strong case for genome edi�ng and its poten�al' Saying 'gender-based violence' (or even worse, GBV), if what we mean is violence against women 'Gender-based violence is an issue in the small farming communi�es of…' 'The small farming community of X have a high rate of violence against women.' Being general about 'youth': people o�en associate youth with young men 'Youth also find accessing markets difficult…'"},{"index":11,"size":8,"text":"'Young women and men also find accessing markets…' "}]},{"head":"Problem Example of what not to write Example of what to write instead","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":37,"text":"Lumping 'women and youth' into one category. Women and young people in low-and middle-income countries may face some similar challenges, but they also face very different challenges, and similari�es are no excuse for combining the two topics."},{"index":2,"size":21,"text":"'Women and youth involved in Tanzania's dairying industry find it hard to get directly involved in selling their products at market.\""},{"index":3,"size":23,"text":"'Women find access to Tanzania's dairy markets is limited due to social norms. Youth also find access to Tanzania's dairy markets difficult ..."},{"index":4,"size":47,"text":"Portraying women as vic�ms or passive actors rather than as leaders and ac�ve users of advanced technologies, par�cipants in discussion, and as entrepreneurs 'Women in highland remote areas are at the mercy of the harsh landscape and the restric�ve social norms, which means they can't own land.'"},{"index":5,"size":23,"text":"'Women in highland remote areas are working with their communi�es to look at how they can gain coopera�ve ownership of the land to…'"}]},{"head":"Myths to avoid","index":3,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Myth Problem","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":241,"text":"Women produce 60-80 percent of the world's food IMPRECISE. It is unrealis�c to accurately atribute the share of food produced globally to women (or men), and similarly challenging to imagine precisely accoun�ng for men's greater access to resources for food produc�on 70% of the world's poor are women UNDOCUMENTED. Although it is well documented that women and girls worldwide are disadvantaged in terms of schooling, access to resources, earnings and produc�vity gaps, many ques�ons about the data on which this myth is based remain unanswered Women own 1% of the world's land UNDOCUMENTED. There is lack of clarity on the measurement and interpreta�on of sta�s�cs on gender and land Women are inherently beter stewards of the environment than men STEREOTYPE. This part of a wider myth presen�ng women as heroines who rescue the environment. We should not expect women to be \"independent drivers of conserva�on\" Feminiza�on of agriculture is bad for women and for farming GENERALIZATION. The changing roles of men and women that result from men's migra�on away from rural areas vary widely across contexts. It is true that some women might experience increased drudgery, but it is also true that many women are ac�ve agents that can take advantage of men's absence to take on new roles. Similarly, there are many examples where women farmers and farm managers are just as produc�ve as men. As well, the feminiza�on of agriculture is itself ques�oned, so it is not a given."}]},{"head":"More resources:","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":10,"text":"• Women in Agriculture: Four myths in Global Food Security "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"• The Finkbeiner Test: A Tool for Writing About Women in their Professions • Writing about Gender: Questions to Consider by J&J editorial • How to Make Your Writing More Gender-Inclusive by the Writing Cooperative • Gut Check: Working with a Sensitivity Reader by The Open Notebook • Inclusion and diversity by Elsevier • Diversity Style Guides for Journalists by The Open Notebook. This work was carried out under the CGIAR GENDER Impact Platform, which is grateful for the support of CGIAR Trust Fund contributors. Copyright © 2023 by Econnect Communication. Licensed for use under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License. "}],"sieverID":"adbba342-d22e-4d2b-9de2-56008cfd9ed2","abstract":"Although well-intended, some messages use phrases, vocabulary, statistics or cliches that can entrench the gender stereotypes and myths we work hard to break."}

data/part_3/005301f6da619f376e38e88fee46b239.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"005301f6da619f376e38e88fee46b239","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/7d5464c9-8bb2-4e2b-a2f3-6bcd9a0be0e0/retrieve"},"pageCount":4,"title":"","keywords":["United Nations Food Systems Summit (UNFSSS) -AT 5 -HDP Nexus Coalition -Climate","Security","and Food Systems Workstream"],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":61,"text":"In its Phase 1 (September to December 2022) the Climate, Security and Food Systems theme workstream of the HDP coalition worked together with its members to collate state-of-theart evidence on the connection between climate, food, and peace and security. Over the course of 5 meetings, various coalition members presented state-of-the-art evidence on the connection between climate, food, and peace and security."}]},{"head":"Session 1: Introductions and Outline of Work Plan Session 2: Han van Dijk, University of Wageningen Food Systems Transition Sahel Programme","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":118,"text":"-What is the appropriate approach to achieve food systems transformation in the Sahel to address some of the key insecurities that characterise the region? Transformation must be recognised as a complex affair as it requires overcoming several interconnected issues. The Sahel region oscillates between stability and instability, security and insecurity. Strategies to cope with this also oscillate between investments (soil and water conservation) and movement (mobility by pastoralists) and migration (rural urban/rural rural). The region as a whole is plagued by underinvestment and human development challenges, including a lack of education, health services, gender equality, etc. Increasing rural population density is also a factor, whilst increasing productivity is challenging due in part to the increased parcelling of land."},{"index":2,"size":57,"text":"• Climate-related resource scarcity is compounded by very complex resource governance systems with different layers of land tenure regulations, malfunctioning bureaucracies in conflict management, lack of investments in public services and human capital, and poorly managed internal and regional population mobility, particularly when IDPs and migrants spread over the countryside, which can set off new resource-related issues."},{"index":3,"size":104,"text":"• Food system transformation challenges therefore include climate challenges in the long and short term; a youth bulge (with long term food security and employment issues to address, such as needing to find around 200 million jobs for the future); the fact that 80% of rural households are too poor to invest themselves out of poverty; rapid and high rates of urbanisation (which is also an opportunity as there is a simultaneously growing demand for food from the countryside) whilst rural populations are also growing; a lack of diversification of diets (again an opportunity as more varied diets require more farming/different types of farming)."},{"index":4,"size":40,"text":"-Key policy principles to bear in mind when seeking to address these issues include, therefore: youth are not the problem, but the solution. The youth requires investment in skills and capacities, and are the key to addressing food system transformations."},{"index":5,"size":72,"text":"The same goes for 80% of rural poor that are unable to lift themselves out of poverty. These population groups are a given and must be the target of investments, rather than being presented as the problem. Furthermore, policies should aim to focus on income distribution and growth, as well as investment in human capital; resource governance regimes that match landscape level realities, constructing resilience through diversity and contributing to diverse diets."},{"index":6,"size":63,"text":"• Key research principles include: the need to examine how livestock and cropping systems interact, and how these fit into landscape management with other components, such as soils, trees, fuels, food, and fodder. Additionally, there is a need to build the capacities of local research institutions, even though research and knowledge infrastructure is in many cases lacking and not frequently subject to investment."}]},{"head":"Session 3: Theresa Liebig, CGIAR FOCUS Climate Security","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":99,"text":"• The CSO is an online platform designed to support the decision-making processes of key stakeholders in the climate security space. The platform will likely be launched in Q1 of 2023, with CGIAR currently running usability tests and user workshops. The platform focuses on generating evidence and addressing knowledge gaps regarding the bidirectional linkages between climate, land and food systems, political and economic systems, and conflicts. It is based on a mixed methodological approach which combines quantitative and qualitative forms of analysis, and crucially, also relies on insights from the ground and fieldwork to stress test assumptions and models."},{"index":2,"size":57,"text":"• The approach seeks to answer four key questions: where are the most vulnerable groups to climate change impacts? Who are groups that are most vulnerable to climate and security risks? How does climate work to exacerbate root and proximate causes of conflict? And what type of interventions can help break the cycle between climate and conflict?"},{"index":3,"size":74,"text":"• These questions are answered through the use of -firstly -climate security impact pathway analysis, a conceptual model produced on the basis of an extended literature review that assesses how climate might act as a risk multiplier for conflict in a specific context. This is complimented by spatial analysis, which seeks to answer the who and where questions by overlaying different conditions of climate, conflict, and other forms of socio-economic vulnerabilities to identify hotspots."},{"index":4,"size":64,"text":"• The underlying structure of the interactions between climate, political, and socioeconomic systems is assessed through an interactive mapping process. The influence of productivity indicators such as livestock units are then related to inequality-related variables such as education or access to healthcare, and then related to key variables identified in the impact pathway to assess how cross-system dynamics are occurring in a given context."}]},{"head":"Session 4: (IOM Sudan)","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":94,"text":"• There are several programs that IOM Sudan has worked on throughout 2022. The Climate-Security-Fragility Nexus project in the East of Sudan, which included analysis of the interplay between conflict and climatic factors, including disasters; analysis of local resources, uses, and systems in place and the integration of natural resource management solutions in conflict resolution mechanisms; and the design programming to counter negative practices, is one example of this. There is also a Disaster Risk Reduction program, which includes a preparedness component, conducting vulnerability capacity assessments, and the design and implementation of adaptation plans."},{"index":2,"size":62,"text":"• General findings from 'Mitigating the potential for tension and conflict in areas impacted by the refugee influx in Sudan project (Gedaref State)' include: intense land degradation has occurred due to both climatic and man-made factors, leading to lower yields and food insecurity. In order to produce more, farms are expanded horizontally, rather than vertically (expanded surface area versus increased efficiency respectively)."},{"index":3,"size":76,"text":"• Already narrowing pastoralist corridors and remaining pastures are likely to suffer from erosion in the near future, thereby impacting food security, stability, conflict, the nature if human mobility, soil health, biodiversity, and risk exposure. Finally, although climate change is commonly used as an explanation and catch-all term for environmental issues, the assessment finds a host of local and human activity that also contribute to environmental loss. Climate change interacts with and exacerbates these local conditions."},{"index":4,"size":75,"text":"• General findings from 'Increasing the knowledge-base, community cohesion, and mobility dynamics in the context of climate change and environmental degradation' project include: in South Darfur state, conflicts between pastoralists and farmers over land and water sources are becoming much more frequent. Um Janah community identified several key hazards, such as flooding, desertification and increasingly frequent/severe dust storms, pests -particularly locusts -which were linked to sudden displacement and voluntary migration, particularly where they emerged suddenly."},{"index":5,"size":118,"text":"• In Nyala, the top 3 vulnerabilities mentioned by respondents captured more than 50% of all mentions: physical insecurity and conflict violence; access to food and water; and climate change, natural hazards, or extreme weather events. In this context we see the ways in which climate change, violent conflict, and migation mutually influence one another in the domain of lived experience. Individuals who have been displaced by violent conflict experience thirst and starvation on the way to various villages that serve as temporary homes until they get to the IDP camp. At the camps, they experience aggression by pastoralists against their efforts to cultivate the land, construct mud homes (that collapse under heavy rain), and persistent food insecurity."}]}],"figures":[],"sieverID":"e1fb6582-87a8-4c05-88fd-776390c35794","abstract":""}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"005c80df33c008014e41436dc929409c","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/d7659515-5ed7-40d7-ba6d-813701919aad/retrieve"},"pageCount":12,"title":"Linking the potato genome to the conserved ortholog set (COS) markers","keywords":["Conserved ortholog set (COS)","Genetic mapping","Potato genome","Solanum"],"chapters":[{"head":"Background","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":135,"text":"The use of genetic diversity in plant breeding is a sustainable method to conserve valuable genetic resources and to increase agricultural productivity and food security [1]. To facilitate the use of the wide genetic diversity existing in landraces and crop wild relatives more information is needed on the organization and structure of their genes and genomes. Molecular markers linked to loci with important effects hold a promise to facilitate the introgression of those traits into adapted germplasm. Agriculturally important traits captured during domestication are often coded by very limited number of loci with major phenotypic effects. Within the Solanaceae it is common to find that these loci have putative orthologous counterparts in other species [2] and therefore molecular markers, such as Conserved Orthologous Set (COS) markers, are powerful in comparing genomic information across species [3]."},{"index":2,"size":115,"text":"The development of markers for orthologous genes, many of which have been mapped in tomato, is documented in the Sol Genomics Network [4]. Comparative mapping studies with the help of COS markers have shown syntenic relationships within various species of the Solanaceae family [5][6][7] and between species within the Asterid and Rosid clades comparing coffee (Rubiaceae, Asterid) with tomato (Solanaceae, Asterid) [8] and coffee and grapevine (Vitaceae, Rosid) [9]. The combined power of comparative mapping and systematic analysis of germplasm with orthologous gene markers can efficiently leverage information generated by genomic research from one species to another. COS markers also have shown great power in resolving interrelationships of tomato and potato with great precision [10]."},{"index":3,"size":170,"text":"The recent accumulation of nucleotide sequences of model organisms and crop plants has provided fundamental information for the design of sequence-based research applications in functional genomics [11]. The draft genome sequence of potato has been publicly available since late 2010 and the finalized high-quality sequence has been released [12] as well as the genome sequence of closely related tomato [13]. The availability of these genomes and the genomic tool kits, such as genome browsers, are of great importance to the scientific community working with solanaceous crops. With the help of physical sequences, new molecular markers can be developed efficiently, utilizing genes in the regions of the genome that contain markers linked to traits of interest. The possibility of comparing physical and genetic maps also has implications for molecular breeding programs, facilitating the search of molecular markers flanking QTL [14]. Linking COS markers to the potato genome sequence allows for powerful comparative genomics between the potato genome and other species with COS-based maps that do not yet have genome sequence available."},{"index":4,"size":102,"text":"Here we present a case study where COS are amplified from diverse set of Solanum germplasm and aligned to the whole genome sequence of potato, allowing for comparison of physical and genetic maps of related species. We aligned the sequences of COS, generated from a panel of ten genotypes of potato and tomato, to the recently published potato genome sequence and compared the physical location with the genetic location in tomato and potato. We show that the COS markers analyzed are single-or low-copy in the DM potato genome (see Methods) and that there are several breaks in colinearity between the species analyzed."}]},{"head":"Results","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"In silico mapping of COS sequences into the potato genome","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":139,"text":"In total, 322 COS were mapped in silico in the potato genome, from here on referred to as DM, utilizing the DM superscaffold sequences (Additional file 1: Table S1). To verify that the hits located inside predicted genes, we ran BLASTn against the DM gene sequences and found that ten COS had no matching DM gene although they had high confidence hits in the superscaffold sequence; we did not pursue these markers further. The COS markers are distributed throughout the genome (Additional file 1: Table S1) and the majority exist as single copy markers. However, 17 markers are present in multiple copies (Table 1) with either existing in tandem repeats in the same genome region or having copies in different genomic regions. After single copy, the most frequent copy number is two and the highest copy number is three."}]},{"head":"Genetic linkage maps","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":121,"text":"For genetic mapping in potato we utilized mostly the back cross progeny BCT [15]. 186 COS markers were placed on the BCT consensus linkage map, which contains in total 321 markers assembled into 12 linkage groups. The total length of the consensus BCT map was 1042 cM, the average marker interval was 3.4 cM and the maximum interval was 34.7 cM on chromosome 12. In addition three COS markers were integrated on the BCT paternal map because they would not integrate on the consensus map.19 markers that were not polymorphic in the BCT parents, were placed on the previously published frame work genetic maps of PCC1 [16] and PD [17]. The genetic maps are shown in Additional file 2: Table S2."}]},{"head":"Comparison between in silico and genetic maps","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":97,"text":"A total of 208 COS were placed on the potato genetic maps (Additional file 1: Table S1). Of these, 173 were also mapped in silico, but there are 35 markers that were only mapped genetically because their DNA sequences were not available. The Tomato EXPEN2000 genetic map, from here on referred to as TomEXPEN, was used as a reference and the map locations of the COS markers in silico mapped in potato in this project were downloaded from the SGN web site [4]. Of the 322 COS mapped in silico 254 were found in the TomEXPEN map."},{"index":2,"size":186,"text":"Based on the previous information on their location in the TomEXPEN map, most of the COS markers mapped into the expected potato chromosomes either in the reference potato genome, (DM) or in the potato genetic maps BCT, PCC1 or PD (BP) (see Methods; Figure 1). Of the 173 shared markers between DM and the potato genetic maps, eight map in different chromosomes and 12 have one copy mapping on the same chromosomes and a second copy in another one (Additional file 1: Table S1). Of the 254 markers shared by DM and TomEXPEN, ten are in different chromosomes and nine have one copy mapping in the same chromosomes and a second copy in another chromosome. Of the 305 markers that had a single location in DM, in total 15 mapped in unexpected chromosomes when compared to tomato or potato genetic maps (Table 2). These markers had a single matching DM gene hit except for two markers which had no gene hit. The difference may be a real one suggesting major differences in genome organization but it may also reflect errors in sequence assembly or genetic mapping."},{"index":3,"size":194,"text":"Markers having unexpected locations were found in all chromosomes, but the highest number of these was in chromosome 10. Pairwise comparisons between the three maps show that eight markers that locate in chromosome 10 in at least one of the maps have an alternative locus in another chromosome (Additional file 1: Table S1). These markers are: C2_At2g46370, (in silico 1 and 5, tomato 10); C2_At3g60080 (in silico 2, tomato 10); T1391 (in silico 2, potato 1 and 10, tomato 10); T0966 (in silico 10, potato 10, tomato 7); C2_At5g08580 (in silico 10, potato 2, tomato 2); C2_At5g06760 (in silico 10, tomato 1); C2_At4g26180 (in silico 12, potato 10, tomato 12); C2_At2g41680 (in silico 4 and 10, in tomato 9). Differences are mostly specific to the genetic maps, meaning that the marker position is usually conserved in two of the maps. Also, multi-copy markers mapping to different chromosomes in silico in DM are mostly found in one of the same chromosomes in the genetic maps. For example, This could be simply because the alternative marker was not detected due to lack of polymorphism or because the other sequence detected by BLASTn search is a paralog."},{"index":4,"size":100,"text":"The COS that mapped in the same chromosomes by both methods (in silico in potato and genetically in potato or in tomato) as found at SGN were not always in agreement in their exact order, reflecting errors either in statistical testing or differences between the solanaceous species at the microsynteny level. In addition to the nine large inversions between tomato and potato several small inversions have been demonstrated [13]. In total, 77 COS that were mapped in potato (either in silico or genetically) were not found on the TomEXPEN map and thus we were not able to compare their locations."}]},{"head":"Multiple copy markers","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":113,"text":"We observed 17 markers that were duplicated in the potato genome. To find the DM genes that correspond to these markers we ran a BLASTn search against the Potato Genome Sequencing Consortium (PGSC) databases containing the genes and the coding sequences. For most of the markers (in total 13) all copies had the same annotation suggesting that they could be orthologs (Table 1). The four markers that have different annotations for the copies are T0408, At1g14980, At2g42620 and T1511. To further test the ortholog/paralog relationship of these markers we aligned the potato and tomato reference genome gene sequences, coding sequences and query sequences for these markers and constructed Neighbor Joining trees (Figure 2)."},{"index":2,"size":421,"text":"T0408 marker was sequenced from two genotypes, the parents of the PD population (CHS_625 and PS-3). This marker is entirely in the exon region and is similar to the genes PGSC0003DMG400046906 (gene of unknown function) on chromosome 1 and PGSC0003DMG400029022 (aminotransferase) in chromosome 11 (Table 1). In the TomEXPEN map this marker is found in chromosome 1. The coding sequences PGSC0003DMC400069010 and PGSC0003DMC400050560 are identical in the query sequence region consisting of 119 amino acids. However,  outside this area the two DM CDS are not identical. Genotype CHS-625 differs from the DM sequences in only one amino acid. Genotype PS-3 is highly heterozygous and because only one sample was sequenced and we cannot resolve the two possible haplotypes of this genotype and therefore it appears different from the rest of the sequences (Figure 2a). The corresponding tomato reference genome coding sequence is quite different from the potato sequences. In this case the gene may be single copy but the marker may be unspecific, resulting in alternative hits. Marker At1g14980 was amplified from genotypes LA1974, HH1-9 and M200-30 and the sequences are similar to PGSC0003DMG400028744 (PGS0003DMC40005 0071) in chromosome 7 and PGSC0003DMG402023448 (PGSC0003DMC400040570) in chromosome 5 with the e values of 1.00E-110 and 1.00E-99, respectively. The marker spans both exonic and intronic regions. Translated amino acid sequences of the exonic regions show two well resolved groups where two sequences from M200-30 group together with one of the tomato genomic sequences and two sequences from HH1-9 group with the CDS of the gene that maps in chromosome 5. Relationships with the other DM coding sequence are not well resolved (Figure 2b). Genetic mapping in potato suggests that the marker resides in chromosome 5. However, based on the sequence data we cannot determine the correct location for this marker. Marker At2g42620 sequences from the BCT population parents (HH1-9 and M200-30) have hits in genes PGSC0003DMG400007856 (F-box family protein) and PGSC0003DMG400035320 (F-box/leucine rich repeat protein) with the e values of 0 and 1.00E-112, respectively. The first gene is found in chromosome 12 and the latter in chromosome 7. According to the NJ tree, all our sequences from the genotypes HH1-9 and M200-30 are more similar to the first mentioned gene represented by the coding sequence PGSC0003DMC400013844 (Figure 2c). The latter DM gene has some amino acid changes comparing with the others and thus may code for a different gene as already shown by the different annotations (Table 1). Genetically this marker is found in chromosome 12 in tomato which most likely is its correct location."},{"index":3,"size":125,"text":"Marker T1511 was amplified from five genotypes (CHS-625, PS-3, PI310991, MP1-8, and HH1-9). According to the BLASTn analysis it is similar to the DM genes PGSC0003DMG400018190 (Elongation factor TuA) in chromosome 3 (1E-160) and PGSC0003DMG400041767 Elongation factor TuB, 6E-63) in chromosome 6. In NJ tree all genotypes are more closely related to the first gene represented by the CDS PGSC0003DMC400031700 (Figure 2d). The marker resides in the exon and has quite variable sequence even at the amino acid level. Because this marker has been genetically mapped in chromosome 3 in tomato and the evalue for the hit in chromosome 3 is higher (Table 1), this is most likely its correct location. Of the three corresponding tomato coding sequences, two group with the chromosome 3 gene."},{"index":4,"size":45,"text":"A comparative summary of the maps is shown in Figure 1. Overall the alignment of COSII markers follows a sequential order. However, as described above several COSII markers show differences as indicated by crossing lines or lines indicating locations on different linkage groups or pseudomolecules."}]},{"head":"COS markers with a putative function and QTL for late blight resistance and vitamin synthesis","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":73,"text":"There is a large overlap of QTL regions between the traits included and based on this information alone the same markers may be considered candidates for disease resistance and Carotenoid or vitamin C biosynthesis (Additional file 1: Table S1 and Additional file 3: Table S3). Therefore, functional annotations of the matching DM genes (Additional file 3: Table S3) may help suggesting markers in candidate genes for the QTL traits and for further studies."}]},{"head":"Ontology term annotation analysis","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":90,"text":"The SEA analysis showed that the COSII-DM list contained no associated ontology terms that were significantly different in the biological process gene ontology category as compared to the list of terms associated with the original COSII list. However, both the COSII-DM and the original COSII term list have associated term lists that are enriched for 33 GO terms in the biological process category that is different (see Table 3 and Additional file 4: Figure S1). The terms form two major groups: a) cellular metabolic process and b) response to stimulus."}]},{"head":"Discussion","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":342,"text":"COSII markers represent an important functional genomics resource that has greatly improved comparative mapping in Asterid species. They can be used to design primer sequences for cleaved amplified polymorphic sequence (CAPS) useful for genetic mapping across diverse taxa, including the Solanaceae. In genetic mapping, the number of markers placed on the map is dependent on the number of polymorphisms between the parents of the cross. Our initial goal, before the availability of the genome sequence, was to facilitate comparative mapping in the Solanaceae by mapping 300 single-copy COSII in potato, Solanum tuberosum, to a diploid mapping population. However, limitations mostly in the level of polymorphism resulted in the successful genetic mapping of only 208 markers using three different segregating populations. The availability of the potato genome sequence enabled another approach to be taken to investigate the genomic locations of these markers in potato. With the help of BLAST analysis we successfully mapped over 300 orthologous markers in silico and compared their physical location in the reference potato genome to that of the genetic location in a potato cross and in previously published map of tomato. Because we utilized DNA sequences obtained from various Solanum species we were able to sample some of the polymorphism present in these taxa and thereby detect markers that are potentially present in multiple copies. We found that most of the markers are present as single-copy in the reference genome. Low copy number is a required character for markers intended for comparative genetic mapping and phylogenetic analysis. Low-copy sequences generally evolve independently of paralogous sequences and tend to be stable in position and copy number. However, a potential problem is the existence of gene families producing paralogs that can evolve independently [18] and the fact that some genes characterized as low-copy in some groups can be multiple copy in others. We discovered that very low number of the COS markers tested here (17 out of 354, 4.7%) were designed on genes that were present in multiple copies in potato, thus validating the low-copy number definition of these markers."},{"index":2,"size":163,"text":"In silico mapping using the BLASTn algorithm seems to work well in mapping COS marker sequences into the reference genome. This is because the COS primers have been designed to amplify a PCR fragment in the size range that is suitable for BLAST and they have been tested through rigorous algorithms to target genes that are present in single or low-copy numbers [19]. The BLAST algorithm may result in the identification of paralogous sequences. This is a problem only in the case of incomplete reference sequence dataset or when the target genes belong to gene families. Since our input database is the complete genome sequence of potato and most of the markers resulted in a single hit in the genome it is likely that the genes identified are true orthologs. However, for the sequences resulting in multiple hits, it is necessary to make gene-level comparisons when attempting to distinguish paralogues from orthologs. For the markers that target intronic regions, this may be difficult."},{"index":3,"size":171,"text":"The ontology enrichment analysis showed that no bias was introduced in the COSII-DM list as compared to the original COSII list. In general, both gene lists may have a slight overrepresentation of genes in cellular metabolic process and response to environmental stress, and be related to QTLs and agronomic traits of interest like yield, quality and resistance. Considering COS markers that locate in previously published QTL as candidate genes for a given trait may be difficult because the QTL regions span large parts of the chromosome. However, functional annotations are helpful in narrowing down to some specific candidate genes. Some obviously interesting candidate markers for late blight resistance are C2_At5g51840 (Rar1) and C2_At4g36530 (Cinnamoyl-CoA reductase) in chromosome 11 as well as C2_At4g02600 (MLO1) in chromosome 9. RAR1 is required for the functionality of several R genes [20], while Cinnamoyl-CoA reductase is the first enzyme on the pathway leading to production of Lignin, which is an important factor in plant defense responses and MLO1 confers broad spectrum mildew resistance in barley [21]."},{"index":4,"size":408,"text":"Obvious candidate markers for carotenoid and vitamin C biosynthesis are not that easy to identify from this study. However, the QTL regions for these traits contain a couple of photosynthesis and chloroplast related genes, which is to be expected since carotenoids function in photosynthesis acting as pigments in the light harvesting complexes and vitamin C is just a few biochemical steps away from 'sugar' produced by photosynthesis. Carotenoids have two key functions in plants: broaden the light spectrum for light harvesting and protecting the chlorophyll against oxidative damage or excess energy [22]. Overlapping regions for QTL for vitamin C biosynthesis and disease resistance are not surprising since many biological processes are altered in the plant during defense response. For example ascorbic acid content in leaves has been shown to modulate plant defense transcripts [23] and has been suggested to protect the cells against oxidative stress arising from wounding [24]. We found only a few COS markers that mapped in unexpected chromosomes. In cases where one copy was detected in the same chromosome as in the genetic map and an additional copy in an alternative locus, it is possible that one of the markers detected originates from a paralog. Often these can be readily detected by choosing the gene hit with the best e-value. The single copy markers that have unexpected locations between physical and genetic maps may be true differences as we are comparing different species (DM = phureja, BCT = berthaultii × tuberosum, PCC1 = paucissectum × chomatophilum, PD = phureja × tuberosum, and finally tomato). Tomato and potato are generally considered to be highly colinear in their gene order [13,25,26], and this is true for the majority of the RFLP markers shared by the tomato and potato maps at the SGN website [4]. According to Tanksley et al., [26] tomato and potato genomes differ by only five paracentric inversions while these two species differ from pepper and eggplant by many more complex rearrangements, mainly paracentric inversions and translocations [27,28]. According to the most recent tomato/potato comparison there are nine major inversions and several small ones [13]. Significant conservation is found between distantly related species from the Asterid (Coffea canephora and Solanum sp.) and Rosid (Vitis vinifera) clades, at the genome macrostructure and microstructure levels [9]. A minimum of three (and up to ten) inversions and 11 reciprocal translocations differentiate the tomato genome from that of the last common ancestor of Nicotiana tomentosiformis and N. acuminata [6]."},{"index":5,"size":106,"text":"It is possible that the potato reference sequence may contain small numbers of incorrectly oriented or misplaced scaffolds as well as genes that were not discovered by the gene prediction algorithm used. As seen in this work we found a number of markers that had a high confidence hit in the whole genome sequence, but no gene hit. We ran those genome regions through Softberry gene prediction and were able to identify genes matching the COS marker hit region (results not shown). Further work focusing on the genome regions that from this work show contradictory results may facilitate the refinement of the genome assembly and annotation."},{"index":6,"size":158,"text":"The high degree of conservation of gene order (synteny) in the Solanaceae revealed by cross mapping of homologous gene sequences has provided insights into genome evolution and has enabled the cloning of genes for agronomically important traits [29,30]. However, when comparing two genetic maps it is necessary to take into account that the number of markers shared by any two maps is rather small, and therefore allows only a limited resolution for comparison. Recent comparisons of physical maps between solanaceous species have allowed for more detailed level of comparison of gene order and orientation [31,32]. Comparison of orthologous regions shows general colinearity between solanaceous species, but also local breaks due to inversions and/or indels. Also, some of the inconsistencies in sequential ordering may well be artifacts since both the potato and the tomato genome still contain scaffolds that could not be oriented. Our results may help to refine the assembly and annotation of the potato and tomato genome."},{"index":7,"size":82,"text":"The distances between markers on a genetic linkage map are based on the proportion of recombination events occurring within a given chromosome segment and thus indicative of gene order at a much lower resolution than physical map distances, which are the actual nucleotide sequence based distances. The sequencebased physical map becomes helpful in identification of markers near traits of interest and thereby reducing the number of markers to be tested in developing applications such as marker assisted selection, diversity assessment, and phylogeny."}]},{"head":"Conclusions","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":44,"text":"The COS markers studied are mostly present as single copies in the reference potato genome sequence, making them ideal for applications such as diversity and phylogenetic studies. In silico mapping is complementary to genetic mapping and facilitates detailed marker identification for traits of interest."}]},{"head":"Methods","index":11,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Plant material","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":122,"text":"Parents of the BCT [15], PCC1 [16], PD [17], the DM/ DI//DI (developed at CIP and contributed to the Potato Genome Sequencing Consortium for anchoring of the DM potato genome [33], and tomato mapping populations [34] were subjected to COS marker amplification intended for DNA sequencing. The progeny from BCT backcross population (M200-30 (USW2230 × PI473331) × HH1-9) involving Solanum berthaultii and S. tuberosum [15], PCC1 [16] and PD [17] were used for genetic mapping. In addition, COS were amplified from other asterid species Ipomoea trifida genotypes M9 (CIP107665.9) and M19 (CIP 107665. 19), and Daucus carota genotypes QAL and 0493B [35] for cross species comparisons. Leaf tissue was ground in liquid nitrogen and genomic DNA was extracted using standard protocol [36]."}]},{"head":"Marker detection","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":62,"text":"COS markers were selected comparing the published genetic maps with the tomato COS map [4] and selecting markers that located in the QTL intervals for late blight resistance and/or maturity [16,17,[37][38][39][40][41][42][43][44], ascorbic acid biosynthesis [45] and carotenoid biosynthesis [46] (Additional file 1: Table S1). In addition markers with annotations to genes known to have function in abiotic and biotic stress were selected."},{"index":2,"size":201,"text":"COS markers were amplified from genomic DNA and the optimal annealing temperature for each primer pair was determined using temperature gradient. PCR reactions were conducted with 25 ng of DNA in a 1× PCR buffer (10 mM tris HCl, pH 8.3, 50 mM KCl, 1.5 mM MgCl 2 , 0.1% Triton-X), 0.2 mM of each dNTP, 0.2 mM of each primer forward and reverse and 0.5 U of Taq polymerase. Reactions were set up in microplates and processed in an MJ Research model PTC-200 PCR thermocycler with the following cycles: 1 cycle at 94°C for 4 min, 35 cycles at 94°C for 1 min plus 55 or 60°C for 1 min plus 72°C for 1 min, and 1 cycle at 72°C for 5 min. The bands were separated by SSCP (singlestranded conformation polymorphism) electrophoresis using 6% denatured (7M urea) polyacrylamide (19:1) and visualized by silver staining. All well-separated bands were cut from the gels with a razor blade. The excised gel slices were placed on 96-well PCR plates, and the DNA was eluted in 40 uL of sterile nuclease free water. This was used as a template in a new PCR reaction with the same primers in a 10 uL reaction."},{"index":3,"size":154,"text":"One μL of this product was sequenced with the same primers in a 5 μL reaction using the ABI Big Dye dideoxynucelotide termination kit (Applied Biosystems, Foster City, California). Amplifications were carried out in an MJ Research DNA Engine Dyad® Peltier Thermal Cycler (Watertown, Massachusetts) using an initial denaturation at 95°C for 3 min, followed by 30 cycles of 96°C for 25 s, 50°C for 20 s, 60°C for 5 min and with a final elongation at 72°C for 7 min. Excess of dye terminators were removed using CleanSeq magnetic bead sequencing reaction clean up kit from Agencourt Biosciences (Beverly, MA). Sequences were resolved on an ABI 3730xl capillary-based automated DNA sequencer (Applied Biosystems) with 50 cm POP-7 polymer capillaries at the Biotechnology Center of the University of Wisconsin-Madison. Alternatively, for some of the markers the PCR products were isolated and purified with Qiaquick Gel Extraction kit and sequenced without the previous reamplification step."}]},{"head":"Sequence data","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":65,"text":"Publicly available sequence files and other data of potato S. tuberosum Group Phureja DM1-3 516R44 (CIP801092) generated by the Potato Genome Sequencing Consortium were obtained from [47]. We used the v3 superscaffold sequences, v2.1.10 AGP Pseudomolecule Sequences, 3 DM Pseudomolecule AGP data (v2.1.10), v3.4 gene sequences, and v3.4 cds. Tomato genome sequences were obtained from [48]. We used the ITAG1 release cds and genomic sequences."}]},{"head":"In silico mapping","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":102,"text":"We used VectorNTI to assemble the COS marker DNA sequences and queried the consensus sequences of contigs formed by at least two sequences against the DM superscaffolds using BLASTn. The DNA sequences of the COS markers were deposited to the NCBI GenBank GSS database and SGN database (Table 4). The exact location of each COS in the DM genome was obtained by selecting the best matching hit location based on e-value. The positions of the COS in the DM physical map were determined with the help of the superscaffold location information in pseudomolecules according to the pseudomolecule report v.2.1.9 provided by PGSC."}]},{"head":"Genetic mapping","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":98,"text":"Three diploid mapping populations BCT [15], PCC1 [16] and PD [17] were used for segregation analysis to locate COS in potato linkage groups. Polymorphisms were detected by high resolution melting (HRM), [49], SSCP followed by silver staining or by agarose gel electrophoresis. For HRM the PCR amplification was performed with the fluorescent DNA-binding dye (LCGreen) and the DNA melting profiles were analyzed by LightScanner instrument (Idaho Technologies). Melting curves were analyzed with the help of the LighScanner software and converted into appropriate segregation codes. For the gel separated markers, polymorphic marker alleles were recorded considering presence and absence."},{"index":2,"size":37,"text":"The band and HRM records were compiled according to the genotype codes of population type CP described in the Joinmap® 4 manual [50]. A consensus map was constructed with Kosambi's mapping function following Joinmap® 4 manual [50]."},{"index":3,"size":44,"text":"A comparative COSII map between the integrated potato genetic map, the potato physical map and the tomato genetic map was made as described in the legend to Figure 1. The figure was prepared using the genoPlotR library [51] for the statistical software R [52]."}]},{"head":"Phylogenetic analysis","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":102,"text":"We ran a BLASTn against the DM genes and coding sequences provided by PGSC and the tomato genomic and coding sequences using our marker DNA sequences as queries. The marker sequences and the corresponding gene or coding sequences were aligned as DNA or translated amino acid sequences depending on whether the marker sequence obtained was covering intron or exon regions of the genes analyzed. The alignments were made using ClustalW and Neighbor Joining (NJ) trees were constructed using the Poisson correction method for amino acid sequences and the Maximum Composite Likelihood method for DNA sequences. Evolutionary analyses were conducted in MEGA5 [53]."}]},{"head":"Ontology term annotation analysis","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":147,"text":"In the initial phase of the project the list of ontology terms associated with the 2868 COSII markers was manually reviewed and filtered for genes with gene ontology annotations that may have a role in traits of interest like stress tolerance and late blight resistance. For the final analysis, other criteria included single-copy status, and mapped in DM/DI//DI. This final list of 273 markers (further referred to as COSII-DM list) was subjected to the 'Singular Enrichment Analysis' tool as available on the AgriGO web-site [54]. The method tests if particular terms are over-represented or different in the set of interest against a reference list. We tested if the COSII-DM list was different from the original COSII list and versus the Arabidopsis gene model (TAIR9) as available on the AgriGO web-site. The focus of interest for the term analysis was on GO terms within the 'biological process' category."},{"index":2,"size":77,"text":"earlier versions of the manuscript. LP: Selected markers on QTL intervals, conducted genetic mapping in potato and amplification of COS for all species, compiled sequence data. FR: Selected markers for analysis, coordinated generation of sequences from amplification products, helped write paper. RS: Supported selection of COS and analysed ontology. LM: Obtained funding, helped write paper, submitted sequences. DS: Obtained funding, helped write paper. MB: Obtained funding, helped write paper. All authors read and approved the final manuscript."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure 1 Figure1Comparative map of the potato genetic map (BP: integrated map of BCT, PD and PCC1), the potato genome (DM) and the tomato genome (TM). The potato genetic map was scaled to the size of the corresponding DM pseudomolecule setting the last COS marker of each linkage group equal to the size of the pseudomolecule. Likewise, the tomato genetic map was scaled using the pseudomolecule size of the corresponding tomato physical map. Lines are drawn between corresponding COSII markers. A generic tree is drawn to the left hand grouping visually the two potato maps versus the tomato map. Linkage groups and pseudomolecules are drawn sequentially from left to right as indicated by the numbers. "},{"text":"Figure 2 Figure2Evolutionary relationships of the COS marker sequences and the corresponding DM gene sequences inferred by Neighbor Joining (NJ) analysis. NJ trees for markers T0408 (222 sites) (a), At1g14980 (39 sites) (b) and At2g29260 (112 sites) (c) were constructed from translated amino acid sequences. The evolutionary distances were computed using the Poisson correction method and are in the units of the number of amino acid substitutions per site. Tree for marker T1511 (256 sites) (d) is from nucleotide sequence. The evolutionary distances were computed using the Maximum Composite Likelihood method and are in the units of the number of base substitutions per site. The percentage of replicate trees in which the associated taxa clustered together in the bootstrap test (1000 replicates) are shown next to the branches. "},{"text":"Table 1 COS markers with multiple hits in DM superscaffolds and their corresponding DM gene hits COS Genetic map DM gene Best DM DM gene annotation COSGenetic mapDM geneBestDMDM gene annotation  chromosome  evalue chromosome  chromosomeevaluechromosome T0408 11 PGSC0003DMG400029022 0E 11 Aminotransferase T040811PGSC0003DMG4000290220E11Aminotransferase   PGSC0003DMG400046906 0E 1 Gene of unknown function PGSC0003DMG4000469060E1Gene of unknown function At5g27620 1, 4 PGSC0003DMG400024698 9E-39 1 CAK associated cycling H homolog At5g276201, 4PGSC0003DMG4000246989E-391CAK associated cycling H homolog   PGSC0003DMG400009473 1E-155 4  PGSC0003DMG4000094731E-1554 At3g63200 9 PGSC0003DMG400012878 0E 9 Patatin T5 At3g632009PGSC0003DMG4000128780E9Patatin T5   PGSC0003DMG400020128 0E 6  PGSC0003DMG4000201280E6 At2g41680 9 PGSC0003DMG402027256 0E 4 Thioredoxin reductase At2g416809PGSC0003DMG4020272560E4Thioredoxin reductase   PGSC0003DMG400023691 0E 10  PGSC0003DMG4000236910E10 At1g29260 na PGSC0003DMG400008719 0E 3 Peroxisomal targeting signal type 2 receptor At1g29260naPGSC0003DMG4000087190E3Peroxisomal targeting signal type 2 receptor   PGSC0003DMG400009000 0E 1  PGSC0003DMG4000090000E1 At1g10580 2 PGSC0003DMG402030529 0E 5 Conserved gene of unknown function At1g105802PGSC0003DMG4020305290E5Conserved gene of unknown function   PGSC0003DMG400022364 0E 2  PGSC0003DMG4000223640E2 At1g08550 na PGSC0003DMG400020993 9E-59 4 Violaxanthin epoxidase At1g08550naPGSC0003DMG4000209939E-594Violaxanthin epoxidase   PGSC0003DMG400010690 5E-51 4  PGSC0003DMG4000106905E-514   PGSC0003DMG400010688 3E-71 4  PGSC0003DMG4000106883E-714 At1g14980 5 PGSC0003DMG402023448 1E-99 5 small molecular heat shock protein At1g149805PGSC0003DMG4020234481E-995small molecular heat shock protein   PGSC0003DMG400028744 1E-110 7 CPM10 protein PGSC0003DMG4000287441E-1107CPM10 protein At2g42620 12 PGSC0003DMG400007856 0E 12 F-box family protein At2g4262012PGSC0003DMG4000078560E12F-box family protein   PGSC0003DMG400035320 1E-112 7 F-box/leucine rich repeat protein PGSC0003DMG4000353201E-1127F-box/leucine rich repeat protein At2g46370 10 PGSC0003DMG401000095 0E 1 Jasmonic acid amino acid conjugating enzyme At2g4637010PGSC0003DMG4010000950E1Jasmonic acid amino acid conjugating enzyme   PGSC0003DMG400033879 3E-92 5  PGSC0003DMG4000338793E-925 At3g19895 4 PGSC0003DMG400032542 0E 4 Conserved gene of unknown function At3g198954PGSC0003DMG4000325420E4Conserved gene of unknown function   PGSC0003DMG400019001 1E-105 11  PGSC0003DMG4000190011E-10511 At4g11820 8 PGSC0003DMG400004253 1E-124 12 HMG CoA synthase At4g118208PGSC0003DMG4000042531E-12412HMG CoA synthase   PGSC0003DMG400022749 1E-74 8  PGSC0003DMG4000227491E-748   PGSC0003DMG400022750 1E-110 8  PGSC0003DMG4000227501E-1108 At4g24620 4 PGSC0003DMG400030128 9E-72 1 Glucose 6 phosphate isomerase At4g246204PGSC0003DMG4000301289E-721Glucose 6 phosphate isomerase   PGSC0003DMG400012910 1E-107 4  PGSC0003DMG4000129101E-1074   PGSC0003DMG400009848 1E-77 na  PGSC0003DMG4000098481E-77na At5g20890 11 PGSC0003DMG400019637 0E 11 chaperonin containing T-complex protein 1, beta subunit At5g2089011PGSC0003DMG4000196370E11chaperonin containing T-complex protein 1, beta subunit   PGSC0003DMG400007161 9E-54 6 T-complex protein 1 subunit beta PGSC0003DMG4000071619E-546T-complex protein 1 subunit beta   PGSC0003DMG400012727 0E 4  PGSC0003DMG4000127270E4 T0805 6 PGSC0003DMG400020484 1E-158 6 ATP synthase subunit b' chloroplastic T08056PGSC0003DMG4000204841E-1586ATP synthase subunit b' chloroplastic   PGSC0003DMG400020466 1E-158 6  PGSC0003DMG4000204661E-1586 T0989 7, 12 PGSC0003DMG402013561 0E 7 Pyruvate dehydrogenase E1 alpha subunit T09897, 12PGSC0003DMG4020135610E7Pyruvate dehydrogenase E1 alpha subunit   PGSC0003DMG400002921 1E-167 12  PGSC0003DMG4000029211E-16712 T1511 3 PGSC0003DMG400018190 1E-160 3 Elongation factor TuA T15113PGSC0003DMG4000181901E-1603Elongation factor TuA   PGSC0003DMG400041767 1E-63 6 Elongation factor TuB PGSC0003DMG4000417671E-636Elongation factor TuB  "},{"text":"Table 2 DM genes corresponding to the single copy COS markers that map in unexpected chromosomes COS marker DM gene e-value DM chromosome Genetic map  COS markerDM genee-valueDM chromosomeGenetic map At1g28380 PGSC0003DMG400031748 1.00E-169 2 8, 2 b At1g28380PGSC0003DMG4000317481.00E-16928, 2b At1g65720 PGSC0003DMG400024083 0 3 2 a At1g65720PGSC0003DMG400024083032a At1g67740 PGSC0003DMG400007201 0 10 4 b At1g67740PGSC0003DMG4000072010104b At1g77290 PGSC0003DMG400025321 0 4 6, 4 b At1g77290PGSC0003DMG400025321046, 4b At3g44890 -No-Hit-  12 11 a At3g44890-No-Hit-1211a At4g26180 PGSC0003DMG400000342 1.00E-150 12 10 b At4g26180PGSC0003DMG4000003421.00E-1501210b At5g04270 PGSC0003DMG400023477 1.00E-117 5 11 b At5g04270PGSC0003DMG4000234771.00E-117511b At5g06760 PGSC0003DMG400011439 5.00E-99 10 1 a At5g06760PGSC0003DMG4000114395.00E-99101a At5g08580 PGSC0003DMG400003301 1.00E-87 10 2 a, b At5g08580PGSC0003DMG4000033011.00E-87102a, b At5g60940 -No-Hit-  12 8 b At5g60940-No-Hit-128b At5g64730 PGSC0003DMG400016731 1.00E-102 11 12 b At5g64730PGSC0003DMG4000167311.00E-1021112b T0393 PGSC0003DMG400022210 0 7 9 a T0393PGSC0003DMG400022210079a T0966 PGSC0003DMG400014388 0 10 7, 10 a T0966PGSC0003DMG4000143880107, 10a T0974 PGSC0003DMG400004283 0 12 4 a T0974PGSC0003DMG4000042830124a T1391 PGSC0003DMG400031021 4.00E-60 2 1, 10 a, b T1391PGSC0003DMG4000310214.00E-6021, 10a, b  "},{"text":"Table 3 Significantly enriched terms in the biological process category of the gene ontology associated with COSII markers mapped onto the DM genome GO term Description Number in Number in p-value FDR GO termDescriptionNumber inNumber inp-valueFDR   COSII-DM list TAIR9 list   COSII-DM listTAIR9 list GO:0009108 coenzyme biosynthetic process 8 98 6.6E-07 0.00061 GO:0009108coenzyme biosynthetic process8986.6E-070.00061 GO:0051188 cofactor biosynthetic process 10 191 1.7E-06 0.00079 GO:0051188cofactor biosynthetic process101911.7E-060.00079 GO:0043436 oxoacid metabolic process 20 859 0.000009 0.0011 GO:0043436oxoacid metabolic process208590.0000090.0011 GO:0034641 cellular nitrogen compound metabolic process 15 506 6.9E-06 0.0011 GO:0034641cellular nitrogen compound metabolic process155066.9E-060.0011 GO:0009628 response to abiotic stimulus 28 1471 8.6E-06 0.0011 GO:0009628response to abiotic stimulus2814718.6E-060.0011 GO:0006082 organic acid metabolic process 20 860 9.2E-06 0.0011 GO:0006082organic acid metabolic process208609.2E-060.0011 GO:0019752 carboxylic acid metabolic process 20 859 0.000009 0.0011 GO:0019752carboxylic acid metabolic process208590.0000090.0011 GO:0042180 cellular ketone metabolic process 21 882 0.000004 0.0011 GO:0042180cellular ketone metabolic process218820.0000040.0011 GO:0006519 cellular amino acid and derivative metabolic process 17 682 0.000017 0.0017 GO:0006519cellular amino acid and derivative metabolic process176820.0000170.0017 GO:0051186 cofactor metabolic process 11 308 0.00002 0.0018 GO:0051186cofactor metabolic process113080.000020.0018 GO:0006520 cellular amino acid metabolic process 13 430 0.000022 0.0018 GO:0006520cellular amino acid metabolic process134300.0000220.0018 GO:0044106 cellular amine metabolic process 13 438 0.000027 0.002 GO:0044106cellular amine metabolic process134380.0000270.002 GO:0009308 amine metabolic process 14 521 0.000039 0.0028 GO:0009308amine metabolic process145210.0000390.0028 GO:0006732 coenzyme metabolic process 8 188 0.000078 0.0052 GO:0006732coenzyme metabolic process81880.0000780.0052 GO:0009651 response to salt stress 11 366 0.000094 0.0058 GO:0009651response to salt stress113660.0000940.0058 GO:0050896 response to stimulus 52 4057 0.00017 0.0098 GO:0050896response to stimulus5240570.000170.0098 GO:0008152 metabolic process 114 10614 0.0002 0.011 GO:0008152metabolic process114106140.00020.011 GO:0010035 response to inorganic substance 9 279 0.00023 0.011 GO:0010035response to inorganic substance92790.000230.011 GO:0009657 plastid organization 6 119 0.00024 0.011 GO:0009657plastid organization61190.000240.011 GO:0006970 response to osmotic stress 11 408 0.00024 0.011 GO:0006970response to osmotic stress114080.000240.011 GO:0046686 response to cadmium ion 7 178 0.00035 0.015 GO:0046686response to cadmium ion71780.000350.015 GO:0044237 cellular metabolic process 95 8722 0.00034 0.015 GO:0044237cellular metabolic process9587220.000340.015 GO:0010038 response to metal ion 8 238 0.00039 0.016 GO:0010038response to metal ion82380.000390.016 GO:0006461 protein complex assembly 6 134 0.00046 0.017 GO:0006461protein complex assembly61340.000460.017 GO:0070271 protein complex biogenesis 6 134 0.00046 0.017 GO:0070271protein complex biogenesis61340.000460.017 GO:0006629 lipid metabolic process 16 841 0.00058 0.021 GO:0006629lipid metabolic process168410.000580.021 GO:0016054 organic acid catabolic process 5 98 0.00075 0.025 GO:0016054organic acid catabolic process5980.000750.025 GO:0046395 carboxylic acid catabolic process 5 98 0.00075 0.025 GO:0046395carboxylic acid catabolic process5980.000750.025 GO:0009791 post-embryonic development 14 705 0.00082 0.026 GO:0009791post-embryonic development147050.000820.026 GO:0051641 cellular localization 12 569 0.0011 0.034 GO:0051641cellular localization125690.00110.034 GO:0015979 photosynthesis 6 162 0.0012 0.037 GO:0015979photosynthesis61620.00120.037 GO:0006950 response to stress 31 2320 0.0014 0.039 GO:0006950response to stress3123200.00140.039 GO:0044272 sulfur compound biosynthetic process 5 115 0.0015 0.043 GO:0044272sulfur compound biosynthetic process51150.00150.043  "}],"sieverID":"1903ea67-f7ae-4f2c-b210-83804b021466","abstract":"Background: Conserved ortholog set (COS) markers are an important functional genomics resource that has greatly improved orthology detection in Asterid species. A comprehensive list of these markers is available at Sol Genomics Network (http://solgenomics.net/) and many of these have been placed on the genetic maps of a number of solanaceous species. Results: We amplified over 300 COS markers from eight potato accessions involving two diploid landraces of Solanum tuberosum Andigenum group (formerly classified as S. goniocalyx, S. phureja), and a dihaploid clone derived from a modern tetraploid cultivar of S. tuberosum and the wild species S. berthaultii, S. chomatophilum, and S. paucissectum. By BLASTn (Basic Local Alignment Search Tool of the NCBI, National Center for Biotechnology Information) algorithm we mapped the DNA sequences of these markers into the potato genome sequence. Additionally, we mapped a subset of these markers genetically in potato and present a comparison between the physical and genetic locations of these markers in potato and in comparison with the genetic location in tomato. We found that most of the COS markers are single-copy in the reference genome of potato and that the genetic location in tomato and physical location in potato sequence are mostly in agreement. However, we did find some COS markers that are present in multiple copies and those that map in unexpected locations. Sequence comparisons between species show that some of these markers may be paralogs. Conclusions: The sequence-based physical map becomes helpful in identification of markers for traits of interest thereby reducing the number of markers to be tested for applications like marker assisted selection, diversity, and phylogenetic studies."}

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data/part_3/00c4284bc33bad58508ccdda04e846b7.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"00c4284bc33bad58508ccdda04e846b7","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/ccf9c65a-408b-4a4a-9e0b-5be0583c094f/retrieve"},"pageCount":2,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[],"figures":[],"sieverID":"70fc6c85-05bd-4d7c-8da7-b0e18c663349","abstract":""}

data/part_3/0173a28aae53660b2dce20bd55f1fffd.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0173a28aae53660b2dce20bd55f1fffd","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/a40d4190-1a18-45de-8792-9f3f3aca5956/retrieve"},"pageCount":1,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Key Words:","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":10,"text":"RVFV MP-12, Culex pipiens biotype molestus and Aedes albopictus ."}]},{"head":"Material and Methods:","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":112,"text":"A. Vector competence studies: 306 and 207 German Culex pipiens biotype molestus and Aedes albopictus females mosquitoes, respectively at an age of 6-8 days old were exposed for three hours to infectious blood meal containing 10 7 TCID 50 /ml RVFV stain MP-12 mixed with heparinized bovine blood (1:2 ratio) using cotton stick method (Fig. 1). Out of them 50.65% and 27.53% fed (Table 1). Blood fed females were kept at 28°C, 12/12 photocycle and 80% humidity. 5% glucose was supplied during the incubation period (Ndiaye et al., 2016). Blood meal was titrated twice, before and after feeding and the titers ranged from 10 6 -10 4.86 TCID 50 /ml. Main Finding:"},{"index":2,"size":19,"text":"• Feeding and survival rates in Culex pipiens biotype molestus are higher than in Ae. albopictus.   2, Fig. 2). "}]},{"head":"Fig. 1 Blood feeding using cotton-sticks","index":3,"paragraphs":[]}],"figures":[{"text":"Is Rift Valley fever virus a threat for Germany? Evaluation of the vector competence of German mosquitoes for Rift Valley fever virus A. A. AL-Hosary a* , B.A. Tews a , C. Körsten a , M. Hausner a , U. Neumann a , O. Tauchmann a , F. Stoek b , M. Eiden b , C. Silaghi a a Institute of Infectology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Südufer 10, 17493, Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany b Institute of Novel and Emerging Infectious Diseases, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Südufer "},{"text":"Fig. 2 Fig. 2 SalivationAssay. "},{"text":"10, 17493, Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany  Background: Background: Rift Valley fever virus is transmitted by Rift Valley fever virus is transmitted by different mosquito species. Both animals different mosquito species. Both animals and humans can develop severe and humans can develop severe symptoms. The disease is common in symptoms. The disease is common in African countries, but European countries African countries, but European countries are also at the risk of emergence (Ndiaye are also at the risk of emergence (Ndiaye et al., 2016 and Lumley, et al., 2018). et al., 2016 and Lumley, et al., 2018).  "},{"text":"• Both have the ability to dissminate and transmit RVFV. • German mosquitoes are competent vectors for RVFV and still able to transmit it 21 day post infection. Future steps Future steps 1. Continue with the vector 1. Continue with the vector competence studies using competence studies using German and African/Ugandan German and African/Ugandan mosquitoes. mosquitoes. 2. Assessment of the vector 2. Assessment of the vector competence for RVFV in German competence for RVFV in German mosquitoes in case of co- mosquitoes in case of co- infection with some viruses infection with some viruses circulating in Germany like West circulating in Germany like West Nile virus and Usutu virus. Nile virus and Usutu virus. 3. Immunohistochemical studies on 3. Immunohistochemical studies on the infected mosquitoes to the infected mosquitoes to identify the main sites for virus identify the main sites for virus dissemination in case of mono dissemination in case of mono and co-infections. and co-infections.  "},{"text":"Table 2 Infection, dissemination and transmission rates B. Salivation assay and Molecular finding:  Two Two  "},{"text":"Table 1 : Feeding and survival rates Mosquito species Salivation day Salivated numbers Body Infection rate % Legs & wings Dissemination rate % Saliva Transmission rate Culex pipiens molestus  14 49 13 26.53 12 24.49 8 16.33 14491326.531224.49816.33 21 38 13 34.21 6 15.79 14 36.84 21381334.21615.791436.84  "}],"sieverID":"c7f3c286-538f-4d8c-ab31-5970a48670e0","abstract":"1. Covid-19 crisis and recurrent lockdown in Uganda are still interfering with transportation of the Ugandan mosquitoes to Germany. 2. Also, it has adverse effects on our work at FLI because of delayed consumables' delivery."}

data/part_3/01b6c81d4bb7574cceba6846d871515f.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"01b6c81d4bb7574cceba6846d871515f","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/5518b810-8851-4e6b-b34f-24ed0d640f1a/retrieve"},"pageCount":1,"title":"Taking Africa RISING-led technologies and innovations to scale: Experience of public-private partnerships","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Objectives and approach","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":60,"text":"Since 2014, the Africa RISING program embarked on collaborations with development projects in different countries o take promising technologies to scale. For instance, in Tanzania, collaboration was initiated with NAFAKA project to enhance scaling of the research outputs through introduction of improved crop varieties, good agricultural practices, natural resource management, reduction of food wastage and spoilage and community capacity building."},{"index":2,"size":65,"text":"The scaling model used involves introduction of the technologies in the communities using mother-baby-grandbaby demonstration sites and learning centers. Learners (farmers and development personnel) at each level train their peers in a cascading mode, backstopped by staff from participating research and development institutions (Figure 1). Because the model involves working with diverse partners, it is guided by key principles (Figure 2) that guide the process."}]},{"head":"Key results and significance","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":57,"text":"The Africa RISING-NAFAKA intervention set two targets: (i) having at least 47,000 households with access to knowledge and skills associated with the technologies; and (ii) expanding the area under improved production technologies by at least 60,000 hectares. Table 1 shows achievements against targets in 2016. Results indicate that all intervention targets were realized by at least 80%."},{"index":2,"size":54,"text":"The scaling model we used has exhibited significant promise with respect to taking Africa RISING to scale. For success three key factors need to be harnessed: i. Ensuring coordination between the partners; ii. Harnessing commitment of team members; and iii. Capacity building for local institutions through continuous needs identification, mentoring and clear role assignment.  "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure 1 : Figure 1: The research and development model for innovation delivery and scaling as applied by Africa RISING and NAFAKA "},{"text":"Table 1 : Achievements associated with the Africa RISING-NAFAKA Project  "}],"sieverID":"a2949781-03fc-45a7-a619-79f29a5e5c57","abstract":" Effective technology scaling should build on existing interventions and institutions  Trust building among partners is very important  Regular review and periodic (co-)learning among partners are critical  Clear communication and coordination mechanisms among partners should be in place  Geographical -information systems (GIS) technologies should be harnessed for better targeting of the technologies Partners"}

data/part_3/020389f96464e426736845c8c25832c7.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"020389f96464e426736845c8c25832c7","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/184edcd5-427f-41d5-a732-1a5503790ce1/retrieve"},"pageCount":1,"title":"This document frames a new pathway in the agricultural sector of El Salvador, by establishing guidelines to move towards agriculture through climate-smart agriculture approach","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":36,"text":"• 4404 -The Climate-Smart Agriculture Regional Strategy (EASAC) for the Central American Integration System (SICA) enabled the scaling of climate-smart agriculture across the region through at least 250 transformations on policy, institutional, and financial dimensions (https://tinyurl.com/y3v9unvr)"}]},{"head":"Innovations: <Not Provided>","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Narrative of Evidence: <Not Provided>","index":3,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Milestones:","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":25,"text":"• Country level recommendations are being fed into several national and state level policy processes in selected countries to inform climate-smart food system policies Sub-IDOs:"},{"index":2,"size":10,"text":"• 35 -Enabled environment for climate resilience Contributing Centers/PPA partners:"},{"index":3,"size":15,"text":"• CIAT (Alliance) -Alliance of Bioversity and CIAT -Regional Hub (Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical)"}]},{"head":"Contributing CRPs/PTF:","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":18,"text":"• CCAFS -Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security 1 This report was generated on 2022-08-19 at 07:47 (GMT+0)"}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Project Title: P262 -Research and engagement for scaling climate-smart agriculture in Latin America Description: science backs-up a US$45million IADB loan for the Government of El Salvador to implement the National Policy of Agriculture and increase climate resilience (https://tinyurl.com/28u3gu25) "}],"sieverID":"8787aad8-8bde-4a0b-86b1-feba6fb34ec3","abstract":""}

data/part_3/0258004411fb1eb9dff74fade0f8ecba.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0258004411fb1eb9dff74fade0f8ecba","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/6f60ba67-171e-4ef3-bac9-6d0b93ea9c1a/retrieve"},"pageCount":1,"title":"Maziwa Zaidi (More Milk) in Tanzania The potential of Dairy Market Hubs to improve smallholder farmers' income in Tanzania","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Opportunities to invest and scale","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":24,"text":"• Support livestock producer groups across high potential dairy areas to move towards forming DBHs -identifying actors and facilitating business linkages with these actors."},{"index":2,"size":23,"text":"• Use 'loyalty programs' such as inputs and service provision and payment for the same via check-off that attract household participation in hubs."},{"index":3,"size":30,"text":"• Explore mechanisms to establish DBHs in the marginalized extensive areas (e.g., DBHs around milk traders) with limited collective action; scale up experiences of milk traders-based approaches to hub establishment."},{"index":4,"size":37,"text":"• Public-private sector investment in getting milk producers and value chain actors together to engage with processors. Thus, the need to strengthen public-private sector co-operation so that the private sector can have a conducive environment for investment."}]},{"head":"Pictures","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Key results","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":21,"text":"• Participation in DMHs increased dairy income by at least 7.94 percentage point on average, for the period 2014 to 2016."},{"index":2,"size":15,"text":"• Milk sales, milk prices and herd size also had positive influence on dairy income "}]},{"head":"Objectives and approach","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":44,"text":"A study was carried out to analyze the effects of DBHs on household income. It used primary data collected from 461 smallholder dairy farmers in Tanga and Morogoro. It applied quasi experimental methods combining propensity score matching and difference-in-difference (DiD) to estimate treatment effects."},{"index":2,"size":24,"text":"Maziwa Zaidi thanks all donors and organizations which globally support the work of ILRI and its partners through their contributions to the CGIAR system  "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure 1 : Figure 1: Illustration of a Dairy Market Hub to provide inputs and services on credit without collective bulking and marketing "},{"text":"Dairy Income (Dependent variable) Coefficient Standard errors Participation   1.36*** 0.50 1.36***0.50 Milk sales 1.15*** 0.21 Milk sales1.15***0.21 Milk Price 1.51** 0.21 Milk Price1.51**0.21 Improved breeds -0.04 0.68 Improved breeds-0.040.68 Cows owned 1.68*** 0.24 Cows owned1.68***0.24  % change in dairy income % change in dairy income Treated farmers  1.83 Treated farmers1.83 Control farmers  -6.11 Control farmers-6.11 Average treatment effect  7.94 Average treatment effect7.94  "}],"sieverID":"4655675f-0da0-4de2-901b-50c747ed2cc9","abstract":""}

data/part_3/02d399281538046b031cc43b9752e10e.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"02d399281538046b031cc43b9752e10e","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/b02a8db9-d765-4c0f-90db-449d95644b80/retrieve"},"pageCount":21,"title":"","keywords":["Carrijo","D. R.","Lundy","M. E.","& Linquist","B. A"],"chapters":[{"head":"Production benefits","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":64,"text":"Reduced flooding using AWD can improve soil properties for mechanization and diversified crop rotation, making rice a more suitable crop for rotation with upland (nonrice) crops. This is increasingly important as paddy-upland systems expand globally 2 . Additionally, the technologies that accompany AWD (i.e., irrigation upgrades, moisture monitoring and laser land leveling or LLL) bring improved control over crop growth, uniformity, and field operations."}]},{"head":"How?","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":83,"text":"1. Soil structure and diversified crop rotation. Poor soil structure from puddling and continuous flooding is the greatest challenge to rotating rice with other crops 3 . Reduced flooding using AWD may improve soil structure for upland crops following rice due to increased soil aggregation and macroporosity 4 . Effects on soil structure may be most apparent at lower depths from deeper root accumulation and improved aeration. Improved soil structure may also facilitate the move to dry-direct seeding and aerobic rice 5 ."}]},{"head":"Site-specifics and limitations:","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":142,"text":"AWD is most effective in lowland finer textured soils that hold moisture 6 . These soils are also particularly difficult to rotate between paddy rice and upland crops like maize, yet they often have the greatest potential for fertile, continuous cropping 7 . The benefits of AWD rice and upland crop rotation are greatest under a reduced plow pan density, high soil organic matter, and moderately acidic pH 8 . Higher pH soils may experience increased salinity or soil structure problems upon drying with AWD 9 . Gradual improvement to soil structure using AWD and residue incorporation while increasing drainage/percolation could mitigate these problems 10 . Like no-till practices, long-term improvement to soil using AWD and residue may take several seasons or experience an initial \"yield drag.\" Soil types most suitable for AWD may also be best for aerobic rice 11 ."}]},{"head":"Mechanization.","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":42,"text":"Improved soil structure (i.e., macroporosity and aggregation) from AWD may provide better tilth, traction, and soil load bearing capacity 12 . This improves machinery efficiency, along with the flexibility of equipment types (a limiting factor in current rice mechanization and its adoption)."}]},{"head":"Site-specifics and limitations:","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":29,"text":"As with crop rotation problems, heavy clay soils can be most difficult for mechanization when wet. Additional limitations to mechanization include small farm sizes and poor access to equipment."}]},{"head":"Yield","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":55,"text":"Results of some 60 peer-reviewed studies suggest that safe AWD (maintaining a 15 cm below soil surface water level threshold) does not reduce yields if implemented correctly and may potentially increase yields under specific conditions 16 . Still, without proper management the risk of drought stress is increased in AWD. Although current rice cultivars are"}]},{"head":"How?","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":103,"text":"1. Pest, disease and weed management. A shift in pest, disease, and weed types is expected when switching from CF to AWD. Although AWD can effectively control golden apple snail, brown plant hopper, false smut, algae and other aquatic weeds, it can increase the occurance of non-aquatic weeds, rice blast, bacterial leaf blight, and root-knot nematode 18 . Certain disease reduction from AWD has been recorded from reduced humidity within the crop canopy, and improved systemic resistance 19 . AWD may increase pathogen survival and transfer between rotation of related aerobic crops 20 . Improved knowledge of IPM is likely necessary under AWD."}]},{"head":"Site-specifics and limitations:","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":35,"text":"Fields with a known history of the issues associated with AWD require farmer discretion of water-pest relationships. AWD increases the need for knowledge-intensive farm management with the use of new or alternative practices and equipment."}]},{"head":"Root and tiller development.","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":60,"text":"Rice root depth/density is often enhanced with AWD, which can equate to better drought, disease, and lodging resistance, as well as increased nutrient and water uptake 21 . This is due to improved soil structure for root exploration and oxygenation 22 . AWD can also increase effective tiller development, suggesting seeding rate can be reduced, and yield increased 23 ."}]},{"head":"Site-specifics and limitations:","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":42,"text":"Deeper rooting due to reduced compaction and plow pan density may be most beneficial in areas with root-accessible water tables that are prone to drought or wind lodging 24 . Clay soil types prone to compaction or anoxia may also benefit most."}]},{"head":"Phytotoxin removal.","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":27,"text":"Increased aerobic periods using AWD can reduce phytotoxins that accumulate from CF and anoxia such as phenolic acids, hydrogen sulphide, and excess iron and manganese 25 ."}]},{"head":"Site-specifics and limitations:","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":112,"text":"Low percolation rates under CF and residue incorporation are known causes of phytotoxin buildup. Limited percolation along with poor irrigation water can also increase salinity severely sensitive to water stress, improved breeding for aerobic conditions may eventually raise yield potentials above that of CF due to the benefits of aeration on soil physicochemical properties and plant morphology. Studies on biotic stressors (pests, disease, weeds) have shown that AWD may reduce some pests, albeit increasing others. Certainly, some pests adapted to millennia of flooded culture are disrupted in aerobic environments. It is foreseeable that the rotation between flooded and aerobic varieties may provide an important strategy towards IPM in the future 17 ."},{"index":2,"size":32,"text":"and alkalinity. Although AWD may increase salinity in the short-term it may reduce longterm salt evapoconcentration by reducing irrigation input and with residue incorporation this can further ameliorate the effect on crops."}]},{"head":"Soil fertility and quality.","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":111,"text":"Although AWD may reduce the availability of certain nutrients like phosphorous and calcium compared to CF, it can enhance fertility in some soils by increasing zinc and nitrogen uptake, and by increasing mineralizable nutrients from organic matter decomposition 26 . Increased organic matter decomposition from AWD reduces the need for complete removal of crop residue (a standard practice due to its impediment to planting) 27 . Although incorporation of crop residue can increase methane emissions in CF systems, this is minimized in more aerobic soils utilizing AWD or upland crop rotations. The additional benefits of residue on soil quality and soil carbon make residue incorporation advantageous for non-CF systems 28 ."}]},{"head":"Site-specifics and limitations:","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":185,"text":"Nutrient deficiencies for a given soil will help guide irrigation management given the known relationship of nutrient availability and flooding. Lab nutrient analysis can suggest the potential gain or decline to soil fertility for a specific soil under aerobic conditions. As a general principle, fertilizer N and P requirements could be higher for rice grown on aerobic soil than on submerged soil. A higher need for accurate N fertilizer application can arise from lower microbial nitrogen fixation. Although denitrification and N leaching may occur if fertilizer is improperly applied under AWD, total N losses are normally negligible due to the increase in available forms of nitrogen and overall increase in nitrogen use efficiency 29 . Zn availability is normally increased under aerobic regimes on acid soils, but high pH soils may experience Zn and Fe reduction 30 . Although studies show that the conversion from flooded to aerobic soils reduces SOC quantity and ability of soils to store carbon, there is strong evidence that aerobic regimes improve the quality of plant-beneficial SOC fractions and that total SOC can increase given proper residue management 31 ."}]},{"head":"Soil health.","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":61,"text":"Soil microbial and invertebrate activity in the root zone may be increased under aerobic conditions leading to enhanced nutrient cycling and biological tillage 32 . This allows the recycling of organic nutrients for proceeding crops that are often locked up in submerged soils. Reduced flooding is known to increase soil macrofauna such as earthworms that improve soil physicochemical properties 33 ."}]},{"head":"Site-specifics and limitations:","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":45,"text":"Residue incorporation in combination with AWD can improve microbial activity and diversity compared with CF 34 . Increased microbial activity may require additional fertilizer inputs initially due to immobilization and reduced biological nitrogen fixation from algae. Benefits from residue incorporation normally occur after several seasons."}]},{"head":"Human health","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":33,"text":"Flooded rice is associated with increased mosquito and water borne diseases 35 . Additionally, AWD has been shown to improve grain quality ─ a concern for millions of people in developing Asian countries."}]},{"head":"How?","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":73,"text":"1. Mosquito and water borne diseases. The use of intermittent flooding periods of less than one week using AWD can disrupt mosquito life cycles during their normal two week aquatic larval stage 36 . Snails are also important vectors of disease that can be reduced under AWD along with other water transmitted pathogens. Regions with high risk of malaria, schistosomiasis, Japanese encephalitis, dengue, and leptospirosis may consider AWD as a public health strategy."}]},{"head":"Grain quality.","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":85,"text":"Zinc deficiency affects a third of the global population, mostly in high rice consuming regions of Southeast Asia. More aerobic regimes using AWD can effectively increase grain zinc content 37 . Rice is also a primary source of dietary heavy metal exposure 38 . Aerobic conditions reduce the availability of arsenic and mercury to plants 39 , however, an increase in cadmium uptake is also possible 40 . Reduced irrigation inputs with AWD can also reduce the deposition of other source-water contaminants in paddy soils."}]},{"head":"Site-specifics and limitations:","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":65,"text":"Risk of heavy metal accumulation for a given environment will help guide irrigation and rotation management for risk mitigation. Areas near municipal waste are prone to cadmium contamination. High levels of naturally occurring arsenic are known to occur in deep well water in some parts of South Asia. Acidic soils or fine textured wetland sediments increase the risk of heavy metal crop uptake 41 ."}]},{"head":"Environment","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":79,"text":"Asia is increasingly vulnerable to environmental issues and land use competition, which inherently involves rice. Although rice can have a low environmental impact compared to other cropping systems, it is an important part of land and water use competition with biodiversity in some of the world's most sensitive ecosystems. Rice farming uses almost 50% of total water consumption in Asia and contributes to land, air and water quality degradation 42 . In some cases, AWD can reduce this impact."}]},{"head":"How?","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":89,"text":"1. Erosion/runoff and ecosystems. CF practices can increase overland flow erosion, which is a significant source of agrochemical pollution and nutrient-bound sediment in waterways 43 . Compared to CF, AWD has been shown to reduce surface runoff of nitrogen and phosphorous by 30%, and pesticides by 89% in some studies 44 . AWD could further reduce runoff in upland crops after rice by facilitating residue incorporation, soil structure improvement and reduced tillage 45 . Additionally, reducing water use with AWD would increase water available to off-farm ecosystems 46 ."}]},{"head":"Site-specifics and limitations:","index":23,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":73,"text":"Strong monsoonal rains can raise paddy flood levels beyond bunds. Cascade irrigation promotes sediment and nutrient loss towards basins. Leaching of pollutants in solution, especially nitrate, may be increased under AWD if bypass water losses are increased from cracking 47 . N losses can be avoided in high CEC soils and with proper fertilizer and irrigation application on cracked soil. Reduced tillage may be most successful in loamy or high organic matter soils."}]},{"head":"Straw burning.","index":24,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":57,"text":"Straw burning is a significant source of air pollution and greenhouse gas emissions from Asia. Rice straw is often burned and not incorporated due to labor constraints and the impediment to planting of following crops 48 . Increased aeration from AWD improves straw decomposition and the ability to incorporate residue without hindrance to field preparation 49 ."}]},{"head":"Site-specifics and limitations:","index":25,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":52,"text":"Disease occurance may increase from incorporating residues, as opposed to burning or removing. Straw incorporation increases methane emissions and can reduce rice yields under continuously flooded culture. Coarse textured soils may benefit the most from straw incorporation and improved aerobic decomposition. Combine harvesters can aid in returning residues and reducing labor cost."}]},{"head":"Socioeconomics","index":26,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":34,"text":"Rice is the staple crop of the developing world and an important part of its socioeconomic challenges. Methods such as AWD that increase farm efficiency, and reduce resource competition can be effective socioeconomic solutions."}]},{"head":"How?","index":27,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":42,"text":"1. Farm profits. A primary benefit of AWD is the reduced pumping costs from lower water use. This often equates to improved farm profits, although this is site-specific depending on pump fees. As water scarcity increases, AWD will be of increasing value."}]},{"head":"Site-specifics and limitations:","index":28,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":60,"text":"Studies show that water payment schemes that incentivize water saving are critical in the success of AWD. Areas with fixed or flat-rate seasonal pump costs may not benefit from AWD. Even in areas where AWD could improve yields, reduced pump costs will be the primary driver of adoption given that they often account for 25% of production costs 50 ."}]},{"head":"Water competition.","index":29,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":19,"text":"Reduced water consumption using AWD has been shown to reduce upstream-downstream water conflicts and improve social equity 51 ."}]},{"head":"Climate change adaptation.","index":30,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":37,"text":"CF and rainfed rice cultivation is highly dependent on seasonal water supply that is increasingly hard to predict. Properly implemented AWD with improved irrigation systems can help farmers adapt to less predictable weather and drought 52 ."}]},{"head":"Impacting low-income sectors.","index":31,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":26,"text":"As a low-cost and easy to implement technology, AWD can improve livelihoods especially for low-income smallholders where yields or farm profits can be improved 53 ."}]},{"head":"Conclusion and future research","index":32,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":148,"text":"Although continuously flooded rice has proven to be sustainable in terms of yields and soil quality for rice only cropping, changing resource limitations require a paradigm shift in rice farming. AWD is an effective solution to sustaining or improving rice yields in the future under increasing water limitations and the need to intensify land productivity using mechanization and crop rotation. In addition to the core benefits of AWD (reduced emissions, water use, and pump costs), studies show that additional co-benefits exist that can improve agronomic, human health, environmental, and socio-economic factors in rice production. Successful adoption of AWD and its benefits will require discretion of site-specific conditions such as climate, soil type, pests, rotation type and irrigation access. Understanding these sitespecifics and the potential trade-offs of more aerobic regimes in rice will require additional research. Without an exhaustive list, research is needed on the co-benefits of AWD regarding:"},{"index":2,"size":99,"text":"• The potential of improved aerobic or AWD rice varieties in the future regarding yield/ water tradeoffs, as well as pests and disease. • Environmental impacts of water conservation from AWD on natural resource economics, ecosystem services, human health, and biodiversity. • Effects of AWD on gender equity and labor productivity • The yield of aerobic crops used in rotation with AWD vs. flooded rice under varying soil types and environments. • Soil organic carbon quantity vs. quality comparing anaerobic and aerobic decomposition, along with optimized residue management for AWD. • Rice-aerobic crop rotation as a pest management strategy."},{"index":3,"size":8,"text":"• Effects of long-term AWD on soil salinity."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"  "}],"sieverID":"19dc33b3-7f2a-45e2-9dd7-b3f9924184a2","abstract":"Rice is a staple for half the world's population, thus its impact on land and water use is immense. Standard production practices using continuous flooding (CF) are resource intensive and contribute significant global methane emissions. The technique of alternate-wetting-drying (AWD) uses a more controlled irrigation strategy that can significantly reduce methane emissions as well as water use and pumping costs. These three established benefits of AWD have been well documented in previous papers (see Overview of AWD 1 ). Aside from these primary benefits, recent literature suggests there are many potential secondary benefits that have yet to be fully reviewed. These co-benefits and their site-specific conditions or limitations are reviewed in this paper.3. Soil moisture control. Improved irrigation management is the principle of AWD. Irrigation equipment upgrades along with the use of LLL and field water level tubes to regulate soil moisture can aid in more efficient and timely harvesting, planting, application of fertilizer, and meeting of crop water needs 13 . This can improve yields, crop turnaround potential, and resiliency to weather volatility 14 ."}

data/part_3/0301c6d0826504d522e4ee10d67cc018.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0301c6d0826504d522e4ee10d67cc018","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/ed375e74-121c-48dc-b020-4ab5394ef6dd/retrieve"},"pageCount":2,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Set of solutions using remote sensing and supervised learning to replace autoregressive integrated moving average models to forecast weather","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":102,"text":"Project Title: P1327 -Building foresight portfolio for WHEAT AFS, including synthesis, gap analysis and new studies, as input in conducting priority setting for WHEAT AFS Description of the innovation: The convergence of remote sensing and supervised learning (SL) can generate solutions for the problems arising from climate change. A function that maps a set of variables to an output. This function can be used to predict new examples. Because they are nonparametric, these methods can mine large quantities of satellite data to capture the relationship between climate variables and crops, or successfully replace autoregressive integrated moving average models to forecast the weather. "}]},{"head":"New Innovation: No","index":2,"paragraphs":[]}],"figures":[{"text":" Innovation type: Other Stage of innovation: Stage 2: successful piloting (PIL -end of piloting phase) Geographic Scope: Global Number of individual improved lines/varieties: <Not Applicable> Description of Stage reached: Meteorological indices can be used as substitutes for AIs. We discuss meteorological indexes and review SL approaches that are suitable for predicting drought based on historical satellite data. Name of lead organization/entity to take innovation to this stage: <Not Defined> Names of top five contributing organizations/entities to this stage: • CYMMIT • UC -Pontificia Universidad Catolica de Chile Milestones: • Climate change and other dynamics integral to foresight research, showing how they transform agri-rural landscapes Sub-IDOs: • 8 -More efficient use of inputs Contributing Centers/PPA partners: • CIMMYT -Centro Internacional de Mejoramiento de Maíz y Trigo / International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center 1 This report was generated on 2022-08-19 at 08:36 (GMT+0) "}],"sieverID":"6a53b4c2-4ca2-412b-b55d-255e540c454a","abstract":""}

data/part_3/030cc4c6bdc9580181f588a64ea44dde.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"030cc4c6bdc9580181f588a64ea44dde","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/d98b8eb3-ec3a-4af6-8c26-cedc56bfa062/retrieve"},"pageCount":4,"title":"Working Report: Plant Health Initiative Work Package 2 Study of post-flowering stalk rot (PFSR) pathogen species variation and possible shifts across selected maize agro-ecologies in South Asia","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":130,"text":"The study in 2022 and 2023 involved collection of PFSR affected maize plant stalks from different maize growing agro-ecologies across India and Nepal, isolation of the pathogens and morphological and molecular characterization using pathogen specific primers. Infected samples were collected from 231 locations across India and 12 locations in Nepal (Table 1, Fig. 1). Studies on samples from 64 locations have been completed, and others are being processed currently. A total of 121 pure cultures were isolated from the diseased samples till end of 2023. The colony and microscopic morphology were studied for initial identification of the pathogen genera. Genomic DNA was extracted from the pure cultures of Fusarium spp. identified and translation elongation factor (TEF-1) region of the fungi was amplified using published primer sequences (O'Donnell et al., 1998).  "}]},{"head":"Results and Inference:","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":259,"text":"Eight pathogen species/species complex causing PFSR disease were identified from the samples collected (Fig. 2). Seven of the pathogen species detected belonged to the Fusarium genus. Apart from Fusarium Spp., Macrophomina phaseolina was detected among ~12% of the diseased sample isolates. Seven different species/species complex of Fusarium were identified, where F verticillioides (~43%) was the major species identified. It has been reported as the major causal pathogen of PFSR in India (Khokhar et al., 2014). The Fusarium species that is found to gain prominence is Fusarium incarnatum equiseti species complex, which was first reported in India in 2020 from Karnataka and Telengana (Swamy et al., 2020). In the present study, it was detected in ~36% of samples studied, which included the samples from Bihar, where in the Dry season of 2022, there has been severe incidence of PFSR in farmers' fields (Arshad Anwar, BAU, Personal communication). This Fusarium species complex has not yet been reported as a major pathogen causing PFSR in India yet, and hence host resistance deployment efforts were also not targeted towards this pathogen. Apart from this important finding, multiple pathogens were detected suggesting possible co-infection (Table 2), and in majority of such cases, the co-infection was observed between F. verticillioides and F. incarnatum equiseti complex or F. verticillioides and M. phaseolina. This also suggests the importance of resistance breeding for combined resistance to multiple pathogens. The work will continue in 2024 in India, Nepal and Bangladesh towards studying the pathogen spectrum of the complex post flowering stalk rots in maize, towards developing effective mitigation strategies. "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure 1 : Figure 1: Mapping of PFSR samples collected from India and Nepal (The different color place holders indicate different seasons/years of collection) "},{"text":"Table 1 . List of the locations surveyed for collection of post flowering stalk rot samples during 2022 and 2023  Region Season Year RegionSeasonYear Bihar, India Dry 2022, 2023 Bihar, IndiaDry2022, 2023 Punjab, India Spring, Rainy 2022, 2023 Punjab, IndiaSpring, Rainy2022, 2023 Rajasthan, India Rainy 2022 Rajasthan, IndiaRainy2022 Telangana, India Dry, Rainy 2022, 2023 Telangana, IndiaDry, Rainy2022, 2023 Andhra Pradesh, India Dry, Rainy 2022, 2023 Andhra Pradesh, IndiaDry, Rainy2022, 2023 Karnataka, India Dry, Rainy 2022, 2023 Karnataka, IndiaDry, Rainy2022, 2023 Maharashtra, India Dry, Rainy 2022, 2023 Maharashtra, IndiaDry, Rainy2022, 2023 Nepal Rainy 2023 NepalRainy2023  "},{"text":"Table 2 . Locations where multiple pathogen co-infected PFSR diseased stalks were collected Stalk rot pathogen Complex Locations  Fusarium verticillioides-Macrophomina phaseolina Dharwad, Gadag, Behrampur, Simbly, Malavalli, Patancheru, Daulatabad, Karimnagar, Rahuri, Peddapuram Fusarium verticillioides-Macrophomina phaseolinaDharwad, Gadag, Behrampur, Simbly, Malavalli, Patancheru, Daulatabad, Karimnagar, Rahuri, Peddapuram Fusarium verticillioides-Fusarium  Fusarium verticillioides-Fusarium incarnatum-equiseti species complex  incarnatum-equiseti species complex  "}],"sieverID":"1222bbd5-793a-47a8-a533-96400217936e","abstract":"Post-flowering stalk rots (PFSR) are reported from all major maize growing ecologies, and are caused by at least six genera of fungal pathogens, which generally occur as a complex, along with secondary colonizers (Afolabi et al., 2008). PFSR are expected to be exacerbated by the changing climates in Latin America, Asia and Sub-Saharan Africa, especially increases in temperature. The level of impact is determined by a number of factors, including the weather during the growing season, the amount of stress on the plants, hybrid genetics and the populations of the stalk rot pathogens in the field. In Asia, PFSR is reported from many countries, including Nepal,"}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"035a2c89fd154a66effb650cc2f185ba","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/b84c220c-16ca-495c-8edc-9684d033e53d/retrieve"},"pageCount":2,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":21,"text":"• Depending on the land area available, make a timely order of the quantity of rooted apical cuttings to be transplanted"},{"index":2,"size":194,"text":"• Check the tuber size on a regular basis • When at least 75% of the crop has reached the desirable size (chicken egg size), dehaulm (destroy the above-ground part) to stop tuber growth and to enable skin hardening for better storage, transport and protection against post-harvest diseases • Dehaulm by spraying a contact herbicide; dehaulming by cutting increases the risk for pest and disease infection • Leave the tubers in the soil for 10 to 14 days before harvesting • Tubers can be removed directly when soil is not wet and does not stick to the tubers • When soil is sticking to the tubers, leave them on the ground for a few hours to allow the soil to dry out and fall off • Sort tubers immediately after harvest by removing the rotten, diseased and damaged ones • Grade the healthy-looking tubers per size • Tubers smaller than 20 mm will be multiplied another round in a seed bed • Tubers greater than 20 mm will be used next season for further multiplication in the field • Gather and destroy harvest remnants like foliage, rotten tubers, etc., to keep the garden clean"},{"index":3,"size":22,"text":"• Weigh and store only healthy seed potato tubers in a Diffused Light Store that can be made of locally available materials"},{"index":4,"size":27,"text":"• Harvest when it is not raining and when the soil is moist, but not wet. When soil is moist, potatoes are easier to pull out  Avoid:"}]},{"head":"ROOTED APICAL CUTTINGS","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":213,"text":"• Shaded plots  • Alternatively, apply a small amount of NPK in \"palm of a hand\" per plant in planting hole • Mix NPK well with the soil. Roots should not be in direct contact with NPK as this may burn them • Application of NPK is most effective when soil is moist • When planting, demarcate the planting holes using a sisal string and a 30 cm wooden stick • Do not plant in full sun. Plant on cloudy days or in the late afternoon of a sunny day • Plant ¼ to ½ of the rooted apical cutting so that only the top foliage is above the ground • Compact the soil well around the base of the plantlet to ensure good contact between the roots and the soil • When planting the 2-row seed beds, space 30 cm between rows, 30 cm to the edge of the bed and 30 cm between plantlets • The greater the spacing, the greater the number of tubers that can be harvested • Before transplanting the rooted apical cuttings, ensure that they are of high quality 30 cm 30 cm 30 cm 30 cm 30 cm 30 cm 30 cm 30 cm 30 cm 30 cm 30 cm 30 cm 30 cm 30 cm"},{"index":2,"size":60,"text":"• The main characteristics of a good cutting are: ⚪8-12 cm high from the collar (stem at the base of the growing medium), 10 cm is the optimal length ⚪Short internodes ⚪Strong collar and stem ⚪Well-developed roots, but no root bound (roots growing round and round because of too small container, as this halts plant growth) ⚪Dark green leaves ⚪Well-watered"},{"index":3,"size":28,"text":"• Depending on the weather, remove the shade net or nursery covering after 1-2 weeks when cuttings are well established (when growth is initiated, and new leaves appear)"},{"index":4,"size":12,"text":"• Shading for too long will reduce the strength of the cuttings"},{"index":5,"size":59,"text":"• Optionally, place a signpost with the variety, spacing, number of cuttings and date of planting at each seed bed to ease monitoring • Draw a map of the seed plot in the record book with all relevant information in case the signpost writing fades • Overall, regular and accurate record keeping is essential in professional seed potato production "}]}],"figures":[{"text":" seasons system), wait 4-5 seasons before planting any or related crop on the same plot again • Remove volunteer plants that arise from seeds, tubers or tuber pieces remaining in the soil from earlier potato cropsBad qualityGood quality "},{"text":"• Do first weeding only after the crop has established or at first hilling. Then keep the seed plot weed free • Hilling is mounding ridges of soil on top of the potato plants to ensure stolons are covered and produce tubers rather than above-ground stems • Hilling increases the number and quality of tubers and reduces their exposure to pests and sunlight. Exposure to sunlight turns tubers green 8. Harvesting 9. Storage and sprouting 10. Planting tubers • The skin is hardened if it does not slip easily when wrapped between thumb and index finger • Storage in a store with natural diffused light promotes the development of strong, short sprouts to ensure good germination after planting Ensure: • Install metal sheets around the store as a physical barrier for rodent control • Line the inside of the store with an insect proof net to protect the tubers from insects • To allow light to enter, alternate iron and transparent roofing sheets • Install 1.5 m wide shelves 1 m from each other and the wall for good ventilation • Arrange potatoes in thin layers of about 4 tubers deep on the shelves to allow each tuber to be exposed to some light • Distribute insect repelling plants like Lantana camara, above the tubers • Spread green banana leaves on the tubers to promote sprouting • Check and turn the tubers regularly and remove the rotting ones • Monitor the presence of insects by using insect traps • Check especially for sucking pests like aphids and chewing pests like potato tuber moth • Dust Malathion or Actellic on the shelves, between and on top of the stored potatoes, to kill any larvae of the potato tuber moth • If there is apical dominance (the development of only 1 sprout) pinch and remove it to encourage the other eyes to open and sprout • Seed potato tubers should have at least 3-6 sprouts, no longer than 25 mm, before planting • Plant the sprouted tubers depending on their size • Plant tubers smaller than 20 mm in 2-row seed beds with a spacing of 30 cm between the rows, 30 cm to the edge of the bed and 30 cm between the tubers • Plant tubers greater than 20 mm in a field with a spacing of 60-70 cm between the rows and 20-30 cm between the tubers• Use hands, a wooden stick or a hoe to harvest. Be careful when using a hoe as this can damage the tubers first hilling is done when the potato plant is 10-15 cm high (about 3 weeks after transplanting) • For the second hilling, carry extra soil from elsewhere using a spade to avoid the cutting of the stolons Bad practice Good practice 1 m = +/-3 adult feet 30 cm = +/-1 adult foot Be cautious -20 mm• Further standard seed potato producing practices applyFor further information, contact your supplier of rooted apical cuttings or nearest government extension officer• Use new bags to transport the seed tubers to the store land to multiply seed over 2 to 3 seasons while respecting crop rotation guidelines • When starting from 100 cuttings, 2 seasons of multiplication will produce 400-600 kg of seed, sufficient to plant ¾ acre, and 3 seasons of multiplication will produce 4,000-6,000 kg of seed, sufficient to plant 7is very hot sun or very heavy rains, protect the seed plot. Use a +/-50% shade net or traditional nursery covering made from banana or eucalyptus leaves on 1and footwear must be clean and disinfected to prevent the spread of diseases • To disinfect metal tools, use a panga to scrape off the dirt, then apply fire or soapy water• Work in the seed plot immediately after cleaning tools and boots • Then work in other plots after finishing work in the seed plot • Use separate sprayer for pest/disease management and for herbicides • Proper seed bed preparation improves the condition of the soil, allowing the roots and tubers to develop well • Clear the plot by cutting and removing existing vegetation • Measure and demarcate the seed plot using a sisal string and wooden sticks: 3.9 m by 7.8 m for 100 rooted apical cuttings • Plough the plot under the seed beds to a depth of 20-30 cm • Raise the seed beds up to 5-10 cm high to improve water drainage • Rake the raised seed beds well to break up soil clumps 3source of the manure or compost to avoid disease spread • Never use kitchen compost containing potato, tomato or other solanaceous crops • Chemical fertilizer, like NPK, can be used to adjust the soil fertility, but ideally application should be based on soil analysis and recommendations • Ensure equal distribution of NPK 14-23-14 on the seed beds (200 kg per acre or 50 g per m 2 ) "},{"text":"•• Keep the cuttings wellwatered right after planting until they are well-established; yield loss will be significant if the crop is not well-watered • Depending on sun exposure and temperature, water the seed plot once or twice a day • Close monitoring is very important as there are no strict watering rules • Monitor the seed plot every few days for diseases and pests • Most common diseases are late blight and bacterial wilt Insects • Always keep tubers covered with soil to avoid exposure to insects • In their larval stage, cutworms cut young potato stems, mostly at night. Cutworms are found near the cut stems and can be killed by hand or by spraying Rocket insecticide • In some areas, treating for cutworms at planting is essential otherwise there can be complete loss from cutworm damage Fungal diseases • Late blight, a fungal disease, infects the leaves, stems and tubers • The disease risk is high in cool and wet weather • Infected plants have brown spots within yellow halos (circles) • Late blight is treated with chemicals. First spray a contact fungicide (Mancozeb), then alternate spraying contact and systemic (Ridomil) fungicides • Read well and respect the instructions on the chemicals' packaging • Wear protective clothing when spraying Viral diseases • Many types of viruses can be transmitted by direct contact or insects • Infected potato plants can often show multiple symptoms (abnormal growth, stunting, leaves with mosaic, curled leaves, etc.) due to infection by several viruses at a time • Uproot and dispose of plants showing disease symptoms• Seed beds should run across the slope of sloping terrain, following its contour to reduce soil Bacterial wilt, a soil and seed borne disease, causes potato plants to wilt, even when there is enough soil moisture • The seed plot should be free of bacterial wilt • Disease spread can only be reduced through good management practices like good crop rotation; using quality cuttings or seed tubers; using clean footwear and tools; limiting access to the seed plot; avoiding water run-off; and uprooting wilting plants with soil around the roots and disposing of them in a pit as far as possible from potato plots 8demarcate the 2-row seed beds: 0.9 m wide and 7.8 m long • Seed beds should not exceed 1.2 m width to ease maintenance • Leave a spacing of 0.7 m between each seed bed; more spacing helps in the dry season, plant each cutting in a depression to retain water and avoid run-off "},{"text":" Good Practices for Planting, Maintenance, Harvesting and Storage of Tubers  "}],"sieverID":"31f04a90-dc38-4c26-afec-7c85b89595a5","abstract":""}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"036c134fbe89174d7eb3d544c3796cfb","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/f5e937a3-c594-4dff-95d6-23c399ebb582/retrieve"},"pageCount":18,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Executive summary","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":106,"text":"Food systems are a foundation of human and planetary well-being and central to achieving the Sustainable Development Goals. Yet they also contribute to ill health, inequity, environmental degradation, and greenhouse gas emissions. These challenges demand urgent food systems transformation. Such a transformation requires understanding the status of food systems across their diverse functions. The Food Systems Countdown Initiative (\"the Countdown\") aims to enable this understanding by monitoring the state of food systems transformation through relevant data, independent of any established monitoring processes. Such monitoring can help align decision makers around key priorities, incentivize action, hold stakeholders accountable, sustain commitment by demonstrating progress, and enable course corrections."},{"index":2,"size":217,"text":"The Countdown is an interdisciplinary collaboration of scientists that emerged from the 2021 United Nations Food Systems Summit. Over a two-year process, the collaboration developed a framework to monitor food systems that includes five themes: (1) diets, nutrition, and health; (2) environment, natural resources, and production; (3) livelihoods, poverty, and equity; (4) governance; and (5) resilience. The Countdown then used a rigorous, multistakeholder process to arrive at 50 indicators to monitor change across these five themes. The 50 indicators provide a comprehensive yet concise picture of food systems. They also reveal data gaps that need to be filled for better future food systems monitoring. This first annual Countdown report depicts the current state of national food systems, providing a baseline that can be used to guide priorities for investment, research, and policymaking and assess future progress. The Countdown baseline data show that the world's food systems face many shared challenges. For example, in 54 countries (of 140 with data), over half the population cannot afford a healthy diet. Only 29 countries (of 187 with data) explicitly recognize the right to food, and only 4 countries approach equitable distribution of landownership between men and women. There is also considerable inequality in indicator performance across countries (and likely within countries, although subnational dimensions are not yet systematically tracked globally)."},{"index":3,"size":104,"text":"While every country shows relatively strong performance in some parts of its food systems, no country, region, or income group shows such performance for all 50 indicators. For example, low-and middle-income countries generally lack sufficient fruits and vegetables to allow their populations to meet dietary recommendations, while high-income countries have widespread availability of the ultra-processed foods that are associated with poor health outcomes. Additionally, health-related food taxes exist in 38 countries spread across all continents and income groups but are absent in most. This variation in countries across income levels and regions indicates that there are considerable opportunities for regional collaboration and cross-country learning."},{"index":4,"size":68,"text":"Although the Countdown has assembled a comprehensive set of food systems data, its work has also revealed many gaps in available data. Some gaps, like data on food loss and waste, cut across themes. Other gaps pertain to country coverage, food value chains beyond production, and livelihoods of food system workers other than farmers. These data gaps must be filled to better guide action to transform food systems."},{"index":5,"size":41,"text":"When interpreted with careful attention to the local context, the Countdown data provide a strong starting point for assessing food systems challenges as well as opportunities to secure access to healthy diets and good livelihoods for all while ensuring environmental sustainability."}]},{"head":"Introduction","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":52,"text":"Food systems are a foundation of human and planetary well-being-while at the same time contributing to ill health, inequity, environmental degradation, and greenhouse gas emissions. To transform them to do better requires tracking the performance of food systems across their diverse functions and using that information to incentivize action and support accountability."},{"index":2,"size":203,"text":"The Food Systems Countdown Initiative (\"the Countdown\") was established to meet this need. It is an interdisciplinary collaboration of dozens of scientists from civil society, academia, and the United Nations (UN) who came together after the 2021 UN Food Systems Summit (UNFSS) process. By monitoring a set of indicators selected through a consultative process, its annual publications will support evidence-based policymaking and accountability to achieve essential food system transformation. The effort is independent of any established monitoring processes. a. Food systems are \"all the people, places, and practices that contribute to the production, capture or harvest, processing, distribution, retail, consumption, and disposal of food.\" 1 Food systems are complex to analyze because they are dynamic, characterized by interactions and feedback loops across their different parts, and closely connected with other systems. The term \"food systems\" is used in line with the UNFSS language. However, the Countdown indicator framework considers broader agrifood systems encompassing activities and processes related to nonfood agricultural products (such as forestry, fibers, and biofuels) that are interconnected with food for human consumption. Many indicators cannot distinguish food and nonfood components of production and value addition, and nonfood components greatly influence the environment, social outcomes, and the food people ultimately eat."},{"index":3,"size":63,"text":"This report-the first in a planned annual series-is a first step. It presents the Countdown indicators depicting the current state of national food systems. In doing so, it provides a starting point for future work to identify where things can be done better, provide ideas for how to get there, and inspire stakeholders (in particular, policymakers) that progress can and must be made."}]},{"head":"The need for food systems transformation","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":82,"text":"Food systems are essential for sustainable development and connected to all 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). a Employing over a billion people, 2 food systems fundamentally shape lives. As our source of food, they underpin human health and the prevention of disease and are central to cultural traditions globally. Food systems that are sustainable also contribute to planetary health by supporting ecosystems that provide necessary services, like crop pollination and biodiversity. Their development has contributed to great gains for humanity throughout history."},{"index":2,"size":134,"text":"At the same time, food systems face and contribute to significant challenges. Sufficient, safe, and nutritious food is not accessible to all: in 2022, 735 million people were undernourished and 3.1 billion could not afford healthy diets. 3 People's diets are generally too low in healthy foods (including legumes, vegetables, and fish, among others) and too high in unhealthy foods (like ultra-processed foods). Every country struggles with at least one form of malnutrition, from undernutrition to diet-related noncommunicable disease, and many countries suffer from more than one. Unsafe food causes more than half a million cases of illness a year. 4 Moreover, food system workers commonly earn low incomes and face poor working conditions, and many food supply chains are characterized by power imbalances, which contribute to inequities in livelihoods and access to food."},{"index":3,"size":100,"text":"Food system activities are both drivers of environmental degradation and vulnerable to that degradation. Food systems use about 40% of global ice-free land 5 and up to 55% of ocean area, 6 use about 70% of global freshwater, 7 and account for about 30% of greenhouse gas emissions due to human activities. 8 Food systems also contribute to land and water pollution and biodiversity loss. And vulnerabilities within food systems are heightened by shocks, such as pandemics, economic recessions, conflicts, and natural disasters. However, food systems also offer a powerful lever for mitigating climate change and averting further environmental catastrophe."}]},{"head":"box 1. THE COUNTDOWN AND THE SDGs","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":91,"text":"The Countdown indicators share some overlap with the SDGs, underscoring the relevance of the sustainable development agenda for food systems transformation. However, the SDG framework is incomplete when it comes to food systems monitoring, which was not a mainstream approach when the SDGs were developed. Five (of 240) SDG indicators are specific to food systems and meet the criteria for inclusion in the Countdown; all are included here. Three more SDG indicators-for sustainable agriculture, food loss and waste, and women's agricultural landownership-will be added to the Countdown when data become available."},{"index":2,"size":29,"text":"As food systems become more widely understood, some of the Countdown indicators that are not in the SDG indicators could be considered for the next set of global goals."},{"index":3,"size":35,"text":"These food system challenges mean that transformation is urgently needed to make food systems true supporters of human and planetary health, providers of high-quality and equitable livelihoods, and resilient to increasingly frequent shocks and stresses."},{"index":4,"size":135,"text":"Recognition of the importance of food systems was boosted by both the 2021 UNFSS and the recent and upcoming UN Climate Change Conferences of the Parties (COPs), increasing the momentum behind food systems transformation. But monitoring will be needed to ensure that transformation efforts are directed at the most relevant food systems components and that intentions translate into action. This means tracking the performance of food systems across their diverse dimensions. Monitoring can help align food system actors around key priorities, incentivize action, hold stakeholders accountable, sustain commitment by demonstrating progress, and enable course corrections. A focus on food systems, specifically, can complement other monitoring efforts (Box 1). An independent monitoring framework is particularly essential as it avoids real and perceived conflicts of interest that could limit the effectiveness of monitoring and any subsequent actions."},{"index":5,"size":50,"text":"The Countdown aims to meet this need by independently monitoring the state of food systems transformation using the best available data, selected through a rigorous process. In other words, it will assess where food systemsrelated global goals are being achieved, commitments are being realized, and policies are having an impact."}]},{"head":"The Countdown: People, framework, and methods","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":81,"text":"The Countdown is composed of a broad and geographically diverse group of researchers from various disciplines and types of institutions, including UN agencies, academia, and civil society (a full list is available on the Countdown website). This diversity of participation is central to its strength, as the Countdown aims not only to consider food systems comprehensively across domains but also to ensure that these analyses are sensitive to stakeholder needs and local food system contexts, which vary widely around the world."},{"index":2,"size":111,"text":"The Countdown framework for monitoring food systems comprises five themes that address the challenges and benefits of food systems described above. 1 Three themes focus on the outcomes of food systems-(1) diets, nutrition, and health; (2) environment, natural resources, and production; and (3) livelihoods, poverty, and equity-and two cross-cutting areas focus on (4) governance and (5) resilience. These themes arose from systematic analysis of food systems guided by the food systems framework of the High-Level Panel of Experts of the Committee on World Food Security of the UN, 9 as well as established global goals, the entry points for change, and the processes and capacities needed to bring about that change."},{"index":3,"size":56,"text":"Within each theme, Countdown collaborators identified a set of indicator groups (Figure 1) and then used a multistakeholder consultative process to identify indicators to track within each domain (Box 2). The aim was to provide the most comprehensive yet concise picture of food systems possible, given available data and with practical uses in mind (Box 3). "}]},{"head":"Governance","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":28,"text":"S h ar ed vi si on an d str ate gic plann ing • E ective implem enta tion • Ac co un ta bi lit y"}]},{"head":"Environment, natural resources, and production","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":11,"text":"Greenhouse gas emissions Production Land use, water use Biosphere integrity Pollution"}]},{"head":"Livelihoods, poverty, and equity","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":7,"text":"Poverty and income Employment Social protection Rights"}]},{"head":"Diets, nutrition, and health","index":9,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Food environments","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":118,"text":"Food security Diet quality Second, all potential indicators that met the initial screening criteria were assessed to ensure they met criteria of relevance, high quality, interpretability, and usefulness. To do this, the Countdown conducted an online survey of all Countdown collaborators and more than two dozen external experts. Respondents were asked to rate each indicator's relevance, quality, and interpretability and provide qualitative feedback on its importance. The external experts were also asked to suggest additional data sources and highlight any gaps they observed in the indicators, along with recommendations to fill those gaps. Third, crucial input on regional priorities and policy utility was obtained through regional consultations with policy stakeholders, led by the UN Food and Agriculture Organization."},{"index":2,"size":53,"text":"Over 500 experts and government officials participated. Participants were asked to assess the relevance of the indicators, share regional priorities, and suggest alternative indicators and data sources. The combined consultation and survey led to the addition of 12 new indicators to the indicator framework-and also revealed certain gaps that could not be filled."},{"index":3,"size":119,"text":"Based on the results of this assessment process, Countdown working groups used the survey scores and the input from policy actors to identify the final indicators for each theme, resulting in the indicators presented here. These were assembled into a comprehensive dataset, including all available years of data for all UN Member States, going back to 1960 for certain indicators. For this report, we focus on a baseline dataset that includes the most recent data point for each country. (In most cases, data are from 2017-2022, with only 1% of data coming from before 2010). We use the World Bank's country income classification to identify countries by income group. Full methodological details are available in the published, peer-reviewed article.  "}]},{"head":"A snapshot of global food systems in 50 indicators","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":127,"text":"Through the process described above, we agreed upon 50 indicators that jointly provide a snapshot of the current state of food systems across all five themes (Table 1). These 50 indicators include some that are well established, such as greenhouse gas emissions and the prevalence of hunger, as well as others that are relatively new or even created by the Countdown, such as the share of the urban population living in cities that have  While many goals are common across food systems, some are context specific. Moreover, for some indicators, the desirable direction of change depends on the starting point and the structure of the food system. As such, when used for decision making, the Countdown results should be interpreted with careful attention to the local context."},{"index":2,"size":39,"text":"Still, the Countdown global baseline data make it clear that the world's food systems face many shared challengesbut also that there is considerable diversity across countries. Indeed, no country, region, or income group shows desirable values for all indicators."},{"index":3,"size":203,"text":"Diets, nutrition, and health. Looking at indicators of the food environment-the interface between individuals and the food system-there is clearly considerable global inequality in terms of critical factors that shape whether people can choose to eat healthy diets. In general, low-and middleincome countries (LMICs) struggle to have adequate supply of foods from the healthy food groups (fruits, vegetables, and animal-source foods, among others) to meet dietary recommendations. For example, the global median for vegetable availability is 210 grams per person per day, but for low-income countries vegetable availability averages just 128 grams per person per day, and in two of those countries, daily per-person availability is less than 20 grams. In contrast, higher-income countries have widespread availability of nutrient-poor ultra-processed foods, consumption of which is widely associated with negative health outcomes. While a healthy diet costs about the same amount across most countries, incomes vary widely. Thus, healthy diets are mostly unaffordable in LMICs: in 54 countries (of 140 with data), more than half the population is estimated to not be able to afford a healthy diet (compared with near zero in the highest-income countries), and in certain African countries, the share of the population that cannot afford a healthy diet exceeds 95%."},{"index":4,"size":19,"text":"It is urgent to address this inequality by making sure that all people, everywhere, have access to healthy diets."},{"index":5,"size":133,"text":"Environment, natural resources, and production. Total food system emissions are generally increasing and remain high, despite global commitments to reduce emissions and the pressing need to do so. Water withdrawals are stable or modestly decreasing everywhere, though they show considerable variation, from near zero to close to 100% of total renewable water resources in the Northern Africa and Western Asia region. Pesticide application has increased in many countries, with potential for increasing agricultural yields-but also for harming environmental and human health. In 20 countries, less than two-thirds of agricultural lands have sufficient integrity of agricultural ecosystems to maintain key activities like crop pollination, pest regulation, and soil protection. This underlines the importance of creating better protections for and incentives to maintain native ecosystems and biodiversity, necessary for the functioning of future food systems."},{"index":6,"size":179,"text":"Livelihoods, poverty, and equity. Data for this theme were particularly incomplete, but even a partial view of food systembased livelihoods suggests deep inequalities. Unemployment is common in urban areas, while underemployment is more prevalent in rural areas (where the population largely remains highly dependent on agriculture). Social protection programs can provide much-needed safety nets for food system workers, who may be vulnerable to low pay and seasonal unemployment, but coverage currently varies widely (from less than 10% of the population in 24 countries to over 90% in 3 countries). Even where there is adequate coverage, the level of benefits provided may be insufficient to make a meaningful difference, and informal and seasonal workers, who make up much of the food system labor force, are often excluded. Finally, data on access to land show how far is left to go in terms of empowering women within and beyond agriculture: only 4 countries approach equitable distribution of landownership between men and women, and in 18 countries (of 99 with data), the share of land owned by women is less than 10%."},{"index":7,"size":136,"text":"Governance. The Countdown's governance theme includes indicators specific to food systems as well as those that capture broader governance processes, which can have significant impacts on food systems. Whereas indicators of overall governance tend to track country income and are thus higher for higher-income countries, indicators more closely related to food systems vary considerably across regions and income groups. For example, only 29 countries explicitly recognize the right to food; several high-income countries are among those with no legal recognition. Similarly, healthrelated food taxes exist in just 38 countries spread across all continents and income groups. This diversity indicates the potential for countries from any region or income group to improve their food systems through better food-specific governance measures. At the same time, governance shortcomings beyond the food system may continue to constrain food system transformation."},{"index":8,"size":138,"text":"Resilience. The Countdown resilience indicators show considerable variation across countries: the effects of shocks on food systems differ widely by context, as does the way in which they are managed. Resilience indicators focus on capacity to respond; for example, mobile phone infrastructure-which enables people to share information to prepare for and respond to shocks-has become nearly ubiquitous over the past two decades, with 115 countries (of 186 with data) having more mobile subscriptions than they have population. Species diversity and conservation of genetic resources are highly skewed. Most countries have inadequate levels of agricultural biodiversity-a global median of just 14% of agricultural land attains a minimum level of species diversity. Most countries also have limited ability to increase diversity in the future through conserved genetic resources. But for both indicators, there are other countries with considerably higher levels."}]},{"head":"Food system indicators are closely, but not universally, associated with income level","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":188,"text":"Many aspects of food systems are associated with country income level. As shown in Figure 2, high-income countries tend to perform above average on most indicators, typically followed by middle-income and then low-income countries. However, there are numerous exceptions to these trends, in terms of both indicators where high-income countries perform worse, such as consumption of sugar-sweetened soft drinks and pesticide use, and indicators with unclear income patterns, such as greenhouse gas emissions intensity, health-related food taxes, and rural unemployment. Moreover, within every income group, some countries perform better than others. Among low-income countries, Mozambique, and Uganda rank near the global median across all indicatorsthat is, they are doing better than would be expected based on income alone. Kazakhstan, Nigeria, the Philippines, and Sri Lanka also tend to outrank their income-group peers. Identifying these positive outlier countries can enable learning from their approaches among poorer-performing countries. On the other end of the spectrum, several high-income countries rank worse than countries with fewer resources. And several Countdown indicators, such as sustainable nitrogen management, vegetable yields, or women's landholdings, do not show any clear connection with national gross domestic product."},{"index":2,"size":65,"text":"These results emphasize the importance of taking a food systems-specific approach to monitoring: the challenges and strengths of a country's food system cannot be assumed based just on income. They also confirm that countries across the income spectrum can realistically aspire to positive food system transformations-and that other countries, such as the high performers named above, may have useful lessons for how to do so.  "}]},{"head":"GLOBAL AVERAGE","index":13,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Food systems indicators show many consistent variations across regions","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":132,"text":"Figure 3 highlights patterns in selected Countdown food system outcome indicators across regions by showing a given region's deviation from the global average value in either a more desirable (rightward) or less desirable (leftward) direction. Indicators related to diets, nutrition, and health generally show clear regional patterns, with Sub-Saharan Africa, and to a lesser extent Southern Asia, tending to have less desirable values on most measures, while Northern America and Europe, Eastern Asia, and Oceania tend to perform better than the average. The exception to this is indicators related to sales of ultra-processed foods (though not shown in the figure, consumption of sugar-sweetened drinks and other foods and beverages that raise the risk for noncommunicable diseases also tends to be relatively high in Northern America and Europe and low in Southern Asia)."},{"index":2,"size":114,"text":"Environment, natural resources, and production indicators show a more mixed picture, with fewer consistent regional patterns. In general, each region has areas where it performs better and others where it performs worse. For example, Latin America and the Caribbean stands out for relatively low water use and more agricultural ecosystem function but also relatively high pesticide use-while the opposite is true for Southern Asia. Northern Africa and Western Asia also has very high relative levels of water use-but also relatively low food systems emissions. With regard to the efficiency of food production, Sub-Saharan Africa and Southern Asia tend to have relatively low yields, highlighting that agricultural productivity growth is still essential in these regions."},{"index":3,"size":47,"text":"Within livelihoods, poverty, and equity, Northern America and Europe and Eastern Asia tend to have relatively desirable levels on most indicators, particularly the strength of their social protection programs. Oceania and Sub-Saharan Africa tend to have relatively undesirable levels for most indicators. Other regions have mixed results."},{"index":4,"size":102,"text":"Figure 4 provides a similar depiction for selected Countdown cross-cutting theme indicators. For governance, Northern America and Europe again has generally better than average results-but also has the lowest share of countries with a national food system transformation pathway, suggesting an achievable regional priority for improvement. Northern Africa and Western Asia shows relatively undesirable governance indicator levels, while other regions' data paint a more mixed picture. Unlike in other domains, Eastern Asia tends to have average or lower than average levels for several indicators in this domain: improved governance could be its main area to focus on to improve food system performance."},{"index":5,"size":76,"text":"Overall, Sub-Saharan Africa has relatively low resilience capacities, as captured in the figure by the Social Capital Index and the Dietary Sourcing Flexibility Index, while those of Northern America and Europe are relatively high. Central Asia, Latin America and the Caribbean, and Northern Africa and Western Asia have relatively lower desirability on indicators related to agricultural and food diversity, while Southern Asia performs comparatively better, particularly regarding conservation of animal genetic resources for food and agriculture."},{"index":6,"size":86,"text":"There are strong regional patterns in certain aspects of food systems, with clear inequalities: generally, Northern America and Europe and Eastern Asia have relatively more desirable status for most indicators relative to other regions, while Sub-Saharan Africa and Southern Asia have relatively less desirable status. These patterns suggest the potential value of regional collaboration on shared challenges. At the same time, there are exceptions to the patterns: every region shows both weaknesses and strengths, and many regions have countries that rank relatively well across many indicators."},{"index":7,"size":68,"text":"Figure 3. Regional patterns in select Countdown food system outcome indicators. Bars show regional deviation from the global average in either a more desirable (rightward) or less desirable (leftward) direction. The data in the figures are scaled to enable comparison of variables that have different units on a common scale. The direction of some indicators has been adjusted so that each indicator has the same direction of desirability."}]},{"head":"There are serious gaps in the data available for monitoring food systems","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":255,"text":"The Countdown has assembled a comprehensive and crosscutting set of food systems data. However, its work has also made it clear that there are many gaps in the data available to monitor food systems. The 50 indicators presented here represent just those that met criteria for having available data for a sufficient number of countries; numerous potentially relevant indicators were excluded because they did not meet this threshold. In particular, there are insufficient country-level data on food loss and waste-a contributor to environmental unsustainability as well as to food unaffordability and unavailability. Food production and supply indicators mostly omit aquatic and wild foods, and most environmental indicators focus on production, excluding not only loss and waste but also pollution from processes further down the value chain, like packaging waste. There are no data for the true cost of food (that is, estimates that include costs beyond the market price, like the cost of environmental damage or treating diet-related diseases) or for the overall economic value of food systems. Many gaps exist with respect to livelihoods, including data about who works in food systems, their productivity, and their welfare, such as gender equity and violations of human rights in food systems. Finally, with respect to food systems governance, data gaps include policy coherence (that is, the alignment of policies across topics and levels of government) for food systems transformation and budgetary allocations to food systems. Some of these gaps will be filled with forthcoming SDG indicator data (see Box 1), but others remain to be addressed."},{"index":2,"size":102,"text":"There are also gaps in the extent to which the chosen indicators have data available across all countries and over time. Indicators associated with agricultural development, such as yields, and environmental indicators tend to have data for many countries over a long period of time. However, other indicators have much sparser coverage. These include diet quality and biodiversity, as well as most livelihood and resilience indicators. Several indicators are newly developed, meaning that there are currently no historical data to use to analyze change over time-though this may improve as the Countdown compiles these data going forward if new observations become available."},{"index":3,"size":71,"text":"Overall, Oceania is the region with the greatest scarcity in data, having very few diet quality indicators in particular. Several countries in the Northern Africa and Western Asia region also have low data availability. In general, countries with fewer indicators available are small island nations (such as Caribbean and Pacific islands), very small high-income countries (such as Brunei, Monaco, and Singapore), and countries recently experiencing conflict (such as Eritrea and Syria)."},{"index":4,"size":21,"text":"These critical data gaps must be filled to monitor the world's food systems and guide transformative action to support global goals."}]},{"head":"Conclusions and future work","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":64,"text":"Food systems transformation is urgently needed to support sustainable development and human well-being. Data and analyses that are accurate, timely, trusted, and accessible can support informed action and accountability. The Countdown baseline data demonstrate several key conclusions: y No country shows positive outcomes for all dimensions: across all levels of the income spectrum and all regions, there are opportunities for achievable food system transformation."},{"index":2,"size":27,"text":"y Within each income group, there are countries that outperform their peers on some or all aspects of food systems, pointing to significant opportunities for crosscountry learning."},{"index":3,"size":41,"text":"y There are vast differences in performance for many indicators across countries and regions; it is urgent to transform food systems to be more equitable and better able to provide access to healthy diets, good livelihoods, and environmental sustainability for all."},{"index":4,"size":41,"text":"y There are large data gaps when it comes to monitoring food systems. It is urgent for researchers and stakeholders to work together to prioritize and fill these gaps to improve our collective ability to implement and track food system transformation."},{"index":5,"size":82,"text":"Going forward, the Countdown collaborators aim for the Countdown analyses to be used by food system stakeholders to assess the status of their food systems, decide where to act to accelerate improvements in outcomes, and hold one another accountable for change. By leveraging these data, they should be able to galvanize and focus support-from government, business, and civil society-where it is most needed and sustain momentum in pursuing equitable and resilient food systems in which all have access to healthy, sustainable diets."},{"index":6,"size":87,"text":"An annual Countdown policy report will be based on a related peer-reviewed scientific paper to ensure that all recommendations are evidence based. Future annual reports will analyze interactions among food systems domains and outcomes: it will be essential to make the most of scarce resources by identifying ways to maximize synergies and mitigate tradeoffs. The Countdown collaborators will also identify indicator cutoffs that can be used to assess the performance of food systems around the world, thereby facilitating comparisons and learning across countries and accountability for progress."},{"index":7,"size":91,"text":"The collaborators aim to continuously make the Countdown work more useful for decision making by undertaking further analyses at regional, national, and subnational levels, working with key partners in each theme and at the country level, and to make the report more useful for the private sector, which is a key engine of food systems change. Finally, the Countdown will identify and prioritize gaps in indicators, data, and research to support food system transformation-hoping to inspire other researchers to help fill them and provide further guidance to decision makers across sectors."},{"index":8,"size":53,"text":"As these baseline data make clear, the transformation of food systems remains an urgent priority-and there are many opportunities for making concrete progress toward positive outcomes through evidence-based actions. Guided by highquality data and rigorous analysis, such progress can yield more equitable food systems that enable sustainable human and planetary health and well-being."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure 1 . Figure 1. Countdown themes and indicator groups. Outer shapes refer to cross-cutting themes. Interior circles refer to long-term outcomes. "},{"text":"box 2 . METHODOLOGY TO SELECT AND ANALYZE THE COUNTDOWN INDICATORSIndicators were selected through a multistage process involving several groups of stakeholders. First, Countdown thematic working groups drafted a list of potential indicators. This initial list was screened for feasibility (are recent data in the public domain, and are they expected to be updated within the next eight years?), coverage (are data available for at least 70 countries across regions and income levels?), and transparency (do all modeled indicators have clear methodologies?). "},{"text":"box 3 . USES OF THE COUNTDOWN DATA The Countdown data and framework have several potential uses: y Global monitoring of food systems. The baseline data provide a starting point for global monitoring of food systems and serve as inputs for considering what changes in indicator values are achievable, along which time frames. "},{"text":"Food 2 ) 1 ) price volatility and Food supply variability: How much food prices and the food supply (in calories per person per day) vary over time, indicating how well the food system can respond to shocks (Conserved genetic resources (plants and animals): Number of plant and animal genetic resources for food and agriculture secured in medium-or long-term conservation facilities (2) (SDG 2.5.Mobile phone subscriptions: Number of mobile phone subscriptions as a percentage of the population, indicating the level of infrastructure and access to information to respond to shocks Extreme coping strategies: Percentage of high-risk populations who need to rely on extreme strategies to cope with food insecurity Social Capital Index: An index for the social capital in the country-how much people feel they can trust and can rely on their government and one another Minimum species diversity: Percentage of agricultural land (crop and pasture) containing a sufficient diversity of species, which helps cope with shocks and changes Note: Numbers in parentheses indicate where there are multiple indicators or sub-indicators. Complete indicator descriptions are available in the peer-reviewed article. "},{"text":"Figure 2 . Figure2. Summary of indicator performance by country income group. Dots show each income group's deviation from the global average in either a more desirable (rightward) or less desirable (leftward) direction. The data in the figures are scaled to enable comparison of variables that have different units on a common scale. The direction of some indicators has been adjusted so that each indicator has the same direction of desirability. Descriptions of the indicators appear in Table1. NCD = noncommunicable disease. Pop. = population. GDP = gross domestic product. "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":" Other efforts to monitor certain aspects of food systems include INFORMAS, which covers 58 countries and focuses on actions to support food environments, particularly as related to the prevention of obesity and diet-related noncommunicable diseases; the Comprehensive African Agricultural Development Programme (CAADP) Biannual Review process, which tracks progress in African agricultural development; and the Food Sustainability Index of the Economist Intelligence Unit, which monitors 67 countries based on nutrition, sustainable agriculture, and food loss and waste.signed onto the Milan Urban Food Policy Pact, which is the leading international tool for urban food policy governance. They include indicators that are specific to food systems, such as crop yields, as well as those that are not but have clear influence on the enabling environment for food systems transformation, such as the Government Effectiveness Index, which measures the quality of public services, the civil service, and policy formulation, implementation, and credibility. The indicators cover every domain within each theme, providing by far the most comprehensive databased depiction of food systems available to date. b Livelihoods, poverty, and equity  Livelihoods, poverty, and equity Share of agriculture in GDP: Percentage Female share of landholdings: Percentage Social protection adequacy: An indicator Share of agriculture in GDP: PercentageFemale share of landholdings: PercentageSocial protection adequacy: An indicator of a country's GDP derived from agriculture, of land for which the primary decision maker showing the extent to which social protection of a country's GDP derived from agriculture,of land for which the primary decision makershowing the extent to which social protection a measure of the level of economic is female is sufficient to meet household needs a measure of the level of economicis femaleis sufficient to meet household needs development of the country   development of the country  Rural unemployment and Rural Social protection coverage: Percentage of Rural unemployment and RuralSocial protection coverage: Percentage of Child labor: Percentage of children ages underemployment: Percentage of people who live in households that benefit Child labor: Percentage of children agesunderemployment: Percentage ofpeople who live in households that benefit 5-17 who are engaged in child labor, the working-age people in rural areas who are from social protection programs, like cash 5-17 who are engaged in child labor, theworking-age people in rural areas who arefrom social protection programs, like cash majority of which is known to be in the food unemployed or underemployed (i.e., worked transfers and health insurance majority of which is known to be in the foodunemployed or underemployed (i.e., workedtransfers and health insurance system and specifically in agriculture fewer hours than expected) (2)  system and specifically in agriculturefewer hours than expected) (2) Governance   Governance Public access to information: Whether the National food system transformation Open Budget Index: A score based on how Public access to information: Whether theNational food system transformationOpen Budget Index: A score based on how country has and implements guarantees for pathway: Whether the country has easily the public can access information country has and implements guarantees forpathway: Whether the country haseasily the public can access information access to information (SDG 16.10.2) Table 1. The Countdown indicators developed a food system transformation pathway through the UNFSS process about how the government raises and spends money access to information (SDG 16.10.2) Table 1. The Countdown indicatorsdeveloped a food system transformation pathway through the UNFSS processabout how the government raises and spends money Accountability Index: An index capturing   Accountability Index: An index capturing the extent to which the government is seen Diets, nutrition, and health as being accountable for its actions Government Effectiveness Index: An index capturing the perception of how Urban population living in cities signed on to the Milan Urban Food Policy Pact: the extent to which the government is seen Diets, nutrition, and health as being accountable for its actionsGovernment Effectiveness Index: An index capturing the perception of howUrban population living in cities signed on to the Milan Urban Food Policy Pact:  effective the government is in making and Percentage of the urban population that lives effective the government is in making andPercentage of the urban population that lives Access to safe water: Share of the population that gets drinking water from an improved source, providing the clean water essential for food security (SDG 6.1.1) Consumption of all five food groups: Share of the adult population consuming all five food groups typically recommended for daily consumption Civil Society Participation Index: An indicator capturing the level of participation in civil society organizations Food safety capacity: Whether functioning mechanisms exist to detect and respond to foodborne disease issues, measured as the percentage of a set of criteria met Availability of fruits and vegetables: Amounts of fruits and vegetables-an underconsumed yet highly nutritious food group-available in a country's food supply per capita per day (2) Minimum dietary diversity for women (MDD-W) and Minimum dietary diversity for infants and young children (MDD-enforcing policies and providing services Health-related food taxes: Whether the country has any health-related food taxes, which are used to discourage consumption of unhealthy foods in cities signed on to the Milan Urban Food Prevalence of undernourishment: Share Policy Pact, suggesting prioritization of food of the population that goes hungry-that is, issues in urban planning lacks enough calories for a healthy, active life (SDG 2.1.1) Sugar-sweetened soft drink Degree of legal recognition of the right to food: An indicator that classifies countries by the extent to which national laws or consumption: Share of adults who policies recognize or enact people's right to consumed a sugar-sweetened soft drink, which are generally known to be unhealthy, sufficient food Access to safe water: Share of the population that gets drinking water from an improved source, providing the clean water essential for food security (SDG 6.1.1) Consumption of all five food groups: Share of the adult population consuming all five food groups typically recommended for daily consumption Civil Society Participation Index: An indicator capturing the level of participation in civil society organizations Food safety capacity: Whether functioning mechanisms exist to detect and respond to foodborne disease issues, measured as the percentage of a set of criteria metAvailability of fruits and vegetables: Amounts of fruits and vegetables-an underconsumed yet highly nutritious food group-available in a country's food supply per capita per day (2) Minimum dietary diversity for women (MDD-W) and Minimum dietary diversity for infants and young children (MDD-enforcing policies and providing services Health-related food taxes: Whether the country has any health-related food taxes, which are used to discourage consumption of unhealthy foodsin cities signed on to the Milan Urban Food Prevalence of undernourishment: Share Policy Pact, suggesting prioritization of food of the population that goes hungry-that is, issues in urban planning lacks enough calories for a healthy, active life (SDG 2.1.1) Sugar-sweetened soft drink Degree of legal recognition of the right to food: An indicator that classifies countries by the extent to which national laws or consumption: Share of adults who policies recognize or enact people's right to consumed a sugar-sweetened soft drink, which are generally known to be unhealthy, sufficient food Population who cannot afford a healthy diet: Share of the population whose food Resilience IYCF): Share of women (or young children) who consumed at least the minimum recommended food groups the previous day, during the previous day Ultra-processed food sales: Annual per- Population who cannot afford a healthy diet: Share of the population whose food ResilienceIYCF): Share of women (or young children) who consumed at least the minimum recommended food groups the previous day,during the previous day Ultra-processed food sales: Annual per- budget is less than the cost of a healthy diet which makes it more likely they consume person sales of ultra-processed foods, budget is less than the cost of a healthy dietwhich makes it more likely they consumeperson sales of ultra-processed foods, Cost of a healthy diet: Per-person cost of the least expensive locally available foods to meet daily needs, based on food-based Disaster costs as share of GDP: Cost of all damage from natural disasters, as a percentage of GDP adequate micronutrients (2) NCD-Protect: Average score for adults on an indicator of dietary practices protective which are known to be associated with poor health outcomes Zero fruit or vegetable consumption: Cost of a healthy diet: Per-person cost of the least expensive locally available foods to meet daily needs, based on food-based Disaster costs as share of GDP: Cost of all damage from natural disasters, as a percentage of GDPadequate micronutrients (2) NCD-Protect: Average score for adults on an indicator of dietary practices protectivewhich are known to be associated with poor health outcomes Zero fruit or vegetable consumption: dietary guidelines against noncommunicable diseases, like Share of the population (adults or young dietary guidelinesagainst noncommunicable diseases, likeShare of the population (adults or young Population experiencing moderate or eating enough fiber, on a scale from 0 to 9 children) who did not consume any fruits or vegetables the previous day (2) Population experiencing moderate oreating enough fiber, on a scale from 0 to 9children) who did not consume any fruits or vegetables the previous day (2) severe food insecurity: Share of the population experiencing food insecurity, NCD-Risk: Average score for adults on an indicator of dietary practices known to raise  severe food insecurity: Share of the population experiencing food insecurity,NCD-Risk: Average score for adults on an indicator of dietary practices known to raise measured according to the Food Insecurity the risk of noncommunicable diseases, like  measured according to the Food Insecuritythe risk of noncommunicable diseases, like Experience Scale (FIES) (SDG 2.1.2) eating too much sugar, on a scale from 0 to 9  Experience Scale (FIES) (SDG 2.1.2)eating too much sugar, on a scale from 0 to 9 Environment, natural resources, and production  Environment, natural resources, and production Agricultural water withdrawal: Water Fisheries Health Index: An indicator Pesticide use: The use of pesticides per Agricultural water withdrawal: WaterFisheries Health Index: An indicatorPesticide use: The use of pesticides per withdrawn for irrigation each year, as a summarizing the availability and area of cropland (kg active ingredient per withdrawn for irrigation each year, as asummarizing the availability andarea of cropland (kg active ingredient per percentage of the total renewable water sustainability of fish, which are at risk of hectare); pesticide use can cause pollution percentage of the total renewable watersustainability of fish, which are at risk ofhectare); pesticide use can cause pollution resources available overfishing or environmental degradation and harm health resources availableoverfishing or environmental degradationand harm health Cropland expansion: Average percentage Food systems greenhouse gas emissions: Sustainable nitrogen management: A Cropland expansion: Average percentageFood systems greenhouse gas emissions:Sustainable nitrogen management: A change in cropland over the previous five years; expanding cropland is a major driver of Greenhouse gas emissions (kt CO 2 equivalents) from food systems measure of the environmental efficiency of agricultural production change in cropland over the previous five years; expanding cropland is a major driver ofGreenhouse gas emissions (kt CO 2 equivalents) from food systemsmeasure of the environmental efficiency of agricultural production biodiversity and ecosystem service loss and   biodiversity and ecosystem service loss and greenhouse gas emissions Agricultural ecosystem function: Food product yield, by food group: Yield, greenhouse gas emissionsAgricultural ecosystem function:Food product yield, by food group: Yield,  Percentage of agricultural land area with or production per unit area (tonnes per Percentage of agricultural land area withor production per unit area (tonnes per Greenhouse gas emissions intensity, by enough semi-natural or natural habitat, hectare) or per animal (kg per animal)-an Greenhouse gas emissions intensity, byenough semi-natural or natural habitat,hectare) or per animal (kg per animal)-an product group: Greenhouse gas emissions relative to the amount of cropland or indicator of how efficient production is (5) product group: Greenhouse gas emissionsrelative to the amount of cropland orindicator of how efficient production is (5) (kg CO 2 equivalents) per kilogram produced of certain important food commodities (4) rangeland, to maintain biodiversity and functioning ecosystems  (kg CO 2 equivalents) per kilogram produced of certain important food commodities (4)rangeland, to maintain biodiversity and functioning ecosystems  "},{"text":"Table 1 . NCD = noncommunicable disease. Pop. = population. GDP = gross domestic product. Access to safe water Access to safe water Consumed all ve food groups Consumed all ve food groups Cannot a ord a healthy diet Cannot a ord a healthy diet Cost of a healthy diet Cost of a healthy diet Pop. experiencing food insecurity Pop. experiencing food insecurity Fruit availability Fruit availability Vegetable availability Vegetable availability Minimum dietary diversity, women Minimum dietary diversity, women Minimum dietary diversity, children Minimum dietary diversity, children NCD−Protect NCD−Protect NCD−Risk NCD−Risk Prevalence of undernourishment Prevalence of undernourishment Soft drink consumption Soft drink consumption Ultra−processed food sales Ultra−processed food sales Zero fruits or vegetables, adults Zero fruits or vegetables, adults Zero fruits or vegetables, children Zero fruits or vegetables, children Agricultural water withdrawal Agricultural water withdrawal Cropland expansion Cropland expansion Emissions intensity, beef Emissions intensity, beef Emissions intensity, cereals (excl rice) Emissions intensity, cereals (excl rice) Emissions intensity, milk Emissions intensity, milk Emissions intensity, rice Emissions intensity, rice Fisheries Health Index Fisheries Health Index Food systems emissions Food systems emissions Agricultural ecosystem function Agricultural ecosystem function Pesticide use Pesticide use Sustainable nitrogen management Sustainable nitrogen management Yield, beef Yield, beef Yield, cereals Yield, cereals Yield, fruit Yield, fruit Yield, milk Yield, milk Yield, vegetables Yield, vegetables  "}],"sieverID":"a78cf662-4b6c-4b62-a2cd-4e10aa187ad4","abstract":"Professorship program, and the Dutch Ministry of Foreign Affairs. The funders had no role in data analysis, report preparation, or the decision to publish. All authors had access to the data presented. The findings and conclusions contained within are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect positions or policies of Columbia University, Cornell University, FAO, or GAIN."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"03e74264f4f530e97d9764c3196b3599","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/d4b56b53-ed8f-4a6d-b93c-1ac821889b60/retrieve"},"pageCount":14,"title":"Minimum sample size for the SRFA tool","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Resources for using the seed regulatory framework analysis","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":7,"text":"Steps for using seed regulatory framework analysis"},{"index":2,"size":24,"text":"Step 1. Literature review of prior work in the social and biological sciences on strengthening quality assurance systems for VPC seed production and distribution"},{"index":3,"size":23,"text":"Step 2. Document analysis to review and analyze public policies, regulations, rules, and guidelines for quality assurance of VPC seed production and distribution"},{"index":4,"size":25,"text":"Step 3. Secondary data analysis, drawing on data related to seed use, sources, prices, and related information contained in existing household, farm, and market surveys"}]},{"head":"Steps seed regulatory framework analysis","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":2,"text":"Step 4. "}]},{"head":"Limitations of the seed regulatory framework analysis","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":28,"text":"The tool does not generate quantitative data on the cost effectiveness of different policy options, but explores trade-offs between risk of spread of disease and cost of regulation "}]}],"figures":[{"text":" Number of people: 2 people each in 2 teams per production area Equipment: internet, vehicles, location for workshops or focus group discussions Expertise: agricultural economics, gender and other social science expertise, biophysical science Timing & duration for the seed regulatory framework analysis During scoping & design of an intervention & evaluation to draw lessons Two weeks data collection, one-month analysis and write up "},{"text":" This tool opens opportunities for discussion on appropriate levels of seed regulation -one size doesn't fit all crops & contexts! Use of results in Kenya: drafting of separate regulations for VPC seed, and proposed use of \"standard seed\" class to allow more generations & thus economies of scaleGatto, M., Le, P. D., Pacillo, G., Maredia, M., Labarta, R., Hareau, G., & Spielman, D. J. (2021). Policy options for advancing seed systems for vegetatively propagated crops in Vietnam. Journal of Crop Improvement, 1-27. Spielman, D. J., Gatto, M., Wossen, T., McEwan, M., Abdoulaye, T., Maredia, M. K., & Hareau, G. (2021). Regulatory options to improve seed systems for vegetatively propagated crops in developing countries. IFPRI Discussion Paper 02029. International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI). Washington, DC. McEwan, M. A., Spielman, D. J., Okello, J., Hareau, G., Bartle, B., Mbiri, D., Atieno, E., Omondi, B. A., Wossen, T., Cortada, L., Abdoulaye, T., & Maredia, M. (2021). Exploring the regulatory space for improving availability, access and quality of vegetatively propagated crop seed: potato in Kenya. RTB Working Paper. No. 2021-1. CGIAR Research Program on Roots, Tubers and Bananas (RTB). Lima, Peru. "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"that can be used to apply the SRFA  The implementation of seed policies, and regulatory The implementation of seed policies, and regulatory frameworks have differential impact on seed producers and frameworks have differential impact on seed producers and seed users depending on socio-economic status, age, and seed users depending on socio-economic status, age, and gender gender Purposive selection of key informants, and sex disaggregated Purposive selection of key informants, and sex disaggregated focus group discussions can be used to capture different focus group discussions can be used to capture different perspectives perspectives Policy formulation processes: elite capture, or inclusive? Policy formulation processes: elite capture, or inclusive?  "}],"sieverID":"91d6ef2e-8ee9-445a-94b5-7a6690c8d261","abstract":"Purposive selection of different seed system stakeholders e.g., 20-40 organizations. 40-70 individuals From: public and private sector scientists and technicians working on quality planting material of VPCs, public regulators of VPC seed, industry experts, entrepreneurs, traders, seed importers, NGOs, or others who produce, distribute or market VPC seed, and farmers and leaders of their associations who produce, use, or buy VPC seed Thank you Contact person"}

data/part_3/043033ccaea06920dea45f2fd6cd7ab6.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"043033ccaea06920dea45f2fd6cd7ab6","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/0f99cb5e-16b2-4d6e-849c-82b71af230f6/retrieve"},"pageCount":10,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":79,"text":"Around 37 ACP countries are involved in exporting fruit and vegetables to the EU, accounting for some 13% of EU imports. While competition from non-ACP suppliers is increasing as new EU trade agreements are implemented, the impact of this competition varies considerably from product to product. A detailed analysis is therefore required, to determine the likely impact on ACP suppliers, of each new trade agreement, the existing markets served and investment trends. The restructuring challenges can then be assessed."},{"index":2,"size":76,"text":"The stricter application of EU sanitary and phyto-sanitary (SPS) standards and moves towards full recovery of inspection costs are reducing the attractiveness of the EU market. This is encouraging a policy emphasis on market diversification, although this remains challenging at the company level. Transport and logistical developments play an important role in the scope for market diversification, although securing SPS approvals remains a prerequisite for exports to begin. This can be a long and expensive process."},{"index":3,"size":36,"text":"In the Caribbean particular challenges are posed in 2013 by US proposals to strengthen rules on imports of fresh fruit and vegetables; in the Pacific continued problems of SPS approvals are faced on the Australian market."},{"index":4,"size":40,"text":"There is scope for pan-ACP cooperation across a range of issues of growing significance in the fruit and vegetable sector, including: establishing structures for dialogue about the design and implementation of SPS and food safety controls, and update October 2013"},{"index":5,"size":97,"text":"Fruit and vegetable sector 1. Background and key issues The question arises: what are likely to be the net revenue consequences for ACP fruit and vegetable exporters of sustainability certification becoming the industry norm? ACP exporters could face higher certification costs and downward pressure on prices as more and more traders and retailers compete in supplying certified sustainable fruit and vegetable products. Any disappearance of price premiums for sustainably produced fruit and vegetables would increase the importance of getting to grips with the issue of the distribution of the costs of sustainability certification along the supply chain."},{"index":6,"size":18,"text":"Closely linked to growing concern over environmental sustainability is the growing demand for organic products in the EU."}]},{"head":"\"There continues to be a significant shortfall in EU organic production\"","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":137,"text":"There continues to be a significant shortfall in EU organic production, particularly in Germany, which has been less affected by the economic downturn. This potentially creates market opportunities for ACP exporters of organic products. But domestic production of EU organic fruit and vegetables might well be stimulated by pending reforms to EU direct aid payments, which would make additional payments for a range of environmentally friendly farming practices automatic for certi-fied organic EU producers. This, alongside the emergence of 'local organic food' movements, may require ACP fruit and vegetable exporters to move over to similar forms of dual certification (e.g., organic/fair-trade), in order to compete more effectively for consumer spending. The EC acknowledges, however, that a certain \"tweaking\" of these policies may be necessary, in the face of increasing third-country competition on EU fruit and vegetable markets."},{"index":2,"size":24,"text":"The challenge of increased competition is seen as being compounded by the widening gap between trends in input costs (rising) and producer prices (stable)."},{"index":3,"size":89,"text":"In December 2012 the European farmers' organisation Copa-Cogeca called on the EC \"to take clear steps towards introducing legislation at EU level to help tackle unfair and abusive practices in the EU food chain\", with \"voluntary codes backed by legislation that defines unfair and abusive practices\" (see Agritrade article 'Report on improving functioning of food supply chain released', 11 March 2013). In January 2013 the EC adopted a European Retail Action Plan and a Green Paper on unfair trading practices (UTPs) in the business-to-business food and non-food supply chains."},{"index":4,"size":84,"text":"Development NGOs called for the EU to extend initiatives on UTPs to the international level, and for the EC to adopt \"swift and tough action\" to end UTPs along food supply chains, building on the UK's proposed Groceries Code Adjudicator (see Agritrade article 'EC policy developments on addressing unfair trading practices', 4 March 2013). This was consistent with the June 2012 petition to the EC from a coalition of NGOs and consumer organisations for any code of practice to be extended to overseas suppliers."},{"index":5,"size":29,"text":"The need for such a code of practice is highlighted by the debate around the distribution of costs and benefits of sustainability certification along fruit and vegetable supply chains."},{"index":6,"size":143,"text":"In January 2013 the EC launched a public consultation on the future of its organic products regime, where fruit and vegetable production plays a major role. This included a review of how to ensure that internationally traded organic products are effectively monitored and verified (see Agritrade article 'EU launches public consultation on organic production', 24 February 2013). This should be seen in the context of the conclusion of a growing number of organic standards mutual recognition agreements. Potentially two groups of overseas organic exports could be created: 'insiders', who face reduced costs of certification at the corporate level through the conclusion of mutual recognition agreements; and 'outsiders', who face higher certification costs at the corporate level, in a context of intensifying competition. EC \"proposals for a renewed political and legal framework for organic agriculture in Europe\" are scheduled for the end of 2013."}]},{"head":"EU fruit and vegetable markets and third-country agreements","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":13,"text":"In terms of trade agreements and negotiations with non-ACP countries, the EU has:"},{"index":2,"size":15,"text":"8 further agreements where negotiations are complete but which are yet to enter into force;"},{"index":3,"size":6,"text":"10 further trade negotiations under way;"},{"index":4,"size":11,"text":"4 existing association agreements that the EU is planning to upgrade."},{"index":5,"size":20,"text":"The impact of these agreements on ACP fruit and vegetable export interests needs to be assessed on a caseby-case basis."}]},{"head":"\"The impact of new agreements needs to be assessed on a case-by-case basis\"","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":83,"text":"In In response to growing retailer demands for sustainable sourcing, October 2012 saw the launch of the Sustainability Initiative of South Africa (SIZA). This aims to replace multiple standards and audits with a single audit process, thereby reducing certification costs and improving net returns to producers. This independent verification scheme is being piloted in the fruit industry and is based on mutual recognition of audits among international and local retailers (see Agritrade article 'South Africa establishes single ethical trade standard', 4 January 2013)."},{"index":2,"size":69,"text":"In Kenya, similar efforts are under way to promote increased environmental certification of crops such as fruit and vegetables, in response to evolving market trends (see Agritrade article 'Green farming seen as a way forward for Kenyan agriculture', 23 September 2012). The importance for ACP producers to get and stay ahead of market trends cannot be overemphasised, given the prospects of increased competition in EU fruit and vegetable markets."}]},{"head":"Developing domestic markets for fruit and vegetables","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":29,"text":"The use of agricultural trade policy tools in support of the development of fruit and vegetable production for local markets is coming to the fore in many ACP regions."}]},{"head":"\"The use of agricultural trade policy tools in support of the development of fruit and vegetable production for local markets is increasing\"","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":72,"text":"The Senegalese government is moving to refine its system of controls on imported onions in the face of rising EU onion exports. Having initially introduced seasonal import restrictions, it stockpiled onions prior to the introduction of the closed import season (from 1 April to 31 August), but imports in 2012 declined by only 8.4%. This left local onion producers facing difficult market conditions. As a consequence it was decided in 2013 to:"},{"index":2,"size":7,"text":"bring the closed season forward to February;"},{"index":3,"size":11,"text":"introduce stricter controls in the ports; make import licences company specific;"},{"index":4,"size":17,"text":"\"facilitate\" the granting of import authorisation to \"importers who commit to promote the marketing of local production\"."},{"index":5,"size":41,"text":"In addition to these import measures, the government of Senegal is supporting investment in post-harvest infrastructure, to preserve locally produced onions in a better state for a longer period (see Agritrade article 'Senegal refines its onion import regime', 3 June 2013)."},{"index":6,"size":67,"text":"These recent Senegalese initiatives appear to draw on the experience of Namibia, where import licensing arrangements are closely integrated with initiatives to strengthen the functioning of local vegetable supply chains. A closed market information system links producers' projected volumes and schedules to retailers' and traders' projections for market demand. These measures to strengthen the functioning of local supply chains have facilitated access to loans to expand production. "}]},{"head":"Implications for the ACP","index":7,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Impact of Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) reforms on ACP fruit and vegetable exporters","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":48,"text":"The extension of direct aid payments to all EU fruit and vegetable producers could change the relative competitive position of EU and ACP producers, with EU producers being willing to supply higher volumes at lower prices than would be the case in the absence of direct aid payments."}]},{"head":"\"The extension of direct aid payments to all EU fruit and vegetable producers could change the relative competitive position of EU and ACP producers\"","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":19,"text":"Any automatic granting of additional direct aid payments to organic pro-ducers for compliance with 'greening' measures would compound this."},{"index":2,"size":27,"text":"The increased EU policy emphasis on 'greening' the CAP could also accelerate the trend towards carbon footprinting of fruit and vegetable production, increasing costs for ACP suppliers."},{"index":3,"size":41,"text":"ACP fruit and vegetable exporters will need to monitor the situation and, where necessary, engage with the carbon footprinting debate to ensure that ACP suppliers are not systematically discriminated against and that the cost-increasing effects of new retailer demands are minimised."},{"index":4,"size":28,"text":"Concerted ACP government action may also be required to ensure that national EU schemes do not systematically discriminate against third-country suppliers whose production processes meet the underlying criteria."},{"index":5,"size":64,"text":"Lessons to be drawn from current EU policy initiatives to strengthen the functioning of fruit and vegetable supply chains could be applied to improving the position of ACP suppliers in international fruit and vegetable supply chains, and that of smallholder farmers within domestic fruit and vegetable supply chains. This would be in line with initiatives already under way in a number of ACP countries."}]},{"head":"The new EU food and feed control regulation","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":61,"text":"ACP governments and fruit and vegetable sector stakeholders may wish to consider initiating dialogue with the EU on the scope of application of the new regulation to ACP exporters, with a view to securing an extension to ACP suppliers of the exemptions granted to EU micro-enterprises. This could provide a vehicle for continued ACP preferences in an era of trade liberalisation."},{"index":2,"size":10,"text":"Responding to new competition under EU free trade agreements (FTAs)"},{"index":3,"size":71,"text":"A detailed analysis is required of new tariff concessions under new FTAs to establish where increased competition for ACP suppliers is likely, and the scale of adjustments required. On this basis, production and market adjustment strategies can then be developed for specific fruit and vegetable products. Kenyan exporters, for example, routinely monitor market developments to identify necessary adjustments in production. This should now become more systematic and generalised throughout the ACP."},{"index":4,"size":49,"text":"As far as organic fruit and vegetable exports are concerned, increased competition may necessitate specific ACP government initiatives to strengthen the local regulatory framework for organic production, and to secure mutual recognition from the EU, in order to reduce certification costs, and level the playing field vis-à-vis third-country suppliers."}]},{"head":"Intensifying dialogue on the application of EU food safety and SPS standards","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":79,"text":"Recent developments in the fruit and vegetable sector have sharpened concerns over the application of food safety and SPS controls. The ACP may need to explore collective mechanisms for dialogue and arbitration over the EU's application of SPS and food safety standards. The pending dialogue between the EU and US on standards applied in the fruit and vegetable sector could take on particular significance in this regard and should be closely monitored by ACP fruit and vegetable exporters' associations."},{"index":2,"size":25,"text":"In addition, the scope for regional initiatives to strengthen standards compli-ance capacities in major ACP fruit and vegetable exporting regions may need to be considered."}]},{"head":"Building sustainability standards into new investments","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":32,"text":"Where new fruit and vegetable sector investments are under way, there is a need to build sustainability standards into the design both of new schemes and of government monitoring and control systems."},{"index":2,"size":22,"text":"\"There is a need to build sustainability standards into the design both of new schemes and of government monitoring and control systems\""},{"index":3,"size":13,"text":"This requires improved information flows on standards debates and trends in major markets."}]},{"head":"Integrating the use of trade policy tools into strategies for strengthening local supply chains","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":57,"text":"The use of agricultural trade policy tools in the fruit and vegetable sector should be more closely and extensively linked to measures to strengthen the functioning of local fruit and vegetable supply chains. This requires the creation of forums for producers, retailers and traders to link up and develop appropriate local product standards and forward contract arrangements."},{"index":2,"size":15,"text":"This requires a policy focus on: establishing a supportive trade framework that incentivises local procurement;"},{"index":3,"size":11,"text":"supporting the establishment of commercially relevant production and demand information systems;"},{"index":4,"size":9,"text":"strengthening the legal framework for contract negotiations and enforcement."}]},{"head":"Developing local markets for organic products","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":83,"text":"The experience in the East African Community suggests that there is considerable scope for the development of organic fruit and vegetable production serving local markets using PGS systems linked to local product stand-ards (e.g., in East Africa, East African Organic Products Standard requirements). This has already been taken up in the Pacific, where a handbook on PGS systems has been produced, and the Pacific Organic Standard has been taken into the IFOAM 'Family of Standards', which facilitates trade in organic products across borders."},{"index":2,"size":55,"text":"There would appear to be considerable scope for the sharing of experience across the ACP on developing local markets for locally produced organic fruit and vegetables through the IFOAM network. This could help local fruit and vegetable producers, particularly in island economies, to gain access to the growing tourist markets and locally established supermarket chains."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Trends in EU fruit and vegetable production and trade  the extent to which full-cost recov- fruit increased by 6.5%, 38.6% and been the launch in EU member states the extent to which full-cost recov-fruit increased by 6.5%, 38.6% andbeen the launch in EU member states ery should be applied to inspections 34.1%, respectively, while import vol- of national sustainability certification ery should be applied to inspections34.1%, respectively, while import vol-of national sustainability certification of fruit and vegetables from ACP umes fell by 2.7%, 11.9%, and 18%, schemes. In June 2012 the Irish Food of fruit and vegetables from ACPumes fell by 2.7%, 11.9%, and 18%,schemes. In June 2012 the Irish Food countries; respectively. This trend continued into Board launched the 'Origin Green' countries;respectively. This trend continued intoBoard launched the 'Origin Green'  2012, with particularly large increases labelling scheme, explicitly designed to 2012, with particularly large increaseslabelling scheme, explicitly designed to cooperation and mutual assistance in EU exports of onions and tomatoes differentiate Irish food and drink prod- cooperation and mutual assistancein EU exports of onions and tomatoesdifferentiate Irish food and drink prod- in establishing SPS import protocols (+12% and +40%, respectively, in the ucts from other third-country products in establishing SPS import protocols(+12% and +40%, respectively, in theucts from other third-country products with third countries (e.g., China); first 10 months of 2012). The EU's net on 'sustainability' grounds (see Agri- with third countries (e.g., China);first 10 months of 2012). The EU's neton 'sustainability' grounds (see Agri-  deficit in the fruit and vegetable trade trade article 'Irish Food Board intro- deficit in the fruit and vegetable tradetrade article 'Irish Food Board intro- establishing information systems to has declined. duces new quality labelling scheme', establishing information systems tohas declined.duces new quality labelling scheme', monitor evolving market trends;  16 December 2012). monitor evolving market trends;16 December 2012).  A major development in the EU fruit and  A major development in the EU fruit and developing regional programmes of vegetable sector is the move towards  developing regional programmes ofvegetable sector is the move towards assistance in strengthening SPS and increased sustainable sourcing.  assistance in strengthening SPS andincreased sustainable sourcing. food safety compliance;   food safety compliance; technical cooperation on improving \"A major development in the EU fruit and vegetable sector © Greg McMullin technical cooperation on improving\"A major development in the EU fruit and vegetable sector© Greg McMullin packaging and product innovation in is the move towards increased  packaging and product innovation inis the move towards increased the fruit and vegetable sector. sustainable sourcing\"  the fruit and vegetable sector.sustainable sourcing\" 2. Latest In June 2012 a covenant was signed by \"all major supermarkets, trading com-  2. LatestIn June 2012 a covenant was signed by \"all major supermarkets, trading com- developments panies and NGOs in the Netherlands\", committing themselves to ensuring  developmentspanies and NGOs in the Netherlands\", committing themselves to ensuring  that \"all fresh fruits and vegetables in  that \"all fresh fruits and vegetables in Developments in the EU Dutch supermarkets are sustainably  Developments in the EUDutch supermarkets are sustainably fruit and vegetable sector produced\" by 2020 (30% by 2014 and  fruit and vegetable sectorproduced\" by 2020 (30% by 2014 and Impact of Common Agricultural 50% by 2015). This covenant covers  Impact of Common Agricultural50% by 2015). This covenant covers Policy (CAP) reforms on ACP fruit and vegetable exporters The new EU food and feed control regulation According to the EC's 2012 report Responding to new competition (FTAs) Statistical and economic information', under EU free trade agreements 'Agriculture in the European Union: virtually the entire fruit and vegetable sector (90% of retail volume) (see Agri-trade article 'Sustainability concerns go mainstream in Dutch fruit and veg-etable sector', 29 July 2012).  Policy (CAP) reforms on ACP fruit and vegetable exporters The new EU food and feed control regulation According to the EC's 2012 report Responding to new competition (FTAs) Statistical and economic information', under EU free trade agreements 'Agriculture in the European Union:virtually the entire fruit and vegetable sector (90% of retail volume) (see Agri-trade article 'Sustainability concerns go mainstream in Dutch fruit and veg-etable sector', 29 July 2012). Intensifying dialogue on the \"2012 was in global terms a positive While considerably expanding demand  Intensifying dialogue on the \"2012 was in global terms a positiveWhile considerably expanding demand application of EU food safety and year for the fruit and vegetable sector. for fruit and vegetable products that are  application of EU food safety and year for the fruit and vegetable sector.for fruit and vegetable products that are SPS standards No major crisis [shook] EU produc- certified sustainable, this programme  SPS standards No major crisis [shook] EU produc-certified sustainable, this programme Building sustainability standards into tion, and prices maintained a balanced new investments level.\" coordinated by the Sustainable Trade Initiative could prove to be a double-  Building sustainability standards into tion, and prices maintained a balanced new investments level.\"coordinated by the Sustainable Trade Initiative could prove to be a double- Integrating the use of trade policy tools into strategies for strengthening \"The general trend is for local supply chains increasing volumes of EU fruit Developing local markets for organic and vegetable exports and de-products creasing volumes of imports\" edged sword for some ACP produc-ers, who may find themselves poorly placed to expand the supply of certi-fied sustainable fruit and vegetables in the face of increased competition from  Integrating the use of trade policy tools into strategies for strengthening \"The general trend is for local supply chains increasing volumes of EU fruit Developing local markets for organic and vegetable exports and de-products creasing volumes of imports\"edged sword for some ACP produc-ers, who may find themselves poorly placed to expand the supply of certi-fied sustainable fruit and vegetables in the face of increased competition from  third-country suppliers now gearing up  third-country suppliers now gearing up The general trend is thus for increas- to supply EU markets under new free  The general trend is thus for increas-to supply EU markets under new free ing volumes of EU fruit and vegetable trade agreements (FTAs).  ing volumes of EU fruit and vegetabletrade agreements (FTAs). exports and decreasing volumes of   exports and decreasing volumes of fruit and vegetable imports. Between The response to consumer concerns  fruit and vegetable imports. BetweenThe response to consumer concerns 2008 and 2011, EU export volumes of over the \"field to fork\" environmental  2008 and 2011, EU export volumes ofover the \"field to fork\" environmental vegetables, deciduous fruit and citrus impact of agricultural production has  vegetables, deciduous fruit and citrusimpact of agricultural production has  "},{"text":"CAP reforms and the fruit and vegetable sector   From 4 June to 9 September 2012 the From 4 June to 9 September 2012 the  EC held a public consultation on the EC held a public consultation on the  future of the fruit and vegetable regime, future of the fruit and vegetable regime,  with inputs feeding into a report on the with inputs feeding into a report on the This could throw up regime's performance and future (see This could throw upregime's performance and future (see new challenges, however, given the Agritrade article 'EC launches consul- new challenges, however, given theAgritrade article 'EC launches consul- increasing difficulties faced by small- tation on future of fruit and vegetable increasing difficulties faced by small-tation on future of fruit and vegetable holder producers in verifiably comply- regime', 2 July 2012). holder producers in verifiably comply-regime', 2 July 2012). ing, cost-effectively, with EU SPS and  ing, cost-effectively, with EU SPS and food safety standards (see Agritrade The EC believes that no major changes food safety standards (see AgritradeThe EC believes that no major changes article 'New EU maximum residue lev- to the fruit and vegetable regime are article 'New EU maximum residue lev-to the fruit and vegetable regime are els hit Kenyan vegetable exports', 28 required. The 2007 reform process set els hit Kenyan vegetable exports', 28required. The 2007 reform process set April 2013). in place management and crisis pre- April 2013).in place management and crisis pre-  vention tools, decoupled processing vention tools, decoupled processing The announcement in May 2013 of a aids, eliminated export refunds and The announcement in May 2013 of aaids, eliminated export refunds and new approach to EU food and feed strengthened the framework for sup- new approach to EU food and feedstrengthened the framework for sup- controls, which introduces official port to producer organisations (POs). controls, which introduces officialport to producer organisations (POs). controls on organic products based  controls on organic products based on product analysis rather than pro-  on product analysis rather than pro- duction process controls, could give  duction process controls, could give rise to problems with imports from  rise to problems with imports from ACP countries with shortcomings in  ACP countries with shortcomings in the operation of official control agen-  the operation of official control agen- cies (see Agritrade article 'Concerns  cies (see Agritrade article 'Concerns expressed over impact of revision of  expressed over impact of revision of EU food and feed controls on organic  EU food and feed controls on organic sector', 11 August 2013).  sector', 11 August 2013). More broadly, the new approach for  More broadly, the new approach for fruit and vegetable products involves  fruit and vegetable products involves an increase in mandatory controls and  an increase in mandatory controls and the introduction of full cost recovery for  the introduction of full cost recovery for inspections.  inspections. \"The new approach for fruit and  \"The new approach for fruit and vegetable products involves an  vegetable products involves an increase in mandatory controls  increase in mandatory controls and the introduction of full cost  and the introduction of full cost recovery for inspections\"  recovery for inspections\" While micro-enterprises in the EU  While micro-enterprises in the EU are exempt from full cost recovery,  are exempt from full cost recovery, because of the implications for their  because of the implications for their competitiveness, there are no current  competitiveness, there are no current plans to extend this exemption to ACP  plans to extend this exemption to ACP suppliers (see Agritrade article 'New  suppliers (see Agritrade article 'New EU food and feed controls to include  EU food and feed controls to include full cost recovery', 7 July 2013).  full cost recovery', 7 July 2013).  "}],"sieverID":"b0dd8b82-1fb0-4368-b034-3960a5df003c","abstract":""}

data/part_3/043258488da32393385776f4767549b9.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"043258488da32393385776f4767549b9","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/55f692f2-8cb2-4372-845b-86f341348da3/retrieve"},"pageCount":2,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Background","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":47,"text":"Livestock are an important pathway out of poverty for the rural poor. Worldwide, 50% of the world's poor own livestock and depend on them for their livelihoods. Livestock are living assets contributing to food security and are an important source of protein and minerals for nutritional security."},{"index":2,"size":94,"text":"There is increasing demand for livestock products worldwide in the form of meat, milk and milk products such as cheese and butter. This presents poor livestock producers with significant opportunities to increase benefits from their livestock and raise income through livestock markets. Access to fodder and water are often identified as major constraints to livestock productivity. This inability to feed livestock adequately remains one of the most widespread global constraints in the livestock sector. Removing it would assist smallholder livestock producers to improve their livelihoods by taking advantage of market opportunities and building assets."},{"index":3,"size":193,"text":"Past efforts to enhance smallholder livestock production have shown little evidence of widespread adoption of new technological innovations such as new fodder options or new ways of feeding livestock. This has been attributed to a range of factors including poor approaches to introducing technologies, inappropriate technologies and services relative to the needs of the poor, low sustainability of the changes introduced, inadequate local livestock-support organizations and weak linkages to markets. Recent experiences in Nigeria and India focusing on fodder issues have highlighted the importance of understanding and developing partnerships and processes and working in what is known as an \"innovation systems framework\" to achieve sustainable improvements in poverty reduction. In effect this involves focusing on putting knowledge to use to achieve desired social/economic outcomes. Such knowledge is held by different \"actors\" within the system; looking at how these actors interact, their working practices and the policy environment in which they operate can help to remove bottlenecks to development. Recent experiences in Southeast Asia with developing forage technologies with active participation of poor farmers and local extension services have shown that this approach results in high adoption rates at project sites and surrounding areas."},{"index":4,"size":87,"text":"Furthermore, studies by International Agricultural Research Centres (IARCs) and their partners show that when fodder options are linked to markets for meat and milk and when they have direct effects on income generation, fodder options to support livestock production are competitive with other farm enterprises in terms of returns to land and labour. These successful experiences in fodder uptake and significant accumulation of knowledge on preferences for fodder plants, seed systems, fodder management and integration of fodder into feeding systems provide the technical platform for this project."}]},{"head":"Project Goals","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":36,"text":"The current project seeks to engage with a wide range of stakeholders to strengthen the capacity of poor livestock keepers to: select and adopt fodder options access market opportunities to enable them to improve their livelihoods"},{"index":2,"size":18,"text":"The project seeks to achieve these goals in ways that will ensure the sustainability of their farming systems."},{"index":3,"size":128,"text":"The programme is framed around four overall outputs and associated activities. The project seeks to establish: Mechanisms for strengthening and/or establishing consortia of players in the livestock/fodder arena to allow small-scale innovations to spread across systems. Options for getting research off the shelf and into practice including innovative communication strategies and strategies for making changes at farm level to sustainably improve fodder supply. Enhanced capacity of project partners to experiment with and use fodder technologies through effective communication, improved access to technical information and training and a better understanding of the role of diverse players and their interactions in successful fodder development. Generic lessons with wide applicability on innovation processes and systems, communication strategies and partnerships that provide a suitable environment for fodder innovations to spread across systems."}]},{"head":"Fodder Adoption Project","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":11,"text":"Enhancing livelihoods of poor livestock keepers through increasing use of fodder"}]}],"figures":[],"sieverID":"1e90aafe-dbd3-48ea-8775-df549847815f","abstract":""}

data/part_3/04c7c5182771214a8db679667b6eb50c.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"04c7c5182771214a8db679667b6eb50c","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/8b517562-06d1-4f03-a4af-ea1b5cc8b504/retrieve"},"pageCount":31,"title":"PROGRAMA DE POSGRADO MAESTRIA EN AGROFORESTERÍA Y AGRICULTURA SOSTENIBLE EVALUACIÓN PRODUCTIVA Y POTENCIAL DE MITIGACIÓN DE LA PRODUCCION DE METANO DEL PASTO (Urochloa híbrido cv. CIAT BRO2/1752) EN SISTEMAS SILVOPASTORILES MEJORADOS EN EL TRÓPICO HÚMEDO","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Índice de","index":1,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Lista de Acrónimos","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"IPCC","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":8,"text":"Panel intergubernamental de expertos para el cambio climático "}]},{"head":"INTRODUCCIÓN","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":105,"text":"El incremento poblacional para el año 2050 impulsa el crecimiento en la demanda de alimentos aproximadamente en un 50%, en el caso de la leche y carne el aumento sería de 73 y 58%, respectivamente (Gerber et al 2013). Este aumento en la demanda de productos de origen animal conlleva a la búsqueda de la máxima eficiencia productiva y consecuentemente la intensificación de los sistemas productivos, buscando con esto aumentar los rendimientos de leche por unidad de área y a la vez conduce a reducción en el número de animales necesarios para satisfacer la demanda, cada vez en menor área disponible (Styles et al. 2018)."},{"index":2,"size":82,"text":"En Costa Rica el 79% de las fincas destinadas a la producción de leche utilizan el pastoreo como su principal sistema de alimentación (INEC 2019), evidenciando que la intensificación de la producción ganadera se ha basado en el uso eficiente de las pasturas, todo esto en busca de lograr la máxima productividad por área, reducir los costos de producción, mejorar la eficiencia en el uso de los recursos y buscar convertirlos en sistemas sostenibles ante las presiones del cambio climático (Pezo 2018)."},{"index":3,"size":142,"text":"Los sistemas de lechería especializada representan el 15.4% y los sistemas doble propósito representan el 21.7% del inventario ganadero de Costa Rica (1,633,467 animales) (INEC 2019). Gran parte de estos sistemas se ubican en condiciones de trópico húmedo, zonas donde las restricciones de humedad son limitadas o inexistentes y propician el crecimiento de las especies forrajeras, permitiendo un alto aporte de biomasa disponible para los animales y dando oportunidad a incrementos en la capacidad de carga de la finca. No obstante, estas zonas productivas enfrentan retos relacionados mayormente a la gestión del recurso forrajero, ya que se ha puesto mayor interés a la cantidad de biomasa y se ha dejado por un lado lo que respecta a la calidad nutricional, siendo necesarios el uso de suplementos externos para mantener la producción y comprometiendo la rentabilidad del sistema productivo (Lezcano et al 2012)."},{"index":4,"size":73,"text":"La transición hacia la intensificación sostenible de los sistemas de producción de ganado bovino requerirá de la promoción y adopción de forrajes mejorados, así como leguminosas y no leguminosas forrajeras que pueden cumplir un rol estratégico con su aporte de nitrógeno tanto al suelo como a la dieta, y consecuentemente mejorar el valor nutritivo de la dieta de los animales, con menores emisiones de gases de efecto invernadero (GEI) (Gaviria-Uribe et al 2020)."},{"index":5,"size":216,"text":"El Panel Intergubernamental de Expertos para el Cambio Climático (IPCC) la ganadería a nivel mundial es responsable del 14.5% de las emisiones de gases de efecto invernadero (GEI) de origen antropogénico, y el 65% de estas emisiones proviene del ganado vacuno (IPCC 2007). La producción de leche bovina emite aproximadamente el 20% de GEI entre todos los rubros de producción vacuna. La intensidad de emisiones por kilogramo de proteína animal es más baja en las ganaderías de leche que en las ganaderías de carne, en las cuales se alcanza un 40% de emisiones (Vermeulen et al 2012;Gerber et al 2013). No obstante, Manzetto et al. (2020) compararon mediante análisis de ciclo de vida los sistemas de producción bovina de Costa Rica, encontrando que los sistemas intensivos de lechería especializada reflejan la menor huella potencial de calentamiento global (1.86 -2.56 kg CO2 (kg LCGP ) -1 ) comparado a los sistemas doble propósito, en donde la huella es superior (4.54 -5.32 kg CO2 (kg LCGP ) -1 ). Las diferencias entre estos sistemas son el resultado de la alta productividad, el menor uso de instalaciones y el manejo de las excretas en los sistemas de producción intensiva; además, concluyen que la alta productividad de los sistemas es representativa de procesos eficientes de en la gestión de pastoreo."},{"index":6,"size":79,"text":"Las ganaderías tradicionales de baja producción, donde predominan sistemas de pastoreo extensivos con gramíneas en monocultivo, generan niveles superiores de emisiones entéricas, producto de la baja gestión del hato, dietas con alta proporción de alimentos con bajo valor nutritivo y pasturas degradadas; por otro lado, en los sistemas industrializados con altos niveles productivos, las emisiones derivadas directamente de la producción, la alimentación y el estiércol, son fuentes importantes de emisiones junto a la fermentación entérica (Gerber et al. 2013)."},{"index":7,"size":101,"text":"Esta problemática requiere de la incorporación e implementación de prácticas que contribuyan a mejorar los sistemas productivos mediante el uso de especies forrajeras adaptadas a cada sistema, contribuyendo a la adaptación y mitigación de los efectos del cambio climático y logrando el máximo incremento en la eficiencia productiva y la rentabilidad. De este modo, existe gran potencial para manejar y recuperar áreas degradadas por inadecuado manejo del pastoreo, mediante la incorporación de árboles en los sistemas ganaderos. Diversos estudios han provisto la evidencia de cómo los sistemas silvopastoriles (SSP) son una alternativa para el desarrollo sostenible del sector agropecuario (Milera 2013)."},{"index":8,"size":108,"text":"Los SSP son considerados alternativas productivas de ganar-ganar, ya que sus objetivos y principios de gestión están orientados al incremento de la productividad de los sistemas pecuarios con beneficios colaterales al ambiente. Donde se logra incrementar los ingresos mediante la diversificación de productos, mejorando la resiliencia ante el cambio climático a través de las condiciones micro climáticas que los árboles y arbustos proveen a los animales y las pasturas. Además, aprovechando los beneficios de mitigación en la reducción de emisiones de gases de efecto invernadero e incrementando el secuestro de carbono en la biomasa y sistema radicular de los árboles, arbustos y las pasturas (Ibrahim et al. 2001)."},{"index":9,"size":82,"text":"Las asociaciones de árboles, arbustivas y pastos mejorados representan una alternativa promisoria para la producción animal en el trópico (López-Vigoa 2017). Estas asociaciones producen mayor cantidad de biomasa de alta calidad durante todo el año (López et al. 2015b citado por López-Vigoa 2017) y se logra mejor balance de nutrientes en los animales; obteniendo mejoras en condición corporal y una alta respuesta inmune junto a un entorno favorable que permitirá incrementar el bienestar animal y con ello una mejor resiliencia (López-Vigoa 2017)."},{"index":10,"size":124,"text":"Existe un gran número de arbustos y árboles, tanto especies leguminosas como no leguminosas con gran potencial para la producción de rumiantes (Topps 1992, Vandermeulen et al. 2018citado por Ku-Vera et al. 2020b). Estos mejoran la calidad nutricional de la dieta del ganado en pastoreo, mediante el aumento de la concentración de proteína dietética y reducen la producción de metano por efecto de metabolitos secundarios como taninos y saponinas presentes en las plantas (Mayorga et al. 2014citado por Benaouda et al. 2017). La presencia de altas concentraciones de metabolitos secundarios vegetales como taninos y su relación con la reducción de emisiones de metano (Herrero 2016) se da a través de una variedad de mecanismos implícitos en el microbioma del rumen (Ku-Vera et al. 2020b)."},{"index":11,"size":86,"text":"En un estudio de fermentación in vitro realizado por Cardona-Inglesias et al. (2017) donde incluyeron Thitonia diversifolia como parte de la dieta en un SSP comparado con kikuyo en monocultivo, encontraron una reducción de la producción de metano de 24.8% y 27.4% a las 24 y 48 h respectivamente, además de la alta digestibilidad que presentó a las 24 horas. Así mismo, Albores-Moreno y colaboradores (2019) encontraron una reducción 12.78% de producción de metano en el rumen al incorporar un 30% de follaje de Leucaena leucocephala."},{"index":12,"size":115,"text":"Se debe garantizar el uso de especies adaptadas, que tengan excelente respuesta a la captación de energía solar, que garanticen altos rendimientos de biomasa, eficiencia en la captación de CO2 y toleren las condiciones que garantizan el manejo adecuado del pastoreo o bien de áreas que se destinan al corte y acarreo; logrando ayudar a la resolución de los problemas mencionados mediante la intensificación de cada sistema y la incorporación del concepto de diversidad. (Milera 2013). En ese sentido, es necesario que todo sistema productivo utilice los recursos locales para obtener la mayor rentabilidad al lograr la reducción de los costos respecto al de los alimentos con altos niveles de granos y cereales (Wanapat 2009)."}]},{"head":"JUSTIFICACIÓN","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":123,"text":"Ante la creciente demanda de alimentos y la limitante de recursos para una población creciente, surge la necesidad de buscar la mejora en la eficiencia alimenticia en los animales de granja, fundamentándose en obtener la mayor cantidad de productos de alto valor biológico (carne y leche) con la menor cantidad de recursos alimenticios. Los sistemas silvopastoriles se han convertido en una herramienta para la gestión de la eficiencia productiva; reconociendo que los forrajes constituyen la base de la alimentación en los sistemas productivos ganaderos dedicados a la producción de leche y que estos se convierten en productos de origen animal de alto valor biológico a bajo costo, Así mismo, mejoran la competitividad y la gestión climática y ambiental de los sistemas productivos ganaderos."},{"index":2,"size":118,"text":"El pasto Cayman (Urochloa híbrido cv. CIAT BRO2/1752) es una forrajera nueva que se está incorporando en los sistemas de producción de leche y carne como monocultivo, pero se carece de información científica que respalde los procesos adecuados de manejo que faciliten la toma de decisiones y permitan obtener el máximo potencial productivo con el menor impacto ambiental. Son reducidos los estudios que evalúan el asocio de gramíneas con árboles forrajeros (Tithonia diversifolia y Leucaena diversifolia) en condiciones de pastoreo en trópico húmedo. A pesar de la alta producción de biomasa del pasto en estas condiciones no hay datos suficientes sobre hábitos de selectividad por parte de los animales en estas especies arbóreas que tienen rasgos funcionales diferentes."},{"index":3,"size":89,"text":"Por esta razón la presente investigación está orientada a evaluar el desempeño productivo de este pasto, tanto en monocultivo como en asocio con las leñosas forrajeras arriba mencionadas. Lo anterior con el objetivo de lograr una mayor producción de biomasa de alta calidad nutricional y con esto mejorar la eficiencia de conversión de los nutrientes contenidos en las especies forrajeras evaluadas hacia la producción de leche. En este sentido, se estaría promoviendo un modelo de producción más autónomo, competitivo y resiliente al cambio climático con bajas emisiones de carbono."}]},{"head":"OBJETIVOS/HIPOTESIS","index":6,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Objetivo general","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":49,"text":"Evaluar la disponibilidad del componente forrajero, desempeño productivo y potencial de mitigación en la producción de metano in vitro en sistemas silvopastoriles mejorados; basados en pasto Cayman (Urochloa híbrido cv. CIAT BRO2/1752) solo, y en asocio con Thitonia diversifolia y Leucaena diversifolia en el trópico húmedo de Costa Rica."}]},{"head":"Objetivos específicos","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":33,"text":"3.2.1 Determinar la disponibilidad y calidad nutricional del forraje en sistemas basados en pasto Cayman (Urochloa híbrido cv. CIAT BRO2/1752) como monocultivo y en asocio con leñosas forrajeras (Tithonia diversifolia y Leucaena diversifolia)."},{"index":2,"size":52,"text":"3.2.2 Evaluar el efecto de las leñosas forrajeras (Tithonia diversifolia y Leucaena diversifolia) en la producción y calidad de leche en vacas cruzadas 3.2.3 Estimar la producción de metano in vitro en dietas basadas en diferentes proporciones de pasto Cayman (Urochloa híbrido cv. CIAT BRO2/1752), Tithonia diversifolia, Leucaena diversifolia y alimento balanceado."}]},{"head":"Enfoque de investigación","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":133,"text":"El desarrollo de la investigación es de tipo observacional cuantitativo debido a la naturaleza de la investigación, utilizando un diseño experimental con parcelas divididas en bloques completos aleatorizados, con tres tratamientos (Cayman monocultivo, Cayman en asocio con Tithonia diversifolia y Cayman en asocio con Leucaena diversifolia), con cuatro repeticiones (parcelas). Donde se evaluará la disponibilidad, determinando la producción de biomasa y calidad nutricional de las especies forrajeras. Producción y calidad de leche utilizando un diseño completo al azar con medidas repetidas en el tiempo. Para la producción de metano in vitro se realizarán las combinaciones bajo los criterios de diferentes relaciones forraje:concentrado (100:0, 80:20, 70:30. 60:40) y el componente forraje (Cayman:T.diversifolia y L. diversifolia) en una proporción dada (100:0, 80:20 y 70:30), donde se utilizará la metodología establecida por Theodorou y colaboradores (1994)."}]},{"head":"Cuadro 1. Enfoque de la investigación","index":10,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Objetivos específicos","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":39,"text":"Observacional cuantitativo Experimental cuantitativo 1. Determinar la disponibilidad de biomasa y calidad nutricional del forraje en sistemas basados en pasto Cayman (Brachiaria híbrido cv. CIAT BRO2/1752) como monocultivo y en asocio con leñosas forrajeras (Tithonia diversifolia y Leucaena diversifolia)."},{"index":2,"size":65,"text":"X 2. Evaluar el efecto del pasto Cayman (Brachiaria híbrido cv. CIAT BRO2/1752) en monocultivo y en asocio con leñosas forrajeras (Tithonia diversifolia y Leucaena diversifolia) en la producción y calidad de leche en vacas cruzadas. X 3.4. Preguntas de investigación 3.4.1 ¿Cuál es la disponibilidad de biomasa del pasto Cayman en monocultivo y en asocio con las leñosas forrajeras (Tithonia diversifolia y Leucaena diversifolia)?"},{"index":3,"size":18,"text":"3.4.2 ¿Cuál es la calidad nutricional del pasto Cayman y de las forrajeras (Tithonia diversifolia y Leucaena diversifolia)?"},{"index":4,"size":33,"text":"3.4.3 ¿Cuál es el efecto de la alimentación en los sistemas de pastoreo de pasto Cayman y de las forrajeras (Tithonia diversifolia y Leucaena diversifolia) sobre la producción y calidad de leche producida?"},{"index":5,"size":32,"text":"3.4.4 ¿Cuánto son las emisiones de metano in vitro del pasto Cayman solo, en asocio con las leñosas forrajeras (Tithonia diversifolia y Leucaena diversifolia) y con las diferentes combinaciones de suplemento balanceado."},{"index":6,"size":28,"text":"3.4.5.¿Como la integración de las leñosas forrajeras (Tithonia diversifolia y Leucaena diversifolia) con pasto Cayman incrementa la producción de forraje y la cantidad de proteína en el sistema?"}]},{"head":"Hipótesis","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":28,"text":"3.5.1 H1: La disponibilidad de biomasa y calidad nutricional del pasto Cayman en asocio con Tithonia diversifolia y Leucaena diversifolia es mayor que establecido en sistemas de monocultivo."},{"index":2,"size":28,"text":"3.5.2 H2: La producción y composición de la leche es diferente en el asocio del pasto Cayman con Tithonia diversifolia y Leucaena diversifolia en comparación con el monocultivo."}]},{"head":"H3:","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":29,"text":"La adición de alimento balanceado modifica las emisiones de metano in vitro en dietas de pasto Cayman con las leñosas forrajeras (Tithonia diversifolia y Leucaena diversifolia) en diferentes proporciones."}]},{"head":"MARCO REFERENCIAL","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":18,"text":"4.1. Rol de la estabilidad en la producción forrajera para la adaptación de sistemas ganaderos al cambio climático."},{"index":2,"size":62,"text":"El interés por la intensificación sostenible en sistemas productivos del trópico húmedo, donde los forrajes, además de ser la fuente principal de alimentación, son la opción más económica y 3. Estimar el potencial de mitigación del pasto Cayman en sistemas de monocultivo y en asocio con Tithonia diversifolia y Leucaena diversifolia suplementado con alimento balanceado, mediante la producción de metano in vitro."}]},{"head":"X","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":90,"text":"practica para el ganado (Rosales y Pinzón 2005), que junto a un adecuado manejo son claves para lograr sistemas de producción competitivos, sostenibles y de bajas emisiones de carbono (Manzetto et al. (2020). En el trópico húmedo, se dan condiciones climáticas que permiten obtener altas producciones de biomasa durante gran parte del año (Wing Ching-Jones 2008), sin embargo, el bajo consumo por parte de los animales y la reducida calidad nutricional de las pasturas consecuencia de la baja gestión de estas, son limitantes en estas condiciones (Lezcano et al. 2012)."},{"index":2,"size":74,"text":"Se han seleccionado especies mejoradas de pasto basado en atributos relacionados a su capacidad productiva, su calidad nutricional y la adaptación a diferentes condiciones edafoclimáticas. Siendo el pasto Cayman una de estas alternativas por su tolerancia a altos niveles de humedad en el suelo, alta producción de forraje y altos contenidos de proteína (Arango et al 2016), no obstante, las emisiones de GEI asociadas a esta especie son aún desconocidas (Gaviria-Uribe et al. 2020)."},{"index":3,"size":62,"text":"También la integración con otras especies no leguminosas como la T. diversifolia y leguminosas como L. diversifolia, presentan bondades relacionadas al alto consumo de forrajes de superior calidad nutricional, al mismo tiempo que se asegura la persistencia de las pasturas y consecuentemente se logra la sostenibilidad a largo plazo con relación a la capacidad de fijación de nitrogeno (Palma & Gonzales-Rebeldes 2018)."},{"index":4,"size":95,"text":"Como parte de las medidas propuestas para adaptar los sistemas productivos al cambio climático se plantea el establecimiento y gestión adecuada de los sistemas de producción de forrajes. Los sistemas ganaderos a nivel mundial están en dependencia de la disponibilidad de los recursos naturales, lo que provoca que se vean afectados en gran medida por la variabilidad climática estacional y anual, llevando esto a la reducción en la disponibilidad del recurso forrajero y por consiguiente mermas en el desempeño y productividad animal (Steinfeld et al. 2009;Nardone et al. 2010;Berrang-Ford et al. 2010;Dulal et al. 2011)."},{"index":5,"size":172,"text":"Según Villanueva et al. (2009) los árboles o arbustos dispersos en potreros son fundamental para la adaptación al cambio climático. Así mismo, Murgueitio et al. (2014) afirman que la presencia de árboles en los potreros produce sombra, permite la reducción de la temperatura, mantiene la humedad de los suelos logrando una mayor productividad y calidad de los forrajes y además reduce la estacionalidad de la producción de carne y leche obteniendo estabilidad de la producción en el tiempo. De acuerdo con Navas (2003) en un estudio realizado con diferentes arreglos silvopastoriles (árboles en grupo, arboles individuales y cercas vivas) en comparación a pastos en monocultivo, encontró que para los SSP las temperaturas eran menores, reportando diferencias de 3.6 °C, 2.9 ° C y 1.7 °C, respectivamente. Además, Navas & Montaña (2019) en un estudio estableciendo T. diversifolia para bancos forrajeros midieron la macrofauna al inicio y al final, encontrando un efecto positivo sobre la macrofauna del suelo, donde esta especie favoreció la reaparición de termitas, lombrices y hormigas, donde inicialmente no había."},{"index":6,"size":131,"text":"Según DeRamus et al. (2003) la mejor estrategia de mitigación de metano es mediante la mejora de las dietas de los rumiantes, donde se mejore el aporte energético de los alimentos utilizados en la alimentación con mínimos efectos en el ambiente. Existe evidencia que las dietas con leguminosas y especies arbóreas en los SSP tienen efectos positivos en la reducción de emisiones, además, de mostrar mejoría en las características edáficas y de bienestar animal (Carmona et al. 2005). De acuerdo con Herrero et al. (2016) una excelente gestión de los pastizales podría potencialmente revertir las pérdidas de carbono en el suelo y secuestrar cantidades importantes de carbono en suelos de pastoreo y esto podría ser una opción viable, ya que se puede implementar mediante prácticas que mejoren la producción de forraje."}]},{"head":"Sistemas silvopastoriles (SSP)","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":107,"text":"Según Pezo e Ibrahim (1996) un sistema silvopastoril se consolida como una opción de producción pecuaria que bajo un sistema de manejo integral se tiene la presencia de leñosas perennes (árboles o arbustos), que interactúan con los componentes tradicionales de los sistemas pecuarios (forrajeras herbáceas y animales). Según Ku Vera et al. (2014) por los múltiples beneficios que los SSP presentan, estos han sido presentados como una opción dentro de la producción sostenible, ya que además del incremento en la cantidad de biomasa forrajera, se evidencia un incremento en la calidad nutritiva o mayor contenido de nutrientes que son disponibles al consumo por parte de los animales."},{"index":2,"size":58,"text":"Rivera y colaboradores (2015) encontraron una mayor productividad por unidad de área de 35% en los sistemas silvopastoriles respecto al pastoreo convencional, dicho incremento productivo se explica por la calidad de la dieta, menores tenores de fibra y elevado aporte de proteína, lo que permite hacer un mejor uso del suelo y una mejor gestión de los recursos."},{"index":3,"size":143,"text":"Según Ku-Vera et al. (2020b) los pastos tropicales se caracterizan por el alto contenido de carbohidratos estructurales (celulosa, hemicelulosa) y bajos contenidos de proteína, limitando la fermentación anaeróbica de la materia seca impactando en largos periodos de retención en el retículo-rumen lo que induce a mayor producción de metano entérico. Así mismo, Rivera et al. (2015) reporta que las especies gramíneas presentan niveles bajos de nutrientes, pero al combinarse con la arbustiva T. diversifolia mejoran el aporte total de nutrientes creando un mejor balance nutricional, lo que permite promover el potencial productivo de las vacas de leche, aunado a esto permite una mejor digestibilidad de la dieta logrando un incremento en el consumo voluntario de los animales, lo que se ve reflejado en mayor producción y calidad de la leche producida ((Paciullo et al. 2011;Buza et al 2014citado por Rivera et al. 2015)."}]},{"head":"Uso de leñosas perennes y su importancia en SSP","index":17,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Botón de oro (Tithonia diversifolia)","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":48,"text":"Tithonia diversifolia Hemsl. A Gray. es un arbusto de la familia Asterácea, originario del sur de México, América central y parte de Sur América, ampliamente distribuido en la actualidad en los trópicos húmedos y subhúmedos de América Central y del Sur, Asia y África (Crespo et al. 2011)."},{"index":2,"size":135,"text":"T. diversifolia presenta alta capacidad de adaptación a diferentes pisos altitudinales, encontrándose a partir del nivel del mar hasta 2400 msnm, donde se adapta a suelos de alta y baja fertilidad (Ruiz et al. 2012). Tiene alto potencial para la producción de alimento de calidad, debido a que tiene la capacidad de acumular cantidades de nitrógeno en sus hojas de manera similar a las leguminosas, tiene niveles altos de P en sus tejidos debido a que es capaz de absorberlo de profundidades donde no es accesible a los forrajes, alta masa radicular, alta capacidad para extraer los nutrientes del suelo, tolera condiciones de acidez y baja fertilidad en el suelo y es una planta rústica. Además, tiene un crecimiento rápido y es poco exigente de insumos y manejo para su cultivo (Martínez & Leyva 2014)."},{"index":3,"size":101,"text":"Rivera y colaboradores en el (2015) compararon un SSP utilizando T. diversifolia en una densidad de 5,000 arbustos/ha con pastos (Urocholoa decumbens y Urochloa brizantha) tanto en el SSP como en monocultivo y encontraron que el SSP produjo 243 g de MS/m 2 y de esto el 15% es aportado por T. diversifolia y el sistema convencional reportó 169 g de MS/m 2 es decir el SSP reporta un 30% más de producción de biomasa en comparación con el monocultivo. Así mismo reporta una producción de leche por unidad de área 33.1% superior en el SSP, respecto al sistema en monocultivo."},{"index":4,"size":87,"text":"En un estudio realizado por Navas & Montaña (2019) estableciendo T. diversifolia a una distancia de 1 x 1 m entre planta y 1.5 m de ancho de callejón, encontraron una producción de biomasa de 25.5 t/ha/año de MS, además encontraron valores de proteína de 14% en el periodo con condiciones de 0 mm de precipitación y 24% en periodo con precipitaciones de 323 mm, cada periodo con duración de 45 días, lo que refleja alto potencial para mejorar los sistemas alimentarios aun en condiciones de sequía."},{"index":5,"size":80,"text":"Según Arías (2017) realizó un estudio sustituyendo 25% y 50% de la MS del suplemento concentrado por T. diversifolia en la dieta de vacas lecheras pastoreando pasto estrella (C. nlemfluensis), donde encontró producciones diarias de 19.4 kg de leche cuando se sustituyó el 25% de la MS del suplemento concentrado con T. diversifolia; siendo esto superior a la sustitución del 50% del suplemento, además de aumentar la producción logró reducir los costos en 9.06% con respecto a la dieta testigo."}]},{"head":"Leucaena diversifolia","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":133,"text":"Árbol o arbusto de crecimiento erecto perteneciente a la familia Fabaceae. Descrita como leguminosa perenne y leñosa, originaria de Centroamérica, nativa de México, Guatemala, Honduras, El Salvador y Nicaragua. Se ubica como la especie más cultivada a nivel mundial después de L. leucocephala, donde se diferencia de esta por la mayor tolerancia a acidez de los suelos y adaptabilidad a mayores alturas sobre el nivel del mar que le permiten adaptarse a condiciones frías y lograr mayor producción de biomasa. Como parte de los beneficios ecológicos que hace sobresalir a esta especie resalta su importancia en el control y prevención de la erosión del suelo, mejoras en drenaje y nivel de fertilidad, fijación de N atmosférico con niveles que oscilan entre 38 a 180 kilogramos de nitrógeno por hectárea (Palma & Gonzales-Rebeldes 2018)."},{"index":2,"size":67,"text":"La producción de materia seca (hoja) varía entre 10 y 16 toneladas por hectárea, alcanzando niveles de proteína cruda del 23%, 52% FDN, 17% FDA y 53% de digestibilidad in vitro de la materia seca. La incorporación de esta especie a los sistemas productivos pecuarios se da mediante forraje de corta y acarreo, como banco de proteína y mediante asocio con pasturas de tipo gramíneas (Martinez 2014)."},{"index":3,"size":86,"text":"En un estudio realizado por Enciso et al. (2019) donde compararon el pasto Cayman en monocultivo y en asocio con L. diversifolia, encontraron producción de biomasa total de 22.5 ton/ha/año y 32.2 ton/ha/año, respectivamente. Así mismo, encontraron valores de proteína cruda de 6.7% para el pasto Cayman en monocultivo, 8.25% para Cayman en asocio con L. diversifolia y 26.7% para L. diversifolia, resultados que se vieron reflejados en un aumento de la producción animal del 49% por ha, en comparación con el monocultivo de pasto Cayman."},{"index":4,"size":43,"text":"Peralta y colaboradores (2012) reportan ganancias diarias de peso de 1.25 kg/día, en pastoreo con Panicum máximum y Leucaena Leucocephala durante tres horas días, versus el testigo solo Panicum máximum que solo obtuvo 0.82 kg/día, obteniendo un rendimiento menor del 35% por animal."},{"index":5,"size":61,"text":"Quintero-Anzueta y colaboradores (2017) realizaron un experimento donde compararon pasto Cayman en monocultivo, pasto Cayman en una relación de 70% con 15% de Canavalia brasiliensis y 15% de L.diversifolia, encontrando niveles de proteína cruda de la gramínea Cayman de 6.8% y en la relación encontraron concentraciones de 11.0% de proteína, mejorando en un 62% la dieta cuando se incorporaron las leguminosas."}]},{"head":"Gramíneas","index":20,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Pasto Cayman","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":153,"text":"En los sistemas de pastoreo actual se cuenta con una amplia variedad de materiales genéticos que están disponibles para la alimentación de los rumiantes, donde los pastos del género Urochloa están en constante estudio, tanto a nivel de parcelas experimentales como en estudios establecidos dentro de los sistemas productivos; con el objetivo de definir si son una alternativa prometedora para establecer en los sistemas de pastoreo de las ganaderías tropicales de la región. En las gramíneas al igual que en la mayoría de las plantas utilizadas en la alimentación animal, la producción de biomasa está estrechamente relacionada con el régimen o distribución de las precipitaciones, siendo el recurso hídrico uno de los principales factores que afectan su desarrollo. Con bajas precipitaciones o distribución irregular de estas, se propician condiciones de déficit hídrico en el suelo que afecta de manera negativa el crecimiento, desarrollo y la persistencia de las pasturas. (Martin et al. 2018)."},{"index":2,"size":161,"text":"El pasto Cayman (Urochloa híbrido cv. CIAT BRO2/1752) con hábito de crecimiento macollado produce abundantes estolones, que en condiciones de alta humedad modifica su hábito de crecimiento, desarrollando temprano en su ciclo de crecimiento gran número de tallos decumbentes que producen macollas y raíces en los nudos, característica similar a la de Brachiaria humidicola. Estas raíces superficiales sirven como sostén de la planta, absorbiendo nutrientes y suministrando oxígeno a la planta en condiciones adversas de drenaje deficiente ante los excesos de humedad (CIAT 2018) (Martin et al. 2018). Martin et al. (2018) evaluaron la respuesta del pasto Cayman al estrés hídrico, donde utilizaron dos tratamientos (100% regado y 50% de la evapotranspiración del cultivo) y tres periodos de cosecha (30, 60 y 80 días después de siembra) donde encontraron rendimientos de 5 ton/ha y 12.7 ton/ha de materia seca para los primeros 30 días y no encontraron diferencias significativas para los rendimientos de 60 y 80 días después de la siembra."},{"index":3,"size":79,"text":"Hernandez y colaboradores (2014) evaluaron el desempeño de Cayman en el trópico muy húmedo de Costa Rica, donde utilizaron una densidad de siembra de 7 kg/ha en un área de 5 ha. Se evaluaron tres tratamientos que corresponden a tres cargas animales (1 UA/ha, 2 UA/ha y 3 UA/ha), donde encontraron producciones de materia seca de 8.8 ton/ha, 8.2 ton/ha y 5.8 ton/ha de materia respectivamente. En esos pastos los valores de proteína cruda fueron en promedio de 8.3%."},{"index":4,"size":87,"text":"En un estudio realizado por Soto-Blanco & Abarca-Monge (2018) donde estudiaron machos en crecimiento de la raza Brahman con pesos de 358 kg de peso vivo, alimentados completamente con pasto Cayman, encontraron ganancias diarias de peso de 670 gramos por día, con un consumo de materia seca de 12.8 kg peso vivo y 9.6% de proteína cruda. Así mismo, reportan 14.5 g de metano por kg de MS, según los autores estos valores son bajos ya que la relación entre la emisión y el consumo fue adecuada."},{"index":5,"size":86,"text":"Hernandez-Chaves y colaboradores (2020) evaluaron el crecimiento del forraje y la respuesta de los animales bajo un sistema de Pastoreo Racional Voisin (PRV) tomando en cuenta las épocas de lluvia, encontrando producciones de biomasa de 6.5 ton/ha por ciclo de 42 días y mayor producción para la época lluviosa de 6.613 ton/ha por ciclo de 42 días. Así mimo, encontraron ganancias diarias de peso de 860 gramos para la época lluviosa y 720 para la época seca, en ambas épocas sin suplementación y sin diferencias significativas."}]},{"head":"Producción de metano","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":61,"text":"El metano es un gas producido en el rumen y se emite continuamente durante todo el día; en su mayoría eructado a la atmósfera por la boca y en menor medida por las fosas nasales y el ano, dichas emisiones representan una pérdida del 3-12% de la ingesta bruta de energía para el animal (IPCC 2006citado por Ku-Vera et al. 2020b)."},{"index":2,"size":115,"text":"Según Archimáde et al. (2011y 2018citado por Ku-Vera et al. (2020a) hay muchos factores que influyen en la producción de metano; como el tipo de forraje si es una planta C3 o C4, composición química, relación forraje:concentrado, tasa de paso del alimento a través del rumen, etapa fisiológica, raza y sexo, todos integrados dentro de una expresión única en la ingesta de la dieta que se expresa en materia seca. Según Ku-Vera y colaboradores (2020b) existe un potencial considerable para manipular el destino del hidrógeno metabólico en el rumen, lejos de la síntesis de metano hacia la formación de ácido propiónico que consume el hidrógeno disponible, alimentando a rumiantes con plantas que contienen metabolitos secundarios."},{"index":3,"size":68,"text":"Las plantas forrajeras cumplen un rol importante en la mitigación del cambio climático, cuando se implementan estrategias de alimentación que incluye el consumo de forraje de alto valor nutritivo, incluidas las leguminosas que contengan taninos condensados. Llegano a disminuir hasta 15% de las emisiones de metano, comparado con forrajes de baja digestibilidad (ANDRADE et al., 2012;GERBER et al., 2013;MONTAGNINI et al., 2015, citado por Buitrago-Guillen et al. 2018)."},{"index":4,"size":60,"text":"Albores-Moreno et al. (2020) evaluaron el efecto de la sustitución del pasto Cenchrus purpureus en la producción de metano, donde se sustituyó el 30% de este con seis forrajeras (N. emarginata, T. amygdalifolia, C. gaumeri, P. piscipula, L. leucocephala y H. albicans), encontrando que la suplementación con L. leucocephala disminuyó la producción de metano en el rumen en un 12.78%."},{"index":5,"size":54,"text":"Soto-Blanco y Abarca-Monge (2018) midieron la emisión de metano entérico en ganado de la raza Brahman en el trópico de Costa Rica, utilizaron ocho machos con un peso de 358.6 kg de peso vivo y alimentados con pasto Cayman el 100% de la dieta y encontraron producciones de metano de 168.5 g/animal por día."},{"index":6,"size":155,"text":"Prieto-Manrique y colaboradores realizaron un estudio donde midieron los efectos en animales que pastaron en gramíneas (pasto estrella Cynodon nlemfuensis y pasto guinea Megathyrsus maximus) en sistemas silvopastoriles con L. Leucocephala, en una proporción de graminea:leucaena de 80:20 y de forraje concentrado 70:30. Los resultados obtenidos de las diferentes relaciones fueron más altos para la dieta de estrella con suplemento, con niveles de 100ml/gramo y la más baja fue para la mezcla con L. Leucocephala de 70% y 30% concentrado con 68.01 ml/gramo. Cardona-Iglesias et al. (2017) reportan producciones de metano in vitro de 31.4% y 32.1% menos al incluir botón de oro en las dietas versus no incluirlas en una dieta con pasto Kikuyo Cenchrus clandestinus y suplementadas con concentrado, Según Cardona-Iglesias et al. (2017) la reducción se debe a un mejor balance de los nutrientes en la dieta y a la presencia de metabolitos secundarios como taninos y saponinas (Carmona et al 2005)."},{"index":7,"size":329,"text":"Según Yañez-Ruiz y colaboradores (2016) las técnicas de fermentación in vitro han sido utilizadas para evaluar el valor nutritivo de los alimentos para rumiantes y en la última década para evaluar el efecto de las diferentes estrategias nutricionales en la producción de metano. Hatew et al. (2017) investigaron la relación entre la producción de metano in vitro e in vivo medida simultáneamente, con dos fuentes y dos niveles de almidón, suministradas a 16 vacas lecheras de la raza Holstein-Friesianas, todas equipadas con cánula en el rumen. En este experimento adaptaron las vacas durante 12 días con cada una de las dietas a evaluar, al finalizar el periodo de adaptación fueron sometidas por cinco días a cámaras de respiración de calorimetría indirecta de circuito abierto controlados por climas idénticos. Para la producción de metano in vitro se incubaron los 4 tratamientos (dos fuentes y dos niveles de almidón) y dos adicionales que fueron ensilaje y pulpa de remolacha, estas fueron inoculadas con 60 mL de licor ruminal amortiguado con una solución de fluido buffer, provenientes de vacas donantes previamente adaptadas a cada una de estas dietas. La medición de metano se realizó por medio de cromatografía de gases. Donde encontraron producciones in vivo de metano para las dos fuentes de 597 y 545 L/d y para los dos niveles 581 y 557 L/día en comparación con las producciones de metano in vitro 828 y 751 L/día ; 797 y 570 L/día respectivamente, Dichos resultados mostraron que hay una correlación entre la producción de metano in vivo e in vitro (0.54; p=0.040) cuando los resultados se expresaron por unidad de materia orgánica fermentable en rumen, sin mostrar correlación cuando los resultados se expresaron en materia orgánica ingerida (0.04; p=0.878); los autores atribuyen estos resultados a que la digestión in vivo de materia incluye los efectos combinados de la fermentación del rumen y la fermentación del tracto posterior, reflejando esto la fermentación del rumen solamente a diferencia de la fermentación in vitro."},{"index":8,"size":103,"text":"Macome y colaboradores (2017) realizaron un estudio evaluando la producción de metano in vitro, utilizaron ensilajes de centeno con tres fechas de madurez (28, 41 y 62 días) y dos cantidades de fertilización (65 y 150 Kg de N/ha). Los seis tratamientos fueron utilizados en 54 vacas de la raza Holstein-Fresianas en una dieta de ensilaje:concentrado (80:20) de materia seca. Los resultados reportados por los autores indican que no hubo una correlación entre la producción in vitro e in vivo (R 2 0.01; p=0.08), concluyendo que la variación entre las vacas donantes era superior en comparación con las diferencias entre los diferentes tratamientos."}]},{"head":"METODOLOGÍA","index":23,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Descripción del sitio","index":24,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Lugar y periodo de estudio:","index":25,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":69,"text":"El estudio será realizado en la finca comercial del Centro Agronómico Tropical de Investigación y Enseñanza (CATIE), ubicada a 640 msnm en Turrialba, provincia de Cartago, Costa Rica. La precipitación media anual es de 2600 mm, con una temperatura media anual de 23 °C. El experimento será realizado entre los meses de octubre 2020 a abril del 2021, realizando durante este periodo tres muestreos que corresponden a tres repeticiones."},{"index":2,"size":5,"text":"Figura 1. Localización del estudio"}]},{"head":"Establecimiento del ensayo","index":26,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Diseño experimental","index":27,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":133,"text":"Se utilizará un diseño experimental de bloques completos al azar (BCA), utilizando 4 bloques. Cada bloque está constituido por tres tratamientos (Cuadro 2) y cuatro repeticiones por tratamiento, con tamaños de parcela de 2500 m 2 . En todos los bloques se realizó primero la siembra de pasto Cayman y posteriormente a la siembra del pasto se sembraron entre cuatro y nueve surcos con doble hilera de plantas de Leucaena diversifolia y Tithonia diversifolia con distanciamiento de 5 m entre surcos, 1 m entre plantas y 1 m entre cada hilera dentro de cada surco (Cuadro 3), obteniendo densidades de siembra que van desde 576 a 648 plantas por parcela (2500 m 2 ) equivalente a 2304 y 2592 plantas/ha Cuadro 2. Identificación de tratamientos Cuadro 3. Distribución de plantas en los tratamientos."},{"index":2,"size":57,"text":"El establecimiento del pasto Cayman se realizó en noviembre del 2018, donde se realizaron prácticas de labranza, consistiendo estás en una pasada de arado y dos pasadas de rastra, seguidamente se realizó la siembra al voleo utilizando 8 kg de semilla por hectárea, distribuida de forma manual y posteriormente tapada con una rama jalada por el tractor."},{"index":3,"size":101,"text":"Las leñosas fueron establecidas de agosto a septiembre de 2019. Previo a la siembra se realizó la aplicación de herbicida sobre el pasto Cayman ya establecido, aplicándolo en franjas de 1.5 metros de ancho y correspondiendo cada franja a los respectivos surcos establecidos para cada leñosa forrajera. En el caso de T. diversifolia la siembra se realizó en callejones utilizando material vegetativo (estacas), donde se utilizaron dos estacas en equis (X) por punto de siembra; para L. diversifolia la siembra se realizó en callejones utilizando plantas en bolsa plástica que habían sido sembradas y manejadas previamente en viveros mediante semilla sexual."},{"index":4,"size":139,"text":"El establecimiento de L. diversifolia se realizó en callejones, sembrada a doble hilera con una distancia entre planta 1 m y 1 m entre filas con 5 m de callejón, para ambos asocios la densidad de siembra del pasto Cayman fue igual al del monocultivo mencionado anteriormente. Cada tratamiento está representado en cuatro parcelas de 2500 m 2 cada una, para un total de una hectárea por tratamiento. Se consideró un periodo de establecimiento de 12 meses, durante el cual se realizó un corte de uniformización entre 0.15-0.30 m de altura sobre la base del suelo para la especie T. diversifolia y a 0.8 m para la especie L.diversifolia; para el pasto Cayman se realizó dos cortes a una altura de 10 cm con el objetivo de uniformizar las parcelas y tener un punto de partida para las evaluaciones."}]},{"head":"5.","index":28,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":7,"text":"3. Disponibilidad de biomasa y calidad forrajera:"}]},{"head":"Diseño experimental","index":29,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":113,"text":"Para la variable producción de biomasa y calidad nutricional se utilizará un diseño de bloques completos al azar (DBA), con una estructural trifactorial de tratamientos dadas por el factor forraje con tres niveles (Cayman, T. diversifolia y L. diversifolia), factor posición (dentro de las hileras, a 0.5 m de las leñosas y a 2.5 m al centro de las leñosas) y el factor tiempo (3 ciclos de cosecha), en parcelas divididas donde el tratamiento forraje se encuentra en la parcela principal dentro de cada bloque y las tres posiciones (dentro de las hileras, a 0.5 m y a 2.5 al centro) son las subparcelas que representan la posición y el tiempo de cosecha."},{"index":2,"size":12,"text":"con el modelo Yijkl= µ+Fi+Pj+Tk+FPij+FTik+PTjk+FPTijk+βl+Ppil+Spil+Ɛijkl ~ N (0, Ϭ 2 ) donde:"},{"index":3,"size":136,"text":"Yijk Producción de biomasa total µ Media general Fi Efecto del i-ésima Forrajera (i=Cayman, T.diversifolia y L. diversifolia) Pj Efecto de la j-ésima posición Tk Efecto de la k-ésima factor tiempo (k= tres ciclos de cosecha) FPij Efecto de la interacción de la i-ésima forrajera en la j-esima posición FTik Efecto de la interacción de la i-ésima forrajera en el k-ésimo tiempo PTjk Efecto de la interacción de la j-ésima posición en el k-ésimo tiempo FPTijk Efecto de la interacción de la i-ésima forrajera en la j-ésima posición en el k-ésimo tiempo βl Efecto aleatorio del l-ésimo bloque Ppil Efecto aleatorio de la i-ésima forrajera en el l-ésimo bloque (error \"A\" de la forrajera) Spj(il) Efecto subparcela de la j-ésima posición (error \"B\" para posición) además, βl Efecto de bloque ~ N (0, Ϭ 2 β)"},{"index":4,"size":50,"text":"Ppil Efecto de parcela principal ~ N (0, Ϭ 2 pp ) Spj(il) Efecto de subpacela ~ N (0, Ϭ 2 sp ) Ɛijkl Error asociado a la ijkl-ésima observación de forma normal e independiente con esperanza cero y varianza σ 2 . Los cuatro efectos aleatorios son mutuamente independientes."}]},{"head":"Variables a medir","index":30,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Disponibilidad de biomasa:","index":31,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Muestreo de pasto Cayman","index":32,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":202,"text":"Para el tratamiento en monocultivo se realizará el muestreo de forma sistemática en cada parcela, seleccionando 24 puntos de muestreo en forma de zig-zag, con los que se formará una muestra compuesta. Cada muestra será colectada utilizando un marco de 0.5 m x 0.5 m (0.25 m 2 ) (Lopez-Guerrero 2011), cortada a una altura de 10 cm sobre la base del suelo y pesada con una balanza digital. El muestreo de pasto Cayman en asocio se realizará de forma sistemática, seleccionando puntos de muestreo en forma de zig-zag, en el recorrido se obtendrán muestras dentro de las hileras de cada surco (8 muestras), a 0.5 m de las hileras (8 muestras) y en el punto medio entre surcos, que es 2.5 m al centro (8 muestras). De cada uno de los tres puntos de muestreo (dentro hileras, a 0.5 m de las hileras y 2.5 m al centro) saldrá una muestra compuesta por tratamiento, en cada bloque. Todas las muestras serán pesadas en campo con una balanza digital y de cada muestra compuesta se tomarán dos muestras de 1 kg, una muestra será enviado al laboratorio para el análisis bromatológico y la otra se utilizará para la variable relación hoja tallo."}]},{"head":"Muestreo de T. diversifolia y L. diversifolia","index":33,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":254,"text":"Para la estimación de biomasa en las especies leñosas, el muestreo se realizará de forma sistemática seleccionando una planta cada 8 m en cada fila, sin tomar en cuenta los límites de cada parcela para reducir los efectos de borde. El recorrido en la selección de los puntos de muestro iniciará en el lado izquierdo y finalizará en el lado derecho de cada surco. Las plantas de T. diversifolia y L. diversifolia serán cosechadas cada 50 días a una altura de 0.25 m y 0.8 m respectivamente. Todas las muestras serán pesadas de manera individual utilizando una balanza digital, para las estimaciones de la biomasa total. Del total de plantas muestreadas se seleccionarán de forma aleatoria 5 plantas por tratamiento en cada bloque, separando la biomasa de cada planta en cuatro fracciones: Fracción fina (Hojas (HF) y Tallos (TF) con diámetro menor a 5 mm) y Fracción gruesa (Hojas (HG) y Tallos (TG) mayores a 5 mm) (Garcia et al. 2008, Bacab et al. 2012, Rodríguez et ál. 2001). La biomasa comestible será estimada mediante la suma de las fracciones HF, TF y HG (Pérez 2012, Rodríguez et al. 2001, Lombo 2012). Después de separar las fracciones estas serán pesadas por separado: fina (hojas y tallos) y gruesa (hojas y tallos), tomando una muestra compuesta de 200 gramos de cada una de las fracciones para cuantificar el contenido de materia seca, en un horno gravitacional a 60 °C durante 72 horas, con esto realizar las estimaciones de la variable relación hoja tallo (Lombo 2012)."},{"index":2,"size":67,"text":"Las fracciones utilizadas (HF, TF y HG) para las estimaciones de la variable comestible serán mezcladas entre ellas para formar una muestra compuesta, de la cual se separará 1 kg que será enviado al laboratorio para realizar los respectivos analices bromatológicos. Con los datos de materia seca (%) se realizarán las extrapolaciones de los datos para estimar la variable de biomasa seca comestible (kg ha -1 )"}]},{"head":"Calidad nutricional:","index":34,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":64,"text":"En el análisis de calidad se realizará a cada muestra por separado de T. diversifolia, L. diversifolia y pasto Cayman. Mediante el análisis bromatológico se realizará la estimación de las variables incluidas como indicadores de calidad nutricional, dicho análisis será realizado mediante análisis proximal por química humedad con las metodologías de la AOAC (1996) en el laboratorio de bromatología de la Cooperativa Dos Pinos."},{"index":2,"size":29,"text":"-Materia seca (%) -Proteína cruda (%) -Fibra detergente neutro (%) -Fibra detergente ácido (%) -Digestibilidad in vitro de la materia seca (%) 5.5. Producción diaria y calidad de leche"}]},{"head":"Diseño experimental","index":35,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":41,"text":"Para la variable producción diaria y calidad de leche se utilizará un diseño completo al azar (DCA) con medidas repetidas en el tiempo, donde cada vaca representará una unidad experimental, con el modelo Yijk=µ+Fi+Tj+FTij+Vk+Ɛijk, ~ N (0, Ϭ 2 ) donde:"},{"index":2,"size":155,"text":"Yijk Producción de leche µ Media general Fi Efecto de la i-ésima forrajeras (i=Cayman, T.diversifolia y L. diversifolia) Tj Efecto del j-ésimo tiempo FTij Efecto de la interacción de la i-ésima forrajera en el j-ésimo tiempo Vk Efecto aleatorio de la k-esima vaca que es el sujeto en las medidas repetidas Ɛijk Error asociado a la ijk-ésima observación de forma normal e independiente con esperanza cero y varianza σ 2 . Para la variable producción diaria y calidad de leche se utilizarán vacas con cruce F1 (Jersey x Gyr y Jersey x Sahiwal) previamente pesadas y que se encuentren entre 2 y 5 lactancias, con 60 y 100 días en leche (DEL), manejadas en tres grupos y siendo cada grupo representativo a cada uno de los tratamientos evaluados. La cantidad de animales que ingresarán al pastoreo de cada uno de los tratamientos será estimada basándose en la disponibilidad del forraje determinada mediante un muestreo pre-pastoreo."},{"index":3,"size":167,"text":"Durante el periodo de evaluación las vacas de los diferentes tratamientos ingresarán de forma simultánea a cada una de las parcelas de 2500 m 2 , pasando por un periodo de acostumbramiento a las condiciones experimentales durante siete días, basado en la investigación de Mojica-Rodríguez y colaboradores (2019) quienes realizaron un ensayo midiendo el perfil lipofílico en vacas en pastoreo basado en el estudio de Jeffery (1970), quien sugirió un periodo de acostumbramiento de cuatro días mínimo, y del estudio de Stoobs y Sandland (1972) quienes sugirieron un periodo de acostumbramiento entre cuatro a nueve días para evaluar el efecto de forrajes sobre la producción de leche de vacas en pastoreo. Así mismo, Rivera y colaboradores (2015) evaluaron el efecto de la oferta y el consumo de T. diversifolia en la calidad y productividad, donde utilizaron seis días de acostumbramiento y cuatro días de medición. Seguido al periodo de acostumbramiento se tendrá un periodo de siete días correspondiente a la toma de datos de las variables enumeradas."},{"index":4,"size":132,"text":"Cada parcela de 2500 m 2 tendrá un periodo de ocupación de 3.5 días, dividiendo cada parcela en tres partes iguales mediante cuerda electrificada para un mejor aprovechamiento y gestión de la pastura. Esto será aplicado para cada una de las parcelas, para lo cual dos parcelas serán para el periodo de acostumbramiento y dos parcelas para el periodo de toma de muestras. Para calidad de leche y para producción se tomará los datos cada tres días durante un periodo de 14 días. Dando como resultado un ciclo de pastoreo de 14 días, posterior a esto para completar el periodo de descanso de 60 días requerido para las arbustivas de acuerdo con Ochoa (2011) citado por (Mejia-Díaz et al. 2017) se dejarán en descanso las áreas hasta el siguiente ciclo de evaluación."},{"index":5,"size":31,"text":"Durante el periodo de muestreo (siete días) y en cada ordeño se medirá la producción diaria por vaca durante los dos ordeños (AM/PM), mediante el pesaje en la sala de ordeño."}]},{"head":"Producción y calidad de leche","index":36,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":76,"text":"Para las variables de calidad y composición láctea se tomará una muestra de leche de 50 ml en cada ordeño (AM/PM) colectadas en recipiente estéril, la muestra correspondiente a los dos ordeños será mezcladas para formar una muestra compuesta por día por vaca, la cual será enviada a laboratorio para los análisis de grasa, proteína y solidos totales. Estas muestras enviadas a laboratorio corresponderán a los días 2, 4 y 6 dentro del periodo de muestreo."}]},{"head":"Metano in vitro","index":37,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":55,"text":"Para la variable producción de metano in vitro se utilizará un diseño de muestreo en bloques con dos repeticiones (tiempo 1 y 2) para aumentar el espacio de inferencia, en estructura factorial incompleta (tipo: forrajeras y dosis: relación forraje:concentrado) en 27 tratamientos siguiendo el modelo Yijk=µ+Mi+ βj +Ɛijk, ~ N (0, Ϭ 2 ) donde:"}]},{"head":"Yij","index":38,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":25,"text":"Producción de metano in vitro µ Medía general Mi Efecto del i-ésimo tratamiento βj Efecto aleatorio del l-ésimo bloque ~ N (0, Ϭ 2 β)"}]},{"head":"Ɛij","index":39,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":19,"text":"Error asociado a la ij-ésima observación de forma normal e independiente con esperanza cero y varianza σ 2 ."},{"index":2,"size":37,"text":"Para la producción de metano in vitro se tomarán muestras compuestas de Cayman, T. diversifolia y L. diversifolia con sus combinaciones, más la adición de alimento balanceado Vap Feed™ 16%, utilizado en la lechería comercial de CATIE."},{"index":3,"size":98,"text":"La distribución de los tratamientos se realizará basado en las relaciones forraje:concentrado 60:40, 70:30 y 80:20 (Cuadro 3). Estas relaciones se establecen basándose en el estudio de Van Wyngaard et al. (2018), quienes evaluaron el efecto de tres relaciones de forraje concentrado (100%, 78% y 60%) en las emisiones de metano en vacas en pastoreo. Las relaciones de gramínea:arbustiva que se utilizarán (70:30 y 80:20 ) se establecen tomando como referencia el estudio de Mahecha (2007); quien utilizó hasta un 35% de inclusión de T. diversifolia obteniendo mejores resultados con 25% de inclusión al igual que Arias (2017)."},{"index":4,"size":33,"text":"Se enviarán al laboratorio 25 muestras en materia fresca de 200 gramos de pasto Cayman, 13 muestras en materia fresca de 200 gramos de T. diversifolia y 13 muestras en materia fresca de"}]},{"head":"Resultados esperados","index":40,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":23,"text":"Se espera encontrar una mayor disponibilidad y calidad nutricional en los sistemas de pasto Cayman en asocio con Tithonia diversifolia y Leucaena diversifolia."},{"index":2,"size":35,"text":"Con la integración de las leñosas forrajeras (Tithonia diversifolia y Leucaena diversifolia) con pasto Cayman en la dieta de vacas cruzadas se espera que aumenten la producción y la cantidad de solidos en la leche."},{"index":3,"size":27,"text":"Al adicionar alimento balanceado en diferentes proporciones respecto al forraje (Cayman y leñosas), se pretende encontrar la combinación que genera las menores emisiones de metano in vitro."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Cuadros Cuadro 1 . Enfoque de la investigación ..................................................................................... Cuadro 2. Identificación de tratamientos ................................................................................ Cuadro 3. Distribución de plantas en los tratamientos. .......................................................... Cuadro 4. Distribución de los tratamientos para metano in vitro ........................................... Índice de Figuras Figura 1. Localización del estudio .......................................................................................... "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":" Mejia et al. (2017)  diferentes estudios muestran la rápida recuperación de T. diversifolia en cortes sucesivos y que el momento adecuado de cosecha sin causar deterioro al cultivo es antes de la floración donde se encuentran producciones de biomasa de 31.5 t/ha de materia verde cada 50 días. De acuerdo conCalle & Murgueitio (2010)  los valores reportados de proteína a los 30 días de rebrote y prefoliación (50 días) fueron de 28.51% y 27.48%, respectivamente, así mismo Arias (2017) reportó 21.48% de PC a los 50 días de rebrote.  "}],"sieverID":"74bdd3ed-e0c3-4042-887d-a7dc1139e42e","abstract":"lo que se considera que llena los requisitos para poder ser presentado ante la comunidad científica de CATIE."}

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E n e l e s q u e m a d e c a m p o , q u e s e p r e s e n t a e n l a F i g u r a 3 , f a m i l i a s S 2 o r i g i n a r i a s d e l a s p l a n t a s f é r t i l    1 9 8 9   1 9 8 9 / 9 0 S   1 9 9 0 S  ; L e e , E . J . ; y V a l e n t , B . 1 9 8 9 . R a c e s p e c i f i c p a r t í a ] r e s i s t a n c e t o b l a s t i n t e m p é r a t e j a p o n i c a r i c e c u l t i v a r s . P l a n t D i s . 7 3 : 4 9 6 -4 9 9  R o u m e n , E . C . 1 9 9 2 . S m a l l d i f f e r e n t i a l i n t e r a c t i o n f o r p a r t i a l r e s i s t a n c e i n r i c e c u l t i v a r t o v i r u l e n t i s o l a t e s o f t h e b l a s t p a t h o g e n . E u p h y t i c a 6 4 : 1 4 3 -1 4 8 . "}]}],"figures":[{"text":" L a c o m p l e j i d a d d e l m é t o d o d e m e j o r a m i e n t o p a r a R P s e j u s t i f i c a p o r l a a l t a v a r i a b i l i d a d d e l p a t ó g e n o ( F i l i p p i y P r a b h u , 1 9 8 7 ; O u , 1 9 8 0 ) . L a e x p r e s i ó n d e e s t a r e s i s t e n c i a t a m b i é n e s a l t e r a d a p o r l a s c o n d i c i o n e s c l i m á t i c a s y n u t r i c i o n a l e s . T o d o s l o s c u l t i v a r e s p o s e e n u n o o m á s g e n e s m a y o r e s d e r e s i s t e n c i a p e r o , e n e l p r o c e s o d e s e l e c c i ó n d e p l a n t a s p a r a R P e n e l c a m p o , e s d i f í c i l s e p a r a r l o s e f e c t o s e p i s t á t i c o s d e e s t o s g e n e s . L a h e r e n c i a d e l a R P e s d e n a t u r a l e z a c u a n t i t a t i v a ; l a m e j o r e s t r a t e g i a q u e s e d e b e a d o p t a r p a r a a c u m u l a r v a r i o s g e n e s c o n e f e c t o s m e n o r e s e s p o r m e d i o d e l a s e l e c c i ó n r e c u r r e n t e ( P a r l e v l i e t , 1 9 8 3 ) . E n e l p r e s e n t e c a p í t u l o s e p r e s e n t a n d o s e s q u e m a s d e s e l e c c i ó n r e c u r r e n t e , c u y o o b j e t i v o e s l a o b t e n c i ó n d e l í n e a s c o n R P p a r a l a s c o n d i c i o n e s d e s e c a n o . A d e m á s s e d i s c u t e n l o s d e t a l l e s d e l o s c r i t e r i o s u t i l i z a d o s p a r a l a s e l e c c i ó n d e p l a n t a s c o n R P , y s e p r e s e n t a n l o s r e s u l t a d o s o b t e n i d o s h a s t a e l m o m e n t o c o n l a s i n v e s t i g a c i o n e s r e a l i z a d a s e n E M B R A P A -C N P A F y l a s p o s i b l e s d i f i c u l t a d e s e n l a s e l e c c i ó n e n e l c a m p o . c . D e s p u é s d e l a i n o c u l a c i ó n , l a s p l á n t u l a s p e r m a n e c i e r o n b a j o e l e v a d a h u m e d a d y a u n a t e m p e r a t u r a d e 2 8 °C , e n p r o m e d i o . d . D e p e n d i e n d o d e l n i v e l d e s u s c e p t i b i l i d a d p r e s e n t a d o p o r e l c u l t i v a r S h a o T i o T s a o , e n t r e l o s d í a s 7 y 9 s e h i c i e r o n l a s e v a l u a c i o n e s . e . P a r t i e n d o d e l s u p u e s t o d e q u e y a n o h a b í a m á s g e n e s m a y o r e s d e r e s i s t e n c i a a e s e a i s l a m i e n t o e s p e c í f i c o , s e p r o c e d i ó a e s t i m a r l a g a n a n c i a p a r a l a R P , a l o l a r g o d e l o s c i c l o s d e s e l e c c i ó n r e c u r r e n t e c o n d u c i d o s c o n l a p o b l a c i ó n C N A -I R A T 5 . "},{"text":" E l a i s l a m i e n t o E C J 5 P ' -8 8 , r e p r e s e n t a n t e d e l a r a z a I B -9 , s e e s c o g i ó p o r s e r e l m á s a g r e s i v o ; e s o r i g i n a r i o d e p a n í c u l a s i n f e c t a d a s d e l c u l t i v a r G u a r a n í , c o l e c t a d a s e n J a c i a r a , M a t o G r o s s o , e n 1 9 8 8 ( F i l i p p i e t a l . , 1 9 9 2 ) . L a r a z a I B -9 e s p r e d o m i n a n t e e n l a r e g i ó n c e n t r a l d e l B r a s i l ( F i l i p p i y P r a b h u , 1 9 8 7 ) ,c a r a c t e r í s t i c a i m p o r t a n t e p a r a e l d e s a r r o l l o d e p o b l a c i o n e s m e j o r a d a s c o n R P p a r a e s a r e g i ó n . u r a 1 . R e s u l t a d o s ( s e v e r i d a d ) d e l a i n o c u l a c i ó n d e 2 7 p r o g e n i t o r e s c o n l o s a i s l a m i e n t o s E C J 5 P ' -8 8 . C G 1 -8 7 y E C J 2 F 1 . P r e p a r a c i ó n d e l a P o b l a c i ó n p a r a l a S e l e c c i ó n L a p o b l a c i ó n C N A -I R A T 5 , c o n s t i t u i d a p o r 3 0 0 0 p l a n t a s , s e s o m e t i ó a t r e s i n o c u l a c i o n e s a r t i f i c i a l e s c o n e l a i s l a m i e n t o E C J 5 P ' -8 8 , y e n s e g u i d a s e h i z o l a s e l e c c i ó n d e p l a n t a s c o n R P . L a m e t o d o l o g í a u t i l i z a d a c o n s i s t i ó e n l a e l i m i n a c i ó n d e l a s p l a n t a s c o n r e a c c i ó n d e r e s i s t e n c i a ( R ) e h i p e r s e n s i b i l i d a d ( R H ) , y l a s e l e c c i ó n d e l a s p l a n t a s c o n R P , s u s c e p t i b l e s ( S ) y a l t a m e n t e s u s c e p t i b l e s ( A S ) . L a s t r e s r o n d a s d e e v a l u a c i ó n s e r e a l i z a r o n c o n e l o b j e t i v o d e e l i m i n a r t o d o s l o s g e n e s m a y o r e s q u e c o n d i c i o n a b a n l a r e s i s t e n c i a a a i s l a m i e n t o s d i f e r e n t e s d e l E C J 5 P ' -8 8 . E n l a p r i m e r a i n o c u l a c i ó n d e l a p o b l a c i ó n s e o b s e r v a r o n f r e c u e n c i a s d e 2 2 5 , 3 3 5 , 5 0 , 5 4 y 1 2 p l a n t a s , r e s p e c t i v a m e n t e , c o n r e a c c i o n e s d e l t i p o R , R H , R P , S y A S . L a s p l a n t a s c o n r e a c c i ó n d e l t i p o R P , S y A S s e r e c o m b i n a r o n p a r a l a c o n s t i t u c i ó n d e u n a n u e v a p o b l a c i ó n , y c o n e l l a s e h i z o u n n u e v o c i c l o d e s e l e c c i ó n , u t i l i z a n d o e l m i s m o a i s l a m i e n t o y l o s m i s m o s c r i t e r i o s d e s e l e c c i ó n . L a s f r e c u e n c i a s o b s e r v a d a s f u e r o n 1 9 7 , 7 7 , 2 7 , 1 3 1 y 1 2 1 p l a n t a s c o n r e a c c i o n e s d e l t i p o R , R H , R P , S y A S , r e s p e c t i v a m e n t e . L a s p l a n t a s s e l e c c i o n a d a s s e r e c o m b i n a r o n y s o l a m e n t e s e c o s e c h a r o n l a s a n d r o e s t é r i l e s , c a d a u n a d e l a s c u a l e s r e p r e s e n t a b a u n a f a m i l i a . S e e v a l u a r o n 1 0 7 f a m i l i a s S j p o r s u r e a c c i ó n a l a p i r i c u l a r i a e n l a s h o j a s , u t i l i z a n d o e l m i s m o a i s l a m i e n t o , e n m a t e r o s b a j o c o n d i c i o n e s d e i n v e r n a d e r o , y s i g u i e n d o l a m e t o d o l o g í a m e n c i o n a d a a n t e r i o r m e n t e . L a m a y o r í a d e l a s f a m i l i a s p r e s e n t ó r e a c c i ó n a l t a m e n t e s u s c e p t i b l e , d e b i d o a l a a l t a p r e s i ó n d e l a e n f e r m e d a d c a u s a d a p o r l a i n o c u l a c i ó n . L a s s e m i l l a s r e m a n e n t e s d e l a s f a m i l i a s q u e p r e s e n t a r o n r e a c c i o n e s R P , S y A S s e r e c o m b i n a r o n p a r a o r i g i n a r l a n u e v a p o b l a c i ó n , n o m b r a d a C N A -I R A T 9 . E s q u e m a s d e S e l e c c i ó n R e c u r r e n t e p a r a R e s i s t e n c i a P a r c i a l E n e s t e p r o y e c t o s e u t i l i z a r o n d o s e s q u e m a s d e s e l e c c i ó n r e c u r r e n t e , u n o c o n d u c i d o b a j o c o n d i c i o n e s d e i n v e r n a d e r o y o t r o e n e l c a m p o e x p e r i m e n t a l . E l e s q u e m a u t i l i z a d o e n e l i n v e r n a d e r o e s t á d e s c r i t o e n l a F i g u r a 2 . S u o b j e t i v o f u e s e l e c c i o n a r l a s p l a n t a s c o n R P , c a r a c t e r i z a d a p o r l e s i o n e s d e b o r d e s m a r r ó n r o j i z o s , f o r m a e l í p t i c a y c e n t r o g r i s á c e o . E n e s t e e s q u e m a s e e v a l u ó l a p o b l a c i ó n i n i c i a l ( P 0 ) , C N A -I P v A T 9 , r e p r e s e n t a d a p o r u n a m u e s t r a d e 3 0 0 0 p l a n t a s , l a s c u a l e s s e i n o c u l a r o n c o n e l a i s l a m i e n t o E C J 5 P ' -8 8 . L a s p l a n t a s c o n r e a c c i ó n d e r e s i s t e n c i a y a l t a s u s c e p t i b i l i d a d s e e l i m i n a r o n , y s e c o n s t i t u y ó l a p r i m e r a p o b l a c i ó n m e j o r a d a ( P J p o r l a r e c o m b i n a c i ó n d e p l a n t a s R P s e l e c c i o n a d a s . L a m i s m a m e t o d o l o g í a s e u t i l i z ó p a r a l a o b t e n c i ó n d e l a s p o b l a c i o n e s P 2 , P 3 , P 4 y P 5 o r i g i n a r i a s d e l o s c i c l o s s i g u i e n t e s . "},{"text":" e s d e l a p o b l a c i ó n C N A -I R A T -9 s e s e m b r a r o n e n s u r c o s d e 2 . 0 m , e n 1 9 9 0 / 9 1 . Q u i n c e d í a s a n t e s d e l a s i e m b r a d e l a s f a m i l i a s S 2 , s e e s t a b l e c i ó e l e s p a r c i d o r d e l i n o c u l o , c o n u n a m e z c l a d e c u l t i v a r e s s u s c e p t i b l e s , y s e i n o c u l ó c o n e l a i s l a m i e n t o E C J 5 P ' -8 8 . P a r a l a e v a l u a c i ó n d e p i r i c u l a r i a e n l a s h o j a s s e u t i l i z ó u n a e s c a l a d e c i n c o g r a d o s ( 1 , 3 , 5 , 7 y 9 ) ; e n e s t a e s c a l a , e l G r a d o 3 r e p r e s e n t a l a r e a c c i ó n t i p o R P , c o n p o c a s l e s i o n e s e s p o r u l a t i v a s d e l T i p o 4 e n l a e s c a l a d e 0 a 9 g r a d o s d e l S i s t e m a d e E v a l u a c i ó n E s t á n d a r p a r a A r r o z ( I R R I , 1 9 8 8 ) . S e s e l e c c i o n a r o n 6 1 f a m i l i a s S 2 , c u y a s s e m i l l a s r e m a n e n t e s f u e r o n r e c o m b i n a d a s p a r a l a c o n s t i t u c i ó n d e u n a n u e v a p o b l a c i ó n ( p a r a e l C i c l o 2 ) . "},{"text":"F  "},{"text":" u a d a s 3 0 S Q s e l e c c i o n a d a s I n t e r c r u z a m i e n t o I n o c u l a c i ó n 6 0 0 S 0 e v a l u a d a s 6 0 S Q s e l e c c i o n a d a s I n t e r c r u z a m i e n t o I n o c u l a c i ó Q s e l e c c i o n a d a s I n t e r c r u z a m i e n t o E s q u e m a d e l a s e l e c c i ó n r e c u r r e n t e a p l i c a d a b a j o c o n d i c i o n e s d e i n v e r n a d e r o . E n e l s e g u n d o c i c l o s e s e l e c c i o n a r o n , s o l a m e n t e c o n b a s e e n e l i d e o t i p o d e l a s p l a n t a s , 3 0 0 p l a n t a s f é r t i l e s e n t r e l a s 4 0 0 0 s e m b r a d a s . E s t a s s e a v a n z a r o n e n p r o g e n i e s p a r a l a e v a l u a c i ó n e n e l c a m p o y l a s e l e c c i ó n d e l a s m á s r e s i s t e n t e s a p i r i c u l a r i a e n l a s h o j a s . T a m b i é n s e s e m b r a r o n l o s p r o g e n i t o r e s d e l a p o b l a c i ó n y s e u t i l i z a r o n c o m o p a r á m e t r o s d e c o m p a r a c i ó n . L a m e t o d o l o g í a u t i l i z a d a f u e s i m i l a r a l a d e s c r i t a a n t e r i o r m e n t e . E n t r e l a s 3 0 0 p r o g e n i e s , s o l a m e n t e 6 0 f u e r o n s e l e c c i o n a d a s p a r a i n i c i a r e l C i c l o 3 . "},{"text":" e c c i ó n i n d i v i d u a l i d e o t i p o 4 0 0 0 : 2 8 0 S , 4 0 0 0 S 0 e v a l u a d a s I n o c u l a c i ó n F i g u r a 3 . E s q u e m a d e l a s e l e c c i ó n r e c u r r e n t e a p l i c a d a e n f a m i l i a s ( F ) , b a j o c o n d i c i o n e s d e c a m p o . P a r a l a c o m p o s i c i ó n d e l a n u e v a p o b l a c i ó n , s e s e m b r a r o n s e m i l l a s r e m a n e n t e s d e l a s 6 0 p l a n t a s , y s e r e c o m b i n a r o n d o s v e c e s ; e n l a p r i m e r a d e e l l a s s e e s c o g i e r o n s o l a m e n t e p l a n t a s a n d r o e s t é r i l e s y e n l a s e g u n d a s e s e l e c c i o n a r o n 2 8 0 p l a n t a s , s o b r e l a b a s e d e l t i p o d e l a p l a n t a y d e l g r a n o . E s a s 2 8 0 p l a n t a s s e r á n s e m b r a d a s e n f a m i l i a s b a j o c o n d i c i o n e s d e i n v e r n a d e r o . L a s f a m i l i a s s e r á n e v a l u a d a s c o n l a m i s m a r a z a v i r u l e n t a ( E C J 5 P ' -8 8 ) , c o n e l o b j e t o d e i d e n t i f i c a r y s e l e c c i o n a r f a m i l i a s c o n R P b a j o e s a s c o n d i c i o n e s . E f e c t o d e l a S e l e c c i ó n R e c u r r e n t e p a r a R e s i s t e n c i a P a r c i a l L o s c u a t r o c i c l o s d e s e l e c c i ó n r e c u r r e n t e d e s a r r o l l a d o s u t i l i z a n d o e l e s q u e m a d e i n v e r n a d e r o ( F i g u r a 2 ) s e c o m p a r a r o n e n c u a n t o a l a e f i c i e n c i a d e l a s e l e c c i ó n b a j o c o n d i c i o n e s c o n t r o l a d a s d e i n v e r n a d e r o y e n c o n d i c i o n e s n a t u r a l e s d e i n f e c c i ó n e n e l c a m p o ( F i l i p p i e t a l . , 1 9 9 4 a y 1 9 9 4 b ) . P a r a l a e v a l u a c i ó n d e e s a e f i c i e n c i a e n e l i n v e r n a d e r o , l o s c u a t r o c i c l o s d e s e l e c c i ó n s e i n o c u l a r o n s i m u l t á n e a m e n t e c o n e l a i s l a m i e n t o v i r u l e n t o E C J 5 P ' -8 8 . E n e l c a m p o , l o s m i s m o s m a t e r i a l e s s e e x p u s i e r o n a l a s r a z a s p r e v a l e c i e n t e s e n l a r e g i ó n . N o h u b o i n o c u l a c i ó n a r t i f i c i a l . P a r a l a s e v a l u a c i o n e s d e p i r i c u l a r i a e n l a s h o j a s , t a n t o e n c o n d i c i o n e s d e c a m p o c o m o e n i n v e r n a d e r o , s e u t i l i z ó l a s i g u i e n t e e s c a l a : 1 = p l a n t a s i n m u n e s o c o n r e a c c i ó n d e h i p e r s e n s i b i l i d a d , c o n p u n t u a c i o n e s n e c r ó t i c a s ; 3 = p e q u e ñ a s l e s i o n e s r e d o n d e a d a s o d e f o r m a e l í p t i c a , d i s e m i n a d a s , e s p o r u l a t i v a s y c o n b o r d e s d e c o l o r m a r r ó n ; 5 = v a r i a s l e s i o n e s t í p i c a s d e f o r m a i r r e g u l a r y e s p o r u l a t i v a s , c o l o r a c i ó n v e r d o s a y s i n b o r d e s . d e f i n i d o s ; 7 = m u c h a s l e s i o n e s d e f o r m a i r r e g u l a r y e s p o r u l a t i v a s , q u e s e u n e n r á p i d a m e n t e , c o l o r a c i ó n v e r d o s a y s i n b o r d e s d e f i n i d o s ; y 9 = m u c h a s l e s i o n e s u n i d a s , d e f o r m a i r r e g u l a r , q u e d a n c o m o r e s u l t a d o l a m u e r t e d e l t e j i d o . E s n e c e s a r i o d e s t a c a r q u e , e n e s t a e s c a l a , e l G r a d o 1 r e p r e s e n t a l a R V y e l 3 l a R P . L o s p a r á m e t r o s h e r e d a b i l i d a d y g a n a n c i a g e n é t i c a s e e s t i m a r o n s e g ú n l o p r o p u e s t o p o r C a r s o n y C a r s o n ( 1 9 8 9 ) . C a b e r e s a l t a r q u e s i n o h a y e f e c t o s a d i t i v o s p a r a e l c a r á c t e r q u e s e v a a e v a l u a r , n o e s n e c e s a r i o d e s a r r o l l a r p o b l a c i o n e s p r o m i s o r i a s p a r a l í n e a s p u r a s ( G a l l a i s , 1 9 9 3 ) . L o s r e s u l t a d o s d e l a s e v a l u a c i o n e s r e a l i z a d a s e n e l i n v e r n a d e r o y e n e l c a m p o s e p r e s e n t a n e n l o s C u a d r o s 1 y 2 . S e p u e d e o b s e r v a r q u e e n l o s c i c l o s m á s a v a n z a d o s h u b o u n a r e d u c c i ó n e n l a s e v e r i d a d d e l a e n f e r m e d a d , e n c o m p a r a c i ó n c o n l a p o b l a c i ó n i n i c i a l . L a g a n a n c i a g e n é t i c a t a m b i é n f u e c o n s i d e r a b l e ( A G = 0 . 7 ) e n e l C i c l o 4 . L a h e r e d a b i l i d a d o b t e n i d a e v i d e n c i ó q u e 4 2 % d e l a v a r i a c i ó n f e n o t í p i c a e s c o n s e c u e n c i a d e l a v a r i a c i ó n g e n é t i c a e n e s t e c i c l o . L a s e g r e g a c i ó n p a r a R V e n l o s c i c l o s a v a n z a d o s , i n d i c a d a p o r e l G r a d o 1 , a u m e n t ó a l m i s m o t i e m p o q u e p a r a R P , r e p r e s e n t a d a p o r e l G r a d o 3 ( d a t o s n o p r e s e n t a d o s ) . E s t e f e n ó m e n o s e p u e d e e x p l i c a r p o r l a n a t u r a l e z a e s p e c í f i c a d e l a R P ( G r a d o 3 ) , e n l a s p l a n t a s s e l e c c i o n a d a s y r e c o m b i n a d a s , e n l o s d i f e r e n t e s c i c l o s . C u a d r o 1 . M e d i a s d e p i r i c u l a r i a e n l a s h o j a s , h e r e d a b i l i d a d y g a n a n c i a g e n é t i c a o b s e r v a d a s e n l a s p o b l a c i o n e s e v a l u a d a s e n i n v e r n a d e r o c o n l a r a z a I Bm e d i a d e p i r i c u l a r i a e n l a s h o j a s ; h 2 t a s c o n r e s i s t e n c i a v e r t i c a l ; R P % p < h e r e d a b i l i d a d o b s e r v a d a ; A G i r c e n t a j e d e p l a n t a s q u e m u e s t o -g a n a n c i a g e n é t i c a ; R V %r a n r e s i s t e n c i a p a r c i a l . p o r c e n t a j e d e C u a d r o 2 . M e d i a d e p i r i c u l a r i a e n l a s h o j a s , c o e f i c i e n t e d e v a r i a c i ó n f e n o t i p i c a , h e r e d a b i l i d a d o b s e r v a d a y r e s p u e s t a a l a s e l e c c i ó n , e n l a s p o b l a c i o n e s a v a n z a d a s e n i n v e r n a d e r o y e v a l u a d a s e n e l c a m p o . = M e d i a d e p i r i c u l a r i a e n l a s h o j a s ; C V t ( % ) p o r c e n t a j e d e l c o e f i c i e n t e d e v a r i a c i ó n f e n o t i p i c a ; h -* = h e r e d a b i l i d a d o b s e r v a d a . b . L a s m e d i a s s e g u i d a s d e l a m i s m a l e t r a n o d i f i e r e n s i g n i f i c a t i v a m e n t e a l n i v e l d e 5 % d e p r o b a b i l i d a d p o r l a p r u e b a d e T u k e y . L a n a t u r a l e z a g e n é t i c a e s p e c í f i c a d e l a R P f u e d e m o s t r a d a p o r d i v e r s o s a u t o r e s . L a i n f e c c i ó n i n t e r m e d i a , c a r a c t e r i z a d a p o r l a p r e s e n c i a d e l e s i o n e s p e q u e ñ a s y e s p o r u l a t i v a s , p u e d e o c u r r i r d e b i d o a l a p r e s e n c i a d e g e n e s m a y o r e s c o n e f e c t o i n c o m p l e t o , q u e s e c o m p o r t a n c o m o R P c u a n d o e s t á n e n a m b i e n t e s n o f a v o r a b l e s ( R o u m e n , 1 9 9 2 ; B o n m a n e t a l . , 1 9 8 9 ; E z u k a , 1 9 7 2 ; Y u n o k i e t a l . , 1 9 7 0 ) . E n e l C u a d r o 2 s e p r e s e n t a n l o s r e s u l t a d o s o b t e n i d o s e n l a s e v a l u a c i o n e s r e a l i z a d a s e n e l c a m p o ( e n c o n d i c i o n e s n a t u r a l e s ) , u t i l i z a n d o e l m i s m o m a t e r i a l . S e o b s e r v a n r e s u l t a d o s s i m i l a r e s a a q u e l l o s o b t e n i d o s e n e l i n v e r n a d e r o , e n c u a n t o a l a r e s p u e s t a a l a s e l e c c i ó n . V a l e l a p e n a e n f a t i z a r q u e t a m b i é n e n e s t a s c o n d i c i o n e s h u b o u n i n c r e m e n t o d e l a v a r i a c i ó n g e n é t i c a . C o n s i d e r a c i o n e s G e n e r a l e s T e n i e n d o e n c u e n t a l o s 2 0 a ñ o s d e i n v e s t i g a c i ó n d e s a r r o l l a d a c o n e l a p o y o d e u n a r e d n a c i o n a l d e e n s a y o s , s e v e r i f i c ó q u e l o s p r o g r e s o s e n e l i n c r e m e n t o d e l g r a d o d e r e s i s t e n c i a d e l o s c u l t i v a r e s a l a p i r i c u l a r i a y e n l a p r o d u c t i v i d a d d e l c u l t i v o d e l a r r o z f u e r o n l i m i t a d o s . E s o s e p u e d e a t r i b u i r a l n ú m e r o l i m i t a d o d e c r u z a m i e n t o s y a l a s d i f i c u l t a d e s p a r a a s o c i a r t o d o s l o s f a c t o r e s f a v o r a b l e s e n u n g e n o m a ú n i c o . L a d i s p o n i b i l i d a d d e l a a n d r o e s t e r i l i d a d e n e l a r r o z f a c i l i t ó e l p o l i c r u z a m i e n t o y l a a d o p c i ó n d e l o s m é t o d o s d e s e l e c c i ó n r e c u r r e n t e p a r a e l m e j o r a m i e n t o d e p o b l a c i ó n p a r a c a r a c t e r í s t i c a s c o m o l a R P . L a p o b l a c i ó n m e j o r a d a s e p u e d e u t i l i z a r c o m o f u e n t e d e p r o g e n i t o r e s c o n r e s i s t e n c i a , y l a s f a m i l i a s p r o v e n i e n t e s d e e s t a s p o b l a c i o n e s c o m o c u l t i v a r e s ( K e r v e l l a e t a l . , 1 9 9 1 ) . L o s r e s u l t a d o s o b t e n i d o s c o n c u a t r o c i c l o s d e s e l e c c i ó n r e c u r r e n t e p a r a R P s e ñ a l a n p e r s p e c t i v a s p r o m i s o r i a s y p e r m i t e n c o m p l e m e n t a r l o s m é t o d o s t r a d i c i o n a l e s d e m e j o r a m i e n t o p a r a r e s i s t e n c i a a l a p i r i c u l a r i a . C u a n d o s e a d o p t a u n c r i t e r i o d e s e l e c c i ó n a p r o p i a d o , e l g r a d o d e R P e n l a s p o b l a c i o n e s s e i n c r e m e n t a c i c l o t r a s c i c l o . E l b a j o n ú m e r o d e l e s i o n e s G r a d o 4 ( e s p o r u l a t i v a s ) , c o n s i d e r a d o c o m o c r i t e r i o d e s e l e c c i ó n p a r a R P , m o s t r ó r e s u l t a d o s s a t i s f a c t o r i o s e n e s t e e s t u d i o . E n a u s e n c i a d e g e n e s m a y o r e s e n l a p o b l a c i ó n d e l a p l a n t a y c u a n d o l a p o b l a c i ó n d e l p a t ó g e n o e s t á b i e n d e f i n i d a , e s p o s i b l e a u m e n t a r l a e f i c i e n c i a d e l a s e l e c c i ó n r e c u r r e n t e u t i l i z a n d o e s t e c r i t e r i o . L a p r e s i ó n d e s e l e c c i ó n d e b e s e r u n i f o r m e y a l t a p a r a e l i m i n a r p l a n t a s a l t a m e n t e s u s c e p t i b l e s o c o n r e a c c i ó n d e h i p e r s e n s i b i l i d a d . E n c o n d i c i o n e s d e i n o c u l a c i ó n a r t i f i c i a l s e d e b e n m a n t e n e r c o n t r o l e s a p r o p i a d o s , h e c h o s c o n c u l t i v a r e s q u e p r e s e n t a n a l t o g r a d o d e R P y a l t a s u s c e p t i b i l i d a d . L a R P e n e l c a m p o n o s e p u e d e e v a l u a r c o n p r e c i s i ó n y e s t á s u j e t a a l a i n t e r a c c i ó n g e n o t i p o p o r a m b i e n t e . P o r e s t a r a z ó n , s e r e c o m i e n d a q u e l a s e v a l u a c i o n e s s e a n r e a l i z a d a s e n l o s m á s d i f e r e n t e s a m b i e n t e s e n q u e e l a r r o z e s t é s e m b r a d o ( B o n m a n , 1 9 9 2 ) . E n B r a s i l e s d i f í c i l e s t a b l e c e r u n a i s l a m i e n t o c o m o p a t ó g e n o ( r a z a ) d o m i n a n t e , p o r q u e e n t o d a s l a s á r e a s e x p e r i m e n t a l e s h a y p r e s e n c i a d e p o b l a c i o n e s d i v e r s a s d e l p a t ó g e n o . A d e m á s d e e s o , e n e l c a m p o s e p u e d e c o n f u n d i r l a R P c o n l o s e f e c t o s d e g e n e s m a y o r e s p r e s e n t e s e n l a p o b l a c i ó n , c u a n d o a ú n s o n e f e c t i v o s c o n t r a l a s r a z a s p r e v a l e c i e n t e s . D e l o s r e s u l t a d o s o b t e n i d o s e n e s t e e s t u d i o s e d e s t a c a n t r e s : 1 ) e n l a p o b l a c i ó n s e e n c o n t r ó l a v a r i a b i l i d a d n e c e s a r i a p a r a R P ; 2 ) l a p r e s i ó n d e s e l e c c i ó n b a j o c o n d i c i o n e s c o n t r o l a d a s f u e u n i f o r m e y a l t a ; y 3 ) l a s e l e c c i ó n p a r a R P e n l a s p o b l a c i o n e s v i e n e p r e s e n t a n d o u n a t e n d e n c i a h a c i a e l i n c r e m e n t o d e l p o r c e n t a j e d e p l a n t a s c o n r e s i s t e n c i a v e r t i c a l . I g u a l m e n t e c o n v i e n e r e s a l t a r l o s s i g u i e n t e s p u n t o s , c o n s i d e r a n d o l a e x p e r i e n c i a a d q u i r i d a e n e s t e t r a b a j o : 1 . L o s r e s u l t a d o s o b t e n i d o s f u e r o n c l a r o s c u a n d o s e e m p l e ó l a s e l e c c i ó n r e c u r r e n t e p a r a R P , b a j o c o n d i c i o n e s c o n t r o l a d a s d e i n v e r n a d e r o , y s e e v i t ó e l e f e c t o e p i s t á t i c o d e l o s g e n e s m a y o r e s ; é s t o s e n m a s c a r a n l o s r e s u l t a d o s o b t e n i d o s b a j o c o n d i c i o n e s d e i n f e s t a c i ó n n a t u r a l e n l o s c a m p o s e x p e r i m e n t a l e s . 2 . L a e l e c c i ó n d e u n a i s l a m i e n t o o r a z a v i r u l e n t a a t o d o s l o s p r o g e n i t o r e s d e l a p o b l a c i ó n , y l a s e g u r i d a d d e q u e é s t a e s p r e d o m i n a n t e e n l a r e g i ó n , d e s e m p e ñ a n u n p a p e l i m p o r t a n t e e n e l é x i t o d e l a m e t o d o l o g í a . 3 . L a s c o n d i c i o n e s d e i n o c u l a c i ó n d e b e n s e r f a v o r a b l e s p a r a p e r m i t i r u n a i n f e c c i ó n u n i f o r m e y e v i t a r u n a l t o p o r c e n t a j e d e e s c a p e . S i n e m b a r g o , s i l a p r e s i ó n e s m u y a l t a h a y l a p o s i b i l i d a d d e e l i m i n a r u n m a y o r n ú m e r o d e p l a n t a s q u e p o d r í a n e x p r e s a r l a R P a u n n i v e l m á s b a j o d e p r e s i ó n . E s e p r o b l e m a s e p u e d e m i n i m i z a r m e d i a n t e l a i n c l u s i ó n d e u n t e s t i g o c o n a l t o g r a d o d e R P a l a i s l a m i e n t o e n p r u e b a . 4 . E l b u e n c r i t e r i o e n l a e l e c c i ó n d e l o s p r o g e n i t o r e s r e f l e j a e l p o s i b l e p r o g r e s o q u e s e p u e d e a l c a n z a r , y a q u e u n a p o b l a c i ó n m e j o r a d a e n s u R P n o g a r a n t i z a l a a c u m u l a c i ó n d e g e n e s p a r a o t r a s c a r a c t e r í s t i c a s b i ó t i c a s o a b i ó t i c a s . 5 . E n c a d a e s q u e m a p r e s e n t a d o a n t e r i o r m e n t e , e l t i e m p o n e c e s a r i o p a r a f i n a l i z a r u n c i c l o e s u n f a c t o r i m p o r t a n t e . E n l a s p o b l a c i o n e s q u e s e d e s a r r o l l a r o n b a j o c o n d i c i o n e s c o n t r o l a d a s s e h i z o l a s e l e c c i ó n p a r a l o s d o s s e x o s ( p l a n t a s f é r t i l e s y a n d r o e s t é r i l e s ) , l o q u e a u m e n t ó c o n s i d e r a b l e m e n t e l a g a n a n c i a g e n é t i c a p o r c i c l o , e n c o m p a r a c i ó n c o n e l o t r o e s q u e m a . A ú n s o n p o c a s l a s i n f o r m a c i o n e s d i s p o n i b l e s e n c u a n t o a l a e x p r e s i ó n d e l a R P e v a l u a d a e n d i v e r s a s l o c a l i d a d e s . S i l a p r e s i ó n d e p i r i c u l a r i a e s a l t a , e x i s t e l a t e n d e n c i a a e l i m i n a r l a s p l a n t a s c o n R P , y s i e s b a j a l a f r e c u e n c i a d e e s c a p e s e s m a y o r , p r i n c i p a l m e n t e c u a n d o l o s c r i t e r i o s d e s e l e c c i ó n q u e s e u t i l i z a n c o n s i d e r a n p o c a s l e s i o n e s ( i n f e c c i ó n g r a d o 4 ) . S e s u g i e r e q u e e n l o s f u t u r o s e s t u d i o s s e i n v e s t i g u e u n s i s t e m a a l t e r n a t i v o p a r a l a e v a l u a c i ó n d e p i r i c u l a r i a e n l a s p a n í c u l a s y l a s h o j a s . L a s p o b l a c i o n e s d e s a r r o l l a d a s e n u n s i t i o p o s i b l e m e n t e n o s e a n e s t a b l e s e n o t r a l o c a l i d a d , a m e n o s q u e e n e s t a l o c a l i d a d p r e d o m i n e u n a r a z a d i f e r e n t e d e a q u e l l a u t i l i z a d a e n e l p r o c e s o d e s e l e c c i ó n r e c u r r e n t e . E l m e j o r a m i e n t o s i m u l t á n e o d e p o b l a c i o n e s c o n d o s o m á s c a r a c t e r í s t i c a s c o m p l e j a s e s d i f í c i l . E n e l c a m p o , l a s e l e c c i ó n s i m u l t á n e a p a r a t o d a s l a s c a r a c t e r í s t i c a s , a d e m á s d e l l e v a r m u c h o t i e m p o , p u e d e n o o f r e c e r r e s u l t a d o s p a r a R P . P a r a m i n i m i z a r t a l p r o b l e m a , s e d e b e c r e a r u n a s e r i e d e s u b p o b l a c i o n e s d e n t r o d e l a p o b l a c i ó n m e j o r a d a p a r a R P y e v a l u a r l a s e n d i f e r e n t e s l o c a l i d a d e s p a r a o t r a s c a r a c t e r í s t i c a s a g r o n ó m i c a s , i n c l u s i v e p a r a p i r i c u l a r i a e n l a s p a n í c u l a s . E l d e s a r r o l l o d e p o b l a c i o n e s c o n c a r a c t e r í s t i c a s a g r o n ó m i c a s m ú l t i p l e s , s i n a d i c i o n a r l o s c o m p o n e n t e s d e R P a l a p i r i c u l a r i a , i m p o s i b i l i t a e l a u m e n t o d e l t e c h o e n l a p r o d u c t i v i d a d . U n a p r o p u e s t a p a r a l a u t i l i z a c i ó n d e l a s e l e c c i ó n r e c u r r e n t e d e b e r í a c o n c e n t r a r s e e n l a e l e c c i ó n d e p r o g e n i t o r e s p o r t a d o r e s d e t o d a s o c a s i t o d a s l a s c a r a c t e r í s t i c a s a g r o n ó m i c a s a n i v e l e s i d e a l e s , y m u c h a v a r i a b i l i d a d p a r a e l g r a d o d e R P . P a r a e v i t a r l a i n t r o d u c c i ó n d e c a r a c t e r e s i n d e s e a b l e s , s e d e b e i n t r o d u c i r e l g e n d e a n d r o e s t e r i l i d a d e n u n o d e l o s p r o g e n i t o r e s a d a p t a d o s a l a s c o n d i c i o n e s p a r a l a s c u a l e s s e e s t á d e s a r r o l l a n d o l a p o b l a c i ó n . L a d u r a b i l i d a d d e l a R P n o s e p u e d e m e d i r e n e l p r o c e s o d e s e l e c c i ó n ; d e e s t a m a n e r a , s e d e b e e s t u d i a r e n e l f u t u r o e l v a l o r d e l a s l í n e a s d e r i v a d a s d e p o b l a c i o n e s c o m o f u e n t e s d e R P . R e f e r e n c i a s B o n m a n , J . M . 1 9 9 2 . D u r a b l e r e s i s t a n c e t o r i c e b l a s t d i s e a s e e n v i r o n m e n t a l i n f l u e n c e s . E u p h y t i c a 6 3 : 1 1 5 -1 2 3 . ; B a n d o n g , J . M . ; L e e , Y . H . "},{"text":" . C a r s o n , D . S . y C a r s o n , J . M . 1 9 8 9 . B r e e d i n g f o r r e s i s t a n c e i n f o r e s t t r e e s : A q u a n t i t a t i v e g e n e t i c a p p r o a c h . A n n u . R e v . P h y t o p a t h o l . 2 7 : 3 7 3 -3 9 5 .E u z u k a , A . 1 9 7 2 . F i e l d r e s i s t a n c e o f r i c e v a r i e t i e s t o b l a s t d i s e a s e . R e v . P l a n t P r o t . R e s . 5 : 1 -2 1 .F i l i p p i , M . C . y P r a b h u , A . S . 1 9 8 7 . Q u a n t i f i c a c á o d e r e s i s t e n c i a p a r c i a l a b r u s o n e e m c u l t i v a r e s d e a r r o z d e s e q u e i r o . E n : R e u n i á o N a c i o n a l d e P e s q u i s a d e A r r o z , 1 9 8 7 , G o i á n i a , B r a s i l . D o c u m e n t o 1 9 . E m p r e s a B r a s i l e i r a d e P e s q u i s a A g r o p e c u á r i a -C e n t r o N a c i o n a l d e P e s q u i s a d e A r r o z e F e i j á o ( E M B R A P A -C N P A F ) . 5 7 p . ; ; N e v e s , P . C . F . ; y N o t t e g h e m , J . L . 1 9 9 4 a . E f i c i e n c i a d a s e l e c á o r e c ó r r e m e s o b r e a r e s i s t e n c i a p a r c i a l a b r u s o n e e m a r r o z d e s e q u e i r o . F i t o p a t o l . B r a s . ( S u p l e m e n t o ) 1 9 : 2 7 9 . ; N e v e s , P . C . F . ; N o t t e g h e m , J . L . ; y P r a b h u , A . S . 1 9 9 4 b . R e c u r r e n t s e l e c t i o n o r p a r t i a l r e s i s t a n c e t o l e a f b l a s t i n u p l a n d r i c e . E n : R e u n i á o I n t e r n a c i o n a l d e A r r o z p a r a a A m é r i c a L a t i n a e p a r a o C a r i b e . M a r z o , 1 9 9 4 . G o i á n i a , B r a s i l . ; V e i l l e t , S . ; y P r a b h u , A . S . 1 9 9 2 . A v a l i a c á o d e p o p u l a c ó e s r e c o r r e n t e s p a r a r e s i s t e n c i a p a r c i a l a b r u s o n e e m a r r o z d e s e q u e i r o . F i t o p a t o l . B r a s . 1 7 : 2 0 0 . G a l l a i s , A . 1 9 9 3 . E f l i c i e n c y o f r e c u r r e n t s e l e c t i o n m e t h o d s t o i m p r o v e t h e l i n e v a l u é o f a p o p u l a t i o n . P l a n t B r e e d i n g 1 1 1 : 3 1 -4 1 . G u i m a r á e s , E . 1 9 9 3 . B r a z i l i a n u p l a n d r i c e b r e e d i n g n e t w o r k : V a r i e t a l r e l é a s e , t i m e s p a n , a n d y i e l d i n c r e a s e . I n t . R i c e R e s . N o t e s 1 8 ( 4 ) : 2 0 -2 1 . I R R I ( I n t e r n a t i o n a l R i c e R e s e a r c h I n s t i t u t e ) . 1 9 8 8 . S t a n d a r d e v a l u a t i o n s y s t e m f o r r i c e . 3 a e d . M a n i l a , F i l i p i n a s . 5 4 p . K e r v e l l a , J . ; G o l d r i n g e r , L ; y B r a b a n t , P . 1 9 9 1 . S é l e c t i o n r é c u r r e n t e c h e z l e s a u t o g a m e s p o u r l ' a m e l i o r a t i o n d e s v a r i é t é s l i g n é e s p u r e s : U n e r e v u e b i b l i o g r a p h i q u e . A g r o n o m P a t h o g e n v a r i a b i l i t y a n d h o s t r e s i s t a n c e i n r i c e b l a s t d i s e a s e . A n n u . R e v . P h y t o p a t h o l . 1 8 : 1 6 7 -1 8 7 . P a r l e v l i e t , J . E . 1 9 8 3 . D u r a b l e r e s i s t a n c e i n s e l f -f e r t i l i z a t i o n a n u a l s . E n : L a m b e r t i , F . ; W a l l e r , J . M . ; y G r a a f f , N . A . v a n d e r ( e d s . ) . D u r a b l e r e s i s t a n c e i n c r o p s . P l e n u m , N u e v a Y o r k . p . 3 4 7 -3 6 2 . y O m m e r e n , A . v a n . 1 9 8 8 . A c c u m u l a t i o n o f p a r t i a l r e s i s t a n c e i n b a r l e y t o b a r l e y l e a f r u s t a n d p o w d e r y m i l d e w t h r o u g h r e c u r r e n t s e l e c t i o n a g a i n s t s u s c e p t i b i l i t y . E u p h y t i c a 3 7 : 2 6 1 -2 7 4 . P r a b h u , A . S . y B e d e n d o , I . P . 1 9 9 1 . A v a l i a c á o d e r e s i s t e n c i a h o r i z o n t a l á b r u s o n e e m c u l t i v a r e s d e a r r o z . F i t o p a t o l . B r a s . 1 6 ( l ) : 3 4 -3 9 . "},{"text":"S i n g h , R . J . e I k e h a s h i , H . J . 1 9 8 1 . M o n o g e n i c m a l e -s t e r i l i t y i n r i c e : i n d u c t i o n , i d e n t i f i c a t i o n , a n d i n h e r i t a n c e . C r o p S c i .2 1 : 2 8 6 -2 8 9 .T a i l l e b o i s , J . y G u i m a r á e s , E . P . 1 9 8 9 .C N A -I R A T 5 u p l a n d r i c e p o p u l a t i o n . I n t . R i c e R e s . N o t e s 1 4 : 3 .V e i l l e t , S . 1 9 9 3 . O r g a n i z a t i o n o f t h e g e n e t i c v a r i a b i l i t y a n d r e c u r r e n t s e l e c t i o n i n r i c e ( O r y z a s a t i v a L . ) . T e s i s P h . D . I n s t i t u t N a t i o n a l A g r o n o m i q u e , P a r í s . 1 3 2 p . Y u n o k i , T . ; E z u k a , A . ; M o r i n a k a , T . ; S a k u r a i , H . E . ; y T o r i y a m a , K . 1 9 7 0 . S t u d i e s o n t h e v a r i e t a l r e s i s t a n c e t o r i c e b l a s t , 4 : V a r i a t i o n o f f i e l d r e s i s t a n c e t o f u n g u s s t r a i n s . B u l l . C h u k o g r e A g r i e . E x p . 6 : 2 1 -4 5 . "}],"sieverID":"1fef8884-191b-468a-b271-d28b2dce0bfe","abstract":"I n t r o d u c c i ó n L a p i r i c u l a r i a , c a u s a d a p o r P y r i c u l a r í a g r í s e a ( C o o k e ) S a c c a r d o , e s l a e n f e r m e d a d d e m a y o r i m p o r t a n c i a e c o n ó m i c a e n e l a r r o z d e s e c a n o e n B r a s i l . L a d e f i c i e n c i a h í d r i c a y e l r o c í o p o r l a r g o s p e r í o d o s p r o v o c a n a l t a s e v e r i d a d d e l a e n f e r m e d a d , e n l a r e g i ó n d e l ' c e r r a d o ' b r a s i l e ñ o . E l m a n e j o i n t e g r a d o d e l a p i r i c u l a r i a e s u n a d e l a s p r i o r i d a d e s d e l a i n v e s t i g a c i ó n e n a r r o z d e s e c a n o . L a r e s i s t e n c i a d e l c u l t i v a r e s e l p r i n c i p a l c o m p o n e n t e d e l m a n e j o i n t e g r a d o d e l a p i r i c u l a r i a , y l a e s t r a t e g i a d e m e j o r a m i e n t o p a r a l a o b t e n c i ó n d e c u l t i v a r e s c o n r e s i s t e n c i a c o m p l e t a e s r e l a t i v a m e n t e s e n c i l l a . D e s d e l a i m p l a n t a c i ó n d e e s t a e s t r a t e g i a , E M B R A P A -C N P A F l a e s t á a p l i c a n d o y e n l a d é c a d a d e l o s 8 0 l i b e r ó , c o n l a c o l a b o r a c i ó n d e l a s e m p r e s a s e s t a t a l e s d e i n v e s t i g a c i ó n , d i v e r s o s c u l t i v a r e s d e s e c a n o , c o n d i f e r e n t e s g r a d o s d e r e s i s t e n c i a ( G u i m a r á e s , 1 9 9 3 ) . S i n e m b a r g o , l a r e s i s t e n c i a d e e s t o s c u l t i v a r e s n o f u e a d e c u a d a : a u n q u e e n l o s a ñ o s i n i c i a l e s d e s p u é s d e l a l i b e r a c i ó n d e l o s c u l t i v a r e s s e r e d u j e r o n l a s p é r d i d a s p o r p i r i c u l a r i a , l a s e v e r i d a d s e h a i n c r e m e n t a d o g r a d u a l m e n t e a l o l a r g o d e l o s a ñ o s . L a r e s i s t e n c i a d e e s t o s c u l t i v a r e s e r a c o m p l e t a y p o s i b l e m e n t e e s t a b a c o n d i c i o n a d a p o r g e n e s m a y o r e s . P e r o l a s r a z a s c o m p a t i b l e s c o n e s o s g e n e s , e n g e n e r a l , a u m e n t a n e n p o c o t i e m p o . P o r s u p a r t e , l a r e s i s t e n c i a p a r c i a l ( R P ) , c a r a c t e r i z a d a p o r g e n e s m e n o r e s y p o r u n t i p o d e i n f e c c i ó n s u s c e p t i b l e , n o c a m b i a c o n l a s r a z a s f i s i o l ó g i c a s p r e v a l e c i e n t e s e n e l c a m p o ( P a r l e v l i e t y O m m e r e n , 1 9 8 8 ) . E l m e j o r a m i e n t o o r i e n t a d o h a c i a e l d e s a r r o l l o d e m a t e r i a l e s c o n R P e s u n a d e l a s e s t r a t e g i a s m á s i n d i c a d a s p a r a t e n e r u n e f e c t o e n e l m a n e j o d e l a p i r i c u l a r i a . I n v e s t i g a c i o n e s d e s a r r o l l a d a s e n E M B R A P A -C N P A F h a n m o s t r a d o l a e x i s t e n c i a d e c u l t i v a r e s n a t i v o s y t r a d i c i o n a l e s c o n d i f e r e n t e s g r a d o s d e R P ( P r a b h u y B e d e n d o , 1 9 9 1 ) ; s i n e m b a r g o , e l g r a d o d e R P n o e s a d e c u a d o b a j o l a s c o n d i c i o n e s d e a l t a p r e s i ó n d e l a e n f e r m e d a d , p r e v a l e c i e n t e s e n e l a r r o z d e s e c a n o d e B r a s i l . S e l e c c i ó n R e c u r r e n t e p a r a R e s i s t e n c i a P a r c i a l a P y r i c u l a r i a . . . e n B r a s i l P o b l a c i ó n B a s e e I d e n t i f i c a c i ó n d e l a R a z a V i r u l e n t a L a p o b l a c i ó n b a s e u t i l i z a d a p a r a d e s a r r o l l a r l a R P a p i r i c u l a r i a f u e l a C N A -I R A T -5 , l a c u a l s e o b t u v o m e d i a n t e l a r e c o m b i n a c i ó n d e 2 p r o g e n i t o r e s s e l e c c i o n a d o s a p a r t i r d e g e r m o p l a s m a n a t i v o y c u l t i v a r e s t r a d i c i o n a l e s d e a r r o z d e s e c a n o , s e g ú n l o d e s c r i t o p o r T a i l l e b o i s y G u i m a r á e s ( 1 9 8 9 ) . E l c o m p o n e n t e N o . 2 8 d e e s t a p o b l a c i ó n e s e l m u t a n t e d e l a v a r i e d a d í n d i c a I R 3 6 , e l c u a l f u e p r o d u c i d o p o r S i n g h e I k e h a s h i ( 1 9 8 1 ) , y t i e n e e n s u g e n o m a e l g e n r e c e s i v o ' m s ' q u e c o n d i c i o n a l a e s t e r i l i d a d m a s c u l i n a . E l a n á l i s i s d e l a c o m p o s i c i ó n d e e s t a p o b l a c i ó n i n d i c a q u e l a p a r t i c i p a c i ó n d e l m u t a n t e a n d r o e s t é r i l e s a l t a , y a q u e c o r r e s p o n d e a u n 1 2 . 5 % d e l t o t a l d e l o s p r o g e n i t o r e s s e l e c c i o n a d o s ( T a i l l e b o i s y G u i m a r á e s , 1 9 8 9 ) . P e r o l o s c u l t i v a r e s m e j o r a d o s y n a t i v o s , s e g ú n V e i l l e t ( 1 9 9 3 ) , p r e s e n t a r o n u n a p a r t i c i p a c i ó n e l e v a d a , e q u i v a l e n t e a u n 4 5 . 9 % . L a e l e c c i ó n d e l a i s l a m i e n t o p a r a l a i d e n t i f i c a c i ó n y s e l e c c i ó n d e l a s p l a n t a s c o n R P , s e b a s ó e n u n a s e r i e d e i n o c u l a c i o n e s ; s e u t i l i z a r o n 1 a i s l a m i e n t o s m o n o s p ó r i c o s c o l e c t a d o s d e c u l t i v a r e s c o m e r c i a l e s d e a r r o z d e s e c a n o d e d i f e r e n t e s l o c a l i d a d e s d e l a r e g i ó n c e n t r a l d e B r a s i l . L a m e t o d o l o g í a s e g u i d a p a r a i d e n t i f i c a r e l a i s l a m i e n t o d e r e f e r e n c i a p a r a e l e s t u d i o f u e : a . S i e m b r a , e n b a n d e j a s d e p l á s t i c o , d e l o s 2 7 p r o g e n i t o r e s d e l a p o b l a c i ó n C N A -I R A T 5 y d e l o s c u l t i v a r e s d i f e r e n c i a d o r e s i n t e r n a c i o n a l e s . b . C u a n d o l a t e r c e r a h o j a e m e r g i ó c o m p l e t a m e n t e , s e h i z o l a i n o c u l a c i ó n c o n u n a s u s p e n s i ó n d e e s p o r a s , a l a c o n c e n t r a c i ó n d e 3 x 1 0 5 e s p o r a s / m l . E l o b j e t i v o d e l a s i n o c u l a c i o n e s f u e i d e n t i f i c a r u n a r a z a v i r u l e n t a p a r a t o d o s o p a r a l a m a y o r í a d e l o s p r o g e n i t o r e s , o s e a , u n a r a z a c a p a z d e r o m p e r e l m a y o r n ú m e r o d e g e n e s d e r e s i s t e n c i a v e r t i c a l p r e s e n t e s e n l a p o b l a c i ó n C N A -I R A T 5 ."}

data/part_3/058a4a22207b4a022c92a48a2c2c97b9.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"058a4a22207b4a022c92a48a2c2c97b9","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/6ecb0d03-9e1d-4988-b440-c57928f62c0c/retrieve"},"pageCount":9,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Strategy and timeline","index":1,"paragraphs":[]}],"figures":[{"text":"Food safety risks in Ethiopia  Low level of consumption of animal-source foods -Nutritional deficiencies -Gender differences in consumption  Presence of hazards in animal-source foods -Biological hazards (food-borne pathogens) -Chemical hazards (aflatoxins, drug residues)  Risky practices at all levels along the value chains -Consumption of raw and/or lightly cooked meat Biological hazard assessment  Biological hazard risk assessment targeting foodborne pathogens in small ruminants -In slaughterhouses: • Survey and observation of slaughter practices • E. coli O157, Salmonella and Campylobacter isolation in meat and environmental samples • Drug resistance testing -Rural smallholder producers: • Survey and observation on goat milk handling and processing • Coliforms, E. coli O157 and S. aureus isolation in goat milk and goat milk products Biological hazard assessment  Slaughter practices are conducive to crosscontamination of meat confirmed by isolation of pathogens from environmental samples  Isolated multidrug-resistant pathogens from small ruminants from central highland and remote pastoralist systems -Issue of antibiotic resistance and its source (human medicine, natural resistance?) Training interventions Hands-on training for meat inspectors on pre-and-post harvest practices of small ruminants Posters and leaflets on slaughter hygiene Training for rural goat milk producers on milk hygiene and good manufacturing practices "},{"text":"  "}],"sieverID":"f84a1b46-0782-4357-870a-75e1839aa5de","abstract":""}

data/part_3/05a7981976b45841b2fc92ee6e22fa51.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"05a7981976b45841b2fc92ee6e22fa51","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/80374f65-d8a9-45e3-a9d9-c366e55041fc/retrieve"},"pageCount":1,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[],"figures":[],"sieverID":"00453914-b7e7-4adc-9fc0-69cdfd580333","abstract":""}

data/part_3/05b71ccdc8c6ce23d82fe3253350b6c1.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"05b71ccdc8c6ce23d82fe3253350b6c1","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/f2ae118e-2c9a-4ee7-b74e-aeb0886c00a5/retrieve"},"pageCount":26,"title":"Research question: how is climate adaptation tracked across the African continent?","keywords":["Africa Adaptation Acceleration Program","ABM: Adaptation Benefits Mechanism of the African Development Bank","AU-CCRDSAP: African Union Climate Change and Resilient Development Strategy and Action Plan (2022-2032)","BMGF: Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation","IPAM: International Platform for Adaptation Metrics","TNC: The Nature Conservancy"],"chapters":[{"head":"Methodology: a systematic protocol for data collection & analysis","index":1,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"\"By 2030, a multi-risk early warning system is put in place and operational (bush fires, flood, drought)\" \"By 2030, 100% of farmers use techniques and varieties adapted to climate change\"","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":95,"text":"Goals: explicit reference to long-term adaptation vision Objective: statement describing a desired change (also labelled as \"impact\", \"outcome\", \"priority\" Target: benchmarks for adaptation objectives or actions, suggesting the desired state. They are essential to set a clear direction for adaptation. Actions: statements describing the strategy to respond to climate impacts and achieve objectives and goals (includes on-the ground measures, projects and programs). We identified more than 2400 adaptation actions across agriculture and cross-cutting sectors. Indicator : explicit reference to a measure or value of achievement, of change or of performance (a quantification or measurable variable)"}]}],"figures":[{"text":"\" Identify and promote food crops that are resilient to climate change and train producers on modern farming techniques adapted to climate\" \"Improve livestock diet through supplementary feeding\" \"Establish 100 farmer field schools and train 5,000 farmers in climate-resilient agricultural and livestock practices by 2025\" \"Establish a national research institution focusing on new climate smart seed varieties and improving livestock breeding by 2030\" 6 countries include indicators; the large majority measure activity implementation \"Number of development plans taking integrating climate change adaptation\" \"Cumulative volume of finance [USD millions] mobilized for climate and environmental purposes\" \"Number of plans developed for the implementation of an early warning system for women in food crops agriculture\" \"Rate of women having benefited from technical and financial support measures for adapting to climate constraints\" \"Number of new varieties introduced/ zone\" \"Number of meteorological stations built \" \"Productivity of rainfed cropland (based on average for teff, wheat, barley and corn) (quintals/ha) \" \"Proportion of increase in climate service data reliability (0.85)\" \"Percentage reduction of crop and animal disease cases (30% reduction from 2022/2023 baseline)\" "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"reviewed publication Share results for agriculture; many have no targets National Adaptation Plan AICCRA country \"Contribute to improving food security and nutrition and poverty reduction\" \"Reduce vulnerability of the agriculture, livestock and aquaculture sector      Data on       Data on     hazards,       hazards, Search, protocol & coding extraction Search, select Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) Extract risks, goals, objectives, targets, actions, indicators, clean Compile, Database of adaptation tracking elements Analyze Draft tracking adaptation on state of manuscript validate Review, Peer- Search, protocol & coding extractionSearch, selectNationally Determined Contributions (NDCs)Extractrisks, goals, objectives, targets, actions, indicators,clean Compile,Database of adaptation tracking elementsAnalyzeDraft tracking adaptation on state of manuscriptvalidate Review,Peer-     data  (reference  across Africa   data(referenceacross Africa     systems;  system)     systems;system)           Regional Regional           webinars webinars           (2023) (2023)  "}],"sieverID":"e90ebdf3-0fe6-4ce0-95c2-58e8f3f66ba9","abstract":"Review the state of adaptation tracking across the continent to:• identify on-going national monitoring efforts that could contribute to the global stocktake • assess entry-points for improvement of existing systems Focus • Adaptation components of Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs): the main adaptation reporting vehicle used by developing countries to date Partners and collaborators: African Group of Negotiators Expert Support Group (AGNES), International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI), Basque Center for Climate Change (BC3), iCatalyst, Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) * Document inclusion criteria: NDCs with Adaptation components (or sections); NDCs submitted by African governments by September 1, 2022; NDCs published on the UNFCCC repository. Data extraction and coding protocol based on Berrang-Ford et al (2021), doi 10.1038/s41558-021-01170-y Consider NDCs published on the NDC Registry by 1 Sep 2022• Any NDC or update submitted by this date was excluded.• In total, we analysed 53 NDCs. One country (Libya) had not submitted an NDC by the time of the analysis.Not reflecting countries' adaptation planning instruments, such as National Adaptation Plans• We are working on including information from existing NAPs in the database, to acknowledge countries' progress on longterm adaptation planning and recognize the integration of adaptation tracking elements in NAPs rather than NDCs. As a temporary solution, figures in this presentation highlight where NAPs are available."}

data/part_3/05c73ba3eb4af92f475ec63195d457ad.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"05c73ba3eb4af92f475ec63195d457ad","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/9190fcc5-908d-4220-9cda-75294c84733c/retrieve"},"pageCount":14,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Matukio","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":41,"text":"• Endelea kuuza sehemu ya mazao kwa bei ya soko • Safisha shamba kwa ajili ya msimu mpya wa kilimo • Pembejeo zilizonunuliwa zitunzwe sehemu salama (isiyo na unyevu, iwe mbali na watoto, isiyo na jua kali na isiyofikiwa na panya)"}]},{"head":"Kusafisha Shamba","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Mwezi Desemba","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":2,"text":"Kuandaa shamba"}]},{"head":"Matukio","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":85,"text":"• Andaa matuta ya majaruba kwa upana wa kati ya sm 120-160 kwa chini, urefu kwenda juu (kina) kati ya sm 40-50, na upana wa juu kati ya sm 30-50 (sm = sentimeta) • Hakikisha shamba lina majaruba na mifereji ya kuingiza na kutoa maji • Katua, chabanga/vuruga na sawazisha shamba lako vizuri • Sia mbegu bora kwenye vitalu (usitumie mpunga uliovuna shambani kama mbegu) • Tunza vitalu kwa kumwagilia maji, kupalilia na kudhibiti visumbufu • Endelea kuuza sehemu ya mazao kwa bei ya soko"}]},{"head":"Maandalizi ya majaruba","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":2,"text":"Mwezi Desemba..."}]},{"head":"Maandalizi ya majaruba na vitalu","index":6,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Matukio","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":97,"text":"• Hakikisha jaruba lina kina cha maji kisichozidi sm 3 • Pandikiza miche shambani ikiwa na siku 14-21, kwa nafasi ya sm 20 mche hadi mche na mstari hadi mstari • Pandikiza miche kuanzia mmoja hadi mitatu kwa shina • Weka mbolea ya kupandia kwa kiwango na wakati sahihi kulingana na ushauri wa afisa ugani na VBAA (wakati wa maandalizi ya mwisho ya shamba au ndani ya siku tano baada ya kupandikiza) • Rudishia miche kwenye nafasi ambazo miche imekufa ndani ya siku 10 baada ya kupandikiza • Endelea kuuza sehemu ya mazao kwa bei ya soko "}]},{"head":"Mwezi Januari","index":8,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Kuandaa vitalu na kupandikiza","index":9,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Mwezi Februari na Machi","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":6,"text":"Kuweka mbolea ya kupandikizia na kukuzia"}]},{"head":"Uwekaji wa mbolea ya kukuzia","index":11,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Matukio","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":89,"text":"• Ondoa magugu shambani mara tu yanapoonekana kwa kutumia mbinu husishi kama vile kupalilia kwa mshine, vipalizi vya mkono, viuatilifu na kung'olea • Dhibiti wadudu waharibifu na magonjwa mara tu yanapoonekana kwa kutumia mbinu husishi, kama vile viuatilifu au mbinu za asili • Endapo utatumia viuatilifu weka kiwango sahihi kulingana na ushauri wa VBAA au afisa ugani. • Usiache vifungashio vya viuatilifu shambani; peleka sehemu maalum iliyotengwa kwa ajili ya kukusanyia vifungashio hivyo • Hakikisha kina cha maji hakizidi sm 15 wakati wote wa ukuaji Mwezi Mei hadi Juni..."}]},{"head":"Mwezi Aprili","index":13,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Kudhibiti maji na visumbufu","index":14,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Maandalizi ya maghala ya mavuno na vifungashio","index":15,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Maandalizi ya kuvuna MATUKIO","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":94,"text":"• Vuna kwa wakati suke likiwa limekomaa kwa asilimia kati ya 80 na 85 au tumia kipima unyevu kutambua unyevu wa punje (asilimia kati ya 20 na 25) • Kata mashina ya mpunga kwa kutumia fyekeo au kwa mashine (kupunguza upotevu wa mpunga) • Endapo umetumia fyekeo, pura mpunga kwa kutumia mashine ili kuongeza ubora wa mpunga na kuokoa muda • Usiache mpunga uliovunwa shambani na magunia yafungwe vizuri tayari kwa kusafirishwa • Tenganisha aina za mpunga katika magunia tofauti ya kilo mia moja • Kausha mpunga hadi unyevu wa punje ufikie asilimia 14"},{"index":2,"size":4,"text":"Mwezi Mei hadi Juni... "}]},{"head":"Kuvuna na kupura","index":17,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Mwezi Julai hadi Septemba Kuhifadhi ghalani na kuuza","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":139,"text":"Picha ya jalada: Nevil Jackson/USAID Kalenda hii imewezeshwa kwa msaada wa watu wa Marekani kupitia USAID kama sehemu ya Serikali ya Marekani katika mradi wa Feed the Future. IITA na ACDI/VOCA zinawajibika kwa yaliyomo kwenye kalenda hii na wala sio msimamo au maoni ya USAID au Serikali ya Marekani. Kwa taarifa zaidi: Feed the Future Mkwawa,Ilala Street,Plot No. 274,Block No. V,S.L.P 185,Iringa,Tanzania | Simu: +255 754445480  Mradi huu unaohusisha Afrika RISING, NAFAKA, na TUBORESHE CHAKULA wadau na sekta mbalimbali kwa nia ya kuongeza kasi ya utekelezaji na kukuza teknolojia mbalimbali za kuwasaidia wakulima wa Tanzania walioko katika maeneo ya ukame na yale yenye mvua kidogo. Mradi huu ni wamiaka 3 na unawezeshwa na shirika la misaada la Marekani ofisi ya Tanzania (USAID) ikiwa ni sehemu ya juhudi za serikali ya Marekani katika jitihada zake za kuboresha usalama wa chakula."},{"index":2,"size":55,"text":"Kupitia njia shirikishi za kilimo tekinolojia bora zinazofaa huchaguliwa na kufanyiwa utafiti na tathimini na watafiti ili kuweza kufikia maeneo mengi zaidi. Hili linafanyika kwa ushirikiano uliopo kati ya programu za 'Feed the Future'; NAFAKA, TUBORESHE CHAKULA na wadau wengine kwa kutoa fursa kuhuwisha katika miradi na maeneo mengine ambapo mradi wa Africa RISING haujafika."},{"index":3,"size":40,"text":"Mradi huu unatekelezwa na IITA kwa kushirikiana na miradi mingine inayo fadhiliwa na shirika la misaada la Marekani ofisi ya Tanzania, NAFAKA na TUBOCHA. Shughuli za mradi huu zinatekelezwa katika maeneo ya Manyara, Dodoma, Morogoro, Iringa na Mbeya nchini Tanzania."},{"index":4,"size":43,"text":"Wadau wa mradi huu wanatambua umuhimu wa msaada unaotolewa kupitia watu wa Marekani kupitia USAID 'Feed the Future initiative' . Pia tunawashukuru wakulima na wadau wote wa mradi kwa ushirikiano wao katika mradi pia mtandao wa uvumbuzi wa kilimo endelevu duniani CGIAR system."}]}],"figures":[{"text":" halina magugu kabla ya kuweka mbolea • Hakikisha shamba lina kina cha maji kisichozidi sm 5 • Weka mbolea ya kukuzia ndani ya siku 14 baada ya kupandikiza, kutokana na ushauri wa vbaa au afisa ugani. "},{"text":" ya kuzalishia kwa viwango sahihi kulingana na ushauri wa VBAA au afisa ugani • Weka mbolea mpunga unapoanza kurefuka pingili (au kubeba mimba) • Endelea kudhibiti visumbufu kadri vinapojitokeza • Usiache vifungashio vya viuatilifu shambani; peleka sehemu maalum iliyotengwa kwa ajili ya kukusanyia vifungashio hivyo za kiasili kutisha na kufukuza ndege na wanyama waharibifu • Dhibiti panya kwa kutumia sumu na njia za asili • Usiache vifungashio vya viuatilifu shambani; peleka sehemu maalum iliyotengwa kwa ajili ya kukusanyia vifungashio hivyo vya kuhifadhia mavuno mapema (magunia, maroba) • Jenga au karabati ghala la kuhifadhia mazao • Andaa mashine za kuvunia, za kupura mpunga na maturubai ya kuanikia mpunga "},{"text":" kuhifadhi mpunga kwa pamoja kwenye ghala la kikundi au ushirika • Tenganisha magunia kulingana na aina ya mpunga ili kulinda UBORA • Hakikisha magunia ya mpunga yamepangwa kwa utaratibu mzuri juu ya mbao • Fanyeni maamuzi ya pamoja ya kuuza mavuno ili kupata bei nzuri na kwa FAIDA Kupanga bei kwa pamoja Kuhifadhi ghalani kwa pamoja Kuuza kwa pamoja kwa faida zaidi "},{"text":" au Taasisi ya Kimataifa ya Kilimo Ukanda wa Tropiki (IITA) -Tanzania | S.L.P 34441, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania | Simu: +255 776000712 / 754643478 "}],"sieverID":"2d074a61-31fe-41da-829f-df69cce8eac3","abstract":""}

data/part_3/05cc2d68c30ea86b262a49d74848f441.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"05cc2d68c30ea86b262a49d74848f441","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://digitalarchive.worldfishcenter.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.12348/1443/khaw060.pdf"},"pageCount":4,"title":"Genotype by Environment Interactions GENOTYPE BY ENVIRONMENTAL INTERACTION FOR LIVE WEIGHT BETWEEN TWO PRODUCTION ENVIRONMENTS IN THE GIFT STRAIN (NILE TILAPIA, OREOCHROMIS NILOTICUS)","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"INTRODUCTION","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":141,"text":"The two main culture systems in Malaysia for tilapia farming are cage and pond (Hanafi and Chua 2008). Due to the rich natural resources in Malaysia, cage culture system is considered more economic in terms of land used and management compared to the pond system (Hanafi and Chua 2008). In Asia most of the selective breeding programs for Nile tilapia were conducted under intensive pond culture system, including the GIFT (Genetically Improved Farmed Tilapia) breeding program by the WorldFish Center in Malaysia (Eknath et al. 1993;Bolivar 1998;Eknath and Acosta 1998;Tayamen 2004;Ponzoni et al. 2005). This situation raises the issue of genotype by environment interaction (GxE) between pond and cage culture systems. It is important to know if genetic gain is being realised even if fish are grown in an environment that is different from that in which selection is taking place."},{"index":2,"size":103,"text":"In the context of animal breeding, GxE describes the situation where different genotypes do not respond in the same way to different environments, so that the genetic and environmental effects are not additive. In order to examine the issue of genotype by environment interaction, we treated live weight at harvest in each culture environment as two different traits (Falconer 1952). The objectives of this study were to estimate the genetic parameters for live weight expressed in cage and pond environments, to evaluate the response to selection in both environments, and to determine the genotype by environment interaction between cage and pond culture systems."}]},{"head":"MATERIALS AND METHODS","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":89,"text":"The data used in this study consisted of 10,065 fish with phenotype from three discrete generations (spawning season 2002 to 2004) of the GIFT selective breeding program in Malaysia. The breeding program had two lines: a selection line (selected for high breeding value for live weight) and a control line (selected on average breeding values for live weight). There were a total of 177 sires and 244 dams involved in both lines. The details of base population, mating scheme and selection method are described in Ponzoni et al. (2005)."},{"index":2,"size":102,"text":"For the GxE study, the individually tagged fingerlings from each full-sib family were separated into two groups of equal size and grown out either in cages or earthen ponds. For the cage environment, the fingerlings were reared at cages of size 3m x 3m, with initial stocking density of 55 fish per square meter of water surface. For the pond environment, earthen ponds of 0.1 hectare were used and the initial stocking density was three to four fish per meter square. At both environments, the fish were fed twice a day with commercial dry pellet feed that contained 32 percent of protein."},{"index":3,"size":64,"text":"The fish in both environments were harvested after approximately 120 days of grow-out. At harvest, the fish were recorded for live weight (grams), standard length (cm), width (cm), depth (cm) and sex. Based on the spawning date and harvesting date, the age (in days) of each fish was computed. Only the results corresponding to the GxE for live weight are presented in this paper."},{"index":4,"size":106,"text":"The phenotypic and genetic parameters for live weight (square root transformed) were estimated using ASReml (Gilmour et al. 2002). In order to quantify the GxE between cage and pond environments, the genetic correlation was estimated by treating live weight in cage and pond as two different traits in a bivariate analysis. A mixed model was fitted to the data, with spawning season, line and sex as fixed effects, and animal and dam (solely accounting for the maternal and common environmental effect on the progeny, without a genetic structure) were fitted as random effects. Age was fitted as a covariate with the spline function available in ASReml."},{"index":5,"size":35,"text":"The selection responses for both environments were calculated based on the average estimated breeding values by line and by generation, and it was expressed as a percentage of the least square mean on control line."}]},{"head":"RESULTS AND DISCUSSION","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":84,"text":"The number of observations, simple means, minimum and maximum, standard deviation and coefficient of variation values for body weight and age at harvest in the cage and pond environments are presented in Table 1. The mean weight for the fish grown in ponds was greater than that for fish grown in cages. Table 2 shows the statistical significance for the fixed effects and the linear covariate (age at harvest) for cage and pond, respectively. All main effects and the covariate were statistically significant (P<0.05)."},{"index":2,"size":169,"text":"The REML estimates of variance components, heritability, maternal common environmental effect and genetic correlation are shown in Table 3. The heritability estimates for cage and pond were slightly higher compared to other reported estimates in tilapia (0.24 by Gall and Bakar 1999;0.20 by Gall and Bakar 2002;0.34 by Ponzoni et al. 2005; 0.32 by Maluwa et al. 2006). The estimated maternal common environmental effects for cage and pond are in agreement with the estimates in literature (0.15 by Ponzoni et al. 2005 The magnitude of the genetic correlation between cage and pond estimates the degree to which the same genes are involved in the expression of weight in these two environments. The genetic correlation estimated was 0.75±0.09 (Table 3). This result indicates that if selection were conducted in one environment (say, cages), but progeny were to perform in another environment (say, ponds), assuming equal heritability in both environments, selection in cages would capture 75 percent of the gain that could be achieved if it were carried out in ponds."},{"index":3,"size":90,"text":"The estimates of genetic gain were encouraging, 18.6% gain in cages and 15.3% gain in ponds, after two rounds of selection. The response was large enough to indicate that genetic change was being achieved in both the cage and pond environments, and in the intended direction. Furthermore, the gains in cages and ponds, resulting from the bivariate analysis used in this study, were in good agreement with those resulting from a univariate analysis (treating the expression in both environments as a single trait) earlier reported by Ponzoni et al. (2005)."}]},{"head":"CONCLUSIONS","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":172,"text":"Falconer's (1952) approach of treating the expression of the trait in different environments as if they were different traits is useful in understanding and drawing practical conclusions from GxE studies. In the present case, the genetic correlation between live weigh in cages and in ponds indicates that if selection were conducted in one of the environments, 75 percent of the gain achieved in that environment would be captured in the other environment. The 95 percent confident interval for the estimated genetic correlation ranged from 0.66 to 0.84, which indicated moderate to low GxE. Coupled with the high heritability and selection responses obtained, we conclude that there was no evidence of GxE between cage and pond culture environments for tilapia farming in Malaysia that was large enough to warrant separate breeding programs. However, having or not a single breeding program should not be solely based on the genetic correlation, but also the economic importance of each culture environment and on the feasibility of implanting an additional program under the specific circumstances in question."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Table 1 . Descriptive statistics for live weight (g) and age (days) at harvest in cage and pond  Variable Environment N Mean Minimum Maximum Standard deviation Coefficient of variation (%) VariableEnvironmentNMeanMinimum MaximumStandard deviationCoefficient of variation (%) Live weight Cage Pond 5086 4979 146.5 223.0 13 7 591 682 77.8 104.4 53 47 Live weightCage Pond5086 4979146.5 223.013 7591 68277.8 104.453 47 Age at harvest Cage Pond 5086 4979 240 230 151 125 289 302 27.5 32.7 11 14 Age at harvestCage Pond5086 4979240 230151 125289 30227.5 32.711 14  "},{"text":"Table 2 . Analysis of variance of live weight   "},{"text":"cage and pond: Tests of fixed effects using PROC MIXED (SAS Institute Inc. 1997)  Effect F value Cage Prob. > F F value Pond Prob. > F EffectF valueCageProb. > FF valuePondProb. > F Spawning season (SS) 65.22  < 0.0001 56.21  < 0.0001 Spawning season (SS)65.22< 0.000156.21< 0.0001 Line (L) 13.93  0.0002 24.52  < 0.0001 Line (L)13.930.000224.52< 0.0001 Sex (S) 498.16  < 0.0001 440.65  < 0.0001 Sex (S)498.16< 0.0001440.65< 0.0001 SS x S x L 3.91  0.0015 20.84  < 0.0001 SS x S x L3.910.001520.84< 0.0001 Age at harvest 72.41  < 0.0001 409.67  < 0.0001 Age at harvest72.41< 0.0001409.67< 0.0001 Residual variance  4.0277   3.4832  Residual variance4.02773.4832  "},{"text":"Table 3 . Phenotypic and genetic parameters, and selection response for live weight (LW, g 0.5 ) in cage and pond ; 0.21 byRutten et al. 2005)  REML estimate REML estimate  "}],"sieverID":"8de59201-9435-4026-a542-3b094c322ceb","abstract":"A genotype by environmental interaction study was conducted using the live weight data collected from three discrete spawning seasons of Genetically Improved Farmed Tilapia selective breeding program in Malaysia. Two production environments were used to grow-out the progeny, namely, cages and ponds. The analysis was carried by using animal mixed model and treating live weight in cages and in ponds as two different traits to determine the genetic correlation, which was used to quantify the genotype by environmental interaction for these two environments. The heritabilities estimated from the animal variance component were 0.34±0.061 and 0.40±0.067, for cages and ponds, respectively. The genetic correlation between live weight in cages and ponds was 0.75±0.091. Responses to selection were separately estimated for live weight in these two environments, and were 18.6% in cages and 15.3% in ponds after two generations of selection. Based on these results, we conclude that selection response was being achieved in both environments and that, despite the presence of a non-unity genetic correlation between live weight in cages and ponds, there was no significant evidence for genotype by environmental interaction for these two main aquaculture systems in Malaysia."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"06d7750cd8022246a928a7d0488a19af","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/f7be272d-6dd5-49ca-9138-ff904421ee33/retrieve"},"pageCount":22,"title":"CONSUMER PREFERENCES FOR TABLE CASSAVA CHARACTERISTICS IN PERNAMBUCO, BRAZIL 1","keywords":["cassava","consumer preferences","hedonic price","Northeast of Brazil"],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":114,"text":"Cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz) is a root crop from tropical America. It is the fourth most important food staple produced in the tropics, with a global production of 228 million tons (FAOSTAT, 2008) and it is a major source of carbohydrate for populations in the humid tropics, around 700 million people obtain more than 500 calories per day from cassava consumption (HARVESTPLUS, 2008). It is in Sub-Saharan Africa where the per capita consumption is the highest (101 kg/year) (FAOSTAT, 2008). In Latin America and the Caribbean the consumption per capita is lower (21kg/year) however, in Brazil cassava continues to be a principle staple food and average per capita consumption is 41 kg/day (FAOSTAT, 2008)."},{"index":2,"size":86,"text":"Cassava is usually considered a subsistence crop, grown and eaten by the poor. However, recent studies in Brazil suggest that because of migration from rural to urban zones and price seasonality among other factors; many people purchase their cassava, even if they also produce (SOUZA, FARIAS, MATTOS, et al., 2006). This means that attention must be paid to consumer and market characteristics as well as to production characteristics such as yield and disease resistance, which have previously been a major focus on breeder attention (CIAT, 2007)."},{"index":3,"size":281,"text":"There are many food products derived from cassava. The traditional categories according to the root type are: table or sweet cassava and industrial or bitter cassava. In Brazil, most table cassava is distributed for direct consumption as fresh cassava called macaxeira or aipim. Farinha (a toasted flour) and starches are the main sub products of industrial cassava. Several studies have looked at processed products of cassava, especially in farinha and starch production and commercialization (CAPRILES, SOARES and AREAS, 2007;SOUZA, FARIAS, MATTOS, et al., 2006); however, there are very few studies about fresh cassava. Due to cassava's importance in the agricultural market and diet of the poor people in the Northeast (NE) of Brazil, the objective of this paper is to help fill the knowledge gap about consumer preferences for fresh cassava. First, using a hedonic price analysis, we attempt to measure the consumer's implicit price of cassava characteristics. This approach postulates that the price of goods is a function of the quality characteristics of the product. To complement this analysis, using logit models we look at what consumer say about their preferences for specific cassava attributes. These results should be useful for producers and sellers of fresh cassava since they show to what extent quality differentials are reflected in price. They could also be useful for researchers in their decisions about characteristics to consider in crop improvement programs. The paper is organized as follows. Section 2 and 3 describe the background and the theoretical model employed in the analyses. Section 4 presents the data and describes the variables used in the analysis. The empirical results are reported and discussed in the Section 5. Finally the conclusions are presented in Section 6."}]},{"head":"Background","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Crop Characteristics","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":100,"text":"Historically cassava has played a fundamental role in Brazil as source of carbohydrates for human consumption and as a supply of employment and income in poorer rural areas especially in the Northeast (NE). Cassava varieties are often categorized as either \"sweet\" (macaxeira or aipim) or \"bitter\" (mandioca 4 ), reflecting the absence or presence, respectively, of toxic levels of cyanogenic glucosidesis. The former can be consumed directly after peeling and either boiling, baking or frying, while the latter needs additional processing such as fermentation or drying. The bitter varieties of cassava are used for industrial uses (OSPINA and CEBALLOS, 2002)."},{"index":2,"size":82,"text":"In optimal conditions 5 cassava requires at least 10 months of warm weather to produce a crop. It is traditionally grown in a savanna climate, but can be grown in extremes of rainfall (O'HAIR, 1995). Certain inherent characteristics have made cassava an important crop in Brazil: it has very high productivity per unit land area; it is well adapted to adverse climatic and soil conditions; it has no fixed planting date or time of harvest; and its rarely fails as a crop."}]},{"head":"Price","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":123,"text":"Two characteristics strongly influence the price of fresh cassavaperishability and competition with other derivate cassava products. These factors plus a market composed of small producers with low technology adoption, low degree of organization and lack of access to information lead to significant fluctuations in prices. In Brazil, studies reveled that cassava has a demand elasticity less than 1; CARDOSO AND SOUZA (1999) showed some elasticity coefficients: -0,02 (1970), -0,02 (1975) and -0,03 (1975). In this condition incentives for more production could be perverse and harmful for producers, leading to reductions in prices and, by extension, in producer incomes. For these reasons it is important to work to add value to fresh cassava, focusing in improve the attributes, which differentiate the product in markets."}]},{"head":"Theoretical Model","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":138,"text":"Much work has been done on the impact of quality characteristics on price of agricultural products in developed countries (WAHL, SHI, and MITTELHAMMER, 1995;BOWMAN and ETHRIDG,1992). However, few empirical studies have been conducted to quantify the value of quality characteristics of traditional crops in developing countries (UNNEVEHR, 1986;SAMIKWA, BRORSEN and SANDERS, 1998;DALTON, 2004;EDMEADES, 2006). This method presumes that the price of a marketed good is related to its characteristics. Therefore the observed product price is constructed by the attributes of the product (WILLIAMS, SPYCHER and OKIKE, 2003). The marginal implicit value of output characteristics can be derived from a hedonic price function that traces the behavior of consumers and producers of differentiated products (EDMEADES, 2006). The buyer's bid function is derived through utility maximization subject to an expenditure constraint, and it can be represented by the utility function."},{"index":2,"size":6,"text":") , ; ,...., ( 2"},{"index":3,"size":75,"text":"where, µ(.) is the buyer's bid function for the product in the market, z is a vector of the characteristics of the good, Y is the buyer's total expenditure and α is a vector of observed and unobserved parameters, which characterize the preferences of the consumer. The fist partial derivative of the bid function with respect to an individual characteristic depict the buyer's willingness to pay for an additional unit of the characteristic (CAREW, 2000)."},{"index":4,"size":12,"text":"On the supply side, the seller's offer function can be specified as:"},{"index":5,"size":86,"text":"where ϕ (.) is the seller's offer function, N is the output quantity of good produced by the seller with characteristic specification z, and ã is a vector of prices and production technologies. The offer function is defined as the minimum price that the seller is willing to accept for supplying N units of good having characteristic levels z. The first partial derivative of the offer function with respect to an individual characteristic reveals the seller's marginal implicit valuation for providing other unit of that characteristic."},{"index":6,"size":65,"text":"In the market, the sales occur when both, buyer and seller agree on the price of a particular product with a specific set of characteristics. The intersection point between the buyer's bid curve and the seller's offer curve for the characteristics represents this situation. Simultaneously, the intersection point also represents the buyer's and seller's marginal implicit bid and offer, respectively (WAHL, SHI, and MITTELHAMMER, 1995)."},{"index":7,"size":25,"text":"Finally, the hedonic price function is estimated by regressing the equilibrium price of products on the characteristics of the product. It can be expressed as:"},{"index":8,"size":20,"text":"where P (z) is the price of a good and z is a vector of quality characteristics of the good."}]},{"head":"Methodology","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":126,"text":"The NE suffers the highest levels of poverty and underdevelopment in Brazil. In this region, skewed land distribution and semi-arid climate are among the factors that contribute to the region's high relative levels of infant mortality, absolute poverty, unemployment, underemployment, illiteracy, lack of access to basic services and malnutrition (OSPINA and CEBALLOS, 2002). Pernambuco, the focus of this study, is a typical state in the NE Brazil. In terms of population it is second after Bahia with an estimated population of 8.5 million in 2007 (IBGE, 2007). Over 85% of the area of Pernambuco falls into the category of semi-arid (less than 600 mm rainfall in a year). This state is the fourth largest producer of cassava in the NE of Brazil, approximately 660 thousand ton/year."},{"index":2,"size":49,"text":"However it has the second highest per capita cassava consumption rates, 125gr/day per capita after Paraiba (WORLD BANK, 1997). In semiarid Pernambuco, low and variable rainfall makes cassava practically the only staple food crop option for farmers, and cassava consequently constitutes the main food source, especially for low-income people."},{"index":3,"size":158,"text":"For analyzing consumer preferences we conducted a survey in the state of Pernambuco during the end of 2006 and beginning of 2007. The interview-based survey was carried out in urban areas of four mediumsized municipalities with high production (in their rural areas) and consumption of cassava. These municipalities represent the two major geographic zone of this state: a. Semiarid (Agreste and Sertao) and Coastal (Zona da Mata and part of Agreste). We took two municipalities from semiarid and two from coastal. They are typical cassava production zones with different varieties of sweet cassava in the local markets. A stratified random sampling method was employed: households were selected randomly after stratifying each city into zones by income 6 . A sample comprising 414 respondents was achieved. However 473 observations were achieved because there are more than one purchase for some households. Personal interviews were conducted in the people's home with the person in charge of purchasing the household food."}]},{"head":"Variables and empirical model","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":62,"text":"In this study we only refer to sweet fresh cassava varieties (macaxeira or aipim), for direct consumption. We focused on this type of varieties because they are very important in the diet of poor people. As mentioned earlier, very few studies have addressed looked at the market for this crop -a market that could potentially increase due to Brazil's trend toward urbanization."},{"index":2,"size":34,"text":"Based on a pilot study and on expert opinion of cassava researchers, we identified possible quality characteristics that consumers might consider when buying and consuming sweet cassava. Specifically, we looked at the following characteristics:"},{"index":3,"size":63,"text":"a. Colour: We differentiate the peel colour from the flesh colour. In this region consumers normally find in the market cassava with three peel colours: white, pink and yellow. The flesh colour of pink and white peel varieties is white while yellow varieties have a same peel and flesh colour. In some cases, names of the varieties consumed are associated with these colours."},{"index":4,"size":28,"text":"b. Time of cooking: for consumers a good cassava takes around 15 -20 minutes for cooking after boiling. In the pressure cooker, it should only take 5 minutes."},{"index":5,"size":15,"text":"c. Taste: Some cassava varieties are considered sweet, while others have a more neutral flavor."},{"index":6,"size":13,"text":"d. Texture: This refers to the level of hardness in chewing the cassava."},{"index":7,"size":9,"text":"The options in this study are mush or mealy."},{"index":8,"size":32,"text":"e. Easy of peeling: It is very common when people buy cassava to take a little portion to tell if peeling is easy or not. Ease of peeling indicates cassava good quality."},{"index":9,"size":29,"text":"f. Fiber: Cassava is considered fibrous when some strands are difficult to chew. While this is an undesirable characteristic, it is a very difficult one to detect at visually."},{"index":10,"size":25,"text":"g. Size: This refers to the thickness (diameter) of the root. We divided them into fine (18 -40 mm) medium (41-55 mm) and thick (>55mm)."},{"index":11,"size":32,"text":"We also collected information on the price of cassava by variety, where the cassava was purchased, and quantity and frequency of cassava consumption in the household, along with demographic information (Table 1)."},{"index":12,"size":22,"text":"Excluding the influence of market forces that can affect general price levels, an empirical model for fresh cassava can be specified as:"},{"index":13,"size":2,"text":"Price/kg= ."},{"index":14,"size":27,"text":"Since the model includes only dummy variables to measure quality characteristics, except time of cooking, the estimated coefficients determine the ranking pattern of each attribute on price."}]},{"head":"Results","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":141,"text":"Most of the interviewees were female (93%) probably because they are the people who did the majority of shopping in the household (Table 1). Fifty five percent only have elementary education and around a 10% were below the poverty line of US 1 a day per capita. The average number of people in the household is 4.4, and 67% of households have children under 5 years. Approximately, 50% of respondents are housewives and 9% have a formal employment, mostly in the public sector. Around 80% of the respondents buy their cassava in the traditional or local markets, a pattern that is consistent across the two regions. In the semiarid region, the percentage of people who buy the crop in supermarkets (10%) is higher than in the coastal region (only 1%), where sellers who go door to door commonly sell fresh cassava."},{"index":2,"size":103,"text":"Households consumed cassava on average 2.84 times per week, with slightly more frequent consumption in the semiarid than the coastal zones (Table 1). This number shows the importance of cassava as a basic staple, however it is also shows that people do not consume it every day as they do with some staples such as rice in Asia or maize in East Africa and Central America. The average quantity of cassava eaten per meal in a household is 335g. Finally, the average of amount spent on cassava per week in the household is R.$ 1.84/kg, which is approximately 2% of total food expenditure."},{"index":3,"size":111,"text":"Regarding the preferences, respondents were asked to rank, in order of importance, the three main characteristics they consider when buying or eating cassava. The results show that ease of peeling (29%) is the most important characteristic for consumers. One possible explanation is that this characteristic is easy to test, and people consider it an indicator not only of amount of work involved in peeling but also of other quality characteristics. After ease of peeling, time of cooking (28%) is another important characteristics for consumers, followed distantly by texture (16%) and then colour (11%). Price has the lowest place in the consumer ranking, which is consistent with the price inelasticity of cassava."},{"index":4,"size":152,"text":"We have a special interest in colour preferences because there are cassava varieties with other colours different from the commonly white that could be introduced to markets as a high value product (HARVESTPLUS, 2008). The consumers of the areas that we study distinguish between two colours: white and yellow. The most popular varieties have the former colour. The latter colour is better known in the interior (semiarid region) of the country, where people called these types of varieties manteguinha, which means butter in Portuguese. In the semiarid region people consume more yellow cassava than coastal, 50% versus 17%. We asked about reasons why consumers do not purchase or consume yellow varieties. In the semiarid, they mentioned that manteguinha does not cook very well or takes more time than white cassava (12%) for cooking 7 . On the coast, the main reasons are that they have never tasted, eaten or seen it (75%)."}]},{"head":"Hedonic price","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":129,"text":"In the literature, there is some debate regarding the most appropriate functional form to use to estimate the hedonic function. In general, the theory underlying the approach does not provide much guidance about which of these functional forms is most appropriate. ROSEN's (1974) work suggests that hedonic function not be linear (CROPPER, DECK and MCCONNELL, 1988). In this study we used the Akaike Information Criterion (AIC) 8 to select the functional form of hedonic price model; we tested linear, semilog, double-log, quadratic, and a Box-Cox transformation technique. According to the AIC test, linear and semilog were the best functional forms. However, because semilog form has additional properties, it was selected as useful choice for hedonic price model 9 . Price flexibilities-defined as the percentage of change in the 7"},{"index":2,"size":140,"text":"The results suggest that it is a wrong consumer perception; we did not find a significant difference in time cooking between white or yellow cassava (12,5 minutes). 8 This criterion minimized over choices of the number of parameters (x) in the model to form a tradeoff between the fit of the model and the model's complexity. Given a data set, competing models may be ranked according to their AIC, with the one having the lowest AIC being the best (EDMEADES, 2006). 9 First, the implicit value of crop characteristics may be a function not only the level of the characteristic itself, but also a function of the levels of other characteristics embodied in the crop. Semilog hedonic model are consistent with this observation (WAHL, SHI, and MITTELHAMMER, 1995). Second, it is more useful to calculate results expressed in price flexibilities."},{"index":3,"size":62,"text":"price with respect to a 1% increase in the characteristic-were estimated to measure sensitivities. For discrete characteristics, the price flexibility is defined as the percentage change in the price due to the presence of the characteristic relative to its absence. Given the semilog specification of the hedonic price model, marginal value has to be estimated 10 ; it can be expressed as"},{"index":4,"size":16,"text":", where p is calculated at mean of continuous variables and at zero for discrete characteristics."},{"index":5,"size":280,"text":"Parameters obtained via estimation of semilog model, marginal value and price flexibilities are reported in Table 2. In general, estimated parameters were consistent with hypothesized signs, and the F test is statistically significant. The results of the model indicate that varieties with yellow peel colour have a higher value to consumers than pink, with a price premium of R.0.09/kg. The price flexibility of yellow varieties shows that a presence of this characteristic, holding all else constant, increases by 11% the cassava price. Unsurprisingly, people pay for bigger sizes, if cassava size decrease from thick size to medium or fine, respectively, the cassava price would reduce by 7.4 and 13% respectively. If marginal cost of changing from pink to yellow peel varieties, or of producing bigger cassava roots were less than R.0.08/kg and R. 0.09/kg respectively, these results suggest that it would be beneficial for the producer to do so. Additionally, cost of production does not depend on the type of cassava variety; it is more related with the production system. Therefore producing cassavas with characteristics more attractive to the market should not imply an increase in cost. The great marginal gain for producer, however, may be associated with the location. In coastal areas cassava price is lower than in the semiarid regions. The price difference it is around R. 0,39/kg. Regarding to price flexibilities of dummy location variables (semiarid), the coefficient reported is positive; holding all else constant, cassava price in the semiarid would increase by 50%. Nevertheless, it could be not profitable for fresh cassava producers in coastal region to distribute their production in the semiarid due to the perish ability and the high costs of transportation and refrigeration."},{"index":6,"size":171,"text":"Unexpectedly ease of peeling has a negative coefficient, which could be attributed to the low percentage (3.8%) of consumers of hard-to-peel cassava, who pay a significantly higher price, as compared with consumers of easy-to-peel cassava. When the characteristics of consumers of hardto-peel cassava were analyzed, results indicated that many of them produced their own cassava or purchased cassava in supermarkets or at their door, which could mean that these consumers pay a higher price for this cassava because they assume they are purchasing a quality product. However, the quality of the cassava is not always as expected. Other attributes such as texture, taste, quantity of fibers and time of cooking are statistically unimportant in terms of their influence on price. This may be due to the fact that these characteristics can only be known after cassava has been boiled and consumed. This suggests that complementary research needs to be done using other methodologies such as sensorial techniques, for example, in order to know the real economic importance of these characteristics. 11"}]},{"head":"Logit model: Consumer preferences","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":145,"text":"We estimated a logit model for each characteristic to assess the influence of socioeconomic and demographics characteristics of consumers on cassava preferences. Specific factors considered included sex, age, education, monthly household income, region (semiarid and coastal), a dummy variable for purchase and for own production 12 and kilograms of fresh cassava consumed in the household per meal. For each attribute, the dependent variable was one for households that ranked that attribute most important. The estimated results show that not all the characteristics had statistically significant models. Price, colour of the cassava, amount 11 There are some studies to attempt relate the sensory qualities of cassava roots to their physicochemical properties (PADONOU, MESTRES, and MATHURIN, 2005;BELÉIA, PRUDENCIO-FERREIRA, YAMASHITA et al., 2004), however they did not develop a economic valuation. 12 In some cases a person could be producer and buyer of cassava at the same time."},{"index":2,"size":34,"text":"of fibers, and other characteristics had less than 10 % of people ranking them as most important. However, we obtained interesting results with time of cooking, texture, taste and ease of peeling (Table 3)."},{"index":3,"size":145,"text":"Ease of peeling is more important for women than for men, which make sense because in this zone women not only purchase but also prepare the cassava. Men, on the other hand, place more importance on taste, a significant percentage (70%) prefer sweet cassava toward 13% of women, who prefer a neutral taste. Some studies show that there are significant differences between consumer preferences among regions (SOUZA, FARIAS, MATTOS, et al., 2006), and the results of the study confirm this. While taste is very important in the semiarid region, texture is determinant in the coastal region; for example, consumers in the former region would prefer the taste of sweet cassava while those in the latter region would prefer cassava with a mush texture. For producers and researchers these findings are very important to know which varieties should be produced and oriented to which regional market."},{"index":4,"size":265,"text":"In the literature, cassava is considered an inferior good, meaning that at lower levels of income more quantity of cassava consumed in households. The results of this study support that contention; households in the study with less income consume more grams of cassava than household with more incomes (362 gr./meal vs. 249gr/meal). The propensity to prefer time of cooking is also negatively influenced by income. Household with higher levels of income in the sample have lower probability of select time of cooking as the most important characteristics for buying and consuming cassava, which might reflect that they are less concerned with the fuel-related costs associated with longer cooking. 13 . Levels of education have significant effects on which characteristics are more important. Time of cooking is more important for consumers with a university education as compared with consumers with only elementary schooling, who in turn prefer ease of peeling. The preference of the former could be attributed to the less time they have to dedicate to household chores. Households with higher consumption of cassava per meal likely take more into account texture and taste of this crop at purchase or consumption moment. Time of cooking it is less important for them. Finally, ease of peeling is an important characteristic for both consumers who have their own production and also for those who purchase cassava. These results are consistent with the raking of most important characteristics that consumer consider when buying cassava. In sum, the empirical applications of the qualitative model offer valuable insights into the factors that influence decisions regarding the desirable characteristics for consumers."}]},{"head":"Conclusions","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":191,"text":"This paper evaluates the consumer preferences for cassava in Pernambuco, a state in NE Brazil. The aim of the paper was to fill an information gap about consumer preferences for quality characteristics in order to help producers and researchers to develop varieties more attractive for the markets. Knowledge about implicit values of quality characteristics indicates which attributes should be focused on and which characteristics could be allowed to vary. The empirical results presented above indicate that some attributes are very important when people buy cassava such as ease of peeling, or time of cooking and texture for cassava consumption. The estimated results in the hedonic model in terms of prices show a big difference between semiarid and coastal region, also among yellow and pink varieties. The price of yellow cassava is higher than other varieties; but its market is smaller because it is only known and preferred in the semiarid region. Fresh cassava with larger size has a premium. According to researchers the size of cassava depends on production system and environmental characteristics. Therefore producers have to take in account those variables in order to obtain a desirable size cassava root."},{"index":2,"size":90,"text":"Consumer preferences toward characteristics such as texture and taste are also highly influenced by region. This result suggests that producers in semiarid should grow a meal fresh cassava, with a sweet taste; while producers in coastal could have good market opportunities with a mush cassava, with neutral taste. Although price is relatively unimportant in the consumers' ranking of attributes, it is truly relevant for producers. Because of inelasticity of cassava demand, it is very important to add value to this crop, to avoid driving down incomes in the long term."},{"index":3,"size":182,"text":"Finally, complementary studies should be carried out including sensorial techniques of cassava characteristics related with an economic valuation. It is important to deepen the market study of the basic staple crops. This type of research could be conducted for other crops as potatoes or beans to guide producers and researchers to varieties which are most valued by consumer. Resumo: A mandioca-de mesa (macaxeira ou aipim) é uma das principais fontes de carboidrato das populações nos trópicos. No entanto, há pouca informação sobre as preferências dos consumidores em relação às características de qualidade deste cultivo. Este artigo analisa a demanda de diferentes atributos da mandioca de mesa e aplica o método dos preços hedônicos para estimar o valor que os consumidores dão aos atributos implícitos deste tubérculo. Os resultados mostram que a facilidade de descascamento, o tempo de cozimento e a textura da mandioca de mesa são as características mais importantes para os consumidores quando a compram e consomem. O tipo de variedades, o tamanho da raiz, a facilidade de descascamento e a localização do mercado são atributos relevantes na determinação dos preços."},{"index":4,"size":12,"text":"Palavras -chave: mandioca mansa, preferências do consumidor, preços hedônicos, Nordeste do Brasil  "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Table 1 - Descriptive statistics N:414; *,**,*** The difference between semiarid and coastal is statistically significant at the 0.10, 0.05 and 0.01 level, respectively Variables  Semiarid Coastal Total VariablesSemiarid CoastalTotal Female respondent, dummy (%) 90.48 96.17 93.00** Female respondent, dummy (%)90.4896.1793.00** Age of respondent (years) 39.43 (14.14) 41.31 (13.63) 40.48 (13.93) Age of respondent (years)39.43 (14.14)41.31 (13.63)40.48 (13.93) Size of household (people) 4.45 (1.99) 4.33 (1.69) 4.40 (1.87) Size of household (people)4.45 (1.99)4.33 (1.69)4.40 (1.87) Education of respondents (%) No formal education Elementary school (1 -6 years) High school (7 -11 years) University 16.45 53.55 22.51 3.90 15.30 57.14 26.78 4.37 15.94 55.56 24.40 4.11 Education ofrespondents (%)No formal education Elementary school (1 -6 years) High school (7 -11 years) University16.45 53.55 22.51 3.9015.30 57.14 26.78 4.3715.94 55.56 24.40 4.11 Monthly household income (Reais) 429.45 (207.3) 395.76 (192.4) 414.55 * (201.3) Monthly household income (Reais)429.45 (207.3)395.76 (192.4)414.55 * (201.3) Consumption of cassava in the household Price (Reais/kg) Cassava consumption (kg/meal) # times eat cassava/ week Amount spend/week Cassava producer, dummy (%) .91 (.29) .391 (0.05) 3.00 (1.35) 2.09 (1.36) 16.45 .59 (.18) .290 (0.06) 2.63 (1.32) 1.52 (.77) 15.85 .77 *** (.29) .335 *** (.05) 2.84 *** (1.35) 1.84 *** (1.17) 16.18 Consumption of cassava in thehouseholdPrice (Reais/kg) Cassava consumption (kg/meal) # times eat cassava/ week Amount spend/week Cassava producer, dummy (%).91 (.29) .391 (0.05) 3.00 (1.35) 2.09 (1.36) 16.45.59 (.18) .290 (0.06) 2.63 (1.32) 1.52 (.77) 15.85.77 *** (.29) .335 *** (.05) 2.84 *** (1.35) 1.84 *** (1.17) 16.18  "},{"text":"Table 2 - Hedonic price of cassava N:473; *,**,*** Statistically significant at the 0.10, 0.05 and 0.01 level, respectively Variables  Coef. Price flexibilities Marginal Value VariablesCoef.Price flexibilitiesMarginal Value Variety (ref. pink) white -.018 (.029) -0.018 -0.014 Variety (ref. pink)white-.018 (.029)-0.018-0.014  yellow .107 ** (.047) 0.113 0.088 yellow.107 ** (.047)0.1130.088 Size (ref. thick) fine -.140 *** (.050) -0.131 -0.102 Size (ref. thick)fine-.140 *** (.050)-0.131-0.102  medium -.077 ** (.035) -0.074 -0.058 medium-.077 ** (.035)-0.074-0.058 Taste ( ref. neutral) sweet .041 (.032) 0.042 0.033 Taste ( ref. neutral)sweet.041 (.032)0.0420.033 Fibers (ref. low) much .029 (.064) 0.029 0.023 Fibers (ref. low)much.029 (.064)0.0290.023 Texture (ref. mealy) mush -.021 (.031) -0.021 -0.016 Texture (ref. mealy)mush-.021 (.031)-0.021-0.016 Ease of peeling (ref. Not important)  -.136 ** (0.67) -0.127 -0.099 Ease of peeling (ref. Not important)-.136 ** (0.67)-0.127-0.099 Time of cooking (min)  -.003 (0.003) -0.038 -0.002 Time of cooking (min)-.003 (0.003)-0.038-0.002 Location (semiarid)  .408 *** (.030) 0.504 0.392 Location (semiarid).408 *** (.030)0.5040.392 Intercept  -.336***   Intercept-.336***   (.090)   (.090) F( 10, 462)  30.20***   F( 10, 462)30.20*** R-squared  40%   R-squared40%  "}],"sieverID":"453b7f60-b5c2-4e12-bd34-8894bd51a595","abstract":"Cassava is a major source of carbohydrate for populations in the tropics; however, there is little information about the preferences of consumers toward the quality characteristics of this crop. This paper analyzes the demand for different cassava attributes, and applies the hedonic price method to estimate the values that consumers give to implicit attributes of cassava. The results show that ease of peeling, time of cooking and texture of cassava are the most important characteristics consumers consider when purchasing and consuming cassava. Cassava varieties, root size, ease of peeling and location of the market are relevant attributes in price determination."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"06eb156cecf5508c9b5488076afe2476","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/9dbd5490-c059-488e-a617-55ab56c525ba/retrieve"},"pageCount":2,"title":"FOR FURTHER INFORMATION, CONTACT","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Pastoral livelihoods and wildlife conservation","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":64,"text":"Reto-o-Reto is part of the project, \"Better Policy and Management Options for Pastoral lands; Assessing Tradeoffs between Poverty Alleviation and Wildlife Conservation\", funded by the Belgium Government, the US National Science Foundation and the Department for International Development (DFID). This project takes an integrated research approach, linking ecological, land-use and social economic data, by synthesizing existing knowledge on agro-pastoral systems and filling knowledge gaps."},{"index":2,"size":36,"text":"This brief is one of a series of policy and information briefs that explores issues related to the sustainable development of pastoral landscapes, improving the livelihoods of agro-pastoralists and also protecting wildlife species and landscape diversity. "}]},{"head":"OCC","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Olkejuado County Council","index":3,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Kitengela transforming","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":5,"text":"Will pastoralists and wildlife survive?"}]},{"head":"In brief","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":61,"text":"The semi-arid Kitengela plains south of Nairobi National Park (NNP) have been the longtime home of the Kaputiei Maasai community. Together with NNP these plains form the Athi-Kaputiei ecosystem. The plains host rich populations of wildlife and are vital to the health of NNP, since 70 to 80 percent of the Park's animals roam outside it's boundaries at any one time."},{"index":2,"size":79,"text":"But the rangeland that once seemed endless is now splintering. Close to the ever expanding Nairobi, the Kitengela plains are experiencing a population boom, rising land prices and speculation, commercial and subsistence farming, and unregulated urbanisation. Maasai who once tended large cattle herds on communal land now often have a few animals on individual plots, and are selling off their own land for the cash to survive. Wildlife populations have dropped by more than 70 percent over 25 years."},{"index":3,"size":52,"text":"If present trends continue, the future may find -the Maasai dispossessed, a mere remnant of wildlife remaining in Nairobi National Park, severe water scarcity, and large areas of degraded land. Urgent planning and action involving all stakeholders is the best hope for giving Kitengela's human, livestock and wildlife residents a healthy future."}]},{"head":"Critical condition","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":42,"text":"Recent immigrants to the area have brought about a population explosion as well as new economic activities and land uses. These changes are not only transforming the Kitengela plains but also threatening the integrity of the ecosystem of which it is part."},{"index":2,"size":27,"text":"Today the human residents, the land, vegetation, wildlife, and water are all at risk. Rangeland for livestock and wildlife, together with wildlife migration corridors, are disappearing rapidly."}]},{"head":"Reto-o-Reto Project","index":7,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Pastoral livelihoods and wildlife conservation","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":28,"text":"In 1911, the Kenyan Maasai lost about 60% of their best land and pastures when they were moved from the northern reserve to a single extended southern reserve."},{"index":2,"size":23,"text":"Within the Athi-Kaputiei ecosystem, Nairobi National Park was created in 1946 which excluded the Maasai and their livestock from traditional dry season pastures."},{"index":3,"size":25,"text":"Since 1911 several policies progressively led to land tenure changes in Maasailand. These changes often meant less land available for the Maasai livestock and wildlife."},{"index":4,"size":10,"text":"In 1968, Kajiado District was subdivided into 50 group ranches."},{"index":5,"size":14,"text":"In 1986, Kitengela, Maasailand's first group ranch, was further subdivided into private land parcels."},{"index":6,"size":35,"text":"This triggered land sales, the fragmentation of land, and saw the introduction of new and competing land uses. These changes represent a serious loss of pastures and space for the Maasai, their livestock and wildlife."}]},{"head":"Changing land use in Kitengela:","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":6,"text":"From open ranges to new borders "}]},{"head":"The threats today","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":124,"text":"The Kitengela plains are a fragmented landscape. Due in part to its proximity to Nairobi, the plains are fast being subdivided into individual plots, then split again into smaller and smaller units. Many of these units are fenced. Slums and other unplanned urban areas have sprung up throughout the landscape, as have housing estates for the Nairobi workforce. Small subsistence plots and large commercial farms compete for acreage as they drive out the original occupants of the land, the Maasai, their livestock and wildlife. Many Maasai, until recently raising livestock on areas up to 1,200 hectares, are now marginalized in corners of their own former holdings. Wildlife are forced to stay within NNP or meander around fences to access open plains to the south."}]},{"head":"Consequences of population growth and land fragmentation","index":11,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Effects on pastoral livelihoods","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":71,"text":"In the clash of cultures and livelihoods that is present day Kitengela, Maasai are increasingly marginalized. Many find the cash offered for land too tempting to pass up. But, new to the market economy and lacking financial literacy, they all too often squander what they receive, only to sell off more land for more cash. Soon they find themselves squeezed into spaces too small to support pastoralism, with few other options."},{"index":2,"size":53,"text":"While some may argue that selling land is a personal choice, real choice is only possible when the decisionmaker has options and information about relative risks and rewards. Heavily pressured by potential buyers, Maasai landowners have not had the information to foresee what land sales would do to their families, livelihoods, and community."}]},{"head":"RETO-O-RETO POLICY BRIEF 2","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":44,"text":"Now at a critical stage, the Kitengela plains can be seen as an early warning signal and a loud wake up call for all stakeholders. The surroundings of most of Kenya's National Parks and Reserves are set to face similar challenges in the future."},{"index":2,"size":23,"text":"While the number of people have increased tremendously in the last 25 years in the Kitengela plains, the number of livestock have fluctuated."},{"index":3,"size":21,"text":"The number of livestock per adult has declined sharply and may be reaching a critical stage beyond which pastoralism is threatened."},{"index":4,"size":25,"text":"If this trend continues, Maasai may have no choice but to abandon pastoralism altogether.  1978 1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998  "}]},{"head":"Changes in Human and","index":14,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Effects on water","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":76,"text":"Extensive catchment destruction and overexploitation of water resources in the Athi-Kaputiei ecosystem have led to progressively less water available for the human, livestock and wildlife residents. The Empakasi River remains the only all year-round river that flows through the plains. The watershed for the Empakasi River, vital for Nairobi National Park and neighbouring Machakos, lies in Ngong Forest. But the Ngong Forest has been truncated and is still suffering encroachment, imperiling the last dry-season water course."},{"index":2,"size":40,"text":"Thirty years ago, the Kitengela River and swamp had water all year round. Today, this river flows only when it rains, and the swamp area is drying up. Pollutants from agriculture, industry, and towns up stream also contaminate surface water."},{"index":3,"size":54,"text":"Irrigation and other water sources in the Athi-Kaputiei ecosystem lack adequate oversight. For instance, although regulations require boreholes to be sited at least 800 metres apart, a 2004 survey shows that some lie as close as 200 metres apart, while some wells were within 15 metres of each other along the seasonal river courses."}]},{"head":"Effects on wildlife","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":57,"text":"Counts show that wildlife populations on the Kitengela plains plunged by 72 percent from 1977-2002 . The wildebeest population plunged on the Kitengela plains (left graph) and crashed inside Nairobi National Park after the 2000 drought (right graph) and has not recovered . More than 90 percent of eland and giraffe also vanished during these 25 years."},{"index":2,"size":35,"text":"Ecologists calculate that 60,000 acres is the minimum area that migratory animals need to sustain themselves in the Athi-Kaputiei ecosystem. By December 2004, 18 percent of the Athi-Kaputiei ecosystem, excluding the National Park was fenced."},{"index":3,"size":25,"text":"Other studies have shown that when land is fenced or fragmented wildlife numbers and diversity both plummet (Norton Griffiths et al., 2007;Reid et al., 2007)."}]},{"head":"Effects on Nairobi National Park (NNP)","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":66,"text":"Popular and lucrative, NNP is a unique national asset. It is the world's only national park bordering a capital city with the northern fence only 6km from Nairobi's city centre. It is also Kenya's first national park, and the only one within easy reach of urban dwellers. Home to the Animal Orphanage and the Safari Walk, NNP combines a wilderness experience with recreational and educational services."},{"index":2,"size":32,"text":"In addition to local visitors, one out of three international guests who stop in Nairobi tour the park. The park's popularity makes it the fourth largest revenue earner for Kenya Wildlife Service."},{"index":3,"size":25,"text":"Nairobi National Park also serves as a breeding ground for the endangered black rhinoceros. Rhino's from the park are sent nationwide to restock other parks."},{"index":4,"size":52,"text":"But like the rhino, NNP is in danger. At the northern border of the Kitengela plains, NNP represents a mere one twentieth of the original Athi-Kaputiei ecosystem. City developers already have their sights on the park, and some advocate for its closure arguing all is already lost-Kenya Daily Nation 1/6/2006 (see right)."},{"index":5,"size":56,"text":"With rangeland to the north blocked by the city, the Kitengela plains are literally the park's lifeline. If unplanned development makes the plains hostile to wildlife, NNP will become an island, too small and isolated to host a large or diverse population of animals. The nation would lose a valuable economic asset and a unique heritage. "}]}],"figures":[],"sieverID":"da1ef8d8-2e25-4c26-a2b7-96841c2c26fa","abstract":"In the absence of swift action: a scenario for 2026If present trends continue, this may be the picture of the Kitengela plains within 20 years:• Human population will more than double, making the plains an essentially urban expanse, interrupted only by farms and greenhouses. • The Maasai will be dispossessed of land, livelihood, and culture. Most will have joined the ranks of landless slum dwellers. • Large areas of land will be degraded by unsustainable uses. It will no longer be fit for agriculture or livestock, let alone wildlife. • Water tables will be lower because of unsustainable pumping of groundwater.• Conflicts over land and water use will intensify between settlements, industry, pastoralists and farmers. • Wildlife will become extinct on the plains outside Nairobi National Park.• At less than 5 percent of the original Athi-Kaputiei ecosystem, NNP will be an island, too small for most species to survive even if protected."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"071c5e37a098fd379eaeb359101b142c","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/4051043d-149d-48ba-9f01-9fd1c00d2413/retrieve"},"pageCount":12,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction 1.1 Project overview","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":84,"text":"The Policy Action for Climate Change Adaptation (PACCA) project sought to influence and link policies and institutions from national to local level for the development and adoption of climate resilient food systems in Uganda and Tanzania through the integration of the scientific community with various policy actors. There were seven major activities, ranging from network analysis, trade-off analysis, scenario development, policy analysis, to applied information economics and gender mainstreaming. The pathway to achieve the desired outputs and outcomes is illustrated in Figure 1 below.  "}]},{"head":"Capacity building","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":23,"text":"The experience and knowledge sharing was intended to build capacity of leaning alliance members in adaptation planning and promote climate-resilient and gender-responsive policies. "}]},{"head":"Gender mainstreaming","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":33,"text":"Learning alliances have led to recognition of gender responsive policy and budget implementation at district level in Uganda and Tanzania, and influenced development of strategies to improve gender integration in climate change adaptation."},{"index":2,"size":65,"text":"Gender budget feedback workshops were conducted in ten local governments, including the target districts where the CCAFS-PACCA imitative was operating. Local government officials explained that budget cuts, demand driven budgets, limited resources, conditional grants, the cross-cutting nature of gender-related activities, and a lack of adequate knowledge on gender issues are responsible for the variable and low estimated and actual budgets at the district and sub-counties."},{"index":3,"size":62,"text":"Despite the gender budget gaps, there are great opportunities to improve. Discussions revealed that there are actions local governments could take on immediately to address gender budgeting and allocation gaps. These include lobbying for funds, allocating part of local revenue to the gender budget, using a bottom-up approach in planning, awareness creation and gender mainstreaming in all sectors at district and sub-counties."},{"index":4,"size":61,"text":"Evidence has also been used at national level in Uganda and Tanzania to influence high level policy strategies to mainstream gender responsiveness. Findings of the study on gender integration in agriculture and natural resource policies was presented to Tanzania Members of Parliament (MPs) in September 2017. Discussion with policy makers revealed that gender is still a controversial topic in the country."},{"index":5,"size":4,"text":"Blog links: https://ccafs.cgiar.org/blog/what-issue-gender-budgeting#.WnwBmq6Wa00 https://ccafs.cgiar.org/blog/capacity-building-prerequisite-advocacy-experiencetanzania#.WnwF8a6Wa00"}]},{"head":"Local policy engagement activities","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":81,"text":"Learning alliances foster policy dialogue at community, district and high-level planning stages and lead to integrated, coordinated, climate-resilient and gender-responsive policies. Though district level policy actors and NGOs are rarely meaningfully involved in national-level policy formulation, learning alliances made it possible for district members to increasingly attend national policy events and share their experiences. Learning alliances functioned as coordination channels, linking national, district and local-level members, strengthening not just coordination across sectoral institutions but links between national and district levels too."},{"index":2,"size":28,"text":"Local  Furthermore, limited technical capacity and lack of evidence led to poor strategic planning and ineffective policy. Deliberate efforts were made to build capacity of learning alliance members."},{"index":3,"size":37,"text":"This was mainly because understanding of climate change issues was as diverse as learning alliance members themselves. Capacity building was not only inherent in all learning alliance activities but also a core component of the project itself."},{"index":4,"size":33,"text":"Though learning alliance meetings were inherently designed to build technical capacity and enhance members' knowledge and skills, representation and attendance by member institutions was inconsistent for a variety of reasons, including limited finances."},{"index":5,"size":94,"text":"Budget cuts and limited finances negatively impacted on numbers attending and frequency of holding meetings. Due to budget cuts, the project team also shifted emphasis from national to district learning alliances. Some organizations such as EMLI have taken lead in co-funding learning alliance activities, but limited ownership among member organizations was apparent Sustainability of the learning alliances beyond the project life has remained a challenge. Though CCD, EMU and District Local Governments have planned to institutionalize learning alliances and allocate budgets for activities, the amounts allocated are still too merger to facilitate regular meetings."},{"index":6,"size":46,"text":"Thematic group plans were made to guide learning alliance actions but they were never concretely implemented. This led the project team to change plans from thematic group plans to operating through shared objectives. Members of the learning alliance would always come together to fulfil shared objectives."},{"index":7,"size":6,"text":"5.0 Project closure and sharing lessons"}]},{"head":"Lessons drawn from implementation of learning alliances","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":14,"text":"Finding the \"right\" institutions made a difference in the impact of learning alliance processes."},{"index":2,"size":43,"text":"Building trust among members of the leaning alliance and finding common goals and interests was important for fostering unified action. Adequate planning for timing of engagement and advocacy, and balancing of the lengthy research process with policy needs was critical for enhanced success."},{"index":3,"size":75,"text":"Learning alliances are loose structures and highly dependent on institutional financial capacity to implement actions. CCD, EMU and district Local Governments are key not just in sustainability of learning alliances but also in convening meetings. Technical support and close supervision is needed for lower local government (LLG) to understand and appreciate the goal of learning alliances. Monitoring, supervising and reporting by all actors should be prioritized and enforced by the steering committee and coordinating office.  "}]},{"head":"Lessons drawn from project implementation","index":6,"paragraphs":[]}],"figures":[{"text":" The project was funded by the CGIAR Research Program on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security (CCAFS) and led by the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA) in partnership with other CGIAR centers, including International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT) and research partners from Uganda and Tanzania. "},{"text":"Figure 1 : Figure 1: Pathway to achieve desired outputs and outcomes "},{"text":"Figure 2 : Figure 2: PACCA project conception framework "},{"text":"4. 0 Challenges faced in implementation of district learning alliances Absence of strong leadership, poor coordination, irregular meetings and declining numbers of key stakeholders were among the major challenges faced in implementation of district learning alliances. For instance, Nwoya district learning alliance activities stalled due to poor coordination. And the Chief Administrative Officer (CAO) had to sort out coordination issues between the District Natural Resource Officer (DNRO) and the District Environment Officer. The need not just to strengthen the steering committee's commitment to coordinate and harmonize climate change responses across different actors but also to address stakeholder expectations became apparent in the implementation of district learning alliances. Communication, joint learning and knowledge sharing among actors was still weak. Whereas knowledge sharing was intended to build capacity of the learning alliance members, limited knowledge and skills made long term planning in gender and climate change-responsive policy difficult. "},{"text":"Lesson 2 : Design climate-smart agricultural interventions to be gender inclusive. If gender is not explicitly considered in climate-related interventions, the adoption of climate resilient practices is unlikely to reach scale. Interventions must go beyond targeting women to focus on the underlying causes of gender inequality within communities. Involving men in the process of women's empowerment is critical: norms will not change in isolation, and gender must be considered at each stage of a project cycle to incorporate factors that drive the adoption of gender equity practices. Lesson 3: Assess whole-farm trade-offs and synergies for climate smart agriculture. Researchshows that CSA can increase productivity, promote resilience and reduce greenhouse gas emissions. But achieving benefits in all three areas is difficult, and gains in one area might come with concomitant gains or losses in another area. Providing information on trade-offs and synergies to decision makers improves CSA priority setting, which improves the likelihood that the CSA investment will achieve positive outcomes within a particular context while mitigating possible unintended adverse outcomes.Lesson 4: Support farmer-to-farmer and community-wide social learning. Agriculture extension is a vital tool in delivering critical knowledge to farmers for achieving better agricultural productivity. Farmer-to-farmer learning can be up to six times more effective in influencing the adoption of CSA practices. Such peer learning offers effective ways to disseminate knowledge based on trust and learning networks, with social multiplier effects. Collective action and group incentives can galvanize communities to address new practices, where other approaches might "},{"text":"  "},{"text":" policy formulation processes have been supported, particularly by Mbale and Luwero district learning alliances where four ordinances have been formulated. Mbale Coffee (Management) Bill and Mbale Counterfeit Agricultural Inputs (Prohibition) Bill are simultaneously being developed by the Production and Marketing Department of Mbale District Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 13, and National Climate Change Policy (2015) priorities. CCD is scaling-up learning alliances for capacity building at district and lower levels. They have also established climate change platforms at the government ministries, departments and agencies (MDA) level. Platforms such as the MDA Focal Points, Parliamentary Forum on Climate Change (PFCC), and Donor Thematic Group on Climate Change are important for coordination at national level. national level. Some learning alliances have successfully attracted climate funding from district budgets, Some learning alliances have successfully attracted climate funding from district budgets, because adaptation and climate smart agriculture priorities were integrated in district because adaptation and climate smart agriculture priorities were integrated in district development plans (DDPs). For example, the Chief Administrative Officer of Nwoya district has development plans (DDPs). For example, the Chief Administrative Officer of Nwoya district has allocated for the first time UGX 6,000,000 for climate change activities. Lower Local allocated for the first time UGX 6,000,000 for climate change activities. Lower Local Governments in the district have also planned to allocate UGX 1,000,000 annually effective FY Governments in the district have also planned to allocate UGX 1,000,000 annually effective FY 2018/219. Sub-county extension workers in Nwoya also plan to use farmer beneficiaries of CSA 2018/219. Sub-county extension workers in Nwoya also plan to use farmer beneficiaries of CSA demonstration plots to increase adoption of CSA technologies and interventions in the demonstration plots to increase adoption of CSA technologies and interventions in the community. Other districts have pledged to institutionalize learning alliances by integrating community. Other districts have pledged to institutionalize learning alliances by integrating them within existing structures and allocating a budget for their activities. them within existing structures and allocating a budget for their activities. change#.Wnwnlq6Wa00 change#.Wnwnlq6Wa00 3.0 Achievements 3.0 Achievements Learning alliances have improved understanding of climate change and its impacts, thus Learning alliances have improved understanding of climate change and its impacts, thus enabling public institutions, individuals and non-state actors to tap into the opportunities and enabling public institutions, individuals and non-state actors to tap into the opportunities and co-benefits arising from adaptation and mitigation actions. Climate Change Department (CCD) co-benefits arising from adaptation and mitigation actions. Climate Change Department (CCD) has appreciated the role and innovation of learning alliances in addressing climate change issues has appreciated the role and innovation of learning alliances in addressing climate change issues in Uganda. in Uganda. Learning alliances have enabled CCD to implement the United Nations Framework Convention Learning alliances have enabled CCD to implement the United Nations Framework Convention  "}],"sieverID":"2e14b4c7-a5d0-4be7-8b2c-2416763ef0c2","abstract":""}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"072d135ac294dfb227084aef6a43f098","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://digitalarchive.worldfishcenter.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.12348/1082/WF_2784.pdf"},"pageCount":28,"title":"Vision 2050: Changement climatique, pêche et aquaculture en Afrique de l'Ouest","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Résumé","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":193,"text":"Ce rapport présente les activités et les résultats de l'atelier Vision 2050: Changement climatique, pêche et aquaculture en Afrique de l'Ouest. Les objectifs de l'atelier étaient de discuter les questions critiques et les incertitudes auxquelles est confronté le secteur de la pêche et de l'aquaculture au Ghana, au Sénégal et en Mauritanie, d'élaborer des scénarios sectoriels pour 2050 et de discuter de l'implication de ces scénarios dans le contexte du changement climatique pour ces pays et la région ouest africaine. Pendant l'atelier les participants ont été initiés aux méthodologies d'élaboration de scénarios. Ils ont d'une part identifié les forces motrices de changement et les ont classés en fonction de leur importance et de leurs niveaux d'incertitude. D'autre part, ils ont élaboré pour chaque pays quatre scénarios cohérents pour 2050. Les scenarios ont soulevé quelques questions notamment : L'aquaculture peut-elle à la fois contribuer à la sécurité alimentaire et à la croissance macroéconomique nationale? Faut-il promouvoir les échanges régionaux ou favoriser l'accès aux marchés mondiaux? Comment le changement climatique va-t-il affecter les ressources halieutiques, en particulier les petits pélagiques comme les sardinelles, qui constituent une importante denrée d'exportation pour le Sénégal et la Mauritanie?"},{"index":2,"size":137,"text":"Les participants ont aussi évalué les implications des différents scénarios en termes de changement climatique et de recherche et développement dans le secteur de la pêche et de l'aquaculture. Il a été convenu qu'il faut un effort régional ou sous-régional pour mieux intégrer la connaissance scientifique et mettre en place des politiques de pêches cohérentes. Il faut en plus une meilleure compréhension des impacts du changement climatique sur le secteur, avec par exemple, le développement des modèles couplés climat-pêche pour les principales pêcheries commerciales de la région. Les participants ont unanimement reconnu la nécessité de disséminer à grande échelle les méthodologies de planification stratégiques et des études prévisionnelles. En effet, on a reconnu l'opportunité de la pensée réflective et créative comme partie importante de la planification -en particulier la planification de l'adaptation -en vue du changement climatique."},{"index":3,"size":84,"text":"Enfin, l'atelier a été une rare opportunité d'inclure dans une étude prévisionnelle des projets artistiques par des jeunes sur le futur du secteur de la pêche et des zones côtières comme thème d'exposition et de discussion (\"Visions du futur : Que nous racontent les jeunes africains sur notre Océan ?\"). L'autonomisation des jeunes sur les questions de changements climatiques et l'intégration de leurs besoins dans la planification de l'adaptation est essentielle puisque ce sont eux qui seront les plus affectés par les changements futurs."},{"index":4,"size":114,"text":"Les organisateurs de l'atelier expriment toute leur reconnaissance pour l'assistance financière octroyée par le Centre de recherches pour le développement international (CRDI) du Canada, le ministère fédéral allemand de la Coopération économique et du Développement (BMZ), l'Agence allemande de coopération technique(GTZ), et QUEST-Fish, un projet financé par le Conseil national de recherche sur l'environnement du Royaume-Uni (NERC). Nous aimerions remercier particulièrement le programme Adaptation aux changements climatiques en Afrique (CCAA)/CRDI pour avoir bien voulu fournir l'appui financier nécessaire pour rendre possible la participation à cet atelier régional. L'assistance de M. Aliou Sall et de M. Ibrahima Seck avec les arrangements locaux de même que la coopération de Hôtel Océan (Yoff ) est fortement appréciée."}]},{"head":"Introduction","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":103,"text":"L'atelier Vision 2050: Changement climatique, pêche et aquaculture organisé à Dakar, Sénégal fait partie du projet « Quel futur pour les systèmes de production de pêches en Afrique de l'Ouest ? Elaboration de scénarios pour l'adaptation au changement climatique » conduit par le WorldFish Center et le Centre Leibniz d'écologie tropicale marine. Le projet a pour but d'élaborer des scénarios futurs pour le secteur de la pêche au Ghana, au Sénégal et en Mauritanie en vue d'identifier comment ce secteur dans ces pays pourrait répondre aux futurs changements sous différents scénarios de changement climatique, de changement démographique, de modèles commerciaux, économiques et politiques."},{"index":2,"size":4,"text":"L'atelier avait pour objectifs:"},{"index":3,"size":75,"text":"1. De débattre des questions critiques et des incertitudes auxquelles est confronté le secteur de la pêche et de l'aquaculture au Ghana, au Sénégal et en Mauritanie et qui ont été identifiées dans une enquête en ligne où les participants avaient été invités à se prononcer avant l'événement ; 2. D'élaborer des scénarios pour 2050; 3. De discuter des implications de ces scénarios dans le contexte du changement climatique pour les pays et la région."},{"index":4,"size":184,"text":"L'atelier a été co-organisé par le WorldFish Center (WFC, Penang, Malaisie) le Centre Leibniz d'écologie tropicale marine (ZMT, Bremen, Allemagne). L'atelier a regroupé 17 experts venant de gouvernements, d' organisations non gouvernementales (ONG), d' instituts de recherche et d'universités (Annexe 6.2). De plus, avant et pendant l'atelier, le WorldFish Center a travaillé en équipe avec l'Initiative Mundus Maris, une ONG qui mobilise la science et les arts pour encourager les jeunes à oeuvrer pour des côtes et des océans sains. WorldFish a commandité un travail artistique réalisé par un groupe de jeunes sénégalais sur le thème : « Visions du futur : Que nous racontent les jeunes africains ? ». A travers des peintures et les présentations faites lors de l'atelier, quatre élèves du secondaire du village de pêche de Kayar au Sénégal, ont exprimé leurs inquiétudes sur le futur de leur communauté côtière. C'est le célèbre peintre contemporain sénégalais, M. Samba Laye Diop, qui a été le mentor de ces élèves, supervisés par Abibou Diop, Directeur de l'école secondaire CEM de Kayar, et de M. Aliou Sall, coordinateur local de l'Initiative Mundus Maris."}]},{"head":"Activités de l'atelier","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":120,"text":"L'atelier a duré deux jours et demi, du 14 au 16 avril 2010. Il a été officiellement inauguré par Nathalie Beaulieu du programme Adaptation au changement climatique en Afrique (CCAA) du CRDI qui a souhaité la bienvenue aux participants au Sénégal et souligné le travail du CRDI/CCAA, particulièrement sa préoccupation par rapport à l'importance de la pêche dans la région et le rôle que les scénarios peuvent jouer dans le développement de stratégies et politiques d'adaptation. L'équipe du projet a ensuite clarifié le contexte et les buts de l'atelier et a fait une présentation sur les scénarios (Encadré 1). Cette présentation a été suivie par trois présentations liminaires sur les secteurs de la pêche et de l'aquaculture des pays participants."},{"index":2,"size":15,"text":"Les résultats préliminaires des enquêtes sur internet administrées à 28 experts ont été ensuite présentés."},{"index":3,"size":33,"text":"A travers des questions ouvertes, les enquêtes demandaient d'identifier les principales forces motrices de changement dans le secteur de la pêche et de l'aquaculture pour 2050 ; et les réponses ont été codifiées."},{"index":4,"size":18,"text":"Les participants ont été répartis en équipes nationales. Les équipes nationales ont discuté les résultats de l'enquête pour:"},{"index":5,"size":13,"text":"• Voir si les codes utilisés par l'équipe du projet étaient appropriés ;"},{"index":6,"size":12,"text":"• Réévaluer le classement des forces motrices en termes d'importance et d'incertitude."},{"index":7,"size":74,"text":"Cette approche 1 Delphi modifiée permet aux experts à travers une série de tours de parvenir à une sorte de consensus et de compréhension mutuelle des enjeux. La première journée de l'atelier s'est achevée par une « réunion de synthèse » qui a réuni certains participants pour voir comment les activités de la journée avaient été menées et identifier les points qui nécessitent des ajustements qui pourraient améliorer les sessions de la journée suivante."},{"index":8,"size":60,"text":"Le second jour de l'atelier a débuté avec les équipes nationales pour finaliser la sélection des moteurs de changement et identifier deux forces motrices critiques (plus haute importance et plus incertaines) en vue de former avec ces deux axes la logique du scénario (connue aussi sous le nom de « croix ») qui va générer les quatre futurs scénarios probables.  "}]},{"head":"Résultats de l'atelier","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":4,"text":"3.1 Scénarios du Ghana "}]},{"head":"Accroissement de la population pression réduite aucune","index":5,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Pauvreté","index":6,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Réduite Réduite","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":14,"text":"Scénario 3 « Question de vie ou de mort »: Pêche à haut risque"},{"index":2,"size":128,"text":"Le changement climatique et l'augmentation de la variabilité climatique entraînent des niveaux élevés des mers, des événements extrêmes plus intensifs et sont susceptibles d'augmenter la force des vents. L'industrie de la pêche au Ghana est confrontée à un nombre croissant de risques ; ce qui entraîne la réduction des activités de pêche et beaucoup de pertes telles que le chavirage des navires de pêche, des pertes matérielles et même humaines causées par des accidents. L'activité de pêche est fortement affectée. Dans de telles conditions, il est difficile de mettre en vigueur la réglementation qui régit la pêche ; l'investissement va donc baisser et la dégradation de l'environnement s'accélère. Certaines communautés de pêche disposant de navires modernes « bravent la tempête » tandis que la majorité abandonne la pêche.   "}]},{"head":"Renforcement des capacités","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":8,"text":"Développement de programmes de renforcement des capacités thématiques"}]},{"head":"Changement climatique","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":14,"text":"Sensibilisation sur les enjeux des changements climatiques Définition de stratégies locales d'adaptation et d'atténuation"}]},{"head":"Mouvement de la population","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":9,"text":"Gestion du foncier en fonction de la population locale"}]},{"head":"Progrès technologique Vulgarisation des techniques aquacoles et agricoles intégrée","index":11,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Situation politique","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":12,"text":"Gouvernance locale Démocratie de base Equité dans l'exploitation des ressources Education civique"}]},{"head":"Pollution","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":324,"text":"Mise en place de comités locaux de surveillance de la pollution 3.3 Scénarios de la Mauritanie   En dépit des graves changements climatiques, les impacts et les dégâts qui s'ensuivent sont limités grâce à la capacité de s'adapter aux changements environnementaux, par exemple par la gestion proactive des ressources aquatiques. une gestion adaptative est adoptée : les rares ressources sont gérées tout en maintenant l'efficacité et l'équité de la pêche et la protection de l'environnement. Les perceptions et les incertitudes des acteurs impliqués dans le secteur sont prises en compte et un portefeuille d'approches de gestion participative, y compris la cogestion, est mis en oeuvre. Malgré les conditions adverses, le secteur peut encore être durable et « résister à la tempête ». Pour le Sénégal, le scénario « Sécurité alimentaire : La sécurité alimentaire sous-régionale » a été choisi par l'équipe nationale. Il a été identifié que dans le court terme (2010)(2011)(2012)(2013)(2014)(2015) faire face au changement climatique portera principalement sur l'amélioration de la gestion des ressources hydriques, notamment la conservation de l'eau, la pollution et l'interaction multisectorielle (Tableau 14). Le changement climatique doit être intégré à la politique de pêche. Pour y parvenir, le réseau des institutions sousrégionales et des parties prenantes doit être renforcé. En termes de R&D, les propositions incluaient la réduction des modèles de changement climatique combinés avec les modèles de pêche de même que l'identification des espèces de poissons pouvant s'adapter aux nouvelles conditions environnementales. Pour le plus long terme, l'objectif doit être la restauration de l'écosystème, par exemple pour accroître la résilience de la pêche continentale et de l'aquaculture.  Cependant, la pêche artisanale connaît un déclin due à la baisse des prises découlant principalement de la surpêche. De plus, à l'instar de beaucoup de zones côtières du Sénégal, la région subit aussi les effets de l'extraction du sable et de la déforestation, exacerbant l'érosion côtière avec la hausse accélérée du niveau de la mer soupçonnée aggraver les problèmes côtiers existants."},{"index":2,"size":100,"text":"A travers des peintures, quatre élèves du secondaire de Kayar ont exprimé leurs inquiétudes sur la déforestation accrue dans leurs communautés, l'insécurité en mer et les inondations. Dans l'un des tableaux préparés avant l'atelier, Masseck Dieng et Madické Kane ont exploré les questions de l'inondation et de la destruction des ponts dans les zones côtières (Figure 7). Le tableau visait à sensibiliser les autorités sur ces problèmes dans la planification des infrastructures futures de développement. « Le message que nous voulons partager est que lorsque nous construisons les ponts, nous devons faire beaucoup plus attention », ont déclaré les artistes."},{"index":3,"size":67,"text":"VISION 2050: ChANGEMENT CLIMATIQuE, PêChE ET AQuACuLTuRE EN AFRIQuE DE L'OuEST Pendant l'atelier, les quatre élèves Manga Ba, Masseck Dieng, Fallou Diop et Madické Kane ont créé ensemble un tableau sous la tutelle de l'artiste sénégalais Samba Laye Diop (Figure 8). A travers leur tableau, les élèves ont exprimé la dégradation environnementale qui se passe actuellement dans leur communauté et ses implications pour le futur (Figure 9)."},{"index":4,"size":114,"text":"L'un des objectifs des scénarios est de provoquer une réponse mentale et émotionnelle aux changements plausibles dans l'avenir, en encourageant la pensée latérale, la prise en compte de nouvelles id��es. La fonction narrative d'un processus de scénario est dans ce sens similaire à la fonction narrative de l'art, là où les tableaux peuvent informer, choquer et inspirer. L'art est aussi un outil d'élocution où les jeunes peuvent partager avec les autres leur vision du monde, les risques auxquels ils sont confrontés, etc. Les jeunes peuvent être des agents du changement dans leurs communautés, en s'impliquant dans les processus de planification des scénarios, là où les problèmes sont identifiés et la planification de l'adaptation nécessaire. "}]},{"head":"Discussion","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":93,"text":"Pendant l'atelier, il était devenu évident que tandis que les scénarios développés diffèrent beaucoup entre les trois pays, il existe aussi d'importants points communs. Ces deux aspects doivent être sérieusement pris en compte. D'une part, la situation dans différents pays ouest-africains pourrait faire ressortir les différences majeures en termes de facteurs naturels et de trajectoires socio-économiques, et refléter différentes perceptions de ces changements. Ces différences pourraient nécessiter des mesures d'adaptation hautement spécifiques dans une perspective de développement sectoriel plus vaste, et dont certaines ont été abordées dans les scénarios à un niveau national. "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure 1 : Figure 1: Forces motrices selon leur importance et incertitude pour le Ghana Forces motrices inévitables "},{"text":"Figure 3 : Figure 3: Forces motrices selon leur importance et leur incertitude pour le Sénégal "},{"text":" réévalué en profondeur le regroupement initial des forces motrices sur la base des enquêtes entreprises par l'équipe du projet. A titre d'exemple, la « gouvernance et la gestion » ont été fusionnées en une seule force motrice bien que les participants aient convenu que la « gouvernance » se référait au cadre institutionnel et à l'orientation politique, tandis que la « gestion » se référait aux instruments utilisés pour la mise en oeuvre des politiques. Sur la base de l'importance et de l'incertitude, les forces motrices les plus critiques pour l'exercice d'élaboration des scénarios ont été la surexploitation des ressources aquatiques (y compris l'effondrement et la disparition des stocks), et le changement et la variabilité climatiques (Figure5). "},{"text":"Figure 5 : Figure 5: Forces motrices selon leur importance et leur incertitude pour la Mauritanie "},{"text":"Force des ressources hydriques Lutte contre les espèces de plantes non indigènes Renforcement des institutions sous-régionales Renforcement du réseau des acteurs Prise en compte de la dimension environnementale dans l'élaboration et la mise en oeuvre des politiques de Mauritanie a choisi le scénario \"Bouleversement \" pour l'exercice d'analyse rétrospective. Dans le court terme, les participants ont identifié la Commission sous-régionale de pêche (CSRP) dans la région comme un moyen d'améliorer la coopération et le transfert technologique liés au changement climatique (Tableau 15). L'espoir était que dans le plus long terme (2030), le renforcement de la coopération sous-régionale débouchera sur une plus forte présence dans les forums internationaux sur le changement climatique. En termes de R&D, l'intégration des questions de changement climatique dans les programmes de formation a été perçue comme étant une priorité; et que d'ici 2030, des centres d'excellence en matière de pêche et de changement climatique soient opérationnels dans la région. "},{"text":"Figure Figure 7: \"Pont sous les eaux\" par Masseck Dieng et Madické Kane. Le pont engouffré dans les grandes vagues fait ressortir la nécessité de bien planifier et de bien construire les infrastructures côtières "},{"text":"Figure 9 : Figure 9: Les jeunes du village de pêche Kayar, Sénégal expliquent aux experts un tableau peint à quatre lors de l'atelier : leurs communautés sont confrontées à la déforestation, à la désertification, à la pollution et à l'insécurité en mer. "},{"text":"Figure 8 : Figure 8: Quatre jeunes du village de pêche du Sénégal réalisant un tableau avec Samba Laye Diop. "},{"text":"  "},{"text":" • L'identification des politiques au niveau régional à court et à long terme liées à ces deux forces motrices et qui pourraient renforcer les éléments positifs dans le scénario choisi et atténuer les éléments négatifs.Les scénarios ne sont pas des prévisions ou des prédictions, mais plutôt des descriptions plausibles de la façon dont le futur pourrait évoluer, sur la base d'un ensemble de suppositions cohérentes et logiques sur les interactions clés et les forces motrices de changement. Ce sont des outils utiles pour estimer les conditions socio-économiques futures, représentant les multiples forces motrices externes auxquels un système est ou sera exposé. Il existe trois modes de pensée sur le futur -prédictif, exploratoire et normatif. Le type de scenario prédictif tente d'avoir une indication de ce qui se produira en en se basant sur l'évolution des tendances la plus probable dans le futur (proche de la prévision, « Si les tendances se maintiennent, à quoi le futur ressembleraitil ? »). Les scenarios normatifs impliquent la prise en compte des buts normatifs (situation future souhaitée) et l'exploration des voies et moyens conduisant à ces buts (« Que voulons-nous que le futur soit ? »). Dans ce projet, nous avons employé les scénarios exploratoires, caractérisés par l'ouverture à plusieurs événements éventuels et à différentes évolutions. Ils interpellent les Encadré 1 Que sont les scénarios? Encadré 1 Que sont les scénarios? Chaque équipe a présenté ses résultats, suivi d'une discussion. Les discussions de l'atelier ont pris Chaque équipe a présenté ses résultats, suivi d'une discussion. Les discussions de l'atelier ont pris fin avec des commentaires de la part de l'équipe du projet. Les élèves de Kayar ont ensuite présenté fin avec des commentaires de la part de l'équipe du projet. Les élèves de Kayar ont ensuite présenté un tableau qu'ils ont réalisé pendant l'atelier en faisant ressortir quatre problèmes ayant affecté leur un tableau qu'ils ont réalisé pendant l'atelier en faisant ressortir quatre problèmes ayant affecté leur communauté côtière. communauté côtière.  "},{"text":"Figure 2 : Scénarios du Ghana Socio-Economie \"HARMONIE\"  3.1.1 Forces motrices \"FINI LE BON VIEUX TEMPS\" 3.1.1 Forces motrices \"FINI LE BON VIEUX TEMPS\" Harmonisation des politiques La Figure 1 présente les forces motrices identifiées à travers l'enquête et leurs nouveaux classements par Effondrement pêche artisanale Accord sur les questions Pauvreté accrue les participants. Les forces motrices inévitables sont celles qui ont un impact important et requièrent Collaboration des acteurs Demande de crédit Harmonisation des politiques La Figure 1 présente les forces motrices identifiées à travers l'enquête et leurs nouveaux classements par Effondrement pêche artisanale Accord sur les questions Pauvreté accrue les participants. Les forces motrices inévitables sont celles qui ont un impact important et requièrent Collaboration des acteurs Demande de crédit l'attention des gestionnaires, mais qui sont moins incertaines. Les forces motrices critiques ont une Intégration régionale l'attention des gestionnaires, mais qui sont moins incertaines. Les forces motrices critiques ont une Intégration régionale incertitude élevée et une grande importance, et sont celles utilisés pour créer le cadrant, la « croix » incertitude élevée et une grande importance, et sont celles utilisés pour créer le cadrant, la « croix » des scenarios. En effet, c'est la combinaison entre l'incertitude et l'importance qui nécessite une des scenarios. En effet, c'est la combinaison entre l'incertitude et l'importance qui nécessite une planification stratégique. Deux forces motrices critiques ont été identifiées : « changement climatique » planification stratégique. Deux forces motrices critiques ont été identifiées : « changement climatique » et « socio-économique ». Le changement climatique (y compris la variabilité climatique) se réfère \"NOUVELLE VIE\" \"QUESTION DE VIE OU DE principalement aux changements dans la remontée des eaux (upwelling) dans le Golfe de Guinée ; ce Moyens d'existence diversifiés qui entraîne des changements dans les modes migratoires des espèces et la survie de certaines espèces MORT\" et « socio-économique ». Le changement climatique (y compris la variabilité climatique) se réfère \"NOUVELLE VIE\" \"QUESTION DE VIE OU DE principalement aux changements dans la remontée des eaux (upwelling) dans le Golfe de Guinée ; ce Moyens d'existence diversifiés qui entraîne des changements dans les modes migratoires des espèces et la survie de certaines espèces MORT\" aquatiques. On entend par changement socio-économique l'expansion ou la récession des économies, Gestion adaptative complexe Pêche très risquée aquatiques. On entend par changement socio-économique l'expansion ou la récession des économies, Gestion adaptative complexe Pêche très risquée Conservation, réduction de la du développement commercial et industriel, du développement des marchés et des infrastructures, des Evénements extrêmes pauvreté, réduit les conflits Gestion inefficace changements dans le développement social, humain, culturel (valeurs, préférences des consommateurs) et des systèmes économiques (marchés). Mauvaise intégration Conservation, réduction de la du développement commercial et industriel, du développement des marchés et des infrastructures, des Evénements extrêmes pauvreté, réduit les conflits Gestion inefficace changements dans le développement social, humain, culturel (valeurs, préférences des consommateurs) et des systèmes économiques (marchés). Mauvaise intégration 3.1.2 Logique et « trames » des scénarios 3.1.2 Logique et « trames » des scénarios La Figure 2 présente la matrice à quatre cellules définissant les frontières de chaque scénario. L'axe La Figure 2 présente la matrice à quatre cellules définissant les frontières de chaque scénario. L'axe vertical signifie que la remontée des eaux pourrait, à l'avenir, évoluer dans deux directions: une vertical signifie que la remontée des eaux pourrait, à l'avenir, évoluer dans deux directions: une \"remontée constante\" définie comme étant un environnement où les exemples de remontées dans \"remontée constante\" définie comme étant un environnement où les exemples de remontées dans le Golfe de Guinée sont similaires à ce qui se passe présentement, ou facilement prévisible avec des le Golfe de Guinée sont similaires à ce qui se passe présentement, ou facilement prévisible avec des modèles. « La remontée irrégulière » se réfère aux exemples de remontées instables entraînant des modèles. « La remontée irrégulière » se réfère aux exemples de remontées instables entraînant des changements imprévisibles en ce qui concerne l'abondance, la composition et la distribution des changements imprévisibles en ce qui concerne l'abondance, la composition et la distribution des espèces. Les remontées côtières sont des masses d'eaux froides riches en nutriments entraînées par le espèces. Les remontées côtières sont des masses d'eaux froides riches en nutriments entraînées par le vent pour remplacer les eaux de surface chaudes et pauvres en nutriments; si ce phénomène se réduit vent pour remplacer les eaux de surface chaudes et pauvres en nutriments; si ce phénomène se réduit ou est altéré, cela pourrait affecter gravement le secteur de la pêche. ou est altéré, cela pourrait affecter gravement le secteur de la pêche. L'axe horizontal indique deux extrêmes dans le développement socio-économique : l'un où les L'axe horizontal indique deux extrêmes dans le développement socio-économique : l'un où les institutions formelles et informelles ne régulent pas la société, plus spécifiquement le secteur de la institutions formelles et informelles ne régulent pas la société, plus spécifiquement le secteur de la pêche, et l'autre où les règles et les normes sont en place, en vigueur et effectives. Lorsque le cadre des pêche, et l'autre où les règles et les normes sont en place, en vigueur et effectives. Lorsque le cadre des scénarios a été identifié, le groupe a donné un nom à chaque quadrant afin de les identifier et défini scénarios a été identifié, le groupe a donné un nom à chaque quadrant afin de les identifier et défini leurs caractéristiques, leurs trames. leurs caractéristiques, leurs trames.  "},{"text":"Désordonnée Réglementée Rémontée irrégulière Rémontée constante Changement Climatique  Scénario 1 \"harmonie\": Harmonisation des politiques Scénario 1 \"harmonie\": Harmonisation des politiques Le scénario commence par un désir ardent d'appliquer une approche multisectorielle et participative Le scénario commence par un désir ardent d'appliquer une approche multisectorielle et participative à la gestion de la pêche. Dans le passé, les politiques conflictuelles ont entraîné une dégradation à la gestion de la pêche. Dans le passé, les politiques conflictuelles ont entraîné une dégradation généralisée de l'environnement aquatique et un développement de la pêche illégale. Dans ce généralisée de l'environnement aquatique et un développement de la pêche illégale. Dans ce scénario, les acteurs collaborent et participent à la prise de décision. A titre d'exemple, un inventaire scénario, les acteurs collaborent et participent à la prise de décision. A titre d'exemple, un inventaire des politiques nationales régissant les ressources naturelles est créé pour éclairer la planification et la des politiques nationales régissant les ressources naturelles est créé pour éclairer la planification et la gestion, renforçant ainsi les synergies et évitant des conflits entre les secteurs. En termes de recherche gestion, renforçant ainsi les synergies et évitant des conflits entre les secteurs. En termes de recherche et développement, les données sont déjà disponibles pour la mise en oeuvre des stratégies ex-ante et développement, les données sont déjà disponibles pour la mise en oeuvre des stratégies ex-ante à s'adapter aux changements. Les ressources halieutiques sont mobiles dans l'espace et ne sont pas à s'adapter aux changements. Les ressources halieutiques sont mobiles dans l'espace et ne sont pas limitées par la juridiction nationale. Les structures et les procédures bilatérales et régionales sont limitées par la juridiction nationale. Les structures et les procédures bilatérales et régionales sont promues, particulièrement en termes de suivi, de collecte et d'échange de données transfrontalières promues, particulièrement en termes de suivi, de collecte et d'échange de données transfrontalières et de transfert technologique. Les comportements des autres forces motrices dans ce scénario sont et de transfert technologique. Les comportements des autres forces motrices dans ce scénario sont présentés dans le Tableau 1. présentés dans le Tableau 1.  "},{"text":"Tableau 1: Evolution des forces motrices dans le scénario \"Harmonie\" Facteurs Pêche Aquaculture Tableau 2), a des impacts positifs tels que la réduction des conflits entre les utilisateurs des ressources, les bénéfices de la conservation et l'amélioration des pratiques de gestion de la pêche. Si elle est bien traitée, la diversification pourrait relancer et stimuler les stratégies de réduction de la pauvreté, par exemple à travers des activités auxquelles les femmes peuvent accéder. VISION 2050: ChANGEMENT CLIMATIQuE, VISION 2050: ChANGEMENT CLIMATIQuE, PêChE ET AQuACuLTuRE EN AFRIQuE DE L'OuEST PêChE ET AQuACuLTuRE EN AFRIQuE DE L'OuEST Scénario 2 « Nouvelle vie »: Diversification des moyens d'existence Scénario 2 « Nouvelle vie »: Diversification des moyens d'existence A cause d'une remontée irrégulière des eaux, les méthodes traditionnelles de capture ne peuvent A cause d'une remontée irrégulière des eaux, les méthodes traditionnelles de capture ne peuvent plus fournir des moyens d'existence durables. Il faut une diversification et des stratégies immédiates plus fournir des moyens d'existence durables. Il faut une diversification et des stratégies immédiates pour renforcer la capacité adaptative des communautés au changement climatique. Les politiques pour renforcer la capacité adaptative des communautés au changement climatique. Les politiques doivent se concentrer sur les besoins des populations les plus affectées par les impacts du changement doivent se concentrer sur les besoins des populations les plus affectées par les impacts du changement climatique, et viser à améliorer leur résilience dans le long terme. Puisque les moyens d'existences des climatique, et viser à améliorer leur résilience dans le long terme. Puisque les moyens d'existences des Ghanéens qui vivent le long des zones côtières et autour du lac Volta sont liés au secteur de la pêche, Ghanéens qui vivent le long des zones côtières et autour du lac Volta sont liés au secteur de la pêche, qui pourrait connaître des baisses significatives suite aux changements dans les patrons de pluie et qui pourrait connaître des baisses significatives suite aux changements dans les patrons de pluie et pendant la remontée irrégulière des eaux marines, les populations optent pour une nouvelle vie qui pendant la remontée irrégulière des eaux marines, les populations optent pour une nouvelle vie qui va impliquer des activités autres que la pêche. La diversification des moyens d'existence, par exemple va impliquer des activités autres que la pêche. La diversification des moyens d'existence, par exemple le développement de l'aquaculture (Facteurs Pêche Aquaculture le développement de l'aquaculture (Facteurs PêcheAquaculture Gestion Complexe Intersectorielle GestionComplexeIntersectorielle Changements Conservation Augmente la pollution ChangementsConservationAugmente la pollution environnementaux   environnementaux Recherche & développement Passer investissements R&D de la Augmentation de la R&D Recherche & développementPasser investissements R&D de laAugmentation de la R&D  pêche à l'aquaculture  pêche à l'aquaculture Crédits Plus de demande Plus de demande CréditsPlus de demandePlus de demande Intégration régionale Coordination améliorée Partage de l'information / Intégration régionaleCoordination amélioréePartage de l'information /   reproduction des meilleures reproduction des meilleures   pratiques pratiques Gestion Très efficace Durable GestionTrès efficaceDurable Technologie Largement adoptée Production améliorée TechnologieLargement adoptéeProduction améliorée Changements environnementaux Conservation Production plus propre Changements environnementaux ConservationProduction plus propre Changement climatique Plus d'atténuation Inconnu à l'heure actuelle Changement climatiquePlus d'atténuationInconnu à l'heure actuelle Socio-économie Marché amélioré Marché réglementé Socio-économieMarché amélioréMarché réglementé Recherche & développement Données fiables Données fiables Recherche & développementDonnées fiablesDonnées fiables Crédits Facilement disponibles Facilement disponibles CréditsFacilement disponiblesFacilement disponibles Intégration régionale Coordination améliorée Echange de l'information / Intégration régionaleCoordination amélioréeEchange de l'information /   reproduction des meilleures reproduction des meilleures   pratiques pratiques Accroissement de la population Pression réduite Aucune Accroissement de la populationPression réduiteAucune Pauvreté Réduite Réduite PauvretéRéduiteRéduite  "},{"text":"Tableau 3: Evolution des forces motrices dans le scénario « Question de vie ou de mort » Fini le bon vieux temps » : Effondrement de la pêche artisanalePar nature, la pêche est saisonnière et étroitement associée à la remontée des eaux. Pendant les périodes de remontée régulière, il est noté une plus grande abondance des ressources d'où une recrudescence des activités de pêche, en particulier les espèces pélagiques telles que les sardinelles. Les efforts de pêche augmentent, entraînant une pression excessive sur la pêche ; ce qui va causer l'effondrement de ce secteur. Les moyens d'existence des communautés qui en dépendent sont gravement affectés, ce qui entraîne une augmentation de la pauvreté. Il y a une demande accrue pour les crédits en vue d'une reconversion ou même pour assurer la subsistance quotidienne. Les prix du poisson augmentent, entraînant une baisse de la consommation du poisson et une aggravation de l'insécurité alimentaire. Scénario 4 « Tableau 4:   Scénario 4 « Tableau 4: Facteurs Pêche Aquaculture FacteursPêcheAquaculture Gestion Mesures inefficaces Intérêt accru GestionMesures inefficacesIntérêt accru Technologie Méthodes illégales Améliorée TechnologieMéthodes illégalesAméliorée Changements environnementaux Dégradée Approche la capacité limite Changements environnementaux DégradéeApproche la capacité limite Crédits Peu d'investissement Plus d'investissement CréditsPeu d'investissementPlus d'investissement Intégration régionale Mauvaise Meilleure Intégration régionaleMauvaiseMeilleure Accroissement de la population Pression réduite Aucune Accroissement de la populationPression réduiteAucune Pauvreté Plus  PauvretéPlus  "},{"text":"Evolution des forces motrices dans le scénario « Fini le bon vieux temps »  Facteurs Pêche Aquaculture FacteursPêcheAquaculture Gestion Mesures inefficaces Faible promotion GestionMesures inefficacesFaible promotion Technologie Augmentation Augmentation TechnologieAugmentationAugmentation Changements Moins de changement climatique La pollution augmente ChangementsMoins de changement climatiqueLa pollution augmente environnementaux mais augmentation de l'effort de  environnementauxmais augmentation de l'effort de  pêche, épuisement des stock  pêche, épuisement des stock Recherche & développement Améliorés Améliorés Recherche & développementAméliorésAméliorés Crédits  Accès amélioré CréditsAccès amélioré Intégration régionale Collaboration requise Echange de l'information / Intégration régionaleCollaboration requiseEchange de l'information /   reproduction des meilleures reproduction des meilleures   pratiques pratiques Pauvreté Augmente Réduite PauvretéAugmenteRéduite 3.2 Scénarios du Sénégal  3.2 Scénarios du Sénégal 3.2.1 Forces motrices   3.2.1 Forces motrices  "},{"text":"\"ACCELERE\" Ce scénario a été développé comme étant une approche classique du développement moderne : la haute technologie, l'orientation du marché et la production intensive se conjuguent et propulsent le développement technologique et la croissance. une contribution substantielle en termes d'éducation et de formation de même qu'un cadre juridique clair pour résoudre les problèmes environnementaux éventuels est mis en place. Il existe beaucoup de pression en ce qui concerne la normalisation et la certification des produits, ce qui entraîne de nouvelles formes de concurrence sur les marchés internationaux. Tableau 5:    Tableau 5:  Local/Sous-régional  Local/Sous-régional  \"SECURITE   \"SECURITE  ALIMENTAIRE\"   ALIMENTAIRE\"  Sécurité alimentaire sous-   Sécurité alimentaire sous-  régionale   régionale  Intégration régionale   Intégration régionale Extensive \"LOCAL\" Réduction de la pauvreté Forces Du Marche Intensive Extensive\"LOCAL\" Réduction de la pauvretéForces Du MarcheIntensive  Développement local Développement accéléré  Développement localDéveloppement accéléré  Révolution rurale Modernisation  Révolution ruraleModernisation  « Professionalisme » rural Augmentation de la productivité « Professionalisme » ruralAugmentation de la productivité  Ressources locales Investissements étrangers Ressources localesInvestissements étrangers  Connaissance locale Coopération internationale Connaissance localeCoopération internationale  Mondialisation, certification  Mondialisation, certification  import/export  import/export Scénario 1 « Accéléré »: Développement accéléré  Scénario 1 « Accéléré »: Développement accéléré  "},{"text":"Evolution des forces motrices dans le scénario \"Accéléré\"  Facteurs Pêche & aquaculture FacteursPêche & aquaculture Gestion Nécessité de renforcer les systèmes de gestion GestionNécessité de renforcer les systèmes de gestion Législation Adaptation du texte juridique LégislationAdaptation du texte juridique Renforcement des Développement du programme ciblé de renforcement des capacités pour Renforcement desDéveloppement du programme ciblé de renforcement des capacités pour capacités l'aquaculture capacitésl'aquaculture Changement climatique Stratégies d'adaptation et de réduction en place Changement climatique Stratégies d'adaptation et de réduction en place Variation de la Conflit entre le changement de l'utilisation des terres et l'augmentation de la Variation de laConflit entre le changement de l'utilisation des terres et l'augmentation de la population population -accès limité aux ressources aquatiques populationpopulation -accès limité aux ressources aquatiques Progrès technologique Adoption des méthodes de sélection Progrès technologiqueAdoption des méthodes de sélection  Adoption de la connaissance de la production aquacole Adoption de la connaissance de la production aquacole Situation politique Renforcement des systèmes démocratiques Situation politiqueRenforcement des systèmes démocratiques Pollution Systèmes d'alerte précoce en place PollutionSystèmes d'alerte précoce en place  "},{"text":"Evolution des forces motrices dans le scénario \"Sécurité alimentaire\" Facteurs Pêche & aquaculture Gestion Ce scénario fait ressortir un « compromis » possible en combinant l'aquaculture intensive de pointe au développement économique axé sur le niveau sous-régional. Il y a un important renforcement de capacités et de sensibilisation par rapport aux effets environnementaux potentiellement nuisibles de l'aquaculture intensive, et il existe un effort soutenu au niveau régional en vue de la création d'un cadre d'harmonisation des réglementations et d'accès au marché régional. Certains membres ont soutenu que cette approche conviendrait bien à la demande croissante des produits de la pêche au niveau régional.Ce dernier scénario a été largement discuté en termes politiques et par rapport à l'auto-détermination locale et au développement à « la base ». Il a été soutenu que cette approche avait besoin d'une vraie \"révolution rurale\", y compris la mobilisation de la base de la connaissance locale et aussi de l'éducation rurale (et la vulgarisation) pour faire face aux défis d'une production villageoise décentralisée. La faisabilité et la force potentielle d'un tel système sont restées contestées. Cependant, il a été convenu que le système ouvrait un regard sur l'indépendance partielle des deux axes. VISION 2050: ChANGEMENT CLIMATIQuE, VISION 2050: ChANGEMENT CLIMATIQuE, PêChE ET AQuACuLTuRE EN AFRIQuE DE L'OuEST PêChE ET AQuACuLTuRE EN AFRIQuE DE L'OuEST Scénario 3 « Développement »: Développement sous-régional Tableau 8: Scénario 3 « Développement »: Développement sous-régional Tableau 8: Tableau 7: Evolution des forces motrices dans le scénario « Développement » Tableau 7: Evolution des forces motrices dans le scénario « Développement » Facteurs Pêche & aquaculture FacteursPêche & aquaculture Gestion Amélioration de l'efficacité des systèmes de production GestionAmélioration de l'efficacité des systèmes de production  Amélioration des systèmes de vulgarisation Amélioration des systèmes de vulgarisation  Amélioration du secteur de l'aquaculture Amélioration du secteur de l'aquaculture Législation Création de plates-formes de dialogue politique dans les sous-régions LégislationCréation de plates-formes de dialogue politique dans les sous-régions  harmonisation des réglementations de pêche harmonisation des réglementations de pêche Renforcement des  Renforcement des capacités  capacités Renforcement des Renforcement des pêcheurs par rapport à la réglementation sur la pêche Renforcement desRenforcement des pêcheurs par rapport à la réglementation sur la pêche capacités Création d'organismes de consultation, de coopération et de développement de capacitésCréation d'organismes de consultation, de coopération et de développement de  leurs interrelations leurs interrelations Changement climatique Promotion des campagnes de transformation et de sensibilisation pour la Changement climatique Promotion des campagnes de transformation et de sensibilisation pour la  conservation conservation Variation de la Mise en place des systèmes de suivi et collecte de la production au niveau régional Variation de laMise en place des systèmes de suivi et collecte de la production au niveau régional population pour faire face à la demande accrue due à la croissance démographique et au populationpour faire face à la demande accrue due à la croissance démographique et au  changement du marché régional changement du marché régional Progrès technologique Amélioration de la valorisation des produits locaux/régionaux Progrès technologiqueAmélioration de la valorisation des produits locaux/régionaux Situation politique Organisation des marchés, des foires et des expositions sous-régionaux Situation politiqueOrganisation des marchés, des foires et des expositions sous-régionaux Pollution Stimulation du programme sous-régional sur l'évaluation obligatoire de l'impact PollutionStimulation du programme sous-régional sur l'évaluation obligatoire de l'impact  environnemental pour tout projet important (barrage, exploitation pétrolière en environnemental pour tout projet important (barrage, exploitation pétrolière en  haute mer, canaux de trop-plein, installation de complexes agro-industriels auprès haute mer, canaux de trop-plein, installation de complexes agro-industriels auprès  des cours d'eau, etc.) des cours d'eau, etc.)  "},{"text":"Evolution des forces motrices dans le scénario « Local »  Facteurs Pêche & aquaculture FacteursPêche & aquaculture Gestion Amélioration du système de gestion GestionAmélioration du système de gestion  Développement de la cogestion Développement de la cogestion  Plans de gestion Plans de gestion Législation Elaboration participative de textes législatifs LégislationElaboration participative de textes législatifs  Information, éducation et communication/vulgarisation sur les textes élaborés Information, éducation et communication/vulgarisation sur les textes élaborés  "},{"text":"Gérable Extrême Stocks pleinement exploités, reversible avec l'intervention de la gestion Surexploitation entraînant l'effondrement, la disparition des stocks Surexploitation Tableau 9: Evolution des forces motrices dans le scénario \"Perturbation\" Logique et « récits » des scénariosLa surexploitation est conceptualisée comme étant le résultat de différents types de gestion, d'un continuum de pêches pleinement exploitées, où les actions de gestion peuvent encore inverser les tendances, à un effondrement total des stocks commerciaux lié à un échec de la gestion des ressources (Figure6, axe vertical). L'axe horizontal représente différents niveaux de changement et de variabilité climatiques, allant d'une situation moins grave résultant de légers changements progressifs auxquels on peut pallier par des stratégies d'adaptation à un changement climatique grave et à des événements extrêmes.Lors des discussions, les participants étaient pessimistes. Néanmoins, le développement de la logique et des « trames » des scénarios a donné l'opportunité de réfléchir sur le type de changements et les actions nécessaires en vue d'éviter ou de minimiser les résultats négatifs.Les \"perturbations\" du secteur sont principalement causées par les facteurs anthropogéniques, avec peu d'effets du changement et de la variabilité climatiques sur les écosystèmes. Ce futur est caractérisé par une haute variabilité et incertitude relatives à la productivité des écosystèmes due à une grave surexploitation et à la disparition des principales ressources aquatiques. Cela est aggravé par une augmentation de la pollution entraînant une baisse de la qualité de l'eau, la modification des habitats et la perte de la biodiversité (perte des espèces de fond), entraînant des impacts socio-économiques généralisés dans le pays. une action en vue d'inverser certaines de ces tendances est possible avec la restauration des écosystèmes, l'ajustement de la capacité de pêche de même que par un contrôle et un suivi participatifs des ressources aquatiques. VISION 2050: ChANGEMENT CLIMATIQuE, VISION 2050: ChANGEMENT CLIMATIQuE, PêChE ET AQuACuLTuRE EN AFRIQuE DE L'OuEST PêChE ET AQuACuLTuRE EN AFRIQuE DE L'OuEST Facteurs Ressources marines Situation économique Aquaculture Développement/ Infrastructure Pollution Changement 3.3.2 Figure 6: Scénarios de la Mauritanie Pêche Dégradation de l'habitat Baisse de l'enveloppe budgétaire du gouvernement Contribue à réduire la pression sur la pêche Surcapacité du secteur et augmentation de l'effort de pêche Changements de la qualité de l'eau et des ressources Navires sélectifs pour réduire les impacts technologique négatifs Aquaculture Impact sur les crevettes et l'aquaculture bivalve Baisse des revenus Nécessité d'accroître l'investissement dans l'aquaculture Systèmes aquatiques affectés Contrôle des techniques d'élevage (élevage en cage, etc.), amélioration de la production Facteurs Ressources marines Situation économique Aquaculture Développement/ Infrastructure Pollution Changement 3.3.2 Figure 6: Scénarios de la Mauritanie Pêche Dégradation de l'habitat Baisse de l'enveloppe budgétaire du gouvernement Contribue à réduire la pression sur la pêche Surcapacité du secteur et augmentation de l'effort de pêche Changements de la qualité de l'eau et des ressources Navires sélectifs pour réduire les impacts technologique négatifsAquaculture Impact sur les crevettes et l'aquaculture bivalve Baisse des revenus Nécessité d'accroître l'investissement dans l'aquaculture Systèmes aquatiques affectés Contrôle des techniques d'élevage (élevage en cage, etc.), amélioration de la production Forces du marché hausse des prix (approvisionnement Plus forte demande conduisant à Forces du marché hausse des prix (approvisionnementPlus forte demande conduisant à  insuffisant) et effondrement du secteur de l'intensification insuffisant) et effondrement du secteur del'intensification  l'exportation l'exportation \"DISPARITION\" Gestion adaptative: plans de gestion \"PERTURBATION\" Gouvernance et Développement des politiques de gestion \"DISPARITION\" Gestion adaptative: plans de gestion \"PERTURBATION\" Gouvernance etDéveloppement des politiques de gestion gestion Disparition des espèces exploitées (pieuvres, requins, crevettes, etc.) Perturbation des systèmes de pêche des eaux gestionDisparition des espèces exploitées (pieuvres, requins, crevettes, etc.) Perturbation des systèmes de pêche des eaux Aggravation des cas extrêmes Climat et rémontée irrégulière Scénario 2 « Disparition » : Disparition des espèces exploitées Perte de la biodiversité à cause de la surpêche Aggravation des cas extrêmes Climat et rémontée irrégulière Scénario 2 « Disparition » : Disparition des espèces exploitées Perte de la biodiversité à cause de la surpêche  Certains changements reversibles avec Disparition des espèces Certains changements reversibles avecDisparition des espèces  intervention de la gestion Conflits socio-politiques intervention de la gestionConflits socio-politiques   Changement Climatique Changement Climatique  \"DURABLE\" \"BOULEVERSEMENT\" \"DURABLE\"\"BOULEVERSEMENT\"  Possibilité d'une gestion durable Bouleversement Possibilité d'une gestion durableBouleversement  Impacts changement climatique Petits poissons pélagiques affectés Impacts changement climatiquePetits poissons pélagiques affectés  limités Moins de revenu, pauvreté limitésMoins de revenu, pauvreté  Gestion adaptative Evénements extrêmes (sécheresses, SLR) Gestion adaptativeEvénements extrêmes (sécheresses, SLR)  Co-gestion Migration vers la côte, conflits, Co-gestionMigration vers la côte, conflits,   Pression sur la pêche, chaos Pression sur la pêche, chaos  Gouvernance et Gouvernance et  gestion gestion   Progrès technologiques Progrès technologiques  Développement Développement  de la pêche de la pêche  Situation Situation  économique économique  "},{"text":": Evolution des forces motrices dans le scénario « Disparition » Facteurs Pêche Aquaculture Ressources marines  2050: ChANGEMENT CLIMATIQuE, 2050: ChANGEMENT CLIMATIQuE, PêChE ET AQuACuLTuRE EN AFRIQuE DE L'OuEST PêChE ET AQuACuLTuRE EN AFRIQuE DE L'OuEST Scénario 3 « Durable »: Possibilité de la gestion durable Scénario 3 « Durable »: Possibilité de la gestion durable   Epuisement de la nappe phréatique Epuisement de la nappe phréatique Situation Interruption des activités de pêche et des Importation et introduction de nouvelles SituationInterruption des activités de pêche et desImportation et introduction de nouvelles économique activités connexes =>chômage, conflits espèces économiqueactivités connexes =>chômage, conflitsespèces  sociaux, reconversion, etc.  sociaux, reconversion, etc. Aquaculture Investissements transférés au secteur  AquacultureInvestissements transférés au secteur Développement/ Conflits entre utilisateurs Promotion de l'aquaculture Développement/Conflits entre utilisateursPromotion de l'aquaculture Infrastructure Exploitation de nouvelles ressources  InfrastructureExploitation de nouvelles ressources Pollution Détérioration de l'écosystème Croissance et rendements plus faibles PollutionDétérioration de l'écosystèmeCroissance et rendements plus faibles  (Mise en place des plans de gestion  (Mise en place des plans de gestion  d'urgence de la pollution tels que POLMAR)  d'urgence de la pollution tels que POLMAR) Changement Reconversion des flottilles vers des Nouvelles zones mises en valeur, ChangementReconversion des flottilles vers desNouvelles zones mises en valeur, technologique techniques sélectives (interdiction de accroissement des technologies de technologiquetechniques sélectives (interdiction deaccroissement des technologies de  chalutage, fermeture de zones, etc.), production animale chalutage, fermeture de zones, etc.),production animale  renforcement des capacités des pêcheurs  renforcement des capacités des pêcheurs Forces du marché Faible approvisionnement hausse Accroissement de la demande Forces du marchéFaible approvisionnement hausseAccroissement de la demande  vertigineuse des prix  vertigineuse des prix  Insécurité alimentaire  Insécurité alimentaire  "},{"text":"Tableau 11: Evolution des forces motrices dans le scénario « Durable » Le chaos induit de la variabilité et du changement climatique est omniprésent : les perturbations climatiques telles que les sécheresses, les inondations, la hausse des températures et la montée du niveau de la mer s'aggravent et vont sévir pendant longtemps. De plus, ce chaos se fait davantage sentir car la capacité à prédire ces changements est limitée. Les zones intérieures reçoivent moins de pluie, ce qui entraîne un exode massif des populations vers les zones côtières : la côte est considérée comme un refuge, une zone d'ultime « recours » et il y existe une pression exponentielle sur toutes les ressources aquatiques. En mer, les niveaux trophiques changent, avec les espèces des niveaux trophiques les plus bas, et à faible ou sans valeur commerciale, dominant les produits de pêche. Les petits pélagiques seront sérieusement affectés puisqu'ils sont extrêmement sensibles aux fluctuations environnementales. Ces espèces sont les plus abordables par la frange de la population la plus pauvre qui va recourir à la pêche, ce qui va accroître la pression sur la pêche. En dépit de ce tumulte causé par le changement climatique, la société tente toujours de répondre à ces changements environnementaux extrêmes par une gestion adaptative. Tableau 12:   Tableau 12: Facteurs Pêche Aquaculture FacteursPêcheAquaculture Ressources marines Possibilité de restauration des habitats Lutter contre les espèces de plantes Ressources marinesPossibilité de restauration des habitatsLutter contre les espèces de plantes  (zonage, application de la réglementation) invasives et les vecteurs de maladies (zonage, application de la réglementation)invasives et les vecteurs de maladies Situation économique Optimisation des avantages sociaux et Produits agricoles à valeur ajoutée Situation économique Optimisation des avantages sociaux etProduits agricoles à valeur ajoutée  économiques  économiques Aquaculture Activité d'amélioration des stocks  AquacultureActivité d'amélioration des stocks Développement/ Intégration dans l'ensemble de l'économie Développement local (emploi) Développement/Intégration dans l'ensemble de l'économieDéveloppement local (emploi) infrastructure (infrastructure, emploi, etc.)  infrastructure(infrastructure, emploi, etc.) Pollution Plans de prévention, révision du code Réglementations appropriées PollutionPlans de prévention, révision du codeRéglementations appropriées  sur l'environnement et intégration de  sur l'environnement et intégration de  l'exploitation pétrolière et du contrôle de  l'exploitation pétrolière et du contrôle de  la pollution  la pollution Changement Energie renouvelable et valorisation Gestion des écloseries, du bassin de ChangementEnergie renouvelable et valorisationGestion des écloseries, du bassin de technologique des anciennes techniques telles que rétention et des plans d'eau technologiquedes anciennes techniques telles querétention et des plans d'eau  l'utilisation des voiles  l'utilisation des voiles Forces du marché Produits de qualité, étiquetage Augmentation de l'approvisionnement Forces du marchéProduits de qualité, étiquetageAugmentation de l'approvisionnement  écologique, produits à valeur ajoutée (compenser les baisses en produits de écologique, produits à valeur ajoutée(compenser les baisses en produits de   pêche) pêche) Gouvernance et Intégration de la variabilité et du Mise en place des normes et d'une Gouvernance etIntégration de la variabilité et duMise en place des normes et d'une gestion changement climatique dans les normes législation en aquaculture qui prend en gestionchangement climatique dans les normeslégislation en aquaculture qui prend en  juridiques et les réglementations des compte la variabilité et le changement juridiques et les réglementations descompte la variabilité et le changement  pêches. Mise en vigueur du code de la climatique pêches. Mise en vigueur du code de laclimatique  pêche, de la stratégie sectorielle  pêche, de la stratégie sectorielle Scénario 4 « Bouleversement » : Perturbation des écosystèmes Scénario 4 « Bouleversement » : Perturbation des écosystèmes  "},{"text":"Evolution des forces motrices dans le scénario « Bouleversement »  Facteurs Pêche Aquaculture FacteursPêcheAquaculture Ressources marines Diminution de la biomasse des petites Pas de sites appropriés disponibles pour Ressources marinesDiminution de la biomasse des petitesPas de sites appropriés disponibles pour  espèces pélagiques, changement dans les l'aquaculture espèces pélagiques, changement dans lesl'aquaculture  modes migratoires des espèces  modes migratoires des espèces Situation économique Diminution drastique de l'enveloppe Baisse de la production aquacole Situation économique Diminution drastique de l'enveloppeBaisse de la production aquacole  fiscale, insécurité alimentaire, entraînant la baisse de l'emploi, fiscale, insécurité alimentaire,entraînant la baisse de l'emploi,  augmentation du chômage augmentation de l'insécurité alimentaire augmentation du chômageaugmentation de l'insécurité alimentaire Aquaculture Quelques investissements dans Pas de sites appropriés disponibles pour AquacultureQuelques investissements dansPas de sites appropriés disponibles pour  l'aquaculture l'aquaculture (désertification) l'aquaculturel'aquaculture (désertification) Pollution Augmente la mortalité (poissons) Augmente la mortalité (poissons) PollutionAugmente la mortalité (poissons)Augmente la mortalité (poissons) Changement Reconversion des flottilles du segment Introduction d'espèces adaptées aux ChangementReconversion des flottilles du segmentIntroduction d'espèces adaptées aux technologique pélagique vers des techniques de pêches nouvelles conditions environnementales technologiquepélagique vers des techniques de pêchesnouvelles conditions environnementales  durables sévères, Innovations des techniques durablessévères, Innovations des techniques   aquacoles (espèces plus adaptées) aquacoles (espèces plus adaptées) Forces du marché Déstructuration de la filière d'exploitation Augmentation de la demande, création de Forces du marchéDéstructuration de la filière d'exploitationAugmentation de la demande, création de  du pélagique (diminution de l'offre) nouvelles filières aquacoles du pélagique (diminution de l'offre)nouvelles filières aquacoles 3.4 « Analyse rétrospective » à travers une perspective régionale 3.4 « Analyse rétrospective » à travers une perspective régionale  "},{"text":"Intervention politique pour le scénario « Harmonie » -Ghana Force motrice : changement et variabilité climatiques  2050: ChANGEMENT CLIMATIQuE, 2050: ChANGEMENT CLIMATIQuE, PêChE ET AQuACuLTuRE EN AFRIQuE DE L'OuEST PêChE ET AQuACuLTuRE EN AFRIQuE DE L'OuEST Court terme (2010-2015) Long terme (2030) Court terme (2010-2015)Long terme (2030) Création d'une base de données d'information sur Achèvement de la mise en oeuvre d'une stratégie Création d'une base de données d'information surAchèvement de la mise en oeuvre d'une stratégie le changement climatique et la pêche dans la région régionale d'adaptation le changement climatique et la pêche dans la régionrégionale d'adaptation ouest-africaine  ouest-africaine Développement d'une stratégie régionale sur le  Développement d'une stratégie régionale sur le changement climatique  changement climatique Formulation de politiques et lois cohérentes sur la  Formulation de politiques et lois cohérentes sur la pêche et la conservation de la biodiversité marine dans  pêche et la conservation de la biodiversité marine dans la région ouest-africaine  la région ouest-africaine Force motrice : Recherche et développement Force motrice : Recherche et développement Court terme (2010-2015) Long terme (2030) Court terme (2010-2015)Long terme (2030) Création d'un organisme régional ouest-africain de Revue et d'évaluation des stratégies d'adaptation et de Création d'un organisme régional ouest-africain deRevue et d'évaluation des stratégies d'adaptation et de recherche et de documentation sur la pêche et équipé la recherche recherche et de documentation sur la pêche et équipéla recherche en vue de la création d'une base de données fiable  en vue de la création d'une base de données fiable  "},{"text":"• D'autre part, il existe aussi une grande convergence et un potentiel exploité d'intérêts communs dans la région. L'importance de la création et de la mise en oeuvre d'un cadre juridique approprié aux niveaux national et régional a été une question majeure évoquée dans plusieurs scénarios. Il a été signalé aussi, à maintes reprises, que l'adaptation aux conditions changeantes nécessiterait à l'avenir des politiques bien conçues s'appuyant sur une connaissance approfondie et des données fiables. A cet égard, les participants ont mis l'accent sur le manque apparent de compréhension et de données clés par rapport à la dynamique spécifique des stocks de poissons et des communautés côtières affectées par le changement climatique. Il faut davantage d'efforts de renforcement des capacités pour former les chercheurs et les décideurs de la région sur le changement climatique, développer des modèles couplés climat/pêche, et créer des centres scientifiques régionaux sur le climat qui soient dotés des capacités institutionnelles requises pour supporter et informer les activités d'adaptation au changement climatique.La question de la collaboration régionale a été traitée avec beaucoup d'attention, en reconnaissant la nature fragmentaire des approches existantes, en termes substantiels et en termes géographiques. La collaboration régionale prendra différentes formes telles que le développement de plates-formes qui pourraient servir d'espace où les chercheurs, les décideurs et autres acteurs pourraient échanger leurs connaissances et expériences sur les impacts et l'adaptation au changement climatique dans le secteur de la pêche et s'engager dans un processus d'apprentissage mutuel.Les participants à l'atelier ont fait ressortir que le changement climatique n'est pas intégré dans les plans de développement de l'aquaculture, cette dernière étant à ses débuts dans la région. Le potentiel de l'aquaculture à faire face à une baisse de la pêche traditionnelle et offrir des emplois alternatifs a été discuté de long en large pendant les sessions de groupes. Tandis qu'il y avait un enthousiasme évident pour le développement de ce secteur, il a été noté qu'il faut un transfert technologique (y compris les souches et les aliments adaptés aux conditions locales), une gestion adaptative de l'eau ainsi que le renforcement des capacités. Les voies du développement de l'aquaculture sont multiples, comme indiqué dans les scénarios du Sénégal: l'aquaculture peut-elle à la fois faire face à la sécurité alimentaire nationale et à la croissance macroéconomique ? Faut-il promouvoir les échanges régionaux ou prioriser l'accès aux marchés mondiaux ? Les avantages et les compromis entre ces scénarios alternatifs doivent être analysés davantage dans chaque pays et au niveau régional pour éclairer la politique et la recherche.Les organisateurs ont clôturé l'atelier par une brève discussion sur la façon de développer les synergies futures par l'identification des domaines de coopération aux niveaux sous-régional et régional. Comme activité de suivi, il a été demandé aux participants de remplir un formulaire de « feedback » sur l'évaluation de l'atelier (Annexe 3). Ce feedback a un objectif double : éclairer les exercices de scénarios futurs et permettre aux participants de réfléchir sur leur expérience. Dans l'ensemble, l'atelier a réussi à promouvoir les techniques prévisionnelles/méthodologies des scénarios auprès des participants. Cependant, l'exercice a fait ressortir le manque de temps pour assimiler correctement les méthodes et se pencher sur les résultats et les faiblesses.Développer des stratégies d'adaptation au changement climatique qui ont une cohérence interne avec chaque scénario • L'équipe du projet doit identifier les forces motrices dans chaque scénario qui peuvent être quantifiées et combinées avec les modèles climat-pêche développés avec le projet QuEST_fish. Ce projet vise à élucider comment le changement climatique va affecter la production potentielle des ressources mondiales de pêche dans le futur et estimer la vulnérabilité ajoutée à ces effets sur les économies nationales et régionales dans les zones dépendantes de la pêche. Pour de plus amples informations, prière de visiter http://web.pml.ac.uk/quest-fish/default.htm Disséminer les méthodes • Les participants ont demandé l'élaboration d'une fiche méthodologique sur les scénarios comme étant une haute priorité. Les études prévisionnelles dans le secteur de la pêche en Afrique sont encore à leur début et les experts en la matière ne sont pas exposés aux méthodologies de planification des scénarios. Le WorldFish Center est en train d'élaborer une telle fiche. • L'inclusion des jeunes dans les débats des scénarios par le travail artistique s'est révélée une composante édifiante de l'atelier et doit être explorée davantage. Adopter la méthodologie dans le projet CCAA, « Adaptation des politiques de pêche au changement climatique en Afrique de l'ouest à l'aide de la connaissance scientifique et des savoirs endogènes» (APPECCAO) conduit par le Réseau sur les politiques de pêche en Afrique de l'Ouest (REPAO) • Conduire un exercice d'analyse rétrospective pour toutes les forces motrices dans chaque scénario • Développer des scénarios locaux dans chaque pays et les comparer avec ceux du niveau national pour comprendre les interactions verticales • Continuer à intégrer les jeunes dans les plans de développement du secteur de la pêche, de la formulation des stratégies d'adaptation et de façon plus générale dans la planification stratégique du secteur. Renforcer la capacité des pays à développer le secteur de l'aquaculture par le renforcement des capacités et le transfert technologique et « prémunir ce secteur contre le climat » par des techniques efficaces de gestion de l'eau promues et utilisées pour l'aquaculture continentale • Comprendre le rôle du commerce sous-régional par opposition aux exportations vers les marchés mondiaux en termes de sécurité alimentaire et de croissance économique. Oui, il sert de rappel, précaution des actions, élabore un programme pro-action. 3. Oui, les scénarios sont très utiles pour identifier comment nous percevons que les choses soient. Lorsqu'il y a des similarités dans nos scénarios, nous pouvons ensuite commencer à développer des stratégies qui ne sont pas seulement plus pertinentes mais aussi sous-régionales. 4. Oui, c'était très utile; j'ai même commencé à l'utiliser pour développer des scénarios pour d'autres projets tels que le changement climatique et la foresterie. Oui, les conditions du marché ne sont pas normalement prises en compte dans les études scientifiques. Pour moi, c'était un beau rappel pour que cela soit pris en compte dans nos évaluations du changement climatique, de la vulnérabilité et de l'adaptation. 2. Pas de façon particulière, il permet d'être concentré et donne aussi de nouvelles dimensions. 3. Oui, développer un si grand nombre de scénarios différents était génial ! Nous avons pensé non seulement aux effets positifs mais aussi aux effets les plus négatifs. 4. Oui, en regardant les scénarios du Ghana, cela m'a fait réfléchir aux actions et inactions et j'ai maintenant des convictions plus fortes. Dans l'ensemble, les participants ont trouvé que l'atelier était intéressant. 90% des participants ont acquis de nouvelles connaissances intéressantes. Les organisateurs ont, de façon spécifique, demandé aux participants ce qui pourrait être amélioré pour des activités similaires futures. La méthodologie des scénarios étant nouvelle pour la plupart des participants, ils ont souhaité qu'on y consacre plus de temps pour une meilleure compréhension. Pour les exercices de scénarios futurs, cela doit être pris en compte, avec plus de temps consacré aux méthodes (une demi-journée supplémentaire) et une fiche méthodologique élaborée avant l'atelier. Ce genre de groupe de travail est très intéressant, mais laborieux. Pour permettre d'améliorer et fructifier de telles rencontres, il serait important d'y consacrer le temps qu'il faut (durée du GT), mais aussi mettre les participants dans de bonnes conditions logistiques (plus haut per diem, prise en charge …) R.10 Oui. Réflexion sur les scenarios et les politiques /stratégies. VISION 2050: ChANGEMENT CLIMATIQuE, VISION 2050: ChANGEMENT CLIMATIQuE, 2050: ChANGEMENT CLIMATIQuE,  VISION 2050: ChANGEMENT CLIMATIQuE, VISION 2050: ChANGEMENT CLIMATIQuE, 2050: ChANGEMENT CLIMATIQuE, PêChE ET AQuACuLTuRE EN AFRIQuE DE L'OuEST PêChE ET AQuACuLTuRE EN AFRIQuE DE L'OuEST PêChE ET AQuACuLTuRE EN AFRIQuE DE L'OuEST  PêChE ET AQuACuLTuRE EN AFRIQuE DE L'OuEST PêChE ET AQuACuLTuRE EN AFRIQuE DE L'OuEST PêChE ET AQuACuLTuRE EN AFRIQuE DE L'OuEST Les premières initiatives pour l'adaptation ont été jugées comme étant extrêmement importantes à l'opposé d'une stratégie attentiste, passive. Cette question a aussi été discutée en rapport avec la croissance du tourisme côtier et le processus d'obtention de l'aval pour le développement de l'infrastructure côtière. 5. Prochaines étapes et recommandations 5.1 Prochaines étapes Faire progresser les scénarios • 5.2 Recommandations au programme d'adaptation au changement climatique en Afrique (CCAA)/CRDI / activités régionales BMZ-GTZ CCAA BMZ/GTZ • Elargir la participation régionale pour identifier le potentiel de l'action coordonnée au-delà du niveau national • Intégrer les approches sectorielles dans les projets régionaux d'adaptation au changement climatique • Promouvoir la planification stratégique et l'utilisation des scénarios au sein de la Commission sous-régionale de la pêche No. Nom Affiliation Adresse électronique Pays 1 Sally Selase Deffor CRC/The Integrated Coastal and Fisheries Governance (ICFG) Project for the Western Region of Ghana [email protected] Ghana 2 KyeiKwadwoYamoah Friends of the Nation /ICFG [email protected] Ghana 3 DzidzomuKwadwoAtsu university of Ghana [email protected]/dzdzorncie@ yahoo.com Ghana 4 Sheila Minta Environmental Protection Agency [email protected]/ [email protected] Ghana 5 Mohamed Ould El Mahfoudh Institut mauritanien de recherches océanographiques et des pêches (IMROP) Nouadhibou [email protected] Mauritanie 6 Mahfoudh Ould Taleb Sidi IMROP Nouadhibou [email protected], [email protected] Mauritanie 7 Boubacar Ly IMROP Nouakchott [email protected] Mauritanie 8 Lamine Camara Direction de l'Aménagement des ressources et de l'océanographie [email protected] Mauritanie 9 Demba Marico Coordinateur national du projet CCAA: Adaptation au changement climatique-Réponse au changement côtier et sa dimension humaine en Afrique de l'Ouest dans le cadre de la gestion intégrée de la côte [email protected] Mauritanie 10 Ebaye Ould Mohamed Mahmood Parc national du Banc d'Arguin [email protected] Mauritanie 11 DjigaThiao Centre de recherche océanographie Dakar-Thiaroye (CRODT) [email protected] Sénégal 12 Adou Karim Sall Président de l'Association des pêcheurs, Comité de gestion AMP de Joal-Fadiouth [email protected] Sénégal 13 Marie-Caroline Badjeck LeWorldFish Center [email protected] Malaisie 14 Michael Flitner ARTEC -Center for Sustainability Studies [email protected] Allemagne 15 Robert Katikiro Centre Leibniz d'écologie tropicale marine [email protected] Allemagne 16 Alliou Sall Coordination de l'atelier/ Projet Ecole Mundus Maris [email protected] Sénégal 17 Ibrahima Seck Coordination de l'atelier/ Project Ecole MundusMaris [email protected] Sénégal 18 Ndiaga Diop REPAO -Réseau sur les politiques de pêche en Afrique de l'Ouest [email protected] Sénégal 19 Matar Diouf Consultant, ancien directeur de la pêche continentale [email protected] Sénégal 20 Mamadou N'gom Agence nationale de l'aquaculture [email protected] Sénégal 21 Andre Bihibindi REPAO [email protected] Sénégal 22 Abibou Diop CEM Kayar/ Projet Ecole Mundus Maris Sénégal 23 Manga Ba CEM Kayar/ Projet Ecole Mundus Maris Sénégal 24 Masseck Dieng CEM Kayar/ Projet Ecole Mundus Maris Sénégal 25 Fallou Diop CEM Kayar/ Projet Ecole Mundus Maris Sénégal 26 Madicke Kane CEM Kayar/ Projet Ecole Mundus Maris Sénégal 3. Formulaires de feedback de l'atelier Feedback des participants du Ghana Questions Réponses 1. Après cet atelier, pensez-vous que ce genre d'exercice est utile pour la gestion des ressources du secteur de la pêche ? Pour l'adaptation au changement climatique ? 1. Oui, ils sont très utiles en particulier pour le développement des stratégies d'adaptation. 2. En effet c'est très merveilleux. 2. Est-ce que cet exercice vous a fait réfléchir à des aspects du futur auxquels vous n'aviez pas pensé avant ? 1. 3. Que pourrait-on faire pour améliorer cet atelier ? Nous voulons que vous nous aidiez à améliorer la méthodologie pour les prochains ateliers. 1. Informer les participants bien à l'avance afin d'assurer une participation maximale de tous les acteurs clés. La Commission de pêche a brillé par son absence. 2. Plus de temps pour la formation éducative sur ce qui est attendu avec quelques exemples (exercices). Accorder une plus grande attention à la traduction simultanée avec des écouteurs pour les réponses automatiques et le suivi du processus. 3. C'était détendu et pas trop chargé. Nous avons progressé à un bon rythme et la visite des débarcadères a été très enrichissante. Pour moi, tous les aspects de l'atelier ont été bien planifiés. La prochaine fois il faudra plus d'activités (en dehors de la plénière) entre les participants pour encourager l'échange d'expérience. 4. La prochaine fois il faudra plus de temps pour le travail de groupe et les interactions. Cela pourrait déboucher sur de meilleurs résultats. Feedback des participants sénégalais et mauritaniens N°Question 1: Après cet atelier, pensez-vous que ce genre d'exercice est utile pour la gestion des ressources du secteur de la pêche ? Pour l'adaptation au changement climatique ? Question 2: Est-ce que cet exercice vous a fait réfléchir à des aspects du futur auxquels vous n'aviez pas pensé avant ? Question 3: Que pourrait-on faire pour améliorer cet atelier ? Nous voulons que vous nous aidiez à améliorer la méthodologie pour les prochains ateliers. R.1 Oui, un homme averti en vaut deux. L'anticipation des effets est un facteur qui améliore l'adaptation au changement climatique et qui amortit les chocs. C'est pourquoi leur prise en compte est fort utile voire indispensable pour la gestion des pêches. Oui, L'interaction des facteurs considérés et leurs effets conjugués n'étaient pas pris en compte. Les changements climatiques apparaissent comme étant une menace diffuse mais certaine qu'il faudra prendre en considération au niveau de tous les échelons. Augmenter la durée du séminaire afin d'une part de bien assimiler l'approche et d'autre part de mieux analyser les facteurs. R.2 Effectivement ce type d'exercice est assez utile parce qu'il permet d'adopter une approche à la fois prospective et élargie en tenant compte d'un ensemble de paramètres et de facteurs naturels et anthropiques. Parfaitement. Le développement de l'aquaculture en Mauritanie et la capitalisation de l'expérience des pays de la sous-région, notamment celle du Sénégal, en sont des exemples. Eviter la dispersion dans les présentations et mieux cibler les objectifs. Le public visé doit être le plus homogène possible en termes de culture, de langue, des réalités socio-économiques, écologiques et halieutiques. R.3 Ce genre d'exercice est effectivement très utile car il permet de voir les leviers sur lesquels il faut agir aujourd'hui pour s'adapter aux changements climatiques Tout à fait. Ça m'a surtout permis de prendre conscience des dangers qui menacent le futur du secteur de la pêche au Sénégal. Le temps imparti était relativement court pour traiter convenablement toutes les questions. Il faudra prochainement trouver des salles séparées pour les groupes de travail. R.4 Le présent séminaire constitue une étape très importante à franchir au sein des pays de la sous région en matière de gestion durable des ressources vivantes avec bien sûr le nouveau concept du changement climatique. Aussi, si cet exercice est mis en vigueur certainement ces résultats apporteront de solutions ou des idées appréciées. Le présent exercice a harmonisé les idées à propos de la gestion durable en tenant compte du changement climatique. N/A R.5 Bien sûr, du fait de la prise en compte des interactions de multiples forces motrices. Oui, notamment sur l'influence du marché des produits halieutiques sur l'évolution future des pêches Puisque cette démarche est tout à fait nouvelle dans la gestion des ressources halieutiques au niveau de la sous région, il serait important d'organiser un séminaire sous régional sur le développement de scénarios R.6 Cet exercice a été très utile pour la gestion de la ressource face aux changements climatiques. Pour moi c'est une méthode efficace permettant de susciter la réflexion pour trouver les multiples problèmes qui peuvent se poser dans le futur. Et ceci pour anticiper sur les stratégies à mettre en place. Oui, par exemple je n'avais pas assez réfléchi sur le secteur aquaculture et le niveau d'incertitude qui le caractérise par rapport à une situation de globalisation. En somme, cela m'a permis de réfléchir sur les différents scenarios face à des situations d'incertitude A mon avis ce séminaire est très intéressant, mais il faudra l'améliorer en essayant dès le départ d'expliquer la méthodologie et certains concepts. Ceci permettra aux participants de passer directement au vif du sujet au lieu de consacrer trop de temps à ce stade du travail. Il faut aussi que la situation propre à chaque pays soit connue des participants. Ceci permettra aux différents participants d'être mieux outillés pour aborder de façon globale uns réflexion au niveau sous régional. R.7 Dans un contexte d'incertitudes marqué par des impacts visibles des changements climatiques tels que la baisse de la pluviométrie, l'érosion côtière, la diminution de la ressource, il est nécessaire d'organiser ce genre d'atelier pour un échange plus fructueux. Les différentes interventions se sont recoupées, pour l'essentiel. Elles nous ont permis néanmoins d'enrichir certaines connaissances sur les espèces, d'une région à une autre. Par exemple les déplacements des espèces, l'engouement par rapport à l'aquaculture etc. Nous préférons dès le départ une nette clarification sur les modules de travail. Nous gagnerions si la compréhension était plus claire. Le séminaire s'était bien passé. On en redemande. R.8 Oui. Si les participants communiquent avec les acteurs du développement du secteur pêche dans leurs pays respectifs, ces derniers apporteront leur savoir-faire. Oui. On a parlé de dépassement de temps parfois ; je crois que pour remédier à ce problème il serait bon de faire la traduction simultanément. R.9 Cet exercice est très instructif et permet entre autres de se projeter dans l'avenir pour mieux gérer le présent ; même si l'on sait que beaucoup de scenario restent très incertains. En effet, ce genre d'exercice nous aide quelquefois à déceler des aspects sur les évolutions probables de notre environnement. Non. -expliquez la méthodologie davantage et proposez d'autres méthodologies -Le temps est trop court, il faut prévoir suffisamment de temps pour les ateliers/travaux de groupes. • 2. Participants 27 Saliou Samb Agence nationale de l'aquaculture [email protected] Sénégal -Améliorer la logistique (salle) et le Les premières initiatives pour l'adaptation ont été jugées comme étant extrêmement importantes à l'opposé d'une stratégie attentiste, passive. Cette question a aussi été discutée en rapport avec la croissance du tourisme côtier et le processus d'obtention de l'aval pour le développement de l'infrastructure côtière. 5. Prochaines étapes et recommandations 5.1 Prochaines étapes Faire progresser les scénarios • 5.2 Recommandations au programme d'adaptation au changement climatique en Afrique (CCAA)/CRDI / activités régionales BMZ-GTZ CCAA BMZ/GTZ • Elargir la participation régionale pour identifier le potentiel de l'action coordonnée au-delà du niveau national • Intégrer les approches sectorielles dans les projets régionaux d'adaptation au changement climatique • Promouvoir la planification stratégique et l'utilisation des scénarios au sein de la Commission sous-régionale de la pêche No. Nom Affiliation Adresse électronique Pays 1 Sally Selase Deffor CRC/The Integrated Coastal and Fisheries Governance (ICFG) Project for the Western Region of Ghana [email protected] Ghana 2 KyeiKwadwoYamoah Friends of the Nation /ICFG [email protected] Ghana 3 DzidzomuKwadwoAtsu university of Ghana [email protected]/dzdzorncie@ yahoo.com Ghana 4 Sheila Minta Environmental Protection Agency [email protected]/ [email protected] Ghana 5 Mohamed Ould El Mahfoudh Institut mauritanien de recherches océanographiques et des pêches (IMROP) Nouadhibou [email protected] Mauritanie 6 Mahfoudh Ould Taleb Sidi IMROP Nouadhibou [email protected], [email protected] Mauritanie 7 Boubacar Ly IMROP Nouakchott [email protected] Mauritanie 8 Lamine Camara Direction de l'Aménagement des ressources et de l'océanographie [email protected] Mauritanie 9 Demba Marico Coordinateur national du projet CCAA: Adaptation au changement climatique-Réponse au changement côtier et sa dimension humaine en Afrique de l'Ouest dans le cadre de la gestion intégrée de la côte [email protected] Mauritanie 10 Ebaye Ould Mohamed Mahmood Parc national du Banc d'Arguin [email protected] Mauritanie 11 DjigaThiao Centre de recherche océanographie Dakar-Thiaroye (CRODT) [email protected] Sénégal 12 Adou Karim Sall Président de l'Association des pêcheurs, Comité de gestion AMP de Joal-Fadiouth [email protected] Sénégal 13 Marie-Caroline Badjeck LeWorldFish Center [email protected] Malaisie 14 Michael Flitner ARTEC -Center for Sustainability Studies [email protected] Allemagne 15 Robert Katikiro Centre Leibniz d'écologie tropicale marine [email protected] Allemagne 16 Alliou Sall Coordination de l'atelier/ Projet Ecole Mundus Maris [email protected] Sénégal 17 Ibrahima Seck Coordination de l'atelier/ Project Ecole MundusMaris [email protected] Sénégal 18 Ndiaga Diop REPAO -Réseau sur les politiques de pêche en Afrique de l'Ouest [email protected] Sénégal 19 Matar Diouf Consultant, ancien directeur de la pêche continentale [email protected] Sénégal 20 Mamadou N'gom Agence nationale de l'aquaculture [email protected] Sénégal 21 Andre Bihibindi REPAO [email protected] Sénégal 22 Abibou Diop CEM Kayar/ Projet Ecole Mundus Maris Sénégal 23 Manga Ba CEM Kayar/ Projet Ecole Mundus Maris Sénégal 24 Masseck Dieng CEM Kayar/ Projet Ecole Mundus Maris Sénégal 25 Fallou Diop CEM Kayar/ Projet Ecole Mundus Maris Sénégal 26 Madicke Kane CEM Kayar/ Projet Ecole Mundus Maris Sénégal 3. Formulaires de feedback de l'atelier Feedback des participants du Ghana Questions Réponses 1. Après cet atelier, pensez-vous que ce genre d'exercice est utile pour la gestion des ressources du secteur de la pêche ? Pour l'adaptation au changement climatique ? 1. Oui, ils sont très utiles en particulier pour le développement des stratégies d'adaptation. 2. En effet c'est très merveilleux. 2. Est-ce que cet exercice vous a fait réfléchir à des aspects du futur auxquels vous n'aviez pas pensé avant ? 1. 3. Que pourrait-on faire pour améliorer cet atelier ? Nous voulons que vous nous aidiez à améliorer la méthodologie pour les prochains ateliers. 1. Informer les participants bien à l'avance afin d'assurer une participation maximale de tous les acteurs clés. La Commission de pêche a brillé par son absence. 2. Plus de temps pour la formation éducative sur ce qui est attendu avec quelques exemples (exercices). Accorder une plus grande attention à la traduction simultanée avec des écouteurs pour les réponses automatiques et le suivi du processus. 3. C'était détendu et pas trop chargé. Nous avons progressé à un bon rythme et la visite des débarcadères a été très enrichissante. Pour moi, tous les aspects de l'atelier ont été bien planifiés. La prochaine fois il faudra plus d'activités (en dehors de la plénière) entre les participants pour encourager l'échange d'expérience. 4. La prochaine fois il faudra plus de temps pour le travail de groupe et les interactions. Cela pourrait déboucher sur de meilleurs résultats. Feedback des participants sénégalais et mauritaniens N°Question 1: Après cet atelier, pensez-vous que ce genre d'exercice est utile pour la gestion des ressources du secteur de la pêche ? Pour l'adaptation au changement climatique ? Question 2: Est-ce que cet exercice vous a fait réfléchir à des aspects du futur auxquels vous n'aviez pas pensé avant ? Question 3: Que pourrait-on faire pour améliorer cet atelier ? Nous voulons que vous nous aidiez à améliorer la méthodologie pour les prochains ateliers. R.1 Oui, un homme averti en vaut deux. L'anticipation des effets est un facteur qui améliore l'adaptation au changement climatique et qui amortit les chocs. C'est pourquoi leur prise en compte est fort utile voire indispensable pour la gestion des pêches. Oui, L'interaction des facteurs considérés et leurs effets conjugués n'étaient pas pris en compte. Les changements climatiques apparaissent comme étant une menace diffuse mais certaine qu'il faudra prendre en considération au niveau de tous les échelons. Augmenter la durée du séminaire afin d'une part de bien assimiler l'approche et d'autre part de mieux analyser les facteurs. R.2 Effectivement ce type d'exercice est assez utile parce qu'il permet d'adopter une approche à la fois prospective et élargie en tenant compte d'un ensemble de paramètres et de facteurs naturels et anthropiques. Parfaitement. Le développement de l'aquaculture en Mauritanie et la capitalisation de l'expérience des pays de la sous-région, notamment celle du Sénégal, en sont des exemples. Eviter la dispersion dans les présentations et mieux cibler les objectifs. Le public visé doit être le plus homogène possible en termes de culture, de langue, des réalités socio-économiques, écologiques et halieutiques. R.3 Ce genre d'exercice est effectivement très utile car il permet de voir les leviers sur lesquels il faut agir aujourd'hui pour s'adapter aux changements climatiques Tout à fait. Ça m'a surtout permis de prendre conscience des dangers qui menacent le futur du secteur de la pêche au Sénégal. Le temps imparti était relativement court pour traiter convenablement toutes les questions. Il faudra prochainement trouver des salles séparées pour les groupes de travail. R.4 Le présent séminaire constitue une étape très importante à franchir au sein des pays de la sous région en matière de gestion durable des ressources vivantes avec bien sûr le nouveau concept du changement climatique. Aussi, si cet exercice est mis en vigueur certainement ces résultats apporteront de solutions ou des idées appréciées. Le présent exercice a harmonisé les idées à propos de la gestion durable en tenant compte du changement climatique. N/A R.5 Bien sûr, du fait de la prise en compte des interactions de multiples forces motrices. Oui, notamment sur l'influence du marché des produits halieutiques sur l'évolution future des pêches Puisque cette démarche est tout à fait nouvelle dans la gestion des ressources halieutiques au niveau de la sous région, il serait important d'organiser un séminaire sous régional sur le développement de scénarios R.6 Cet exercice a été très utile pour la gestion de la ressource face aux changements climatiques. Pour moi c'est une méthode efficace permettant de susciter la réflexion pour trouver les multiples problèmes qui peuvent se poser dans le futur. Et ceci pour anticiper sur les stratégies à mettre en place. Oui, par exemple je n'avais pas assez réfléchi sur le secteur aquaculture et le niveau d'incertitude qui le caractérise par rapport à une situation de globalisation. En somme, cela m'a permis de réfléchir sur les différents scenarios face à des situations d'incertitude A mon avis ce séminaire est très intéressant, mais il faudra l'améliorer en essayant dès le départ d'expliquer la méthodologie et certains concepts. Ceci permettra aux participants de passer directement au vif du sujet au lieu de consacrer trop de temps à ce stade du travail. Il faut aussi que la situation propre à chaque pays soit connue des participants. Ceci permettra aux différents participants d'être mieux outillés pour aborder de façon globale uns réflexion au niveau sous régional. R.7 Dans un contexte d'incertitudes marqué par des impacts visibles des changements climatiques tels que la baisse de la pluviométrie, l'érosion côtière, la diminution de la ressource, il est nécessaire d'organiser ce genre d'atelier pour un échange plus fructueux. Les différentes interventions se sont recoupées, pour l'essentiel. Elles nous ont permis néanmoins d'enrichir certaines connaissances sur les espèces, d'une région à une autre. Par exemple les déplacements des espèces, l'engouement par rapport à l'aquaculture etc. Nous préférons dès le départ une nette clarification sur les modules de travail. Nous gagnerions si la compréhension était plus claire. Le séminaire s'était bien passé. On en redemande. R.8 Oui. Si les participants communiquent avec les acteurs du développement du secteur pêche dans leurs pays respectifs, ces derniers apporteront leur savoir-faire. Oui. On a parlé de dépassement de temps parfois ; je crois que pour remédier à ce problème il serait bon de faire la traduction simultanément. R.9 Cet exercice est très instructif et permet entre autres de se projeter dans l'avenir pour mieux gérer le présent ; même si l'on sait que beaucoup de scenario restent très incertains. En effet, ce genre d'exercice nous aide quelquefois à déceler des aspects sur les évolutions probables de notre environnement. Non. -expliquez la méthodologie davantage et proposez d'autres méthodologies -Le temps est trop court, il faut prévoir suffisamment de temps pour les ateliers/travaux de groupes. • 2. Participants 27 Saliou Samb Agence nationale de l'aquaculture [email protected] Sénégal -Améliorer la logistique (salle) et le 28 Nathalie Beaulieu IDRC/CCAA [email protected] per diem Sénégal 28 Nathalie BeaulieuIDRC/[email protected] per diemSénégal  "}],"sieverID":"cbbed819-6798-4074-be88-c4e55976fa94","abstract":""}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"077b99c33a3445eec85676e01fc438ed","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/90f3a446-431d-48c2-ab9e-cf2277edc15e/retrieve"},"pageCount":21,"title":"Extinction risk of Mesoamerican crop wild relatives","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Societal Impact Statement","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":108,"text":"Crop wild relatives (CWR) are plant taxa closely related to crops and are a source of high genetic diversity that can help adapt crops to the impacts of global change, particularly to meet increasing consumer demand in the face of the climate crisis. CWR provide vital ecosystem services and are increasingly important for food and nutrition security and sustainable and resilient agriculture. They therefore are of major biological, social, cultural and economic importance. Assessing the extinction risk of CWR is essential to prioritise in situ and ex situ conservation strategies in Mesoamerica to guarantee the long-term survival and availability of these resources for present and future generations worldwide."}]},{"head":"Summary","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":52,"text":"• Ensuring food security is one of the world's most critical issues as agricultural systems are already being impacted by global change. Crop wild relatives (CWR)-wild plants related to crops-possess genetic variability that can help adapt agriculture to a changing environment and sustainably increase crop yields to meet the food security challenge."},{"index":2,"size":55,"text":"• Here we report the results of an extinction risk assessment of 224 wild relatives of some of the world's most important crops (i.e. chilli pepper, maize, common bean, avocado, cotton, potato, squash, vanilla and husk tomato) in Mesoamericaan area of global significance as a centre of crop origin, domestication and of high CWR diversity."},{"index":3,"size":68,"text":"• We show that 35% of the selected CWR taxa are threatened with extinction according to The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List demonstrates that these valuable genetic resources are under high anthropogenic threat. The dominant threat processes are land use change for agriculture and farming, invasive and other problematic species (e.g. pests, genetically modified organisms) and use of biological resources, including overcollection and logging."},{"index":4,"size":36,"text":"The most significant drivers of extinction relate to smallholder agriculture-given its high incidence and ongoing shifts from traditional agriculture to modern practices (e.g. use of herbicides)-smallholder ranching and housing and urban development and introduced genetic material."},{"index":5,"size":45,"text":"• There is an urgent need to increase knowledge and research around different aspects of CWR. Policies that support in situ and ex situ conservation of CWR and promote sustainable agriculture are pivotal to secure these resources for the benefit of current and future generations."},{"index":6,"size":16,"text":"agrobiodiversity, conservation, crop wild relatives, extinction risk, food security, IUCN Red List, threat drivers, threatened species"}]},{"head":"| INTRODUCTION","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":110,"text":"Reducing the environmental impact of agriculture and simultaneously feeding an exponentially growing human population in the face of climate change (Godfray et al., 2010;Vermeulen et al., 2012) is one of the world's most pressing challenges. The effects of climate change on agriculture are already observed (Banerjee et al., 2018;Brás et al., 2021;Gourdji et al., 2015;Huq et al., 2015;Jaramillo et al., 2011;Läderach et al., 2017) and are expected to worsen without mitigation and adaptation actions (Barros & Field, 2014;Campbell et al., 2016;Dawson et al., 2016;Lobell et al., 2011;Porter et al., 2014) with overall global crop yield declines between 3% and 10% predicted with each degree of warming (Challinor et al., 2014)."},{"index":2,"size":322,"text":"Changes to crops and varietal production resulting from climate change or through synergistic effects with other drivers caused by land use change (e.g. soil degradation or loss of pollination services) include reduced genetic diversity, variable crop yields and increased vulnerability to emerging pathogens and pests (FAO, 2010;Foley et al., 2005;Groenen, 2018;Keneni et al., 2012;Ricketts et al., 2008;Scheffers et al., 2016). The adaptation of crops to environmental stresses such as drought, soil salinity and flooding, as well as to consequent changes in the prevalence of pests and diseases, while ensuring high nutritional value and yields, will be key in responding to food demand (Campbell et al., 2016;FAO, 2008FAO, , 2010FAO, , 2011;;Ford-Lloyd et al., 2011;Guarino & Lobell, 2011;Maxted et al., 2012;Maxted et al., 2014;Nabhan et al., 2020;Ortiz, 2015;Zamir, 2001). For example, the Mexican wild potato Solanum demissum has been used extensively in breeding programs against late blight (Ross, 1986). Likewise, S. pinnatisectum and S. cardiophyllum show resistance to the Colorado potato beetle (Chen et al., 2004). Thus, a rich source of genetic variability to help adapt crops to changing environmental conditions can be found in crop wild relatives (CWR)-wild plant species related to crops-including their ancestors, which persist in a wide variety of habitats and under heterogeneous environmental conditions, and have not passed through the domestication genetic bottleneck (Maxted et al., 1997;Tanksley & McCouch, 1997). Therefore, it is so far recognised that they have undergone evolutionary processes without human intervention and sustain a breadth of genetic diversity not found in crops (FAO, 2008;Flores-Hernández et al., 2018;Hawkes et al., 2000;Mariac et al., 2006;Maxted & Kell, 2009;van de Wouw et al., 2001;Vaughan, 1994). However, there is ethnobotanical evidence that suggests that some artificial selection could have been exerted on CWR. Recent studies indicate a range of human management practices of wild resources, including Mesoamerican CWR, which probably were sustained over long periods of time (Casas et al., 2016;de Luna-Ruiz et al., 2018;Levis et al., 2018)."},{"index":3,"size":170,"text":"The importance of CWR in achieving food security has long been recognised (Ford-Lloyd et al., 2011;Harlan, 1976;Hoyt, 1988;Maxted et al., 1997;McCouch et al., 2013;Prescott-Allen & Prescott-Allen, 1990). Food security has become an integral element of both the agricultural and environmental sectors as is reflected in international policy frameworks, including the United Nations Mesoamerica is a centre of origin, diversity and domestication of crops and of important CWR diversity (Maxted & Vincent, 2021;Vavilov, 1935;Vincent et al., 2019). An estimated 8% of the world's most important crops (Vavilov, 1935), including maize, squash, chilli pepper, bean, avocado, vanilla and cotton, were domesticated in the region around 10,000 to 5000 years ago (Clement et al., 2021;Hummer & Hancock, 2015;Piperno & Smith, 2012). The evolutionary process that results from human manipulation of plant genotypes to satisfy human requirements is still part of the domestication process in the region (Hajjar & Hodgkin, 2007). Further, agriculture is a production process in which both cultivation and domestication of plants were involved (Casas & Caballero, 1995;Perry & Flannery, 2007)."}]},{"head":"Sustainable Development Goals (SDG). Aichi Biodiversity","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":64,"text":"Accordingly, and because many of these crops are considered of global importance due to their food, nutritional, economic and other values (CONABIO et al., 2019a(CONABIO et al., , 2019b;;Shiferaw et al., 2011;Wei et al., 2012), Mesoamerica has been identified as a global conservation priority centre in which to conduct in situ and ex situ conservation of CWR (Castañeda-Alvarez et al., 2016;Vincent et al., 2019)."},{"index":2,"size":145,"text":"There are good reasons to believe that a high proportion of CWR occurring in Mesoamerica are threatened with extinction. Mesoamerica harbours an estimated 3000 endemic flowering plant species yet had lost more than 80% of its original native vegetation cover by the beginning of the 21st century (Mittermeier et al., 2011). The annual deforestation was calculated in 395,000 ha between 2005 and 2010 (Elizondo et al., 2015), making it one of the world's 36 biodiversity hotspots (Rodríguez Olivet & Asquith, 2004). Mesoamerica will suffer severe impacts from climate change (BID and CEPAL, 2010;Thomas et al., 2016), yet its biodiversity holds key adaptive solutions that should be conserved (e.g. genetic diversity and functional genomics; Mastretta-Yanes et al., 2018). Although national (e.g. SEMARNAT-2010-NOM-059; DOF, 2010) and international extinction risk assessments have been completed for some plant groups in the region (Goettsch et al., 2015;IUCN, 2020;Rivers, 2017), CWR"},{"index":3,"size":4,"text":"have not been targeted."},{"index":4,"size":75,"text":"We present here the first assessment of extinction risk of wild relatives of some of the world's most important crops that occur within Mesoamerica. We focus on the nature of the threats affecting them and discuss actions and policies that can be implemented to strengthen their conservation. We included CWR of six Mesoamerican staple foods of which maize, common bean, chilli pepper, husk tomato and squash are typically part of the ancestral multicrop milpa system."},{"index":5,"size":33,"text":"The milpa remains the main means of production and subsistence by direct consumption and trade of surplus for smallholder farmers in the region (Bellon et al., 2018;Lopez-Ridaura et al., 2021;Zizumbo-Villarreal & Colunga-GarcíaMarín, 2010)."}]},{"head":"| MATERIALS AND METHODS","index":5,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"| Study area","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":78,"text":"The study focused mainly on the Mesoamerican region (Figure 1a; Kirchhoff, 1960), which includes central and southern Mexico, Guatemala, El Salvador and Honduras. In some instances, areas outside Mesoamerica that are part of the Aridamerica region (Nabhan et al., 2020) such as northern Mexico were considered in the analyses to evaluate complete genera in which some taxa were not strictly distributed within Mesoamerica, thus accounting for the full extent of the geographic range of a taxon (Figure 1b,c)."}]},{"head":"| Taxa selection criteria","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":142,"text":"A list of approximately 3000 CWR taxa (i.e. species, subspecies, varieties and subpopulations; Dataset S1) belonging to the same genus of a crop cultivated or domesticated in Mesoamerica was compiled from different sources (e.g. Acevedo Gasman et al., 2009;Azurdia et al., 2011;Bellon et al., 2009;Perales & Aguirre, 2008). The list included 310 high priority CWR for Mexico (Contreras-Toledo et al., 2018), 105 taxa in Guatemala (Azurdia et al., 2011), 50 taxa in El Salvador (Chízmar-Fernández et al., 2009;Echeverría et al., 2008) and around 54 taxa in Honduras (Núñez & Alvarado, 1995). A subset of genera and their taxa (with the exception of Tripsacum, a tertiary gene pool relative of Zea mays) was selected for the present study following a set of criteria considered most relevant for the social, economic and biological characteristics of the region, identified during a stakeholder workshop (Methods S1)."}]},{"head":"| Extinction risk assessment","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":197,"text":"We evaluated extinction risk for the selected taxa of Mesoamerican CWR according to the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List Categories and Criteria (IUCN, 2012) during an expert workshop (Methods S2). Information on the distribution, population trends, ecology, conservation actions, use and trade was reviewed for each taxon. As part of this process, range maps were generated using over 28,000 reviewed occurrence data points from different sources (e.g. CONABIO, 2016;Crop Trust, 2016;GBIF, 2016;and personal databases; Dataset S2). Data are also available on the IUCN Red List website (IUCN, 2020). These data were used to show the spatial distribution of CWR as well as to generate richness maps (Methods S3) showing areas of high CWR diversity and areas with high diversity of threatened taxa (Methods S4). Detailed data on the threats affecting taxa were also collated from the literature and from direct observations of the experts participating in the assessment process and were coded following the IUCN Threats Classification Scheme (based on Salafsky et al., 2008;version 3.2 available from https://www. iucnredlist.org/resources/threat-classification-scheme). Because the assessments for the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species are global, we assessed the extinction risk of taxa throughout their entire range."}]},{"head":"| RESULTS","index":9,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"| Selected taxa and their extinction risk","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":44,"text":"A total of 224 taxa of wild relatives of the following crops were selected: chilli pepper (Capsicum spp.), squash (Cucurbita spp.), cotton (Gossypium spp.), avocado (Persea spp.), bean (Phaseolus spp.), husk tomato (Physalis spp.), potato (Solanum sect. Petota), maize (Zea spp. and Tripsacum spp.)"},{"index":2,"size":101,"text":"and vanilla (Vanilla spp.) (Table S1). For each of the taxonomic groups, all taxa occurring within the four countries were included. In the case of Solanum and Vanilla, they represent less than 10% of the total number of known taxa globally, while all known Zea taxa are included (Table S2).  S1). Vanilla has the highest proportion of threatened taxa with 100% of them (eight taxa) threatened, followed by cotton (Gossypium) with 92% (12 taxa), avocado (Persea) with 60% (9 taxa) and the relatives of maize Zea and Tripsacum with 44% (four taxa) and 33% (four taxa) threatened taxa, respectively (Figure 2)."}]},{"head":"| Patterns of diversity","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":79,"text":"The highest number of CWR taxa assessed in 20 km  20 km grid cells are located in the Mexican states of Jalisco and Oaxaca with 31 and 28 taxa, respectively (Figure 1b). Other areas with high to medium richness, ranging from 15 to 27 taxa, are found in northern Mesoamerica, that is, in central Mexico, from the western states of Nayarit and Jalisco through to Michoacán, Mexico State, Mexico City, Puebla and Veracruz in the east (Figure 1b). "}]},{"head":"| Hotspots of threatened taxa","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":72,"text":"The highest number of threatened (CR, EN and VU) and NT taxa is found in a grid cell in the eastern Mexican state of Veracruz and includes seven threatened CWR, including four Persea, two Vanilla and one Phaseolus (Cell 1, Figure 1c; Table 1). Seven other areas contain six threatened and NT taxa each. Four of them are in Veracruz (Cells 3-6, Figure 1c), and together they harbour four Persea and two"},{"index":2,"size":13,"text":"Physalis taxa and one taxon each of Cucurbita and Capsicum (Table 1).    3)."},{"index":3,"size":48,"text":"For 12% (26) of taxa assessed the threats are unknown, and these corresponded to taxa categorised as DD (13 taxa), LC (10 taxa) and EN (three taxa). For 28% (62 taxa), there are no known threats or no significant threats; this is particularly true for wide-ranging taxa. In"},{"index":4,"size":30,"text":"Cell number as shown in Figure 1c Number of threatened taxa in the cell State/department the cell is in Taxa found at the cell and their IUCN category in ()."}]},{"head":"Vanilla inodora (EN)","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":26,"text":"Vanilla insignis (EN) many cases the latter are exposed to stressors in parts of their range but no evidence linked these to significant wider population declines."},{"index":2,"size":38,"text":"Note that because threats at the subspecific level are also recorded at the species level, for those taxa assessed at the subspecific level, threats were considered for the taxon only (i.e. subspecies, varieties or subpopulations) to avoid duplication."}]},{"head":"| Utilisation of Mesoamerican CWR","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":33,"text":"Thirty three percent of taxa assessed in this study are directly or indirectly utilised. Cucurbita has the highest percentage of directly utilised taxa (91%) followed by Vanilla (75%) and Solanum (65%) (Figure S3)."},{"index":2,"size":120,"text":"The most common direct end use is for human food (48%) with 31% corresponding to Physalis, 26% to Solanum and 11% to Phaseolus (Figure 4). Research (an indirect use), mainly for potential crop improvement, is the second most common end use (46% of taxa) with 39% of taxa being Solanum, 23% Cucurbita and 16% Vanilla (Figure 4).  Methods S5), levels are comparable to those reported for other plant groups such as conifers (34% threatened; IUCN, 2020) and cacti (31% threatened; Goettsch et al., 2015). However, the value is more than twice as high as that reported for a regional assessment of European CWR (Bilz et al., 2011), where 16% (n = 572; Methods S5) of taxa were assessed as threatened."},{"index":3,"size":72,"text":"CWR and those that are threatened are unevenly distributed across Mesoamerica. The highest values of species richness (Figure 1b) and richness of threatened taxa (Figure 1c) are found in the Mexican Transition Zone (Morrone, 2010) where the Nearctic-Neotropic biotas overlap in a region of great geological and ecological complexity (Halffter, 1978;Rzedowski, 1978). The transition zone encompasses the convergence of the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt in central Mexico (TMVB), Sierra Madre Oriental, Sierra Madre"},{"index":4,"size":74,"text":"Occidental and Sierra Madre del Sur. The TMVB is renowned for its high plant species richness (Mastretta-Yanes et al., 2015;Rodríguez et al., 2018;Sosa et al., 2018;Villaseñor et al., 2020). The transition zone and other mountains of southern Mexico and Central America belong to a region known as the Mesoamerican forests, which contains one of the richest biotas on Earth, both in terms of species richness and endemism (Espinosa et al., 2008;Mittermeier et al., 2011)."},{"index":5,"size":118,"text":"Within the Mesoamerican mountains, threatened CWR taxa are often associated with cloud forest habitat-a naturally fragmented plant community which, despite covering a relatively small geographical area, is renowned for its extraordinary biological diversity, divergence among lineages and complex evolutionary history (Ornelas et al., 2013;Venkatraman et al., 2019). Cloud forests are also among the most threatened habitats. In Mexico they cover only 1% of the land area, but 73% of their original vegetation has been lost or degraded (INEGI, 2003(INEGI, , 2016))  (Pope et al., 2015). Protected areas in this habitat play a key role in protecting cryptic CWR (Bosland & Gonzalez, 2000); therefore, the protection of the remnants of cloud forest habitat should be a priority (CONABIO, 2010)."},{"index":6,"size":125,"text":"Critically Endangered taxa, with the exceptions of Vanilla cribbiana and Zea perennis, do not occur within hotspots of threatened taxa. Instead, they tend to occur in areas with lower taxonomic diversity and threatened taxa richness. This suggests that approaches aiming to maximise the number of threatened taxa to be conserved (e.g. by focusing on areas harbouring high numbers of threatened taxa) will only be useful in certain instances and that additional actions will be required to ensure that more narrowly distributed and threatened taxa are also accounted for. In addition, an important factor to consider in such analysis, and in particular for CWR, is the representation of genetic diversity within each taxon (Kell et al., 2012;Maxted et al., 1997;Maxted & Vincent, 2021;Riordan & Nabhan, 2019)."}]},{"head":"| Threats to Mesoamerican CWR and threat patterns","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":163,"text":"As much as for the rest of biodiversity, a large proportion of assessed taxa (65%) is affected by significant habitat loss caused by human activities and in particular agriculture and farming (Maxwell et al., 2016). Mesoamerica has lost more than 80% of its native vegetation due to intensified agriculture in the last decades, with a recent tendency to convert diverse, traditional and smallholder agroecosystems to agro-industrial systems dependent on inorganic fertilisers, pesticides and fungicides and mechanisation (Harvey et al., 2008). In contrast to most wild species, many CWR are adapted to disturbance and can even thrive in perturbed habitats where they are tolerated and sometimes fostered, and therefore inadvertently conserved (Casas & Caballero, 1995;Delgado-Salinas et al., 2004)   et al., 2015). Therefore, efforts to frame the use and release of living modified organisms in Mesoamerica (Acevedo et al., 2016) and to protect the species and areas that include the genetic diversity of CWR taxa (DOF, 2012;MAGA, 2019) are of great importance in the region."},{"index":2,"size":90,"text":"Biological resource use is the third most prevalent threat process, affecting 32% of the CWR taxa assessed (Figure S1). Though all Vanilla, 75% of Capsicum, 53% of Persea and 18% of Phaseolus taxa are affected by biological resource use, the drivers and stresses (i.e. the impact of a threat on a taxon) vary between taxonomic groups. All Vanilla taxa are targeted for collection, making direct use the threat driving them to extinction in the wild. In contrast, taxa of the genera Persea (e.g. P. cinerascens), Phaseolus (e.g. P. albescens) and"},{"index":3,"size":43,"text":"Capsicum (e.g. C. lanceolatum) are unintentionally affected by the use of biological resources in the form of logging and wood harvesting activities (Figure 3), which result in both species stresses (species mortality) and ecosystem stresses (i.e., habitat conversion and/or habitat degradation; Figure 5)."},{"index":4,"size":54,"text":"Although CWR may hold solutions to help adapt crops to changing climatic conditions, they are not exempt to the effects of climate change themselves (Jarvis et al., 2008;Redden et al., 2015); 21% of taxa are affected by the effects of climate change (Figure S2), mainly through shifting and altering habitats and droughts (Figure 3)."},{"index":5,"size":30,"text":"While some threats can occur across multiple taxonomic groups, others appear specific to particular crop gene pools (Figure 3). For instance, the cotton wild relatives (Gossypium aridum, G. davidsonii, G."},{"index":6,"size":96,"text":"harkenssii and G. hirsutum) are threatened by social unsettlement as they occur in areas where illegal crops are grown and it is unsafe to conduct research or implement conservation actions for those populations. Here we focused on the effects of individual threats on taxa, yet in many instances taxa are affected by multiple threats (Figures S1 and 3) that, in conjunction, can result in a diverse suite of species and ecosystem stresses (Figure 5). Although our analyses provide useful, taxon-specific information, tools to map the spatial distribution of threats would be valuable for conservation planning purposes."}]},{"head":"| Knowledge gaps and research needs","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":171,"text":"Nineteen taxa (8.5% of all assessed) grouped in Cucurbita, Persea, Phaseolus, Physalis and Solanum are assessed as DD (Figure 2 and Table S1), meaning information is insufficient to evaluate their extinction risk and is comparable to other plant groups (e.g. cacti 8.7%). This is relatively low and probably attributable to the high availability of plant occurrence point data required for these assessments (Goettsch et al., 2015). Such data availability is the result of enormous efforts by numerous academic, governmental and nongovernmental organisations to collect, compile and analyse data and make it available, for example, through CONABIO's National Biodiversity Information System and the Global Biodiversity Information Facility (GBIF) (Troudet et al., 2017). However, large numbers of records remain undigitised and scattered, particularly for collections in El Salvador and Honduras. A few taxa are listed as DD because of taxonomic uncertainty (e.g. Physalis longicaulis). However, for 17 taxa categorised as DD, the main constraint was the lack of accurate information on their distribution, population status and trend and on threats and their effects."},{"index":2,"size":10,"text":"Some of these taxa (e.g. Persea sessilis and Solanum guerreroense)"},{"index":3,"size":105,"text":"were last collected over 78 years ago, while others are only known from their type localities (e.g. Phaseolus leptophyllus, Physalis latecorollata, P. parvianthera and Persea sessilis). Some taxa (e.g. Cucurbita palmata, Persea rufescens and Solanum lesteri) are reportedly known only from small areas or from a few specimens and are therefore likely to be threatened. For all these taxa, research to generate information on their distributions, threats and population sizes/trends is a priority (Figure 6) to assess their extinction risk. Field research to locate any remaining individuals or populations is also urgently needed for Gossypium armourianum and Physalis tehuacanensis, which have been identified as Critically"},{"index":4,"size":4,"text":"Endangered and Possibly Extinct."},{"index":5,"size":252,"text":"Given their importance for food security and adaptation to climate change and the level of threat they face reported here, there is a need to complete floristic inventories, identify CWR and assess their extinction risk, also including other countries in the region. Equally important is to promote research on their genetic diversity to inform in situ and ex situ conservation and to establish their gene pool and characterize them to make these genetic resources more readily available for use in breeding programs (FAO, 2017). In addition, we need to identify those plants that are used along the domestication gradient, as occurs in Mesoamerica (Carrillo-Galván et al., 2020, and references therein). The most frequent research needs identified across all taxa and for threatened taxa were the generation of more information on the population size, distribution range and trend, followed by research/monitoring of threats and their effects on future population trends (Figure 6), which is also seen as a priority for European CWR (Bilz et al., 2011). For example, research is needed on the potential risk and monitoring of the laurel wilt pathogen (Rafaella lauricola) introduced by the redbay ambrosia beetle (Xyleborus glabratus), originally from Asia, which has caused vascular wilt disease and major mortality of redbay (Persea borbonia) and other species of Lauraceae in the United States (Harrington et al., 2008;Harrington et al., 2011). The most suitable areas for the introduction of X. glabratus into Mexico correspond to the tropical humid, tropical subhumid and some temperate regions, which will impact avocado production (Lira-Noriega  "}]},{"head":"| Red listing CWR","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":143,"text":"There are at least three aspects that need to be considered when assessing the extinction risk of CWR following the IUCN Red List Categories and Criteria (IUCN, 2012), (1) taxonomic understanding of the taxa assessed-it is common that the taxon described at the species level belongs to the cultivated form and the CWR can be the same species, a subspecies or a variety. This depends on the evolutionary history of crop domestication; which can be complex processes in species that conform to wild-to-domesticated continuums  Guerra-García et al., 2017;Wegier et al., 2011). Records of hybrid taxa between cultivated and wild specimens should also be excluded when possible. Lastly, (3) participation of experts from the biological sciences, including botanists and conservationists, as well as from the agronomical sciences proved to be essential to gain a comprehensive view from biological, conservation, agricultural production and social perspectives."}]},{"head":"| Indirect and direct uses of Mesoamerican CWR","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":47,"text":"Given the genetic proximity to crops, all taxa included in the present study have the potential to donate genes and therefore have indirect  S1 and also see taxa assessments on the IUCN Red List), and at least 34 taxa are being researched for this purpose (Figure 4)."},{"index":2,"size":19,"text":"Moreover, many Mesoamerican CWR are utilised directly for traditional uses such as food, fodder and as medicine (Figure S4)."},{"index":3,"size":69,"text":"These taxa are collected from the wild (e.g. Capsicum spp., Physalis spp.) or are fostered in agricultural fields or their edges and are left to grow in home gardens (e.g. Cucurbita spp., wild Phaseolus coccineus, Physalis spp.). The direct uses of CWR present an opportunity to promote their conservation through the recovery of the knowledge around their traditional and sustainable use, including the acknowledgment of their importance for communities."}]},{"head":"| CWR conservation needs in Mesoamerica","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":125,"text":"Ex situ conservation in gene banks is the most common conservation need identified across all assessed taxa, followed by site or area protection and habitat protection (Figure 7), especially for threatened taxa as 46% do not occur inside protected areas (Figure 8). Both of these conservation actions are of notable urgency for Critically Endangered taxa, especially for Gossypium turneri, Zea perennis and Z. mays ssp. mexicana 'Nobogame' subpopulation and the EN Zea mays ssp. huehuetenanguensis. Given that at least part of the geographic range of a high proportion of Mesoamerican CWR taxa (60%) occurs within protected areas (Figure 8), there is a need to develop or adapt existing management plans specifically to actively monitor and CWR populations, as well as to raise awareness (Figure 7)"},{"index":2,"size":122,"text":"among the general public and particularly protected area managers, about what CWR are and their importance (Holness et al., 2019)  Contreras, et al., 2019;Sánchez-Velásquez et al., 2002). Cucurbita lundelliana and C. okeechobeensis ssp. martinezii are rarely found within protected areas but thrive in nearby rural human settlements where people allow them to grow in home-gardens and along fences and on road sides (Sánchez de la Vega et al., 2019). The genetic diversity of Capsicum annuum var. glabriusculum in home-gardens in Guatemala was found to be as high as that found in gene banks (Guzmán et al., 2005). Therefore, in situ and circa situm conservation approaches for CWR should, where applicable, integrate the direct sustainable uses of taxa and expand beyond protected areas."},{"index":3,"size":145,"text":"Recently, the active in situ conservation of CWR outside protected areas by farmers within traditional farming systems has been reviewed alongside the level of public good financing that might be attached to reward the farmers for their CWR population management activities (Wainwright et al., 2019). Gains in biodiversity protection could be maximised if actions are implemented in areas with high concentrations of CWR and that ideally also contain taxa in more urgent need of conservation and that are threatened with extinction. However, special attention should be placed on Critically Endangered taxa given the limited overlap with areas with high numbers of EN and VU taxa. Conserving habitats such as cloud forests and seasonally dry forests should be a priority, and different types of policies to halt forest cover change or to foster natural regeneration could be promoted (CONABIO et al., 2019a(CONABIO et al., , 2019b))."},{"index":4,"size":48,"text":"These should include community-based forest management, carefully designed payments for ecosystem services programmes (Tyack et al., 2020), elimination of perverse agricultural subsidies (Whetstone, 1999) and holistic land use planning, among others initiatives that support rural economies and livelihoods (Chazdon et al., 2020;Min-Venditti et al., 2017;Wainwright et al., 2019)."},{"index":5,"size":56,"text":"The development of a multiscale and stakeholder approach is imperative to ensure that CWR species and their genetic diversity are well represented and preserved in herbaria, botanical gardens and gene banks and to strengthen knowledge and in situ conservation through the implementation of different policies and measures across landscapes (Estrada-Carmona et al., 2014;Hunter & Heywood, 2011)."},{"index":6,"size":116,"text":"Efforts should take place especially within priority areas recently identified for Mesoamerica (Tob on et al., unpublished). This should aim at, for example, transforming agriculture into more sustainable food systems (see http://teebweb.org/agrifood/). Efforts to understand how staple foods (e.g. maize) and their genetic diversity depend on and/or are impacted by traditional production systems (CONABIO, 2017) could prove valuable for the region, given that it harbours the totality of the genetic diversity of many crop gene pools. Conservation and knowledge of CWR can be significantly improved by developing programs to strengthen the collaboration between agencies dealing with species and habitat conservation, agricultural policy, breeding programs, conservation of genetic resources and indispensably with the communities that utilise them."},{"index":7,"size":164,"text":"Mesoamerican people have been managing wild and cultivated plants for thousands of years using a diverse range of agricultural and in situ vegetation management techniques (Casas et al., 2007;Clement et al., 2021).  G omez-Pompa & Kaus, 1999;Correa-Cano, 2004;Dalle et al., 2006;Dalle et al., 2011). If agricultural sustainability and food security are to be attained in Mesoamerica, innovation has to involve the return to and maximisation of traditional and more diverse and sustainable production systems (CONANP, 2019). This must include the improvement of smallholder yields, supported through policies oriented to improve economic and social mechanisms (Godfray et al., 2010;Ibarrola-Rivas & Galicia, 2017) as well as gaining better understanding of their multicrop food production systems, such as the milpa. It is also necessary to develop systematic and novel ways of measuring productivity considering all the elements of these complex systems and the many ecosystem services and the benefits they provide in both the short term and long term (Bellon et al., 2018;González, 2012;Lopez-Ridaura et al., 2021)."},{"index":8,"size":136,"text":"This analysis has identified, within the selected taxa of Mesoamerican CWR, those most at threat. It also provides an indepth understanding of the diversity of threats they face that should be expanded to other taxa and countries in the region. The collated occurrence point data and identified conservation and research needs can facilitate both in situ and ex situ conservation planning. We hope F I G U R E 8 Proportion of taxa across all taxonomic groups that were recorded as occurring within protected areas, not occurring in protected areas or as unknown. CR = critically endangered, EN = endangered, VU = vulnerable, NT = near threatened, DD = data deficient, LC = least concern that this will set the basis upon which national and regional multistakeholder conservation strategies of these vital resources can be developed."}]}],"figures":[{"text":" Target 13 of the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) Strategic Plan for Biodiversity 2011-2020 called for the maintenance and safeguarding of the genetic diversity of CWR (CBD, 2010), which is also highlighted in the Post 2020 Biodiversity Framework (e.g. Target 8 and Target 9; CBD, 2019). Target 2.5 of SDG 2 (Zero Hunger) calls to maintain the genetic diversity of seeds, cultivated plants and farmed and domesticated animals and their related wild species (United Nations, 2015). "},{"text":"A high proportion (35%) (Methods S5) of the Mesoamerican CWR taxa assessed are threatened with extinction, including 7 Critically Endangered (CR), 48 Endangered (EN) and 16 Vulnerable (VU). Nine taxa were assessed as Near Threatened (NT), 125 as Least Concern (LC) and 19 as Data Deficient (DD) (Table "},{"text":"F I G U R E 1 (a) Mesoamerican region highlighted in yellow according toKirchhnoff (1960). (b) Spatial distribution pattern of crop wild relative taxa based on occurrence records from herbaria. (c) Hotspots of threatened (critically endangered, endangered and vulnerable) and near-threatened crop wild relatives (see Table1for the respective list of taxa). In both figures, the numbers correspond to the number of taxa found in the cell; the dark green colour corresponds to the lowest number of taxa, and the dark brown colour corresponds to highest number of taxa found in a 20  20-km cell. The study area is shown in dark grey [Correction added on 17 September 2021, after first online publication: This figure was previously incorrect and has been replaced.] "},{"text":"3. 4 | Figure S2).Across all taxonomic groups, the more frequent proximate drivers of threats (i.e. the ultimate factor enabling or contributing to the threat process;Salafsky et al., 2008) varied. Smallholder agriculture affects 32% of taxa (43), and smallholder ranching affects 31% (42 taxa), possibly because of its frequency and extent, as smallholder agriculture generally has a lower impact than agro-industrial farming systems and can sometimes provide evosystem services(Faith et al., 2010). Other threat drivers are housing and urban development (22%, 29 taxa), introduced genetic material (16%, 21 taxa), problematic native species such as pests (15%, 20 taxa), agro-industrial farming, small-scale incidental logging and climate change in the form of habitat shifting or alteration, each affecting 14% (19 taxa) (Figure3).The main drivers of threat differ for each taxonomic group. Persea (71% of taxa), Physalis (54%) and Solanum (46%) are affected by smallholder ranching, while for Capsicum (75%) and Zea (67%) the most frequent driver of threat is smallholder agriculture and for Cucurbita (100%) agro-industrial farming. The most common threat driver "},{"text":"| Hotspots of threatened taxa in MesoamericaA high proportion of Mesoamerican CWR is threatened with extinction. With 35% of taxa being threatened (based on a best estimate; "},{"text":"F I G U R E 4 Proportion of taxa for which a direct or indirect use was recorded across the most common end use categories. Food-human (n = 35), research (n = 34), establishing ex situ production (n = 16), medicinehuman and veterinary (n = 12), food -animal (n = 7), horticulture (n = 6), other household goods (n = 5), poisons (n = 2) and handicrafts, jewellery (n = 2). End uses according to the IUCN General Use and Trade Classification Scheme (version 1.0) "},{"text":" Capsicum annuum which correspond to the variety glabriusculum), wild cotton (Gossypium aridum) and teosinte related to maize (Zea luxurians). Conversion of natural habitat into arable lands, including for extensive agriculture, mainly affects those wild relatives associated with more pristine areas. These include the wild relative of chilli pepper, Capsicum lanceolatum (EN) and the wild relative of avocado Persea pallescens (EN), both of which grow in the highly threatened cloud forests of Mexico(CONABIO, 2010). Similarly, much of the pine-oak forest, which is the natural habitat of the wild relative of maize, Zea perennis (CR), has been converted to large avocado plantations(Sánchez et al., 2019) in order to supply the high demand of international markets (de la Fuente Stevens, 2014).Invasive and other problematic species is the second most common threat process identified affecting 38% of taxa assessed (FiguresS1 and S2). Notably, 28% of Phaseolus taxa are impacted by pests and diseases caused by native problematic species that can potentially worsen with climate change. Invasive alien species (e.g. grasses such as Megathyrsus maximus and Rottboellia cochinchinensis) are affecting 23% of Tripsacum taxa (Figure3), including the EN taxa: Tripsacum intermedium, T. maizar and T. zopilotensis and also the CR wild relative of cotton Gossypium armourianum, an insular species whose habitat is affected by introduced feral goats and cats(Wegier et al., 2017). Introduced genetic material threatens taxa of the genera Cucurbita, Gossypium, Zea and, to a lesser extent, Tripsacum (Figure3), through hybridisation of genetically modified crops with wild taxa. This facilitates genetic erosion, modifies plant-insect interactions (e.g. Gossypium aridum,Wegier, 2013; G. hirsutum, Vázquez-Barrios et al., 2021)  and causes habit change (e.g. Cucurbita argyrosperma ssp. sororia; Cruz-Reyes "},{"text":" et al., 2018) and also its CWR. Therefore, studies of synergic effects under global change scenarios and monitoring programs are important to design tailored CWR conservation actions. F I G U R E 5 Proportion of species and ecosystem stresses caused by different threat drivers recorded for each taxon related to the selected crops. EC = ecosystem conversion, SM = species mortality, SP = species perturbance, ISE = indirect species effect, IEE = indirect ecosystem effects, and ED = ecosystem degradation. The bars correspond to the proportion of taxa impacted by the different threat drivers. Only the main threat drivers are shown. 1.1 housing and urban areas, 1.3 tourism and recreation areas, 2.1. "},{"text":" (e.g. Gossypium hirsutum, Velázquez-L opez et al., 2018; Capsicum annuum, de Luna-Ruiz et al., 2018) often resulting in different human modifications due to cultural diversity and management heterogeneity, which can hinder the identification of CWR. The IUCN Red List only includes assessments of wild species (i.e. excludes cultivated species), and in order to evaluate a subspecies, variety or subpopulation, the species as a whole needs to be assessed first. Therefore, a clear understanding of which taxa or populations are cultivated and which are wild is essential. (2) The generation of the native distribution maps of taxa is one of the most important steps for assessing their extinction risk. In this process, a critical step is data cleansing, for example, elimination of misidentifications, historical records and cultivated populations (Castañeda-Alvarez et al., 2016). Compared with other components of biodiversity, this process is particularly challenging for CWR because they are often directly utilised by humans and thus purposefully transported and moved, making it common to encounter records of specimens outside their natural distribution. Furthermore, records may belong to taxa that have escaped from cultivation and present traits of the wild specimens without being strictly wild (e.g. Phaseolus coccineus; Gossypium hirsutum); these are known as 'feral crops' and when possible should not be mapped within the taxon's natural range (d'Eeckenbrugge & Lacape, 2014; "},{"text":"F I G U R E 6 Number of taxa in each International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List Category for which a research need was recorded in terms of (a) research, (b) conservation planning and/or (c) monitoring. Research needs are arranged in order of frequency. CR = critically endangered, EN = endangered, VU = vulnerable, NT = near threatened, DD = data deficient, LC = least concernutilisation potential. However, the taxa in the primary (i.e. same species as the crop) and secondary gene pools are those most closely related to crops and thus are more likely to be used as gene donors because of the relative ease of trait transfer to the crop and their conservation is commonly prioritised(Maxted et al., 2020). Having stressed this point, although taxa in the tertiary gene pool are generally more difficult to cross with the crop, they are also used by breeders if the CWR contains known and required adaptive traits. Sixteen taxa included in this study are already utilised in crop improvement, conferring crops resistance to viruses and pests (e.g. Cucurbita lundelliana, Solanum bulbocastanum, S. stoloniferum), drought tolerance (e.g. Solanum pinnatisectum, S. stoloniferum) or yield improvement (Zea diploperennis; Table "},{"text":"F I G U R E 7 Number of taxa in each International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List Category for which a conservation action need was recorded. CR = critically endangered, EN = endangered, VU = vulnerable, NT = near threatened, DD = data deficient, LC = least concern 4.7 | Final considerations Conservation actions for Mesoamerican CWR are urgent given their high levels of threat and their importance in maintaining the genetic diversity that provide important resources for our diverse global food systems. The genetic complexes present in centres of origin like Mesoamerica are crucial to humankind's future well-being. Policies setting targets for plant species and specifically for CWR conservation (FAO Second GPA, GSPC, ITPGRFA, Aichi target 13, SDG Target 2) have helped align efforts, and continuation in post-2020 targets will be key to secure genetic resources. "},{"text":" One of the best documented examples is the ancient Mayans, who expanded and intensified agricultural production to sustain very large populations that altered most of the landscape (DeClerck et al., 2010, and references therein). Evidence indicates no apparent decrease in floristic biodiversity in the last 5000-6000 years, which can possibly be explained by the management of complex forest-agriculture mosaics such as those found today (e.g. less managed forests, agroforestry systems and abandoned agricultural land; "}],"sieverID":"dd841b5a-ed6b-4f1f-9d8b-8595232d0200","abstract":""}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"07f5a9e4afee5ea11d8f8825db88f965","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/4052f8ca-f0f6-4daa-8412-202e3b8f11d3/retrieve"},"pageCount":10,"title":"Low Soil Nutrient Tolerance and Mineral Fertilizer Response in White Guinea Yam (Dioscorea rotundata) Genotypes","keywords":["Dioscorea","low soil fertility tolerance","soil fertility susceptibility","West Africa","genotypic variation"],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":334,"text":"Yam (Dioscorea spp.) is a major food security crop for millions of resource-poor farmers, particularly in West Africa. Soil mineral deficiency is the main challenge in yam production, especially with the dwindling of fallow lands for the indigenous nutrient supply. Cultivars tolerant to available low soil nutrients and responsive to added nutrient supply are viable components of an integrated soil fertility management strategy for sustainable and productive yam farming systems in West Africa. This study's objective was to identify white Guinea yam (D. rotundata) genotypes adapted to available low soil nutrients and responsive to externally added nutrient supply. Twenty advanced breeding lines and a local variety (Amula) were evaluated under contrasting soil fertility, low to expose the crop to available low soil nutrient supply and high to assess the crop response to added mineral fertilizer (NPK) input at Ibadan, Nigeria. The genotypes expressed differential yield response to low soil fertility (LF) stress and added fertilizer input. Soil fertility susceptibility index (SFSI) ranged from 0.64 to 1.34 for tuber yield and 0.60 to 1.30 for shoot dry weight. The genotypes R034, R041, R050, R052, R060, R100, and R125 combined lower SFSI with a low rate of reduction in tuber yield were identified as tolerant to LF stress related to the soil mineral deficiency. Likewise, the genotypes R109, R119, and R131 showed high susceptibility to soil fertility level and/or fertilizer response. Genotypes R025 and R034 had the tuber yielding potential twice of that the local variety under low soil nutrient conditions. Shoot dry weight and tuber yield showed a positive correlation both under low and high soil fertility conditions (r = 0.69 and 0.75, respectively), indicating the vigor biomass may be a morphological marker for selecting genotypes of white Guinea yam for higher tuber yield. Our results highlight genotypic variation in the tolerance to low soil nutrients and mineral fertilizer response in white Guinea yam to exploit through breeding and genetic studies to develop improved genotypes for low and high input production systems in West Africa."}]},{"head":"INTRODUCTION","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":286,"text":"Yam (Dioscorea spp.) is an important tuber crop for human consumption. Yam is a common name of the various species in the genus Dioscorea with varying origins and distributions in the tropics, subtropics, and temperate regions (Darkwa et al., 2020). It is a highly valuable crop in the food and cultural systems of West Africa (Asiedu and Sartie, 2010), where 66.8 million tons (93%) of the global production occurs (FAOSTAT, 2020). Among the cultivated species, the white Guinea yam (D. rotundata) is the most planted, produced and consumed yam in West Africa (Asfaw et al., 2020). The yam production in West Africa has increased from 14.5 million tons in 1988 to 66.8 million tons in 2018. The annual rate of increase in total yam production was around 3.8% from 2000 to 2019 (FAOSTAT, 2020). The dramatic increases are associated with area expansion into the Savannas. However, chemical inputs are limited, and landraces are still frequently used in yam cultivation in West Africa (Degras, 1993;Scott et al., 2000). The fallow period traditionally lasted 20 years in the forest-savannah agro-ecological zone of West Africa. Recently, the fallow period's duration has decreased to less than five years because of population pressure and land competition from other crops and purposes (Ouédraogo, 2004;Asiedu and Sartie, 2010). A sharp decline in yam yield occurs when grown after a limited fallow of approximately 1-3 years (Watson and Goldsworthy, 1964). The yam yield has declined from 9.4 t ha −1 in 1988 to 8.4 t ha −1 in 2018 (FAOSTAT, 2020). Although there was productivity growth, it has been relatively marginal when compared to potato (FAOSTAT, 2020). This trend could be catastrophic unless steps are taken to change the situation (Manyong and Nokoe, 2003)."},{"index":2,"size":231,"text":"Several soil nutrient management technologies that enhance crop productivity have been developed, tested, and promoted in Africa's low-input farming systems (Kihara et al., 2020). However, there is little information on yam's input intensification technologies (Enesi et al., 2017). The results and recommendations of the few available soil fertility research on yams are variable and sometimes conflicting (Irving, 1956;Lugo et al., 1993;O'Sullivan and Ernest, 2008;Diby et al., 2009;Carsky et al., 2010;Enesi et al., 2017). Irving (1956) reported a positive tuber yield response of yam to N fertilizer application in eastern Nigeria. Likewise, Kpeglo et al. (1981) in southwest Nigeria and Lyonga (1981) in the northwest highlands of Cameron reported tuber yield increase with mineral fertilizer. In contrast, Carsky et al. (2010) reported no yield response to N mineral fertilizer application in Togo. However, their study showed tuber yield increases with K and tuber size increase with P application. Kang and Wilson (1981) also reported no significant chemical fertilizer effect on yam tuber yield. Diby et al. (2009) and Lugo et al. (1993) indicated a differential yield response to chemical fertilizer application in yam, depending on soil fertility conditions. The studies on the mineral fertilizer effect on yam were either used few cultivars or without creating nutrient-depleted plots to correctly assess the impact. However, fertilizer impact studies clearly highlighted promoted growth and yield of yam under low fertile soils (Diby et al., 2011)."},{"index":3,"size":176,"text":"Intensification of yam production through soil amendments, improved cultivars, and other inputs could bring yield increases per unit area. Cultivars tolerant to available low soil nutrients and responsive to external nutrient supply are the most effective and convenient way to improve productivity in low input smallholder farming systems. Cultivar tolerance to low soil nutrients supports sustainable crop production by reducing production costs and farmer dependence on fertilizers. On the other hand, cultivar responsive to mineral fertilizer application aids crop intensification to enhance production. However, studies on genetic variation to low and high soil fertility in yam crops in general and white Guinea yam are scarce. Genetic improvement efforts need to integrate high yields with high nutrient use efficiency (Asiedu and Sartie, 2010). Information on genetic variation within yam germplasm to low and high nutrient availability is a stepping stone to a selective breeding to improve yam for low and high input farming systems. Therefore, this study assessed genotypic differences among white Guinea yam (D. rotundata) genotypes for improved productivity under low and high soil nutrient conditions."}]},{"head":"MATERIALS AND METHODS","index":3,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Site and Soil Properties","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":134,"text":"The field experiments were conducted for two years (2018 and 2019 cropping seasons) at the low soil fertility (LF) experimental field at the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA), 7 • 31 N and 3 • 54 E, southwestern Nigeria. The LF condition was created by continuously cultivating high nutrient mining crops such as cassava, maize, and sorghum without fertilizer input from 2016 to 2018. Trial plots with the dimensions 100 m × 25 m were used. Cassava was grown from April 2016 to March 2017, followed by sorghum from April 2017 to January 2018, and then maize for four consecutive harvests from April 2017 to January 2018. The continuous planting of high nutrient mining crops in the same plot without additional nutrients successfully created LF or mineral nutrient-deficient soil conditions for our experiment."},{"index":2,"size":160,"text":"Soil samples were collected in April 2016 and March 2018 at depths of 0 -20 cm from thirty randomly selected spots in the plot. Samples were dried at 65 • C before sifting (using a 2 mm sieve). Soil pH was determined by initially suspending the soil in water (at a 1:2.5 soil/water ratio). Exchangeable Ca 2+ , Mg 2+ , K +, and available P were extracted according to the Mehlich-3 procedure (Mehlich, 1984). The cations were determined using an atomic absorption spectrophotometer (Accusys 211 Atomic Spectrophotometer, Buck Scientific, CT, United States). Phosphorus was assayed colorimetrically using Genesys 10S UV-Vis (Thero Scientific, MA, United States). Organic carbon was determined by chromic acid digestion with a spectrophotometric procedure using the Genesys 10S UV-Vis (Heanes, 1984). Total nitrogen was determined using the Kjeldahl method for digestion and colorimetric determination on a Technicon AAII Autoanalyzer (Seal Analytical, WI, United States) (Bremner and Mulvaney, 1982). The soil properties are presented in Table 1."},{"index":3,"size":24,"text":"In addition, the weather data for the experimental period was assessed using the data obtained from the Geographical Information System (GIS) unit of IITA."}]},{"head":"Plant Materials and Trial Management","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":191,"text":"Twenty advanced genotypes from the IITA yam breeding program and a popular landrace cultivar (Amula) constituted the plant material for this study (Supplementary Material 1). All genotypes used for the field experiment were multiplied under uniform conditions at the IITA field in the 2017 cropping season to generate quality planting material. The plants with symptoms of virus disease such as yam mosaic virus were removed from field during the growing period. Visually assessed clean tubers with no sign of rot and pests were used as seed tuber material for planting the trials. Tubers weighing approximately 1 -2 kg were cut horizontally to remove the head and tail components. The tuber's center component was cut into pieces of 50 ± 10 g to obtain uniform material for planting (yam setts). Yam setts were treated in a mixture of 70 g mancozeb (fungicide) and 75 mL chlorpyrifos (insecticide) in a 10 L volume of tap water for 5 min, and then the setts were dried for 20 h in the shade before planting for pre-sprouting. The yam setts were planted in plastic pots (12 cm diameter × 10 cm height) filled with topsoil."},{"index":2,"size":143,"text":"Plants with uniform sprouts were transplanted into the field with stakes 30 days after planting. In 2018 and 2019 trials, trial plots with dimensions 25 m × 25 m were prepared in LF soil plots for screening, respectively. The field experiment consisted of a split-plot in randomized block design replicated twice (Altman and Krzywinski, 2015). The main plot constituted two levels of fertilizer applications, nil as Low soil fertility condition and 90, 50, 75 kg N, P, and K ha −1 as high fertility soil condition (HF), while the subplot consisted of 21 genotypes. All plants in the main plot were at the planting density of 1 plant m −2 . Each subplot had 3 plants with a plot size of 3 × 1 m 2 without a border plant. The main plot size was 3 × 21 m 2 and replicated twice."},{"index":3,"size":26,"text":"There was three meters channel between replications. The ten meters channel was created between non-fertilized and fertilized plot (detail field design presented in Supplementary Material 2)."},{"index":4,"size":26,"text":"Fertilizer was applied at 14 days after transplanting using the side dressing method. Weeds were removed manually whenever present to maintain weed-free plots throughout the experiment."}]},{"head":"Data Collection","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":149,"text":"Shoot dry weight was evaluated using the non-destructive method described in Iseki and Matsumoto (2019) at 150 days after planting (150 DAP). This assessment correlated with yam's maximum aerial growth (Diby et al., 2011;Sartie et al., 2012). The normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) was measured using a handheld sensor (GreenSeeker, Nikon Trimble, Tokyo, Japan) with a simultaneous plant height and green area measurement. Shoot dry weight was estimated by an equation using NDVI and plant height as explanatory variables. Shoot dry weight was evaluated for the three plants in each plot. In December, when the aerial parts were at full senescence, each plant's tubers were harvested at 230 DAP in the first-year and 232 DAP in the second-year. After harvesting, the fresh tuber weight was recorded. Biomass reduction in shoot dry weight at 150 DAP and tuber yield was calculated as Shoot biomass and tuber yield reduction rate (%)"},{"index":2,"size":40,"text":"where xlf and xhf are the mean trait values of a given genotype under low and high soil nutrient environments, respectively. The soil fertility susceptibility index (SFSI) was calculated using the following formula (Fischer and Maurer, 1978) and defined as"},{"index":3,"size":48,"text":"where xlf and xhf are the mean trait values of a given genotype under low and high nutrients soil environments, respectively. Ylf and Yhf are the mean trait values of all genotypes under low and high soil nutrients environments, and 1−Ylf /Yhf is the soil fertility intensity (SI)."}]},{"head":"Data Analysis","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":99,"text":"Data were analyzed using the linear mixed model in lme4 package (Bates, 2010) in the R environment for statistical computing (R Core Team, 2018). To determine if there is a significant difference between the means value of trait obtained from LF and HF condition for each genotype, T-test was performed using R package ggplot2 (Kassambara, 2020). To compare the shoot growth and tuber yield performance of improved genotypes with local variety under LF condition, Dunnett's test was performed using multcomp R package (Hothorn et al., 2020). Person's correlation coefficients among traits were calculated using R package corregram (Wright, 2018)."}]},{"head":"RESULTS","index":8,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Status of Soil Fertility and Meteorological Condition in the Experimental Field","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":62,"text":"The soil chemical property of the experimental field is presented in Table 1. Planting cassava, sorghum, and maize before yam planting depleted mineral nutrients and created low soil fertility stress for the yam experiment. The soil pH was 5.93 in 2016 and 6.41 in 2018. The organic carbon content was 1.23% in 2016. However, the organic carbon content was decreased to 0.15% "}]},{"head":"Effect of Soil Fertility on Shoot Dry Weight and Tuber Yield","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":109,"text":"The main effects of genotype, soil fertility treatment, and year were significant for tuber yield and shoot dry weight (Table 2). The interaction effects were significant between a year and soil fertility treatments on shoot dry weight. The gap in shoot dry weight between LF and HF conditions was enormous in 2018 than in 2019. On the other hand, the interaction of genotype with soil fertility status was significant for tuber yield. Mean shoot dry weight and tuber yield were higher in 2018 than in 2019 (Figure 2). The overall mean shoots dry weight increased by 34.7% with HF condition, while such an increase was 51.9% for tuber yield."},{"index":2,"size":157,"text":"Among the genotypes screened under two-variable soil fertility status, sixteen produced significantly higher tuber yield in HF condition than when grown with LF condition (Table 3). In contrast, five genotypes did not show significant tuber yield differences between the LF and HF conditions. The percent tuber yield reduction due to LF stress ranged from 33.4 (R125) to 69.8% (R119). The SFSI in tuber yield ranged from 0.64 to 1.34, with a mean of 0.98. The genotypes R034, R041, R050, R052, R060, R100, and R125 showed a lower SFSI than the local variety (0.87) (Table 3). On the other hand, R109, R119, and R131 showed a higher SFSI and larger reduction rate among tested genotypes. Tuber yield ranged from 367.5 (R131) to 1205.0 (R025) g plant −1 under LF condition (Figure 3). The tuber yield of R025 and R034 were significantly higher than that of the local variety (199% and 187%, respectively) followed by R052 at LF condition."},{"index":3,"size":165,"text":"The shoot dry weight of fourteen genotypes was significantly lower in LF than HF conditions (Table 4). On the contrary, seven genotypes showed non-significant differences in shoot dry weight between the LF and HF conditions (Table 4). Genotype R131 showed a 44.9% reduction in shoot dry weight in LF condition than the HF condition (averaged across the years). The lowest shoot dry weight reduction of 29.2% was recorded from the genotype R125 (Table 4). The soil fertility susceptibility index (SFSI) for shoot dry weight ranged from 0.64 (R125) to 1.30 (R131). The genotypes R041, R052, R101, R125, and R141 had lower SFSI values than the local variety (0.88).  Shoot dry weight had a positive and significant correlation with tuber yield in both LF (r = 0.69, p = 0.0005) and HF plots (r = 0.75, p < 0.0001) (Figure 4). Likewise, SFSI for shoot dry weight had a positive and significant correlation with SFSI for tuber yield (r = 0.71, p = 0.0002) (Figure 5)."}]},{"head":"DISCUSSION","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":283,"text":"This study assessed white Guinea yam genotypes' response to contrasting soil fertility levels, the LF and HF at field condition. The LF condition created by planting cassava, sorghum, and maize before yam planting was significant for assessing the yam's genetic variation at variable soil nutrients. Due to cassava, sorghum and maize cultivation from 2016 to 2018, the nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium contents decreased by 0.10%, 4.50% and 0.32 Cmol[+]kg −1 , respectively (Table 1). Cassava is heavy soil nutrient mining crop that could remove up to 86 -177 kg ha −1 nitrogen, 70 -104 kg ha −1 phosphorus and 70 -104 kg ha −1 potassium from the soil during the growing period (Ezui et al., 2017). Likewise, Kumar et al. (2017) reported that sorghum plant could remove up to 107 -290 kg ha −1 nitrogen, 62 -152 kg ha −1 phosphorus and 339 -731 kg ha −1 potassium from the soil during growing period. Heckman et al. (2003) has quantified the nutrient removal by maize grain as 10.2 to 15.0 g kg −1 of nitrogen, 2.2 to 5.4 g kg −1 of phosphorus and 3.1 to 6.2 g kg −1 potassium. Soil mineral nutrient depletion by planting cassava, sorghum and maize in our experimental field was substantial. According to Chude et al. (2011), our experimental field (Table 1) had available low soil nutrients and could be inferred as close to a critical level for yam cultivation. Though the critical soil nutrient levels for yam cultivation has not yet established in West Africa, yam cultivation in soils containing < 0.1% nitrogen, < 10 mg kg −1 available P, and 0.15 Cmol[+] kg −1 of exchangeable K requires external fertilizer inputs (Carsky et al., 2010)."},{"index":2,"size":152,"text":"Yam tubers express variable sprouting time depending on the position or section of the tuber cut as a sett and used for planting. Seed tuber setts cut from the head section often sprouts earlier than that cut from the middle and tuber tail parts (Onwueme, 1973). The variation in sprout emergence time is the main cause of variation in shoot biomass size and tuber yield within plot in yam trials (Cornet et al., 2014). Within plot tuber yield variation due to differential sprout emergence of the tuber setts originating from the different section of the tuber is a potential factor complicating the interpretation of the field experiment results in yam. To control such variability, this study used setts from the middle section tubers as planting material and pre-sprouted them to successfully establish uniform plants within plots in the field and assess genotypes response to low soil fertility stress and added fertilizer input."},{"index":3,"size":188,"text":"We identified genotypes sensitive and tolerant to low nutrient soil stress using the susceptibility index values (Tables 3, 4). The susceptibility index has been widely used to identify sensitive and tolerant genotypes for drought stress in wheat (Fischer and Maurer, 1978;Clarke et al., 1984;Winter et al., 1988;Clarke et al., 1992), maize, triticale (Kutlu and Kinaci, 2010;Grzesiak et al., 2013), and cassava (Oliveira et al., 2017) and soil fertility stress in common bean (Singh et al., 2003). Accordingly, R119, R109, and R131 combined higher SFSI values with tuber yield increase at HF condition were suitable candidates to maximize productivity under high input cultivation. Likewise, R034, R041, R050, R052, R060, R100, and R125 combined lower SFSI with a low rate of reduction in tuber yield were tolerant to low soil fertility stress. The genotype R025 and R034 had the tuber yielding potential twice of local variety under low nutrient soil stress (Figure 3). Besides, R025 has the yield potential of more than 1 kg of tuber plant −1 under the LF condition, which is higher than that has been reported in previous white Guinea yam study (Sartie et al., 2012)."},{"index":4,"size":350,"text":"There have been many conflicting reports on fertilizers' effect on yam production (Enesi et al., 2017). It is presumed that the variation in weather conditions and trial soil fertility status are the possible causes for these conflicting reports (Kang and Wilson, 1981;Lugo et al., 1993;Diby et al., 2011). Varietal differences in fertilizer responses and susceptibility to the low soil fertility might complicate the understanding of application of the fertilizer trial results in yam cultivation. Fertilizer response in yam seems genotype and growth context specific. Hence, genetic improvement efforts need to integrate high yields with high nutrient use efficiency at target farming system ( Asiedu and Sartie, 2010). The use of nutrient efficient genotypes should be maximized through breeding and genetic studies to establish environmentally friendly/sustainable agriculture in yam farming system. We found that the breeding lines performed better than the local variety for low soil fertility tolerance and the added fertilizer response in our experiment. The observed superiority of improved genotypes compared to the local variety ' Amula' could be genetic or health status of the planting materials used. Seed degeneration due to virus infection/load is a critical problem with clonally propagated crops like yam. Yield reduction due to virus disease has been reported to be over 40% in yams (Kenyon et al., 2001). The local variety's viral load might be higher than breeding genotypes used in the experiment as local cultivar's chronological age is not well known. It has been cultivated and maintained in the field for several years by vegetative propagation, which could have caused the sub-optimal yield performance. The planting materials used in our trial, including the local variety, were visually selected disease-free tubers from disease-free plants. Work done in IITA on a positive selection with seed yam showed a significant decrease in virus incidence and disease severity score while maintaining reasonably good yields (Aihebhoria et al., 2017). However, we did not index the virus status of the planting materials in our trial and acknowledge the sub-optimal yield of local variety could be a confounded effect of the health status of the variety used in the trial."},{"index":5,"size":183,"text":"We noticed an increase in shoot dry weight with added fertilizer, but the impact varied over the years (Figure 2 and Table 2). The difference in fertilizer impact between 2018 and 2019 may be due to different meteorological conditions during field experiments (Figure 2). The temperature was identical in the two years, but the sunshine duration in 2018 was longer than in 2019, mostly from 30 to 90 days after planting when it was shoot growth phase in yam plants (Lebot, 2019). Since the total rainfall in 2019 was higher than in 2018, it could be considered that the utilization efficiency was low due to the outflow of fertilizer by the rain. However, detailed data of meteorological conditions were not recorded and also out of scope this study to quantify nutrient loss by leaching and surface run-off. Attempt was made to apply fertilizer in no rainy days to avoid the chance of excessive nutrient loss from the trial field. Therefore, further investigation is needed to determine type of meteorological factors that influence the fertilizer's impact on the shoot growth of white Guinea yam."},{"index":6,"size":288,"text":"Our results revealed higher shoot biomass is critical for increased tuber yields in LF and HF conditions (Figure 4). Biomass accumulation and partitioning predicts the tuber yield in yam. Enhanced shoot biomass could support higher tuber yield through the genotype's efficiency for photosynthate accumulation and partitioning to the storage organ. The positive relationship between fresh tuber yield and shoot dry weight has also been reported (Akoroda, 1984;Sartie et al., 2012) and indicated that vigor biomass might be a morphological marker for selecting genotypes of white Guinea yam for high tuber yield (Sartie et al., 2012). On the other hand, it was suggested that SFSI of shoot growth alone as selection criteria for LF tolerance is not advocated. In genotypes, the SFSI in the shoot growth and the tuber yield was not consistent (Figure 5). Mineral fertilizer effect on yam shoot growth is greatly affected by the growth condition or environment. In contrast, the effect of fertilizer application on tuber yield was greatly affected by the genotypes used (Table 2). Our results, however, were based on limited sample size; hence the further analysis of a large population would provide a better understanding of SFSI of shoot and tuber yield in white Guinea yam. In addition, it has been reported that the predicted value of shoot dry weight using NDVI-based phenotyping method in D. rotundata is underestimated when shoot dry weight exceeds 200 g plant −1 (Iseki and Matsumoto, 2019). However, the predicted value of shoot dry weight rarely exceeded 200 g plant −1 even in HF condition. This is in agreement with the finding from the previous study on D. rotundata (Iseki and Matsumoto, 2019). In this sense, the method could also be useful to apply for field evaluation."},{"index":7,"size":150,"text":"In this study, genotypic differences among white Guinea yam (D. rotundata) genotypes in response to low soil fertility and added fertilizer input (NPK) were investigated. Future research should include more physiological studies of yam, as there is minimal information available currently. The present study revealed wide variations among the white Guinea yam genotypes for low soil fertility tolerance and added fertilizer response. The genotypes, R034, R041, R050, R052, R060, R100, and R125, were identified as low soil tolerance genotypes in this study. On the other hand, R119, R109, and R131 were susceptible to available low soil nutrient but responsive to mineral fertilizer input. Besides, R025 and R034 have a high potential to produce higher tuber yield than the local variety under LF conditions. The use of superior genotypes identified herewith should be maximized in breeding and genetic studies to develop improved varieties that enhance productivity under variable yam farming systems."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"FIGURE 1 | FIGURE 1 | Air temperature, precipitation, and duration of sunshine during the growth periods at IITA Ibadan, Nigeria. The air temperature (left box) includes solid lines and dashed lines representing maximum and minimum air temperature averages, respectively, for every 15 days after planting. For precipitation (center box) and sunshine duration (right box), data are cumulative values for every 15 days after planting. "},{"text":"FIGURE 2 | FIGURE 2 | Effects of fertilizer application on shoot dry weight at 150 days after planting (A) and tuber yield (B) of white Guinea Yam varieties. Bars indicate the standard deviation (n = 21). "},{"text":"FIGURE 3 | FIGURE 3 | Varietal differences in tuber yield in 21 white Guinea yam genotypes at low nutrients soil conditions. Data are the average of values obtained during a 2-year field experiment. Statistical significance was determined by Dunnett's test. ***(p < 0.001), **(p < 0.01) and + (p < 0.1) when compared with the local variety. Bars indicate standard error (n = 12). R means TDr1302 as IITA yam breeding code. "},{"text":"FIGURE 5 | FIGURE 5 | Correlation between soil fertility susceptibility index of shoot dry weight and soil fertility susceptibility index of tuber yield in 21 white Guinea yam genotypes. R means TDr1302 as IITA yam breeding code. "},{"text":"TABLE 1 | Soil chemical properties of the trial sites at IITA Ibadan, Nigeria. Soil Properties 2016 2018 Soil Properties20162018 pH 5.93 6.41 pH5.936.41 Organic carbon (%) 1.23 0.15 Organic carbon (%)1.230.15 Nitrogen (%) 0.13 0.03 Nitrogen (%)0.130.03 Phosphorus (mg kg −1 ) 6.12 1.62 Phosphorus (mg kg −1 )6.121.62 Calcium (Cmol[+] kg −1 ) 3.36 3.19 Calcium (Cmol[+] kg −1 )3.363.19 Magnesium (Cmol[+] kg −1 ) 0.46 0.90 Magnesium (Cmol[+] kg −1 )0.460.90 Potassium (Cmol[+] kg −1 ) 0.59 0.27 Potassium (Cmol[+] kg −1 )0.590.27  "},{"text":"TABLE 2 | Analysis of deviance (Type II Wald chi square tests for linear mixed model) of shoot dry weight and tuber yield in 21 white Guinea yam genotypes. Shoot dry weight Chisq Df Pr (> Chisq)  Shoot dry weightChisqDfPr (> Chisq) Year (Y) 30.6 1 1.1E−12 *** Year (Y)30.611.1E−12*** Fertilizer treatment (T) 261.1 1 2.2E−16 *** Fertilizer treatment (T)261.112.2E−16*** Genotype (G) 63.5 20 8.0E−01 *** Genotype (G)63.5208.0E−01*** Y x T 20.9 1 54E−06 *** Y x T20.9154E−06*** Y x G 17.7 20 1.00  Y x G17.7201.00 T x G 28.6 20 0.14  T x G28.6200.14 Y x T x G 24.9 20 0.72  Y x T x G24.9200.72 Tuber yield     Tuber yield Year (Y) 11.6 1 0.001 *** Year (Y)11.610.001*** Fertilizer treatment (T) 183.9 1 2.2E−16 *** Fertilizer treatment (T)183.912.2E−16*** Genotype (G) 147.9 20 2.2E−16 *** Genotype (G)147.9202.2E−16*** Y x T 1.4 1 0.24  Y x T1.410.24 Y x G 28.7 20 0.09  Y x G28.7200.09 T x G 67.3 20 0.5E−06 *** T x G67.3200.5E−06*** Y x T X G 16.8 20 0.67  Y x T X G16.8200.67  "},{"text":"TABLE 3 | Effect of genotype and soil fertility on tuber yield (gram per plant) in 21 white Guinea yam genotypes. Soil fertility susceptibility index; p-value was calculated using t-test between low soil fertility and high soil fertility condition. R means TDr1302 as IITA yam breeding code. Detail codes for the genotypes presented in Supplementary Material 1. Genotype  Tuber yield (g plant −1 )  †  GenotypeTuber yield (g plant −1 )  †  LF HF PR p-Value SFSI LFHFPRp-ValueSFSI R125  † † 908.3 1363.8 33.4 0.05 0.64 R125  † †908.31363.833.40.050.64 R052 1034.6 1604.2 35.5 0.10 0.68 R0521034.61604.235.50.100.68 R060 1003.3 1587.5 36.8 0.09 0.71 R0601003.31587.536.80.090.71 R041 1010.8 1652.5 38.8 0.08 0.75 R0411010.81652.538.80.080.75 R100 944.2 1639.2 42.4 0.18 0.82 R100944.21639.242.40.180.82 R050 882.9 1545.0 42.9 0.04 0.83 R050882.91545.042.90.040.83 R034 1124.2 2028.3 44.6 0.01 0.86 R0341124.22028.344.60.010.86 Local variety 602.9 1099.2 45.1 0.01 0.87 Local variety602.91099.245.10.010.87 R133 891.7 1775.8 49.8 0.04 0.96 R133891.71775.849.80.040.96 R069 707.5 1419.4 50.2 0.01 0.97 R069707.51419.450.20.010.97 R120 780.0 1572.5 50.4 0.00 0.97 R120780.01572.550.40.000.97 R101 893.3 1860.0 52.0 0.01 1.00 R101893.31860.052.00.011.00 R141 851.7 1842.5 53.8 0.01 1.04 R141851.71842.553.80.011.04 R117 800.0 1799.2 55.5 0.03 1.07 R117800.01799.255.50.031.07 R028 863.8 1974.2 56.2 0.00 1.08 R028863.81974.256.20.001.08 R025 1205.0 2756.7 56.3 0.00 1.08 R0251205.02756.756.30.001.08 R056 863.3 1992.5 56.7 0.01 1.09 R056863.31992.556.70.011.09 R030 571.7 1461.7 60.9 0.00 1.17 R030571.71461.760.90.001.17 R109 795.0 2506.7 68.3 0.00 1.32 R109795.02506.768.30.001.32 R131 367.5 1160.0 68.3 0.01 1.32 R131367.51160.068.30.011.32 R119 755.8 2500.0 69.8 0.01 1.34 R119755.82500.069.80.011.34 Mean 850.4 1768.6 50.8  0.98 Mean850.41768.650.80.98         "},{"text":"TABLE 4 | Effect of genotype and soil fertility on shoot dry weight (gram per plant) in 21 white Guinea yam genotypes. Correlation between shoot dry weight and tuber yield under low nutrients soil fertility condition and high nutrient soil condition in 21 white Guinea yam genotypes. Genotype  Shoot dry weight (g plant −1 )  †  GenotypeShoot dry weight (g plant −1 )  †  LF HF PR p-Value SFSI LFHFPRp-ValueSFSI R125 110.3 142.5 22.6 0.06 0.64 R125110.3142.522.60.060.64 R101 107.4 139.0 22.7 0.16 0.66 R101107.4139.022.70.160.66 R052 108.3 143.9 24.8 0.14 0.71 R052108.3143.924.80.140.71 R041 127.0 172.6 26.4 0.06 0.76 R041127.0172.626.40.060.76 R141 113.3 153.9 26.3 0.05 0.76 R141113.3153.926.30.050.76 Local variety 104.1 150.4 30.8 0.06 0.08 Local variety104.1150.430.80.060.08 R060 97.7 142.5 31.4 0.10 0.89 R06097.7142.531.40.100.89 R120 101.9 152.2 33.1 0.03 0.95 R120101.9152.233.10.030.95 R100 104.4 159.4 34.5 0.04 0.97 R100104.4159.434.50.040.97 R028 113.1 171.7 34.1 0.00 0.99 R028113.1171.734.10.000.99 R069 92.9 142.3 34.7 0.02 1.00 R06992.9142.334.70.021.00 R025 116.4 177.9 34.6 0.05 1.00 R025116.4177.934.60.051.00 R133 102.3 164.2 37.7 0.01 1.08 R133102.3164.237.70.011.08 R117 100.9 162.3 37.8 0.03 1.09 R117100.9162.337.80.031.09 R034 101.8 167.4 39.2 0.01 1.12 R034101.8167.439.20.011.12 R050 98.6 163.6 39.7 0.02 1.14 R05098.6163.639.70.021.14 R056 98.0 164.5 40.4 0.01 1.16 R05698.0164.540.40.011.16 R119 99.3 170.6 41.8 0.04 1.20 R11999.3170.641.80.041.20 R030 84.9 148.7 42.9 0.01 1.24 R03084.9148.742.90.011.24 R109 106.3 188.1 43.5 0.00 1.25 R109106.3188.143.50.001.25 R131 80.1 145.4 44.9 0.02 1.30 R13180.1145.444.90.021.30 Mean 103.3 158.2 34.7  0.99 Mean103.3158.234.70.99  "}],"sieverID":"59f691b6-6b67-4e70-8f49-699c88d071da","abstract":""}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"083510696e707d3933615614d1abba3f","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/ad9991b3-39c1-4fe4-a562-86e6081fd5f0/retrieve"},"pageCount":6,"title":"n DAAD Call for Applications: Developmentrelated postgraduate courses Master's scholarships in the framework of the Special Initiative on Training and Job Creation. application deadline: varies with programs. Click for details","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[]}],"figures":[{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"application deadline: varies with programs. Click  Funding -Grants and awards Funding -Grants and awards n Crop Science Society of America. Emerging Leader n CSIRO -Postdoctoral fellowship in nutritional physiology for African Agricultural Transformation (ELAAT) for scientists and engineers who have completed their Award. application deadline: march 11, 2021. doctorate but have less than three years of relevant Click for details. postdoctoral work experience. application deadline: march 15, 2021. Click for details. n Net Zero Challenge -How can you advance climate action using open data? application n American University of Beirut -Mastercard Foundation deadline: march 12, 2021. Click for details. Scholars Program for graduate education. application deadline: march 18, 2021. Click for details. n World Wildlife Fund Russell E. Train Fellowship for masters or doctoral degree in conservation. application deadline: march 21, 2021. Click n Agropolis Foundation Shift Prize for Transformative Agroecological Research for Development. application deadline: march 15, 2021. 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Emerging Leader n CSIRO -Postdoctoral fellowship in nutritional physiology for African Agricultural Transformation (ELAAT) for scientists and engineers who have completed their Award. application deadline: march 11, 2021. doctorate but have less than three years of relevant Click for details. postdoctoral work experience. application deadline: march 15, 2021. Click for details. n Net Zero Challenge -How can you advance climate action using open data? application n American University of Beirut -Mastercard Foundation deadline: march 12, 2021. Click for details. Scholars Program for graduate education. application deadline: march 18, 2021. Click for details. n World Wildlife Fund Russell E. Train Fellowship for masters or doctoral degree in conservation. application deadline: march 21, 2021. Click n Agropolis Foundation Shift Prize for Transformative Agroecological Research for Development. application deadline: march 15, 2021. 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Click for details. for details. n Japan International Research Center for Agricultural Sciences (JIRCAS) -Japan International Award for Young Agricultural Researchers 2021. application deadline:n Boehringer Ingelheim Fonds -PhD fellowships of 2 to 3.5 years to outstanding junior scientists worldwide who wish to pursue an ambitious PhD project in basic biomedical research in an internationally leading laboratory. application deadline: June 1, 2021. Click for details. n DAAD In-Country/In-Region scholarship program sub-Saharan Africa. application deadline: June 15, 2021. Click for details. n Pirbright Institute -PhD Studentships. application deadline: vary with program. Click for details. n Fulbright Foreign Student Program. application deadline: varying by country. Click for details. n Commonwealth Split-site Scholarships for low-and middle-income countries for PhD candidates. application deadline: opening soon. Click for details. march 22, 2021. Click for details. n FAO Fellows Program for PhD students, researchers, march 22, 2021. Clickfor details.n FAO Fellows Program for PhD students, researchers, n UNESCO Equatorial Guinea international prize for research in the life sciences. application deadline: march 31,2021. Click for details. and professors, who have an advanced level of relevant technical knowledge and experience in any field. application deadline: august 8, 2021. Click for details. n UNESCO Equatorial Guinea international prize for research in the life sciences. application deadline: march 31,2021. Click for details.and professors, who have an advanced level of relevant technical knowledge and experience in any field. application deadline: august 8, 2021. Click for details.  "},{"text":"application deadline: march 31, 2021. Click for details. n The World Academy of Sciences (TWAS) Research GrantsProgram in basic sciences individuals and groups.  "}],"sieverID":"38c608df-ace7-4f84-acdb-d39806da3d97","abstract":"Click for details. n PhD Fellowship -Pollen-based reconstructions of UV radiation history. application deadline: march 12, 2021. Click for details. n Norwegian University of Life Sciences -PhD scholarship in ecology of soil-plant interactions in tropical grasslands. application deadline: march 14, 2021. Click for details. n Eisenhower Fellowships (EF) -Africa program for regional leaders fighting climate change. application deadline: march 15, 2021. Click for details. Fellowships, scholarships and internships 2 capacity development p h o t o c o u rt es y: Go ogle .com photo credit: ilRi capacity development 3"}

data/part_3/0843e86d2e29c7e9143a8504102c0535.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0843e86d2e29c7e9143a8504102c0535","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/61b5f174-e01b-47c3-86e2-98fcf7ee717e/retrieve"},"pageCount":41,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Summary","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":91,"text":"CIAT developed the 5Q approach (5Q) as a cost-effective and innovative system for capturing near-realtime feedback within projects. 5Q uses smart-question-trees (5Q-SQTs) and digital tools to complement traditional methods of data collection. It has been widely used to measure changes in knowledge/attitudes/skills to understand the adoption of climate-smart agricultural (CSA) practices and for M&E systems of climate-smart villages. It uses simple sets of questions part of a logic-question-tree structure, implemented at multiple rounds, thus simplifying the burden for respondents while rapidly and with high frequency providing feedback to the project implementers."},{"index":2,"size":120,"text":"Our research validates 5Q for the collection of gender data on empowerment in climate adaptation projects. The Gender and Social Inclusion 5Q (GSI-5Q) draws on the GEI framework by Hariharan et al. (2020) and builds on the Women's Empowerment in Agriculture Index (WEAI) and Global Gender Gap Index, and indicators from the CSV multilevel Monitoring Framework (CSV-MMF), this study measures empowerment concerning CSA. It aims to contribute approaches for collecting data by considering different digital channels for data collection and piloting short but more frequent surveys through 5Q. To that end, first, we test and evaluate diverse digital channels (text/IVR/voice-messages/etc.) for reaching women and youth for data collection (as well as the delivery of relevant information service) in CSA projects."},{"index":3,"size":75,"text":"Results of a first survey with 402 respondents show that farmers are willing to use mobile phones to receive agricultural information. But they prefer voice channels over text what is related to the low education and literacy level (51% responded that they do not know how to read and write). Further, farmers want to receive agricultural information on different channels (53%) but over 90% are very satisfied or satisfied receiving it on their mobile phone."},{"index":4,"size":35,"text":"76% of respondents have their own mobile phone, 18% of them smart phones. 89% of the ones that do not have an own mobile phone can use someone else phone, mostly from another family member."},{"index":5,"size":165,"text":"As other channels to access information they prefer radio, agent visits, and talking to other farmers. 60% of respondents asked for training to learn how to use the phone to receive agricultural information, and 75% are motivated to use it for receiving agricultural information. Most farmer would like to receive weather information (83%), followed by market prices (73%), information on crop varieties (70%), management practices and new technologies (59%), inputs (57%), pest and diseases (55%), and credits programs (48%). About one third of respondents have very good connectivity on their farm (voice and internet), and 38% have good voice connection but slow internet. Most respondents also can use their phone daily and 71% can afford to pay for airtime by themselves. 84% responded that they are always available on their phones. Finally, 35% responded that they already access agricultural information on their phone, and 58% plan to do it soon. Only 7% responded to not plan to access agricultural services on their mobile phones soon."},{"index":6,"size":105,"text":"The pilot implemented in Ghana showed that using 5Q and IVR is a cost-efficient way for collecting gender data on empowerment in climate adaptation projects and can be best used to collect structured questions on knowledge, attitudes, and skills (KAS) and questions about farmers perceptions. We obtained a consent from 583 main contacts and 168 Spouses, a total of 442 main contacts completed their first block 'Access to climate information services and agricultural advisories' (ADWS), 310 main contacts and 88 spouses completed block two 'Implementation of Climate-Smart agriculture' (CSA), and 255 main contacts and 89 spouses completed block three 'Decision making on CSA implementation' (DIS)."}]},{"head":"Introduction","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":151,"text":"More work is needed to close the gender gap in awareness and adoption of CSA options, enhancing resilience to a changing climate and thus improve agricultural livelihoods (Bernier-et-al., 2015). Additionally, more knowledge is needed on how and whether CSA can contribute to gender equality and women's empowerment (Huyer-and-Partey,2020). Gender and socially inclusive digital technologies and delivery mechanism can make significant contributions to this work by reaching diverse farmers at scale with targeted products. However, there is a persistent lack of information about women's preferences for information, use of digital channels, and results of CIS use (Chaudhury et al. 2012;Garciaet-al, 2019). Furthermore, as the provision of agricultural information rapidly transitions to digitalized channels, the gender-digital divide could inadvertently widen the gender gaps in all aspects of agriculture (May 2012). Thus, incorporating gender and social inclusion considerations in digital information channels in agriculture should be a key priority area in research and development."},{"index":2,"size":137,"text":"5Q is a cost-effective, agile approach for data collection with wide applications (Jarvis et al., 2015). The application of 5Q to a research activity consists of three parts. First, based on the project's need, surveys are designed as simple sets of 5Q-SQTs implemented in rounds. Second, the most suitable digital tool is selected for operating the 5Q rounds. Finally, automated scripts for calculating indicators and dashboards for visualization of descriptive analytics are used to share results near realtime and at high frequencies with project stakeholders. Since its initial development, 5Q has been implemented in different research projects and using different digital tools for data collection and visualization. For example, it has been used to collect sex-disaggregated data for M&E of adoption of CSA options in 14 countries. However, it has not been used for gender-specific research questions."},{"index":3,"size":76,"text":"With its agility and simplicity, we hypothesize that 5Q holds strong potential for gender, youth, and social inclusion research. It can contribute to understanding both the gender barriers that exist for adopting CSA options and what digital channels work most efficiently (Pariyo et al., 2019) to reach women and marginalized groups within farming communities. It can also contribute to better gender data that can enhance the understanding of empowerment and gender equality in climate adaptation contexts."},{"index":4,"size":118,"text":"Our research project adjusted 5Q for gender, youth, and social inclusion research. The Gender and Social Inclusion 5Q (GSI-5Q) draws on the GEI framework by Hariharan et al. (2020). In a series of conceptualization workshops, we co-designed a set of 5Q-SQTs and developed a survey to identify the most effective digital channels for women/youth to access and use information. In a pilot in Norther Ghana and in collaboration with Esoko Ghana, we tested our approach to collect gender data. Esoko and other private partners have highlighted the need for flexible tools for gender-relevant data collection that can be used to improve the information, services, and technologies they provide to diverse farmers and for evaluating the preferred dissemination channels."}]},{"head":"Methods","index":3,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"The 5Q approach","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":195,"text":"5Q is a concept that uses the principle of keeping data collection smart and simple by asking five thoughtful questions in question-logic-trees in repeated cycles or rounds and by using cost-effective digital communication tools for data collection. The approach can be embedded in a project monitoring and evaluation plan and used complementary to participatory tools and traditional data collection methods (Figure 1). 5Q starts by identifying questions that respond to a research question or a project's theory of change. Questions can recall a farmers' perception, monitor the effects of implemented activities, or evaluate adoption, among others. Next, a logic-tree structure is used to define the sequence of the survey. Questions are linked in a tree structure by branches and decision nodes, connecting a respondent-based answer choice to the following question block. A 5Q survey using question-tree requests about five answers from a respondent within one survey round, depending on the respondent's pathway through the question-tree branches and nodes (Figure 2, left). At the end of each survey round, respondents can be grouped based on typologies from survey answers. The created groups can be used for tree variations for the next survey round (Figure 2, right). "}]},{"head":"CSA Multilevel Monitoring Framework","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":142,"text":"CCAFS Flagship 2 developed the CSA Multilevel Monitoring Framework (CSA-MMF). This framework supports a global, systemic and standardized effort to build context-specific evidence on: i) adoption trends, drivers associated with the implementation of CSA practices and technologies, and access and use of climate information services (CIS); ii) Gender-disaggregated perceived effects of the implementation of CSA practices on household level Income, productivity, food security, adaptive capacity and gender dimensions; and iii) effects of CSA practices and technologies on farm level performance (in terms of the three CSA pillars. The framework aims to better understand to which extent farmers 'implementation of CSA options might lead to positive socio-economic and biophysical changes. The CSA-MMF provides standard metrics made of a set of Core Indicators linked to the research questions, and at household, an additional set of Extended indicators covering aspects related to the enabling environment. "}]},{"head":"At farm level","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":26,"text":"Seven Core indicators are used to determine the CSA performance of the farms as well as synergies and trade-offs among the three pillars (productivity-adaptation and mitigation)."}]},{"head":"Gender Empowerment Index for CSVs (GEI-CSVs)","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":84,"text":"The Gender Empowerment Index for CSVs is based on the Global Gender Gap Index (World Economic Forum 2014) and Woman Empowerment in Agriculture Index (WEAI) (Alkire et al., 2013). It uses four major domains, including political, economic, agricultural, and social. The domain indicators are collected using the Likert scale and weights for each indicator to categorize results and empowerment and equality level for responses of the sample population: Political (P) p1 independent right to vote 50% P2 More participation in village-level decision making 50%"},{"index":2,"size":240,"text":"Economic (E) e1 Improved earning opportunity 50% e2 Improved skill set and capability to work 50% Social (S) s1 Increase access to credit/KCC/bank and its facilities 12.5% s2 Improved participation in the decision on spending money for agriculture 12.5% s3 Improved participation in the decision on spending money on home expenses 12.5% s4 Improved participation in the decision on spending money on child education 12.5% s5 Better control of money for education for children 12.5% s6 Better control of money for health for family 12.5% s7 Better access to a mobile phone 12.5% s8 Better access to insurance 12.5% Agricultural (A) a1 Better awareness that climate variability can be a risk to agriculture 5.8% a2 Better access to information to manage agricultural risk 5.8% a3 Better information on nutrient application 5.8% a4 Better access to nutrient application practices 5.8% a5 Improved soil/land quality 5.8% a6 Improved water use efficiency 5.8% a7 Better access to improved seeds 5.8% a8 Better access to quality inputs 5.8% a9 Increased use of weather-based insurance/crop insurance 5.8% a10 Better access to machines 5.8% a11 Better access to markets (input and output) 5.8% a12 Better participation in the sale of livestock products 5.8% a13 Better participation in training/workshops/seminars 5.8% a14 Better crop diversification/ any change in cropping pattern 5.8% a15 Improved role in decision-related to change in cropping pattern 5.8% a16 Better access to information through mobile-based agro-advisories 5.8% a17 Improved income through selling output 5.8%"}]},{"head":"Interactive voice response","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":109,"text":"Interactive voice response surveys (IVR) have been applied for a longer time in developing countries in the health sector. Experiences in using IVR for health in Ghana and Uganda showed positive attitudes toward IVR by respondents and constant response rates over a more extended time (L'Engle et al., 2018;Byonanebye et al., 2021). The ease of use, empathy, trust in information source, cultural and language factors, availability, and accessibility, reduced costs, and women's empowerment supports the willingness to use IVR systems. On the other hand, the barriers to use are lack of human interaction, the complexity of information, and facilitating conditions, especially lack of technical infrastructure (Brinkel et al., 2017)."},{"index":2,"size":134,"text":"Transforming research toward more agile data collection, using IVR, an automated phone system using recorded messages that allows callers to interact with the system without speaking to an agent, as a medium to reach people in LMICs, and overcome language and literacy barriers has become relevant recently. Advantages of IVR compared to other communication channels, e.g., text message services, mobile phone applications, radio programs, among others, are factually precise; voice messages can be recorded in different local languages and accessed on-demand, and farmers can easily follow the voice message even if they do not know how to read. For scientists, the advantages are more cost-effective data collection since operating mobile phone calls is usually cheap and produces ready-to-analyze data in near real-time because being stored just-in-time while operating the call-in cloud storage (Eitzinger, 2021)."}]},{"head":"Results","index":9,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Identifying the most effective digital channels to reach women and youth.","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":33,"text":"In collaboration between Alliance researchers and Esoko, we developed a standard interview survey to identify the most effective digital channel to reach women and youth. The interview is grouped into the following sections:"},{"index":2,"size":44,"text":"• Demographic (D) characterization gender, age, marital status, education level, literacy, agricultural experience, part of agricultural community, participation in agricultural decisions, household composition, household assets, type of housing, number of rooms, purpose of agriculture, type of household income, size of farm, primary crop/livestock activity"}]},{"head":"• Facilitating conditions for access (A), resources (R), and use (U) to digital channels","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":144,"text":"Experience with computers, experience with mobile phones, experience with internet, cell phone ownership, type of phone, network connectivity on farm, distance to reach connectivity, frequency of access, phone charger, how much call credit, how much airtime, GB/month, affordability of airtime, frequency of phone use • Having the knowledge (K) how to use and what is the social norm (SN) for using digital channels knowledge access ag-info, what phone functions used, digital channel for ag-info, how long access ag-info, satisfaction on ag-info, other channels to access ag-info, preferences for different digital channels, preferred type of ag-info, preferred other info, social acceptance of mobile phones • Attitudes towards (AT) using digital channels, perceived usefulness (PU), behavioral intention to use (BIU), and perceived ease of use (PEOU) how difficult is access of ag-info on phone, Attitudes towards mobile phone for ag-info, perceptions about mobile phones for ag-info"},{"index":2,"size":11,"text":"The complete survey and questions can be found in Annex 1."}]},{"head":"Results from pilot in Ghana","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":42,"text":"Esoko collected data from 200 randomly selected households in the Jirapa District in Northern Ghana. Two household members with opposite gender were interviewed (400 survey responses). Enumerators in local villages and surveys carried out using Esoko's data collection tool Insyt (Figure 4). "}]},{"head":"Response summary: Digital Inclusion survey","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":129,"text":"We present selected responses from the survey. From 402 total responses, 40% were female, 47% responded to have no education, and 23% only primary school; 51% responded that they do not how to write and read. Most mentioned household assets were bicycle (81%), radio (80%), hoe (75%), motorbike (54%), television (47%). Most used type of house (78%) is mud house with sheet roof. Regarding agriculture, for 83% of respondents, agriculture is their primary activity, but most of them (65%) are not part of any agricultural community group, the purpose of agriculture is intended mainly for consumption by their own household (100%). However, 97% of participants also responded that they received income from agriculture self-employment, 52% received income from non-agriculture income, and 22% from agriculture wage-work on someone else's farm."},{"index":2,"size":80,"text":"Most respondents perceive that mobile phone make agriculture easier (68%), and 76% agree that mobile phones provide correct information. However, 48% trust experts more than information from mobile phones. Half of respondents use mobile phones more than 5 years but have no experience with computers. 76% of respondents have their own mobile phone, 18% of them smart phones. 89% of the ones that do not have an own mobile phone can use someone else phone, mostly from another family member."},{"index":3,"size":87,"text":"About one third of respondents have very good connectivity on their farm (voice and internet), and 38% have good voice connection but slow internet. Most respondents also can use their phone daily and 71% can afford to pay for airtime by themselves. 84% responded that they are always available on their phones. 62% never used their phone to access agricultural information, 85% use it to call an extension agent, 51% use it for a voice-service subscription, 33% for SMS, and 20% to browse the world wide web."},{"index":4,"size":123,"text":"Farmers want to receive agricultural information on different channels (53%) but over 90% are very satisfied or satisfied receiving it on their mobile phone. There is also a difference in ease of use of receiving agriculture information via mobile phone between SMS and voice, 75% responded that it is easy to understand on voice, 36% on SMS. Asking about what other information channels they use for agriculture, radio was mentioned most (85%), followed by visits by agents (51%), talking to other farmers (41%), and meeting and events (46%). Most farmer would like to receive weather information (83%), followed by market prices (73%), information on crop varieties (70%), management practices and new technologies (59%), inputs (57%), pest and diseases (55%), and credits programs (48%)."},{"index":5,"size":55,"text":"Farmer agree/disagree to receive agricultural information of the following digital channels: text message from subscription service (56% agree, 44% disagree), voice message subscription (70% agree, 30% disagree), dial-in service (63% agree, 37% disagree), call a call center (74% agree, 26% disagree), community chat group (46% agree, 54% disagree), and for on demand chat-service (50% agree/disagree)."},{"index":6,"size":80,"text":"Other non-agriculture information services that farmers would like to receive are health-related services (95%), and financial services (66%). With their social communities, it is not common to use the mobile phone to access agricultural information (43%), yes, quite common for both women and men (36%), and yes but mostly by men (23%). 60% of respondents asked for training to learn how to use the phone to receive agricultural information, and 75% are motivated to use it for receiving agricultural information."},{"index":7,"size":22,"text":"They also believe that it would be easy for them (62%), and 51% would even prefer phone advice instead of face-to-face advice."},{"index":8,"size":76,"text":"63% also agreed, that using the mobile phone improves their performance in agricultural activities, and they can rapidly access information (62% agreed). 81% believe that digital services are important now and will be in the future. Finally, 35% responded that they already access agricultural information on their phone, and 58% plan to do it soon. Only 7% responded to not plan to access agricultural services on their mobile phones soon. See Table 1 for detailed results."},{"index":9,"size":10,"text":"3.2. Adjusting 5Q for gender, youth, and social inclusion research."},{"index":10,"size":51,"text":"Gender questions are often complex for surveyors to ask, there are many factors that can produce bias and affect the quality of the respondent's answer. Moreover, the effect of bias and low data answer quality is reinforced when the surveyor is not a natural person but an interactive voice response system."},{"index":11,"size":23,"text":"To apply 5Q for gender and social inclusion, we first define principles that are important for successful application of 5Q for gender research:"},{"index":12,"size":56,"text":"• Factors how to reach women Factors like phone ownership, work schedule, and patriarchal norms are important to understand how women can be reached best in phone surveys. However, these factors might change depending sociocultural conditions. In the case of shared phone use within the household, a handover strategy including warm-up questions is a good strategy."},{"index":13,"size":40,"text":"• Sex of the surveyor Several studies show that female surveyors are better able to speak to women, especially when sensitive questions are asked, but also to avoid suspicion by the male partner when a male is calling his spouse."},{"index":14,"size":27,"text":"• Refusal option Some gender related questions can be sensitive and make the respondent embarrassed. It is therefore important to include a refusal option for sensitive questions."}]},{"head":"• Conversational phrasing","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":20,"text":"Gender questions can sometimes be hard or even misunderstood by the respondent. Questions should therefore be asked in conversational scripts"}]},{"head":"• Introduction and warm up","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":33,"text":"Include longer messages with instructions at the beginning of each block, and make sure that the respondent fully understands the topic. It's best to focus on just one topic for each call block."}]},{"head":"Template for Tree development","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":87,"text":"Following the logic of 5Q, keep it smart and simple, we structured the tree into blocks, each block addressing just one topic, containing maximum five levels of questions. We started the question block with a gender question and leave it open for each topic if the same questions will be asked to women and man. Further, a set of warm up questions can be included to enable phone handover strategy. Tree template A is used, when both gender within a household should respond to the same questions."},{"index":2,"size":268,"text":"The Handover Bridge is included at the beginning of each block and stores a label in the database which of both genders has filled the block. Tree template B should be used in case the women is expected to respond the block, but a male is picking up the phone. In this case, a set of warm up questions will be used to be asked to the mal. Following the warmup questions, the male will be asked to provide a number to reach the female, or hand over the phone to her in case she doesn't have an own phone. Template C is used when no gender segregation is needed.  Example #1 in table 2 shows the scenario of a call that reaches first a male respondent, after finishing Block 1, the respondent provides a phone number for a household member for the opposite gender and option 3 for a suitable call retry time to reach her/him. Example #2 shows the new created record for the second household member, the follow up call will be triggered on the recommended retry time. Example #3 shows a call where the first respondent, a male makes a handover of his phone at the end of the Block 1 to his spouse, and she responds the same Block. Block 1 is recorded in two versions, Block 1 M and Block 1 F, for the following reasons: Record the question with a women voice for female respondents and using a male voice for male respondents. Further, questions in the two block versions can be targeted to the respondent's gender, i.e., for sensitive questions."},{"index":3,"size":30,"text":"For the first pilot in Ghana, we selected the following indicators from the CSV Multilevel Monitoring Framework (Table 3) and developed the 5Q survey trees for the IVR call campaign.  "}]},{"head":"Implementing a Pilot in Ghana","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":130,"text":"In a pilot in Ghana, we implemented an interactive voice response call IVR with farmers from different villages. Table 4 shows the variables that we used to sequence the call status and subscriber characteristics. The variables were used in the call sequence tree to operate recurring calls to the same farmers and link the individual farmer to the next not responded call block. We started the contact database with 1880 phone numbers obtained from our local project partner ESOKO, 298 from the interviews, and we collected 46 new phone numbers during the call campaigns.  Each call was operating through the same call sequence decision tree (Figure 8) depending on labels in the contact database. After finishing a block [ADWS, CSA, DEC], the label was set to 'true' in the database."},{"index":2,"size":60,"text":"Other labels, like gender, age, consent, and the handover bridge option were also stored in the database. All subscribers run through the call sequence during a time window between 3pm and 7pm on each of ten consecutive days. We sent a short text message 30 minutes before the call every day to make farmers aware of the upcoming phone call."},{"index":3,"size":339,"text":"We started the call campaigns on 29 of December 2021 and we run them every day (except Sundays and public holidays) until the 11 of January 2022 (see Table 5). For about a half of the phone numbers (between 35 and 56%) of phone calls failed, which means the farmer did not pick up, or his sim card was not connected to the network. Between 8 and 11% completed the calls, and between 34 and 56% hang up before reaching the end of the call. Within the time window of the same day, we repeated unsuccessful calls two times in quick successions five minutes apart and repeated this up to 3 times until answered, trying every hour.  We obtained a consent from 583 main contacts and 168 Spouses, 70 main contacts and 8 Spouses responded \"No\" to the consent. A total of 73 farmers as main contacts provided a new phone number of a spouse, 95 respondents handed over their phone to their spouses after finishing the first question block, 65 responded that their spouse is not available at the moment but could be reached on another time or day, spouses could be reached on a follow up call, 68 responded that there is no spouse, and 100 responded that their spouse would not be available for a call. The biggest age group where farmers between 18 and 35 years, considered to be youth (Figure 9). After the consent call block, a total of 442 main contacts completed their first block 'Access to climate information services and agricultural advisories' (ADWS). The block started with an introduction message and included five six levels (see Figure 7) with questions (Figure 10, Figure 11, Figure 12). After finishing the first block of questions, the respondent reached the handover bridge. Depending on the respondent's response, the first call ended at this point, or the phone was handed over to a spouse and started from the beginning. The spouse had to respond to the same consent and ADWS question block in the first call."},{"index":4,"size":82,"text":"The second, 'Implementation of Climate-Smart agriculture' (CSA) block, could earliest be filled on a planned next call (usually the next day), and only when the first block ADWS was labeled as completed in the contact database. Questions in the CSA block (Figure 13, Figure 14, Figure 15, Figure 16) also started with a short text of introduction and consisted of a similar structure as block ADWS (6 levels of questions). A total of 310 main contacts and 88 spouses completed block two."},{"index":5,"size":57,"text":"The same applied for the final block on 'Decision making on CSA implementation' (DEC). A total of 255 main contacts and 89 spouses completed block three. Between block two (CSA) and block three (DIS), respondents had the option to complete the next block in the same call or being called for the next block on another day."},{"index":6,"size":30,"text":"Based on responses in block two, respondents were labeled as 'Adopters', 'Non-Adopters', and 'Stopped Implementation', the categories were used in block three about decision making to ask respondents distinct questions."},{"index":7,"size":9,"text":"Interactive visualizations of results can be accessed at: https://5qapproach.org/dashboard/index.html          "}]},{"head":"Discussion","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":119,"text":"Using 5Q and IVR is a cost-efficient way for collecting gender data on empowerment in climate adaptation projects and can be best used to collect structured questions on knowledge, attitudes, and skills (KAS) and questions about farmers perceptions (Eitzinger, 2021). The KAS approach follows the concept that knowledge is the first step for many farmers to adopt a new agricultural innovation (outcome propositions), attitudes toward new practices depend on a combination of the individual's belief that it will lead to the desired outcome (outcome beliefs) and the values they attribute to those outcomes. KAS identifies people's perceptions of a new practice, technology, or service. The concept can be used for gender research when this type of information is required."},{"index":2,"size":100,"text":"Using 5Q, and more specifically in the combination with IVR call campaigns for intra-household data collection was also tested in this project. A new functionality, the 'handover bridge' was introduced for that purpose and tested with farmers. As expected by the researchers, typing in a longer number of the spouses phone number is a challenge for some farmers, and the result shows that it can work but would require more testing. However, the handover-bridge worked well for handing over the same phone to a second person in the household, and consecutively responding to the same questions as the main contact."},{"index":3,"size":323,"text":"The consistency of phone contact database is very important to achieve high response rates on calls because farmers can change phone numbers rapidly or share sim cards within the household or even the community. The response rate can further be improved by setting up call campaigns in sequences of small packages that can be run as connected blocks on an IVR system and allowing a resumption of the call campaign on uncompleted blocks (see Figure 8). With the knowledge of the CG research program on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security (CCAFS), we, the Alliance of Bioversity International and CIAT (Alliance) together with ESOKO, are conducting an agricultural survey with approximately 500 farming households in the area. This will help us to understand what the best digital channels are for reaching women and youth for data collection and as well for the delivery of agriculture related information services. Your participation in this study will be highly appreciated! Your participation in this phone survey involves minimal risk of harm, it's voluntary and it does not involve any type of commitment or monetary compensation from the Alliance, ESOKO, or CCAFS. You may refuse to participate, discontinue the participation in the interview at any time, or skip any question you do not want to discuss. We will do a series of 3 to 5 short calls; each takes approximately 5 minutes of your time. The information that you will provide will be used exclusively for agricultural research purposes and to inform the design of better mechanisms for the delivery of agriculture information and services. The collected data will be analyzed in a confidential way by scientist from the Alliance. Any individual person will not be identifiable based on the collected data. In case that you have any questions or concerns about this study and the interview we welcome you to contact Dr. Anton Eitzinger (Alliance), email [email protected] or Gordon Nikoi (ESOKO) tel. (+233) 20 824 5456"}]},{"head":"Intro short","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":41,"text":"Thank you for participating in an earlier call. Today, we would like to follow up and complete some more questions with you. Your feedback and opinions are very important for our research, we will send you now to the first question."}]},{"head":"CONS","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":13,"text":"Are you willing to participate in a short phone survey for Lays growers?"},{"index":2,"size":157,"text":"Press 1 for: Yes Press 2 for: Yes, but I would like some instructions about how it works Press 3 for: No TRAIN In the following 5 minutes, we will ask you several questions for growers. To participate, you just must listen to the recorded question and the answer option we provide to you. For example: Do you like Farming? Press 1 for Yes, or Press 2 for No, after you listened to the recorded voice, you press the number of your answer option on your phones dial pad, for example if you want to respond yes, press 1. If you want to respond NO press 2 on your phone. Let's now do a real exercise. After listening to the question-and-answer options please press your choice. This is the question: Do you like farming? Press 1 for YES, press 2 for NO. Thank you for participating in the training, we will now send you to the survey."}]},{"head":"OPT-IN","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":21,"text":"Thank you for accepting! Please respond to the following questions using your dial pad pressing one number of the provided options."}]},{"head":"OPT-OUT","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":15,"text":"Would you be willing to respond to questions on your cell phone on another day? "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure 1 . Figure1. The 5q approach is embedded in a project monitoring and evaluation plan. "},{"text":"Figure 2 . Figure 2. 5Q uses survey question-trees. "},{"text":"Figure 3 . Figure 3. The CSA Multilevel Monitoring Framework measures CSA uptake and outcomes at farm and household level. Source: CCAFS "},{"text":"Figure 4 . Figure 4. Insyt data collection tool with analytics dashboard. Source: Esoko "},{"text":"Figure 5 . Figure 5. Template for Tree block design, including the Handover Bridge when men and women have different trees (A), warm up questions for hand-over (B) when women only asked, and simple tree for both gender (C). "},{"text":"Figure 6 . Figure 6. The Handover Bridge aims for reaching different household members. "},{"text":"Figure 7 . Figure 7. 5Q tree design for collecting 17 indicators in 4 IVR call blocks. "},{"text":"Figure 8 . Figure 8. Call sequence for recurring IVR call campaigns. "},{"text":"Figure 9 . Figure 9. Overview of operated 5Q surveys using interactive voice response calls. "},{"text":"Figure 10 . Figure 10. Introduction message and first question of Block 1: Access to climate services. "},{"text":"Figure 11 . Figure 11. Climate and Advisory services received by farmers. "},{"text":"Figure 12 . Figure 12. Usefulness of climate services. "},{"text":"Figure 13 . Figure 13. Introduction message and first question of Block 2: Adoption of CSA. "},{"text":"Figure 14 . Figure 14. On-farm implementation of CSA. "},{"text":"Figure 15 . Figure 15. Perceived benefits of CSA. "},{"text":"Figure 16 . Figure 16. Climate change perception and interest of non-adopters. "},{"text":"Figure 17 . Figure 17. CSA and decision making. "},{"text":"Figure 18 . Figure 18. Adoption, non-adoption and stopped implementation of CSA. "},{"text":"Figure 19 . Figure 19. Time distribution and income use. "},{"text":"Table 2 . Contact database # Phone Phone Gender Gender Alt Retry time Block 1 Block 1 #PhonePhoneGenderGender Alt Retry time Block1Block1  Main Spouse  main  Spouse  MainSpousemainSpouse 1 1234 5678 M 1  0  112345678M10  "},{"text":"Table 3 . CSV MMF indicators, data collected using the 5Q approach. Indicator Category Type Metric IndicatorCategoryTypeMetric [CU.1] Implementation of CSA practices Core Uptake Percentage/Number of farmers and households implementing [CU.1] Implementation of CSA practicesCoreUptakePercentage/Number of farmers and households implementing    (specific or any) CSA practice(s). (specific or any) CSA practice(s). [CU.5] Access to climate information services Core Uptake Percentage/Number of farmers accessing climate information [CU.5] Access to climate information servicesCoreUptakePercentage/Number of farmers accessing climate information and agro-advisories   services and agro-advisories and agro-advisoriesservices and agro-advisories [CO.3] CSA effect on improved food access Core Outcome Percentage of farmers perceiving improved food access [CO.3] CSA effect on improved food accessCoreOutcomePercentage of farmers perceiving improved food access    associated to CSA implementation associated to CSA implementation [CO.4] CSA effect on improved food diversity Core Outcome Percentage of farmers perceiving improved food diversity [CO.4] CSA effect on improved food diversityCoreOutcomePercentage of farmers perceiving improved food diversity    associated to CSA implementation. associated to CSA implementation. [CO.5] CSA effect on decreasing vulnerability Core Outcome Percentage of farmers with decreased vulnerability to weather [CO.5] CSA effect on decreasing vulnerabilityCoreOutcomePercentage of farmers with decreased vulnerability to weather to weather related shocks   related shocks because of CSA implementation to weather related shocksrelated shocks because of CSA implementation [CO.7] Decision making on CSA Core Outcome Percentage of farmers reporting participating to some degree in [CO.7] Decision making on CSACoreOutcomePercentage of farmers reporting participating to some degree in implementation   decision making on CSA implementation. implementationdecision making on CSA implementation. [CO.7a] Decision making on CSA dis-adoption Core Outcome Percentage of farmers reporting participating to some degree in [CO.7a] Decision making on CSA dis-adoptionCoreOutcomePercentage of farmers reporting participating to some degree in    decision making on CSA dis-adoption decision making on CSA dis-adoption [CO.8] Participation in CSA implementation Core Outcome Percentage of farmers reporting a degree of participation in CSA [CO.8] Participation in CSA implementationCoreOutcomePercentage of farmers reporting a degree of participation in CSA    implementation work. implementation work. [CO.9] CSA effect on labor time Core Outcome Percentage of farmers reporting specific effect of CSA [CO.9] CSA effect on labor timeCoreOutcomePercentage of farmers reporting specific effect of CSA    implementation on their labor time. implementation on their labor time. [CO.10] Decision making and control on CSA Core Outcome Percentage of farmers reporting control over resources [CO.10] Decision making and control on CSACoreOutcomePercentage of farmers reporting control over resources generated income   generated by CSA practices generated incomegenerated by CSA practices [E.1] Frequency of climate-related events Extended Outcome Percentage of households whose agricultural income was [E.1] Frequency of climate-related eventsExtendedOutcomePercentage of households whose agricultural income was affecting agricultural incomes   affected by a specific climate-related event affecting agricultural incomesaffected by a specific climate-related event [E.3] Households' climate driven reduction of Extended Outcome Percentage of households that faced climate-related reduction in [E.3] Households' climate driven reduction ofExtendedOutcomePercentage of households that faced climate-related reduction in on-farm production or income   on-farm production/income. on-farm production or incomeon-farm production/income. [E.20] CSA knowledge Extended Outcome Percentage of farmers reporting different degree of knowledge [E.20] CSA knowledgeExtendedOutcomePercentage of farmers reporting different degree of knowledge    on CSA practices on CSA practices [E.21] CSA interest by \"non-adopters\" Extended Outcome Percentage of farmers interested in more information on CSA [E.21] CSA interest by \"non-adopters\"ExtendedOutcomePercentage of farmers interested in more information on CSA    practices practices [E.22] Access to CSA training Extended Outcome Percentage of farmers trained on CSA practices. [E.22] Access to CSA trainingExtendedOutcomePercentage of farmers trained on CSA practices. [E.23] Access to seasonal forecast training Extended Outcome Percentage of farmers trained on seasonal forecast [E.23] Access to seasonal forecast trainingExtendedOutcomePercentage of farmers trained on seasonal forecast [E.24] Access to value chain training Extended Outcome Percentage of farmers accessing value chain training (e.g., on [E.24] Access to value chain trainingExtendedOutcomePercentage of farmers accessing value chain training (e.g., on    agribusiness or financial services) agribusiness or financial services)  "},{"text":"Table 4 . Contact database of subscribers. VARIABLE VARIABLE-CODE COMMENT VARIABLEVARIABLE-CODECOMMENT Phone PHONE Phone number of contact PhonePHONEPhone number of contact Consent CONS Response from consent [yes, no] ConsentCONSResponse from consent [yes, no] Consent Spouse CONS Spouse Response from consent spouse Consent SpouseCONS SpouseResponse from consent spouse Gender GENDER Label value of gender [man, women, other] GenderGENDERLabel value of gender [man, women, other] Gender Spouse GENDER Spouse Label value of gender [man, women, other] Gender SpouseGENDER SpouseLabel value of gender [man, women, other] Age AGE Label age-group value [1,2,3,4] AgeAGELabel age-group value [1,2,3,4] Age Spouse AGE Spouse Label age-group value [1,2,3,4] Age SpouseAGE SpouseLabel age-group value [1,2,3,4] Handover Bridge Response BRIDGE Label value of bridge [1,2,3,4,5] Handover Bridge ResponseBRIDGELabel value of bridge [1,2,3,4,5] Phone Spouse PHONE2 Phone number from the second person of the opposite gender Phone SpousePHONE2Phone number from the second person of the opposite gender Block 1: ADWS ADWS Label when call successfully finished [1,0] Block 1: ADWSADWSLabel when call successfully finished [1,0] Block 1: ADWS spouse ADWS Spouse Label when handover to spouse and finished [ 1,0] Block 1: ADWS spouseADWS SpouseLabel when handover to spouse and finished [ 1,0] Block 2: CSA CSA Label when call successfully finished [1,0] Block 2: CSACSALabel when call successfully finished [1,0] Block 2: CSA spouse CSA Spouse Label when handover to spouse and finished [ 1,0] Block 2: CSA spouseCSA SpouseLabel when handover to spouse and finished [ 1,0] Block 3: DEC DEC Label when call successfully finished [1,0] Block 3: DECDECLabel when call successfully finished [1,0] Block 3: DEC spouse DEC Spouse Label when handover to spouse and finished [ 1,0] Block 3: DEC spouseDEC SpouseLabel when handover to spouse and finished [ 1,0]  "},{"text":"Table 5 . Call Response data.  "},{"text":"you know how to read and write in any language? Future research should focus on better understanding what leads to a respondents' saturation and early call dropout during IVR call campaigns. Further, more packages (call campaign blocks) should be tested for studying empowerment. Annex 1: Survey transcript -Identifying the most effective digital channels to reach Annex 1: Survey transcript -Identifying the most effective digital channels to reach women and youth women and youth Section TRANSCRIPT (Message/Question/Choices) SectionTRANSCRIPT (Message/Question/Choices) D Sex of respondent? DSex of respondent?  • Female •Female  • Male •Male  • Other •Other  • Do not want to say •Do not want to say  How old are you? How old are you?  • My age is below 18 years. •My age is below 18 years.  • Between 18 and 35 years. •Between 18 and 35 years.  • Between 36 and 55 years. •Between 36 and 55 years.  • Older than 55 years. •Older than 55 years.  What is your current marital status? What is your current marital status?  • Married •Married  • Living with partner •Living with partner  • Widow/widower •Widow/widower  • Divorced/separated •Divorced/separated  • Single (never married) •Single (never married)  What is the highest level of education you completed? What is the highest level of education you completed?  • None (no education) •None (no education)  • Primary •Primary  • Secondary •Secondary  • Technical/ Vocational (not university) •Technical/ Vocational (not university)  • Superior (University) •Superior (University)  Do • Yes, easily Do •Yes, easily  • With Difficulty •With Difficulty  • No, not at all •No, not at all  • I do not want to say •I do not want to say  The The  "},{"text":"next questions are about the composition of your household, including people with whom you have lived in the last 6 months and have shared meals  Section TRANSCRIPT (Message/Question/Choices) SectionTRANSCRIPT (Message/Question/Choices)  How far do you need to go to have a reasonable connectivity? How far do you need to go to have a reasonable connectivity?  • A specific location near my home •A specific location near my home  • Close walking distance within the village •Close walking distance within the village  • With transport to another place, e.g., community house, market in town •With transport to another place, e.g., community house, market in town  How How  ____ # How many children <=5 ____ # How many children <=5  ____ # How many children 6 to 17 ____ # How many children 6 to 17  ____ # How many adults 18 to 65 ____ # How many adults 18 to 65  ____ # How many adults over 65-year-old ____ # How many adults over 65-year-old  "},{"text":"frequent are you going to a place where there is cell phone connectivity?   • Daily •Daily  • Once or twice per week •Once or twice per week  • Less frequent than once per week •Less frequent than once per week  How easy can you recharge the battery of your phone? How easy can you recharge the battery of your phone?  • Easy at my home •Easy at my home  • Not easy •Not easy (R) Does your phone always have call credit / airtime? (R)Does your phone always have call credit / airtime?  • yes, I put always enough credit. •yes, I put always enough credit.  • I just recharge credit for specific use. •I just recharge credit for specific use.  • Someone else must recharge it for me. •Someone else must recharge it for me.  • I use it so that others can contact me •I use it so that others can contact me  How How  "},{"text":"much money to you normally put on your phone when you recharge it? __________ How much data bundle do you put on your phone per month? __________ (GB) Is the airtime you need to recharge economically affordable  Section TRANSCRIPT (Message/ SectionTRANSCRIPT (Message/   for you? for you?  • I can pay for it by myself. •I can pay for it by myself.  • It is expensive for me to pay. •It is expensive for me to pay.  • I do not have the economic resources to pay for it. •I do not have the economic resources to pay for it.  How frequent are you using your phone? How frequent are you using your phone?  • I am always available on my phone. •I am always available on my phone.  • I am always available and connected to internet on my phone •I am always available and connected to internet on my phone  • I use it several times per day, but I am not always available/connected to the internet •I use it several times per day, but I am not always available/connected to the internet  • I use it (or be available/connected) at least once per day. •I use it (or be available/connected) at least once per day.  • I use it very un-frequent, not every day available/connected •I use it very un-frequent, not every day available/connected (K) Do you know how to access information for agriculture on your phone? (K)Do you know how to access information for agriculture on your phone?  • Yes •Yes  • No, I have never used it for agriculture •No, I have never used it for agriculture  Outside agriculture, what features are you using your phone? Outside agriculture, what features are you using your phone?  − Make calls − Make calls  − Receive calls − Receive calls  − Send text messages − Send text messages  − Receive text messages − Receive text messages  − Listen to music − Listen to music  − Watch videos − Watch videos  − Search the internet − Search the internet  − Mobile banking − Mobile banking  − Facebook and other social media − Facebook and other social media  − Chat with family and friends (e.g., WhatsApp, Viber, etc.) − Chat with family and friends (e.g., WhatsApp, Viber, etc.)  − Other _________ − Other _________  How do you access agricultural information? How do you access agricultural information?  − I call the extension agent. − I call the extension agent.  − I use SMS (Short Message Service) subscription services. − I use SMS (Short Message Service) subscription services.  − I use Voice service subscription. − I use Voice service subscription.  − I dial in to a service. − I dial in to a service.  − I use social media chat groups. − I use social media chat groups.  − I browse the internet. − I browse the internet.  − I use specific internet apps. − I use specific internet apps.  "},{"text":"Question/Choices) For how long have you been using your phone to receive agricultural information?  • For more than one year. •For more than one year. • For less than one year. •For less than one year. • I started recently •I started recently How  How  "},{"text":"satisfied are you to receive agricultural information on your phone?  • Satisfied, it is the best way for me •Satisfied, it is the best way for me • Overall satisfied, but sometimes I do not fully understand the content •Overall satisfied, but sometimes I do not fully understand the content • Using the phone to receive agricultural information is challenging for me •Using the phone to receive agricultural information is challenging for me • I am not satisfied, I do not understand or do not receive the information I need •I am not satisfied, I do not understand or do not receive the information I need • I do not want or cannot say •I do not want or cannot say What other information channels are you using to access agricultural information? What other information channels are you using to access agricultural information? − On radio − On radio − On television. − On television. − Community loudspeakers linked to a platform. − Community loudspeakers linked to a platform. − Meetings & events. − Meetings & events. − Agent visiting my farm (extension agent, NGO). − Agent visiting my farm (extension agent, NGO). − I talk to other farmers. − I talk to other farmers. Would  Would  "},{"text":"you agree/disagree to access agricultural information on the following digital channels (Enumerator: Read each statement separately):  1. Receiving text messages from a subscription to service. 1. Receiving text messages from a subscription to service. 2. Receiving voice messages from a subscription service. 2. Receiving voice messages from a subscription service. 3. Using a personalized dial-in service on my cell phone. 3. Using a personalized dial-in service on my cell phone. 4. Calling a call center where I can talk to a real agent. 4. Calling a call center where I can talk to a real agent. 5. Using a chat group within my community 5. Using a chat group within my community 6. Using a on demand chat service 6. Using a on demand chat service Why Why  "},{"text":"do you prefer/ not prefer these channels for accessing agricultural information? _________________ (free text) What type of agricultural information would you like to receive on digital channels (e.g. phone)?  − Market Prices − Market Prices − Weather information − Weather information − Information on Crop varieties − Information on Crop varieties − Information on agriculture management practices and technologies − Information on agriculture management practices and technologies − Information on inputs and input prices − Information on inputs and input prices − Information on agriculture credit opportunities/agriculture programs − Information on agriculture credit opportunities/agriculture programs − Information on pest and disease and how to tackle them − Information on pest and disease and how to tackle them What What  "},{"text":"other information outside agriculture would you like to receive on digital channels (e.g. phone)?  − Health-related services − Health-related services − Emergency services − Emergency services − Community services − Community services − Financial services − Financial services (SN) (SN)  "},{"text":"Within your community and social groups, is it common to use the phone to access agricultural information    ? ?  • Yes, it is quite common for both men and women. •Yes, it is quite common for both men and women.  • Yes, but mostly men. •Yes, but mostly men.  • No, it is not common. •No, it is not common. (AT) How (AT)How  "},{"text":"difficult is it for you to use agricultural information services through your phone?  • Easy. •Easy. • I needed a training to learn. •I needed a training to learn. • I tried hard, but it is still very difficult for me to use it. •I tried hard, but it is still very difficult for me to use it. • I was not able to use it to receive agricultural information. •I was not able to use it to receive agricultural information. For  For  "},{"text":"the following statements, please mark if you agree/disagree (Enumerator: Read each statement separately)  Section TRANSCRIPT (Message/Question/Choices) SectionTRANSCRIPT (Message/Question/Choices) (PU)  (PU)  "},{"text":"For the following statements, please mark if you agree/disagree (Enumerator: Read each statement separately) 1. I found that the mobile phone is useful in my agricultural activities. 2. Using the mobile phone help me to access rapidly agricultural information. 3. Using the mobile phone improves my performance in agricultural activities. Do  "},{"text":"you feel that using digital services for agriculture is important for you now and in the future? plan to access to agricultural services on the mobile phone within the near future (  • Yes •Yes  • No •No  • I do not know •I do not know (BIU) Which of the following statements agrees for you? (BIU)Which of the following statements agrees for you?  • I already access agricultural services on my phone •I already access agricultural services on my phone  • I do not access agricultural information, but I plan to use it soon •I do not access agricultural information, but I plan to use it soon  • I do not •I do not  "},{"text":"PEOU) Do you feel that the use of digital services for agriculture is forced upon us by others?  • Yes •Yes • No •No • I do not know •I do not know For  For  "},{"text":"the following statements, please mark if you agree/disagree (Enumerator: Read each statement separately): • I use a digital device frequently • Most of my community are using digital devices • I can usually get help if I am stuck with the digital device • I feel confident using digital devices.Annex 2: IVR survey transcripts developed for the pilot in Ghana. Consent & Intro  Consent & Intro CODE Question Answer Choice CODEQuestionAnswer Choice Intro:   Intro: Voice &   Voice & SMS   SMS with link   with link to   to consent   consent  "},{"text":" My age is below 18 years. Press 2 for: Between 18 and 35 years. Press 3 for: Between 36 and 55 years. Press 4 for: Older than 55 years.   Press 1 for: Yes Press 1 for: Yes   Press 2 for: No Press 2 for: No FINISH- Thank you for your time!  FINISH-Thank you for your time! OPT-   OPT- OUT   OUT GEND What is your gender? Press 1 for: Female GENDWhat is your gender?Press 1 for: Female   Press 2 for: Male Press 2 for: Male   Press 3 for: Other Press 3 for: Other   Press 4 for: Do not want to say Press 4 for: Do not want to say AGE How old are you? Press 1 for: AGEHow old are you?Press 1 for:  "}],"sieverID":"785bb290-bcc2-4035-8b9f-ffd954291a91","abstract":""}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"09375de94975d1c1f99688cd8a636cbf","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/77ef807f-7f8a-4f27-bb86-7ce708494034/retrieve"},"pageCount":2,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Prices declined by 9 percent in April","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":97,"text":"Figure 1 shows a trend in prices in the past 12 months ending in April 2023, and, for comparison, over the 12 months ending in April 2022. At the beginning of the harvest season, we start reporting prices of newly harvested maize, which has a higher moisture content than maize from the previous harvest. High moisture content makes it unsuitable for storage or milling. During drying, it loses about 20 percent of its weight. Solid lines in Figure 1 represent observed maize prices. Dotted lines represent prices adjusted for moisture content and thus the true price trend."},{"index":2,"size":189,"text":"In contrast to the previous season, there was a sharp decline in average maize prices in April, albeit from a much higher maximum (Figure 1). This is a typcial pattern when newly harvested maize comes to market. The weekly average price of old maize decreased by 15 percent from K734/kg to K626/kg between the final weeks of March and April (Table 2). Within the same period, the weekly average price of new maize declined by 9 percent from K533/kg to K483/kg. The highest and lowest weekly average retail price of maize was recorded in the second week of April. Mzuzu market reported the highest weekly average retail price of K821/kg for old maize, and the lowest weekly average retail price of K362/kg was recorded in Nsanje market for new maize. The three southernmost monitored markets (Ngabu, Bangula, and Nsanje) reported the highest decline in weekly average retail price of maize between the final weeks of March and April (Table 1). All three markets were heavily affected by cyclone Freddy in March (causing high prices) but also saw an influx of maize from Mozambique in April, which has depressed prices."},{"index":3,"size":51,"text":"The Monthly Maize Market Report was developed by researchers at IFPRI Malawi to provide clear and accurate information on the variation of maize prices in selected markets throughout Malawi. All prices are reported in Malawi Kwacha (K). To learn more about our work, visit www.massp.ifpri.info or follow us on Twitter (@IFPRIMalawi)."}]},{"head":"New maize prices highest in the Central region","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":214,"text":"In April, regional maize prices in Malawi experienced abnormal fluctuations, with the typical pattern of highest prices in the South and lowest in the North flipping several times (Figure 2). Old maize was sold at an average monthly price of K657/kg in the North, K647/kg in the Center, and K634/kg in the South. By the end of April, newly harvested maize was available in all monitored markets and sold at a discount of 20 to 30 percent compared to old maize. On average, the Central region experienced the highest prices of new maize. Several factors likely contributed to this: the harvest in the central highlands, which is still only starting, is expected to be low compared to last year due to smaller planted hectarage and late deliveries of subsidized fertilizer, so little new maize is coming onto the market in the region. At the same time, minimum farmgate prices are reportedly being enforced more vigorously than elsewhere. Prices were relatively lower in the South because many smallholders now consume their own harvest instead of buying maize. There is also an influx of newly harvested maize from Mozambique. As a result, new maize was trading at or below the government-mandated minimum farmgate price in 18 of the 26 monitored markets by the end of April"}]},{"head":"Regional prices","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":57,"text":"Retail prices of maize in selected markets in Malawi were higher than those in Tanzania, Zimbabwe, Zambia, Mozambique, and South Africa using the official (bank) exchange rate of K1,030/USD (Figure 4). However, at the (black) market rate (K1,620/USD) used for informal imports and exports, retail prices of maize in Zimbabwe and Tanzania were higher than in Malawi."}]},{"head":"ADMARC Activities","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":35,"text":"ADMARC sales were reported for at least one day in 6 of the 26 markets monitored by IFPRI: Salima in the Central region, and Bangula, Chiringa, Chitipa, Mwanza and Nsanje markets in the Southern region."}]},{"head":"How data was collected","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":71,"text":"IFPRI Malawi has been monitoring retail maize prices and ADMARC activities in selected markets since October 2016. Currently, data is collected from 26 markets across the country, with monitoring occurring six days per week, excluding Sundays. At least three monitors report data from each market. Data is collected by means of phone calls to the monitors. Regional prices reported in Figure 4 are sourced from weekly reports from Commodity Insights Africa.  "}]},{"head":"Note: The number on the map corresponds to a market in","index":6,"paragraphs":[]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure 1 . Figure 1. Long-run trends in average maize retail prices "},{"text":"Figure 3 . Figure 3. Location of marketsTable 1. Weekly average retail prices (K/kg) "},{"text":"Table 1   "}],"sieverID":"606d0aa0-5162-4576-bf77-6ba44e7783f2","abstract":"• Retail prices of maize declined by 15 percent for old maize and 9 percent for new maize in April.• New maize prices were highest in the central region.• ADMARC sales were reported in 6 out of 26 markets monitored by IFPRI.• No ADMARC purchases were reported in any of the markets monitored by IFPRI.• Retail prices of maize in Malawi were higher than in Zambia, Mozambique, and South Africa, but lower than in Tanzania and Zimbabwe at the market exchange rate."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"099ab8a629559d2e767b71b495c024d8","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/85c5839f-247d-4c16-ba98-61ff2b608f07/retrieve"},"pageCount":10,"title":"Correlation and path coefficient analysis of top-cross and three-way cross hybrid maize populations","keywords":["Correlation","path coefficient analysis","hybrid populations","maize (Zea mays L.)","grain yield"],"chapters":[{"head":"INTRODUCTION","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":66,"text":"Maize (Zea mays L.) is one of the most superior cereal crops in the world due to its wide adaptation and varieties of utilisation. It is the most important cereal in Sub-Saharan Africa that is mainly used for food and feed with a small percentage used in agro-allied industries (IITA, 2009). The spread of maize cultivation in the world was *Corresponding author. E-mail: [email protected]. Tel: +23278084923."},{"index":2,"size":151,"text":"Author(s) agree that this article remain permanently open access under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License 4.0 International License due to its diversity, high adaptability and versatility (Obi, 1991). In Nigeria, maize is rapidly replacing in other cereals (sorghum and millet) in the Savannahs (Fakorede et al., 2003). This might be attributed to its high yields per unit area, husk protection against birds and ability to compete with weeds (Onwueme and Singha, 1991). Despite an increased area of land used for cultivation of maize since the mid-2000s, production per hectare is still low (1.3 ton/hectare) compared to the 8.6 t/ha in developed countries (IITA, 2007). However, maize yield in Nigeria increased by 57% between 1994 and 2013 with average yield of 1.9 ton/hectare in 2012 and 2013 (FAOSTAT, 2015). This increase might be attributed to better inputs (fertilizer, agrochemicals, irrigations and improved seeds) especially the use of improved varieties."},{"index":3,"size":201,"text":"Hybrid maize are known to be high yielding, superior and vigorous because of hybrid vigour (heterosis) arising from crossing two genetically unrelated parents. There are different types of hybrid this include; single cross, three way cross, double top cross and top cross. A topcross is a cross between an inbred line and an open pollinated variety while a three-way hybrid is across between an inbred line and single cross hybrid. Topcross hybrids are considered to be the quickest means of developing hybrids and produce good quantity of seeds compared to a single cross hybrid. The cost of producing top-cross hybrids is comparatively cheaper than conventional hybrid seeds (Bidinge et al., 2005). The decline in grain yield due to recycling top cross hybrid seed is half of that of classical hybrids (Pixley and Banziger, 2004). Given that many farmers recycle seeds set aside from their harvest, the use of non-conventional top cross hybrids could be one approach of enhancing yield levels in maize. Three-way cross hybrids are also regularly used since they are cheap in seed production. They are intermediate between single and double cross hybrids with respect to uniformity, yield, stability and the relative simplicity of selecting and testing (Weatherspoon, 1970)."},{"index":4,"size":282,"text":"Grain yield is a complex quantitative trait that depends on a number of other agronomic traits for selection (Fellahi et al., 2013). In order to achieve effective selection for grain yield, it is important to determine its relationship with other traits. The determination of correlation coefficients helps to measure the level of relationships among traits and to establish the level at which these traits are mutually different (Bocanski et al., 2009;Nagabhushan et al., 2011). Correlation coefficients give reliable and useful information on the relationship between the traits in terms of the nature, extent and direction of selection (Zeeshan et al., 2013). Pathcoefficient analysis helps to know the nature, extent and direction of selection; it is the most valuable tool commonly used to establish the exact relationships in terms of cause and effect, identify the direct, indirect and total (direct plus indirect) causal effects, as well as to remove any spurious effect that may be present (Hefny, 2011). However, although several studies on relationships between grain yield and its component traits have been conducted in maize (Mohammadi et al., 2003;Saidaiah et al., 2008;Bello et al., 2010;Kumar et al., 2011;Pavan et al., 2011), most did not consider the simultaneous behaviour of such traits between different classes of hybrids. Teodoro et al. (2014) studied the primary and secondary components that are directly or indirectly related to grain maize grain yield. They found out that the link between direct and indirect effects on productivity depends on genetic class. It is therefore important to examine the simultaneous character association and contribution of each of the traits in topcross and three-way cross hybrids in order to give more attention to those having the greatest influence on grain yield."}]},{"head":"MATERIALS AND METHODS","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":155,"text":"The 20 hybrids comprising 10 top-cross and 10 three-way cross hybrid varieties, used for this study ( At each location, the soil was mechanically ploughed and harrowed. The trials were laid out in randomised complete block design with three replications. Each variety was planted in two-row plots 5 m long, at a spacing of 75 cm × 50 cm. Three seeds per hole were planted and later thinned to two plants per hole. A compound fertilizer of NPK 15:15:15 was applied at the rates of 60 kgN, 60 kgP and 60 kg K2O ha -1 at two weeks after planting. An additional 60 kgN ha -1 was also applied as side dressing six weeks after planting (WAP) using urea (46%N). Other crop management practices were applied following the standard recommendations at each location. Sowing of seeds was done on 7 th , 9 th and 21 st August, 2014 at Ibadan, Akure and Abeokuta, respectively."},{"index":2,"size":61,"text":"For each entry, data were collected on plant height (cm), ear height (cm), ear length (cm), ear diameter (mm), 100-grain weight (g) and number of kernel rows per cob on 10 randomly selected plants, while the number of days to 50% anthesis (days), days to 50% silking (days), field weight (kg) and grain yield (t/ha) were determined on a plot basis."}]},{"head":"Statistical analysis","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":75,"text":"Data for each hybrid population, averaged over the three locations, were grouped for each trait and compared by t-test at 5 and 1% probability levels. Data were also subjected to analysis of variance and covariance for each hybrid population across locations using the SAS software version 9.1 (SAS Institute, 2000). The generated components of the variance and covariance were used to estimate the genotypic and phenotypic correlation coefficients as suggested by Singh and Chaudhary (1985):"},{"index":2,"size":10,"text":"Table 1. List of maize hybrids used in the study."}]},{"head":"Hybrids","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":6,"text":"Pedigree Kernel colour Top-cross maize hybrids"},{"index":2,"size":51,"text":"Three-way cross maize hybrids   Test of significance (at 5 and 1% probability levels) of correlation was done by comparing the computed values against table 'r' values given by Fisher and Yates (1963) at n-2 degree of freedom, where, n = number of genotypes x number of locations x number of replications."},{"index":3,"size":134,"text":"The correlation coefficients of all the traits were partitioned into direct and indirect effects by path coefficient analysis using the R statistical package version 3.0.3 (R Core Team, 2014) following the procedure of Dewey and Lu (1959). The path coefficient simultaneous equations of Ahmed et al. (2002) were adopted. r1y = P1 + r12P1 + r13P3 Significant at 5 and 1% probability levels for t-test; CV, coefficient of variation, CI, confidence interval of mean difference, where the difference is not significant when the interval surpasses the contrast. DPOL= days to 50% anthesis, DSLK = days to 50% silking, PLHT = plant height, EHT= ear height, ELTH = ear length, EDMT = ear diameter, KROW = number of kernel rows per cob, GWT = 100-grain weight, FDWT = field weight and YLD = grain yield."},{"index":4,"size":18,"text":"Similarly for r2y and r3y r2y = r21P1 + P2 + r23P3; r3y= r31P1 + r32P2 + P3."},{"index":5,"size":34,"text":"The residual effect was obtained as Px = 1 -Pxy rxy. Where, Px = residual effect of variable X; Pxyrxy= product of direct effect of variance X and its correlation (r) with yield (Y)."}]},{"head":"RESULTS","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":77,"text":"Table 2 presents the mean values of traits for ten topcross and ten three-way cross hybrids across the three locations. The results showed significant (p≤0.05) differences between the top-cross and three-way cross hybrids for days to 50% silking, plant height, ear height, ear length, number of kernel rows per cob, field weight and grain yield. However, there were no significant differences observed between the two hybrid populations for days to 50% anthesis, ear diameter and 100-grain weight."},{"index":2,"size":389,"text":"Estimation of genotypic and phenotypic correlation coefficients of grain yield and other yield-related traits are presented for top-cross hybrids (Table 3) and three-way hybrids (Table 4). Table 3 shows a positive and highly significant genotypic and phenotypic correlation (p˂0.01) between grain yield with plant height (r g = 0.50 for genotypic correlation and r p = 0.47 for phenotypic correlation), ear height (0.79 and 0.74), ear diameter (0.68 and 0.63), number of kernel rows per cob (0.35 and 0.33) and field weight (0.98 and 0.97). On the other hand, a negative and significant correlation with days to 50% silking (-0.51 and -0.43 p˂0.01). There was a positive and highly significant genotypic and phenotypic correlation between 100-grain weight, days to 50% anthesis, days to 50% silking, plant height and ear length. Table 4 shows that grain yield had a positive and highly significant genotypic and phenotypic correlation with ear length [r g = 0.27 (p˂0.01) and r p = 0.26 (p˂0.05)], ear diameter [0.61 and 0.60 (p˂0.01)], 100-grain weight [0.35 and 0.34 (p˂0.01)] and field weight [0.98 and 0.96 (p˂0.01)]. However, we noticed a negative and significant correlation with days to 50% anthesis [-0.38 and -0.26 (p˂0.01)]. The genotypic and phenotypic correlation of 100-grain weight with ear diameter and field weight was positive and highly significant Table 5 presents the genotypic direct and indirect effects of nine traits on grain yield for the top-cross hybrids. There was maximum positive direct effect on grain yield by days to 50% anthesis (0.52), ear diameter (0.47), ear height (0.36), field weight (0.34), ear length (0.23) and number of kernel rows per cob (0.19). However, days to 50% silking (-0.21), 100-grain weight (-0.19) and plant height (-0.02) exerted negative direct effects on grain yield. The genotypic direct and indirect effects of nine traits on grain yield for the three-way cross hybrids are presented in Table 6. The highest positive direct effect on grain yield was recorded for field weight (0.99) and number of kernel rows per cob (0.99) followed by 100-grain weight (0.98), plant height (0.59), ear length (0.49) and days to 50% silking (0.41). On the other hand, ear height (-0.93), ear diameter (-0.89) and days to 50% anthesis (-0.21) had negative direct effects on grain yield. Traits in three-way cross hybrids contributed higher values on grain yield than those in top-cross hybrids."}]},{"head":"DISCUSSION","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":180,"text":"Significant and positive correlation between two traits suggests that these traits can be improved simultaneously in a selection programme, because of mutual relationships that exist among traits (Hayes et al., 1955). This study revealed that both genotypic and phenotypic correlation coefficients were significant in most of the    *, ** significant at 0.05 and 0.01 probability levels, respectively. The values without asterisk are not significant; n = 90, degree of freedom = n-2 = 88. DPOL = days to 50% anthesis, DSLK = days to 50% silking, PLHT = plant height, EHT = ear height, ELTH = ear length, EDMT = ear diameter, KROW = number of kernel rows per cob, GWT = 100-grain weight, FDWT = field weight and YLD = grain yield. Residual effect = 0.02; rg = genotypic correlation coefficient, DPOL = days to 50% anthesis, DSLK = days to 50% silking, PLHT = plant height, EHT = ear height, ELTH = ear length, EDMT = ear diameter, KROW = number of kernel rows per cob, GWT = 100-grain weight, FDWT = field weight and YLD= grain yield."},{"index":2,"size":76,"text":"character association and the magnitude of genotypic correlation coefficients for most of the characters was higher than their corresponding phenotypic correlation coefficients, except in a few cases, in both hybrid populations. This indicates the low influence of the environment in the total expression of the hybrids. This also indicates an inherent relationship between the traits studied. Such results are in line with the findings of Hefny  (2011), Zeeshan et al. (2013) and Nataraj et al. (2014)."},{"index":3,"size":189,"text":"The observed positive and significant genotypic and phenotypic correlations of grain yield with plant height, ear height, ear diameter, number of kernel rows per cob and field weight in top-cross hybrids, ear length, ear diameter, 100-grain weight and field weight in three-way cross hybrids indicate that these traits are essential yield components, reflective estimators and selection for them in the respective hybrid populations may lead to a substantial improved grain yield. Nataraj et al. (2014) reported similar observations in both hybrid classes. Furthermore, in top-cross hybrids, ear height, ear diameter, field weight and grain yield had positive and significant genotypic correlation with each other. This means that an increase in one trait would ultimately increase another and thereby increase grain yield. The negative significant genotypic and phenotypic correlations between grain yield and days to 50% silking in top-cross hybrids and days to 50% anthesis in three-way cross hybrids will enhance the development of early maturing and high-yielding varieties in the respective hybrid populations. Similar results confirming these results have been reported by Nataraj et al. (2014). Hefny (2011) reported negative non-significant genotypic and phenotypic correlation between yield plant -1"},{"index":4,"size":147,"text":", days to 50% anthesis and days to 50% silking under optimal sowing conditions. However, in both hybrid populations, the genotypic and phenotypic correlations between grain yield, ear diameter and field weight were positive and significant, suggesting the reliability of these traits as good selection indices for high grain yield in both hybrid populations. Contrary to this result, Teodoro et al. (2014) reported a positive correlation between yield, weight of 100-grains and number of kernels per row in both genetic classes of single and triple-cross maize hybrids. The present study further confirms the notion that the association of characters with yield in maize depends on the genetic class. Also, the significant positive correlations between 100-grain weight, days to 50% anthesis, days to 50% silking, plant height, and ear length further confirm the finding by Ojo et al. (2006) that 100-grain weight is a good index for selection."},{"index":5,"size":384,"text":"With the magnitude of the contribution by each trait to grain yield, each hybrid population can be improved using the path information. Field weight, ear length and kernel rows per cob had positive direct effects on grain yield in both hybrid populations. In addition, days to 50% anthesis, ear diameter and ear height exhibited positive direct effects on grain yield in top-cross hybrids, whereas days to 50% silking, plant height and 100-grain weight had positive direct effects on grain yield in the three-way cross hybrids. This indicates that a slight increase in any of the above traits in the respective hybrid populations may directly contribute to an increase in grain yield. Similar results were reported by various researchers. For instance, Teodoro et al. (2014) reported a high direct effect of number of grains row -1 and weight of 100-grains on grain yield in both genetic classes. Similarly, Hefny (2011) observed a direct positive effect of ear weight plant -1 , days to 50% anthesis, 100-grain weight and ear length (at early sowing); and ear diameter, days to 50% silking and days to 50% anthesis (at late sowing) on yield. The negative direct effects observed in this study by days to 50% silking, 100-grain weight and plant height in top-cross hybrids, and ear height, ear diameter and days to 50% anthesis in three-way cross hybrids indicate that these traits only contribute to grain yield mainly through their high and positive indirect effects on other characters in the respective hybrid populations. Days to 50% silking and 100-grain weight showed the highest positive indirect effect on grain yield through days to 50% anthesis, while plant height had the highest positive indirect effect on grain yield via ear height in the topcross hybrids. In the three-way cross hybrids, maximum positive indirect effect on grain yield was exhibited by days to 50% anthesis and ear height via days to 50% silking and plant height (and field weight in addition to ear height), whereas ear diameter showed the highest positive indirect effect on grain yield through field weight and 100-grain weight. Rigon et al. (2014) reported a direct negative effect of number of grains per ear and weight of 100 grains in maize. They found that these traits had the highest positive indirect effect on yield through mass per ear."}]},{"head":"Conclusions","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":86,"text":"From the study, field weight in both hybrid populations, number of kernel rows per cob, ear diameter and ear height in the top-cross hybrids, as well as ear length and 100-grain weight in the three-way cross hybrids were directly correlated with grain yield. These traits can be used as the main criteria for grain yield improvement in the respective hybrid populations. Some traits showed similar direct effects in both hybrid populations, but the link between direct and indirect effects on grain yield depends on hybrid population."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure 1 . Figure 1. Mean monthly rainfall and temperature of location Abeokuta. "},{"text":"Figure 2 . Figure 2. Mean monthly Rainfall and temperature of location Ibadan. "},{"text":"Figure 3 . Figure 3. Mean monthly rainfall and temperature of location Akure. "},{"text":" 05 and 0.01 probability levels, respectively. The values without asterisk are not significant; n = 90, degree of freedom = n-2 = 88. DPOL = days to 50% anthesis, DSLK = days to 50% silking, PLHT = plant height, EHT = ear height, ELTH = ear length, EDMT = ear diameter, KROW = number of kernel rows per cob, GWT = 100-grain weight, FDWT = field weight and YLD = grain yield. "},{"text":" Residual effect = 0.009; rg = genotypic correlation coefficient, DPOL = days to 50% anthesis, DSLK = days to 50% silking, PLHT = plant height, EHT = ear height, ELTH = ear length, EDMT = ear diameter, KROW = number of kernel rows per cob, GWT = 100-grain weight, FDWT = field weight and YLD = grain yield. "},{"text":"Table 1  ) were collected from ) were collected from  "},{"text":"Table 2 . Mean values of ten traits for ten top-cross and ten three-way cross hybrids across three locations, Nigeria, 2014. Traits Top-Cross 3-Way Cross Mean difference CI0.95 CV (%) T-value P-value TraitsTop-Cross3-Way Cross Mean differenceCI0.95CV (%)T-valueP-value DPOL 59.94 59.82 0.12 0.73 ± 0.97 0.17 0.29 0.78 DPOL59.9459.820.120.73 ± 0.970.170.290.78 DSLK 62.4 61.65 0.76 0.13 ± 1.38 0.86 2.39 0.02 DSLK62.461.650.760.13 ± 1.380.862.390.02 PLHT 201.91 185.23 16.67 13.56 ± 19.77 6.09 10.65 0.00 PLHT201.91185.2316.6713.56 ± 19.776.0910.650.00 EHT 87.71 82.83 4.81 1.34 ± 8.28 4.05 2.76 0.01 EHT87.7182.834.811.34 ± 8.284.052.760.01 ELTH 17.4 16.59 0.82 0.28 ± 1.37 3.37 2.99 0.00 ELTH17.416.590.820.28 ± 1.373.372.990.00 EDMT 48.38 48.39 -0.02 0.63 ± 0.59 0.01 -0.07 0.95 EDMT48.3848.39-0.020.63 ± 0.590.01-0.070.95 KROW 14.76 14.28 0.47 0.01 ± 0.96 2.34 1.95 0.04 KROW14.7614.280.470.01 ± 0.962.341.950.04 GWT 30.29 29.99 0.29 0.89 ± 1.47 0.70 0.49 0.63 GWT30.2929.990.290.89 ± 1.470.700.490.63 FDWT 6.25 5.93 0.32 0.03 ± 0.68 3.72 1.79 0.05 FDWT6.255.930.320.03 ± 0.683.721.790.05 YLD 6.07 5.76 0.31 0.03 ± 0.65 3.59 1.83 0.05 YLD6.075.760.310.03 ± 0.653.591.830.05  "},{"text":"Table 3 . Genotypic (G) and Phenotypic (P) correlation coefficients among grain yield and other related traits in 10 top-cross hybrids combined across three locations, Nigeria, 2014. Character R DPOL DSLK PLHT EHT ELTH EDMT KROW GWT FDWT YLD CharacterRDPOLDSLKPLHTEHTELTHEDMTKROWGWTFDWTYLD DPOL G P 1.00 1.00 0.92** 0.89** 0.31** 0.26* 0.04 0.03 0.71** 0.63** -0.67** -0.59** -0.84** -0.75** 0.85** 0.71** -0.23* -0.18 -0.20 -0.19 DPOLG P1.00 1.000.92** 0.89**0.31** 0.26*0.04 0.030.71** 0.63**-0.67** -0.59**-0.84** -0.75**0.85** 0.71**-0.23* -0.18-0.20 -0.19 DSLK G P  1.00 1.00 0.21* 0.14 -0.14 -0.14 0.67** 0.56** -0.89** -0.73** -0.85** -0.73** 0.66** 0.51** -0.55** -0.42** -0.51** -0.43** DSLKG P1.00 1.000.21* 0.14-0.14 -0.140.67** 0.56**-0.89** -0.73**-0.85** -0.73**0.66** 0.51**-0.55** -0.42**-0.51** -0.43** PLHT G P   1.00 1.00 0.77** 0.77** 0.48** 0.48** -0.06 -0.05 -0.38** -0.34** 0.41** 0.40** 0.51** 0.48** 0.50** 0.47** PLHTG P1.00 1.000.77** 0.77**0.48** 0.48**-0.06 -0.05-0.38** -0.34**0.41** 0.40**0.51** 0.48**0.50** 0.47** EHT G P    1.00 1.00 0.05 0.06 0.21* 0.20 0.16 0.17 0.10 0.10 0.77** 0.71** 0.79** 0.74** EHTG P1.00 1.000.05 0.060.21* 0.200.16 0.170.10 0.100.77** 0.71**0.79** 0.74** ELTH G P     1.00 1.00 -0.39** -0.38** -0.75** -0.72** 0.77** 0.76** 0.05 0.06 0.03 0.02 ELTHG P1.00 1.00-0.39** -0.38**-0.75** -0.72**0.77** 0.76**0.05 0.060.03 0.02 EDMT G P      1.00 1.00 0.61** 0.58** -0.19 -0.17 0.71** 0.65** 0.68** 0.63** EDMTG P1.00 1.000.61** 0.58**-0.19 -0.170.71** 0.65**0.68** 0.63** KROW G P       1.00 1.00 -0.77** -0.73** 0.32** 0.30** 0.35** 0.33** KROWG P1.00 1.00-0.77** -0.73**0.32** 0.30**0.35** 0.33** GWT G P        1.00 1.00 0.18 0.16 0.16 0.15 GWTG P1.00 1.000.18 0.160.16 0.15 FDWT G P         1.00 1.00 0.98** 0.97** FDWTG P1.00 1.000.98** 0.97** YLD G P          1.00 1.00 YLDG P1.00 1.00  "},{"text":"Table 4 . Genotypic (G) and phenotypic (P) correlation coefficients among grain yield and other related traits in 10 three-way cross hybrids combined across three locations, Nigeria, 2014. Character R DPOL DSLK PLHT EHT ELTH EDMT KROW GWT FDWT YLD CharacterRDPOLDSLKPLHTEHTELTHEDMTKROWGWTFDWTYLD DPOL G P 1.00 1.00 0.98** 0.75** 0.69** 0.43** 0.96** 0.63** 0.40** 0.26* -0.40** -0.27** 0.19 0.11 -0.42** -0.28** -0.37** -0.26* -0.38** -0.26* DPOLG P1.00 1.000.98** 0.75**0.69** 0.43**0.96** 0.63**0.40** 0.26*-0.40** -0.27**0.19 0.11-0.42** -0.28**-0.37** -0.26*-0.38** -0.26* DSLK G P  1.00 1.00 0.50** 0.42** 0.89** 0.80** 0.56** 0.49** -0.25* -0.22* 0.21* 0.17 -0.39** -0.36** -0.11 -0.15 -0.13 -0.12 DSLKG P1.00 1.000.50** 0.42**0.89** 0.80**0.56** 0.49**-0.25* -0.22*0.21* 0.17-0.39** -0.36**-0.11 -0.15-0.13 -0.12 PLHT G P   1.00 1.00 0.75** 0.74** 0.28** 0.26* -0.40** -0.37** -0.13 -0.13 -0.30** -0.27** 0.05 0.04 0.04 0.02 PLHTG P1.00 1.000.75** 0.74**0.28** 0.26*-0.40** -0.37**-0.13 -0.13-0.30** -0.27**0.05 0.040.04 0.02 EHT G P    1.00 1.00 0.50** 0.47** -0.05 -0.04 0.18 0.15 -0.23* -0.21* 0.19 0.18 0.19 0.16 EHTG P1.00 1.000.50** 0.47**-0.05 -0.040.18 0.15-0.23* -0.21*0.19 0.180.19 0.16  "},{"text":"Table 4 . contd. ELTH G ELTHG  "},{"text":"Table 5 . Direct (diagonal bold) and indirect effects of nine traits on grain yield of 10 top-cross maize hybrids at genotypic level evaluated across three locations, Nigeria, 2014. Trait DPOL DSLK PLHT EHT ELTH EDMT KROW GWT FDWT Rg TraitDPOLDSLKPLHTEHTELTHEDMTKROWGWTFDWTRg DPOL 0.52 -0.17 -0.05 0.01 0.17 -0.28 -0.16 -0.16 -0.08 -0.20 DPOL0.52-0.17-0.050.010.17-0.28-0.16-0.16-0.08-0.20 DSLK 0.48 -0.21 -0.06 -0.05 0.16 -0.39 -0.15 -0.12 -0.17 -0.51 DSLK0.48-0.21-0.06-0.050.16-0.39-0.15-0.12-0.17-0.51 PLHT 0.16 -0.04 -0.02 0.27 0.11 -0.03 -0.06 -0.07 0.17 0.50 PLHT0.16-0.04-0.020.270.11-0.03-0.06-0.070.170.50 EHT 0.02 0.03 0.00 0.36 0.01 0.10 0.03 -0.02 0.26 0.79 EHT0.020.030.000.360.010.100.03-0.020.260.79 ELTH 0.37 -0.12 -0.08 0.02 0.23 -0.16 -0.13 -0.12 0.02 0.03 ELTH0.37-0.12-0.080.020.23-0.16-0.13-0.120.020.03 EDMT -0.36 0.19 0.03 0.07 -0.11 0.47 0.12 0.04 0.24 0.68 EDMT-0.360.190.030.07-0.110.470.120.040.240.68 KROW -0.44 0.18 0.01 0.06 -0.19 0.28 0.19 0.14 0.11 0.35 KROW-0.440.180.010.06-0.190.280.190.140.110.35 GWT 0.44 -0.14 -0.03 0.04 0.18 -0.06 -0.15 -0.19 0.06 0.16 GWT0.44-0.14-0.030.040.18-0.06-0.15-0.190.060.16 FDWT -0.06 0.11 -0.06 0.27 0.01 0.33 0.06 -0.03 0.34 0.98 FDWT-0.060.11-0.060.270.010.330.06-0.030.340.98  "},{"text":"Table 6 . Direct (diagonal bold) and indirect effects of nine traits on grain yield of 10 three-way cross maize hybrids at genotypic level evaluated across three locations, Nigeria, 2014. Trait DPOL DSLK PLHT EHT ELTH EDMT KROW GWT FDWT rg TraitDPOLDSLKPLHTEHTELTHEDMTKROWGWTFDWTrg DPOL -0.21 0.44 0.39 -0.89 0.19 0.36 0.23 -0.41 -0.48 -0.38 DPOL-0.210.440.39-0.890.190.360.23-0.41-0.48-0.38 DSLK -0.22 0.41 0.28 -0.83 0.27 0.22 0.25 -0.38 -0.14 -0.13 DSLK-0.220.410.28-0.830.270.220.25-0.38-0.14-0.13 PLHT -0.14 0.20 0.57 -0.70 0.14 0.36 -0.16 -0.29 0.07 0.04 PLHT-0.140.200.57-0.700.140.36-0.16-0.290.070.04 EHT -0.20 0.36 0.43 -0.93 0.24 0.04 0.22 -0.22 0.25 0.19 EHT-0.200.360.43-0.930.240.040.22-0.220.250.19 ELTH -0.08 0.23 0.16 -0.46 0.49 0.18 -0.54 0.01 0.30 0.27 ELTH-0.080.230.16-0.460.490.18-0.540.010.300.27 EDMT 0.08 -0.10 -0.23 0.05 -0.10 -0.89 0.47 0.51 0.82 0.61 EDMT0.08-0.10-0.230.05-0.10-0.890.470.510.820.61 KROW -0.04 0.09 -0.07 -0.17 -0.22 -0.35 0.99 -0.24 -0.04 -0.05 KROW-0.040.09-0.07-0.17-0.22-0.350.99-0.24-0.04-0.05 GWT 0.09 -0.16 -0.17 0.21 0.00 -0.46 -0.57 0.98 0.43 0.35 GWT0.09-0.16-0.170.210.00-0.46-0.570.980.430.35 FDWT 0.08 -0.05 0.03 0.00 0.11 -0.47 -0.04 0.32 0.99 0.98 FDWT0.08-0.050.030.000.11-0.47-0.040.320.990.98  "}],"sieverID":"aab1ac40-1ab4-4925-adbc-747a376b19a7","abstract":"Grain yield is a complex quantitative trait that depends on a number of other traits for selection. This study was carried out to reveal the pattern of association with and contribution of traits to grain yield in two maize populations evaluated in three agro-ecological zones of South-Western Nigeria during the 2014 cropping season. The experiment consisted of 10 top-cross and 10 three-way cross maize hybrids, laid out in a randomised complete block design with three replications. Genotypic and phenotypic correlation coefficients and path co-efficient analyses were performed for each hybrid population across the three locations. Results showed significant (p≤0.05) differences between the two hybrid populations for all the traits mentioned except days to 50% anthesis, ear diameter and 100-grain weight. Field weight in both hybrid populations, number of kernel rows per cob, ear diameter and ear height in top-cross hybrids, as well as ear length and 100-grain weight in the three-way cross hybrids were directly correlated with grain yield. The link between direct and indirect effects on grain yield depends on hybrid population, although some traits showed similar direct effects in both hybrid populations. These traits can be used as the main criteria for grain yield improvement in the respective hybrid populations."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"09b2ce7d22c793c75a87b9965b2c352b","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/e308d846-beb7-4a73-86e5-82a72d409ba7/retrieve"},"pageCount":4,"title":"NORMAN E. BORLAUG LEADERSHIP ENHANCEMENT IN AGRICULTURE PROGRAM UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA -DAVIS !!!258 HUNT HALL !!DAVIS, CALIFORNIA 95616 USA PHONE 530","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":221,"text":"This study develops an index-based livestock insurance (IBLI) product for managing key livestock asset risks of pastoralists in the arid and semi-arid lands of northern Kenya, where insurance markets are effectively absent and uninsured risk exposure is a main cause of persistent poverty. It uses a combination of field experiments and surveys conducted in summer 2008, and pre-existing household-level panel data sets in: (1) designing a market-viable contract; (2) conducting ex-ante householdlevel welfare analysis; and (3) eliciting willingness to pay (WTP) for the product among the targeted population. IBLI offers compensation based on a predicted location aggregate livestock mortality index constructed from a strong statistical relationship between household herd mortality rates and high quality, objectively verifiable, remotely-sensed measures of vegetative cover on rangelands that are not manipulable by insured parties. It thus has potential to resolve the transaction costs and asymmetric information problems that cripple traditional insurance. The presence of a threshold-based poverty trap in East African pastoralism leads to nonlinear IBLI valuation, as found both in the simulation-based welfare analysis and in WTP estimates elicited through field surveys and experiments. This implies that IBLI could be both a commercially viable insurance product for better-off pastoralists, as well as a pro-poor instrument to use as a safety net for pastoralists vulnerable to losing their herds and collapsing into chronic poverty. The  "}]},{"head":"Background and Methods","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":108,"text":"In Kenya's arid and semi arid lands (ASALs), catastrophic livestock loss, especially induced from drought, is the most pervasive hazard encountered by households on a widespread level. This is especially true for northern Kenya, where more than 3 million pastoralist households are regularly hit by increasingly severe droughts. In the past 100 years, northern Kenya recorded 28 major droughts, four of which occurred in the last 10 years. For livelihoods that rely solely or partly on livestock, the risk -and especially the realization -of catastrophic livestock mortality losses has devastating effects, driving them into extreme poverty and making it difficult for them to escape once they fall destitute."},{"index":2,"size":153,"text":"The economic and social returns to an effective program that insures the pastoral and agro-pastoral population against catastrophic livestock losses can be substantial. First, because it provides indemnity payments after a shock, livestock insurance should help stem the collapse of vulnerable-but-presently-non-poor households into the ranks of the poor following a drought due to irreversible losses from which they do not recover. Second, insuring assets against catastrophic loss lessens the high risk of investment in such environments. This should improve incentives for households to build their asset base and climb out of poverty. Third, private creditors presently unwilling to lend for such ventures due to the covariate risk associated with big shocks like drought might become willing to lend if the assets that secure their loans could be insured. Insurance can thereby \"crowd-in\" much-needed credit for enterprises in the region without leaving poor ASAL residents excessively vulnerable to losing assets when nature fails them."},{"index":3,"size":99,"text":"Formal insurance, especially against covariate livestock loss, is rarely available for small-scale pastoral households in high risk, infrastructure-deficient areas due to problems of asymmetric information, transaction costs and covariate risk. Index based livestock insurance (IBLI) offers a means to fill in this missing market. In contrast to traditional insurance, which makes indemnity payments based on the actual loss of the insured, IBLI pays out based on an objectively and transparently measured index (e.g., rainfall, predicted livestock loss based on objectively measured vegetative condition, etc.) that is strongly associated with insurable loss but cannot be influenced by both contract parties."},{"index":4,"size":129,"text":"By construction, IBLI thus avoids the twin asymmetric information problems of adverse selection and moral hazard as no contract party can influence the probability of insurance payment. Transaction costs of monitoring and verification of the insurance contracts can also be substantially reduced, as now insurance companies and insured clients need only monitor the index to know when a claim is due and indemnity payments must be made. They do not need to confirm the veracity and cause of individual losses. Finally, properly indexing locally covariate risk opens up opportunities for risk transfer into a broader risk pool via international capital markets. These advantages, however, come at a cost of spatial or intertemporal \"basis risk\", which results from the necessarily imperfect correlation between the index and any individual's loss experience."},{"index":5,"size":24,"text":"Given these tradeoffs and the novelty of the IBLI conceptespecially among a previously-uninsured population -the key challenges in developing IBLI in northern Kenya were:"},{"index":6,"size":27,"text":"(1) identifying high quality data that could serve as an objectively measured indicator -it has to be available costeffectively in near-real-time and not manipulable by contract parties;"},{"index":7,"size":58,"text":"(2) statistically establishing a an optimal insurance index based on a strong relationship between household-level livestock loss and the objectively measured indicator; (3) crafting contract terms that are easy to understand and that match the risk management needs of the targeted clientele; and (4) building informed demand for the contract among a target clientele largely unfamiliar with insurance."},{"index":8,"size":1,"text":"To "}]},{"head":"Findings","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":59,"text":"Designing the IBLI contract. An empirical forecasting relationship between seasonal area-average livestock mortality and vegetation index was estimated using 10 years of ALRMP and NDVI data. The NDVI series were standardized to control for heterogeneity of non-climate factors across locations. Due to the cumulative nature of drought-induced livestock loss, cumulative vegetation variables were constructed as the main explanatory variables."},{"index":2,"size":61,"text":"The seasonal forecasting relationships were estimated using a regime switching model, where the cumulative vegetation outcome observed at the end of the season determines the regime (either good-vegetation year or bad-year regime) for which the empirical relationship between NDVI and livestock mortality was established. This approach captures how livestock mortality response to vegetation conditions differed between good and bad rainfall years."},{"index":3,"size":71,"text":"Ultimately, two spatially distinct clusters were identified, one for the Chalbi (a very arid zone of camel and smallstockbased pastoralism) and the other for Laisamis (a semi-arid zone with cattle and smallstock-based pastoralism). The predictive relationships performed very well out-of-sample (when tested against the PARIMA data), predicting household-specific mortality loss with 87% probability of forecasting errors within 10% of the true value, and correctly triggering insurance payout 75-88% of the time."},{"index":4,"size":149,"text":"A location-specific predicted seasonal livestock mortality index can then be constructed based on historical observations of NDVI data and the regime switching model estimates. Seasonal IBLI contracts were developed for each location using these predicted livestock mortality indices to trigger insurance payments. Pastoralists pay the premium before the season starts and receive an indemnity payment at the end of the season if the predicted morality index exceeds the pre-specified strike level. Both the premium and the indemnity are proportional to the total value of livestock insured, which the pastoralist chooses. The actuarially fair seasonal premium rates vary across locations due to heterogeneity in vegetation condition, from 2.2-4.9% of total insured livestock value for a 10% strike contract, down to 0.5-1.5% for a 20% strike contract. Risk exposure analysis of the insurance underwriter suggested that a high degree of spatial and temporal aggregate risk diversification could be achieved with IBLI."},{"index":5,"size":122,"text":"Simulated welfare analysis of IBLI contract. We then conducted an ex ante evaluation of the effectiveness of IBLI in northern Kenya, where prior empirical research has found strong evidence of threshold-based poverty traps characterized by at least one herd threshold of around 15 tropical livestock units (TLU) below which livestock accumulation collapses, and above which livestock grows over time to a much higher equilibrium herd size. We built a dynamic structural model of household wealth dynamics and parameterized it using rich panel data from ALRMP, PARIMA and experimental risk preference data elicited in the 2008 survey. The simulations allowed us to establish the likely welfare effects of IBLI and to investigate patterns of household-specific willingness to pay for this asset index insurance."},{"index":6,"size":149,"text":"The simulation results indicate that the welfare effects of IBLI vary greatly across households. Due to the asset threshold-based poverty trap, IBLI is most valuable to vulnerable non-poor households when it protects their herd from falling beneath the critical threshold and thus helps them avert a collapse into destitution. It provides the least welfare improvement for the poorest households, who are already beneath the herd size threshold and for whom paying for IBLI premium accelerates their decline into destitution. The largest, non-vulnerable herd owners benefit significantly from IBLI as well, although not as much as the vulnerable non-poor. The estimated welfare effects of IBLI are thus highly nonlinear in individual herd size, peaking for those at or slightly above the critical herd threshold. Initial herd size thus was found to be the key dominating determinant of IBLI performance in this setting, not basis risk, location or individual risk preferences."},{"index":7,"size":133,"text":"Since the greatest value of IBLI arises due to its provision of an effective safety net, we then explored the likelihood of commercial uptake among those who might otherwise need assistance. For the 10% strike contract that has the greatest estimated welfare effects, only those with relatively large herds would be willing to pay commercial mark-ups (above actuarially fair rates) of at least 20%, corroborating our survey evidence that WTP among vulnerable groups may not suffice to stimulate uptake of commercially viable contracts, which typically have mark-ups of 30-50% to cover insurer costs and profits. We then used simulations to show that targeted subsidization of IBLI premiums might serve quite effectively as a safety net program. Indeed, this appears more cost-effective in reducing headcount poverty measures than direct need-based transfers to the poor."},{"index":8,"size":77,"text":"Investigating demand for IBLI using field experiments. IBLI demand estimated using structural dynamic simulation models can be compared with the estimated willingness-topay (WTP) based on survey data. Pastoralists were asked to decide what proportion of their herd they would wish to insure. Then, conditional on their chosen proportion, they were asked a sequence of dichotomous WTP questions, responses to which were used to form bounds for their unobserved WTP. We then estimated WTP conditional on household-specific characteristics."},{"index":9,"size":121,"text":"Wealth, risk preferences, perceived basis risk and a herder's subjective expectation of herd loss are the key WTP determinants, conditional on understanding how IBLI works. The mean proportion of herd that respondents chose to insure was nearly 70%. Mean WTP only marked up the actuarially fair rate by an average of 15%, not enough to generate effective demand for a commercially viable contract. As in the simulation-based analysis, estimated aggregate demand appears highly price elastic. At a 30% mark up on actuarially fair rates, effective IBLI demand drops to only 16% of the sample. Those households most vulnerable to falling into a poverty trap exhibited the highest price elasticity of demand, despite their potentially higher dynamic welfare gains from the insurance."}]},{"head":"Practical Implications","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":84,"text":"The on a new cash transfer program. These POS devices can be easily configured to accept premium payments and to register indemnity payments for certain insurance contracts. Financial sector interests are attracted by the potential economies of scope involved in introducing another range of products for devices otherwise used purely for government transfers and debit payments. It remains to be seen how large these economies of scope will prove and how replicable this model will be without the fortuitous existence of a POS network."},{"index":2,"size":50,"text":"Third, IBLI underwriters and their commercial partners must make difficult choices in balancing the administrative simplicity and marketing appeal of offering IBLI contracts priced uniformly over space and time, versus more complex pricing to guard against the possibility of spatial or intertemporal adverse selection. Little is known about these tradeoffs."},{"index":3,"size":133,"text":"These implementation challenges notwithstanding, IBLI shows considerable promise in the pastoral areas of East Africa. By addressing serious problems of covariate risk, asymmetric information and high transactions costs that have precluded the emergence of commercial insurance in these areas to date, IBLI offers a novel opportunity to use financial risk transfer mechanisms to address a key driver of persistent poverty. The basic design should be replicable in other locations where covariate risk exposure is significant and existing insurance products do not adequately meet households' insurance needs. Extended time series of remotely sensed data are available worldwide at high quality and low cost. Wherever there also exist longitudinal household-level data on an insurable interest (livestock, health status, crop yields, etc.), similar types of index insurance can be designed using the basic techniques outlined here."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Indexbased Livestock Insurance for Managing Livestock Asset Risks in Northern Kenya Sommarat Chantarat, Cornell University, Norman Borlaug LEAP Fellow 20072008 Coauthors: Christopher B. Barrett, Cornell University; and Andrew G. Mude, International Livestock Research Institute IBLI contract originally designed in this study has been slightly modified and launched in a pilot in January 2010 in the Marsabit district of northern Kenya by a Kenyan commercial insurer with retail distribution/brokerage by a leading private financial institution, international reinsurance by Swiss Reinsurance, with the International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI) leading the effort and the associated monitoring and evaluation program. Developing Developing  "},{"text":" July 2008. households in each location were randomly drawn using sampling stratified by three livestock wealth classes. These sampled households were later brought together to take part in an experimental game designed to replicate existing pastoral production systems, which we used to illustrate how IBLI would work. Having educated participants on the general structure of IBLI, we then returned to each household for a follow-up interview where we used contingent valuation methods to elicit and understand respondents' willingness-to-pay (WTP) for insurance. The research methodology uses the survey data to complement existing data sets in designing the IBLI contract, performing simulation-based welfare analysis and studying WTP patterns. of of Kenya's Arid Land Resource Management Project (ALRMP), Kenya's Arid Land Resource Management Project (ALRMP), from 2000-present, and (ii) quarterly data 2000-2002 from 2000-present, and (ii) quarterly data 2000-2002 from the USAID Global Livestock Collaborative Research from the USAID Global Livestock Collaborative Research Support Program's (GL-CRSP) \"Improving Pastoral Risk Support Program's (GL-CRSP) \"Improving Pastoral Risk Management on East African Rangelands\" (PARIMA) Management on East African Rangelands\" (PARIMA) project. project. Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI). NDVI Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI). NDVI represents the best candidate for a high quality, objectively represents the best candidate for a high quality, objectively measured indicator of covariate risk of livestock loss in measured indicator of covariate risk of livestock loss in this region. Constructed from data remotely sensed from this region. Constructed from data remotely sensed from satellites, NDVI reflects the level of photosynthetic activity satellites, NDVI reflects the level of photosynthetic activity in the vegetation observed in a given location. As livestock in the vegetation observed in a given location. As livestock in pastoral production systems depend almost entirely on in pastoral production systems depend almost entirely on available forage for nutrition, NDVI serves as a strong available forage for nutrition, NDVI serves as a strong indicator of the vegetation available for livestock to consume. indicator of the vegetation available for livestock to consume. Surveys and experiments. In-depth household and community Surveys and experiments. In-depth household and community field surveys and simple experiments were conducted in the field surveys and simple experiments were conducted in the  "}],"sieverID":"35d745e5-e387-4848-af57-83e0ee90bb4c","abstract":""}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"09f6dc1c7539896e649f72a692f0c6b6","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/491454f6-17c4-4d73-bf6f-8e5bf53ddd28/retrieve"},"pageCount":79,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Agradecimentos","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":34,"text":"o patrocinio para a elabora900 deste manual vem da Agencia Canad iana para o Desenvolvimento Internacional (CIDA). Agencia Sui9a para o Desenvolvimento e Coopera900 (SDC) e Agencia Norte Americana para o Desenvolvimento Internacional (USAlD)."},{"index":2,"size":120,"text":"A colabora900 técnica de várias individualidades e institui9óes é altamente apreciada. Em particular, o Programa Pós-colheita do Instituto de Invesliga900 Agronómica de Kawanda, Uganda jogou um importante papel na cria900 do equipa mento e metodologias póscolheita utilizadas para a produ90o de semente de feijoo comum . Congratula -se pela assistencia de Michael Odong , Cedric Mutyaba e Ulysses Acacio . Martin Wamaniala e Mark Wood da IDEA (Projecto de Iniciativa para o Desenvolvimento e Agricultura de Exporta900) em Kampala, Uganda fizeram a supervisoo técnica . Anna Szakaly providenciou a assistencia na escritura do primeiro esbo90 e Christine Scypinski ajudou na reda900 e ilustra900. Charles Wortmann e Robin Buruchara deram importantes sugestóes técnicas sobre os aspectos agronómicos e patologia de feijoo."},{"index":3,"size":30,"text":"Este texto foi traduzido do original em Portugues pelo Dr. Fernando Sito, Responsável do Programa de Cereiais do Instituto de Investiga900 Agronómica (IIA), Angola, patrocinado pelo World Vision Angola ."}]},{"head":"INTRODU<;ÁO DO MANUAIS PARA PEQUEN OS PRODUTORES DE SEMENTE DE FEIJÁO","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":55,"text":"Este manual é destinado a pequenos produtores interessados na produyóo de semente de feijóo comum pora fins comerciais. O manual foi escrito pora camponeses sem educayóo formal ou experiencia em questóes relacionadas com a produyóo de semente de feijáo. Pora entender alguns tópicos abordados neste livro vece pode pedir assistencia a investigadores, extensionistas ou ONG's."},{"index":2,"size":16,"text":"Este manual deve ser utilizado juntamente com outros dois manuais: Semente de feijáo de boa qualldade:"},{"index":3,"size":6,"text":".:. tem alta viabilidad e ."},{"index":4,"size":6,"text":"• :. está bem seca ."},{"index":5,"size":17,"text":"• :. é pura: toda a semente pertence a mesma variedade e com o mesmo tamanho ."},{"index":6,"size":15,"text":"• :. é limpa: náo está misturada com matérias inertestais como pedras ou terra ."},{"index":7,"size":12,"text":"• :. ndo está danificada. partida deformada. mofado. danificada por insectos ."},{"index":8,"size":6,"text":"• :. ndo é podre ."},{"index":9,"size":5,"text":"• :. náo é descolorida."},{"index":10,"size":20,"text":"Caso pretenda produzir semente de teijóo de boa qualidade deve garantir que a mesma possia os seguintes padr6es de qualidade:  "}]},{"head":"ESCOLHA DE VARIEDADE","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":29,"text":"A escolha da variedade que irá multiplicar é muito importante visto que determina o sucesso do seu negócio. Voce deve multiplicar somente aquelas variedades, que voce pensa ná mercado."},{"index":2,"size":37,"text":"A escolha destas variedades é abordada no manual \"Conhecimentos sobre Negócio para Pequenos Produtores de Sementes\". Voce pode escolher uma variedade MELHORADA de feijáo (novas variedades criadas pelOS investigadores) ou variedades ~OCAIS (variedades tradicionais dos camponeses) ."}]},{"head":"ESCOLHA DE SEMENTE","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":158,"text":"Somente se escolhe semente de variedades melhoradas obtidas a partir de uma fonte fé de digna tal como projecto de semente ou investigadores porquanto semente de baixa qualidade resultará em fraco rendimento. No caso de se escolher semente de variedade local, procure encontrar uma fonte de boa semente na sua área, por exemplo, de alguém conhecido como sendo bom campones. renda em conta que algumas doen9as do feijáo está o escondidas no interior da semente náo sáo visíveis Ó olho nu, é importante trocar regularmente a semente. Existem 5 principais escondidas no interior da semente de feijáo: bacteriose da folha do feijáo, virose do feijáo, antracnose , queimadura das folhas e ascochyta . A informac;oo sobre esfas doenc;as encontra-se no manual •Controlo de doenc;os e progos do feIJoelro•. Caso observar que as plantas no campo estoo afectadas por alguma destas doen<;:as, entoo troca a semente em cada 1 ou 2 épocas para garantir uma cultura isenta de doen<;:as."}]},{"head":"ESCOLHA DE LOCAL","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":113,"text":"Para obter altos rend imentos de feijoo, escolhe terra altamente produtiva apropriada para a produc;:oo de feijoo. Por exem plo, deve evitar este pes com relevo declinado, terrenos próximo de pantanos, solos muito arenosos, áreas com superfíc ie e com ervas daninhas perenes. Seja atento aos sinais que indicam a alta fertilidade do solo.  Se possível proceda a análise química do solo. Tome amostras do seu terreno cavando pelo menos 5 furos em todo o campo a 10 cm de profundidade. Tire uma pequena amostro em cada furo depois misture-as . Envie os amostras paro um laboratório. Os resultados da análise dar-Ihe-áo uma indico<;:áo se por acaso precisa ou náo de aplicar adubo."}]},{"head":"MELHORAMENTO DA FERTlLlDADE DO SOLO","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":32,"text":"Coso tiver que incorporar adubo no seu terreno. fá-Io a lonc;:o antes de gradar. Em cado hecfare aplique 100 kg de composto mais 10 kg de ureia. Esta prática aumenta os rendimentos."}]},{"head":"Terreno adubado","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":2,"text":"Terreno noo-adubado"}]},{"head":"II","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":172,"text":"Também pOde a plicar o estrume de origem a nimal (sobretudo o esterco de aves) ou c omposto para melhorar as propriedades do solo. A utiljza<;;óo da planta denominada MUCUNA e CANAVALIA pode igualmente melhorar a produtividade do solo. A semente da mucuna e canavalia pode ser obtida a partir dos Institutos de Investiga<;:áo Agronómica. O exlensionista da sua área também pode ter informa<;:áo acerca do local de obten<;:áo desta semente. Estas duas espécies devem ser semeadas na época anterior e deixá-Ias na superfície do solo. Semeie 2 sementes de mucuna ou canavalia por covacho num compasso de 60 centímetros (2 pés) entre as plantas e 75 centímetros (2.5 pés) entre as filas (igual ao compasso utilizado na cultura de milho). Devido ao vigoroso crescimento das plantas e a cobertura rápida do solo, pode ser necessário proceder a primeira sacha 3 semanas após a sementeira. Quando estiver pronto para semear a cultura de feijáo destinada a semente, arranque simplesmente as plantas de mucuna ou canavalia e deixa-as secar na superfície do solo."},{"index":2,"size":26,"text":"Quando semear feijáo após a mucuna ou canavalia, náo é preciso remexer o solo. Deixa as plantas secas destas duas últimas espécies na superfície do solo."}]},{"head":"SEMENTEIRA","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":33,"text":"Se estiver a semear semente certificada de feijáo , p6e somente uma semente por covacho. Se adquiriu a semente a partir de outros camponeses ou da 10ja, entáo semeie 2-3 sementes por covacho. "}]},{"head":"CAPINAR E DEPURA9ÁO","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":44,"text":"As ervas daninhas reduzem os rendimentos. Por isso é importante remover ervas dominhas 00 menos 1-2 vezes por época agrícola. A primeira sacha procede-se afItes de 3°. semana . A periodicidade das demais sachas depende do crescimento das ervas daninhas e da cultura ."},{"index":2,"size":18,"text":"Durante as primeiras 5 semanas após a sementeira, verifique 3 vezes se o campo está atacado por doen<;:as:"},{"index":3,"size":20,"text":"1. na altura da emergencia das plantas, 2. 2 semanas mals tarde, 3. na altura de emersáo das primeiras flores."},{"index":4,"size":65,"text":"o feijoeiro é atacado por várias doen<;:as. Muitas destas doen<;:as podem ser desconhecidas por si. A informa<;:ao detalhada sobre como identificar tais doen<;:as e como inspeccionar o seu campo está contida no manual \"Controlo de doenc;as e pragas do feijaeiro\". Caso somente algumas plantas apresentam sintomas de doenc;a remove-as para nao infectarem as plantas sos. Esta opera<;:ao denomina-se DEPURA<;:ÁO. Arranque as plantas afectadas e queime-as."},{"index":5,"size":37,"text":"Para manter o campo de feijao limpo, deve remover as plantas que aparenta m características diferentes da variedade cultivada . Por exemplo, arranque as plantas muito altas ou com diferentes forma da folha ou colora<;:ao da flor."}]},{"head":"CONTROLO DE PRAGAS","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":1,"text":"A "}]},{"head":"SECAGEM DE VAGENS","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":26,"text":"Antes de descascar as vagens devem estar secas. Se iniciar o descasque logo a seguir a colheita. danificará a semente devido 00 elevado teor de humidade."},{"index":2,"size":35,"text":"Deve testar a humidade da semente antes de descascar utilizando os dentes e os dedos e antes do tratamento com o sal. O procedimento de teste do leor de humidade está explicado na pagina 27."},{"index":3,"size":29,"text":"Náo secar a semente no cháo. Isto pode misturar a semente com terra , humidade, ou ser comida pelos animais. Aconselha-se a secar a semente de feijáo numo esteira."},{"index":4,"size":39,"text":"Semente de) lelJéio secando numo estelra É melhorsecá-Ia num plástico colocado numa plataforma ou num cesto para milho. ---_.  Descascar num armário para o efeito protege a semente de dono e sujeira, e impede isto de d ifundi r."},{"index":5,"size":67,"text":"Uma mulher descascando felJóo num armórlo de descasque o armário de descasque é constituído por uma armac;:áo de madeira com peneira de rede na parte inferior para captar a semente. Evita-se que a semente caia no processo de descasque pelo material nos lados. Após de descascada, a semente deve ser seca pela segunda vez. Como sempre, é importante proteger a semente de chuvas, insectos, animais e sujidade."},{"index":6,"size":19,"text":"A semente descascada deve ser seca em esteiras, folhas de plástico ou peneira de rede colocada em plataforma ."},{"index":7,"size":17,"text":"1. Espalhe umo camada fina de semente numo superfícle de secogem para permitir a circulo9áo do or."},{"index":8,"size":4,"text":"-'0: ---., ' '"}]},{"head":"Remexe a semente regularmente por forma a","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":4,"text":"evitar demols oqueclmento desto."},{"index":2,"size":9,"text":"3. Seque a semente durante 1-3 dlas de sol."},{"index":3,"size":21,"text":"-0\"'- 5. Teste a semente para ver se a mesma estó bem seca alravés de mordeduras ou opertando-a com os dedos."}]},{"head":"LlMPEZA E FRACCIONAMENTO","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":21,"text":"A IimpelO da semente deve ser levada a cabo para remover o lixo, poeira e outra matéria inerte nela contida ."},{"index":2,"size":7,"text":".\" \"' :~ .. :~.: . .:"},{"index":3,"size":88,"text":". ' . ; . . . . Após a limpelO. remove a semente imatura. partida . ou de outras variedades através do calibragem . A calibragem feita em plataforma calibradora facilita o trabalho visto que nao necessário remexer a semente e a rede da peneira limpa alguma sujidade misturada com a semente. Uma plataforma calibradora consiste em dois funis de madeira com prateleiras de malha de rede para captar a semente. A calibradora é colocada numo mesa e as pessoas seleccionam a semente sentadas a mesa ."},{"index":4,"size":66,"text":"Utilizando a plataforma calibradora Para utilizar a calibradora, despeje a semente seca e limpa nos funis. Em seguida esta coi na red e da peneira e pode entáo ser c alibrada a máo. A rede da peneira retém a semente pequena e partida e permite a remo¡;:áo fác il da sujidade e restolhos. Podé-se utilizar peneiras de diferentes tamanhos para variedades de diferentes tamanhos de semente."},{"index":5,"size":15,"text":"Um carplnteiro local pode fazer a plataforma calibradora segulndo as regras contidas na póglna 67."}]},{"head":"MEDI<;ÁO DE HUMIDADE DA SEMENTE","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":17,"text":"A melhor forma de determinar a humidade da semente descascada consiste na utilizayáo do teste de sal:  "}]},{"head":"Sementelra","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":85,"text":"Divide a amostra de 200 sementes em 2 lotes de 100 sementes cada. Semeie 100 sementes num recipiente e a outra parte de semente noutro recipiente seguindo as seguintes instrUl;:óes. De preferencia levar a cabo o teste em 2 recipientes ou plataformas. É melhor utilizar areia, mas caso náo tenha areia utilize solo. Coloque areia limpa ou solo numa profundidade de 10-12 cm. Utilizando uma vara prepare os covachos em filas separadas de 2 a 3 cm . Semeie uma semente de feijáo por covacho."},{"index":2,"size":36,"text":"Se meando a semente no solo Em vez de areia ou solo pode-se utilizar tecido ou jornal. Humedece o tecido ou papel , coloque as sementes e tape-as com outro pedac;:o do tecido ou papel húmido."}]},{"head":"Se meando a semente no tecldo","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":48,"text":"Após a sementeira regue a semente e verifique todos os dias para a areia ou o solo nao fique muito seco e dificulte a germinac;:ao. Certifique que o recipiente tenha furos no fundo para facilitar a drenagem. As plóntulas devem comec;:ar a emergir 3-5 dias após a sementeira."},{"index":2,"size":70,"text":"Em caso de utilizar um recipiente ou tecido, é importante controlar o teor de humidade. As sementes devem ser mantidas húmidas, mas nao mol hadas. Muita ou pouca água pode prejudicar o processo de germinac;:ao. O recipiente deve ser colocado no interior de um edifício. Se estiver fora, nao deve estar exposta directamente ao sol e chuva. Se plantou um número diferente de sementes, entóo deverá proceder ao respectivo cálculo:"},{"index":3,"size":1,"text":"i."},{"index":4,"size":6,"text":"Conte o número de plantulas normais."},{"index":5,"size":9,"text":"ii. Divide este número pelo número de sementes plantadas."},{"index":6,"size":1,"text":"iii."},{"index":7,"size":6,"text":"Multiplique este número por 1 OO."},{"index":8,"size":22,"text":"(b) Após determinar a percentagem de germino<;:oo de cada lote em separado , calcule a média de germinac;oo da seguinte forma :"},{"index":9,"size":8,"text":"i. Adicione a percentagem de cada lote. ii."},{"index":10,"size":12,"text":"Divide este número pelo total de lotes. (N este caso 2 lotes)."},{"index":11,"size":1,"text":"Exemplo:"},{"index":12,"size":17,"text":"Neste exemplo, o teste de germina<;:oo foi levado a cabo com 100 sementes plantadas em 2 lotes."},{"index":13,"size":42,"text":"Quon!ldode Plón!ulas Plónlulos de semente normols onormols podres Considerando que o número total de sementes em cada lote é 100: lote 1 -tem a percentagem de germina<;:óo de 82% lote 2 -tem a percentagem de germina<;:óo de 86% Some as percentagens :"},{"index":14,"size":14,"text":"Divide este número pelo número de lotes: 168/2 = 84 germino<;:óo é de 84%."}]},{"head":"Nota:","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":25,"text":"A semente com uma percentogem de germlnorrao inferior a 80% nao deve ser vendida como semente. mas slm pode ser utilizada o vendida como grao."}]},{"head":"TRATAMENTO","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":26,"text":"o objectivo do trata mento da semente de feijóo consiste em protejé-Ia contra a sua danifica9óo pelos insectos, ratos e fungos quando armazenada por longos períodos."}]},{"head":"Semente donlflcodo pelo gorgulho","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":40,"text":"A semente também pode ser tratada para proteger a cultura contra doen9as e pragas de campo tais como a broca do caule. Para mais detalhes sobre o tratamento de sementes le o manual •Controle de doenc;as e pragas do tel/oelro•."}]},{"head":"Tralamento tradicional durante o armazenamento","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":28,"text":"Este tratamento inclui: secagem frequente da semente ao sol, embebedamento da semente com sumo de banana ou mistura de cinza, barro com térmites, jindungo ou folhas de eucalipto."}]},{"head":"Tratamento com fórmacos","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":31,"text":"Os fármacos podem ser mais eficientes do que os métodos de trata mento trad icional. Porém, estas substanc ias sao venenosas e precisam de bastante cuidados ao lidar com as mesmas."}]},{"head":"Importante","index":23,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":7,"text":"* Utilize insecticidas somente após ser treinado."},{"index":2,"size":10,"text":"* Segue estritamente as instru90es contidas na embalagem do fármaco."},{"index":3,"size":30,"text":"* Os insecticidas perdem a sua aC900 com o tempo. Se estes estiverem expostos no prateleira da loja por muito tempo antes da compra, entoo estes podem nao ser eficazes."},{"index":4,"size":17,"text":"* Nunca deve utilizar na alimenta900 semente tratada com fórmacos--mesmo se esta esteve armazenada por langa período."},{"index":5,"size":38,"text":"Os fármacos recomendados para Iralar a semente de feijao sao Actellic e Malation. Em média utilize 200 9 de insecticida por 100 kg de semente. Para conhecer a dosagem correcta. leia as instru~óes que acompanham o produto químico."},{"index":6,"size":71,"text":"Uma caixa de fósforos cheia de insecticida contém aproximadamente 25 g . Por exemplo. para tratar 100 kg de semente com 200 9 de fármaco. voce deve medir B vezes a caixa de fósforos.  5. Depois de terminar lave bem as suas máos. A semente deve ser de novo tratada após 3 meses de armazenamento. Aplique a mesma quantidade de fármaco utilizada na primeira vez e segue os procedimentos acima descritos."},{"index":7,"size":8,"text":"Lave as moas após a apllcac;:óo de fármacos"},{"index":8,"size":46,"text":"Tratamento da semente utilizando um tambor Um tambor de trata mento é um simples tambor de metal apoiodo numa estruturo. O trata mento da semente neste tambor permite que o fármaco se espalhe bem entre a semente e evita problemas de inalo<;:áo da poeira da substancia."},{"index":9,"size":58,"text":"Utilizando o tambor de trata mento Utillzac;;áo do tambOr de tratamento l. Antes de utilizar o tambor, certifique que o mesmo esteja limpo e em boas condi<;:Ó€s técnicas. Use uma vara para limpar dentro do mesmo, mas nunca utilize um pano mol hado porque este pode enferrujor o tambor. Inspeccione o tambor poro porofusos soltos, e os aperte."},{"index":10,"size":31,"text":"2. Coloque no tambor metade da quantidode de semente que deve ser tratado. Em seguida espalhe a quantidade certa de insecticida sobre a semente. Depois acrescente a restante quantidade de semente."},{"index":11,"size":41,"text":"3. Feche hermeticamente a porta pequena apertado os parafusos com uma chara de parafuso. Caso haja ainda algum espo<;:o entre a entrada e o corpo do tambor, entáo cobre a entrada com uma pe<;:a de tecido antes de enroscar a entrada."},{"index":12,"size":37,"text":"4. Gire o tambor 15 vezes enquanto se levantando em uma pOSi<;:áo semi-vertical. Antes de abrir a entrada , espere uns 5 minutos para que a poeira assente. Os fármacos sáo venenos, por isso náo os inale."},{"index":13,"size":18,"text":"5. Coloque um peda<;:o de plástico ou um recipiente debaixo de entrada e entorne a semente tratada ."},{"index":14,"size":32,"text":"Mexe o tambor de um lado para outro para certificar que toda a semente saiu do tambor. Caso haja uma semente ainda no interior do tambor, remove -a utilizando um pau ."},{"index":15,"size":33,"text":"O tambor de tratamento ilustrado na pág ina 69 tem a capacidade de 100 kg de semente . Neste caso precisa de uma chave 13 para abrir e fechar a tampa do tambor."},{"index":16,"size":16,"text":"Um serralheiro local pode fabricar o tambor de tratamento seguindo as Instru<;:óes contidas na póglna 69."}]},{"head":"ARMAZENAMENTO","index":24,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":8,"text":"Para evitar a danifica9óo da semente armazene-a bem."},{"index":2,"size":13,"text":"A melhor maneira de fOler isto é manter a semente limpa e seca."},{"index":3,"size":57,"text":"A semente deve estar seca antes de ser embalada e armazenada. A secagem adequada reduz a possibilidade desta ser infestada pelos fungoso A humidade deve ronda os níveis de 1 3 a 15%. Caso o sal adere as paredes do vaso há quando do teste de ;humidade, entóo deve secar de novo a semente antes de armazena-Ia."},{"index":4,"size":35,"text":"Certifique para que os utensílios utilizados para o armazenamento da semente sejam desinfectados e limpos. Lave bem os recipientes depois desinfecte-os, mergulhando os mesmos em banho de água fervente por um período de 5 minutos."},{"index":5,"size":50,"text":"Deslntecte os sacos e recipientes mergulhando-os em ógua tervente durante 5 minutos Pode-se fazer guarda ratos com uma lata rasa ou cortada 00 topo. A lata deve ter a forma de cone com um furo no centro. Amarre-a com pregos ou arome a volla dos pés do abrigo da semente."},{"index":6,"size":2,"text":"Estanho Estanho"}]},{"head":"6,~","index":25,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":4,"text":"Preparac;;óo de guarda ratos"},{"index":2,"size":29,"text":"Destrua ratos e ratazanas com a ajuda de armadilhas e raticida. Seja cuidadoso no uso da raticida. Nunca deve misturar o raticida com a semente. Queime os ratos mortos."},{"index":3,"size":29,"text":"Protege a semente da humidade, colocando-a em cima de estrados distante da parede. Os sacos devem ser colocados há um metro das paredes em sistema de estrados ou pau-a-pique.  "}]},{"head":"RESPOSTA:","index":26,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":15,"text":"Os seus rendimentos baixarao, a cultura poderá ser afectada por doen~as e as raízes infestadas."}]},{"head":"PERGUNTA:","index":27,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":15,"text":"Eu gostaria de consorciar o meu campo de semente? Porque nao devo proceder desta maneira?"}]},{"head":"RESPOSTA:","index":28,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":33,"text":"Tu deveras decidir se precisa ou nao de obter altos rendimentos. Lembre-se, voce estó produzindo semente de feijao para fins comerciais e portanto, voce pretende aumentar os rendimentos com vista o fozer lucros."}]},{"head":"PERGUNTA:","index":29,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":6,"text":"Posso plantar feijóo trepodeiro paro semente?"}]},{"head":"RESPOSTA:","index":30,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":32,"text":"Sim, se ochar que hÓ procuro deste tipo de feijóo no suo área . Segue todos os passos sublinhodos no manual. Voce deverá colher oeste feijao no medido que amadurecem os vagens."}]},{"head":"PERGUNTA:","index":31,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":8,"text":"Devo utilizar todos os equipamentos aconselhados neste manual?"}]},{"head":"RESPOSTA:","index":32,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":39,"text":"O equipa mento mencionado neste manual foi desenhado para facilitar o processo de produc;:ao de semente e garantir semente de boa qualidade. É, por conseguinte, recomendado que use este equipa mento. Todo o equipa mento pode ser feito localmente."}]},{"head":"PERGUNTA:","index":33,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":18,"text":"Sobe-se que a fervura rebento com o tempo os sacos de polietileno. Qual é o procedimento a seguir?"}]},{"head":"RESPOSTA:","index":34,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":37,"text":"Isto é verdode, mesmo sem ferver os sacos de polietileno as vezes rebentam. Nao obstante o recomendoc;:áo de ferver os seus sacos para protegé-Ios contra os insectos, voce deveró decidir o que é melhor para sua situoc;:ao."}]},{"head":"PERGUNTA:","index":35,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":10,"text":"HÓ algumo possibilidade de haver humidade no interior do silos?"}]},{"head":"RESPOSTA:","index":36,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":17,"text":"Nao, ao menos que o silos nao esteja suficientemente elevado e o semente náo for bem seco."}]},{"head":"PERGUNTA:","index":37,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":1,"text":"o  "}]}],"figures":[{"text":" Erva danlnhos perlgosas como a gramo Dlgffarla :;::•;.x..:..:(•~m.'»N;';';';•\"\"'•.\", •• *,'~'_¡\"';v:-:\"\"•.•~.•:<\",,,;,•.*,,,,-,,.•.<.;, ,:--: ' -\" . . ::: ~-.;;,: --. \" . iI~ ~~. < o\" , o \" -=:; ~ •. ' .• ' So los mult o are nosos .-,-.. '-, . "},{"text":"o feijáo é semeado em filas. Isto facilita a capinar. O compasso recomendado é: 50 centímetros entre as filas e 15-20 centímetros entre as plantas. ~(&f: 1¡f 15-20cm .~¡<~--•6 Oc;m--}Ó Compasso recomendado entre as plantas Quando semear diferentes variedades de feijáo, vele pelo compasso de 2 m entre as variedades para prevenir a mistura destoso jili,jfJ I~ , 1<'~----2 malro. ----4 Compasso recomendado entre as variedades Muitos camponeses gostam de consorciar o feijáo. Náo deve consorciar o campo de feijáo destinado a semente poi s esta prática torna dificulta o maneio da cultura e poderá colher menos . "},{"text":"o descasque levada a cabo no chóo ou num saco pode danificar-se facilmente. A semente partida ou ofendida lem maior probabilidade de ser atacada por insectos e fungos (bolar) e pode nóo germinar. "},{"text":"o armório de descasque pode ser construído por um carplntelro da aldeia seguindo as regras contldas na pógina 66 SECAGEM DA SEMENTE DESCASCADA ' . "},{"text":" que a semente se molhe com a chuva ou seja danificado por anlmals domésticos. "},{"text":" _-..... O:•'tu ~ ,A'Y'•'Vi,'. \"J. '. -....... ~~ . . ):.~~ \"'<> Um homem limpendo o semente "},{"text":" 3. Observe as plántulasOito (8) dios após a sementeira. arranque cuidadosamente as plóntulas ou observe o seu crescimento no tecido ou papel e divide-as em 3 grupos: . Primeiro calcule o percentagem de germinagóo de cada lote separadamente.Tendo em conta que foram semeados 1 00 sementes em cada lote, o número de semente normal é igual a percentagem de germina<;:óo do referido lote. "},{"text":"! 4 . Ensaque a semente tratada e armazene-a num lugar seco e limpo. "},{"text":" maioria dos camponeses conhece que nem todo o feijáo colhido serve para semente. O feijáo partido ou danificado pOde ser útil para o consumo, mas náo é apropriado para semente . O feijáo comprado nas lojas ou mercados ou ofertado por outros camponeses pode ter sido danificado por insectos, podridáo, quebrado ou mofado. Caso o feijáo danificado ter utilizado como semente, os camponeses pOderáo náo obter bons rendimentos. É por isso que os camponeses escolhem a melhor semente para ser usada na sementeira . Nota sobre os termos técnicos: Uma vez que certos Nota sobre os termos técnicos: Uma vez que certos termos técnicos néío existem nas linguas locais, é termos técnicos néío existem nas linguas locais, é importante que crie o seu próprio vocabulário em sua importante que crie o seu próprio vocabulário em sua língua. Este manual contém termos técnicos em ingles. língua. Este manual contém termos técnicos em ingles.  "},{"text":"transporte PREPARA<;ÁO DE TERRAS  Considerando que certas doen9as do teijoeiro Considerando que certas doen9as do teijoeiro permanecem no solo, é importante que o teijoo para permanecem no solo, é importante que o teijoo para semente seja cultivado no mesmo campo somente semente seja cultivado no mesmo campo somente durante 1-2 épocas em fnas. Desta tormo terá durante 1-2 épocas em fnas. Desta tormo terá terreno suficiente para proceder a rota900 com outras Uma vez escolhido o local, prepare aterra quanto antes. terreno suficiente para proceder a rota900 com outras Uma vez escolhido o local, prepare aterra quanto antes. culturas. Cave ou charrue bem fundo. Caso o terreno tenha culturas. Cave ou charrue bem fundo. Caso o terreno tenha r I m\" w\" y ~ , \"\" ,' Wl ~~ i VJ A . 1, ~11/ 0 D~~y9-~Y~~f; bastante capim ou ervas daninhas, deverá gradar aterra ¡ pelo menos um mes antes da sementeira de forma a enterrar todos os restolhos. Caso ndo proceda assim, o feijdo poderá ter a colora9do amarela durante a emergencia ou enteJo ter um fraco crescimento. r Im\" w\" y ~ , \"\" ,' Wl ~~ i VJ A . 1, ~11/ 0 D~~y9-~Y~~f; bastante capim ou ervas daninhas, deverá gradar aterra ¡ pelo menos um mes antes da sementeira de forma a enterrar todos os restolhos. Caso ndo proceda assim, o feijdo poderá ter a colora9do amarela durante a emergencia ou enteJo ter um fraco crescimento.  Pratique a rotac;:óo de _ . culturas Pratique a rotac;:óo de _ . culturas ~Si,,¡¡¡:r~,;a¡¡n¡¡i'i.lWOOi'w\"\"'--'¡íY\"'2!\"t¡¡ .. ~¡;¡ffl¡Wiij ~'W. ~ ~Si,,¡¡¡:r~,;a¡¡n¡¡i'i.lWOOi'w\"\"'--'¡íY\"'2!\"t¡¡ .. ~¡;¡ffl¡Wiij ~'W. ~ Quando escolher O local, também considere a distancia Quando escolher O local, também considere a distancia até o lugar onde se en contra o armazém, Caso a distancia seja considerável, enldo terá difiGUldades em Prepara<;:áo boa de terra (cave bem fundo) até o lugar onde se en contra o armazém, Caso a distancia seja considerável, enldo terá difiGUldades em Prepara<;:áo boa de terra (cave bem fundo) transportar a colheita . transportar a colheita .  '\" '\"  "},{"text":" Nao deixe o feijao secar no campo após a sua colheita visto que pOde ser afectado por doenc;:as, pragas e animais. O feijao exposto ao sol por long o período pode tornar-se muito seco para o descasque e se apanhar chuva estará muito húmido para o descasque.  Afídeos e mancha da flór: use Afídeos e mancha da flór: use  Dimethoate (Rogor) ou Sumithion Dimethoate (Rogor) ou Sumithion  no combate contra os afídeos e COLHEITA no combate contra os afídeos e COLHEITA  a mancha da flor. Use 20 litros (4 a mancha da flor. Use 20 litros (4 coJheres de chá) num pulveri-zador de 15 litros de volume. As opera<;:aes que se seguem devem proceder opas a Somente procede a colheita daquelas plantas maduras. A semente colhida muito cedo nao produzirá plantas colheita: coJheres de chá) num pulveri-zador de 15 litros de volume. As opera<;:aes que se seguem devem proceder opas a Somente procede a colheita daquelas plantas maduras. A semente colhida muito cedo nao produzirá plantas colheita: Brocas de vagens: Use Ambush ou Bulldock contra as furadores saudáveis . As plantas estao prontas para a colheita quando as folhas e vagens de variedades erectas de l. secagem de vagens; Brocas de vagens: Use Ambush ou Bulldock contra as furadores saudáveis . As plantas estao prontas para a colheita quando as folhas e vagens de variedades erectas de l. secagem de vagens; de vagens . Aplique 10 mililitros (2 feijao tiverem a colorac;:ao amarela. Recolhe as vagens 2. descasque; de vagens . Aplique 10 mililitros (2 feijao tiverem a colorac;:ao amarela. Recolhe as vagens 2. descasque; colheres de plantas trepadeiras logo que amadurecem. de 3. secagem de semente descascada; c há) pulverizador de 15 litros de num volume. 4. /impeza e fracclonamento; colheres de plantas trepadeiras logo que amadurecem. de 3. secagem de semente descascada; c há) pulverizador de 15 litros de num volume. 4. /impeza e fracclonamento; 5. medi9áo do teor de humidade; 5. medi9áo do teor de humidade; Roedores de folhas: Nao deve 6. teste de germinayáo; Roedores de folhas: Nao deve 6. teste de germinayáo; preocupar-se muito com os roedores de folhas a nao ser que esles deslroem mais de 1/3 da 8. armazenamento. 7. tratamento; preocupar-se muito com os roedores de folhas a nao ser que esles deslroem mais de 1/3 da 8. armazenamento. 7. tratamento;  área 10101 das folhas. Se lar este área 10101 das folhas. Se lar este  o caso, recorre as ocaso,recorreas  recomendac;:6es referentes as recomendac;:6es referentes as  brocas .  brocas .  Ananlsmo (podridao) do colmo: Ananlsmo (podridao) do colmo:  Se tiv er problemas com o Se tiv er problemas com o Fórmacos ananismo (podridao) do colmo Fórmacosananismo (podridao) do colmo  do leijoeiro, Ira-te a semente do leijoeiro, Ira-te a semente Os insectos podem ser controlados pulverizando a cultura antes da sementeira. O método Os insectos podem ser controlados pulverizando a cultura antes da sementeira. O método com insecticidas. de tratar a semente contra esta com insecticidas.de tratar a semente contra esta  praga está contido no manual praga está contido no manual  •Controlo de doenc;:as e pragas •Controlo de doenc;:as e pragas  do teijoelro\" .  do teijoelro\" .  "},{"text":" Se estiver a desinfectar sacos de polietileno, certifique para nao toca o foro da ponelo . O calor poderó danificó-Io. Todos os sacos e recipientes devem estar completamente secos antes de utilizó-los para o o rmazenamento da semente. Seque bem os sacos Seque bem os sacos Quando despejar a semente de feijdo em sacos ou outros Quando despejar a semente de feijdo em sacos ou outros recipientes, estes devem ser armazenodos num lugar recipientes, estes devem ser armazenodos num lugar limpo, seco e bem ventilado. Certifique para o local ndo limpo, seco e bem ventilado. Certifique para o local ndo tenho tecto furo do. A óguo das chuvas ndo deve tenho tecto furo do. A óguo das chuvas ndo deve penetrar nas paredes do armazém . penetrar nas paredes do armazém . Tape os buracos donde Náo permito o penetra<;áo Tape os buracos dondeNáo permito o penetra<;áo podem entrar ratos da águo de chuvas no podem entrar ratosda águo de chuvas no  Interior do armazém Interior do armazém  "},{"text":" Nunca armazene a semente recém colhida com a antiga. Se caso a semente antiga estiver infestada com insectos. estes pOderáo atacar a nova semente.Uma vez que o silos é feito de metal, a semente está bem protegida contra os insectos e humidade. A semente pode ser facilmente introduzida no silos ou esvazia-Io em caso de necessidade.   4. Plante uma cuNura solttária em 4. Plante uma cuNura solttária em RESUMO sistema de filas: cultura solitária significa mais semente; plantando RESUMOsistema de filas: cultura solitária significa mais semente; plantando   em filas facilita as sachas. em filas facilita as sachas. Existem tres etopas o seguir poro produzir semente de feijao Existem tres etopas o seguir poro produzir semente de feijao de quolidade .  de quolidade .  1. Esteja convencido acerca das 1. Esteja convencido acerca das Um marceneiro local pode fabricar os silos para diferentes quantidades de semente seguindo as instru9óes da pógina 70 vantagen s da semente de qualidade: é superior a semente \\\\ v ~~ -\\ vendida nas lajas e mercados 5. Controle as doenc;:as e pragas: ' : : : : : . :-J devido a alto poder germinativo. remova do campo as plantas -' é seca. pura, limpa so e nao infestadas e aplicando os Semente de boa \\ danificada. insecticidas contra as doenc;:as e quolidadee pragas que pode m afectar o Um marceneiro local pode fabricar os silos para diferentes quantidades de semente seguindo as instru9óes da pógina 70 vantagen s da semente de qualidade: é superior a semente \\\\ v ~~ -\\ vendida nas lajas e mercados 5. Controle as doenc;:as e pragas: ' : : : : : . :-J devido a alto poder germinativo. remova do campo as plantas -' é seca. pura, limpa so e nao infestadas e aplicando os Semente de boa \\ danificada. insecticidas contra as doenc;:as e quolidadee pragas que pode m afectar o  2. Garanta a qua ll dade de campo de semente. 2. Garanta a qua ll dade de campo de semente.  semente plantando semente semente plantando semente Correcto limpa: a semente deve ser trocada Errado em coda 1-2 épocas caso as 6. Seque bem a semente e evite Correctolimpa: a semente deve ser trocada Errado em coda 1-2 épocas caso as 6. Seque bem a semente e evite  plantas estejam atectadas po r a sua danificac;:óo: no processo plantas estejam atectadas po r a sua danificac;:óo: no processo doem;:as no interior da semente. de secagem. proteja bem a Igualmente o semente pode ser armazenodo numo Obtenha semente nava o partir de semen le da humidade e poeira. estrutura metálica (silos). Este último pode ter diferentes uma tonte seguro. Ev ite danlficar a semente em dimens6es dependendo dos níveis de produ<;:áo. lodas as etapas. Teste a semente 3. Seleccione um local com terra quanto ao teor de humidade e férlil e manusela-o bem : uma ptanta9ao de semente cresce viabilidade desta. doem;:as no interior da semente. de secagem. proteja bem a Igualmente o semente pode ser armazenodo numo Obtenha semente nava o partir de semen le da humidade e poeira. estrutura metálica (silos). Este último pode ter diferentes uma tonte seguro. Ev ite danlficar a semente em dimens6es dependendo dos níveis de produ<;:áo. lodas as etapas. Teste a semente 3. Seleccione um local com terra quanto ao teor de humidade e férlil e manusela-o bem : uma ptanta9ao de semente cresce viabilidade desta.  bem em solos térteis e em terras bem em solos térteis e em terras \")0: . preparadas muito cedo e \")0: .preparadas muito cedo e \"/\\0-p/ : . ' \\. ' . . . . I . . .\\ ., \\ Manusela bem o adequodamente mobilizadas com bastante 7. Trale e armazene a semente protundidade. Usando adubo, adequadamente: Irale a semente esterco ou plantos como Mucuna com inse~ticidas para prevenir a ou Canavalia pode aumentar o danifica\"óo desta pelos insectos rendimento dos cotheitas e por no c ampo e armazém e conseguinte, aumentar os lucros do vendo de semente. Sache o culturo quantas vezes tor armazene-a num lugar limpo e seco. \"/\\0-p/ : . ' \\. ' . . . . I . . .\\ ., \\ Manusela bem o adequodamentemobilizadas com bastante 7. Trale e armazene a semente protundidade. Usando adubo, adequadamente: Irale a semente esterco ou plantos como Mucuna com inse~ticidas para prevenir a ou Canavalia pode aumentar o danifica\"óo desta pelos insectos rendimento dos cotheitas e por no c ampo e armazém e conseguinte, aumentar os lucros do vendo de semente. Sache o culturo quantas vezes tor armazene-a num lugar limpo e seco. plantayao Uma vez cumpridas estas etapas. poderá entáo semear o necessárlo para melhorar os rendimentos. No caso de utiliza plantayao Uma vez cumpridas estas etapas. poderá entáo semear o necessárlo para melhorar os rendimentos. No caso de utiliza  vartedades de feijao de caule vartedades de feijao de caule  e recto, proceda a cOI he Ita e recto, proceda a cOI he Ita  somente quando as folhas e somente quando as folhas e  vagens alcan9arem a colora9ao vagens alcan9arem a colora9ao  amarela. amarela.  "},{"text":"•Conheclmentos sobre Neg6clo pc -c Pequenos Produtores de Sementes' . 52 TERMOS TÉCNICOS USADOS PELOS PRODUTORES DE SEMENTE  TERMO SEMENTE DE FEI.JÁD SEMENTE CERTIFICADA VARIEDADE MELHORAOA DE F'EI.JÁD TERMO MUCUNA E CANAVALIA DEPURA9AD Pureza (pelo peso) Germinac;:éio (mínimo) (Iv) Semente \"IImpo\": o semente que adquire a partir SIGNIFICADO PÁGINA Feijóo pr9duzido 1-3 especialmente poro fins de plantac;:óo , Semente de olio 5 qualidade produzida cuidadosamente com cerlas exigencias, Variedades de teijóo 7 C riadas pelos Investigadores c ientíficos, Gera lmente esto s SIGNIFICADO PÁG INA Plantas que podem ser 12 incorporadas no solo com o fim de melhorar a fertilidade deste. Processo de remoc;:óo 14 do campo de plantas indesejáveis. As plantas podem ser sua infesta<;óo por doen<;as ou divergirem daquela variedade . 90% 99% 80% 80% dos investigadores, semente do projecto ou ~ \\ indesejáveis devido a PADRÓES DE QUAlIDADE PARA SEMENTE MELHORADA E CERTIFICADA SEMENTE SEMENTE MELHORADA CERTIFICADA Isolamento 2 (metros) qualidade? 5 (111) \"MÓ\" semente rejeitada há quando da calibragem: 3. Semeia separadamente as 4 amostras de semente em filas ou bloc os diferentes Por exemplo, a 4. Observe as plantas em diferentes etapas de crescimento: Llmpa Callbradc Náo QUESTÓES COLOCADAS PELOS CAMPONESES Má semente calibrada pOde ser plantas nas primeiras 2 filas, a semente nao calibrada nas outras 2 filas seguintes , a semente \"má\" nas outras 2 filas a seguir e a semente \"Iimpa \" nas outras 2 filas a seguir. Nao esquece de marcar cada fila indicando o tipo de feijóo em boa sementeira . bl Quantidade de foram plantadas no mesmo dia e registe a data de (iv) antes da colheita. semente plantada . Certifique que as 4 amostras (ij calibrado 4. Rendlmento: 3-5 dios após a sementeira para verificar a PERGUNTA: germino<;;óo; O que acontecerá caso eu continue a plantar feijóo al Quantidade de (ii) emergencia das folhas; (iii] flora9óo; e feijóo produzido? durante duas épocas no mesmo local? TERMO SEMENTE DE FEI.JÁD SEMENTE CERTIFICADA VARIEDADE MELHORAOA DE F'EI.JÁD TERMO MUCUNA E CANAVALIA DEPURA9AD Pureza (pelo peso) Germinac;:éio (mínimo) (Iv) Semente \"IImpo\": o semente que adquire a partir SIGNIFICADO PÁGINA Feijóo pr9duzido 1-3 especialmente poro fins de plantac;:óo , Semente de olio 5 qualidade produzida cuidadosamente com cerlas exigencias, Variedades de teijóo 7 C riadas pelos Investigadores c ientíficos, Gera lmente esto s SIGNIFICADO PÁG INA Plantas que podem ser 12 incorporadas no solo com o fim de melhorar a fertilidade deste. Processo de remoc;:óo 14 do campo de plantas indesejáveis. As plantas podem ser sua infesta<;óo por doen<;as ou divergirem daquela variedade . 90% 99% 80% 80% dos investigadores, semente do projecto ou ~ \\ indesejáveis devido a PADRÓES DE QUAlIDADE PARA SEMENTE MELHORADA E CERTIFICADA SEMENTE SEMENTE MELHORADA CERTIFICADA Isolamento 2 (metros) qualidade? 5 (111) \"MÓ\" semente rejeitada há quando da calibragem: 3. Semeia separadamente as 4 amostras de semente em filas ou bloc os diferentes Por exemplo, a 4. Observe as plantas em diferentes etapas de crescimento: Llmpa Callbradc Náo QUESTÓES COLOCADAS PELOS CAMPONESES Má semente calibrada pOde ser plantas nas primeiras 2 filas, a semente nao calibrada nas outras 2 filas seguintes , a semente \"má\" nas outras 2 filas a seguir e a semente \"Iimpa \" nas outras 2 filas a seguir. Nao esquece de marcar cada fila indicando o tipo de feijóo em boa sementeira . bl Quantidade de foram plantadas no mesmo dia e registe a data de (iv) antes da colheita. semente plantada . Certifique que as 4 amostras (ij calibrado 4. Rendlmento: 3-5 dios após a sementeira para verificar a PERGUNTA: germino<;;óo; O que acontecerá caso eu continue a plantar feijóo al Quantidade de (ii) emergencia das folhas; (iii] flora9óo; e feijóo produzido? durante duas épocas no mesmo local? variedades produzem mais e sao mais resistentes o doenc;:as e pragas, Semente de alto qualidade produzida cuidadosamente com alguns reqUisitos um semente cerlificada. 13% 13% camponeses. sintoma tradiciona lmente pelos nenhum cultivados Mosaico comum do feijoeiro : que se comportou SEMENTE MELHORADA LOCAL DE FEIo.JÁD Humidade • semeou? b) Quantas sementes germinar? melhor? a semente a a) Quantos dios evo u Qual é a semente pouc o aboixo do Nível d e Manc ha semente que produziu aplicando os métodos 5, 55 Nenhum infestac;:éio por descritos no manual. 5. Comparor o Limpa Calibrado Náo Má a ureolada, doenc;:as (durante crestamento a inspec<;:éio final) comum, antracnose: . folhas só . l. Germlna<;áo: calibrado sintomas em onde nóo se cultivou feijáo durante uma ou mais épocas. responda a estas perguntas para cada tipo de Llmpa Callbrad( Náo Mó doen90s: semente: sintamos de bacteriano 2. Escolhe uma boa parcela de terra com boa fertilidade cresclmento e 5. Para ajudar a proceder com as observa9óes, germlnOt;áo calibrado variedades produzem mais e sao mais resistentes o doenc;:as e pragas, Semente de alto qualidade produzida cuidadosamente com alguns reqUisitos um semente cerlificada. 13% 13% camponeses. sintoma tradiciona lmente pelos nenhum cultivados Mosaico comum do feijoeiro : que se comportou SEMENTE MELHORADA LOCAL DE FEIo.JÁD Humidade • semeou? b) Quantas sementes germinar? melhor? a semente a a) Quantos dios evo u Qual é a semente pouc o aboixo do Nível d e Manc ha semente que produziu aplicando os métodos 5, 55 Nenhum infestac;:éio por descritos no manual. 5. Comparor o Limpa Calibrado Náo Má a ureolada, doenc;:as (durante crestamento a inspec<;:éio final) comum, antracnose: . folhas só . l. Germlna<;áo: calibrado sintomas em onde nóo se cultivou feijáo durante uma ou mais épocas. responda a estas perguntas para cada tipo de Llmpa Callbrad( Náo Mó doen90s: semente: sintamos de bacteriano 2. Escolhe uma boa parcela de terra com boa fertilidade cresclmento e 5. Para ajudar a proceder com as observa9óes, germlnOt;áo calibrado Pureza varietal c] Quantas sementes germinaram? N.E 99% Pureza varietal c] Quantas sementes germinaram?N.E99%  61 53 6153  "},{"text":" manual relata que nunca se dp.ve utilizar para a alimenta<;:óo semente tratada I-Jm insecticidas mesmo se esta foi ormazenada por longo tempo. Nao pretendo deitar foro este tipo de semente. O que devo fazer?RESPOSTA:Para evitar doen<;as é importante nao se alimentar de semenfe trotada. Pode proceder da seguinte forma : vender a semente por um pre<;o baixo para se livrar rapidamente desta semente ou guarde-a até pOder vende-la, trate-a de novo em cada tres meses. Se levar muito lempo a vender a semente de uma variedade, islo significa que deverá pesquisar melhor o mercado ou planejar melhor.Baixa venda é sinónimo de fraca procura desta variedade ou que o pre<;o é bastante alto. Deve baixar o pre<;o, níveis de produ<;ao ou póra de cultivar a variedade em questao.  "}],"sieverID":"6dac7e97-6cbf-469a-8506-53fd39a4137b","abstract":""}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0a1c529d8891a4fe6043e2d705bcefc8","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/317a2e01-6135-414b-910c-91b00da4901c/retrieve"},"pageCount":58,"title":"SOIL EROSION AND SEDIMENT YIELD ANALYSIS IN SEMI-ARID TANZANIA (CASE STUDY OF KONGWA DISTRICT)","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"CERTIFICATION","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":229,"text":"The undersigned certify that they have supervised and proof read the dissertation and recommend for acceptance by the Ardhi University a dissertation document entitled \"Soil erosion and sediment yield analysis in semi-arid Tanzania (case study of Kongwa district)\"in fulfillment of the requirements for the Bachelor of Science degree in Geoinformatics.  Soil erosion has become a major issue in the world as it's estimated by FAO that there is a global loss of productive land through erosion of 5 to7 million hectares per year (Collins, 2001). About 65% of the African continent's farm land is affected by erosion-induced losses of topsoil and soil nutrients (FAO, 2018). Tanzania is also a victim of soil erosion as in the recent years it has led to an annual loss of 2.3 billion dollars reported due to land degradation in the semi-arid areas (Kirui, 2016). Soil erosion is defined as the net long-term processes that detach soil and move it from its original location to another (Lupia, 2004). Sediment yield is a consequence of soil erosion as, it occurs due to the impact of raindrop and the shear force of flowing water, when the sediment is detached from soil surface (Sanjay, 2015). Sediment yield is defined as the amount of sediment load passing through the outlet of a watershed, primarily by the flow of water and increase of down slope (Maqsoom, et al., 2020)."},{"index":2,"size":93,"text":"Soil erosion and sediment yield is a major cause of land degradation in Tanzania as it has lowered agricultural production potential, loss of soil fertility, also sedimentation disrupts drainage networks and increases the potential for flooding by blocking the drainage outlets, murky water prevents natural vegetation from growing in water, all these are the main consequences of soil loss and sedimentation (Balasubramanian, 2017). Soil erosion, along with soil compaction, low organic matter, loss of soil structure, poor internal drainage, and salinization and soil acidity issues, are all examples of soil degradation (Gobena, 2003)."},{"index":3,"size":133,"text":"Sediment yield is a key limitation to achieving sustainable land use and maintaining water quality in streams, lakes and other water bodiescite (Pavisorn, 2019). The eroded material derived from the highlands, watershed and banks are often stored within depressions in the land but may be transported during storm events, either in suspension or as bed load (Maqsoom, et al., 2020). The amount of soil sediment delivered into water systems through the processes of transportation, and deposition is a function of changes in surface drainage patterns, terrain structure, vegetation, and climate conditions (Kamaludin, 2013). Suspended sediment is empirically one of the best indicators of sediment delivery into the drainage system or watercourse from the land during the soil erosion process and this can be measured from point source discharge and non-point sources (Gelagay, 2017)."},{"index":4,"size":111,"text":"Soil erosion can be accelerated by two major agencies which are water erosion, wind erosion (Ann., 2005). Water erosion contributes a significant amount of soil loss each year which involves several types of erosion which are Rill erosion, gully erosion, bank erosion, splash erosion, landslides, and Streambank erosion (Telkar, 2014). The rate and magnitude of soil erosion can be determined by slope, soil texture and soil structure, soil organic matters, vegetation cover, and the land use of the area (Lupia., 2004). But through the application of different rehabilitation measures such as the use of contour and crop rotation system, avoiding overgrazing, reduced tillage, mulching, cover cropping, and cross-slope farming (Balasubramanian, 2017)."},{"index":5,"size":206,"text":"To estimate soil erosion and sediment yield some simple models are widely used for their simplicity, which makes them applicable even if only a limited amount of input data is availablecite (Gelagay, 2017). Although there are traditional methods such as ground surveys of erosion but the use of mathematical erosion models which predict the distribution of eroded land and sedimentation or through mapping then interpretation of remote sensing images have proven to be more efficient (Ellis, 1996). In the past century they have established a variety of models through experiments and observations, resulting in a change from empirical model to model based on physical processes, combining remote sensing, GIS, and other modern scientific and technology tools (Kenneth, 1991). Scholars in the United States have undertaken substantial studies and developed numerous models, including the USLE model, RUSLE model, and PESERA model (Zhen et al, 2020). Hence from the studies the effective way to determine the magnitude and the distribution of eroded land is by use of mathematical model as RUSLE (Hurni, 1985;Claessens, 2008;Kaushik, 2020).This is because of its low cost, applicability, and consistency of results, it has been modified to more suitably estimate the quantity of soil erosion from agriculture land as in Kongwa district (Pennock, 2019)."},{"index":6,"size":47,"text":"Soil erosion has had multiple repercussions, particularly on agricultural lands, and the first step in mitigating soil erosion is to gather reliable information on places that are heavily affected by this problem, which will help to focus on those areas where they can avoid future soil deterioration."},{"index":7,"size":55,"text":"However, due to a lack of spatial information, the execution of many policies and mitigation initiatives used to adopt conservation practices in agricultural lands is unsuccessful (Kimaro, 2015). This has resulted in the incompleteness of several programs aimed at monitoring land degradation in order to improve the assessment of the sustainable development goal (SDG) 15.3.1"},{"index":8,"size":100,"text":"indicator (\"proportion of degraded land over total land area\"). However , only few studies have been published to address this problem at a local scale, for example study conducted by (Claessens, 2008)where he focused on regional scale as East Africa and using USLE model. However, this study share the common disadvantage of applying the USLE model which is default methodology and low resolution datasets at national scale to identify areas that are affected by soil erosion.This study will concentrate on identifying areas at a local scale that are prone to soil erosion using high resolution data and effective erosion model."}]},{"head":"Statement of the Research Problem","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":121,"text":"Land rehabilitation programs have proven to be one of the solutions to combat soil erosion, but the implementation of different mitigation policies and programs, such as Community Environmental Management and Development Organization (CEMDO) for soil erosion, has been hindered. There is limited availability of reliable information on both the location and magnitude of the soil erosion and sediment yield. Mapping of environmental risks as soil erosion is a basic step to mitigate this problem and knowing the magnitude can help in creating sustainability of the land resources. Some studies have been focused on regional scales and used different models, but there is a need to narrow down the research to a local scale where most of the agricultural activities take place."}]},{"head":"Objectives","index":3,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Main Objective.","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":14,"text":"To analyze soil erosion-prone areas and estimate sediment yield in Kongwa district, Dodoma region."}]},{"head":"Specific Objectives","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":12,"text":"The precise objectives for achieving the study's primary objective are as follows:"},{"index":2,"size":8,"text":"i. To identify factors contributing to soil erosion."},{"index":3,"size":14,"text":"ii. To adapt the RUSLE model to map the prone areas for soil erosion."},{"index":4,"size":9,"text":"iii. To estimate sediment yield from the model result."},{"index":5,"size":1,"text":"iv."},{"index":6,"size":8,"text":"To validate the model results using observed data."}]},{"head":"Research question","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":4,"text":"The research questions are:"},{"index":2,"size":8,"text":"i. What are the causes of soil erosion?"},{"index":3,"size":15,"text":"ii. Can the RUSLE model be used in mapping of soil erosion and sediment yield?"},{"index":4,"size":7,"text":"iii. How accurate is the model results?"}]},{"head":"Significance of the study","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":8,"text":"The following are some of the research's significance:"},{"index":2,"size":77,"text":"The findings of this study will be of greater significance to society and researchers since they will provide information on model parameters for mapping the location, magnitude of soil erosion and estimating sediment yield, particularly in areas with similar environmental conditions as semi-arid regions where much of this research has not yet been undertaken. Also better precautions measure will be employed in areas that are more prone to soil erosion and sediement yield through this study's findings"}]},{"head":"Beneficiaries of the study","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":6,"text":"The beneficiaries of this research include:"},{"index":2,"size":30,"text":"i. Environmental institution It will assist in providing credible information to environmental institutions on areas that should be prioritized for environmental management due to their considerable impact on land production."},{"index":3,"size":2,"text":"ii. Famers"},{"index":4,"size":41,"text":"The information obtained is useful to farmers since it allows them to identify locations that are prone to soil erosion and avoid them for improved agricultural yield. as different agricultural schemes can be well allocated to bring effectiveness in the production."},{"index":5,"size":2,"text":"iii. Construction"},{"index":6,"size":36,"text":"It will inform constructors about where to construct physical infrastructure such as roads, power poles, and houses, as well as how to deal with area sites facing soil erosion. Hence bringing effectiveness in the construction activities."}]},{"head":"iv. Researchers","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":41,"text":"Researchers will benefit from this research information because they will have a reference or basic knowledge on soil erosion and sediment yield prone areas in semi-arid region. If they intend to conduct additional research on land degradation or environmental conservation challenges."}]},{"head":"v. Policymakers","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":33,"text":"Because planners are the primary decision-makers at the regional level, this study is important because it will aid in the proper allocation of various environmental conservation projects that will help combat soil erosion."}]},{"head":"Scope of the study","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":82,"text":"This research will look at the entire process of analyzing soil erosion-prone areas and estimating sediment yield, where this will include determining the magnitude and location of the areas by looking at a variety of environmental and climatic factors. It will be based on the RUSLE model, which has been updated to better estimate the amount of soil erosion on farmland areas as in Kongwa district. As the result will help in developing appropriate measures to mitigate the effects of soil erosion."}]},{"head":"Description of study area","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":16,"text":"Kongwa district is located in the semi-arid section of Dodoma region, which is prone to drought."},{"index":2,"size":37,"text":"With an area of around 4041km 2 , its located between latitudes 5°30S to 6°0S of the equator and  The R programming language through the R studio platform was used for preparation and preprocessing of the data."}]},{"head":" Arc Map","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":20,"text":"This was used for data processing which is execution of the model and preparation of the model results and maps"}]},{"head":"Organization of thesis","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":71,"text":"The research consists of five Chapters. The first chapter contains background information, research problem, objective of the study, significance of the study, the study area and organization of the research. Chapter two presents a literature review about researches done on soil erosion modelling and estimation of sediment yield. Chapter three describes the methodology followed in order to conduct the current study. Chapter four presents the results and discussion about the findings."},{"index":2,"size":8,"text":"Finally, Chapter five describes the conclusions and recommendation."}]},{"head":"CHAPER TWO","index":15,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"LITERATURE REVIEW","index":16,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Overview","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":25,"text":"This chapter provides a review of literatures related to soil erosion, sediment yield, all parameters of the Revised Universal Soil Loss Equation(RUSLE), soil erosion model."}]},{"head":"Soil erosion","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":139,"text":"Despite decades of concerted scientific inquiry and societal concern, soil erosion remains a severe hazard in many parts of the world. The rapid expansion of the world's population has resulted in increased land cultivation (FAO I. , 2015). This increases the strain on land and causes soil to lose structure and cohesion, making it more prone to erosion (Balasubramanian., 2017). Soil erosion is defined as the long-term net balance of all processes that detach and move soil away from its original site (Lupia., 2004). Also can be referred to the wearing away of a field's topsoil by natural physical forces such as water and wind. It's a long process that goes unnoticed, or it can happen quickly, causing significant topsoil loss. Soil erosion, whether caused by water, wind, or tillage, comprises three separate actions soil detachment, movement, and deposition."}]},{"head":"Types of soil erosion:","index":19,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"2.3.1Natural or geological soil erosion:","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":96,"text":"This occurs when the top soils are gradually removed under normal conditions of physical, biotic and hydrological equilibrium. Sometimes, it is also called geological erosion it take place steadily but long time slowly which develops topographic feature like valley, plains, stream, channel (Telkar., 2018). The normal erosion tends to produce wavy or undulating land surface with alternating ridges and depressions. This is accomplished chiefly by means of slow migration of soil particles from soil surface in successive rains. In arid region, wind during the long dry season is an important factor for normal erosion (Dan, 2019)."}]},{"head":"2.3.2Accelerated soil erosion:","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":76,"text":"In accelerated soil erosion the loss of soil occur at a much faster rate than it is formed. It occurs due to disturbance in natural equilibrium of soil by the activity of human and animal through land mismanagement, destruction of forests, over grazing and unsuitable cultivation practices. When the removal of soil does not keep harmony with the soil formation and it is much faster than the latter, it is called accelerated soil erosion (Telkar., 2018)."}]},{"head":"Agencies or mechanism of soil erosion:","index":22,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Water erosion","index":23,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":65,"text":"Soil erosion caused by rainfall is the application of energy from two distinct sources namely, the falling rain drops and the surface flow (Telkar., 2018). The energy of falling raindrop is applied vertically from above whose main role is to detach soil particle, whereas that of surface flow is applied more or less horizontally along the surface of the ground which transport the soil (Ann.,"}]},{"head":"2005).","index":24,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":7,"text":"There are different forms of water erosion"}]},{"head":"i. Sheet erosion","index":25,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":61,"text":"Sheet erosion is characterized by the downslope removal of soil particles within a thin sheet of water, this removes a thin uniform covering of top productive/surface soil from large areas, often from field, during every rain which produces a run-off (Telkar., 2018). Sheet erosion occurs when the entire surface of a field is gradually eroded in more or less uniform way."}]},{"head":"ii. Rill erosion","index":26,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":57,"text":"This is the kind of erosion which occurs when runoff starts and erosion is no longer uniform as the raindrop impact does not directly detach any particles below flow line in rills but increases the detachment and transportation capacity of the flow. Rills are small channels, which can be removed by timely normal tillage operations (Ann., 2005)."}]},{"head":"iii. Gully erosion","index":27,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":45,"text":"It is more prominent type of erosion in which heavy rainfall, rapidly running water and transporting water may result in deeper cavities called gullies (Telkar., 2018). Gullies cut the large fields into small fragments and in course of time, it makes them unfit for cultivation."},{"index":2,"size":16,"text":"Continuous flow of water through gullies further deepens the grooves and may ultimately result in ravines."}]},{"head":"iv. Stream-bank erosion.","index":28,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":70,"text":"This erosion takes place on the banks of swollen rivers where it is most active. During the rainy season when fast running water streams take turn in some other directions, they cut the soil and make caves in the banks. As a result of this, quite often large masses of soils become detached and washed away from the banks and are deposited at places in course of streams (Telkar., 2018)."}]},{"head":"Wind erosion","index":29,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":80,"text":"Wind erosion is the detachment and transportation of soil particles by wind, this occurs when the wind generates sufficient lift and drag to overcome the forces of gravity, friction and cohesion (Balasubramanian., 2017). Wind erosion occurs when the land surface is left bare in regions that are arid enough, as a result of low rainfall, to allow the soil to dry out, and flat enough to allow the wind to carry the soil away over several consecutive days (Ann., 2005)."}]},{"head":"Causes of soil erosion","index":30,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":31,"text":"Water and nature of relief is the main cause of soil erosion at Kongwa district but other factors contributing soil erosion are summarized below considering both natural and human induced causes."}]},{"head":"Natural causes","index":31,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":19,"text":"This are the main causative agent of erosion as the they can not be easily controlled as illlustarted below."},{"index":2,"size":36,"text":"i. Heavy rains; frequent raindrops on soil particles leads wearing of the soil which is easily transported away due to the amount of water flowing downhill this causes the soil to be carried away so fast."},{"index":3,"size":41,"text":"ii. Steep slope: gravity pulls harder hence the water flow faster downhill, this is the major cause of soil erosion at Kongwa district because of the nature of the relief high plateaus and hills with steep slopes, as well as escarpment."},{"index":4,"size":32,"text":"iii. Sudden climatic change: as intense rainfall, erosion increases unexpectedly rapidly as rainstorms become more severe, drought, water dries up the land hence increasing the intensity of soil to be carried away."}]},{"head":"Human-induced factors","index":32,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":14,"text":"This are causes of erosion that induced by human activities, they are illustrated below."},{"index":2,"size":46,"text":"i. Deforestation: as from 2001 to 2020, Kongwa lost 1.67kha of tree cover, equivalent to a 13% decrease in tree cover since 2000 (GFW, 2022). This has been because of burning of trees for charcoal and also bushfires hence accounting for soil erosion in Kongwa district."},{"index":3,"size":55,"text":"ii. Farming method: as the use of plough, excessive use of fertilizer and irrigation damages the land in Kongwa district. As due to presence of hill the poor farming methods makes the land venerable to soil erosion as there are few usage of proper faming methods to reduce impact of erosion in steep slope farms."},{"index":4,"size":45,"text":"iii. Overstocking: The overstocking over an area leads to remove of upper soil. Kongwa is characterized with having large ranches of cattle's of about Kongwa 171,669 cattle's, this leads to over grazing which causes the wearing away of top soil of the land (NBS, 2007)."}]},{"head":"Erosion process in the semi-arid region","index":33,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":128,"text":"In semiarid areas, soils with little or no vegetation cover are exposed to torrential precipitation events, which are characterized by short durations and high intensities, and are prompt to the occurrence of physical and chemical processes that change the surface layer conditions, such as surface sealing and crusting (Vasquez-Mendez, 2011). When the surface is dry, a hard layer is formed (crust). Crusting soils are typical of these dry areas, where soil degradation is induced soils by diminishing infiltration rates and increasing runoff and erosion rates (Ries, 2008) Semiarid areas are considered fragile environments where vegetation cover is scarce and where soil erosion processes occur rapidly and severely after rainfall events fall in these areas, hence vegetation is very significant in the regulation of surface hydrological processes (Vasquez-Mendez, 2011)."}]},{"head":"Soil erosion control measures","index":34,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":92,"text":"Some of the following measures can be implemented to prevent soil erosion by reducing surface runoff, reducing runoff speed and capacity, and enhancing soil absorbency to water. All this can be done by encouraging farmers to use contour ploughing and windbreaks, especially in the semiarid region where there are frequent winds due to bare lands. Also cultivate land using a crop rotation system and strip cropping, where you leave unploughed grass strips between ploughed lands. Avoiding overgrazing and conserving wetlands to make sure plants grow on soil rich in humus (Lupia, 2004)."}]},{"head":"Ways of measuring soil erosion","index":35,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":85,"text":"Soil erosion cannot easily be measured over complex area like Kongwa District using traditional methods as ground surveys of erosion but by the use of mathematical erosion models which predict the distribution of eroded land or through mapping then interpretation of remote sensing images (Ellis, 1996). In the past century they have established a variety of models through experiments and observations, resulting in a change from empirical model to model based on physical processes, combining remote sensing, GIS, and other modern scientific and technology tools."},{"index":2,"size":13,"text":"Scholars in the United States have undertaken substantial study and developed numerous models."}]},{"head":"Ground survey","index":36,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":96,"text":"Ground survey is done to visible soil erosion, where there is presence of rills and gullies within a field, and their associated deposits. The direct assessment of erosion in the field involves recording and measuring field evidence of the action of erosion such as rill and gully depth and extent, exposure of plant/tree roots, exposure of below-ground portions of fence posts and other structures, and the amount of sediment in drains (Dan, 2019). This is done through volumetric measurement of rills, gullies and fans where the amounts of wash and interrill erosion can also be estimated."},{"index":2,"size":36,"text":"This approach allows for the estimation of erosion rates at the field scale, rather than relying on extrapolations from plot-based data as the measurements are based on sampling the population of rills and gullies (Boardman, 2020)."}]},{"head":"Integrating remote sensing and GIS","index":37,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":52,"text":"Through the use of GIS and with high spatial data processing capabilities soil erosion mapping approaches become more robust and comprehensive. This involves the visual interpretation of the free high-resolution remote sensing images, detailed information on land use with several other factors which can help to determine soil erosion areas (Qinke, 2020)."}]},{"head":"Mathematical models","index":38,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":31,"text":"This tends to describe the behavior of the soil under the rainfall simulation, soil deformation such gullies and surface eroding rills are monitored by using different sources of data (Hossam, 2020)."},{"index":2,"size":40,"text":"This helps to recognize the differential behavior of the various soil particles and provides greater insight into the movement of soil across both farmlands and other land. Example of recent most used models are USLE, RUSLE, SWAT and PESERA Models."}]},{"head":"Modelling of soil erosion","index":39,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":56,"text":"Models of soil erosion are widely used both to generalize specific field studies for broader application and to provide erosion estimates under different scenarios of controlling factors (Dan, 2019). There are number of models developed in recent decades which are mostly divided into empirical, conceptual and physical. Large example are the RUSLE, USLE, SWAT, and PESERA."},{"index":2,"size":33,"text":"The different models have different strength and weakness but the most recent model is the RUSLE model with many researches in the world done on soil erosion have used this model (Hurni, 1985)."}]},{"head":"RUSLE MODEL","index":40,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":113,"text":"This is an upgrade version of USLE model with higher accuracy on the determination of soil loss over a large area and was developed to include additional data and practices (Hurni, 1985). RUSLE model is an empirical method, computerized algorithm most widely used around the world to predict long-term rates of inter-rill and rill erosion from field or farm size units subject to different management practices (Ganasri, 2016). Due to its clarity and simplicity, the method has been widely applied in several studies and provide estimates of mean annual soil erosion rate using six factors by considering Climate factors, Soil properties, topography of an area, vegetation cover and human impacts/conservation practice (Temesgen, 2020)."},{"index":2,"size":97,"text":"The advantage of using the RUSLE model is that it has expanded information on soil erodibility, a slope length factor that varies with soil susceptibility to rill erosion, improved factor values for contour terracing, strip cropping and management practices on range land area (Borrelli, 2021).The disadvantage of RUSLE is that it does not have the capability for routing sediment through channels, hence its application is limited to small areas. RUSLE model estimates the Average annual soil loss for a given site as a product of erosion factors (Renard, 1997) presented in Equation 2.1 of the RUSLE model."}]},{"head":"Equation of RUSLE model","index":41,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"A= R*K*LS*C*P…………………………………………………………………….…….(2.1)","index":42,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":39,"text":"Where: A= Amount of soil loss (t/ha/yr.), R=Rainfall erosivity factor (MJ mm/ha/hour/year) K= Soil erosivity factor (t ha h/ MJ mm/ha/hour/year), LS= Slope Length and steepness factor (unitless), C= Cover management factor (unitless) and P= Support practices factor (unitless)"}]},{"head":"Rainfall erosivity (R)","index":43,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":114,"text":"Rainfall erosivity contributes to large amount of soil loss and has significant impacts on soil erosion due to the impact of rain in the soil. The R-factor represents and measures the erosive force of a specific rainfall which is determined by the intensity, distribution, duration and pattern of rainfall whether for single storms or a series of storms, and by the amount and rate of the resulting runoff (Tadesse, 2014). The intensity of a specific rainfall is the highest determinant factor of the extent of water erosion (Blanco-Canqui, 2010). The R-factor was developed based on the alternative empirical equation in area with less moist climatic zone due to the lack of rain-fall (Hurni, 1985)."}]},{"head":"9.3 Soil erodibility(K)","index":44,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":116,"text":"Soil erodibility is the susceptibility of soil to agent of erosion, its estimate the ability of soils to resist erosion, based on the physical characteristics of each soil (Balasubramanian., 2017). This is determined by inherent soil properties such as soil texture, structure, soil organic matter content, clay minerals and transmission properties (Tamene, 2022). Ground cover exerts a strong moderating impact on dissipating the energy supplied by agents of soil erosion. The soil erodibility factor (K), represents both susceptibility of soil to erosion and the amount and rate of runoff, as measured under standard plot conditions. The soil erodibility factor K measures the susceptibility of soil particles to detachments and transport by rainfall and runoff (Renard, 1997)."}]},{"head":"Slope length (L) and slope steepness (S)","index":45,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":98,"text":"The LS-factor reflected the effect of topography on erosion, which is proportional to the length and steepness of the slope which determined by DEM (Aafaf, 2017). The slope length factor is avital parameter in soil erosion modeling and computing the transport capacity of surface runoff, as the increase in the slope of area indicates the steepness in which soil per unit area increases (Panago, 2015). The equation of slope length factor includes the flow accumulation which is a raster of the accumulated flow to each cell and cell size is the length of a cell side (Mitasova, 1997)."}]},{"head":"Cover management (C)","index":46,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":104,"text":"The C-factor is defined as the ratio of soil loss from land with a specific vegetation to the corresponding soil loss (Wischmeier, 1978). The C-factor represents the effect of cropping and management practices on erosion rate. The value of C depends mainly on vegetation type, stage of growth, and cover percentage hence becoming an important factor to control risk of erosion due to the main concern on the nature of vegetation of land (Van der Knijff, 2000). The plant cover and techniques of cultivation are the main factors depending directly on the human action that would accelerate or reduce erosion according to the case."}]},{"head":"Support practice (P)","index":47,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":88,"text":"The P Factor mainly represents how surface conditions affect flow paths and flow hydraulics. Its reflects the effect of contouring, tillage marks as how are credited with directing runoff around the slope at much reduced grades. However, slight changes in grade can change runoff erosivity greatly (Renard, 1997). The numerical value of P-factor is always between 0 and 1 according to the management of agricultural land. The P-factor value near to 0 indicates good conservation practice, and the value near to 1 indicates poor conservation practice (Wischmeier, 1978)."}]},{"head":"Coupling GIS, RS and Modeling","index":48,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":116,"text":"Remote sensing is the science and art of obtaining information about an object, area or phenomenon through analysis of data acquired by a device without physical contact. Remote sensing in the current world has been a powerful instruments for mapping soil erosion risk. Remote sensing helps to increase the accuracy of soil erosion models by making easy availability of accurate data with higher resolution, hence making soil erosion modeling to be fast and effective in a large area. A combination of RS, GIS, and RUSLE is an effective tool to estimate soil loss on a cell-by-cell basis (Kamuju, 2016). GIS tools are used for derivation of the RUSLE model factors and calculation of soil erosion loss"}]},{"head":"Sediment yield (SY)","index":49,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":74,"text":"The SY is the sediment load at last point of the slope length, in the channels, at the outlet or sediment basins (Lewoye, 2021). It is the sediment load normalized for the drainage area and is the net result of erosion and deposition processes within a watershed. Sediment yield is an important measure of geomorphic activity which represents the amount of sediment exported at the basin outlet over a period of time (Samad, 2016)."},{"index":2,"size":40,"text":"Sediment yield is the net result of erosion and deposition processes within a basin. Thus, it is controlled by those factors that control erosion and sediment delivery, including local topography, soil properties, climate, vegetation cover, drainage network characteristics (Lewoye, 2021)."}]},{"head":"Methods for Determining Sediment Yield.","index":50,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":41,"text":"The large variety of sediment yield methods can be placed into two broad categories: methods based on direct measurement and mathematical methods. Only those based on direct field measurements are considered a vigorous approach; mathematical methods are best indicators (Colman, 2018)."}]},{"head":"i. Direct Measurements","index":51,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":52,"text":"The direct measurement method includes the Long-Term Daily Discharge Records. This is the most accurate as the historical sediment discharge is calculated from a long-term sediment gage record. This uses the daily water discharge hydrography and the daily sediment concentration graph, then integrate them to get the daily sediment discharge (Samad, 2016)."}]},{"head":"ii. Mathematical methods","index":52,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":87,"text":"This involves the application of analytical techniques to calculate sediment yield from watershed, based on sediment and hydraulic parameters. There several techniques which are placed into four categories as sediment transport functions, soil loss equations for small watersheds, bank/gully erosion, and watershed models (Lewoye, 2021). These methods were developed because sediment yields are needed at locations where there are no direct field measurement, and these methods can estimate sediment yield at a specific point without addressing the movement of sediment from point to point within the system."},{"index":2,"size":63,"text":"The RUSLE is one of the most widely used of these equations in sediment yield estimation. It was developed to predict the long-term average soil loss from agricultural land. The RUSLE with a sediment delivery ratio is appropriate for a preliminary estimate of sediment storage for a small area where sediment is expected to come from the watershed or upland area (Gelagay, 2017)."}]},{"head":"Sediment Delivery Ratio (SDR)","index":53,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":67,"text":"Sediment Delivery Ratio (SDR) is a fraction of gross erosion that is transported from a given area in a given time interval. It is a measure of sediment transport which accounts for the amount of sediment that is actually transported from the eroding sources to a catchment outlet compared to the total amount of soil that is detached over the same area above that point (Gelagay, 2017)."},{"index":2,"size":50,"text":"Sediment Delivery Ratio (SDR) is produced by computing the total area by using the empirical models to estimate SDR as shown as used by (Colman, 2018). SDR decreases with basin size, due to the fact that average slope decreases and the extent of sediment storage sites increases with basin area."}]},{"head":"Soil erosion mapping and sediment yield studies","index":54,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":47,"text":"Different literatures have been writing on analyzing of soil erosion prone areas and estimating sediment yield in different areas as basins, mountain and semi areid areas. The use of Empirical mathematical model have resulted to effectiveness in identifying the soil loss in those areas as summarized below:"},{"index":2,"size":110,"text":"The study done on Integration of remote sensing, RUSLE and GIS to model potential soil loss and sediment yield (SY) which was conducted in Malaysia by (Kamaludin, 2013). He explored the potential soil loss distribution at the catchment of Pahang River where the soil loss values obtained ranged from 0 to 95.5 ton ha −1 yr −1 as the sediment yield of Pahang river catchment with an area of 5120 km 2 averaged at 1.19 ton ha −1 yr −1 . This showed that area was dominated by low erosion potential which means that most of the sub catchment of Pahang River contributes less to sediment yield in Pahang River."},{"index":3,"size":78,"text":"The study done on Mapping potential soil erosion in East Africa using the Universal Soil Loss Equation and secondary data by (Lieven, 2008). He used the USLE model to estimate soil erosion areas, where he looked on spatially explicit of erosion patterns that would be a great help for planning soil conservation measures. He explained the difficult of using the USLE model at subcontinental level as in term of parameterization of the models and validation of the results."},{"index":4,"size":108,"text":"The study done on to estimate and map mean annual soil loss rates in the Gedalas watershed of the Blue Nile Basin, Northeastern Ethiopia by (Yimam, 2019). Used the RUSLE model coupled with local perceptions to estimate soil erosion in the Blue Nile Basing. The result showed the estimated annual mean soil loss rate of the watershed was found to be 37 t ha −1 year −1 , which is more than two times higher as compared to the maximum tolerable soil loss value (16 t ha −1 year −1 ) and the annual erosion rates range from 0 to above 935 ton ha −1 year −1 .  "}]},{"head":"CHAPTER","index":55,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Data acquisition","index":56,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":40,"text":"The data used in this study are the rainfall data for 2020 in mm, Nomerlized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) data from Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectrometr(MODIS) from 2020, also the soil data and elevation data as summarized in the table 3.1."}]},{"head":"Data pre-processing","index":57,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Reprojection","index":58,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":40,"text":"The soil data from FAO was in a different coordinate system compared to the study area shapefile hence it was reprojected to geographic coordinate system so as it can correspond to other datasets and easier the further steps of processing."}]},{"head":"Stacking","index":59,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":30,"text":"The monthly rainfall data for the each year was combined into one layer using stack function so that further pre-processing steps can follow hence makes the data ready for analysis."}]},{"head":"Aggregation","index":60,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":53,"text":"For rainfall data the sum function was used to determine the total rainfall for the whole year which results into one aggregated layer with rainfall data. For NDVI data the mean function was used to determine the mean vegetation cover for the whole year which results into one aggregated layer with NDVI data."}]},{"head":"Extraction","index":61,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":56,"text":"Since raster data had different coverage as they where downloaded with different extents , they had to be extracted using the administrative boundary shapefile using the crop and mask functions so as to obtain the raster layers with the same coverage as the area of interest and this was done using the raster package in R."}]},{"head":"Gap filling","index":62,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":41,"text":"This was done on the downloaded Digital Elevation Model (DEM) as to remove the void or Filling Where R is the rainfall erosivity factor (MJ mm ha -1 h -1 yr -1 ) and P is the mean annual rainfall (mm)"}]},{"head":"Soil Erodibility (K)","index":63,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":90,"text":"Using the shapefile for soil types from FAO, i clipped the types of soil that are in Kongwa district which were used to obtain the content of each soil texture in each type of soil type as the percentage content of top soil of clay, sand, silt, and organic carbon. I calculated the values of K factor in raster calculator and edited the attribute table and the soil polygon data was converted into raster layer using polygon to raster tool. The equations below were used for calculating K factor. Where;"}]},{"head":"\uD835\uDC3E = \uD835\uDC39","index":64,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":17,"text":"(fcsand) K values for soil with higher coarse sand content and higher for soil with little sand."},{"index":2,"size":12,"text":"( fci − si) K values for soils with high clay-silt ratios."},{"index":3,"size":9,"text":"(forgc) K values in soil with high organic content. "}]},{"head":"Topographical Factor (Ls)","index":65,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":30,"text":"The LS factor was calculated through the combination of slope layer and flow accumulation layer using the equation3.9 in raster calculator tool in ArcMap. Whereby S is the slope gradient."}]},{"head":"Sediment Delivery Ratio (SDR)","index":66,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":36,"text":"Sediment Delivery Ratio (SDR) was produced by computing the total area by using the empirical transport and is interrelated with the rain-flow phenomenon, and the negative sign signifies that with an area increase, the SDR decreases."}]},{"head":"Sediment Yield (SY)","index":67,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":68,"text":"Sediment yield was quantified using the channel Area based SDR model, and the Annual soil loss of the area which had already been produced. Thus, spatially distributed map of sediment yield was produced through cell by cell multiplication of sediment delivery ratio (SDR) and the raster layer of mean annual soil loss in Arc GIS environment. SY values were calculated using equation 3.12. SY = SDR × A……………………..…………………………………………….….………...(3.12)"},{"index":2,"size":30,"text":"Where SY = sediment yield (ton ha -1 yr -1 ), SDR = sediment delivery ratio and A = annual potential soil loss (A) (ton ha -1 yr -1 )."}]},{"head":"CHAPTER FOUR RESULTS AND DISCUSSION","index":68,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Overview","index":69,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":12,"text":"In this chapter the results obtained through the implementation research methodology and "}]},{"head":"Slope","index":70,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":59,"text":"The slope map results from figure 4.2 show that, most of severely eroded parts in the south of the Kongwa district have high slope gradients and these areas has high rate of soil erosion. Generally, the steeper the slope, the greater is surface runoff velocity and volume and so the higher the erosion risk, with other variables held constant."}]},{"head":"Soil type","index":71,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":65,"text":"In Kongwa district, soil type map results in figure 4.3 show that major components of soil are Ferric Acrisols, Chromic Cambisols, Eutric Nitosols. These soils are characterized by truncated soil profiles usually missing the 'A' horizon (mineral, mixed with humus, dark colored). They are generally shallow, have low organic matters and friable. That they are normally coarse and permeable makes their erodibility potential very high."},{"index":2,"size":1,"text":"25       "}]},{"head":"Sediment yield","index":72,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":162,"text":"The sediment yield concentrations is influenced mainly from surface runoff erosion, vegetation type and topographic factor. Figure 4.12 depicts the sediment yield distribution was classifed into fve categories according to their proportion of distribution. The annual sediment yield concentration in Kongwa district is found to be 13.58 t/ha/year. The sediment yield distribution from the entire district was followed by the same pattern of soil erosion and the deposition of the erosion came in the areas which are mainly affected by soil erosion. The study has been able to analyze soil erosion prone areas and sediment yield in Kongwa by integration of the RUSLE model and sediment yield modeling in the GIS environment, whereas it has estimated an annual soil loss (66.24 ton/ha/year) and sediment yield (13.58 t/ha/year). It has also revealed that there is a strong positive correlation of 1 between soil erosion and sediment yield which illustrates that there is relative increase of sediment yield due to increase in soil erosion."},{"index":2,"size":44,"text":"The study also demonstrates that poor vegetation cover, steep slopes, and severe rainfall are powerful factors of this high erosion. As visible in high resolution satellite images which validates that, erosion and sediment yield is a major concern that needs to be addressed properly."}]},{"head":"RECOMMENDATION","index":73,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":69,"text":"Based on the findings and conclusions reached, this study advises the following, 1. The environment conservation planners should use the soil erosion map produced for restoring degraded land and vegetation (planting trees, reducing grazing), also advising a suitable cropping pattern (contouring, terracing and strip cropping) for agricultural land in local level. Also, Environment Impact Assessment (EIA) must be performed prior to allocation for the development of any new infrastructure."},{"index":2,"size":18,"text":"2. The sensitivity analysis of RUSLE model parameters should be carried out to ensure effectiveness of model results."}]}],"figures":[{"text":" to express my sincere gratitude to the almighty God for his grace to perform this research, I know I couldn't do it without you Abba father. My deep appreciation goes to my supervisors Dr. Dorothea Deus whose deep understanding and integral view on this research have added enormous value to the quality of the study and Mr. Iriael Mlay whose help, valuable guidance and encouragement helped me to complete this research. I would like to express my gratitude to the Geospatial Science and Technology Department employees for their moral and intellectual assistance. I am sincerely grateful for all your assistance. I would like to express my gratitude to Dr. Francis Muthoni and Mr. Francis Msangi, for their valuable advice, guidance and idea about this research work. I extend my warmest thanks to my family, classmates and friends for their help, encouragement and valuable advice during my research work. INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................................... 1 1.1 Background ........................................................................................................................... 1 1.2 Statement of the Research Problem ...................................................................................... 3 1.3 Objectives ............................................................................................................................. 3 1.3.1 Main Objective............................................................................................................... 3 1.3.2 Specific Objectives ........................................................................................................ 3 1.4 Research question ................................................................................................................. 4 1.5 Significance of the study ....................................................................................................... 4 1.6 Beneficiaries of the study...................................................................................................... 4 1.7 Scope of the study ................................................................................................................. 5 1.8 Description of study area ...................................................................................................... 5 1.9 Software utilized ............................................................................................................... 6 1.10 Organization of thesis ......................................................................................................... 7 CHAPER TWO .......................................................................................................................... "},{"text":"Figure Figure 1.1 Study area "},{"text":" overall the methods of data acquisition, data preprocessing and data analysis methods that were used in obtaining the results. This study adapts the RUSLE model on data processing towards achieving the main objective. The step-by-step process performance in this study is summarized in Figure3.1. "},{"text":"Figure Figure 3. 1 Methodological flowchart "},{"text":" \uD835\uDC50\uD835\uDC60\uD835\uDC4E\uD835\uDC5B\uD835\uDC51 * \uD835\uDC39 \uD835\uDC50\uD835\uDC59−\uD835\uDC60\uD835\uDC56 * \uD835\uDC39 \uD835\uDC5C\uD835\uDC5F\uD835\uDC54\uD835\uDC50 * \uD835\uDC39 ℎ\uD835\uDC56\uD835\uDC60\uD835\uDC4E\uD835\uDC5B\uD835\uDC51 …………………………….…................(3.3) "},{"text":"( fhisand) K values in soil with extremely high sand content. \uD835\uDC39 \uD835\uDC50\uD835\uDC60\uD835\uDC4E\uD835\uDC5B\uD835\uDC51 = (0.2 * exp [−0.25 * \uD835\uDC40 \uD835\uDC46 * (1 − \uD835\uDC40 \uD835\uDC60\uD835\uDC56\uD835\uDC59\uD835\uDC61 100 )]) ………………….…...…..………(3.4)   sand fraction content (%), msilt -the silt fraction content (%), mc -the clay fraction content (%), Orgc-organic matter content (%) used to compute C Factor is based on remote sensing approach using Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI). NDVI layer was first pre-processed and aggregated to get the mean annual NDVI and then the formula was imported in the raster calculator. \uD835\uDC41\uD835\uDC37\uD835\uDC49\uD835\uDC3C) )] ……………………..……………………………..….……...(3.8)     "},{"text":" 3 ……………...….……….....(3.9) calculated with respect to the percentage of slope layer by using equation 3.10 in raster calculator tool in ArcMap. P = 0.2 + 0.03 * S……………………..……………………………………....…...…….(3.10) "},{"text":" models to estimate SDR as shown in equation 3.11. SDR = a*D -b ……………………..…………………………………………….….……….(3.11) Where D is the drainage basin area; and a and b are correction factors related to the physical characteristics of the basin. The adjustment b variable has physical characteristics of sediment "},{"text":" discussion are presented according to the intended objectives of this research which was to analyse soil erosion and sediment yield in semi arid area. These results include maps showing the factors that contribute to soil erosion and the factors for the rusle model, also the model results are presented after intergrating the factors and the sediment yield map of Kongwa district. The discussion section shows how the results have correlated with other studies done on In Kongwa district, the results show that, distribution of vegetation cover is sparse especially in central part cover of the district compared to the southern part which is characterized by mountains and contains vegetation, this has accelerated the rate of soil erosion, vegetation has been cleared for grazing, woods, and cultivation thus left the bare land, see figure 4.1. "},{"text":"Figure 4 . 1 Figure Figure 4. 1 Vegetation cover map "},{"text":"FigureFigure 4 . 5 Figure 4. 4 Annual rainfall map of Kongwa district 4.2 Thematic map layers of identified factors for RUSLE model 4.2.1 Rainfall-runoff erosivity factor (R factor) Rainfall erosivity was prepared for the calculation of R factor using the method described above in equation 3.2. The low values of R factor represent low rainfall intensity and vice versa is true. R factor map shows that rainfall Intensity is high in the northern part of the district and lower part of the district. An average R factor values in Kongwa district ranges from 413.38 to 920.87 MJ.mm/ ha. h. yr, see figure 4.5. "},{"text":"Figure 4 . 6 Figure 4. 6 Soil erodibility factor map of Kongwa district 4.2.3 Cover management factor (C factor) In this case study C factor ranged from 0.001 to 0.97. The results from NDVI shows that, there is a sparse vegetation in Kongwa district, this lead to have high values of C factor in. The C factor was calculated by formular in equation 3.8 and showed that higher C values represent more potential for soil erosion and vice versa, high values of C factor are assigned to bare land where 0 value represent dense vegetation. The distribution of C factor is shown on a figure 4.7. "},{"text":"Figure 4 . 7 Figure 4. 7 Cover management factor map of Kongwa district 4.2.4 Slope length and slope steepness factor (LS factor).The distribution of slope in Kongwa district ranges from 0 to 213.93 percent which represent very high range of slope, look on figure 4.8. The flow accumulation of the Kongwa district range from 0 to 1, when slope and flow accumulation increase LS factor also increases, LS factor value range from 0 in flat land to 5.73 in high land. The LS factor map implies that the high value in the south, greater its potentiality to erode in these zones. "},{"text":"Figure 4 . 8 Figure 4. 8 Slope and steepness factor map of Kongwa district "},{"text":"Figure 4 . 9 Figure 4. 9 Support practices factor map of Kongwa district "},{"text":"Figure 4 . Figure 4. 10 Soil loss map of Kongwa district "},{"text":"Figure 4 . Figure 4. 13 Sediment yeild map of Kongwa district "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"Table 3 . ..... 8 vii LITERATURE REVIEW ............................................................................................................... 2.1. Overview .............................................................................................................................. 2.2 Soil erosion ........................................................................................................................... 2.3. Types of soil erosion: ........................................................................................................... 2.3.1Natural or geological soil erosion: .................................................................................. 2.3.2Accelerated soil erosion: ................................................................................................. 2.4 Agencies or mechanism of soil erosion: ............................................................................... 2.4.1 Water erosion ................................................................................................................. Coupling GIS, RS and Modeling ...................................................................................... 2.11 Sediment yield (SY) .......................................................................................................... 2.11.1 Methods for Determining Sediment Yield. ................................................................ 2.12 Sediment Delivery Ratio (SDR) ....................................................................................... 2.13 Soil erosion mapping and sediment yield studies ............................................................. CHAPTER THREE ...................................................................................................................... METHODOLOGY ....................................................................................................................... 3.1. Overview ............................................................................................................................ ........................................................................................................................ RESULTS AND DISCUSSION ................................................................................................... 4.1 Overview ............................................................................................................................. 4.1 Factors contributing to soil erosion..................................................................................... 4.1.1 Vegetation cover. ......................................................................................................... 4.1.2 Slope ............................................................................................................................ 4.1.3 Soil type ....................................................................................................................... 4.1.3 Rainfall ......................................................................................................................... 4.2 Thematic map layers of identified factors for RUSLE model ............................................ 4.2.1 Rainfall-runoff erosivity factor (R factor) ................................................................... 4.2.2 Soil erodibility factor (K factor) .................................................................................. 4.2.3 Cover management factor (C factor) ........................................................................... 4.2.4 Slope length and slope steepness factor (LS factor). ................................................... Sediment yield .................................................................................................................... 4.6. Correlation between Sediment yield and soil erosion........................................................ 4.7 DISCUSSION ..................................................................................................................... CHAPTER FIVE .......................................................................................................................... CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION ............................................................................ ............................................................................................................................. 1 Description of data ....................................................................................................... 19 Table 4. 1 Estimated soil loss in Kongwa District ........................................................................ 4.2.5 Support practice factor (P factor). ................................................................................ 4.2.5 Support practice factor (P factor). ................................................................................ 4.3 Soil erosion map ................................................................................................................. 4.3 Soil erosion map ................................................................................................................. 4.4 Validation of soil erosion prone areas ................................................................................ 4.4 Validation of soil erosion prone areas ................................................................................ 4.5 5.1 CONCLUSION ................................................................................................................... 4.5 5.1 CONCLUSION ................................................................................................................... 5.2 RECOMMENDATION ...................................................................................................... 5.2 RECOMMENDATION ......................................................................................................  "},{"text":"35 xi LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1.1 Study area location ........................................................................................................Figure 3. 1 WorkFlow chart of the study ...................................................................................... Rainfall map of Kongwa district ................................................................................Figure 4. 5 Rainfall erosivity factor map of Kongwa district .......................................................Figure 4. 6 Soil erodibility factor map of Kongwa district ...........................................................Figure 4. 7 Cover management factor map of Kongwa district ....................................................Figure 4. 8 Slope and steepness factor map of Kongwa district ...................................................Figure 4. 9 Support practices factor map of Kongwa district .......................................................Figure 4. 10 Soil loss map of Kongwa district..............................................................................Figure 4. 11Percentage coverage of soil erosion in Kongwa district ...........................................Figure 4. 12 Soil erosion validation map of Kongwa district .......................................................Figure 4. 13 Sediment yeild map of Kongwa district ..................................................................  LIST OF ABBREVIATION CHAPTER ONE LIST OF ABBREVIATION CHAPTER ONE CEMDO Community Environmental Management and Development Organization CEMDOCommunity Environmental Management and Development Organization  INTRODUCTION INTRODUCTION Figure 4. 1 Vegetation cover map ................................................................................................. FAO Food and Agriculture organization 1.1 Background Figure 4. 1 Vegetation cover map ................................................................................................. FAO Food and Agriculture organization 1.1 Background Figure 4. 2 Slope map of Kongwa district .................................................................................... GFW Global Forest Watch Figure 4. 2 Slope map of Kongwa district .................................................................................... GFW Global Forest Watch Figure 4. 3 Soil type map of Kongwa district ............................................................................... GIS Geographic Information System Figure 4. 3 Soil type map of Kongwa district ............................................................................... GIS Geographic Information System MODIS NBS NDVI PESERA RUSLE SDR SWAT Figure 4. 4 Figure 4. 14 Correlation between soil erosion and sediment yield ............................................... Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectrometr National Bureau of Statistic Nomerlaized Difference Vegetation Index Pan-European Soil Erosion Risk Assessment Revised Universal Soil Loss Equation Sediment Delivery Ratio Soil And Water Assesment Tool USLE Universal Soil loss equation MODIS NBS NDVI PESERA RUSLE SDR SWAT Figure 4. 4 Figure 4. 14 Correlation between soil erosion and sediment yield ............................................... Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectrometr National Bureau of Statistic Nomerlaized Difference Vegetation Index Pan-European Soil Erosion Risk Assessment Revised Universal Soil Loss Equation Sediment Delivery Ratio Soil And Water Assesment Tool USLE Universal Soil loss equation SY Sediment Yield SYSediment Yield  xii 1 xii 1  "}],"sieverID":"56956f12-970f-4eb0-a120-511591aefeeb","abstract":"I, Mbaga Darren Abraham, declare that the contents of this dissertation are the results of my own findings, obtained through studies and investigations. To the best of my knowledge, it has not been presented to any other university as a thesis for an award of Diploma, Degree or similar professional award."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0a5b949c634c9125bdf179190f3d9f52","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/4a3f369c-624c-4560-98e9-942eccd37ace/retrieve"},"pageCount":5,"title":"COlECClON HISTORICA CIAT's Bean Disease Management Dilemma-Evol veme nt of a Progressive rather than a Responsive Strategy","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"2.","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":43,"text":"tolerance to several important production constraints, including diseases of widespread prevalence. Significant advances have already been made, and high-yielding materials with resistance to one or more prevalent diseases are currently being tested and grown by collaborators in many national programs throughout Latin America."},{"index":2,"size":92,"text":"However, the performance of various materials is being adversely affected by other diseases that are prevalent only in specific bean production regions. Many of these regionally prevalent diseases are capable of causing severe yield losses to dry beans (Figure 1), and individual or complexes of pathogens may pose serious threats to current as well as future bean production in those regions. Likewise, pathogenically variable organisms, such as those causing rust, anthracnose, and angular leaf spot, may threaten the stabil ity 'of various resistance sources currently being utilized by national programs and CIAT."},{"index":3,"size":123,"text":"During its formative years, the Bean Program has pursued a responsive disease management strategy, whereby disease priorities and breeding projects were selected ~ response to those pathogens which CIAT and national program scientists considered to be most widespread and limiting to Latin American bean production in general. As other pathogens gained notoriety and increased in prevalence, the Bean Program has responded by including them within higher priority breeding projects. This responsive disease management strategy is therefore characterized by its emphasis upon past and current threats to the crop in major bean production regions of Latin America. This strategy does not cope with the many regionally prevalent diseases, nor adequately consider potential threats that may arise from modifications of current varieties and agricultural practices."},{"index":4,"size":60,"text":"Therefore, the Bean Pathology Program has been striving to deve lop and implement a progressive disease management strategy within the CIAT Sean Program's germplasm development system. This strategy is designed to focus research efforts upon the integration of specific dísease management packages within the germplasm development of commercial bean types required by collaborators for specifíc bean production regions throughout 3."},{"index":5,"size":91,"text":"Latin America. These specific management packages place special emphasis upon breeding for resistance to pathogens with widespread or regional prevalence, and must be supplemented by other disease management mea sures to further stabilize these resistances or as replacements if disease resistance is not feasible or available. This progressive disease management strategy must be absorbed within the CIAT Bean Program Philosophy now to assure that the current disease spectrum crop losses steadily decline, and that the potential disease spectrum crop losses do not steadily ¡ricrease (Figure 2) in Latin America. '\" a."},{"index":6,"size":4,"text":"-------.... ------...... '\" '\" "}]}],"figures":[{"text":" Figure 2 . "}],"sieverID":"ec6402f6-525f-4f0e-a493-1c2055385773","abstract":"Dry beans (Ph.aseolus vulga ris L.) are suscepti\"ble to more than 250 different ' plant pathogens endemic to tropical regi\"ons of the wo rld. The prevalence and severity of each pathogen or complex of pathogens is influenced by various factors such as tempera ture and mo isture regimes, inoculum availability, cultural systems, and degree of varietal susceptibility. Disease management measures exist which can reduce production losses caused by bean diseases; and consist of planting pathogen-free seed, crop rotation, cultural practice modifications, bi olog ical control , agents, chemicals, improved plant architecture to f avor disease avoidance, and breeding for disease resistance.The CIAT Bean Program has been actively involved since 1973 in the process of impr0<:5i \" -..:_p rr;.!i'1t.¡V~tYrn Latin America. Its efforts have concentrate on bree~~ ~ró~ er plasm possessing resistance or"}

data/part_3/0aa849c2e0dcdeefebcc2573a1f88cae.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0aa849c2e0dcdeefebcc2573a1f88cae","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://www.ajfand.net/Volume19/No2/Aber17425.pdf"},"pageCount":25,"title":"HAZARD ANALYSIS AND CRITICAL CONTROL POINT PLAN FOR HAZARDS IN UGANDAN AMARANTH VEGETABLE VALUE CHAIN","keywords":["Amaranth","food safety","prerequisite programs","HACCP plan","hazards","Uganda"],"chapters":[{"head":"INTRODUCTION","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":94,"text":"Due to the rise of overnutrition and its health consequences in developing countries, there has been an increased public health awareness on proper nutrition. These efforts have led to more advocacy for diversified diets with highly nutritious vegetables [1]. The focus on plants has stimulated an interest in indigenous crops that have the potential to improve the nutritional status and livelihoods of millions of people living in middle and lowincome countries [2]. Amaranth (Amaranthus spp.) is among the leafy vegetables that have been identified to offer great potential for both vegetable growers and consumers."},{"index":2,"size":141,"text":"However, despite its nutritional value, health benefits, agronomic advantages, and potential for income generation, amaranth as a vegetable has not been fully exploited in East Africa. Lack of adequate data on its yield potential, nutrition composition, supply chain, and preparation for consumption has led to vegetable amaranth being demoted to minor crops thus not gaining much interest among researchers [3]. Moreover, the introduction of exotic vegetables such as kale (Acephala group) and spinach (Spinacia oleraceae) into the cropping system has negatively impacted the domestication, cultivation, and consumption of vegetable amaranth [4]. However, with the onset of climate change, vegetable amaranth is now seen as an ideal crop due to its hardiness [5]. As a result, there is an increased awareness of the plant, education on its nutritional and overall health benefits, and the availability of improved recipes for home preparation [1]."},{"index":3,"size":194,"text":"The increasing demand for green leafy vegetables -including amaranth -among both rural and urban populations has stimulated their production, with farmers having to increase their production to cope with the demand. This commercial pressure can hurt food safety as the demand for higher yields over-rides the need for safe food. Foods of non-animal origin that form a significant component of the human diet can pose food safety risks [6]. For example, leafy vegetables, which are regularly colonised by diverse microbiota, can become contaminated with human pathogens and parasites while growing in the field, or during harvesting, in post-harvest handling, processing, and distribution [7]. The recommendation is to implement a food safety management system (FSMS) in the fresh vegetable supply chain to minimise potential risks from food-borne pathogens [8], more so in developing countries where the vegetable supply chain is still regarded as rudimentary and informal. Prerequisite programmes, such as Good Agricultural Practices (GAP), Good Manufacturing Practices (GMP), Good Hygiene Practices (GHP) and Sanitary Standard Operation Procedures (SOPs) are therefore required to improve food safety and form a foundation for setting up an advanced FSMS such as Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points (HACCP) [9]."},{"index":4,"size":150,"text":"Application of the FSMS is widespread in most foods and food products, but little consideration has been given to vegetable amaranth in East Africa. There is a need to guarantee safety along the supply chain of this vegetable due to several safety concerns. Escherichia coli (E. coli) and Salmonella spp. have previously been isolated from vegetable amaranth, where the prevalence of the latter was 11% [10]. In another study, Streptococcus feacalis, Staphylococcus spp., E. coli, and Bacillus subtilis were isolated from vegetable amaranth in both rural and urban locations [11]. Also, the growth of amaranth using contaminated irrigation water can result in an accumulation of cadmium, iron, and copper while an increase in some soils can cause accumulation of copper and lead in the crop [12]. Given the demand for vegetable amaranth in Uganda, a possible presence of hazards in its value chain may result in significant public health implications."},{"index":5,"size":145,"text":"This study was carried out in the context of a value addition project aiming to link vegetable amaranth farmers to remunerative markets including local food processing companies. Access to prime markets depends on the producers' capacity to ensure continued supply of high-quality agricultural produce that meets set safety standards [13]. The implementation of HACCP, which is one of the widely recognised FSMS globally, can ensure food safety along the vegetable amaranth value chain. The objective of this study was to develop a HACCP plan for the vegetable amaranth value chain in Uganda. The entire production process of the vegetable amaranth was evaluated, the potential biological, chemical and physical hazards were assessed at every step of the production process, and the critical control points (CCPs) selected. The HACCP plan generated will be used by stakeholders to address the hazards along the amaranth value chain in Uganda."}]},{"head":"METHODS","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Study area","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":31,"text":"The 'farm-to-fork' HACCP analysis on the vegetable amaranth value chain commenced from producing households located in Kabubu Gayaza in Wakiso District in Central Uganda to consumers in Kyebando in Kampala, Uganda."}]},{"head":"The HACCP plan Principles of HACCP","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":27,"text":"In line with the Codex Alimentarius [14], we followed the seven principles outlined below in developing a HACCP plan for the vegetable amaranth value chain in Uganda."}]},{"head":"• Principle 1: Conduct a hazard analysis","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":40,"text":"The purpose of this principle is to develop a list of the potential biological, chemical or physical hazards that likely occur if not adequately controlled and assessing their severity and likelihood of occurrence at each step of the commodity system."}]},{"head":"• Principle 2: Determine the critical control points","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":34,"text":"A critical control point (CCP) is a point, step or procedure at which control actions or measures can be applied, and a food safety hazard can be prevented, eliminated or reduced to acceptable levels."}]},{"head":"• Principle 3: Establish critical limits for each control point","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":62,"text":"A critical limit (CL) is the maximum or minimum value to which a biological, chemical or physical parameter must be controlled at a CCP to prevent, eliminate, or reduce to an acceptable level the occurrence of a food safety hazard. Each control measure associated with a CCP must have an associated critical limit that separates the acceptable from the unacceptable control parameter."}]},{"head":"• Principle 4: Establish a monitoring system","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":13,"text":"This principle aims to establish monitoring procedures for each CL at each CCP."},{"index":2,"size":140,"text":"Monitoring helps to assess whether a given parameter is under control, and within the critical limit(s) specified in Principle 3. Monitoring procedures should describe how the measurement of the parameter is taken when the measurement is made, who is responsible for measuring the parameter, and how frequently the measurement is taken during production. • Principle 5: Establish a procedure for corrective action, when monitoring at a CCP indicates a deviation from an established critical limit Corrective actions are the procedures that are followed when a deviation in a critical limit occurs. The corrective action is thus designed to prevent potentially hazardous food from entering the food chain and stipulates the steps that are needed to correct the process. This principle usually includes identification of the problem(s) and the indicating steps taken to assure that the problem(s) will not occur again."}]},{"head":"• Principle 6: Establish record-keeping procedures","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":76,"text":"A vital component of the HACCP plan is recording information that can be used to prove that a food was produced safely. Ideally, records should include information on the HACCP team and contact person(s), the product description, verified flow diagrams, the hazard analysis, the CCP's identified, the relevant critical limits and their monitoring system, what corrective actions are taken in case there is a deviation and the verification procedures to bring the system back under control."}]},{"head":"• Principle 7: Establish verification procedures","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":54,"text":"The goal of this principle is to establish verification procedures to demonstrate that the HACCP plan is functioning as planned. It is vital to ensure that the HACCP system is audited after a predetermined period to guarantee compliance. Both internal and external audits are necessary for the validation and effectiveness of a HACCP system."}]},{"head":"Development of a HACCP plan","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":33,"text":"Twelve tasks, discussed in subsequent subsections, are required to develop a sound HACCP plan. These tasks were designed to ensure that the seven HACCP principles [14] were applied correctly, and are as follows:"},{"index":2,"size":57,"text":"Task 1: Formation of the HACCP team The HACCP team was composed of experts and individuals consisting of: a HACCP specialist, a microbiologist, a representative of the vegetable amaranth farmers, a quality controller from the amaranth processing industry, a public health specialist, a food scientist, and a quality and safety specialist from the Uganda Bureau of Standards."}]},{"head":"Tasks 2 and 3: Product description and intended use","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":11,"text":"The product description and intended use are documented in Table 1."}]},{"head":"Tasks 4 and 5: Development and Verification of the vegetable amaranth flow diagram","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":151,"text":"The vegetable amaranth flow diagram (from 'farm-to-fork') was established by observation and using information provided by the HACCP team members, the farmers, the processors, and other representatives along the vegetable amaranth value chain. It was verified by interviews with major amaranth producers, sellers at trading centres, proprietors of amaranth processing industries, market and street food vendors. The verified flow diagram (VFD) of the vegetable amaranth value chain is shown in Figure 1.  For the CCPs identified, critical limits for the relevant parameters were established to signify when a CCP is \"in\" or \"out\" of control. Reliable control mechanisms and immediate corrective actions were assigned to the identified CCP to ensure that in the case of a deviation, the system is brought back into control to guarantee the safety of the products. A verification system and record-keeping procedures were also proposed to ensure the effectiveness and tractability of the HACCP plan developed. "}]},{"head":"A sampling of vegetable amaranth along its value chain and lab analysis","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":86,"text":"During the growing of vegetable amaranth, fertiliser application and irrigation are necessary to ensure high yields and year-round production. These farming practices pose a risk for microbial and heavy metal contamination. On the other hand, the high moisture content and water activity of vegetable amaranth pose a high risk for microbial contamination. Also, product preparation involves a lot of manual handling, which represents a threat of possible cross-contamination. It was, therefore, necessary to purposively sample vegetable amaranth along its value chain to assess for possible contamination."},{"index":2,"size":92,"text":"Soil and manure were obtained from two different farms. At the farm level, water was collected from underground wells and ponds. The samples collected from markets and food establishments included; water, hand swabs, swabs of food preparation surfaces, raw and cooked amaranth. Water was analysed for E. coli, Vibrio cholerae, and Salmonella spp. Hand swabs were examined for S. aureus and Enterobacteriaceae. Raw amaranth, serving utensils, food contact surfaces, and knives were analysed for E. coli and Salmonella. Cooked amaranth was analysed for E. coli, Salmonella spp., S. aureus, and Vibrio cholerae."},{"index":3,"size":132,"text":"S. aureus, Enterobacteriaceae and Vibrio cholerae were analysed using Baird-Parker agar (supplemented with 20% sterile egg-yolk tellurite emulsion), violet red bile dextrose agar and thiosulfate citrate bile sucrose agar (Merck, Germany), respectively incubated aerobically for 24 hours at 37 °C. Salmonella spp. were analysed using a chromogenic rapid method using Salmosyst ® Broth Base, Salmosyst ® Selective Supplement and Rambach ® Agar (Merck, Germany) [15]. E. coli was analysed using a chromogenic rapid method using Chromocult ® Coliform Agar and E. Coli Selective Supplement (Merck, Germany) [16]. Aflatoxins were tested using the modified immunoaffinity method described previously [17]. Heavy metals in soil and water samples were determined using atomic absorption spectrophotometer (Shimadzu Model 6800 with graphite furnace Model GFA 7000, Hydride unit was used for determination of mercury) as previously described [18]."}]},{"head":"RESULTS AND DISCUSSION a) Identification of hazards","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":53,"text":"The amaranth value chain is susceptible to many risks. A list of all potential biological, chemical, or physical hazards that may be introduced, increased, or controlled from 'farm to fork' was, therefore, developed. These included mycotoxins, Salmonella spp., E. coli, S. aureus, insects, heavy metals, chemical residues such as pesticides, and heavy metals."}]},{"head":"b) Identification of steps along the verified flow diagram where contamination is most likely to occur","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":27,"text":"Step 1: Site selection Heavy metals are ubiquitous in the environment, because of both natural and anthropogenic activities. Humans are exposed to them through various pathways [19]."},{"index":2,"size":31,"text":"Consuming food crops grown in contaminated soils results in ingestion of a significant amount of the metals [20]. Thus, contamination with heavy metals and chemical residues was likely at this step."},{"index":3,"size":77,"text":"Steps 2: Land and seedbed preparation During land preparation, the farmers use organic fertilisers. Some of these especially manure, harbour significant numbers of micro-organisms such as Salmonella spp. and E. coli. It is thought that the application of such fertilisers may act as a pathway for microbial hazards into humans, especially in vegetables and fruits [21]. These find their way through water that is splashed during rain downpours or irrigation. Contamination at this step was therefore likely."},{"index":4,"size":43,"text":"Step 3: Seed selection and planting At this step, the seeds may be exposed to mycotoxins present in the soil. However, compared to cereals, seeds of amaranth are not as susceptible to colonisation with fungi. Contamination at this step was, therefore, considered low."},{"index":5,"size":17,"text":"Step 4: Irrigation In the field, irrigation water is a likely source of contamination for amaranth vegetables."},{"index":6,"size":66,"text":"Water from untreated sources is particularly a significant source of pollution. Long-term wastewater irrigation may lead to the accumulation of heavy metals in agricultural soils and plants, which makes this one of the most severe environmental concern [22]. Also, such water contains high levels of coliforms, which increases levels of contamination on vegetables especially during rainy seasons [23]. Therefore, contamination at this level was highly likely."}]},{"head":"Steps 5 to 10: Weeding, thinning and pest control, harvesting, transportation to, and reception at the market, and bundling for retail","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":125,"text":"Farmers choose to apply chemicals to control weeds, pests, and diseases. Application of these chemicals, especially concoctions of pesticides, may have undesirable and harmful effects on humans [24]. However, humans are not affected by low doses of such chemicals apart from cases of long-term exposure. During harvesting, the vegetables usually are placed directly on the ground. This practice exposes them to microbial and physical contaminants that are present in the soil. Putting plants on the ground that have compost or have been under irrigation five months before harvest increases the risk of contamination with E. coli O157: H7 [25]. Contamination with S. aureus can also originate from the hands of the harvesters. Physical hazards including twigs and weeds can also be introduced at this stage."},{"index":2,"size":63,"text":"Moreover, at this stage, there is increased contact between the vegetables and the handlers, especially when tying them into bundles. Inappropriate loading can also expose vegetables to soil from the roots of other vegetables. The vegetables are also exposed to these hazards when taken to the market, because of handling practices. Although risks are present in these steps, chances of contamination are low."},{"index":3,"size":81,"text":"Step 11: Display in the market At the market, the vegetables are displayed in stalls for sale. At this step, placing the produce on dirty counters or counters cleaned with dirty water is a source of contamination. Micro-organisms are known to not only contaminate surfaces, but they also survive on these surfaces. Their ability to survive allows pathogenic microbes to multiply to significant numbers, which increases the risk of contamination. Contamination at this step was therefore concluded to be very likely."},{"index":4,"size":36,"text":"Step 12: Washing before preparation Untreated water is a source of both chemical and microbial hazards. These hazards include heavy metals, E. coli, and Enteroccoci spp. Contamination at this step was, therefore, concluded to be likely."},{"index":5,"size":79,"text":"Step 13: Chopping leaves Cutting knives can be contaminated with micro-organisms such as E. coli. Infrequent washing of the knives increases the microbial load, which in turn increases the risk of cross-contamination. In instances where washing is frequent, use of unsafe water further increases the risk of contamination. Contact with dirty hands also increases the risk of contamination with S. aureus and their toxins, which are not easily destroyed by heat. Contamination at this step was, therefore, very likely."},{"index":6,"size":79,"text":"Step 14: Cooking -steaming or blanching Time and temperature combined are essential in the control of microbial hazards. If the combination is not right, then micro-organisms and toxins that are present in a product cannot be destroyed. In addition to microbial contamination, the use of polyethene as a cover for the cooking pots may cause monomer migration into the vegetables. Given that this is the last possible control point of such hazards, this step becomes a critical control point."},{"index":7,"size":79,"text":"Step 15: Holding time and serving Even with adequate cooking, recontamination is possible when dirty serving utensils are used. Recontamination may also occur when the food is not covered during holding. Also, long holding times at room temperature may lead to microbial re-growth where bacteria release toxins into the cooked vegetables that may not affect how the food looks, smells, or tastes but can still cause food poisoning. It was, therefore, concluded that contamination at this step was likely."}]},{"head":"c) Possible control measures for identified hazards","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":82,"text":"The most effective ways to control contaminants when selecting a planting site is to ensure that the area chosen is not waterlogged. In waterlogged soils, some metal oxides become associated with iron and manganese and become soluble [26]. This enhanced solubility may increase uptake of the heavy metals by the crop. Other measures to avoid heavy metals contamination include crop rotation. In the case of mycotoxins, it is essential to limit intercropping with crops such as cereals that are susceptible to mycotoxins."},{"index":2,"size":110,"text":"During land preparation, organic fertilisers can be disinfected to eliminate the threat of microbes. When using herbicides, manufactures directions for use must be strictly followed to prevent residue accumulation in the soils. During planting, only recommended herbicides may be used. Also, intercropping with mycotoxin-susceptible crops should be limited. Crop rotation should also be practised to enable recovery of soils from contamination. During irrigation, using potable water can reduce both microbial and chemical contamination. While controlling pests, weeds, and diseases, it is essential to follow the manufacturer's instructions when applying various chemicals. Also, these chemicals should be used at the right time to allow for a safe withdrawal period before harvesting."},{"index":3,"size":184,"text":"Harvesting of the vegetables should be done when it is dry to reduce contamination with soil. Contact between the amaranth leaves and ground should be avoided. Instead of uprooting the whole crop, the leaves should be clipped off with clean scissors. This harvesting method will reduce the amount of soil contamination on the harvested vegetable. During transportation, handlers should avoid stepping on or sitting on the vegetables. Once in the market, the vegetables should not be placed on the bare ground. Instead, they should be placed on a raised platform. Clean potable water should be used to clean contact surfaces, knives, and vegetables. Water should not be reused to avoid build-up of micro-organisms in the water. The farm workers and market retailers should maintain high levels of personal hygiene when handling the vegetables at any of the listed steps. These include hand washing, covering of any open wounds, and wearing clean gloves when working. In case the vegetables were harvested with the roots still intact, these roots should be cut off. During bundling for retail, the vegetables should be packed in clean, well-aerated bags."},{"index":4,"size":71,"text":"During cooking, the vegetables should be blanched or steamed at the appropriate temperature to destroy as many of the present micro-organisms as possible. The cooks should also maintain high levels of hygiene and sanitation. After cooking, the vegetables should be served immediately in clean utensils. If cooked vegetables are not be consumed quickly, they should be stored under cold temperatures. Good personal hygiene must also be observed when serving cooked vegetables."}]},{"head":"Tasks 7 to 10: Development of a HACCP Plan the vegetable amaranth value chain","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":51,"text":"A worksheet summarising the HACCP plan for the vegetable amaranth for human consumption is given in Table 2. The development of the HAACP plan at each step along the VFD (see Figure 1) is also provided below. National and regional standards were consulted to advise on the critical limits recommended herein."},{"index":2,"size":1,"text":"Step"}]},{"head":"1: Site Selection -Critical Control Point (CCP) 1","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":81,"text":"This step was identified as a CCP with site selection, crop rotation and limited intercropping as the control measure. This CCP will reduce the exposure of the amaranth crop to heavy metals, chemical residues, and mycotoxins to acceptable levels, hence reducing the levels of any of these contaminants in harvested vegetable amaranth. An appropriate critical limit could include avoiding pieces of land that show traces of heavy metals and chemical residues. Trained agronomists and soil scientists can best monitor this CCP."},{"index":2,"size":95,"text":"Step 2: Land and seedbed preparation -CCP2 Disinfecting organic fertilisers and correct use of herbicides can reduce contaminants at this step. Contaminated manure can taint amaranth with Salmonella spp. and E. coli while misuse of chemical residues can result in harmful chemical residues in the crop. This step was identified as a CCP with possible control measures that include disinfection of organic fertilisers and adherence to instructions provided by manufacturers of herbicides. The critical limit at this step is set at the absence of both E. coli and Salmonella spp. in 25g of sampled fertiliser."},{"index":3,"size":47,"text":"Step 3: Seed selection and planting -Good Agricultural Practice (GAP) During cultivation, the crops can be contaminated with herbicides used in land preparation or mycotoxins from other plants used in intercropping. However, this can be controlled through the use of the recommended herbicides and proper crop rotation."},{"index":4,"size":10,"text":"Limiting intercropping can also be used as a control measure."},{"index":5,"size":66,"text":"Step 4: Irrigation -CCP3 This step was identified as a CCP. Irrigation water can be a source of both microbial and chemical hazards. The control measure in this step is the use of potable water. E. coli should be absent in water used for irrigation. Acceptable range of heavy metals in irrigation water is: lead = 65µg/l; Nickel = 1400µg/l; Copper = 17µg/l; Zinc = 2000µg/l."}]},{"head":"Steps 5 and 6: Weeding, thinning, & pest control -GAP","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":85,"text":"Weeding, thinning and pest control are all essential steps in crop management. Without these farming practices, amaranth yields can be meagre. However, these activities represent opportunities where misuse of chemicals can result in harmful chemical residues in vegetable amaranth. Therefore, it is imperative that the manufacturers' instructions and specifications are adhered to strictly. Also, the time of chemical application is of the essence. The correct use and timing of these chemicals can reduce incidences of chemical residues on the harvested crop sent to the market."},{"index":2,"size":72,"text":"Step 7: Harvesting -GAP At this step, placing the harvested vegetables on the bare soil exposes them to microbial and chemical contaminants. Good agricultural practices such as harvesting in the evening when there is no dew or sun reduce incidences of contamination and wilting. The harvested vegetables should be placed on a clean tarpaulin. Also, clipping of the roots with clean scissors can be a useful control measure to avoid soil contamination."},{"index":3,"size":46,"text":"Step 8: Transportation to market -Good Hygiene Practices (GHP) Good handling practices are required at this step to reduce contamination that can arise from stepping or sitting on the vegetables, or bringing leaves into contact with vegetable roots. Sprinkling with unsafe water should also be avoided."},{"index":4,"size":23,"text":"Step 9: Reception at the market -GHP At this step, the vegetables are exposed to soil contaminants if placed on the bare ground."},{"index":5,"size":40,"text":"Instead, bundles of vegetable should be placed on raised platforms. In case the plants still have their roots intact, the roots should be carefully chopped off. To prevent wilting of the produce, the vegetables can be sprinkled with potable water."},{"index":6,"size":75,"text":"Step 10: Bundling for retail -GHP At this step, the vegetables are packaged for sale by separating them into smaller retail bundles. If these bundles are piled high causing the produce at the bottom of the pile to be compressed, then a micro-environment of high humidity and temperature build-up that favours microbial growth can be created within the vegetable pile. To avoid this possible contamination, the vegetables should be lightly packed in clean, well-aerated bags."},{"index":7,"size":137,"text":"Step 11: Product display and humidity control at the market -CCP4 At this step, the vegetables are displayed in the open for the consumers to select for purchase. Sellers do sprinkle the vegetables with water to prevent wilting and in some cases chop the vegetables in anticipation of consumers or on request. These actions can be a source of contamination. To control this possible contamination, potable water should be used to keep the vegetables looking fresh. Also, the surfaces on which the vegetables are displayed should be cleaned and disinfected with food grade chemicals. The knives used for chopping the vegetables should also be washed and sanitised. The critical limits for this step include an absence of E. coli in water and the absence of E. coli and Salmonella spp. on knives and cutting boards or surfaces."},{"index":8,"size":111,"text":"Step 12: Washing after purchase and before preparation -CCP5 Washing vegetables is a crucial step carried out at home, in a hotel kitchen or at an eatery. At this step, water is the primary source of contamination. For this reason, it is advisable to use potable water to wash the vegetables thoroughly. The washing water should not be reused. Preferably, running water can be used. The water should be free of E. coli. This step is a CCP because if microbes are introduced by use of contaminated water and the cooking method used to prepare the vegetables is not sufficient to destroy the bacteria significantly, and then food poisoning may occur."},{"index":9,"size":119,"text":"Step 13: Chopping vegetables -CCP6 This step was identified as a CCP. Contamination is most likely to result from contaminated cutting utensils and unclean hands. Hands of personnel, cutting surfaces, and knives should be cleaned using running water to wash away microbes. The personnel can also wear clean gloves that are cleaned at a regular interval. Kitchen staff should wear hairnets and beard-nets to prevent physical contamination with hair. As critical limits, S. aureus should be absent on staff hands. Salmonella spp. and E. coli should be absent on meal preparation surfaces and knives. This step is a CCP because, during cooking, the preparation method used may not be sufficient to destroy the microbes to a significantly low number."},{"index":10,"size":76,"text":"Step 14: Cooking -CCP7 Cooking was identified as a CCP. As control measures, appropriate time-temperature combinations should be used during steaming or blanching. Salmonella spp. and E. coli should be absent in cooked vegetables. E. coli should also be absent in water used for cooking. Other critical limits such as cooking time and temperature can be set. To limit microbial contamination in the vegetables, they should be cooked for at least 10 minutes at 90-100 °C."},{"index":11,"size":128,"text":"Step 15: Holding time and serving -CCP8 Food holding time and serving were identified as a CCP. Serving the vegetables in dirty utensils can result in cross contamination. Also, holding the vegetables at room or warm temperatures for an extended period -more than 2 hours -can result in microbial growth. As a control, the vegetables should be served in clean utensils. If not served immediately, they should be stored at a cold temperature to reduce the rate of microbial growth. Food handlers should also maintain a high level of personal hygiene. At this step, Salmonella spp. and E. coli should be absent in serving utensils. S. aureus should not be present on food handlers' hands. Other control limits such as a storage temperature of <4°C should be maintained."},{"index":12,"size":51,"text":"Task 11: Establish verification procedures Validation procedures will be established for each of the CCPs, and the quantitative results will provide overall verification on representative samples of the soil, batches of harvested vegetable amaranth and swabs of food handlers' hands. The HACCP plan will be audited quarterly and amended as necessary."}]},{"head":"Task 12: Establish documentation and record keeping","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":14,"text":"The HACCP plan will be fully documented, with appropriate record keeping at each step. "}]},{"head":"Chemical and microbiological contaminants at amaranth value chain CCPs","index":23,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":111,"text":"Table 3 shows the results of the analysis for chemical and microbial contaminants at each of the CCPs along the amaranth value chain. At CCP 1, the soil was contaminated with lead and cadmium. However, the two were not beyond the levels considered safe for human health. These levels are 400 mg kg-1 and 2.5 mg kg-1for lead and cadmium respectively [10]. These low levels of contamination be expected because the soils in rural areas are not as highly polluted when compared to those in urban areas. Also, the soils had low traces of aflatoxin B1 and B2. At the current agricultural practices, hazards at CCP1 are within the desired levels."},{"index":2,"size":92,"text":"At CCP 2, organic fertilisers were contaminated with E. coli. Further analysis showed that E. coli 0157: H7 was absent. Salmonella spp. was also absent. Although both E. coli and Salmonella are present in animal excreta [27], their ability to contaminate vegetables is mainly dependent on their survival capabilities in both the soil and manure [28]. Therefore, current conditions are not conducive for the survival of both E. coli 0157:H7 and Salmonella. However, GAP such as thermal treatment of manure may be necessary to reduce contamination with other species of E. coli."},{"index":3,"size":89,"text":"At CCP3, E. coli was present in irrigation water, but E. coli 0157:H7 was absent. The presence of E. coli is an indication that the water may be contaminated with other gastrointestinal pathogens, which indicates the need for strict control of the water supplied to irrigate the farms. The water can be treated with recommended chemicals such as chlorine or Moringa oreifera as a coagulant. Heavy metals were also present in the irrigation water but were below the critical limits. Therefore, at this CCP, microbial contamination requires strict control."},{"index":4,"size":86,"text":"At CCP4, E. coli were absent in water used by vendors to keep vegetables fresh and on work surfaces. This reduced risk may be because the vegetable sellers buy their water from government-licensed suppliers who supply treated water. E. coli was, however, present on raw amaranth. This hazard can be attributed to the presence of E. coli at CCP1. Fresh produce can be contaminated by pathogens that are transferred to the edible portion of the crop (leaves) through soil splash created by rain-sized water droplets [29]."},{"index":5,"size":82,"text":"Nevertheless, although E. coli 0157:H7 and Salmonella spp. were absent on the amaranth, S. aureus was detected on the hands of vendors. The contamination with S. aureus is a significant source of food microbial contamination [30] and shows a possible risk of contamination of amaranth that may result from poor hygiene practices. Food handlers also presented a potential contamination risk at CCP 6 because their hands were contaminated with S. aureus and Enterobacteriaceae. No contamination was detected at CCP5, CCP7, and CCP8."}]},{"head":"CONCLUSION","index":24,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":158,"text":"Eight CCPs were identified in the vegetable amaranth value chain in Uganda. These are site selection, land and seedbed preparation, irrigation, product display and humidity control at the market, washing after purchase before preparation, chopping, cooking, and holding time and serving. The high number of CCPs emphasises the risk posed by inadequate control measures along this value chain. Other steps were identified as prerequisite programs. Hazards identified at the CCPs include heavy metals, mycotoxins, and microorganisms. Underlying conditions that maintain food hygiene practices and good agriculture practices may be effective control measures against the hazards identified. Training of employees and stakeholders in the eight CCPs (see Figure 3) is also vital to ensure that the risks are below the critical limits. Although chemical and microbial contaminants were detected in some of the CCPs, there are indications that the current practices employed along the value chain are sufficient to lower or prevent contamination in the amaranth vegetables value chain.  "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure 1 :Task 6 : Figure 1: Verified flow diagram (VFD) of the vegetable amaranth value chain that includes 15 steps from 'farm to fork' "},{"text":"Figure 2 : Figure 2: Decision tree diagram with a risk likelihood and risk severity matrix for CCP [14] "},{"text":"1 . Do preventive measures exist at this step or subsequent steps for the identified hazard?Yes NoModify step, process or product Is control at this step necessary for safety? Yes 2. Will a subsequent step eliminate the identified hazards or reduce the likelihood of occurrence to an unacceptable level?3. Does this step eliminate or reduce the likelihood of occurrence of this hazard to an acceptable level?4. Could contamination with identified hazards occur over acceptable levels or could these increase to unacceptable levels? "},{"text":"Figure 3 : Figure 3: Modified flow diagram of the vegetable amaranth value chain with identified CCPs that includes 15 steps from 'farm to fork with eight identified CCPs highlighted "},{"text":"Table 1 : Description of vegetable amaranth available in the local market Name of product However, strict control of E. coli at CCP2 and CCP4, S. aureus at CCP4 and CCP6 and Enterobacteriaceae at CCP6 are required to ensure the amaranth vegetable value chain attains adequate food safety. A real-life video of the vegetable amaranth value chain from producers in Kabubu Gayaza in Wakiso District in Central Uganda to consumers in Kyebando in Kampala can be found at https://youtu.be/Xbkf3hr5z7o. Vegetable amaranth for human consumptionDescriptionAmaranth leaves, with a moisture content of between 80 -85 percent; They are highly perishable and susceptible to mechanical damage such as bruising. Vegetables should be stored in a well-ventilated environment. Customer specification For household consumption; Green light-coloured and non-wilted leaves are preferred.Conditions of storageBulked in cold storage or a cool, dry, dark place.Well-ventilated polyethene bags can also be used to store the vegetable. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ACKNOWLEDGEMENT This research was supported by funds from CGIAR CRP4/ Agriculture for Nutrition and This research was supported by funds from CGIAR CRP4/ Agriculture for Nutrition and Health / Value Chains for Nutrition. Health / Value Chains for Nutrition.  "},{"text":"Table 2 : Hazard description and HACCP plan for dry beans There should be no visible foreign matter Monitor hygiene of the personnel and check for the Reject amaranth leaves if poor hygiene of sellers is such as stones, nails, hair. Working surfaces must be clean, and the preparation area must be well lit. presence of open wounds, long, or dirty nails. Check records of training on GMPs and GHPs. Examine the appearance of amaranth leaves. Check for the cleanliness of work surfaces and lighting in preparation areas. evident and working areas/surfaces are dirty. Train the personnel in GHPs and GMPs.  Hazard description and HACCP plan  Hazard description and HACCP plan CCP Critical limits Monitoring Corrective actions CCPCritical limitsMonitoringCorrective actions CCP1: Site No waterlogged sites. Check farmer records to Train farmers on the CCP1: SiteNo waterlogged sites.Check farmer records toTrain farmers on the Selection Minimal traces of establish if the site has importance of waste SelectionMinimal traces ofestablish if the site hasimportance of waste  heavy metals. been rotated and trash from management, proper crop heavy metals.been rotated and trash frommanagement, proper crop   the previous crop has been rotation, and the dangers of the previous crop has beenrotation, and the dangers of   well managed. using waterlogged sites. well managed.using waterlogged sites.   Evaluate the history of the Reject sites that are heavily Evaluate the history of theReject sites that are heavily   previous crop, contaminated with heavy previous crop,contaminated with heavy   waterlogging history, metal metals. waterlogging history, metalmetals.   deposits, and waste  deposits, and waste   disposal methods.  disposal methods.   Observe the site to identify  Observe the site to identify   any dumping activity.  any dumping activity. CCP 2: Salmonella spp. and E. Analyze Salmonella spp. Reject fertilisers that are CCP 2:Salmonella spp. and E.Analyze Salmonella spp.Reject fertilisers that are Land and coli must not be and E. coli in fertilizers. highly contaminated with Land andcoli must not beand E. coli in fertilizers.highly contaminated with seedbed detected in any 25 g of Check directions for proper Pathogens. seedbeddetected in any 25 g ofCheck directions for properPathogens. preparation fertiliser. herbicide and fertiliser Train farmers in proper preparationfertiliser.herbicide and fertiliserTrain farmers in proper   Application. application of agricultural Application.application of agricultural    inputs. inputs. CCP 3: The absence of E. coli Investigate the source of Reject unsafe irrigation CCP 3:The absence of E. coliInvestigate the source ofReject unsafe irrigation Irrigation in irrigated water. irrigation water. water. Irrigationin irrigated water.irrigation water.water.  An acceptable range of Check records on the water Train farmers in water An acceptable range ofCheck records on the waterTrain farmers in water  heavy metals in irrigation water is: Pb=65µg/l; Ni=1400µg/l; quality used for irrigation. collection techniques and on disadvantages of using contaminated water. heavy metals in irrigation water is: Pb=65µg/l; Ni=1400µg/l;quality used for irrigation.collection techniques and on disadvantages of using contaminated water.  Cu=17µg/l;   Cu=17µg/l;  Zn=2000µg/l   Zn=2000µg/l CCP 4: The absence of dirt in Check records on training Train traders and food CCP 4:The absence of dirt inCheck records on trainingTrain traders and food Market water and on working in proper handling handlers in proper water, Marketwater and on workingin proper handlinghandlers in proper water, display/ surfaces. practices. sanitation, and health display/surfaces.practices.sanitation, and health humidity  Monitor the quality of practices. humidityMonitor the quality ofpractices. control  potable water and check for Discard soiled water. controlpotable water and check forDiscard soiled water.   the visual presence of soil.  the visual presence of soil.   Check the cleanliness of  Check the cleanliness of   working surfaces.  working surfaces. CCP 5: There should be no Check records for training Train personnel on basic CCP 5:There should be noCheck records for trainingTrain personnel on basic Washing visual stones, soil, in Good Manufacturing GMPs and GHPs. Washingvisual stones, soil,in Good ManufacturingGMPs and GHPs. before foreign material, wood Practices (GMPs) and Discard contaminated beforeforeign material, woodPractices (GMPs) andDiscard contaminated preparation chips. splinters, or glass (GHPs) for eateries. Good Hygiene Practices amaranth. preparationchips. splinters, or glass(GHPs) for eateries. Good Hygiene Practicesamaranth.  Microbial quality of   Microbial quality of  washed amaranth   washed amaranth  leaves should be within   leaves should be within  the set limits.   the set limits. CCP 6:    CCP 6: Chopping    Chopping  "}],"sieverID":"fee0f327-014e-4791-b4b0-7a1e9e6aa0a9","abstract":"Currently, there is a high demand for amaranth due to its ability to withstand harsh climatic conditions, making it an ideal crop in the changing climate. There is also increased awareness and education on its nutritional and overall health benefits, and the availability of improved recipes. However, the presence of hazards can hinder the commercialisation of amaranth, which is in most cases traded informally. Food safety issues along the amaranth value chain should, therefore, be addressed to cope with both production and safety demands. The objective of this study, therefore, was to develop a Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point (HACCP) plan for hazards in the amaranth value chain in Uganda. The seven principles outlined by Codex Alimentarius were followed to develop the HACCP plan. A tree diagram was further used to identify each potential hazard at each processing stage and Critical Control Points (CCPs) along the chain. For the CCPs identified, reliable control mechanisms and corrective actions were established to fulfil the requirements set by the critical limits to guarantee the safety of the products. Verification and records systems were proposed to determine the effectiveness and traceability of the HACCP plan. For each of the identified CCPs, samples were collected purposively and analysed for chemical and microbial contaminants. From the analysis, fifteen processing stages, starting from the land section to cooking and serving, were identified. Out of these, eight stages were defined as CCPs. These were site selection, land and seedbed preparation, irrigation, market display/humidity control, washing before preparation, chopping, cooking, and holding time and serving. At CCP 1, soils were contaminated with lead and cadmium, mercury and aflatoxins but at considerably low levels. At CCP 2, organic fertilisers were only contaminated with E. coli. At CCP3, E. coli was present in irrigation water. Heavy metals were also present in the irrigation water but were below the critical limits. At CCP4, E. coli was absent in water and display surfaces. E. coli was, however, present on raw amaranth. S. aureus was detected on vendors' hands. At CCP5, water was not contaminated with E. coli. At CCP6, only personnel hands were infected with S. aureus and Enterobacteriaceae. No contamination was detected in CCP7 and CCP8. Strict control of E. coli in manure and water and S. aureus and Enterobacteriaceae on personnel hands is required to ensure the amaranth value chain attains good food safety output."}