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data/part_1/001e20256410d0f578ef64da76af53cd.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"001e20256410d0f578ef64da76af53cd","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/f55b80f8-ee7f-46a0-b1fd-135a2aa6b68e/retrieve"},"pageCount":1,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":65,"text":"• Agrifood systems (AFS) play an important role in reducing poverty and food insecurity. In 2019, an estimated 1.23 billion people worked in AFS globally (Davis et al., 2023) • AFS are a far greater source of livelihood in low-income countries, where 73 percent of working men and women are employed in AFS, compared with 53 percent of working men and women in lower-middle-income countries."},{"index":2,"size":39,"text":"• Women engage in all segments of AFS -as farmers, entrepreneurs, wage employees as well as unpaid contributing family workers (Christiaensen et al., 2021), however, robust estimates of the number of women in different segments of AFS are missing."},{"index":3,"size":16,"text":"• This study provides the first documented global estimates of employment in AFS disaggregated by sex."}]},{"head":"Definition of AFS","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":36,"text":"• AFS refers to activities related to the production, processing, distribution, sale, and consumption of products originating from agriculture, forestry, fishery. We consider employment all activities regardless of whether they are performed for pay or profit."},{"index":2,"size":68,"text":"• At the ISIC 2-digit level, we can identify AFS by the following ISIC codes and divisions shown below. ). The modelled estimates, however, are only disaggregated by broad sectors (e.g., agriculture and total employment). To address this issue, we use the ILO modelled estimates to measure employment in agriculture and total employment and develop an econometric model to impute the missing non-agricultural AFS employment as described below."}]},{"head":"Categories","index":3,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Methods","index":4,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Results","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":48,"text":"• Globally, 38 percent of AFS workers were women in 2019. While globally a larger number of men than women are employed in AFS, women constitute over 50 percent of all AFS workers in sub-Saharan Africa and over 40 percent of all agrifood-system workers in several other regions"},{"index":2,"size":56,"text":"• Women comprised 38 percent of all agricultural workers in 2019. On average, in SSA women made up 47 percent of agricultural workers, while only 13 percent of agricultural workers in Northern Africa were women. The share of women among agricultural workers is also rather low in LAC --only 22 percent of agricultural workers are women."},{"index":3,"size":28,"text":"• In off-farm AFS, women represent 41 percent of workers, ranging from 60% in Sub-Saharan Africa to 23 and 13 percent in Eastern Asia and Northern Africa, respectively"},{"index":4,"size":26,"text":"• Consistent with a process of structural transformation, countries with a higher GDP per capita have a smaller share of their workforce in AFS (Panel A)."},{"index":5,"size":30,"text":"• Panels B and C show that even within AFS, as countries develop people move out of agriculture and into off-farm activities such as processing, transport, trade, storage, and marketing."},{"index":6,"size":28,"text":"• At any level of development, a larger share of men's employment than women's employment is in agriculture (Panel B); the opposite holds for off-farm AFS (Panel C)."},{"index":7,"size":46,"text":"• A larger share of working women than men globally in both agriculture and off-farm agrifood systems are in vulnerable forms of self-employment, which include own-account and contributing family workers. • Vulnerable employment is significantly more common in agriculture than in the non-agriculture segment of AFS"},{"index":8,"size":23,"text":"• In agriculture, 86 percent of female workers compared to 76 percent of male workers in are engaged in vulnerable forms of employment"}]}],"figures":[{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "}],"sieverID":"8442905c-777f-441f-a04f-27953f7c658a","abstract":"In 2019, 36 percent of working women and 38 percent of working men were employed in agrifood systems.• This reflects an overall decrease of 8 and 9 percentage points since 2005 for women and men, respectively.• This decrease was primarily driven by a reduction in agricultural employment, whereas the share off-farm agrifood-system employment has remained relatively constant since 2005."}

data/part_1/007dabeffc8d36c2429ad7aa3e3f0660.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"007dabeffc8d36c2429ad7aa3e3f0660","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/592fb8f1-c052-4cc7-9415-a81034067633/retrieve"},"pageCount":9,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":12,"text":"provide capacity development activities engage on learning related to value chain development"},{"index":2,"size":26,"text":"• Network of members: Develop a network of members from different CGIAR centers and partner organizations that will be trained on all tools and other methods"},{"index":3,"size":15,"text":"• Other: to be discussed during this workshop 1. Regional focus: Eastern and Southern Africa "}]},{"head":"Simple value chain map","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":30,"text":"A value chain is the set of actors, transactions, information flows, and institutions that enable value to be delivered to the customer generic livestock commodity VC Generic livestock commodity VC"}]}],"figures":[{"text":"2. Type: physical hub with location at ILRI-Addis 1. Develop a generic concept note o tailor proposal -Eastern and Southern Africa 2. Share concept note with a 'long' list partners and network 4. Organize planning workshop -Addis o Invite partners (indicating interest) o Need assessment within thematic focus areas -gauge demand o Prioritize focus areas (based on demand assessment & region) VC Hub Eastern and Southern Africa Understand the context in which the system operates Understand how the different business links function together as a system Identify and assess the relationship, leverage points, capacities and resources of partners including support services and stakeholders "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"methodologies and tools for value chain analysis, principally  Proposed structure Proposed structure by supporting others' field work, analysis and communication, and providing testing and feedback functions by supporting others' field work, analysis and communication, and providing testing and feedback functions • Develop innovative methodologies and tools for value chain analysis in line with identified gaps and demand from partners. • Develop innovative methodologies and tools for value chain analysis in line with identified gaps and demand from partners. forms of forms of farmer aggregation and market linkage approaches and their farmer aggregation and market linkage approaches and their impact impact • Inter-business relations: assess outcomes from diverse forms of • Inter-business relations: assess outcomes from diverse forms of market linkages (across various commodities, markets and policy market linkages (across various commodities, markets and policy environments) environments)  "}],"sieverID":"b4fdd8f1-9926-4b45-b5aa-bf387b37ff26","abstract":""}

data/part_1/00baf140f95a48607a197c35ef8a6cc4.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"00baf140f95a48607a197c35ef8a6cc4","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://digitalarchive.worldfishcenter.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.12348/873/WF-2013-40.pdf"},"pageCount":12,"title":"Decision support for water management for integrating aquaculture in small-scale irrigation systems: A case for the Chingale catchment in Malawi Authors","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":172,"text":"The Chinyanja Triangle is a trans-boundary, landlocked region that straddles Southern and Central Malawi, Tete Province of Mozambique and Eastern Province of Zambia (Figure 1). It forms part of the Zambia-Malawi-Mozambique Growth Triangle, which is a spatial development initiative that aims at developing agricultural, fisheries and industrial initiatives to improve the economies of the three countries. The region is populous, particularly in Malawi (155 and 180 persons/km 2 in the Central and Southern Regions, compared with 19 and 11 persons/km 2 in the Eastern Province of Zambia and Tete Province of Mozambique respectively), and is ethnically dominated by Chinyanja or Chichewa speaking communities with strong social ties across country boundaries. Semi-subsistence agriculture is the main means of livelihood; 80 percent of farming households are smallholders, and 60 percent are below the poverty line. The region has generally fertile soils and a sub-tropical climate with annual rainfall ranging from 700 mm to more than 2000 mm. The rainfall is, however, highly erratic causing frequent crop failures, particularly with the predominance of rainfed agriculture."},{"index":2,"size":69,"text":"The potential for multiple water and land use systems has already been demonstrated to increase incomes amongst poor farmers in this region. Yet lack of investment, evidence-based knowledge and institutional arrangements hamper the efforts for sustainable and equitable development of land water resources. This is further threatened by the impacts of climate change which are projected to bring about uncertainties in seasonal and inter-annual rainfall distribution and water supplies. "}]},{"head":"About the Project","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":178,"text":"A three-year project 1 was funded by the BMZ/GIZ to examine the benefits of integrating aquaculture and small scale irrigation by identifying improved water allocation and management strategies under current and future climate change scenarios. An integrated modeling approach was adopted to analyze the complex issues involved in the decision processes (Figure 2). A water budgeting approach was used in estimating and balancing the water resources available to farming communities (the supply aspect) and the water demand for agricultural use, including crops and fish farming, within a catchment. Adjustments in water allocation and management across and within sub-catchments may then be explored at and beyond the farm level to achieve improved productivity from the integrated farming system while maintaining sustainability and equity in development. The model platform builds on the hydrological model SWAT (Soil Water Assessment Tool) and links to crop productivity model AquaCrop and a fish pond water demand model. Water budgeting of fish ponds and storages are built into the water balance process to enable these management options and to assess the impacts of such options."},{"index":2,"size":74,"text":"SWAT was used to estimate sub-catchment water yields for current and future weather conditions. Future climate data were generated by downscaling the ECHAM5 Global Climate Model (GCM) to regional scale, which was then bias corrected against local weather data. Crop water requirements and crop yields were estimated using the AquaCrop model. Likewise, the fish pond model was developed to simulate water depth regulation, including release of water for supplemental irrigation, and estimate fish yields."},{"index":3,"size":9,"text":"Running these models required a variety of input data."},{"index":4,"size":56,"text":"A multi-disciplinary team conducted field surveys at three pilot sites -Chingale in the Southern Region of Malawi, Mthumba in Eastern Zambia and Angonia in Tete Province of Mozambique (Figure 1) -to document the farming systems and socio-economic situation of farming communities and their use and access to water resources, supplemented with GIS mapping of land-cover/land-use patterns."},{"index":5,"size":95,"text":"Field monitoring of weather parameters and stream discharges, fish pond water balance and crop yields was complemented with historical records for model calibration and validation. Consultation sessions were conducted with farmers to elicit their responses regarding farming practices such as selecting crop types, adjusting crop calendars, and conjunctive use of pond water for fish and crops under conditions they identified as good, normal and bad years in terms of water availability for farming. These farmer decision rules were then fed into the model development process as likely management options that affect water demand and availability."},{"index":6,"size":51,"text":"To have the various models work together to address practical questions about water use and management, the platform, together with its individual model components, was packaged in a decision support toolkit called the Catchment Water Allocation Tool, or CaWAT. This toolkit (Figure 3), which is Excel-based, has the following main features:"},{"index":7,"size":142,"text":"1. It computes the water balance between supply and demand at the sub-catchment level. Water supply is the result of the sub-catchment's water yields (estimated by the SWAT) plus amounts of water stored within the sub-catchment and transferred into or out of the sub-catchment (arising from deliberate water management practices). Water demand is summed from water requirements of estimated areas of various crops grown and fish ponds operated within each sub-catchment. 2. It allows for user inputs relating to decisions on water allocation and management at the catchment level (including storing water within and transferring water across sub-catchments) as well as farm-level management of cropping patterns and water-saving farm practices that affect water demand within each sub-catchment. 3. It presents users with an interface for decision making and allows users to view impacts of such decisions on water balance and production outputs."},{"index":8,"size":59,"text":"The above features enable CaWAT to be used for decision support whereby the user can explore specific options of water management and infer from the simulated results the implications on water resources adequacy for the catchment. The outputs of CaWAT, indicated in the cyan boxes in Figure 3, can be viewed in the form of tables, graphs and maps."},{"index":9,"size":11,"text":"Taking river flow measurements Active women participation in farmer consultation sessions "}]},{"head":"Case application: the Chingale catchment in southern Malawi","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":303,"text":"One of the project study sites is a small catchment in Zomba district of the Southern Region of Malawi. The area is locally referred to as Chingale. The target catchment of 260 km 2 is drained by the Lisanjala river which originates from the hills of the Malosa Forest Reserve at the catchment's eastern edge (Figure 4). The Chingale catchment is divided into 20 sub-catchments (SC, and numbered in Figure 4) that are used as the basic hydrological units to assess on-farm management practices as well as upstream-downstream effects of such practices. High resolution satellite images were used to map the land use of the catchment as well as streams, house roofs, storages, and other infrastructure. About two-thirds of the catchment is under agricultural use for cropping and livestock grazing. In 2010-11 an estimated 9,435 households farmed on 13,000 ha of cropland, of which 10 percent are irrigated, forming an irrigation belt running down the central part of the catchment (Figure 4). The most common water withdrawal method employed in Chingale is by abstraction and diversion of river water through canals and locally constructed aqueducts by gravity flow. Irrigation in the dimbas (cultivation in the low-lying depressions called dambos) uses groundwater lifted by pumping from wells dug into the shallow water table. Fish pond culture is increasingly popular in Chingale; 740 ponds were detected in the catchment from high-resolution satellite imagery, with a total surface area of 16 ha (Figure 4). 1. Are there, and will there be sufficient water resources within the catchment to support current and future agricultural needs and development? 2. What water management and allocation strategies are appropriate for equitable and sustained use of the water resources given the prevailing pattern of agricultural use? 3. What is the potential role of fish ponds in increasing water productivity of farms?"},{"index":2,"size":12,"text":"We illustrate here the use of CaWAT to answer the above questions."}]},{"head":"River diversion and conveyancing","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":257,"text":"Assessing water availability for the Chingale catchment A set of scenarios were set up in CaWAT to assess current and future water availability situations. Wet, normal and dry years were identified for current baseline situation , near future (2020-2050) and distant future (2051-2080). The scenario for a normal year (1996-97) within the baseline period is used to show the outputs in this demonstration of the Chingale catchment analysis. Table 1, which summarizes the number of weeks in each month that a sub-catchment faces water deficit, shows that sub-catchments 1-7 in the northern part of the Chingale catchment (Figure 4) generally face water deficit during the dry season. The month of August is when the most number of sub-catchments face water deficit. Comparison with the near-future normal-year scenario (Table 2) suggests that more sub-catchments are likely to face water deficits given projected future climate conditions. The use of CaWAT is further demonstrated here in exploring options for allocating and managing water within the Chingale catchment using the baseline, normal-year scenario. The mapped results for the four weeks of August (Figure 6) show that the sub-catchments in the northern part consistently face water deficits throughout the month, particularly SC6 and SC7 which experience the highest water deficits throughout the dry season. SC6 has the Mdele irrigation scheme that taps water from the Chagwa river and supports three villages. SC15 and SC22 further south, which also face prolonged water deficit, are short and have low water yields, not having the benefit of forest cover in their upper watersheds (Figure 4)."},{"index":2,"size":89,"text":"Exploring options for transferring water across sub-catchments A common practice in the Chingale catchment is diverting river water and transferring water across neighboring sub-catchments. However during the dry season, options for transferring water into the deficit sub-catchments are limited if surrounding sub-catchments are also in deficit. For example it can be seen from Figure 6 that SC7 and SC6 can only receive water from SC9, but the surpluses of SC9 are not sufficient to meet the deficits of its two neighbors for the entire duration of the dry season."},{"index":3,"size":103,"text":"Exploring options for storing water within sub-catchments and its uses The weekly water balance, graphed in Figure 7, shows healthy surpluses for SC 7 during the rainy season compared with SC6, hence raising the possibility of storing this surplus water within the sub-catchment for use during the dry season. This option was explored using CaWAT, and the results show that providing storage equivalent to 5 ha surface area to a depth of 3 m within SC7 would relieve the deficit in June and 2 weeks in July but not for the entire dry season. -10 -0 < -10 0 -100 100 -200 >200"},{"index":4,"size":64,"text":"A simulation done in CaWAT suggests that increasing the area under irrigated maize in SC 9 by 50 ha from the current area of 75 ha and increasing fish pond area by 1 ha would gainfully use this surplus water. Table 3 shows the gains in production of maize and fish, and their corresponding values, arising from the increased use of the stored water."},{"index":5,"size":31,"text":"As illustrated above, use of small storages such as fish ponds and tanks can greatly improve water availability during dry spells, which helps to improve overall productivity from crops and fish."},{"index":6,"size":96,"text":"There are however cautions to be noted. Significant amount of water is lost to the storages through evaporation, seepage and percolation. For a small pond of 100 m 2 in surface area and 1.6 meter in depth, the observed annual losses amount to 2590 mm, amounting to 173% of its storage capacity. Extensive use of small storages also poses issues for downstream users, which could potentially cause conflicts when the streams run dry. CaWAT is able to estimate the potential of such storages while providing guidance on overall planning of water resources management at catchment level."},{"index":7,"size":143,"text":"Instead, providing the same storage capacity in SC9 would result in ample wet-season storage for transferring water to its surrounding deficit sub-catchments. Figure 8 shows the improved water balance situation for week 34 (compared with the water balance map for the same week in Figure 6) after transferring water from SC9 to SC7 and SC6, and also from SC18 to SC15. Therefore provision for storage should target appropriate sub-catchments that can have adequate water accumulation for use during the dry season. The simulations using CaWAT can help identify such target sub-catchments. Even after transfers to its neigboring sub-catchments, there is still ample surplus remaining in SC9 that would be available for increased water use for food production over the dry season. Table 3. Maize and fish production volumes and values in SC9, before and after addition of irrigated maize and fish pond areas."},{"index":8,"size":7,"text":"Use of fish pond water for irrigation"}]},{"head":"Conclusions","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":188,"text":"A similar demonstration as the above was conducted for stakeholders from the three countries of the Chinyanja Triangle, representing relevant government agencies, NGOs, academia and donor agencies. It generated discussions about the implications on water resources management in the Chingale catchment, summarized below. 1. Given the current low level of agricultural development, the water resources in the area are generally abundant but distribution in space and time is uneven. Erratic rainfall, along with other low inputs, hampers stable food production to sustain food security given the predominant rainfed subsistence farming system. 2. There is clearly need for a better coordinated water resources management and water infrastructure development to cope with climate variability. However institutional support and organizational arrangements are lacking and investment is scarce. Smart solutions are needed to tackle the lack of investment and human capacity. 3. Transferring water across sub-catchments to address deficits during the dry season is itself not a viable solution. This is presently already evident from accounts of farmers interviewed by the project. The situation will likely worsen under future climate conditions when water availability is expected to worsen, particularly in dry years."},{"index":2,"size":165,"text":"4. Harvesting and storing surplus water during the rainy season within targeted sub-catchments can complement and feasibly augment transfer volumes to neighboring deficit sub-catchments during the dry season. Assessment of the water resources, as conducted by the project, provides a basis for selecting appropriate sub-catchments for implementing storage. Using CaWAT allows exploring of options for the use of the stored water. 5. Small storages development is most feasible given the distributed nature of the surface water resources. Distributed storage is also locally-based and can be a start-up for local communities, particularly the women, to take ownership in managing their water resources. It provides flexibility to accommodate multiple uses and support integrated farming of crops, livestock and fish for increasing food security and nutrient intake, and diversifying sources of farm income. 6. By providing supplemental water supply to crops during the dry season fish ponds enhance total farm productivity, which contributes to overall crop and fish production and value, for nominal demand imposed on the sub-catchment."},{"index":3,"size":8,"text":"Multiple water sources and storages for multiple uses"}]},{"head":"Looking forward","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":92,"text":"The Chingale example shows how simulations carried out using CaWAT can help identify appropriate water management options and strategically target sub-catchments for different user-defined interventions at the catchment and farm levels. There was considerable interest among stakeholders for applying CaWAT as a decision support toolkit to other catchments that face issues of water management for multiple uses including agriculture and aquaculture, under present and future climate conditions. Next steps identified include the following: a. Raising awareness about CaWAT and liaising with existing initiatives within the region that pertain to water resources management;"},{"index":2,"size":68,"text":"A gendered recognition of multiple water users and stakeholders b. Capacity building of a motivated team among local institutions with the requisite diversity of skills and disciplinary knowledge for continued use and adaptation of the toolkit for application in other catchments; c. Refining the toolkit to take account of various other socio-economic, institutional and location-specific bio-physical conditions as well as meeting the requirements of communities and policy makers."},{"index":3,"size":40,"text":"This project brief is a starting point in raising awareness about the development and use of CaWAT as a multi-model decision support toolkit that will be made available in the public domain and can be further developed for wider usage."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure 1 . Figure 1. Study sites in the Chinyanja Triangle "},{"text":"Figure 2 . Figure 2. Framework for water resources assessment _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________ 1 Coordinated by WorldFish in partnership with IWMI, the University of Osnabrueck, government agencies and World Vision in Malawi, Mozambique and Zambia. "},{"text":"Figure 4 .Figure 3 . Figure 4. Sub-catchment boundaries, rivers and land use of the Chingale catchment in Southern Malawi "},{"text":"FieldFigure 5 . Figure 5. Baseline and projected annual rainfall for Chingale station "},{"text":"Figure 7 .Figure 6 . Figure 7. Weekly water balance for sub-catchments 6 and 7 for a normal year (1996-97) within the baseline period (1982-2010) "},{"text":"Figure 8 .- Figure 8. Weekly water balance ('000 m 3 ) for week 34 in August for a normal year (1996-97) within the baseline period (1982-2010), after creating storage in SC9 and transferring water from SC9 to SC7 and SC6, and from SC8 to SC15 "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"Table 1 . Number  "}],"sieverID":"76663e84-0a4e-4e43-9222-a7f336d4259a","abstract":"This publication was written as part of the project \"Enhancing adaptive capacity to climate change impacts through well-managed water use for aquaculture integrated with small-scale irrigation in the Chinyanja Triangle in Africa\" with the financial support of the Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development, Germany. The project was coordinated by WorldFish and implemented in partnership with the International Water Management Institute and the University of Osnabrueck, with participation of national institutions including the"}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"00e85f544ab4bebb3b6d7823430836e1","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/f2a6b877-409a-4709-93d7-af6fd04443d8/retrieve"},"pageCount":2,"title":"For more information on the study contact","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":73,"text":"Cocoa is a staple of West African exports and agricultural production. The rural economy depends on cocoa income, and growing demand for sustainable and quality segment cocoa present market opportunities. However, long-term plans for greater resilience must be enacted to maintain the quality and improve the productivity of production in the face of climate change. In Ghana and Côte d'Ivoire alone about 1.5bn worth of cocoa could be lost without climate change adaptation."},{"index":2,"size":86,"text":"Climate Smart Cocoa (CSC) is not only about avoiding future losses but also about mitigating greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and improving the livelihoods of farmers by increasing the productivity and resilience of their farms. Cocoa farms in West Africa are vulnerable to an array of climate-related risks: Droughts, storms, torrential and irregular rainfall. Climate change is projected to increase the occurrence of such extreme events, as well as induce more gradual changes to cocoa farming suitability via higher average temperatures and a higher seasonality of rainfall."},{"index":3,"size":108,"text":"To support efficient adaptation at scale, we developed briefs of climate change impacts on cocoa production in West Africa, which contain cocoa specific climate analysis and climate smart solutions that can increase resilience at scale. Our gradient of climate change impacts shows the most likely degree of necessary adaptation effort across several potential future climate developments and the resulting recommendation domains should be used to scale out interventions. Our method used an AI classification model to evaluate the degree of climate change impacts in West Africa by comparing future (2040-69) to present  bioclimatic suitability for cocoa. We considered 19 climate projections from GCMs in a moderate emissions scenario."},{"index":4,"size":65,"text":"The gradient showed that most cocoa regions in West Africa will remain suitable, but have a high adaptation need. Substantial effort to adapt the production system, including its institutional support will be required. Only few areas will become suitable for cocoa in the future. Areas in lower slopes in Coastal regions may require a transformation to other crops because the climate becomes unsuitable for cocoa."},{"index":5,"size":80,"text":"Regions with low long term climate impact can be found on the central cocoa regions in Cote d'Ivoire and Ghana. The regions that will experience intermediate impacts, but can remain suitable with systemic adaptation efforts can be found in towards the traditional cocoa areas like Ashanti or Haut Sassendra. In areas closer to the Savannah adaptation needs are comprehensive and alternative crops may become more attractive. Some parts in Cameroon may become more attractive for cocoa cultivation in the future."}]},{"head":"Four degrees of adaptation effort","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":51,"text":"For each climate scenario, we distinguished four impact zones: Cocoa production can either be sustained under low or high adaptation effort (incremental or systemic adaptation) or will become unprofitable such that should be substituted or radically transformed (transformation). In previously unsuitable regions (opportunity) cocoa may become a new option for farmers."},{"index":2,"size":26,"text":"We developed country briefs that contain detailed discussions of CSC for West Africa. Creating a favorable enabling environment is therefore paramount to mainstream resilient cocoa production."},{"index":3,"size":27,"text":"We consulted local stakeholders to elicit their opinion what public and private actors should do to reach all households and achieve sustainable cocoa regions in West Africa."},{"index":4,"size":52,"text":"With increasing degree of climate impact the complexity of adaptation increases. Farm level practice focused adaptation is limited to management decisions, and for more comprehensive adaptation, crucial inputs and information need to be provided by stakeholders beyond farm. Farmers often face prohibitive barriers to adopt some of the more effective CSC options."},{"index":5,"size":41,"text":"Strategy changes, such as a shift to alternative tree crops, e.g. fruit or wood production, or the usage of climate resilient varieties need to be facilitated by developing alternative value chains, provision of compatible and site-specific germplasm, and initial financial support."},{"index":6,"size":70,"text":"In many cases, this means that an enabling environment needs to be created by public and private stakeholders through policies, institutional arrangements, stakeholder platforms, and gender considerations, infrastructure, credit, insurance schemes, as well as access to weather information and advisory services. Oftentimes experts demand efficiency gains from more efficient guidance of farm management according to seasonal and weather forecast, but such services can't be developed by single individuals or organizations."},{"index":7,"size":73,"text":"We developed a list of climate smart practices that have the potential to confront projected climatic change and improve the resilience at farm level. Because many solutions have a long lead time, the challenge is to use currently available means and prioritize them to take into account evolving climate change. The following set of practices was developed through participatory workshops in Ghana and Cote d'Ivoire and validated through a review of scientific literature."},{"index":8,"size":44,"text":"The table lists the practices that were prioritized and evaluated by regional experts. The list is divided by the degree of impact. It should be understood as a portfolio of desirable practices from which the producer chooses what is best suited to its household."},{"index":9,"size":15,"text":"Additional information about the practices can be found in the country studies or at https://climatesmartcocoa.guide/."}]}],"figures":[{"text":" Follow these links: Cocoa in Cote d'Ivoire https://hdl.handle.net/10568/103790 Cocoa in Ghana https://hdl.handle.net/10568/103770 Cocoa in Liberia https://hdl.handle.net/10568/68881 For more information on the study contact: Dr. Christian Bunn ([email protected]) https://climatesmartcocoa.guide/ Most areas in West Africa have a high adaptation need to maintain a resilient cocoa production. Millions of low-income households in West Africa produce cocoa on small plots (<3ha). Their capacity to adopt novel practices is very limited, and consequently the potential of training activities to promote CSC practices. "}],"sieverID":"3e6d8bfb-dda8-43ef-829e-da1fa28ec17a","abstract":""}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"017b387e95668c12fa5afdd58ba986ad","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/7a743e99-50b1-4c29-9687-fbb90e35abf6/retrieve"},"pageCount":2,"title":"Study #3490 Contributing Projects:<Not Defined>","keywords":["OICR: Outcome Impact Case Report Too early to say Description of activity / study: <Not Defined> Geographic scope:","National Country(ies):","Bangladesh Comments: <Not Defined> Contributing CRPs/Platforms:","BigData -Platform for Big Data in Agriculture","CCAFS -Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security","Wheat -Wheat"],"chapters":[],"figures":[],"sieverID":"e7b2ce82-6a2c-4fea-a67f-23c56858d8e5","abstract":""}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"029b461d76a09001191428c80078b99f","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/4459112f-04ee-429f-bb7b-3dd92990672f/retrieve"},"pageCount":6,"title":"Evaluation of some stylosanthes accessions for subhumid conditions of Nigeria","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":42,"text":"During the dry season in the subhumid zone of West Africa, the crude protein level of the largely grass pasture drops below 3% between October and April. This poor quality feed cannot meet animal needs and cattle lose weight and become anoestrous."},{"index":2,"size":133,"text":"When the ILCA Subhumid Zone Programme commenced its research into ways of alleviating the dry-season feed quality problem, three Stylosanthes cultivars were recommended by the National Animal Production Research Institute (NAPRI), Shika, northern Nigeria. They were: Stylosanthes guianensis cv Cook, S. guianensis cv Schofield and S. hamata cv Verano. These cultivars had been selected from many, mainly Australian, varieties through years of screening at NAPRI (Agishi, pers. comm.). However, when these cultivars were grown by ILCA under subhumid conditions, characterised by a longer growing period and higher rainfall than at Shika, S. guianensis cv Schofield succumbed to serious attacks of anthracnose caused by Colletotrichum gloeosporoides. This fungal disease also occasionally affected S. guianensis cv Cook which is still being used in trials. S. hamata cv Verano has so far proved resistant to anthracnose."},{"index":3,"size":117,"text":"Trials have indicated that S. guianensis cv Cook and S. hamata cv Verano can be used either by incorporating them into cereal crop mixtures or in the concentrated legume pastures used as fodder banks. However, given the threat posed by anthracnose, there is a danger in encouraging their wide adoption by pastoralists unless other legumes are identified as safe replacements for the two cultivars. With this objective a number of promising Stylosanthes entries within the species S. capitata, S. guianensis \"tardio\" and S. macrocephala were acquired from the Centro International de Agricultura Tropical (CIAT), Columbia. This report summarises 2 years of measurements and observation made on these accessions at the research sites of ILCA's Subhumid Zone Programme."}]},{"head":"Material and methods","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":141,"text":"Two-gram seed samples of the 17 Stylosanthes entries, scarified by immersion in concentrated H 2 S0 4 and treated with a Difolatan and Malathion mixture, were received from the Tropical Pastures Programme of CIAT in June 1982. One hundred seeds of each entry were sown on 19 June 1982 in trays filled with surface soil. None of these seeds were inoculated. After 4 weeks, 30 seedlings of each entry were transplanted into 1 x 1 m plots replicated three times. The soil of the experimental area is of the ferruginous type, with a sandy surface underlain by a weakly developed clay and a mottled and concretionary subsoil. The plots were fertilized with single superphosphate at the rate of 200 kg/ha in the first year, followed by a dressing of 100 kg in the second year. The plots were weeded by hand."},{"index":2,"size":68,"text":"In the first year observations were made only on the incidence of disease symptoms and date of flowering. In the second year the plots were uniformly cut at a height of 6 cm above ground in the last week of April. Regeneration of the various entries occurred from cut stems and also from free seeds except in the case of S. guianensis \"tardio\" which does not produce seeds."},{"index":3,"size":60,"text":"Observations on flowering and anthracnose were made during the growing season, and the dry matter available at the season's end (November) was determined by sampling one 0.25 m 2 quadrat from each replicate. Leaf retention during the dry season was scored visually and seeds were collected at the appropriate time by sampling another 0.25 m 2 quadrat from each plot."},{"index":4,"size":120,"text":"In November 1983, topsoil (0-15 cm) from each plot was sampled by removing five 6 cm cores. Composite samples were prepared and analysed for organic matter and total nitrogen. Five kilograms of the composited soil under each entry was split into five 1 kg lots and 10 seedlings of maize were grown in each of these for 6 weeks. The total dry weight of the seedlings was determined after washing the plants free of sand under slow-running water and drying at 60°C. The dried seedlings, and more mature samples collected in December, were ground and analysed for total N. The soil and plant analyses were done at the Service Laboratory of the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA), Ibadan, Nigeria."}]},{"head":"Results and discussion","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":67,"text":"Inter-and intra-specific differences in dry matter and quality of legumes at the end of the growing season are given in Table 1. All three \"tardio\" entries yielded more than 7 t/ha and had a high crude protein content (CP). Stylosanthes capitata 1019 and 1315 were comparable to the \"tardio\" entries in quality at the time of sampling. All the S. macrocephala entries had less than 5% CP."},{"index":2,"size":258,"text":"Low quality during the dry season may be a function of the percentage leaf retention. S. macrocephala dropped all leaves in the dry season while the \"tardio\" entries retained most of them. There was little evidence of anthracnose in most of the entries except S. capitata 1693 and 1405 where lesions were moderately prevalent (Table 1). Soil analysis and bioassay carried out on soil samples taken from under each Stylosanthes entry showed that maize growth was directly correlated with soil N (Table 2 and Figure 1). However, the proportion of N utilised by the maize from each soil sample did not vary much and ranged between 4 and 5% of the total N. Dry matter accumulation in maize grown in soils collected under the various legumes was significantly higher than in maize grown in soils that were dominated by natural grasses. Differences in both organic C and N contents between the `legume' and `no-legume' soils may explain the variability in maize growth.  The results suggest that there are entries within each species that benefit subsequent crops (Table 2). For example, soil under entries 1019 and 1342 of S. capitata, 1523 of \"tardio\", and 2039 and 1582 of S. macrocephala ranked high in both C and N. The potential value of this has been demonstrated by experiments conducted at Kurmin Biri, one of the ILCA Subhumid Zone Programme's case study areas, where significantly higher maize yields were achieved on soils where S. guianensis cv Cook has been grown for 2 years and S. hamata cv Verano for 3 years."},{"index":3,"size":78,"text":"Hence the potential contribution to soil fertility may become an important selection criterion for legumes in those agropastoral systems where the practice of bush fallowing to restore soil fertility is shortened due to increasing crop production, or where farmers lease land to pastoralists for fodder production. Bioassays are a useful and rapid technique for estimating relative N accruals in soils under legumes, especially when large numbers of accessions are handled in field programmes where laboratory facilities are minimal."},{"index":4,"size":72,"text":"For a forage legume to be successful in the agropastoral production systems of the subhumid zone of Nigeria, it needs a number of attributes, including drought tolerance, high productivity, good quality, ability to transfer N to soil and to regenerate after grazing or burning. It is extremely difficult to identify a plant which combines all these, and a balance of desirable traits to suit each particular environment will need to be selected."},{"index":5,"size":108,"text":"Both S. guianensis \"tardio\" and S. macrocephala have disadvantages. Although they flowered, the S. guianensis accessions did not set seed in either year. This is a severe handicap in pastoral areas where overgrazing and accidental fire can impede vegetative regeneration. S. macrocephala is of low value during the dry season because of its low leaf retention. S. capitata offers more encouragement. Entries 1019, 1342,1693 and 1315 have a good balance of characteristics, including disease resistance, feed quality, drought tolerance, good dry matter and seed production, persistence and N transfer to the soil. They have therefore been selected for further trials and fresh accessions are continuing to be evaluated."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure 1 . Figure 1. Relationship between total N in soil and N uptake by maize. "},{"text":"Table 1 . Relative performance of Stylosanthes accessions in the subhumid zone of Nigeria. Species CIAT acc. no. Anthrac-nose rating a Dry-season leaf retention index b Date of flowering Total DM available (kg/ha) CP in Dec. (% DM) Seed yield (kg/ha) SpeciesCIAT acc. no.Anthrac-nose rating aDry-season leaf retention index bDate of floweringTotal DM available (kg/ha)CP in Dec. (% DM)Seed yield (kg/ha) S. capitata 1019 1 3.0 Oct. 4175 9.81 40 S. capitata101913.0Oct.41759.8140  1342 1 3.5 Oct. 3748 5.79 131 134213.5Oct.37485.79131  1405 3 2.5 Aug. 3712 6.17 49 140532.5Aug.37126.1749  1693 3 3.0 Aug. 3450 5.68 182 169333.0Aug.34505.68182  1315 1 2.5 Oct. 3444 8.76 157 131512.5Oct.34448.76157  2044 1 2.5 Oct. 3432 4.38 80 204412.5Oct.34324.3880  1097 1 2.0 Aug. 3315 5.82 84 109712.0Aug.33155.8284  1728 1 5 Oct. 3240 4.15 61 172815Oct.32404.1561  1318 1 2.5 Oct. 2730 5.56 157 131812.5Oct.27305.56157  1441 1 2.5 Oct. 2505 4.19 34 144112.5Oct.25054.1934 S. guianensis \"tardio\" 1283 1 5.0 Nov./Dec. 7612 8.44 - S. guianensis \"tardio\"128315.0Nov./Dec.76128.44-  1280 1 5.0 Nov./Dec. 7583 8.98 - 128015.0Nov./Dec.75838.98-  1523  5.0 Nov./Dec. 7066 11.78 - 15235.0Nov./Dec.706611.78- S.macrocephala 2039 2 1.0 Jul./Aug. 4894 4.74 115 S.macrocephala203921.0Jul./Aug.48944.74115  1582 2 1.0 Jul./Aug. 3800 4.88 175 158221.0Jul./Aug.38004.88175  2133 2 1.0 Jul./Aug. 3669 4.59 96 213321.0Jul./Aug.36694.5996  1643 2 1.0 Jul./Aug. 3269 4.79 77 164321.0Jul./Aug.32694.7977 Mean  1.47 2.67  4212 6.38 103 Mean1.472.6742126.38103 S.D  0.72 34  1620 2.29 51 S.D0.723416202.2951 a Anthracnose rating: 5 = lesions in plants very prevalent with leaf drop; 3 = lesions moderately  a Anthracnose rating: 5 = lesions in plants very prevalent with leaf drop; 3 = lesions moderately prevalent with no leaf drop;1= no apparent lesions.     prevalent with no leaf drop;1= no apparent lesions. b Leaf retention index: 5 = no leaf drop; 4 = 25% leaf drop; 3 = 50% leaf drop; 2 = 75% leaf drop;  b Leaf retention index: 5 = no leaf drop; 4 = 25% leaf drop; 3 = 50% leaf drop; 2 = 75% leaf drop; 1 = all leaves dropped.        1 = all leaves dropped.  "},{"text":"Table 2 . Properties of soil under legumes and bioassay of N uptake by maize.   Soil    Bioassay  SoilBioassay Species CIAT acc. no. % C % N Total N (µg/cup) Dry weight (g) % N Total N (µg) SpeciesCIAT acc. no.% C% NTotal N (µg/cup)Dry weight (g)% NTotal N (µg) S. capitata 1019 1.22 0.111 1110 6.77 0.839 58.4 S. capitata10191.220.11111106.770.83958.4  1342 1.27 0.102 1020 6.38 0.786 50.1 13421.270.10210206.380.78650.1  1405 1.00 0.096 960 6.30 0.675 42.5 14051.000.0969606.300.67542.5  1693 1.03 0.100 1000 6.30 0.675 42.5 16931.030.10010006.300.67542.5  1315 1.06 0.097 970 6.14 0.636 39.1 13151.060.0979706.140.63639.1  2044 0.93 0.098 980 6.12 0.645 40.0 20440.930.0989806.120.64540.0  1097 0.95 0.092 920 6.02 0.659 39.6 10970.950.0929206.020.65939.6  1728 0.96 0.094 940 5.94 0.632 37.5 17280.960.0949405.940.63237.5  1318 0.89 0.097 970 5.92 0.612 36.2 13180.890.0979705.920.61236.2  1441 0.95 0.078 780 5.50 0.657 36.1 14410.950.0787805.500.65736.1 S. 1523 1.18 0.128 1280 6.36 0.886 56.3 S.15231.180.12812806.360.88656.3 guianensis\"tardio\"        guianensis\"tardio\"  1280 1.38 0.099 990 6.08 0.727 44.2 12801.380.0999906.080.72744.2  1283 0.93 0.084 840 4.66 0.765 35.6 12830.930.0848404.660.76535.6 S macrocephala 2039 1.19 0.106 1060 6.74 0.776 53.3 S macrocephala20391.190.10610606.740.77653.3  1582 1.43 0.101 1010 6.68 0.723 43.3 15821.430.10110106.680.72343.3  2133 1.04 0.094 940 6.14 0.700 42.9 21331.040.0949406.140.70042.9  1643 1.01 0.096 960 5.20 0.676 35.2 16431.010.0969605.200.67635.2 No legume  0.56 0.056 560 3.50 0.641 22.4 No legume0.560.0565603.500.64122.4 Mean  1.04 0.096 960 5.94 0.706 40.01 Mean1.040.0969605.940.70640.01 S.D.  0.202 0.014 263 0.817 0.077 12.47 S.D.0.2020.0142630.8170.07712.47  "}],"sieverID":"5cc5231a-f6f3-4e84-ab7a-cde8710fc3c2","abstract":"IT HAS ALWAYS been difficult to find forage legumes with the production characteristics that can help maximise animal performance, and that are also adapted to the alternating wet and dry seasons of the subhumid zone of Africa. Among the characters in demand are drought tolerance, good herbage production and plant persistence, either through regeneration after burning or heavy grazing or through self-seeding. Ideally they should also provide a good quality, standing hay crop that will help sustain animals through the dry season .Another important attribute is disease resistance because the wet season usually provides conditions ideal for disease development and advancement.Stylosanthes spp. have many of the qualities demanded by African conditions but disease, in particular anthracnose, caused by the fungus Colletotrichum gloeosporoides, has restricted their use. One species, S. hamata cv Verano, a selection made by scientists from Australia's Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation, combines disease resistance with the other favourable agronomic characteristics. This species has been widely planted in the tropics and has the potential for even further spread. However, whether Verano's disease resistance will be maintained is uncertain; if new virulent strains of anthracnose arise, they could nullify all the advantages of Verano-based pasture improvement.Because of this threat, ILCA scientists have screened a range of potentially useful Stylosanthes spp. that could either outperform, or substitute for Verano if its disease resistance breaks down. This paper gives details of their agronomic performance and disease resistance, and identifies four accessions that show promise for the subhumid zone."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"02e8dad01831572e15a84cdadb7efa42","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/83e56510-cd07-458c-8963-c58e311671e2/retrieve"},"pageCount":12,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"EADD Launches New Milk Cooling Plants","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":67,"text":"EADD is celebrating the launch of five new farmer owned milk cooling plants at the end of final quarter of 2009 and the first quarter of 2010. A total of five new milk cooling centers have been launched within this period. The new milk cooling centers will largely benefit the smallholder dairy farmers in the surrounding areas and boost the dairy sector nationally in their respective countries."},{"index":2,"size":60,"text":"The milk cooling plants will also reduce milk spoilage, enhance milk supply at competitive prices and provide a ready milk market thereby increasing the economic benefits including stabilized incomes to the dairy farmer. All the newly launched plants have signed binding contracts with major milk processing companies in their respective countries to collect milk from them at competitive market prices."}]},{"head":"Kokiche Dairy Plant-Kenya","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":186,"text":"Members of Kokiche Dairies Company Ltd launched their newly acquired milk cooler on the 13th of March 2010. The milk cooler was officially launched by the Minister for Agriculture Honourable William Ruto among other guests. The milk cooler is to benefit over 2,000 dairy farmers in a bid to develop the dairy sector value chain and create a more sustainable source of milk in the district. Kokiche was registered in August 2009 and is made up of farmers' groups from Konoin, Kimulot and Cheptalal divisions of Buret District. After it was wstablished, members were selling raw milk as they waited for their cooling plant to be installed. On the day of the launch, they collected and chilled 448 kilograms of milk and the current daily intake stands at 700 kilos and continue to increase day by day. During the launch Tetra Pak East Africa, Presented a cheque of Kshs 3 million (USD 40,000) towards assisting the dairy plant.The money will go into meeting costs accruing from management support, acquisition of 300 aluminum milk cans and a detailed value chain study in Konoin, Kimulot and Cheptalal divisions."}]},{"head":"Kinyogoga Milk Cooling Plant-Uganda","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":84,"text":"Kinyogoga Livestock Farmers' Cooperative Society Limited milk cooling tank was officially launched by the Minister of Finance, Planning and Economic Development, Hon. Syda Bumba on the 20th of February 2010. The milk cooling plant which has a capacity to handle 5000 liters of milk is currently benefiting close to 2,000 small-scale dairy farmers who are originally pastoralists living along the cattle corridor. Kinyogoga can experience very dry spells but current rains have boosted milk collection at the plant and business has started flowing in."},{"index":2,"size":42,"text":"Previously the small scale farmers of Kinyogoga were selling milk individually but since they formed the farmer dairy cooperative in November 2008 and acquired the milk cooler, milk collection has increased significantly to 2,500ltrs daily within the first year of its operation."},{"index":3,"size":65,"text":"\"Many projects are implemented in this country and sometimes we do not see a real impact. But EADD's approach has enabled us to organize ourselves and purchase this cooling tank. It proves that even poor farmers can succeed, you just need to make a lot of efforts and the results will come along,\" said Mr. James Kamomo, chairperson of the cooperative speaking during the launch."},{"index":4,"size":10,"text":"For more information on Kinyogoga launch, visit our website www.eadairy.org"},{"index":5,"size":29,"text":"The Hon. Syda Bumba, 2nd left, Minister of Finance, Planning and Economic Development presided over the opening ceremony which was attended by a host of dignitaries and excited farmers."},{"index":6,"size":33,"text":"Peter Sitonik (left) the chairman of Kokiche Dairy receives a dummy cheque of Kshs 3,000,000 (40,000USD) from Tetra Pak's Marketing Director Hellen Too. Looking on is Augustine Cheruiyot, EADD Kenya Country Project Manager"}]},{"head":"SOT Dairy Company Limited Milk Cooling Plant-Kenya","index":4,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"A Visit by Co-Chair of Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":89,"text":"SOT Dairy Company Limited launched their milk cooling plant on 5th of December 2009. The tank has a capacity of 6,000 liters. One unique group that the milk cooling plant is currently benefiting is Longisa Set Kobor Women Group, a group of 65 visually and physically impaired women who have bought shares in the dairy business and are getting other services around the dairy company such as trainings and animal husbandry among many others. In the month of February 2010, the total quantity of milk collected was 81,135 Kgs."}]},{"head":"\" Among the major shareholders of the dairy business is a group of visually and physically handicapped women\"","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":87,"text":"For more information on SOT Dairy Company Limited milk cooling plant launch visit our website www.eadairy.org Lelan is located in the hilly slopes of Central Pokot district. It is a very unique farmer company that draws members from two communities; Pokot and Marakwet which have been marred by decades of tribal wars fuelled by cattle rustling and scarce resources especially water. When it opened its doors for business the chilling plant sold about 2,000kgs of raw milk. In February 2010, total milk collection was at 150,387 kilograms."}]},{"head":"Lelan Highlands Dairies and Kabiyet Dairies Company","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":63,"text":"Kabiyet is a unique success story for its members and EADD. Barely a month after it opened its doors for business, it was collecting and chilling 8,000kgs of milk in their newly acquired 10,000 Kgs capacity cooling tank. Milk collection in February this year was at 710,571.4 liters. Kabiyet has also set up a village bank to serve its members and local residents."},{"index":2,"size":41,"text":"\"Do not count yours cows by the number of horns and hooves but by the output in milk and meat,\" these were the wise words of Hon. William Ruto, Minister of Agriculture to farmers of Lelan and Kabiyet during the launches."},{"index":3,"size":46,"text":"For more information on launch of Lelan and Kabiyet, visit our website www.eadairy.org Abraham Rugut, the Chairman of Kabiyet Dairy Company,explaining to visitors how all raw milk purchased by the company is screened for compositional and hygienic quality before purchase (Photo: Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation)."},{"index":4,"size":67,"text":"Recent rains in most parts of East Africa have significantly boosted the production of milk within the region. As a result of the rains, forage feed has become readily available translating into high milk production. This is a big relief to many farmers following a long period of dry spell in which their business incurred heavy losses. Many small scale farmers have more than doubled their production."},{"index":5,"size":51,"text":"According to Ambrose Munene, EADD's Dairy Breeding Specialist in Kenya, a genetically improved cow bred from good quality semen and under standard management was producing an average of 15 liters a day during last season's dry spell. That production has currently shot up by about 60% with the onset of rains."},{"index":6,"size":89,"text":"Early on in the year, a lot of attention was given to the crisis in the Kenyan dairy sector, especially by the media. This situation though extremely unfortunate is not unique. It has been occurring in Kenya for many decades, yet it appears that the dairy industry and its key stakeholders, who include Government, farmers and processors, continue to be reactive in addressing the issue only when it arises, rather than group together as an industry and find a collective, sustainable and long term solution to this recurring situation."},{"index":7,"size":225,"text":"Globally the dairy industry is cyclical, and Kenya is no exception. The milk supply has periods of surplus and shortage, which occur year after year, and every couple of years extreme conditions are experienced which amplifies the raw milk supply curve resulting in the desperate shortages and then 'floods' of raw milk, as we recently saw in Kenya. It needs to be mentioned that it is difficult for the dairy industry and in particular the processors, to plan for the periods when these extreme conditions occur. However, there needs to be an awareness and acceptance from the stakeholders that this will happen every few years, and as an industry it is crucial to work together to deal with the situation. This problem is a recurrent issue that is dealt with in many countries by addressing the issue as an industry from two angles. Firstly, it is necessary to try and secure a consistent supply of raw milk through ensuring good relations between farmers and processors, training farmers in animal husbandry However the rainy season has brought mixed blessings to the dairy farmers in all the 3 EADD operating countries. As production increased, so was the supply to the chilling plants resulting to most of them exceeding their daily capacities. As a result, milk processors especially in Kenya are struggling to cope with the excess production."}]},{"head":"Steady Milk Production","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":221,"text":"Not all is gloomy though, EADD is currently working with farmers to ensure that they have a steady year-round milk production. This will stimulate the processors to invest in their processing plants since there will be adequate supply of milk all year round. By improving feeding systems especially during the dry seasons, farmers will be able to supply a steady amount of milk to their chilling plants and come the wet season, the upsurge in production will not be as overwhelming as has been experienced the last few months. Feed conservation methods such as hay and silage making, and water preservation are some of the key areas the project is addressing to reduce the effects of seasonality Improved Milk Quality Previously, farmers producing milk in EADD operating countries have focused on volume with little emphasis on quality thereby making it difficult to export to other major markets. EADD is working with farmers and stakeholders to scale up production of high quality milk by facilitating the value chain from production to chilling. Status quo has been established through screening cows for udder health and milk testing at collection points and chilling plants. Systems are now in process to ensure that the market receives high quality milk that is expected to open up markets for export by processors thereby stabilizing supply and demand."},{"index":2,"size":16,"text":"Milk delivery to the chilling plants has significantly increased, tanks are being filled to the brim."}]},{"head":"Heavy Rains Increase Milk Production | Beatrice Ouma","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":78,"text":"From \"Spilled Milk and Sour Honey\" to Milk and Honey | Moses Nyabila and hygiene as well as offering extension services, develop more 'zero' grazing farms and ensuring milk is channeled into purposed value-add structures. This will secure the income of the farmers, even if they receive a slightly lower price, their cost base remains the same yet they will receive a higher income due to the additional and consistent volumes of raw milk supplied to the processors."},{"index":2,"size":200,"text":"Secondly, it is necessary to ensure consistent supply of processed and packed products to both local and export markets, through packing and storing processed milk into long life products such as UHT (Ultra Heat Treated) milk, milk powder and cheese during the surplus periods, and then selling these stocks during the periods when raw milk availability is lower. In doing this we must carefully consider the cost implications of converting the raw milk into powder first and then reconstituting it back into processed and packaged milk, essentially a double process of removing the liquid out of the raw milk and spray drying the milk solids, and then adding back the water and mixing it with the powder to 'recreate' milk. In my view it is would be simpler and less costly to convert the raw milk directly into intended long-life end products rather double or triple process it in a country where energy costs are so prohibitive. Since over 90% of milk in Kenya is consumed in liquid form it would appear more prudent to invest in various long-life fresh-milks -primarily UHT and \"sterilized\", store it and sell it, when there is a lack of sufficient raw milk for processing."},{"index":3,"size":148,"text":"In addition to this, it is important to ensure that there is a consistent demand for the processed and packaged products. This is only possible when it is sold at an affordable and competitive consumer price which in turn guarantees that the consumer will have continuous access to a hygienic product … everyone benefits. This is how it works in almost all countries that have a strong dairy sector, as it is about a win-win scenario rather than a win-lose which is the way it works in Kenya, i.e either the processors win by getting a lot of raw milk and the farmers lose due to a lower raw milk price, or the farmers win when there are shortages of raw milk sold at higher prices and the processors lose as they don't get sufficient raw milk to satisfy the market demand, therefore losing out on valuable profit."},{"index":4,"size":97,"text":"As long as this issue is not dealt with on an industry level with the involvement of all key stakeholders, and all the major processors and farmers continue to drive their own agendas, the current situation will occur over and over and over again! EADD is ready to assist the industry structure and plan its way back into profitable and sustainable path through purposed studies and consultations if there will be takers for the outcome. Let us all contribute to make this country a true land of \"milk and honey\" and not \"spilled milk and sour honey\"."},{"index":5,"size":72,"text":"Dairy farmers in Kipkaren division counted significant losses following a reduction of up to 27% on the previous prices within a period of three weeks, early on into the year. This move left many of the farmers feeling discouraged as the cost of production continued to rise with minimal returns. However, the management of Kipkaren Dairy have remained optimistic that the situation is a temporary one and therefore farmers need not despair."},{"index":6,"size":121,"text":"Last year the dairy plant celebrated a profit margin of over Kshs. 4 Million (USD 53,333). The profit was attributed to the high adoption rate of artificial in¬semination, a service that had been made available through EADD project which enabled farmers pay through check off system. Training on feeds and feed management by EADD has also contributed to increased milk production which translated to huge profits.  The two financial services associations opened their doors on October 2009 and are now offering a wide array of services ranging from agricultural payment processing, savings accounts, masomo (education) savings accounts and many more. As a result farmers were paid their milk dues to the tune of Kshs.7 million (USD 93,333) in December 2009 alone."},{"index":7,"size":42,"text":"Similar stories of losses were reported by other EADD sites such as Kieni Dairy Products Limited located in Mweiga and Ol Kalou Dairy in central Kenya. Hygienic, nestable plastic milk collection/storage containers with a permanent anti-microbial lining -possible to be called 'milk-safes'."}]},{"head":"Bill and Melinda Gates","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":17,"text":"(3) Multi-purpose storage banks for farm and community storage of maize and dairy animal feed (with EAGC)."}]},{"head":"EADD Forging New Partnerships","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":81,"text":"Meanwhile, in September last year, EADD and EAGC had asked the Foundation and Meridian to 'fast-track' the multi-purpose storage concept. Almost all EADD farmers grow maize for home consumption and sale. It is reported by EAGC that most smallholders experience post-harvest maize losses of between 15 and 25% and sell at immediate post-harvest floor prices. In addition to the economies of scale that adding maize trading and drying at our dairy hubs will bring, it is foreseen the pest-resistant stores would:"},{"index":2,"size":4,"text":"(i) maintain maize quality;"},{"index":3,"size":18,"text":"(ii) reduce post harvest losses by up to half; and (iii) improve farmgate prices by up to 25%."},{"index":4,"size":65,"text":"Moreover the same low-cost storage banks, to be based on the ubiquitous plastic water tank, will also be used for storing animal feeds, such as chopped stover, haylage and silage. It is also anticipated that the waste heat generated during milk cooling can be used to dry high moisture maize at the dairy hub. The 'fast-tracking' was approved by the Foundation at the November meeting."},{"index":5,"size":204,"text":"Following a short-10-day technical mission to Kenya in February this year by an innovations specialist, Bob Adams, an action plan to validate the EADD-EAGC maize storage and trading model is being drawn up. A key partner in Kenya is Kentainers, who will build the maize/animal feed bank prototypes. Over the coming months our EADD team will work with EAGC, Kentainers and Meridian to pilot the model to add maize trading to the Kabiyet Dairies hub business; and maize and animal feed banks (stores) at farm level. Kabiyet is a new dairy hub that opened for business in July 2009 and already markets 20,000 to 30,000 litres of chilled milk daily. The Board and shareholders are excited about the prospects for the multi-purpose storage system. The EADD regional team strongly believes the storage system will add economic, social and environmental value to our dairy farming businesses and to our dairy farming communities. To our EADD-Kenya farming families and the country team members involved in the field validation (Abraham Rugut, Augustine Cheruiyot, Emmanuel Juma and Dominic Menjo), a big thank you in advance for all your support! This is a rare opportunity for us to interact with some of the leading innovations specialists in the world."},{"index":6,"size":60,"text":"At the outset EADD challenged the innovations project to come up with at least one cost-efficient and sustainable technology that we can introduce during our project. The technology should add value, not cost, to the milk produced by our farming families and, in so-doing, improve their livelihoods. It seems the project has the potential to more than meet this challenge."},{"index":7,"size":166,"text":"Tetra Pak East Africa is a member of the NNET (New KCC, Nestle, EADD and Tetra Pak) Working Group, a consortium of like-minded organizations that have come together to support dairy farmers realize their dream of transforming into a united and prosperous community capable of charting own future. The consortium is building on the East Africa Dairy Development Project's agenda of transforming the lives of 179,000 dairy farmers by doubling of their dairy incomes in 10 years. EADD Kenya is working with IOM in a new site located in Cherangany. The new partnership is towards improving the livelihoods of thousands of families in Cherangany who were affected by post election violence after the 2007 election. Under the agreement, IOM has already donated a milk chilling tank of 10,000 litre capacity which is currently being installed and soon to be launched and EADD is to provide the farmers and the chilling plant management with the required trainings and linkages to transform it into a vibrant dairy hub."},{"index":8,"size":50,"text":"So far the farmers of Cherangany Dairy Group have been able to register 1,700 members of whom 200 are shareholders. They are presently bulking and selling up to 12,000 litres of raw milk to one of the processors daily. The Dairy plant will draw about 3,000 farmers from the area."},{"index":9,"size":190,"text":"In the words of Mr. Kennedy Ouma, General Manager Tetra Pak, \"The intention is to bring together players in the local dairy value chain by sharing expertise and resources so as to increase the quantity and quality of milk processed through the cooling plants established by EADD. This is expected to bring sustainability in the sector and ensure milk availability all year round\". He added that \"Currently, the dairy industry in Kenya is reliant on weather patterns as evidenced recently. This dairy hub is one of three we have in the pipeline whose aim is to support the entire value chain. It is our endeavor to collaborate with sector players with an overall aim of introducing professionalism in the dairy industry whilst ensuring processors have consistent quantity and quality of milk supply throughout the year.\" The company recently handed out a cheque of Kshs 3 million to support set up and growth of Kokiche Dairy in Buret, Kericho, Kenya. The money will go towards carrying out a detailed milk-shed study, staff and management development and purchase of steel or aluminium milk cans to replace un-hygienic plastic vessels currently in use."},{"index":10,"size":53,"text":"Nestle and New KCC are partnering with EADD to transform Kabiyet Division into a \"Nestle Model Milk District\" producing and bulking projected 100,000 litres of quality milk per day (in the next 5 years) to supply NKCC to process into milk powder to meet the growing demand for quality powder for Nestle Equatorial."},{"index":11,"size":76,"text":"To achieve it mission, the working group will be expanded to include banks, feed manufactures, vet pharmaceuticals, government agencies and other players. Bbaale-Bugerere's story can be traced back to March 1968 when it was registered as one of the few co-operative societies serving dairy farmers in Uganda. However, the cooperative did not survive the tough economic and political conditions of the 70s and 80s and ceased its operations just like many other co-operatives during that period."},{"index":12,"size":76,"text":"During the late 90's when the co-operative movement was revived, members of Bbaale -Bugerere seized the opportunity to revive their co-operative. The co-operative had since then been selling milk to informal milk traders who were not only exploiting farmers by paying very low prices for their milk, sometimes they never paid at all. As a result, many farmers lost money in the hands of these milk traders and more disappointingly, farmers lose faith in the co-operative."},{"index":13,"size":64,"text":"In 2008 when EADD began its operations, Bbaale -Bugerere Dairy Co-operative society was one of the feasible sites that EADD chose to work with in Uganda. The EADD team put a lot of effort to re-group members of this co-operative who had lost faith in the system and were now opting to sell milk individually to the informal market which had strongly taken root."},{"index":14,"size":79,"text":"EADD's hub model approach has been able to benefit both the farmers around it and the informal milk traders who have now found a ready market for their milk. Milk collection at the chilling plant has greatly improved with an average of 69,000 liters of milk being collected on a monthly basis. More importantly, farmers are now getting paid on time and are able to access ad-on services such as dairy management trainings and improved technology for increased production."},{"index":15,"size":55,"text":"In addition to the chilling plant, there is also an agro-vet store as well as a farmer owned SACCO which takes care or the farmers' financial needs. Currently, the check-off system mode of payment is being introduced to encourage more farmers to become members and benefit from services that is being provided by the hub."},{"index":16,"size":34,"text":"Membership has significantly increased and currently stands at 201. Many of these farmers have also had the opportunity to participate in exchange visit to share experiences and learn from other small scale dairy farmers."},{"index":17,"size":186,"text":"Under a new management, Bbaale-Bugerere Dairy Co-operative is growing stronger every day and for many dairy farmers, hope has been revived and their economic status continues to improve day by day. A customer deposits money into the farmer owned SACCO at Bbaale, farmers can now save their milk earnings with ease. EADD Brings on Board Six New Chilling Plants EADD Rwanda team selected six additional sites it will work with in the current year. A site selection process was undertaken in September 2009. The selection process focused on nine potential sites in the Eastern Province where approximately 50% of all Rwanda's dairy activities are centered. The site selection exercise was followed by validation and feasibility studies. As a result four sites from Rwamagana district and two from Gatsibo district were found to be feasible and thus selected for EADD operations. Possession of an EADD calf has been a source of envy among the villagers. In particular, the Holsteins crosses are quite distinct, long, elegant, big, and attractive to the eye. EADD semen in Rwanda is distributed as one third Jersey, with the remainder being American Holstein."}]},{"head":"Bbaale","index":12,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"EADD Partnership with Government of Rwanda and BRD Takes Effect","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":71,"text":"Gasi Dairy co-operative is set to be the first co-operative to benefit from a winning partnership between EADD, Rwanda Government and Rwanda Development Bank on chilling plant financing. In this partnership, the dairy co-operatives will benefit from a 20% grant from the Government to aid in purchasing the chilling plant machine. Construction of Gasi is near completion and the chilling plant is set to be commissioned by end of March 2010."}]},{"head":"Building Farmer Capacities","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":94,"text":"In the last quarter EADD surpassed the projected annual target farmer training in group dynamics by 158 percent. In total 5,174 farmers from ten co-operatives in this category. EADD continues to use adult learning techniques of \"learning by seeing\". As such, eighty six dairy co-operative committee members and staff from ten co-operatives participated in a study tour to one of the Tea Growers Co-operative in Rulindo district. The tour was a very lively and informative experience and participants were given tips on issues touching on co-operative leadership, management and business development services (BDS) stimulation."}]},{"head":"Gender","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":36,"text":"The number of women in leadership positions rose threefold in the last quarter from the projected target of 6 to 18 women. The number of women also participating in co-operative activities also rose significantly to 4,789."},{"index":2,"size":5,"text":"From Uganda | Beatrice BamulesewaNabwire "}]},{"head":"Country Highlights","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":5,"text":"From Rwanda | George Mose"}]},{"head":"Feeds","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":77,"text":"Farmers have been seriously engaging in dry season feeding strategies (silage and hay making) in preparation for the dry season. This comes after their participation and experiences in dry season feeding technologies. The use of pulverisers to increase utilization and management of crop residues has aroused a lot of interest among farmers following a learning visit to Kenya and seeing how their counterparts there maximise use of crop residues. Many farmers are seeking to purchase the pulverisers."}]},{"head":"Milk Bulking and Chilling","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":98,"text":"Farmers have continued to work together and pull resources to buy shares and raise equity to buy their own chilling plants. Farmers benefitted from topics ranging from feeds and feeding, zero grazing construction, animal health management, feed establishment and conservation. From Limuru Dairies farmers were taught on milk marketing and procurement, governance and leadership and dairying as a business and hub operation and services. EADD Kenya also hosted 65 farmers from Uganda who were taken to Baraka farm, New KCC, Tanykina Dairy Plant Limited, Moi University and also to small scale model farmers; Laban Talam and Willy Kirwa."}]},{"head":"Field Days","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":32,"text":"Field days were held in Chepkorio during the World Food Day and also in Ziwa in collaboration with New Kenya Co-operative Creameries. 300 farmers were trained in production, feeds and milk quality."}]},{"head":"Trainings Extension Service Provider Accreditation Induction","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":29,"text":"Extension Providers from Kipkelion, Kabiyet, Kipkaren and Metkei were trained on quality issues before they were accredited by the Kenya Dairy Board as qualified service providers for their divisions."},{"index":2,"size":37,"text":"Participants were trained on topics including: Milk quality, IQAM concept; Business delivery service in dairy; BDS scenario and case studies; planning and dairy systems; implementation of BDS activities in trainings-EADD project sites and reporting and M&E process."}]},{"head":"Governance and Leadership Training","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":28,"text":"Board of Directors from Chepkorio and Ziwa were engaged in a two day training in a bid in increase their skills and capacity in managing their respective DFBA's."},{"index":2,"size":29,"text":"Regional Planning Meeting and Steering committee meeting EADD Kenya hosted the 2009 annual planning and review meeting in Eldoret. This meeting was preceded by the national steering committee meeting."}]}],"figures":[{"text":" Limited-Kenya These two plants were launched on the 27th of August 2009 by the Minister of Livestock and Development Hon. Dr. Mohamed Kuti, assisted by the Minister of Agriculture Hon. William Ruto. EADD was honored to play host to Bill Gates, chair and co-founder of Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation in December 2009. Gates visited Kabiyet Dairies Company Limited, one of the first chilling llants to be launched in Kenya and also the farm of Laban Talam, a model smallholder dairy farmer in the project. "},{"text":" Milk delivery at Tanyikina Dairy Plant. Farmers of the dairy plant experienced a reduction in milk prices of up to 27%. Conditions are now improving( photo: EADD) How Did the Glut Affect EADD Farmers in Kenya? | Jane Kithuka "},{"text":" Foundation Dairy Grants Science and Innovations for African Agricultural Value Chains Project Cassava, Dairy and Maize | Brian Dugdill Five of these were selected for priority market development; three were dairy concepts: (1) Rapid, low-cost tests for (a) milk hygienic/keeping quality; (b) detecting heat in stall-fed dairy cattle; and (iii) pregnancy diagnosis. (2) "},{"text":" Besides contributing in kind by being active members of the group, Tetra Pak has committed close to Kshs 15 million (USD 200,000) in cash support accelerated development of 4 dairy hubs in Kenya and contributing to development of a \"route to market\" initiative in Rwanda. "},{"text":"Tetra Pak East Africa Contributing to Hub Development | Moses Nyabila International Organization for Migration (IOM) Join Hands with EADD to Improve the Lives of Cherengany Dairy Farmers. | Augustine Cheruiyot The newly launched Kokiche Dairy. It is one of the dairies benefiting from a winning partnership (photo EADD Kenya Raj Kumar, IOM Program Officer signs an MoU with Augustine Cheruiyot of EADD Kenya. Looking on is Alice Achoki, M&E Officer Kenya.Bbaale -Bugerere Dairy Co-operative Society Limited is one of the significant successes that EADD has realized since the project began its operations in 2008. Its tremendous progress can be attributed to sheer hard work and persistence by its members. "},{"text":" -Bugerere Dairy Cooperative's Hard Work and Persistence Begin to Bear Fruits | Alexis Mugabi Carboni and Beatrice Bamulesewa Nabwire Milk delivery at Bugerere Dairy Co-operative in Bbaale. Members say they have EADD to thank for the current booming business at the chilling plant. "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"Last year the dairy plant celebrated a profit margin of over Kshs. 4 Million (USD 53, 333) Our EADD project supports a raft of other livestock and dairy initiatives in Africa funded by grants from the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation. Some of these projects are listed in the box. The Science and Innovations for African Agricultural Cassava, Dairy and Maize Value Chains project is one of these exciting projects.Furthermore, good leadership in the business enabled farmers to invest by purchasing shares in Kipkaren Community Financial Services & Tamboche Financial Services, the two village banks now open to dairy farmers and the wider community.      technology to the market. The dairy and maize technology to the market. The dairy and maize      components of the project initially target Kenya. The components of the project initially target Kenya. The      cassava initiative targets Ghana. cassava initiative targets Ghana.      EADD is the lead dairy value chain partner EADD is the lead dairy value chain partner      and the East African Grain Council and the East African Grain Council      (EAGC) provides support for the (EAGC) provides support for the      maize value chain. Amos Omore maize value chain. Amos Omore It started in mid-2009 and brings and Brian Dugdill coordinate the It started in mid-2009 and bringsand Brian Dugdill coordinate the to together leading scientists project on behalf of EADD and to together leading scientistsproject on behalf of EADD and and practitioners in the maize, Constantine Kandie for EAGC. and practitioners in the maize,Constantine Kandie for EAGC. cassava and dairy food chains to: cassava and dairy food chains to: 'identify out-of-the-box, innovative As lead dairy value chain partner, 'identify out-of-the-box, innovativeAs lead dairy value chain partner, technology that would add EADD joined the field visit of the technologythatwouldaddEADD joined the field visit of the significant value for smallholder team of scientists and business significant value for smallholderteam of scientists and business farmers'.     specialist to Kenya in August 2009. farmers'.specialist to Kenya in August 2009.      The team visited a number of EADD The team visited a number of EADD The project is lead by the Meridian and other sites. Over 200 technology The project is lead by the Meridianand other sites. Over 200 technology Institute, a US-based consulting concepts were developed for the Institute, a US-based consultingconcepts were developed for the firm. Leading scientists from three commodities. firm.Leading scientists fromthree commodities. the Massachusetts Institute of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology.    These were whittled down to Technology.These were whittled down to      22, which were presented to a 22, which were presented to a Stanford and Yale universities, specially convened meeting at the Stanford and Yale universities,specially convened meeting at the among others, will interact with Foundation headquarters in Seattle among others, will interact withFoundation headquarters in Seattle us. The world-renowned business in November last. us. The world-renowned businessin November last. consultancy, Arthur D. Little, will consultancy, Arthur D. Little, will put together business plans to bring any suitable put together business plans to bring any suitable  "},{"text":" The new sites include Muhazi, Musha, Rubona and Dukundamatungo (Kigabiro) in Rwamagana district. While the remaining two from Gatsibo district include Ndatemwa and Ngarama. EADD Rwanda Establishes an AI school in Nyagatare EADD Rwanda Establishes an AI school in Nyagatare The EADD breeding team upgraded its AI school in Nyagatare The EADD breeding team upgraded its AI school in Nyagatare by constructing a modern cattle handling facility at the site. by constructing a modern cattle handling facility at the site. The AI school is part of EADD goal of building infrastructure, The AI school is part of EADD goal of building infrastructure, systems, and mechanisms that ensure continuity of the AI systems, and mechanisms that ensure continuity of the AI businesses around the hubs beyond the project's life span. businesses around the hubs beyond the project's life span. An additional 45 new AI technicians have been trained to An additional 45 new AI technicians have been trained to add to the existing 82 (22 co-operative technicians, 23 Sector add to the existing 82 (22 co-operative technicians, 23 Sector Veterinarians, and 37 ERAGIC inseminators), and upgraded the Veterinarians, and 37 ERAGIC inseminators), and upgraded the skills of 26 existing AI business providers. The AI school has skills of 26 existing AI business providers. The AI school has a cattle crush which is valued at more than USD 3,000 , full a cattle crush which is valued at more than USD 3,000 , full demonstration equipment including 7 AI guns, liquid nitrogen demonstration equipment including 7 AI guns, liquid nitrogen tanks, artificial udders, and 17 cows (10 mature cows and 7 tanks, artificial udders, and 17 cows (10 mature cows and 7 calves) for practical sessions. The school will facilitate animal calves) for practical sessions. The school will facilitate animal handling during AI business provider's trainings handling during AI business provider's trainings Artificial Insemination Adoption Rates Hit the Roof Artificial Insemination Adoption Rates Hit the Roof While it may be a challenge to sell AI technology in some parts While it may be a challenge to sell AI technology in some parts of the continent, in Rwanda the technology is spreading fast. of the continent, in Rwanda the technology is spreading fast. So far a total of 15,108 inseminations (5,066 farmers) have So far a total of 15,108 inseminations (5,066 farmers) have been carried out within the project's operational zones. The been carried out within the project's operational zones. The breeding strategy in Rwanda which involves synchronization breeding strategy in Rwanda which involves synchronization and timed artificial insemination (AI) which may be somewhat and timed artificial insemination (AI) which may be somewhat more expensive compared to AI following natural heat detection more expensive compared to AI following natural heat detection is still a preferred choice. Synchronization enables breeding of is still a preferred choice. Synchronization enables breeding of large masses of cows, a situation otherwise impossible under large masses of cows, a situation otherwise impossible under natural heat detection. Rwanda is a country in a hurry! Already, natural heat detection. Rwanda is a country in a hurry! Already, as of end of December, 2009, there have been 299 calves born as of end of December, 2009, there have been 299 calves born out of EADD procured bull semen and have been registered. out of EADD procured bull semen and have been registered.  "},{"text":"Kenya | Jane Kithuka Business Development Service (BDS) Provider Training BDS In addition to Kiboga West Livestock co-operative, four other cooperatives (Kinyogoga, Masindi, Bbaale and Nsambya), have acquired milk chilling plants. All together these are bulking and chilling an average 9,840 litres of milk daily, which is sold to milk processors (Sameer and JESA) and other major milk traders. Three other co-operatives (Maddu,Nabitanga,Luweero) are in the process of procuring their milk chilling plants. So far 180 business development service (BDS) providers have been trained. Business opportunity seminars for BDS providers were conducted in Kiboga, Masaka and Bbaale. Farmer seminars on BDS opportunities were also conducted during farmer field days in Budondo, Buikwe, Maddu, Nabitanga, Kalungu, Gulama, Kijunjubwa, Luweero and Mityana. A farmer-owned micro-finance associations (SACCO) has been established at Bbaale Co-operative society. service providers were trained on marketing, record keeping, and finance as part of Business Opportunity Seminars. A total of 177 service providers in agro vet, A.I, animal health, milk transport were trained. Visits During the quarter, 1136 farmers, including 51 board members participated in exchange visits. Farmers from Lelan, Metkei, Kokiche, Cherobu, Olenguruone, Siongiroi and Kipkaren learnt from different places including: Limuru Dairies and a model farmer, Jasho farm, Kabiyet Dairies Company Limited (a new EADD Chilling Plant) and Tanykina Dairy Plant Limited (an already existing EADD site). Business Development Services Business Development Services From Exchange From Exchange  "}],"sieverID":"92e6b1e0-466b-41fc-a2ec-786b04b1aa88","abstract":"July 2009 and already markets 20,000 to 30,000 litres of chilled milk daily."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"02f3431cfd86e9673d2ba9873593ff2e","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/ef06c305-5bac-423f-9d20-69b33dcadeb8/retrieve"},"pageCount":1,"title":"INTEGRATED RESEARCH APPROACH FOR DEVELOPMENT OF POTATO PRODUCTION IN CHENCHA DISTRICT, ETHIOPIA","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[]}],"figures":[{"text":"Introduction• Three integrally linked PhD research projects are being implemented in southern Ethiopia to enhance the development of potato production. • The research is designed to integrate • the \"hard\" science on the potato crop, with few farmers that fulfil common selection criteria for Projects 1, 2 & 3 • Project 2 works with farmers of Project 1 plus more farmers that fulfil common selection criteria for Project 3 • Project 3 works with farmers of Projects 1 & 2 plus more farmers • The three projects also work jointly on cross cutting objectives Objectives • To improve the quality of seed potatoes and the potato crop in Chencha district • To assess the diversity, sustainability of farming systems, optimize sustainability of potato production management system • To analyse the promotion and (non) adoption of potato technology to understand optimal research-led approach at community "}],"sieverID":"8829b01a-0f17-40c8-b65a-2b870bcc107a","abstract":""}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"033f5c2dccf6bad78c84c655a8f21a45","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/9577d012-9335-4b90-823b-607d0bb3de09/retrieve"},"pageCount":123,"title":"TABLE OF CONTENTS","keywords":["Agronomic traits","Drought","GWAS","INDELs","Napier grass","Nutritional Trait","SNPs","WGS"],"chapters":[{"head":"LIST OF TABLES","index":1,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"INTRODUCTION","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":166,"text":"Demand for animal products in developing worlds such as Africa is growing in response to the rapidly rising economy and urbanization (Kingston-Smith et al., 2013;Rajendran et al., 2022). Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) comprises one-fourth of the global livestock population and 18% of the global bovine herd (Butterbach-Bahl et al., 2020). However, annual milk and meat production remain low compared to the global average and, the livestock industry is yet to meet the increasing demand for animal products in the region (Balehegn et al., 2021;FAO, 2021). One of the main reasons for the low productivity of the livestock industry is inadequate access to quality feeds and forages exacerbated recently by the risk of climate change (Balehegn et al., 2020;Paul et al., 2020). Common feeding sources (communal grazing lands) remain a major source of forages in SSA (Hanan and Kahiu, 2016); but, these sources are becoming scarce as a result of the inevitable population increase, climate change, and more land being allocated for food crops (Enahoro et al., 2019)."},{"index":2,"size":141,"text":"Cropping systems (i.e. priority given for food crops than forages to ensure food selfsufficiency) and climatic risks (like drought) are constraining livestock feed supply and productivity in East Africa (Paul et al., 2020). Though accessible feeds sources are not sufficient to feed the present livestock population and are available to a certain amount in the majority of cases during and after the rainy season (Hassanuur et al., 2020). Hence, the small-scale livestock industry is under enormous pressure arising from declining feed resources due to climatic factors (Kumar and Roy, 2021), and rising prices for the available feeds and forages (Assefa et al., 2012). Therefore, boosting feed resources through harnessing forage genetic resources is of paramount importance to contribute to the development of the livestock sector and therefore rural livelihoods and economic growth in SSA (Ates et al., 2018;Juju et al., 2020)."},{"index":3,"size":137,"text":"Several forage germplasm resources were collected at International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI) from 160 countries in collaboration with global partners; 43 % and 17% of those collections are from SSA and Ethiopia, respectively (Hanson et al., 2020). Among this, a variety of annual and perennial grasses, legumes, trees and shrubs are traditionally grown by the farmers in SSA (Batello et al., 2008), though less research attention was given to date (Mengistu et al., 2017). Forage grasses such as Napier grass, Urochloa brizantha, desho grass (Pennisetum pedicellatum), buffelgrass (Cenchrus ciliaris) (Cantarutti et al., 2021); herbaceous legumes (Stylosanthes, Centrosema, Desmodium, Lablab and Macroptilium) (Jimoh et al., 2021); tree legumes (Acacia), silages (Alfalfa, oats) and crop residues (sorghum and corn); (Trees, natural vegetation, crop residues, and grazing are the most common feed resources in the region (Balehegn et al., 2021)."},{"index":4,"size":81,"text":"Napier grass is amongst the most important tropical forage grasses native to SSA. It is cultivated as a multipurpose forage, primarily used to feed cattle in cut and carry feeding systems (Negawo et al., 2017); because of its ability to withstand repeated cuttings and some degree of resilience against drought (Muyekho, 2015;Paudel et al., 2018). Furthermore, it is the higher-yielding tropical grass species (Muyekho, 2015;Paudel et al., 2018) and perennial availability under irrigated conditions (Haegele et al., 2017;Muktar et al., 2019)."},{"index":5,"size":34,"text":"Easy establishment, fast-growing, and good palatability, when cut between six and eight weeks of regeneration, are some of the additional attributes of Napier grass (Archibald et al., 2021;Habte et al., 2020;Singh et al., 2013)."},{"index":6,"size":96,"text":"Despite the aforementioned attributes and primary importance, particularly to small-scale farmers, Napier grass has received little attention from researchers to date (Negawo et al., 2017). At present, farmer's varieties are threatened by novel biotic factors such as Smut (caused by Ustilago kamerunensisis) and stunt (caused by a phytoplasma), and abiotic factors like drought (Farrell et al., 2002;Kariuki et al., 2016;Sangsuwan and Dickinson, 2019). To limit the damage caused by biotic and abiotic threats, and to improve the nutritional value of farmer's varieties, breeding is a way forward for new varieties development program (Kingston-Smith et al., 2013)."},{"index":7,"size":140,"text":"For the successful improvement of Napier grass, germplasms stocks persevered in genebanks', both in ex-situ and in-situ, are vital sources to initiate a breeding program (Pattanashetti et al., 2015). Advanced initial knowledge on these resources is key for sustainable use of the available genetic resources and developing improved varieties (Peters et al., 2021), thereby providing solutions for challenges that affect yield and other important agronomic traits like tolerance against diseases (such as smut and stunt) and climatic factors (like drought and frost) (Nassif and Tanji, 2017;Sandhu et al., 2019;Singh et al., 2012). To date, a limited number of studies were carried out to understand the genetic diversity among germplasm collections of Napier grass (Hanson et al., 2020). Molecular markers such as Simple sequence repeats (SSRs) (Negawo et al., 2018); Amplified Fragment Length Polymorphism (AFLP) (Wanjala et al., 2013); Randomly Amplified"},{"index":8,"size":11,"text":"Polymorphic DNA (RAPD) (Okukenu et al., 2020); Inter-Simple Sequence Repeat (ISSR)"},{"index":9,"size":24,"text":"and Single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs,) (Wang et al., 2020); were used for genetic diversity studies of Napier grass germplasm. Recently, genotyping by sequencing (GBS)"},{"index":10,"size":22,"text":"was utilized to develop genome-wide markers for Napier grass and assess genetic diversity among accessions (Muktar et al., 2019;Paudel et al., 2018)."},{"index":11,"size":22,"text":"For appropriate germplasm conservation, use and further genetic improvement the aforementioned genomic tools are critical (Brummer and Wang, 2020;Muktar et al., 2019)."},{"index":12,"size":81,"text":"Though the GBS approach is significantly better approach than PCR based molecular marker on the other hand whole genome sequencing (WGS) is a method of choice due to the reduction in the cost of sequencing (He et al., 2014). It gives a complete genomic DNA sequence of the particular organism and generates more accurate information that can rapidly identify/select genes associated with specific characteristics and accelerate the conventional variety development processes with the support of bioinformatics tools (Yano et al., 2016)."},{"index":13,"size":57,"text":"Therefore, to accelerate the breeding programs on Napier grass, the WGS approach is advanced for the discovery of genome-wide markers suitable for marker-assisted selection and/or building genetic maps (Peace et al., 2019). It also helps to quantify the genetic variability and hence efficient use of available germplasm and conservation strategies (Nakato et al., 2021;Perez-De-Castro et al., 2012)."},{"index":14,"size":80,"text":"The main aim of this study was focused on the phenotypic and genetic diversity of Napier grass accessions within the ILRI genebank. In addition, to carry out, a genome-wide association analysis (GWA), for traits of interest such as resilience against abiotic stress and nutritional quality aspects of selected genotypes. Thus, the tools developed in this study will enable forage breeders to apply advanced plant breeding procedures like genomic selection and marker-assisted breeding in their improvement. Specifically, the study aimed at: "}]},{"head":"LITERATURE REVIEW","index":3,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Livestock Production and Productivity in Sub-Saharan Africa","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":121,"text":"In SSA, approximately one-third of rural people rely on livestock for a living (Gadekar, 2021;Ibeagha-Awemu et al., 2019); and the region encompasses 18% of the global bovine herd, yet annual milk and meat production remains low compared to the global average (7000 tonnes) (Butterbach-Bahl et al., 2020). Average meat and milk production in the SSA is below 2500 tonnes, which is more than half the global average, 7000 tonnes (FAOSTAT, 2021). While changing climatic conditions are global phenomena, their adverse effects are more severe on the livestock feeding systems in SSA, due to their dependency on rain-fed feeding schemes (Kabo-Bah et al., 2021), resulting in a decline in food production of animal origin (i.e. meat and milk) (Patrick and Barkhuizen, 2020)."},{"index":2,"size":70,"text":"The main challenge affecting livestock production and productivity in the region is inadequate access to feeds and forages, which is available for a short period, mainly during the rainy season (Ayele et al., 2021;McDermott et al., 2010). Agriculture and livestock farming plays a vital role in the poor pastoral and agro-pastoral systems in SSA and its lack leads to continued economic decline and food security challenges (Birhanu et al., 2021)."},{"index":3,"size":132,"text":"Source: (FAOSTAT, 2022) Livestock production and productivity in SSA are affected by various factors such as changing climate conditions like severe drought, flooding, land degradation, animal health and management practices (Ringler et al., 2010;Squires and Gaur, 2020). More importantly, limited access to quality forages and feed is the cause for the underperforming small-scale livestock industry in the region (Enahoro et al., 2019;Mutimura et al., 2015;Paul et al., 2020). Therefore, to realize the full potential of livestock sectors in the region, a continuous supply of sufficient and quality feed is critical as any approach to boost production and productivity (Kriel, 2016). And also, a palatable feed source is an important aspect to increase animal performance which is linked with feed quality like nutrient digestibility, chemical composition, and other attributes (Coleman and Moore, 2003)."}]},{"head":"Seasonal Feed Shortage","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":147,"text":"Various factors, such as biotic and abiotic stresses repeatedly affect the availability and quality of resources in SSA (Adugna, 2016;Lottering et al., 2020). Among these factors, climate (delay in rainy season) has the greatest influence in reducing pasture quality and yield, disrupting forage seed production, and causing the appearance of biotic factors (diseases and pests) as well as direct effects on animal health, growth and reproduction (Adugna, 2016;Bakare et al., 2020). Due to severe droughts, SSA potential vegetation is largely desert and semi-desert, shrub, and woodland, with only a small area of pure grassland resulting in the seasonal availability of feeds (Reid et al., 2005). In addition, climate changerelated challenges are expected to get worse in the future because additional other factors like continuous population increase, increasing energy demands, erratic weather conditions, shrinking arable land, and competition for water resources (Balehegn et al., 2020;Diriba et al., 2020)."}]},{"head":"Biodiversity of Feed and Forage Genetic Resources","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":89,"text":"Globally, around 12,000 species (650 to 785 genera) of grasses and 18 000 species of legumes are used as forage and fodder (Cherney and Cherney, 2011). As compared to the biodiversity of food crops available, genetic resources for feeds and forages lags far behind in terms of collection, characterization and genetic improvement (Priyadarshan and Jain, 2022). Hence, there is a need to increase the number of species and cultivars under collection, use, and preservation and recognize the work of end-users who preserve these genetic resources (Batello et al., 2008)."},{"index":2,"size":33,"text":"Central, South America and Caribbean regions are the origin for genetically diverse legume forages (Kretschmer and Pitman, 2000) like Stylosanthes, Leucaena, Desmodium, Centrosema, and Gliricidia, while important grass genera, such as Urochloa (syn."},{"index":3,"size":67,"text":"Brachiaria), Pennisetum, Megathyrsus (syn. Panicum) and Digitaria are predominantly from SSA (Pengelly, 2015). Some important grass genera like Cenchrus and Bothriochloa have both African and Asian distributions (Sandhu et al., 2019). There are widely distributed grasses (Napier grass) and legumes (lablab) in SSA but genetic improvement and other breeding strategies and their adoption and use in the regions are limited and still underutilized (Barnes et al., 2021)."}]},{"head":"Feed and Forage Genetic Resources in SSA","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":86,"text":"There are various feed resources such as sown and /or planted grasses, herbaceous, dualpurpose legumes, shrub fodder legumes and trees which are among key components to improve livestock production and productivity (Casanova-Lugo et al., 2022;Paul et al., 2020); that can play important roles and achieve different goals in crop and animal production systems (Enahoro et al., 2019). There are tropical and subtropical fodder resources, mainly legumes and grasses, which are used in the development of feeding systems for large and small scale animal production (Pengelly, 2015)."},{"index":2,"size":64,"text":"There are diverse germplasms of grain feeds (oats, corns) and forages (like local grasses, legumes, groomed pastures or woody forbs, and a wide variety of plants (Harris-Coble et al., 2021). But these resources are becoming scarce as a result of the inevitable population increase, more land being allocated for food crops, and changing climate affect conservation schemes (Balehegn et al., 2021;Stavi et al., 2021)."}]},{"head":"Feed and Forage Production Systems in Eastern Africa","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":42,"text":"Natural vegetation (natural grazing, crop residue, enset by-products (leaf and pseudostem), green feed (weeds and crop thinning), and sugarcane top) are the main forages in East Africa, mainly in Ethiopia (Dey et al., 2021;Funte et al., 2009); and also similarly, in Kenya;"},{"index":2,"size":42,"text":"Uganda, Rwanda, and Sudan (except enset by-products (leaf and pseudostem), but its availability are mostly dependent on the rainy season and after harvesting time of crops (Paul et al., 2020). Livestock production is the major component in the agriculture of Horn Africa;"},{"index":3,"size":68,"text":"making it SSA's leader in milk production (contains 68% of Africa's milk production) (Bingi and Tondel, 2015). And its achievement depends on a better functioning of sufficient and quality feeding systems (Michael et al., 2022), but a shortage of farmland, undulated topography, natural hazards, and absence of diversification in production are serious problems leading to poor performance of the livestock industry in the region (Paul et al., 2020)."},{"index":4,"size":130,"text":"The livestock production system (particularly dairy production) is grouped as pastoral, agropastoral, the agro-pastoral in cooler and humid regions (crops and livestock) and sedentary schemes depending upon agro-climatic conditions, the purposes of production, available resources used, the extent of production, market orientation (Mengistu et al., 2013). But the availability of sufficient and quality feeds and forages is very low which is threatened by seasonal climatic factors and diseases (Franzel et al., 2014;Paul et al., 2020). Loss of forage genetic resources (Hanson and Ellis, 2020); lack of improved high yielding and quality forage resources (Paul et al., 2020); more allocation of farmland for food crops, loss of biodiversity, severe drought, and other management practices are factors that limit forage production, particularly in eastern Africa (Lottering et al., 2020;Wreford and Topp, 2020)."},{"index":5,"size":123,"text":"Furthermore, feed and feeding schemes of livestock are constrained by state restrictions on livestock mobility, grassland degradation, overgrazing, land tenure, land-use changes (Soumya et al., 2022), the encroachment of invasive plant species, soil infertility, and inadequacy of grazing inputs and planting materials (Baumgard et al., 2012;Ringler et al., 2010). In addition to the above natural and man-made challenges, tropical forage research was given limited attention in the region leading to farmers using only landraces that are low yielding, susceptible to disease and pests and not amenable for mechanization (Balehegn et al., 2021). As a result, there is an urgent need to focus and invest in enhancing tropical forages so that the underperforming livestock sector may reach its full potential (Kitalyi et al., 2021)."}]},{"head":"Major Forage Resources, Production and Its Constraints in Ethiopia","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":108,"text":"Ethiopia has the largest livestock genetic resources and population in Africa and its main feed supplies are natural vegetation, crop residues, and grazing (CSA, 2016;Gebreyohanes et al., 2021;Tolera et al., 2012). Most commonly known forages in Ethiopia are natural pastures/ gross fodder (about 124 grass species; and 333 legumes species) and browse trees and root crop as well as roughages, agro-industrial by-products and concentrate compound feeds (Assefa et al., 2012;Mengistu et al., 2017;Tolera et al., 2012). Natural pastures are the major fodder resources and represent 92.81% and 7% are other sources such as agricultural by-products (1.53%) and improved feeds and forages constitute only (0.31%) (Hassan et al., 2020)."},{"index":2,"size":309,"text":"Hence, livestock productivity is profoundly dependent on natural sources of pasture in all parts of Ethiopia (Funte et al., 2009;Kitaba and Tamir, 2007). However, it is not enough to meet the demands because it is limited by several factors such as ecological deterioration, drought due to climate change; unwanted weeds and bush invasion due to overgrazing; land tenure due to investments; the decline in soil fertility due to soil erosion (Adugna, 2016;Guadu et al., 2016;Mengistu et al., 2017). Compound feeding, fodder, and forages are common feeding stuff worldwide which is also common in Ethiopia (Birhan and Adugna, 2014). These are harvested crop residues intended for animal feed are grown in a limited area for livestock that is the collection of legumes, grasses/herbs, maize, oats, alfalfa and other edible plants (Phelan et al., 2015). Among key common forages, Napier grass is multipurpose high biomass yielding resource and known traditional grass grown in SSA and mostly Eastern Africa (Ethiopia, Kenya Uganda, Tanzania) (Umer and Nurusheva, 2020). Napier grass (Cenchrus purpureus L.), is a multi-purpose forage(used as feed and forage, soil conservation, biofuel), native to SSA, used in intensive or semi-intensive agriculture (Mkhutche, 2020). It is known for its high biomass yield, adaptability under broader environmental conditions of growth (Muyekho, 2015;Negawo et al., 2017); and is commonly grown in Ethiopia, Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania, Nigeria (Farrell et al., 2002;Hassen, 2004;Mwendia et al., 2006;Orodho, 2006). It is a perennial forage plant distributed and grown in the tropical and sub-tropical regions, known as a good source of palatable forage, at the early growth stage, and can rejuvenate after each harvest (Kamau, 2007;Knoll and Anderson, 2012;Singh et al., 2013). It is a monocotyledonous open-pollinated flowering plant that usually produces few full forms of seeds; so its main mode of propagation is by vegetative through stem cuttings (Dujardin and Hanna, 1985;Knoll and Anderson, 2012;Kustyorini et al., 2019)."}]},{"head":"Overview of","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":99,"text":"Genus Cenchrus has 140 known species, among which Napier grass is an important perennial C4 flowering cultivated species and its polyploidy level is an allotetraploid (2n=4x=28, A'A'BB genome) (Yan et al., 2021;Zhang et al., 2020). It can yield 60-150 tons of green matter ha -1 each year and is capable of withstanding repeated cuttings (four to six cuts per year), tolerates high temperatures, drought stress, low soil fertility, and other biotic stresses; but for its best growth temperature between 25-40 °C, and an altitude of above 2000m in the tropics (Dokbua et al., 2020;Kamau, 2007;Rusdy, 2016;Yan et al., 2020)."},{"index":2,"size":111,"text":"In addition, Napier grass is used as a biofuel source, for soil and water conservation, and as a trap crop in integrated pest management practices (Kabirizi et al., 2015;Rengsirikul et al., 2013). Once established in the main production field, it can grow and stay for a long time under good management practices (Hassen, 2004); and grow as a multi-cropping system that can be intercropped with legumes such as desmodium, Macrotyloma axillae, and stylosanthes (Knoll and Anderson, 2012;Rengsirikul et al., 2013). Napier grass can grow in the wider types of soil but for better performance and high biomass yield, deep and fertile soil with good drainage is preferable (Nassif and Tanji, 2017)."}]},{"head":"Ecological Requirements and Management Practices of Napier Grass","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":66,"text":"Napier grass is a C4 grass it can grow at a wider altitude; for maximum yield, an altitude than 2000m is best and well ploughed and a fine planting field during establishment also favours establishment (Mengistu et al., 2017). Depending upon growing environmental conditions and variety; appropriate nutrition, as well as irrigation supply, improve the performance and feeding quality of Napier grass (Mwendia et al., 2018)."},{"index":2,"size":144,"text":"Napier grass is one of deeply-rooted, tall, fast-growing perennial grasses, and its main mode of propagation is by the cutting of stem and can withstand continuous harvesting, once established (Muyekho, 2015). Biomass yield and forage quality, as well as other nutritional attributes, are a function of variety, growing seasonal condition, growing environment and agronomic and other management practices (like plant nutritional management; planting density, harvesting age, cutting height, water management, disease, and insect management practices) (Mukhtar et al., 2003;Rusdy, 2016;Zewdu, 2008). More importantly significant difference in yield and nutritional attributes of Napier grass due to varieties reported which is important initial information for improvement programs for better forage quality and other agronomic traits (Wangchuk et al., 2015); similarly growth and other attributes are influenced by genotype by environment interaction because of their difference in growth response to a specific environment (Kabirizi et al., 2015)."}]},{"head":"Nutritional and Other Attributes of Napier grass","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":103,"text":"Poor nutritional quality is among the challenging factors affecting the production and productivity of livestock in SSA (Muia, 2000). According to Animasaun et al. (2018), Napier grass has lower forage quality than pearl millet. Furthermore, pearl millet has higher calcium, zinc, iron, and potassium whereas a higher percentage of acid and neutral detergent fibre and lower minerals were recorded for Napier grass (Wangchuk et al., 2015;Zewdu, 2005). Nutritional and growth attributes of Napier grass are majorly controlled by growing altitude, agronomic management practices like harvesting time, and plant population (Mukhtar et al., 2003), soil nutrient status and fertilizer application (Tessema et al., 2011);"},{"index":2,"size":121,"text":"other biotic factors such as diseases may also affect the nutritional content of Napier grass (Kitaba and Tamir, 2007;Rengsirikul et al., 2013;Wangchuk et al., 2015). Source: (Cuomo et al., 1996;Rusdy, 2016;Turano et al., 2016;Zewdu, 2005) Besides, the nutritional quality of Napier grass is affected by the age of harvesting because the accumulation of required chemical composition is associated with the stage of harvesting (Takara and Khanal, 2015;Wangchuk et al., 2015). For balanced livestock feeding and maximum yield, it is important to mix Napier grass with other forage sources for balanced mineral mixture because Napier grass was reported as deficient compared to a critical level in minerals elements (Table 2) and its nutritional content decreases as age increases (Aganga et al., 2005). "}]},{"head":"Major Challenges of Napier Grass Production","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":15,"text":"Napier grass is well known for its high biomass yield when grown under irrigated conditions."},{"index":2,"size":56,"text":"But its yield and nutritional quality are constrained by various factors such as; drought (Gashaw et al., 2014;Turano et al., 2016); poor agronomic management practices (Mukhtar et al., 2003), and/or biotic factors like smut and stunt diseases (Farrell et al., 2002;Khan et al., 2014). Some of these important factors that threat Napier grass are discussed below."}]},{"head":"Abiotic and Biotic stresses","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":130,"text":"Napier grass is a drought-tolerant forage plant through changing its growing physiology in response to severe drought and water deficiency but its yield potential is affected as compared to normal growing conditions which are mainly from the direct effect of climate change like higher temperature and /or drought (Mwendia et al., 2019;Wreford and Topp, 2020). In all growing altitudes, environmental stresses like drought, soil fertility, and poor agricultural practices significantly reduce the yield and quality of Napier grass (Mengistu et al., 2017). According to Maleko et al. (2019) growth, biomass yield, and nutritional quality of Napier grass were affected by growing season and genotype interaction. To minimize yield and quality loss arising from abiotic stresses developing improved varieties resilient against these stresses is the way forward (Habte et al., 2020)."},{"index":2,"size":122,"text":"Biotic factors are one of the production constraints that affect the growth, and nutritional quality of forages including Napier grass (Farrell et al., 2002;Khan et al., 2014;Singh and Chahal, 2020). Insect pests (mites and nematodes), disease (viruses, fungal and bacterial) are among serious novel biotic factors that cause significant loss in yield and nutritional quality of Napier grass (Farrell et al., 2002). Recently Smut (caused by Ustilago kamerunensisis) and stunt (caused by a phytoplasma) disease were reported as serious biotic factors affecting the productivity of the Napier grass in central and East Africa (Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Rwanda, Congo, and Cameron (Kawube et al., 2014). Stunt disease causes complete yield loss (40-90%) and/ or even death of the plant (Wamalwa et al., 2017)."},{"index":3,"size":17,"text":"Similarly, yield loss due to smut is approximately 0.265 t ha -1 yr-1 (Mwendia et al., 2007)."}]},{"head":"Lack of Improved Varieties and Poor Management Practices","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":57,"text":"The yield potential of Napier grass can be improved significantly with good agronomic management practices like fertilization, watering/irrigation, as well as insect pests and disease management (Maenetja, 2021). Napier grass is a promising forage resource but is yet to be fully domesticated and explored (Mwendia et al., 2019;Paul et al., 2020;Simeão et al., 2021;Turano et al., 2016)."}]},{"head":"Progress of Napier Grass Germplasms Collection and Its Improvements","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":158,"text":"Forage germplasm collections are vital initial breeding tools that help to develop highyielding and resilient varieties adaptable to wider climatic conditions and agroecology (Hanson and Ellis, 2020). Napier grass germplasm collections, characterization, and appropriate conservation are important strategies to enhance germplasm resources because every genetic improvement plan is mostly dependent on available germplasm and their initial genetic variability (Habte et al., 2020;Kawube et al., 2015;Wanjala et al., 2013). Besides, collection and appropriate maintenance is a fundamental approach against genetic erosion and rapid loss of germplasm from native biodiversity because of damage caused due to biotic, abiotic factors such as human interference, habitat destruction, air pollution and the invasiveness of non-native species, and deforestation (Anandhinatchiar et al., 2020;Okukenu et al., 2020) The study of phenotypic and genotypic variability helps to identify desirable traits and enhance selective breeding for abiotic and biotic stresses, thus to achieve sustainable forage production, including in Napier grass (Lutatenekwa et al., 2020;Wanjala et al., 2013)."},{"index":2,"size":125,"text":"Characterization based on morphological traits has long been used in conventional breeding and is now advanced by the use of molecular markers which speed up the process and permit optimal utilization of available diversity within a species and beyond (Anandhinatchiar et al., 2020;Irshad, 2014). Napier grass germplasm collection, characterization, diversity study will contribute to a genetic improvement plan which helps to enhance improved varieties with good forage quality (Anandhinatchiar et al., 2020). Assessment of genetic variability among available germplasm helps further breeding programs by providing insight into polymorphisms that cannot be accounted for through phenotypic characterization (Anandhinatchiar et al., 2020). Phenotypic characterization provides relevant morphological information that helps to identify some epigenetic information for those traits beyond genetics (Eichten et al., 2014;McCouch et al., 2012)."},{"index":3,"size":27,"text":"Variability on biomass yields and nutritional content of Napier grass collections have been reported (Habte et al., 2020;Maleko et al., 2019;Turano et al., 2016;Wouw et al., 1999)."},{"index":4,"size":29,"text":"But phenotypic evaluations based on agro morphological traits cannot depict variability at the gene level and should be complemented by marker-assisted platforms (Muktar et al., 2019;Pattanashetti et al., 2015)."}]},{"head":"Genomic Selection, Characterization, and Breeding of Napier Grass","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":65,"text":"Napier grass has a long vegetative phase which makes it difficult to identify its germplasm based on only its agro-morphological traits (Bhandari et al., 2006). Thus, evaluating genetic diversity with the help of molecular markers offers more accurate, fast, non-expensive technology that complements phenotyping, to identify relationships and purity among germplasm collections, populations, and species (Anandhinatchiar et al., 2020;Kawube et al., 2015;Muktar et al., 2019)."},{"index":2,"size":92,"text":"DNA-based markers are among the essential tools for diversity study and breeding with a variety of applications including genome mapping, gene tagging, genetic diversity, and phylogenetic analysis (Irshad, 2014;Ortiz, 2002). There are various molecular markers like non-PCR-based (RFLP) and PCR-based markers (RAPD, AFLP, SSR, SNP); used for genetic diversity study of forages including Napier grass (Kandel et al., 2016). Since sequencing costs became gradually lower, Single Nucleotide Polymorphism (SNPs), have gained high popularity due to their genome-wide coverage, even though it is only a bi-allelic type of marker (Wang et al., 2020)."}]},{"head":"GBS and GWA Analysis of Napier Grass","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":125,"text":"Applying genomics to forage improvement programs is vital to accelerate conventional breeding by targeting key genes behind traits of interest and such tools are already in use in temperate forage like ryegrass (Genus Lolium) (Brummer and Wang, 2020;Habte et al., 2020;Mishra and Singh, 2020). Developing and applying genomic tools contribute towards fast-tracking breeding efforts in Napier grass which has a perennial nature and is difficult to improve through the conventional breeding approach (Ahmar et al., 2020;Mishra and Singh, 2015). A whole-genome sequencing approach is a new tool that supports a genetic improvement plan through the formation of suitable reference genomes and their wild relatives to implement novel methodologies such as genomic selection (GS), genome-wide association studies (GWAS), epigenomics, and genome editing (Schreiber et al., 2018)."},{"index":2,"size":126,"text":"A marker-trait association study was done in Napier grass (Habte et al., 2020); the recent report indicated that diversity study and construction of high-density genetic mapping was done by sequencing which is one of the new insights to diversity study of Napier grass (Muktar et al., 2019;Paudel et al., 2018). However, despite this progress more genomic tools are needed for advanced improvement plans of Napier grass and other animal forage plants (Nuccio et al., 2018;Paudel et al., 2018). Also, more studies on the GWAS to identify important agronomic traits for further breeding; identification of molecular markers for diversity study in available germplasm collections is of paramount importance to address the necessary genomic study of Napier grasses (Azevedo et al., 2012;Habte et al., 2020;Kandel et al., 2016)."},{"index":3,"size":159,"text":"Genome-wide association studies are one of the approaches for identifying the genomic regions responsible for the important agronomic traits like resistance to drought, high yielding, resistance to common diseases and other related qualitative and quantitative traits (Hirschhorn and Daly, 2005;Wang et al., 2020). Identification of QTLs and/or molecular markers nearby the gene of interest, associated with important agronomic traits, facilitate the transfer of those traits into target populations via conventional approaches or through a genetic transformation which is a robust tool to make changes at a distinct locus in the genome, even at the individual nucleotide level (Brummer and Wang, 2020;Chai and Wang, 2020). Moreover, GWAS combines a wide-ranging and unbiased investigation of the genome with the power to detect common alleles in different loci with modest phenotypic effects and hence it is also a powerful approach for dissecting complex traits (Akiyama, 2020;Grenn et al., 2020;Wang et al., 2020). Genomic tools fasten breeding effeort through clearly complementing conventional approach."}]},{"head":"Prospects of Napier Grass Towards Full Domestication","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":189,"text":"There is progress on Napier grass improvement like germplasm collection, characterization, evaluation, and selection as well as a genomic study (Anandhinatchiar et al., 2020;Muktar et al., 2019;Nassif and Tanji, 2007). The main improvement objectives of Napier grass are developing resistant and/or tolerant varieties against smut and stunt diseases, and increasing forage quality such as crude protein content (Anandhinatchiar et al., 2020;Kingston-Smith et al., 2013;Mukhtar et al., 2003). Limited genomic tools are available to date for Napier grass with the first reference genome published (Yan et al., 2021) and with only two GBS studies to date (Muktar et al., 2019;Paudel et al., 2018). This is mainly because of lack of awareness, little attention of policymakers, lack of cheap and quality forage seed, and poor market linkages for inputs and outputs (Ndah T et al., 2017;Sejian et al., 2021). This grass is a key perennial traditional forage in SSA, with limited genetic resources for its improvement (Muktar et al., 2021). Therefore, developing more genomic tools offers opportunities to apply modern breeding tools such as marker-assisted selection (MAS) and genomic selection (GS) to complement the traditional breeding approach (Simeão et al., 2021)."}]},{"head":"MATERIALS AND METHODS","index":20,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Plant Materials and Experimental Site","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":88,"text":"Among 109 Napier grass accessions collected and conserved at ILRI genebank and used in this study (Table 3 and Appendix Table 1), eighty-four accessions were phenotypically evaluated at Bishoftu as described by Muktar et al., (2019), the site located 48 km southeast of Addis Ababa East Shewa Zone, Oromia Region). The field trial site is geographically located at 8 0 47\"20' N 38 0 59\"20' E, altitude 1800 (masl), annual rainfall (875mm), soil type alfisol maximum, average, and minimum Temperature ( 0 C) of 25,19, and 11 respectively."},{"index":2,"size":56,"text":"The trial was established in August 2017 and data collection was carried out between 2018-2020 as previously described by (Muktar et al., 2019). In addition, all the 84 phenotyped accessions in the field trial (Figure 2) and an additional 24 that were not phenotyped were genotyped at the WGS level through Illumina sequencing tool (Table 3). "}]},{"head":"Field Trial and Experimental Design","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":26,"text":"Eighty-four Napier grass accessions were arranged in a partially replicated (p-rep) design and replicated four times for phenotyping as previously described by Muktar et al. (2019)."},{"index":2,"size":103,"text":"Six stem cuttings from respective accessions were planted in a single row allowing 750 mm spacing between plants and rows. After six months of the establishment, a standard cut of 50 mm above ground was carried out before drought stress conditions were imposed at the beginning of 2018. During the dry season (DS), two blocks were irrigated to a volumetric soil water content (VWC) of approximately 20% (now onwards called moderate water stress (MWS) and the other two blocks were irrigated with a reduced amount of soil moisture, which corresponds to a VWC of about 10% (now onwards called severe water stress (SWS)."},{"index":3,"size":74,"text":"Drip irrigation was paused during the wet season (WS) and VWC for all the blocks was approximately 30%. Soil moisture content was checked by using a Delta soil moisture probe (HD, England). Overall, 12 harvests were conducted, following every eight weeks of regrowth, in both wet and dry seasons. Phenotypic scores such as agronomic performance and feed quality traits of Napier grass accessions were collected under both moderate and severe water stress moisture conditions."}]},{"head":"Agronomic and Nutritional Data Collected","index":23,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":128,"text":"A total of six growth and forage biomass yield traits, like plant height (PH) (cm), leaf length (LL) (mm), leaf width (LW) (mm), tiller number (TN), average total fresh weight per plant (TFW) (g) were measured after every eighth week of each harvest from six randomly selected plants, per accession, in each treatment condition. In addition, total dry weight per plant (TDW) (g) after oven drying 600gram fresh weight at 65 °C for 72 hrs was recorded at every harvest. Three hundred grams of the whole plant was oven-dried for nutritional trait analysis samples were ground into a powder fine enough to pass through a 1 mm sieve and scanned using Near-Infrared Spectroscopy (NIRS) (FOSS Forage Analyzer 5000 with software package WinISI II) to estimate feed quality traits."},{"index":2,"size":53,"text":"Seven nutritional traits like acid detergent fibre (ADF) (%), acid detergent lignin (ADL) (%), crude protein (CP) (%), Dry matter (DM) (%), in vitro organic matter digestibility (IOMD) (%), metabolizable energy (ME) (%), neutral detergent fibre (NDF) (%), organic matter (OM) (%) were measured by following procedures described by (Choudhary et al., 2009)."}]},{"head":"Genotyping","index":24,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"DNA Extraction and Quality Control","index":25,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":53,"text":"Young leaf tissue was collected from respective 109 accessions (Table 3 and Appendix Table 1) and subjected for isolation of genomic DNA using the procedure as described by Qiagen DNeasy® Plant Mini kit (250) (Qiagen Inc., Valencia, CA) method. The DNA quality and quantification; was checked using a spectrophotometer and agarose gel electrophoresis."},{"index":2,"size":25,"text":"Before library preparation, DNA quality was checked on 1% agarose gels and DNA purity was checked using the Nanophotometer® spectrophotometer (IMPLEN, CA, The USA); and"},{"index":3,"size":13,"text":"DNA concentration was measured using the Qubit® DNA Assay Kit in Qubit® 2.0"},{"index":4,"size":24,"text":"Fluorometer (Life Technologies, CA, USA). High-quality DNA with a minimum of 50 ng/µl was used for Illumina whole-genome sequencing at a depth of 20x."}]},{"head":"Library Preparation and Sequencing","index":26,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":51,"text":"The construction of the sequencing library was created using NEBNext Ultra II DNA Library Prep Kit for Illumina (New England Biolabs, England) and following manufacturers' recommendations. The 1µg genomic DNA was randomly fragmented to a size of 350bp by Bioruptor, then DNA fragments were narrowly size selected with sample purification beads."},{"index":2,"size":84,"text":"The selected fragments were then polished at the end, A-tailed, and bound with the fulllength adaptor. After these treatments, these fragments are filtered with beads again. Finally, the library was analysed for size distribution by Agilent2100 Bioanalyzer and quantified with real-time PCR. Libraries were sequenced by Illumina high-throughput sequencer with a paired-end sequencing strategy. Following library optimization and preparation, DNA sequencing was performed by the Novaseq platform and end readings of 150 bp were generated. Library preparation and sequencing was conducted by Novogene (https://en.novogene.com)."}]},{"head":"Genome-Wide SNP Discovery","index":27,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":141,"text":"Once raw sequence reads were received, the quality of reads was checked by the MultiQc tool (Ewels et al., 2016). Afterwards, raw reads were trimmed and filtered by a trimmomatic tool (Bolger et al., 2014) to remove remnant adaptor sequences and get rid of low quality reads ahead of the mapping. Cleaned reads were mapped to Napier grass reference genome with Burrows Wheller Aligner (BWA) which is a software package for mapping lowdivergent sequences (Li and Durbin, 2009). Once bam files were generated, from the previous step, variant calling was carried out by Genome Analysis Toolkit (GATK3.8) (McKenna et al., 2010). GATK generated a vcf file which was filtered by BCftools/1.8 (Li et al., 2009). The SNP filtering only kept SNPs that are biallelic, polymorphic, read depth above 10 and below 300, mapping quality (GQ>20) and minor allele frequency above 0.85."}]},{"head":"Agronomic and Nutritional Data Analysis","index":28,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":103,"text":"All the collected agronomic and nutritional traits were used for the analysis by using Rsoftware version 4.0.2 for variance analysis in the library Agricolae (de Mendiburu and de Mendiburu, 2019). Pearson Correlation for an inter-trait association for both agronomic and nutritional trait analysis by using corr package in the R-Software. For cluster and principal coordinate analysis, the optimum cluster number and membership for respective accessions of Napier grass was done using FactomineR r-package for the analysis of the contribution of nutritional and agronomic traits and to visualize the cluster plot fviz_cluster function of the R package factoextra. was used (Kassambara et al., 2017)."},{"index":2,"size":5,"text":"3.6. Genomic Data Analysis and"}]},{"head":"Cluster and STRUCTURE Analysis","index":29,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":83,"text":"By using filtered SNPs STRUCTURE analysis was carried out and admixture-based clustering was used in structure V 2.3.2. and run ten independent times for each K value ranging from 1 to 10 with a burn-in of 100,000 iterations and 50,000 iterations for the analysis. The inference of true K, using an ad-hoc statistic ΔK, was determined based on the second-order rate of change in the log probability of data between consecutive values. The generated results were processed using Structure Harvester's web-based version https://taylor.biology.ucla.edu/StructureHarvester/)."}]},{"head":"Phylogenetic Relationship and Principal Coordinate Analysis","index":30,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":54,"text":"Phylogenetic trees were constructed with filtered and high-quality SNPs and both the unweighted neighbour-joining method and the hierarchical clustering method based on the dissimilarity matrix was calculated with Manhattan index and visualized using R-software packages in a library (Ape, cluster) Version 4.0.2. A neighbour-joining tree based on a simple matching dissimilarity coefficient was constructed."}]},{"head":"Genome-Wide Study (GWAS) Analysis","index":31,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":168,"text":"Mean agronomic and nutritional values were used for marker-trait association analysis. A marker-trait association was performed for each trait separately with multi-locus GWAS algorithms Fixed and random model Circulating Probability Unification (FarmCPU) (Lipka et al., 2012) and Bayesian-information and Linkage-disequilibrium Iteratively Nested Keyway (BLINK) Models (Huang et al., 2019) implemented in GAPIT software package within the R environment (R core team 2021). Missing data in the genotypic matrix were imputed by Beagle (Browning et al., 2018). The population structure was accounted for by including two principal components in the subsequent analysis of the data. The distribution of observed vs. expected −log10(p) values were visualized using Quantile-Quantile (Q-Q) plots to test the fitness of GWAS models for both agronomic and nutritional traits (Sharma et al., 2018); significant marker-trait associations, corresponding to putative QTLs, were determined by the P-value. Significantly associated SNPs (-Log10(P-value)> 5.0) were annotated against gramene plant database (https://www.gramene.org/) and NCBI database to check if the region containing these SNPs play a similar role in other grass species."}]},{"head":"RESULTS","index":32,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Variability of Agronomic and Nutritional Traits of Napier Grass Accessions under","index":33,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":4,"text":"Different Soil Moisture Conditions"}]},{"head":"Agronomic and Nutritional Variability","index":34,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":23,"text":"For all the agronomic traits significantly (p<0.05) different responses were recorded between accessions over growing moisture conditions (Table 4 and Appendix Table 2)."},{"index":2,"size":80,"text":"Except for LW and TN, the rest of the agronomic traits were significantly affected by moisture conditions. Furthermore, traits like PH, TFW and TDW were significantly affected by the interactive effect of accessions and season. Higher values in agronomic traits were recorded during the wet season versus the dry season. A similar trend was also shown during the dry season, traits such as PH, TFW and TDW were higher in MWS vs SWS conditions (Figure 3A, 3B, 3C and 3D)."},{"index":3,"size":77,"text":"Similarly, there was a significant difference (p<0.05) for feed quality traits between accessions under different growing seasons, and moisture conditions (Table 4 and Appendix   Table 2). All feed quality traits ADF, NDF, ADL, OM, IVOMD, Me, and CP were significantly affected by accessions, growing seasons and moisture conditions and the interactive effect of accessions. Except for traits like ADL, IVOMD and Me, all nutritional traits were significantly affected by the interaction effect of accessions and growing seasons."},{"index":4,"size":87,"text":"Higher values in CP and Me were found during the dry season under severe water stress conditions while lower mean value was recorded under MWS during both wet and dry seasons (Figure 4A, 3B, 3C and 3D). Lower values in neutral detergent fibre and acid detergent lignin were recorded and higher mean value in ADL was recorded under MWS during the dry season and lower values in NDF and ADL were recorded under both moderate and severe water stress conditions during the dry season versus wet season.   "}]},{"head":"Inter-Trait Correlation of Agronomic and Nutrition Traits","index":35,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":69,"text":"The correlation coefficient (R-values) was computed to determine the relationship between and among agronomic and nutritional traits as described in (Figure 5A and Appendix Table 3). For example, PH showed a strong positive correlation (P<0.01) with TFW, TDW, LL and LW. There was also a significant and strong positive correlation between TFW and TDW. On the other hand, TN depicted a weak negative association with PH, LL, and LW."},{"index":2,"size":56,"text":"Among nutritional traits, NDF showed a significant and positive correlation with ADF, ADL and OM but a significant and negative correlation with CP, IVOMD and Me. In addition, CP exhibited a significant and positive correlation with IVOMD and Me. There was no strong association between OM and other nutritional traits (Figure 5B and Appendix Table 3). "}]},{"head":"Principal Component and Cluster Analysis","index":36,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":42,"text":"To determine the largest contributing traits, principal component analysis was done (Figure 6A). As the PCA the scree plot (Figure 6B) four principal components (PC1 to PC4) had eigenvalues greater than one and eigenvalues make a straight line after the fourth component."},{"index":2,"size":135,"text":"These retained first four components accounted for 86.3 % of the total variation among accessions for the studied agronomic and nutritional traits (Table 5). In the first two principal components (PCs) total of 64.1 %, explained variances PC1 (38.1%) and PC2 (26%) was determined. All the agronomic traits showed a similar maximum correlation with the (PC1) which were ordinated in the same dimension and found a strong positive correlation among traits. However, nutritional traits were distributed in different components i.e., IVOMD, CP, and Me were ordinated in the second component which contains the second greatest variation and negatively correlated with the rest of nutritional traits but OM, ADL, ADF, and NDF were appeared in the fourth component and positively correlated with each other but negative correlation with IVOMD, CP and Me (Figure 6A, Table 5)."},{"index":3,"size":14,"text":"Hierarchal clustering was done for grouping accessions using agronomic and nutritional traits (Figure 6    "}]},{"head":"SNP Discovery and GWAS","index":37,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Genome-Wide SNP Discovery, Its Distribution and Assembled Chromosome","index":38,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":381,"text":"Whole-genome sequencing of 109 Napier grass accessions generated a total of 108,957,694 variants (SNPs and Indels). Of the total variants about 90,803,632 were SNPs and 19,654,799 were indels (Table 6). After hard filtering, about 1,129,470 SNPs were kept for subsequent genotyping but Indels were not included for downstream analysis because of enough SNPs. Based on the filtered SNPs a variant was detected at every 1683 bases. An accession 16621, showed below-average mapping quality hence removed from subsequent downstream analysis. After filtering, the largest SNPs were found in chromosome B01 followed by chromosome B02 and the smallest SNPs were mapped on chromosome A06 followed by chromosome A07. From total identified SNPs higher (716,080 SNPs) and lower (413,390) were mapped on B and A chromosomes, respectively (Figure 7). Most of the filtered SNPs were located at intergenic regions (85%) and 10,374 (0.8%) were in the Exon region of the genome. Among the identified SNPs, the rate of transition was much higher than transversion and the ratio of Ts/Tv was 3.09. A total of 180 unique gene IDs were also detected among that filtered SNP. SNPs (99.13%) were found modifier based on its impact effect while 49.96 % were found silent based on effect of SNPs by its functional class (Table 7). SNP density (0.085 %) was found from the total size of 177,737,733kb on chromosome B02 which has a lower size than the B01. The lowest SNP density (0.0037%) was recorded for chromosome A01 but it has a higher genome size than the rest of A subgenomes. In general, SNP density across assembled chromosomes was not associated with its respective size (i.e from a higher size smaller SNPs were identified and vice-versa (Table 8).  8A). Interestingly, most CNPGL and BAGCE accessions were captured in the first and second coordinates. There were some outliers from ILRI accessions in the fourth coordinate and similar contributions were observed for all the ordinates. Both, Super Napier, and PIONEIRO varieties contributed to the second ordinate. The hierarchical cluster analysis showed there were two main clusters (A and B) into which accessions were grouped based on their dissimilarity matrix (Figure 8B). The distribution of the ∆K (Figure 8D) shows a clear optimum cluster peak at K=2 indicating that the presence of two major groups with each have further subclusters."},{"index":2,"size":98,"text":"A total of 49 accessions out of 108 were grouped in the first cluster and the rest were grouped in the second cluster. ILRI and CNPGL accessions were equally captured in both Clusters but most of CNPGL were captured in cluster A and are aggregated non distantly into a similar sub-cluster. The three USA accessions did not cluster together. Cluster and structure analysis (Figure 8B and C) showed no clear pattern based on their country of origin and an admixture of accessions were observed which grouped into the different clusters and subclusters regardless of their country of origin. "}]},{"head":"Agronomic and Nutritional traits","index":39,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":27,"text":"Eighty-four accessions were phenotyped for two years, under two soil water conditions, and these data were combined with genotyping data for GWAS analysis. A total of 1,129,470"},{"index":2,"size":90,"text":"SNPs were used for GWAS analysis. More than 100 SNPs were significantly correlated -log10 (p-value) ≥ 5.0) threshold using a Circulating Probability Unification model (FarmCPU), for both agronomic and nutritional traits (Table 9 and Appendix Table 4). For example, 21 SNPs were significantly associated (Figure 9   9). Similarly, GWAS analysis for nutritional traits identified SNPs that were significantly associated with measured traits (Table 9). SNPs putatively associated with CP were located at chromosome A04 (1 SNP) and A02 (1 SNP) under MWS and SWS conditions, respectively during the dry season."},{"index":3,"size":33,"text":"Moreover, in both seasons there were a total of 13 SNPs (seven during the wet season and six during the dry season) that were significantly associated with ADL (Figure 11 A and B)."},{"index":4,"size":81,"text":"During the wet season, six total identified SNPs that pass -log10 (p-value) ≥ 5.0) were found under the MWS condition while a SNP was found under the SWS condition. These significantly associated SNPs for ADL were located on chromosome A03 (3 SNPs), A04 (1SNP), B02 (1SNP), B06 (2SNPs) under MWS condition while A01 (1SNP) under SWS condition of WS. SNPs located at one from chromosome A03 and A04 were found correlated with ADL under the MWS condition of the wet season."},{"index":5,"size":56,"text":"Similarly, during the dry season, a total of six SNPs (two SNPs under MWS condition and four under SWS condition) were significantly linked with ADL. These SNPs were located B03 (1SNP), B05 (1SNP) under MWS condition and four were located at chromosome A01 (1SNP), A06 (1SNP) B01 (1SNP), B02 (1SNP) and B04 (1SNp) under SWS condition."},{"index":6,"size":16,"text":"Several SNPs were also detected for the other feed quality traits in the study (Table 9)."},{"index":7,"size":46,"text":"Interestingly, most of the SNPs identified in the present study were shared by different traits or treatment conditions. For example, SGWHAORA00000005_58573147 was a significantly associated variant in both LL and TFW traits. Similarly for nutritional traits, SNP SGWHAORA00000013_36372759 was shared among ADF, IVOMD and Me traits.  "}]},{"head":"DISCUSSIONS","index":40,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Variability in Agronomic and Nutritional Traits","index":41,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":56,"text":"In the current study, the result revealed growth and forage biomass yield of Napier grass was significantly affected by accessions, moisture conditions, and seasons (Table 4). This result was in agreement with findings reported by Habte et al. (2020), who found that the forage yield of Napier grass was significantly different across genotypes and growing seasons."},{"index":2,"size":196,"text":"Consistently similar results also were reported from the study conducted by Shanableh et al. (2016), who found that growth and forage biomass yield of pearl millet were significantly different across accessions. Growth and yield traits like, PH, TFW, and TDW were higher during the wet season while lower during the dry season (Figure 3). Dinkale et al. (2021) reported that Dry matter and fresh biomass yield were high during the rainy season as was in the present study. This study revealed a significant difference in measured agronomic traits, across accessions, which was also reported by Zewdu (2005), in which a similar result in a study that included most of the accessions in the present study but the experiment was carried out in a different location. The above results highlight the fact that maximum yield can be harnessed from Napier grass if there is a continuous supply of water during production. ILRI accessions 16801 and 16804 were recently released varieties for biomass yield (Tulu et al., 2021) but some of the accessions in the present study performed as good or better, in terms of PH, TFW and TDW highlighting the possibility of further improvement of released varieties."},{"index":3,"size":95,"text":"Nutritional traits of Napier grass were also significantly different, among the accessions, implying inherent polymorphism, in terms of feed quality traits, due to their genetic background (Table 4 and Figure 4). In the present study, higher mean CP content was observed in dry seasons and under SWS in wet season conditions. This result was in agreement with the study conducted by Kebede et al. (2017), who found that CP yield, digestibility were higher at lowland (with high temperature) than highlands (more wet conditions) for different Napier grass accessions studied. A similar study on Brachiaria spp."},{"index":4,"size":64,"text":"cultivars showed higher CP content under dry conditions as was shown in the present study (Garay et al., 2017). Comparatively, nutritional traits were, more importantly, responding to the interactive effects than agronomic traits (Table 4) implying that nutritional content can be more determined by the interactive effect of accessions with stress conditions and this finding agreed with the study conducted (Kebede et al., 2016)."},{"index":5,"size":72,"text":"In the present study, CP was higher under SWS conditions during the dry season and lower during the wet season which highlights soil moisture plays a key role in the nutritional qualities of Napier grass. This result suggests that limited soil moisture has a positive impact on nutritional values like CP in Napier grass and a similar finding was reported by Bahreininejad (2019), who recorded higher mean CP under drought stress conditions."},{"index":6,"size":87,"text":"Likewise, higher values in Me and IVOMD, during low moisture conditions, were observed which is in agreement with the studies conducted by Habte et al. (2020);and Bahreininejad (2019). All nutritional traits were significantly affected by the cumulative effect of accessions and growing seasons and these results were consistent with the study conducted by (Habte et al., 2020;Maleko et al., 2019;Mwendia et al., 2017). Hence, livestock farmers should be made aware of this seasonal fluctuation in feed quality traits in Napier grass and should supplement their livestock accordingly."}]},{"head":"Inter Agronomical and Nutritional Trait Association.","index":42,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":178,"text":"Correlation analysis indicated PH was significantly and positively correlated with LL, LW TFW and TDW, indicating that these traits can be improved simultaneous (Figure 5). This finding was consistent with the report made by (Rahul, 2017). Correspondingly, there was a significant association among nutritional traits. For example, NDF showed a significant and positive correlation with ADF, ADL and this finding was consistent with a report from Habte et al. (2020). Similarly, ADF and NDF exhibited a significant and strong negative correlation with CP, IVOMD and Me which might be indicating that fibre content significantly affects factors of nutritional traits and palatability of Napier grass; similar studies were also reported by (Maleko et al., 2019). Also, in this study nutritional traits that are positively and strongly correlated will be a promising potential to improve those traits i.e., breeding to improve one trait will improve other traits that positively correlated with the trait of interest. Similar reports were found that improving one trait can improve other traits which have a positive correlation with traits of interest (Henkin et al., 2011)."}]},{"head":"Variability of Napier Grass collections under Different Moisture Condition","index":43,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Variability of Napier grass Collections Based on Phenotypic and Nutritional","index":44,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Traits","index":45,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":104,"text":"This study revealed that there was phenotypic, nutritional, and genetic variability among global Napier grass collections (Figure 6 and 8). Principal component analysis categorized traits into three coordinates and the first four PCAs describes 86.4 % of cumulative explained variation and the biplot was drawn using two major ordinates explaining cumulative of 64% variation indicating that their relations among the traits (Figure 6 a and c). Traits in the first components were greater contribution for the variation and strong positive association between traits indicating that improving for these traits will be promising further Napier grass breeding. A similar finding was reported by (Rahul, 2017)."},{"index":2,"size":125,"text":"Hierarchal clustering based on measured traits grouped accessions into three clusters regardless of their geographical origins. This finding was in agreement with the study conducted by Pattanashetti et al. (2015), who studied Napier grass collections at ICRISAT India which were clustered irrespective of the source of country origin. In the cluster analysis, 51 accessions (38 ILRI, 8 CNPGL and 5 BAGCE accessions) were grouped into the first cluster. Interestingly, only ILRI accessions were grouped into the second Cluster, 14 of them and 9 ILRI accessions, 5 CNPGL, 4 BAGCE and PIONEIRO accessions were categorized into the third cluster. These groupings regardless of country of the collection might be due to germplasm exchange between countries and a similar finding was reported by (Wanjala et al., 2013)."}]},{"head":"Genome-wide SNP Markers for Napier grass","index":46,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":148,"text":"When curated reads were mapped against the recently published Napier grass genome (Yan et al., 2021)  6). A GBS study on Napier grass also showed a similar result where the highest SNPs were mapped in the B sub-genome (Muktar et al., 2019). Among A subgenome chromosomes, the higher SNP number was recorded for A01 as was reported by (Muktar et al., 2019). Napier grass's A' chromosomes are homologous to A genomes of pearl millet (Gupta and Mhere, 1997) and the tools developed in this study can also play a role in key forage and feed species, pearl millet and hybrids originating from these two closely related species. This is the first study that generated genome-wide makers, a SNP at every 1,683 bases even after hard filtering, for Napier grass and these genomic tools will be critical for advancing Napier grass breeding technology for its improvement and full domestication."}]},{"head":"Clustering and Population Structure Based on Genome-Wide SNP markers","index":47,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":54,"text":"More than a million SNPs were shared among 108 Napier grass accessions; implying that there is polymorphism among these collections. This finding is consistent with the report made by Muktar et al. (2019), who found the presence of a significant quantity of variation between the ILRI collections with some distinctive features among EMBRAPA collections."},{"index":2,"size":28,"text":"Principal component analysis revealed that accessions were scattered into ordinates with no clear structure (Figure 8). This is expected for ILRI accessions as they were of global origin."},{"index":3,"size":38,"text":"Interestingly, most EMBRAPA elite lines (CNPGL) clustered into one quarter indicating similarity in their origin. In addition, USA accessions, three of them, clustered close to EMBRAPA accessions which were in agreement with finding from (Muktar et al, 2021)."},{"index":4,"size":43,"text":"The whole-genome sequencing approach also singled out an accession (16621) with poor quality mapping to the reference genome which implies this accession is not the same species. A previous GBS study by Muktar et al., (2019) reported a similar trend for this accession."},{"index":5,"size":106,"text":"Structure analysis indicated there were delta K=2 optimal clusters which were consistent with cluster analysis result through Unweighted Pair Group Method with Arithmetic Mean (UPGMA) where accessions were grouped into two clusters (A and B) regardless of their country of origin (Figure 8 b and c). Each main hierarchical cluster contains 49 accessions and with each cluster, accessions were sub-grouped into a small cluster. A possible reason for the grouping of accessions irrespective of their geographic origin might be that populations were admixtured due to germplasm exchange across global regions. Similar reports were made by (Muktar et al., 2019;Negawo et al., 2018;Tadelech, 2021;Wanjala et al., 2013)."}]},{"head":"Genome-Wide Association Study","index":48,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":111,"text":"Association mapping of SNPs with Agronomic and Nutritional Traits Genome-wide association studies (GWAS) have opened the door for systematic discovery of genetic factors for complex traits such as yield, disease and pest resistance, nutritional quality etc (Kaur et al., 2021). While GWAS have provided new insights into genetic factors affecting traits of interest, these genetic variants only explain a small proportion of the phenotypic variance attributable to genetic factors (Manolio et al., 2009). The large unidentified heritability can be partially explained by various factors including allelic heterogeneity, independent association of common SNPs or cumulative effects of rare variants in single loci (Elorbany et al., 2022;García-Cañas et al., 2014;Ward et al., 2022)."},{"index":2,"size":118,"text":"In the present study, GWAS have successfully mapped thousands of loci associated with both agronomic and nutritional traits of Napier grass, in two seasons (dry and wet) and under two soil moisture conditions (MWS and SWS). One of the key complex traits affected by water stress was PH and it is regulated by multiple loci with small effects. The GWAS analysis has identified SNPs significantly associated with PH (P < 1.00E-05) under both dry and wet conditions of the trial. These SNPs were further checked for their significance under MWS and SWS (Figure 9-12). Previous field characterization of Napier grass accessions in Ethiopia, under irrigation conditions, recorded improved performance for PH than rainfed conditions (Faji et al., 2022)."},{"index":3,"size":184,"text":"Therefore, the PH associated SNPs identified in the present study can be of great value in future selection programs to select high yielding Napier grass accessions. Biomass yield is one of the key traits in forage crops and a recent study comparing 9 perennial tropical forage types of grass showed that Napier grass gives the highest dry matter yield per hectare (Faji et al., 2022). In the present study SNPs significantly associated with TFW were recorded in MWS and SWS conditions, for the dry season. A study in pearl millet, which can hybridize with Napier grass and is thought to be one of the progenitors of Napier grass identified loci that significantly associate biomass yield and fresh weight (Habyarimana et al., 2020) and these loci were located at chromosomes 7, 8 and 9. But the present study did not find significant markers (P < 1.00E-05) in the A sub-genome, which is homologous to pearl millet chromosome 1 to 7. In general, a total of 67 SNPs were detected for all agronomic traits of which 47 were repeated across traits or treatment conditions (Table 9)."},{"index":4,"size":120,"text":"Forage quality of individual genotypes can be altered by abiotic factors such as season and soil moisture; hence, the assessment of plant performance and adaptability in different soil water conditions and seasons is important. A total of 50 SNPs were significantly associated with all nutritional traits, except OM (Appendix Table 2). One of the key nutritional traits in forage species is crude protein content (CP) and this study only identified 2 SNPs associated with CP content during the dry season in both soil moisture conditions. A study by Muktar et al. (2022) did not detect SNPs for CP content. Relatively, a higher number of SNPs were detected for ADF and ADL and these two traits were positively correlated (Figures 3)."},{"index":5,"size":16,"text":"Relatively, a fewer number of SNPs were identified for NDF but a higher number for ADL."},{"index":6,"size":22,"text":"Since ADL and NDF significantly and positively correlated, SNPs identified for ADL can also be used for the selection of NDF traits."},{"index":7,"size":64,"text":"Functional annotation of significant SNPs detected in the GWAS study showed interesting results. For example, SNP (SGWHAORA00000005_58573147) which was significant in both LL and TFW traits is positioned at the CpA0502823 gene in Napier grass. Blastx query of this gene, against NCBI database, showed significant similarity with FACT protein gene families. Several studies on this protein family revealed its role in the growth and"}]},{"head":"SUMMERY AND CONCLUSION","index":49,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":45,"text":"Napier grass is a fast-growing perennial grass native to Sub-Saharan Africa that is largely used as animal feed and found in tropical and subtropical areas across the world. The ILRI fodder genebank has a variety of genetic resources of Napier grass that have been collected"},{"index":2,"size":73,"text":"and conserved, but little information is known about its diversity and important agronomic features. As an initial breeding effort, analyzing genetic and phenotypic diversity, defining crucial agronomic features, and identifying significant and acceptable molecular markers is a critical step forward in improving Napier grass germplasm to develop high yielding, quality (nutritional) and wider adopted cultivars. To speed breeding efforts on Napier grass, whole-genome sequencing (WGS) is required and were used in this study."},{"index":3,"size":158,"text":"Despite the possibility of breeding genetic enhancement, many breeding programs in SSA have yet to implement genomics-based breeding strategies. This is due to the limited capacity of national institutes in acquiring genotypic data for the crop of interest and this challenge is worse in orphan forage crops like Napier grass. The present study revealed genetic diversity across a global collection of Napier grass accessions and this diversity was anchored to phenotypic and nutritional variability via an association mapping study. The activities initiated in this project will lead to public sharing of a genomic database and SNPs for design breeding in Napier grass for new cultivars, which will be made available to SSA farmers. The results from a present study will be key to initiating molecular marker-based breeding in Napier grass and fastening its further improvement effort. Ultimately, improved forages will play a key role in improving livestock performance in SSA and alleviate rampant protein malnutrition in the region."},{"index":4,"size":140,"text":"Agronomic traits such as plant height (PH), leaf width (LW) and length (LL), total fresh weight (TFW) and total dry weight (TDW) and nutritional traits such as Acid Detergent fibre (ADF), acid detergent lignin (ADL), Neutral detergent fibre (NDF), crude protein (CP), Metabolizable Energy (ME) and in-vitro organic matter digestibility (IVOMD) were among measured traits. Significant differences were observed and showed higher mean value under MWS conditions. Furthermore, a genome-wide association study (GWAS) identified more than 100 SNPs, significantly associated (P < 1.00E-05) with both agronomic and nutritional traits. The finding obtained in the present study will helps to enhance our understanding of complex agronomic and nutritional traits in Napier grass and these genomic tools will serve as a valuable resource in future breeding programs to select high yielding and droughttolerant varieties of Napier grass, suited for different agroecological zones. "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Table 4 .Figure 1 .Figure 2 .Figure 3 . Figure 1. Meat and Milk Production in Sub-Saharan Africa 2016-2020 ........................... 6 "},{"text":"Figure 4 .Figure 5 .Figure 6 .Figure 7 .Figure 8 .Figure 9 .Figure 10 .Figure 11 .Figure 12 . Figure 4. Response of nutritional traits to growing seasons and soil moisture conditions. 29 "},{"text":" Determining the extent of variability of Napier grass germplasm collection for agronomic and feed quality traits  Describing genome-wide SNP variation across a global panel of Napier grass germplasm collections for a better understanding of the genetic structure of Napier grass Identifying genetic variants associated with agronomic and feed quality traits using Genome-Wide Association Study (GWAS) "},{"text":"Figure 1 . Figure 1. Meat and Milk Production in Sub-Saharan Africa 2016-2020 "},{"text":" Napier Grass Description, Germplasms, Conservation and Breeding 2.4.1. Botany, Taxonomy, Distribution and Growing Ecology of Napier Grass "},{"text":"2. 4 . 5 . 1 . Overview of Napier Grass Characterization and Genomic Assisted Breeding 2.4.5.1.1. Progress in Phenotypic Evaluation and Characterization of Napier Grass "},{"text":"Figure 2 . Figure 2. Field phenotyping of Napier grass accessions at Bishoftu "},{"text":"Figure 3 . Figure 3. Response of agronomic traits to growing seasons and soil moisture conditions "},{"text":"Figure 4 . Figure 4. Response of nutritional traits to growing seasons and soil moisture conditions "},{"text":"Figure 5 . Figure 5. Correlation Analysis Between and Among Agronomic and Nutritional Traits "},{"text":" C). A total of 31, 19, and 24 accessions were grouped in the first, second and third clusters, respectively. First clusters were sub-grouped into two clusters and most of the CNGPL-EMBRAPA elite lines and ILRI accessions are captured in the first cluster. BAGCE accessions were only grouped over the first two clusters and the third cluster contains only ILRI collection with one distantly related accession of the CNPGL-EMBRAPA elite line.Clustering all the accessions based on phenotypic and nutritional traits scattered into different groups regardless of background or collected origin. "},{"text":"Figure 6 . Figure 6. Scatter plot (a), Scree plot of the PCA (b) and Cluster dendrogram of Napier grass accessions based on agronomic and nutritional "},{"text":"Figure 7 . Figure 7. Genome-wide single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNP) density distribution over "},{"text":"Figure 8 . Figure 8. Principal coordinate analysis (A), Cluster (B) and structure (c) and Optimal ∆K (d) of Napier grass accessions "},{"text":" A and B) with PH during the dry season (six SNPs under SWS condition which are mapped at chromosome A02 (1SNP), A06 (1SNP), B01 (1SNP), B03 (2SNP), B06 (1SNP) and two SNPs under MWS condition which mapped at chromosome A05 (1 SNP), and A06 (1SNP). Similarly, SNPs that are putatively associated with PH during the wet season under MWS were located at chromosome A02 (1SNP), A06 (1 SNP), A07 (1 SNP), B03 (2 SNPs), B04 (1 SNPs) and B05 (1 SNP). SNPs mapped at chromosome B03 were strongly correlated with PH under SWS during the dry season. During wet season SNP that mapped on chromosome B04 under MWS condition and SNP at chromosome A02 (1SNP) under SWS have a strong correlation with PH. There were also 14 SNPs putatively associated (Figure 10 A and B) with TFW during the wet season (five SNPs under MWS condition which are mapped at chromosome A04 (2 SNPs), A05 (1SNP), B04 (1SNP), B07 (1SNP) and four SNPs under SWS condition which are mapped at chromosome A04 (2 SNPs), and A07 (2 SNPs). Besides, during the dry season, in MWS condition, SNPs associated with TFW were located A04 (1SNP), A05 (1 SNP), B04 (1 SNP) and B07 (1SNP) but there were no SNPs that were significantly associated with TFW under SWS condition during the dry season. There were also significantly correlated SNPs with the rest of the agronomic traits measured in this study (Table "},{"text":"Figure 9 .Figure 10 .Figure 11 .Figure 12 . Figure 9. Manhattan plots showing SNPs Significantly Associated (FarmCPU Method) with "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"Table 1 . Nutritional Summary of Napier Grass .............................................................. 14  "},{"text":"Table 2 . Mineral Composition of Napier Grass .............................................................. 15  "},{"text":"Table 3 . Mean Square from combined analysis of Agronomic and Nutritional Traits for  "},{"text":"Table 1 . Nutritional Summary of Napier Grass Nutritional traits Nutritional traits  "},{"text":"Table 2 . Mineral Composition of Napier Grass Minerals Concentration Mg/kg/DM Minerals Concentration Mg/kg/DM MineralsConcentration Mg/kg/DM MineralsConcentration Mg/kg/DM Calcium 3.5 Zinc 50.4 Calcium3.5Zinc50.4 Phosphorus 2 Manganese 33 Phosphorus2Manganese 33 Magnesium 1.7 Cobalt 2 Magnesium1.7Cobalt2 Potassium 7.1 Iron 40.4 Potassium7.1Iron40.4 Copper 8   Copper8  "},{"text":"Table 3 . Mean Square from combined analysis of Agronomic and Nutritional Traits for Napier grass Accession evaluated Under Different Moisture Condition at Bishoftu During 2017-2020      Moisture Condition at Bishoftu During 2017-2020 Source of Accession Season MC (mws/sws) Accessions Accessions*MC Accession*Season* Error CV Source ofAccession SeasonMC (mws/sws) AccessionsAccessions*MC Accession*Season*ErrorCV variation  (Dry/wet)  *Season  MC  (%) variation(Dry/wet)*SeasonMC(%)     Phenotypic     Phenotypic PH (cm) 1625.6*** 1739836.24*** 33.3ns 1155.9*** 2.86ns 1.6ns 337.8 ns 15.3 PH (cm)1625.6*** 1739836.24*** 33.3ns1155.9*** 2.86ns1.6ns337.8 ns 15.3 LL (cm) 3352.8*** 1279913.2*** 128.5ns 339.1ns 16.1ns 78.2ns 17.8ns 20.9 LL (cm)3352.8*** 1279913.2*** 128.5ns339.1ns16.1ns78.2ns17.8ns20.9 LW (cm) 440.5*** 672.4*** 216.6*** 63.9ns 1.79ns 219.26*** 1.56ns 13.7 LW (cm)440.5*** 672.4***216.6***63.9ns1.79ns219.26***1.56ns13.7 TN 73052*** 5588928.1*** 9176.69*** 15658.5ns 504ns 197.55ns 458.5ns 26.8 TN73052*** 5588928.1*** 9176.69***15658.5ns 504ns197.55ns458.5ns 26.8 TFW (t/ha) 4821.9*** 1705197*** 1.21ns 3191*** 7.9ns 59.8ns 4.1ns 19.02 TFW (t/ha)4821.9*** 1705197***1.21ns3191***7.9ns59.8ns4.1ns19.02 TDW (t/ha) 266.5*** 81826.2*** 47.4ns 169.1*** 0.29ns 5.15ns 0.18ns 17.5 TDW (t/ha) 266.5***81826.2***47.4ns169.1***0.29ns5.15ns0.18ns17.5     Nutritional     Nutritional NDF (%) 40.33*** 20606.7*** 867.2*** 21.1*** 3.1ns 3.2ns 6.9 ns 14 NDF (%)40.33*** 20606.7***867.2***21.1***3.1ns3.2ns6.9 ns14 ADF(%) 38*** 30643.29*** 2752.77*** 15.8*** 7.1ns 3.8ns 11.08 ns 8.61 ADF(%)38***30643.29***2752.77***15.8***7.1ns3.8ns11.08 ns 8.61 ADL (%) 0.8ns 1448.5*** 8.9*** 0.26ns 0.06ns 0.06ns 0.6 ns 24.3 ADL (%)0.8ns1448.5***8.9***0.26ns0.06ns0.06ns0.6 ns24.3 OM (%) 28.5*** 638.4*** 59.04*** 12.99*** 3.1ns 2.5ns 3.1 ns 12.1 OM (%)28.5***638.4***59.04***12.99***3.1ns2.5ns3.1 ns12.1 CP (%) 45.8*** 115.7*** 3256.8*** 19.1*** 10.87** 3.9ns 8.2 ns 23.4 CP (%)45.8***115.7***3256.8***19.1***10.87**3.9ns8.2 ns23.4 IVOMD (%) 26.4*** 6033.75*** 2232.3*** 10.26ns 7.8ns 3.3ns 10.1 ns 15.67 IVOMD (%) 26.4***6033.75***2232.3***10.26ns7.8ns3.3ns10.1 ns15.67 Me (%) 0.36*** 154.3*** 24.6*** 0.15ns 0.15ns 0.07ns 0.2 ns 16.1 Me (%)0.36***154.3***24.6***0.15ns0.15ns0.07ns0.2 ns16.1 PH=plant height (cm), (LL= leaf length) (mm), LW= leaf width (mm), TN= tiller number (mm), TFW= total fresh weight (gr), TDW = total dry PH=plant height (cm), (LL= leaf length) (mm), LW= leaf width (mm), TN= tiller number (mm), TFW= total fresh weight (gr), TDW = total dry weight (g), NDF =neutral detergent fibre, ADF= Acid detergent fibre, ADL =acid detergent lignin, CP =crude protein, IVOMD =in vitro organic weight (g), NDF =neutral detergent fibre, ADF= Acid detergent fibre, ADL =acid detergent lignin, CP =crude protein, IVOMD =in vitro organic matter digestibility, Me =metabolizable energy, OM =organic matter, MC=moisture condition, mws=moderate water stress condition, matter digestibility, Me =metabolizable energy, OM =organic matter, MC=moisture condition, mws=moderate water stress condition, sws=severe water stress condition       sws=severe water stress condition  "},{"text":"Table 4 . Eigenvectors and eigenvalues of the first 4 principal components for 13 different agronomic and nutritional traits of 86 Napier grass accessions Traits PC1 PC2 PC3 PC4 TraitsPC1PC2PC3PC4 TFW 0.75 0.58 0.23 -0.10 TFW0.750.580.23-0.10 PH 0.72 0.35 0.39 -0.04 PH0.720.350.39-0.04 TDW 0.77 0.54 0.23 -0.04 TDW0.770.540.23-0.04 TN 0.38 0.61 0.08 -0.53 TN0.380.610.08-0.53 LW 0.71 0.22 -0.16 0.53 LW0.710.22-0.160.53 LL 0.76 0.35 -0.12 0.39 LL0.760.35-0.120.39 NDF 0.31 -0.67 0.59 0.16 NDF0.31-0.670.590.16 ADF 0.79 -0.40 -0.18 -0.13 ADF0.79-0.40-0.18-0.13 ADL 0.35 -0.48 0.28 -0.49 ADL0.35-0.480.28-0.49 OM -0.15 -0.52 0.78 0.22 OM-0.15-0.520.780.22 IVOMD -0.25 -0.42 0.58 0.32 IVOMD-0.25-0.420.580.32 CP -0.64 0.57 0.20 -0.14 CP-0.640.570.20-0.14 Me -0.56 0.61 0.40 0.23 Me-0.560.610.400.23 Eigenvalue 4.9 3.5 1.6 1.1 Eigenvalue4.93.51.61.1 Precent cumulative variance 37.7 65.0 77.3 86.1 Precent cumulative variance37.765.077.386.1 PH=plant height (cm), (LL= leaf length) (mm), LW= leaf width (mm), TN= tiller number PH=plant height (cm), (LL= leaf length) (mm), LW= leaf width (mm), TN= tiller number (mm), TFW= total fresh weight (gr), TDW = total dry weight (g), NDF =neutral detergent (mm), TFW= total fresh weight (gr), TDW = total dry weight (g), NDF =neutral detergent fibre, ADF= Acid detergent fibre, ADL =acid detergent lignin, CP =crude protein, IVOMD fibre, ADF= Acid detergent fibre, ADL =acid detergent lignin, CP =crude protein, IVOMD =in vitro organic matter digestibility, Me =metabolizable energy, OM =organic matter, =in vitro organic matter digestibility, Me =metabolizable energy, OM =organic matter,  "},{"text":"Table 5 . SNP Filtering Steps   SNPs discarded SNPs SNPs discardedSNPs SNP filtering steps SNPs retained at each stage of filtering discarded (%) SNP filtering stepsSNPs retainedat each stage of filteringdiscarded (%) Total No of variants (SNPs & INDELS) 90,803,632   Total No of variants (SNPs & INDELS)90,803,632 Bi-allelic and polymorphic SNPs 68,745,980 22,057,652 20.2% Bi-allelic and polymorphic SNPs68,745,980 22,057,65220.2% FMT/DP>10 3,296,426 65,449,554 95.2% FMT/DP>103,296,426 65,449,55495.2% FMT/ 10> DP <300 3,186,455 109,971 3.3% FMT/ 10> DP <3003,186,455109,9713.3% FMT/GQ>20 3,183,164 3,291 0.1% FMT/GQ>203,183,1643,2910.1% MAF>0.02 & F_MISSING<=0.85 2,638,827 544,337 20.6% MAF>0.02 & F_MISSING<=0.852,638,827544,33720.6% prune -l 0.6 -w 1000 1,975,261 662,881 25.1% prune -l 0.6 -w 10001,975,261662,88125.1% prune -l 0.2 -w 1000 1,129,470 1,508,672 76.4% prune -l 0.2 -w 10001,129,4701,508,67276.4%  "},{"text":"Table 6 . Number of SNP effects by Type, Region, Impact, and Functional Class  Type   Count Percent Region Count Percent TypeCountPercentRegionCountPercent Downstream_gene_variant   64,122 5.12 Downstream 64,122 5.12 Downstream_gene_variant64,1225.12Downstream64,1225.12 Initiator_codon_variant   1 0 Exon 10,426 0.83 Initiator_codon_variant10Exon10,4260.83 Intergenic_region   1,065,120 85.02 Intergenic 1,065,120 85.02 Intergenic_region1,065,12085.02Intergenic1,065,120 85.02 Intron_variant    53,405 4.26 Intron 53,405 4.26 Intron_variant53,4054.26Intron53,4054.26 Missense_variant    5,003 0.40 Splice_site_acceptor 18 0.00 Missense_variant5,0030.40Splice_site_acceptor180.00 Missense_variant+splice_region_variant  70 0.01 Splice_site_donor 14 0.00 Missense_variant+splice_region_variant700.01Splice_site_donor140.00 Splice_acceptor_variant+intron_variant  18 0.00 Splice_site_region 462 0.04 Splice_acceptor_variant+intron_variant180.00Splice_site_region4620.04 Splice_donor_variant+intron_variant  14 0.00 Transcript 6 0 Splice_donor_variant+intron_variant140.00Transcript60 Splice_region_variant+intron_variant  398 0.03 Upstream 59,155 4.72 Splice_region_variant+intron_variant3980.03Upstream59,1554.72 Splice_region_variant+stop_retained_variant 7 0.00 Number of effects by impact Splice_region_variant+stop_retained_variant70.00Number of effects by impact Splice_region_variant+synonymous_variant 57 0.01 High 210 0.02 Splice_region_variant+synonymous_variant570.01High2100.02 Start_lost    5 0 Low 5,643 0.45 Start_lost50Low5,6430.45 Stop_gained    166 0.01 Moderate 5,073 0.41 Stop_gained1660.01Moderate5,0730.41 Stop_gained+splice_region_variant  4 0 Modifier 1,241,802 99.13 Stop_gained+splice_region_variant40Modifier1,241,802 99.13 Stop_lost+splice_region_variant   3 0 Number of Effects by functional class Stop_lost+splice_region_variant30Number of Effects by functional class Synonymous_variant   5,180 0.41 Missense 5,082 48.42 Synonymous_variant5,1800.41Missense5,08248.42 Upstream_gene_variant   59,155 4.72 Nonsense 170 1.62 Upstream_gene_variant59,1554.72Nonsense1701.62 Base changes (SNPs)  Ts/Tv (transitions / transversions) Silent 5,244 49.96 Base changes (SNPs)Ts/Tv (transitions / transversions) Silent5,24449.96 A C G T Transitions 49,997,325 Missense / Silent ratio: 0.9691 ACGTTransitions49,997,325Missense / Silent ratio:0.9691 A 0 24,581 104,960 44,535 Transversions 16,191,553   A 024,581104,960 44,535Transversions16,191,553 C 44,211 0 25,906 320,322 Ts/Tv ratio 3.0879   C 44,211025,906 320,322 Ts/Tv ratio3.0879 G 319,566 26,140 0 44,291     G 319,56626,140044,291 T 44,578 106,055 24,325 0     T 44,578106,05524,325 0  "},{"text":"Table 7 . Total length, SNPs density percent and SNP variant rate over mapped A and B chromosome of Napier Grass genome Chromosomes Length (kb) Total SNPs (#) SNP Density (kb) SNP density (% ) SNP Chromosomes Length (kb) Total SNPs (#) SNP Density (kb) SNP density (% ) SNP      Variants Variants      rate rate A01 199,064,672 75,128 2.65 0.0377 2,649 A01199,064,67275,1282.650.03772,649 A02 158,795,698 64,167 2.47 0.0404 2,475 A02158,795,69864,1672.470.04042,475 A03 155,160,916 62,890 24.66 0.0405 2,466 A03155,160,91662,89024.660.04052,466 A04 150,585,890 60,118 2.50 0.0399 2,506 A04150,585,89060,1182.500.03992,506 A05 137,443,833 62,756 2.19 0.0457 2,190 A05137,443,83362,7562.190.04572,190 A06 108,239,444 43,634 2.48 0.0403 2,482 A06108,239,44443,6342.480.04032,482 A07 99,749,506 44,697 2.23 0.0448 2,230 A0799,749,50644,6972.230.04482,230 B01 196,755,181 150,765 1.31 0.0766 1,305 B01196,755,181150,7651.310.07661,305 B02 177,737,733 150,726 1.18 0.0848 1,179 B02177,737,733150,7261.180.08481,179 B03 125,700,457 100,475 1.25 0.0799 1,251 B03125,700,457100,4751.250.07991,251 B04 113,328,846 89,883 1.26 0.0793 1,261 B04113,328,84689,8831.260.07931,261 B05 106,417,498 83,196 1.28 0.0782 1,279 B05106,417,49883,1961.280.07821,279 B06 106,011,349 85,110 1.25 0.0803 1,245 B06106,011,34985,1101.250.08031,245 B07 66,044,712 55,925 1.18 0.0847 1,181 B0766,044,71255,9251.180.08471,181 Total 1,901,035,735 1,129,470 1.683 0.0594 1,683 Total1,901,035,735 1,129,4701.6830.05941,683  "},{"text":"Table 8 . Significantly associated markers with Plant Height, its mapped chromosome location, allele, and position that passed threshold level of Farm CPU (P < 1.00E-05). SNP Traits Season Treatment Allele Chromosome Position P.value MAF FDR_Adjusted_P.values effect SNPTraitsSeason Treatment Allele Chromosome PositionP.value MAF FDR_Adjusted_P.values effect SGWHAORA00000005 LL Dry MWS A/G A05 58573147 0.0 0.139 0.00000 -0.3749 SGWHAORA00000005 LLDryMWSA/GA0558573147 0.00.139 0.00000-0.3749 SGWHAORA00000005 LL Wet MWS A/G A05 58573147 0.00 0.139 0.00000 -0.3749 SGWHAORA00000005 LLWetMWSA/GA0558573147 0.000.139 0.00000-0.3749 SGWHAORA00000005 LL Wet SWS A/G A05 58573147 0.00 0.139 0.01202 -0.2261 SGWHAORA00000005 LLWetSWSA/GA0558573147 0.000.139 0.01202-0.2261 SGWHAORA00000005 TFW Wet MWS A/G A05 58573147 0.00 0.139 0.00112 -0.5439 SGWHAORA00000005 TFWWetMWSA/GA0558573147 0.000.139 0.00112-0.5439 SGWHAORA00000005 TFW Wet SWS A/G A05 58573147 0.00 0.139 0.00000 -0.6746 SGWHAORA00000005 TFWWetSWSA/GA0558573147 0.000.139 0.00000-0.6746 SGWHAORA00000009 LL Dry MWS G/A B02 40040366 0.00 0.380 0.00004 0.16459 SGWHAORA00000009 LLDryMWSG/AB0240040366 0.000.380 0.000040.16459 SGWHAORA00000009 LL Wet MWS G/A B02 40040366 0.00 0.380 0.00004 0.16459 SGWHAORA00000009 LLWetMWSG/AB0240040366 0.000.380 0.000040.16459 SGWHAORA00000014 LL Dry MWS G/A B07 3247644 0.00 0.481 0.00040 0.52199 SGWHAORA00000014 LLDryMWSG/AB0732476440.000.481 0.000400.52199 SGWHAORA00000014 LL Wet MWS G/A B07 3247644 0.00 0.481 0.00040 0.52199 SGWHAORA00000014 LLWetMWSG/AB0732476440.000.481 0.000400.52199 SGWHAORA00000013 LL Dry MWS C/G B06 47707055 0.00 0.443 0.00065 0.41998 SGWHAORA00000013 LLDryMWSC/GB0647707055 0.000.443 0.000650.41998 SGWHAORA00000013 LL Wet MWS C/G B06 47707055 0.00 0.443 0.00065 0.41998 SGWHAORA00000013 LLWetMWSC/GB0647707055 0.000.443 0.000650.41998 SGWHAORA00000012 LL Dry MWS A/C B05 17150204 0.00 0.070 0.00070 0.25522 SGWHAORA00000012 LLDryMWSA/CB0517150204 0.000.070 0.000700.25522  "},{"text":" , more than 100 million variants were detected of which 90,803,632 were SNPs and 19,654,799 were Indels. Previous GBS studies on Napier grass byMuktar et al. (2019) andPaudel et al. (2018) generated only 100k SNP and Indel markers but the present study exceeds this threshold significantly, with one million-plus hard filtered SNPs because of exceeds this threshold significantly, with one million-plus hard filtered SNPs because of whole genome sequencing approach cover wider genomic regions. The distribution of whole genome sequencing approach cover wider genomic regions. The distribution of filtered SNPs across chromosomes varies considerably and the highest number of SNPs was filtered SNPs across chromosomes varies considerably and the highest number of SNPs was recorded for the B sub-genome chromosomes, 150,765, 150,726, 100,475, B01 and 02, 03, recorded for the B sub-genome chromosomes, 150,765, 150,726, 100,475, B01 and 02, 03, respectively (Figure respectively (Figure  "},{"text":"Table 1 . Tessema, Z.K.,De Boer, W.F., Baars, R.D. and Prins, H.H.T., 2011.  Changes in soil nutrients, vegetation structure and herbaceous biomass in response to grazing in a semi-arid savanna of Ethiopia. Journal of AridEnvironments, 75(7), pp.662-670.   Tolera, A., Yami, A. and Alemu, D., 2012.  Livestock feed resources in Ethiopia. Challenges, Opportunities and the need for transformation. Ethiopia Animal Feed Industry Association, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.Tulu, A., Diribsa, M. and Temesgen, W., 2021. Dry matter yields and quality parameters of ten Napier grass (Cenchrus purpureus) genotypes at three locations in western Oromia, Ethiopia. Tropical Grasslands-Forrajes Tropicales, 9(1), pp.43-51. Turano, B., Tiwari, U.P. and Jha, R., 2016. Growth and nutritional evaluation of Napier grass hybrids as forage for ruminants. Tropical Grasslands-Forrajes Tropicales, 4(3), pp.168-178. Umer, A.T. and Nurusheva, A., 2020. Demonstration of Improved Elephant/Napier grass (Pennisetum purpureum) Technologies for Animal Feed Resources in Dire Dawa and Harari Region rural areas. Global Journal of Ecology, 5(1), pp.014-017. Van Lijsebettens, M. and Grasser, K.D., 2010. The role of the transcript elongation factors FACT and HUB1 in leaf growth and the induction of flowering. Plant signalling & behaviour, 5(6), pp.715-717. Wamalwa, N.I.E., Midega, C.A.O., Ajanga, S., Omukunda, N.E., Muyekho, F.N., Asudi, G.O., Mulaa, M. and Khan, Z.R., 2017. Screening Napier grass accessions for resistance to Napier grass stunt disease using the loop-mediated isothermal amplification of DNA (LAMP). Crop protection, 98, pp.61-69. Wang, B., Motilal, L.A., Meinhardt, L.W., Yin, J. and Zhang, D., 2020. Molecular characterization of a cacao germplasm collection maintained in Yunnan, China using Passport data for the list of Napier grass accessions included in this Study 8. APPENDIX 8. APPENDIX  "}],"sieverID":"469d74bc-dc32-4da4-8045-0e1d1d710322","abstract":"Limited access to improved forages is one of the major factors affecting livestock performance in sub-Sahara Africa (SSA). Cenchrus purpureus L is a C4 perennial grass species native to SSA and it has attributes high yielding, resistance against most pests and diseases. However, it has received limited research attention and few genomic tools have been developed for it to date. Main aim of this study was for genetic diversity, identification of SNPs and genome wide association analysis on 109 core collections of Napier grass accessions from 16 countries. Results shows that more than a million SNPs were identified for analysis. Among sequenced 84 Napier grass accessions were phenotyped for two seasons, under different water stress conditions normal water condition, moderate water stress (MWS) and severe water stress (SWS). Agronomic traits such as plant height (PH), leaf width (LW) and length (LL), total fresh weight (TFW) and total dry weight (TDW) and nutritional traits such as Acid Detergent fibre (ADF), acid detergent lignin (ADL), Neutral detergent fibre (NDF), crude protein (CP), Metabolizable Energy (ME) and in-vitro organic matter digestibility (IVOMD) were measured. Significant differences for both agronomic and nutritional traits were observed and most traits showed higher mean value under MWS conditions. Furthermore, a genome-wide association study (GWAS) identified more than 100 SNPs, for both agronomic and nutritional traits, that were significantly associated (P < 1.00E-05) with traits of interest. The results obtained in the present study will enhance our understanding of complex agronomic and nutritional traits in Napier grass and these genomic tools will serve as a valuable resource in future breeding programs to select high yielding and drought-tolerant varieties of Napier grass, suited for different agroecological zones."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0349fdff9e99b02765373451e97a05a6","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/87f65fbf-c840-452d-858e-a815cff39440/retrieve"},"pageCount":3,"title":"Report on the study of Megathyrsus population structure with the aim to establish heterotic groups","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":28,"text":"The youngest breeding program at CIAT works on Megathyrsus maximus. The first sexual population was obtained in 2016, which will enable the establishment of a proper breeding scheme."},{"index":2,"size":33,"text":"Because Megathyrsus maximus cultivars are true breeding heterozygous clones (Resende, Jank, Do Valle, & Bonato, 2004), an ideal breeding scheme should deliberately exploit heterosis by accumulating heterotic effects over cycles of recurrent selection."},{"index":3,"size":123,"text":"The optimum exploitation of heterosis requires that the available germplasm is structured into genetically diverse heterotic groups. A heterotic group refers to a collection of genotypes resulting in similar hybrid performance when crossed with individuals belonging to a complementary and genetically distinct germplasm group. A specific combination of two heterotic groups leading to high-yielding hybrids is defined as heterotic pattern. Genetic variation is generated in each breeding cycle within each heterotic group but progenies are evaluated for performance of testcrosses with genotypes from the opposite heterotic group. Hybrid breeding based on the concept of heterotic patterns leads to more pronounced variance of the breeding values in contrast to the variance of the dominance deviations, which enhances recurrent selection gain (Fischer et al., 2010)."},{"index":4,"size":113,"text":"Heterotic patterns have been established in the past either considering hybrid seed production traits such as seed yield of the female lines and high pollination capability of the male lines or they have been developed empirically by testing combining ability among available germplasm. The latter approach is afflicted by the large number of possible hybrid combinations among available elite inbred lines. Alternatively, Melchinger (1999) suggested starting with genetically divergent populations as heterotic groups. This approach has the following advantages: (1) maximum exploitation of heterosis and hybrid performance from the very beginning and (2) a lower ratio of dominance (σ 2 D) vs. additive variance (σ 2 A) (Reif, Gumpert, Fischer, & Melchinger, 2007)."},{"index":5,"size":75,"text":"The advantage of divergent heterotic groups is pronounced with (1) an enhanced genetic divergence between both populations p1 and p2, (2) an increased degree of dominance, and (3) higher frequencies of the favorable alleles. Considering the slow changes in allele frequencies in breeding programs due to selection (Falconer and Mackay 1996), it takes a long time to recover a favorable ratio of σ 2 SCA/σ 2 GCA that increases by intermating genetic divergent heterotic groups."},{"index":6,"size":17,"text":"Consequently, suitable choice of parental populations for interpopulation improvement is of fundamental importance (Fischer et al., 2009)."},{"index":7,"size":66,"text":"In the present study, a representative sample of 137 Megathyrsus maximus samples from the CIAT genebank were used to study the population structure with the aim of identifying natural genetic divergence patterns to structure heterotic pools that can enable the establishment of a reciprocal recurrent selection-breeding scheme. The genetic diversity and population structure characterization was based on 21 simple sequence repeat primers with 141 polymorphic bands."},{"index":8,"size":157,"text":"Although (Ebina et al., 2007) reported six groups based on 77 Megathyrsus maximus samples from the Japanese Genebank (Agricultural Genetic Resource Center, Tsukuba, Japan) and (de Sousa et al., 2011) reported 4 groups based on 396 accessions from EMBRAPA genebank, our study using 137 samples from the genebank revealed only two main groups (results on STRUCTURE and PCA). Furthermore, 41 sexual genotypes were assigned to the previously identified groups in order to enable crossing within each group (Figure 1) and overcome the barrier to reproduction imposed by apomixes. Plot de los resultados del análisis factorial llevado a cabo en el programa Darwin para 137 accesiones de Panicum maximum y 141 alelos SSR. En la gráfica se muestran los primeros dos ejes (eje 1 inercia 16.06%, eje 2 inercia 8.72%).Blue indicates the samples belonging to the K1 group and red as K2, while black samples were identifyied as mixture. X axis is the main axis dividing both groups."},{"index":9,"size":49,"text":"Once we finish the writing, the present study will be submitted for publication into an indexed journal most probably Crop Science (IF: 1.8) or Agronomy (IF: 1.4). Detailed report of materials, methods and results can be further given upon request but not published before acceptance by the indexed journals."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure 1 . Figure 1. Plot of the factorial analysis developed using the software Darwin for 137 accesions of Megathyrsus maximus and 141 SSR alleles. The graphic shows two main axis explaining x=16.06% and y=8.72% of the variance.Plot de los resultados del análisis factorial llevado a cabo en el programa Darwin para 137 accesiones de Panicum maximum y 141 alelos SSR. En la gráfica se muestran los primeros dos ejes (eje 1 inercia 16.06%, eje 2 inercia 8.72%).Blue indicates the samples belonging to the K1 group and red as K2, while black samples were identifyied as mixture. X axis is the main axis dividing both groups. "}],"sieverID":"ed711a26-042b-4ff9-8b34-960c5e80b927","abstract":""}

data/part_1/035c371120861fa1ca24e77f34533528.json

@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+{"metadata":{"id":"035c371120861fa1ca24e77f34533528","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/781bdf55-11fc-4364-bb73-80f3bf6cefd9/retrieve"},"pageCount":20,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Project Overview","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":35,"text":"Objective: To integrate, diffuse, and exchange infonnation with govemment organizations, NGOs, networks, interested persons, and national and intemational centers of agricultura! research that execute projects oriented to the conservation of natural resources and rural development."},{"index":2,"size":55,"text":"Gains. A regional Network (The Ecoregional Network for Latín American) linking organizations and people in Latín America related with the conservation of natural resources and rural development. The Network serves as a mechanism to exchange infonnation as a forum to analyze issues of common interest and as a tool to implement joint work among countries."}]},{"head":"Milestones 1999","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":131,"text":"Establishment of the Eco regional Network. Development of Project assessment tools. Support to other CGIAR Projects on planning, monitoring, and evaluation. Organization of a regional Workshop to share experiences and extract lessons about rural development processes led by communities. 2002 Routine operation of the Ecoregional Network. Results of the evaluative survey of REDECO services. Workshops on exchange of experiences, electronic Fora, discussion of articles with interchange of opinions and publication of result (funds to be sought). Web page with new institutional design in Spanish and English. Elaboration of the second phase of the Directory of Experts. Elaboration of interactive multi-media material (CD-ROM) of the Proceedings of the 1 Workshop of Exchange of Experiences and Lessons Leamed (funds to be sought). Local and regional presentations on the services offered by the Network."}]},{"head":"Project Work Breakdown Structure","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":63,"text":"The Ecoregional Program for Tropical Latín America has remained without a leader since the departure of Alejandro lmbach last year. Responsibility for the Ecoregional Network. has remained with Liliana Rojas in charge. This ís the work. reported on here. Thus we include an adjusted work. breakdown structure and logframe, and not those from the mid-term plan, because they are not relevant to Network.ing."},{"index":2,"size":45,"text":"We are looking for ways of capitalizing on this excellent Network. as a means of contacting our stakeholders. At present, the Network. work.s in isolation, but we would like to bring it into a wider plan and strategy linked to the projects PE-3 and PE-4."}]},{"head":"3.","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":41,"text":"Project Logframe        • Participation in, and organization of, regional Participation in, and organization of, local and meetíngs of Latin American networks of regional events infonnation     • About 600 messages sent to Net members via E-mail and Web page 100% L Rojas"},{"index":2,"size":17,"text":"• Adaptation of the REDECO Web page contents and design in accord with the new institutional Web"}]},{"head":"60% J Correa page version","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":19,"text":"Alliances with Latín American information networks to improve services, train mutually, and develop 100% L Rojas strategies for sustainability."},{"index":2,"size":27,"text":"1st Meeting of lnformation Nets for the Agricultura! and Rural Development of Latín America . November 2000 in Santiago de Chile. 18 Latín American Nets participated ."},{"index":3,"size":30,"text":"Allíance between two local networks and one regional to show services they offer and promote the 100% L Rojas participation of local institutions and the use of available information resources."},{"index":4,"size":15,"text":"AM Ponce ltinerant workshops in High Andean cities with CIAT-REDECO, CONDESAN-InfoAndina , and CORPOICA-JL Alonso"},{"index":5,"size":2,"text":"REDEPAPA participating."},{"index":6,"size":34,"text":"Exchange of information and experiences between those responsible for sorne Latín American information 50% L Rojas networks, with the purpose of learnlng mutuallessons and improving the information systems offered to AM Ponce their users."},{"index":7,"size":17,"text":"JL Alonso 2nd Meeting of lnformation Networks for the Sustainable Development of Latín America . Highlights 2000"},{"index":8,"size":69,"text":"The Network now has over 2900 members from organízations in Latín America and sorne North American and European countries that receive and exchange information related with the management of natural resources and rural development. About 70 networks were identífied that receive and distribute RED ECO information. The work of the Net ís combined with a Web page, where all information arriving from the different members and organizations is recorded."},{"index":9,"size":18,"text":"The page constitutes a highly useful tool for the dissemination of information to our different members and users."},{"index":10,"size":48,"text":"Our The new REDECO Web page was set up ir. accordance with the new institutional design. An inventory was made of the contents of the previous Web page and new contents were selected and edited. The texts were adapted in the format required by the Program Dream Weaver."},{"index":11,"size":121,"text":"The evaluative survey of REDECO services was elaborated and then diffused through the Network Web page and by E-mail. The survey was aimed at getting to know the Network users and institutions benefiting from the information diffused, and to put together a Directory of Experts. The survey clarifies the services that REDECO presently offers and helps identify . information needs. lt also helps analyze how the information diffused through REDECO is u sed by CIA T activities, and the influence that this information has upon the development of users' activities. The survey results are being processed and will be presented in the 11 Meeting of the lnformation Networks for the Sustainable Oevelopment of Latin America in November 2001 at Mérida, Venezuela."}]},{"head":"Highlights 2000","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":69,"text":"The Network now has over 2900 members from organizations in Latín America and sorne North American and European countries that receive and exchange information related with the management of natural resources and rural development. About 70 networks were identified that receive and distribute REDECO information. The work of the Net is combined with a Web page, where all information arriving from the different members and organizations is recorded ."},{"index":2,"size":18,"text":"The page constitutes a highly useful tool for the dissemination of information to our different members and users."},{"index":3,"size":146,"text":"Our work in diffusion of material necessitates attendance at meetings and workshops. This year, we participated in the First Meeting of Networks of lnformation for Agricultura! and Rural Development in Latin America, held in Santiago de Chile, Chile, November 2000. We also took part in itinerant workshops coordinated by the Networks of CONDESAN-InfoAndina, CORPOICA-REDEPAPA, and REDECO-CIA T, taking place in Palmira, Tunja , and Bogotá in January 2001 . We supported the preparation of the multi-media product (CD-ROM) of the Proceedings of the Course on Marketing and Commercialization of Organic Products. We are organizing and will participate in the 11 Meeting of lnformation Networks for the Sustainable Development of Latin America. The event will take place within the IV lntemational Symposium of Sustainable Development in the Andes ''The Andean Strategy for the XXI Century\" at the University of los Andes, Mérida, Venezuela in November 2001 ."},{"index":4,"size":48,"text":"The new RED ECO Web page was set up in accordance with the new institutional design. An inventory was made of the contents of the previous Web page and new contents were selected and edited. The texts were adapted in the format required by the Program Dream Weaver."},{"index":5,"size":123,"text":"The evaluative survey of RED ECO services was elaborated and then diffused through the Network Web page and by E-mail. The survey was aimed at getting to know the Network users and institutions benefiting from the information diffused, and to put together a Directory of Experts. The survey clarifies the services that REDECO presently offers and helps identify information needs. lt also helps analyze how the information diffused through RED ECO is used by CIA T activities, and the influence that this information has upon the development of users' activities. The survey results are being processed and will be presented in the 11 Meeting of the lnformation Networks for the Sustainable Development of Latín America in November 2001 at Mérida, Venezuela. • 5."}]},{"head":"Progress Report","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":49,"text":"The Ecoregional Network began in 1999 as part of the strategy of the Ecoroegionaf Program for Latín America, which is part of the active interface between CIAT, its partners, and its beneficiarie~. The Net was created to contribute to greater fluidity of user access to the Center's research products."}]},{"head":"Methods of diffusion","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":36,"text":"Electronic mail permits the presentation and interchange of up-to-date information on the management and conservation of natural resources and rural development Through this mechanism, we seek to answer user demands for information, facilitating interrelations between users."},{"index":2,"size":81,"text":"The Web page, in user-friendly manner, prometes specialized information on the management and conservation of natural resources and rural development. The page contents are generated by members of the Eco regional Network and by CIA T projects. Through its different sections, the Web site intends to offer to organizations and interested persons up-to-date information on CIA T conceming events, opportunities, information resources, thematic areas, interchange of experiences, methodologies and tools , networks of specialized information, other projects, and related Web sites."},{"index":3,"size":23,"text":"lt is hoped that these mechanisms of diffusion strengthen the work of people and member organizations and impel the development of their activities."},{"index":4,"size":6,"text":"lnformation available on the Network Activities:"},{"index":5,"size":13,"text":"• Presentation of research results and of products generated within CIA T projects."},{"index":6,"size":28,"text":"• Attention to queries and interchange of information, with members of the Ecoregional Network, on specialized themes on the management and conservation of natural resources and rural development."},{"index":7,"size":38,"text":"• Diffusion o(information on experiences and lessons leamed, tools, methodologies, and advances achieved by the organizations and persons who work for the management and conservation of natural resources and rural development This work covers the areas outlined below."},{"index":8,"size":19,"text":"Events: Conferences, courses, workshops, seminars, symposia, conventions, and meetings considered of interest by the community of Ecoregional Network members."},{"index":9,"size":31,"text":"Opportunities: Financing of projects, Employment opportunities, Scholarships, and Postgraduate and Vofuntary work that seek to facilitate interaction among the institutions that offer, and the users that demand, this type of information."},{"index":10,"size":51,"text":"lnformation resources: Articles and gray literature, bulletins, books, proceedings, magazines, references bibliographies, and other news spedalized in the theme of management and conservation of natural resources and rural development. Announcements: lnformation related to the promotíon of new Web sites, information networks, centers of information and documentation, press releases, announcements, a~ong others."},{"index":11,"size":18,"text":"Related Projects: lnformatíon on the research projects or proposals of the member organizations of the Eco regional Network."},{"index":12,"size":24,"text":"Related Web Sites: Web pages developed by organizatíons that work on behalf of the management and conservation of natural resources and of rural development."},{"index":13,"size":57,"text":"CIA T Links: Web pages of CIA T projects that offer up-to-date information on research advances, and their products. • List of members by country in Access database. This list includes all members inscribed in the Ecoregional Network. At present we have 2900 members, for most of whom we have information on country, institution, and electronic mail."}]},{"head":"Members of the","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":46,"text":"• First Phase in the elaboration of the Directory of Experts. T o put together the Oirectory of Experts, searches are carried out by Internet to obtain basic information of the Network members and to identify and classify the type of organization to which they belong."},{"index":2,"size":22,"text":"• Exchange by electronic mail is maintained with the 2900 members/users of the Net. A daily message is sent out (Table 1)."},{"index":3,"size":73,"text":"• Participation in the 1st Meeting of lnformation Networks for the Rural and Agricultura! Development of Latín America. This event takes place in November 2000, in Santiago de Chile, and was organized within the framework of the lESA-A T Symposium. The meeting called together 18 networks from seven countries. The networks reinforced their links and established alliances to improve their services, to be mutually trained , and to develop strategies for their sustainability."},{"index":4,"size":57,"text":"An executive committee was established consisting of Ana María Ponce of CONDESAN-Infoandina, Liliana Rojas of CIAT-REDECO, Juan Carlos Alurralde of the Comisión Foro del Agua-INFOAGUA, Jorge Luis Alonso of CORPOICA-REDEPAPA, and Wessel Eyckman of REDCAPA. Their function will be to channel information of interest to strengthen the work of the Networks and to organize the 11 Meeting."},{"index":5,"size":65,"text":"An executive subcommittee was named among the networks to support the activities related to the Año Internacional de las Montañas (AIM). The members are Bertken M. de Leede of FAO-Bolivia, Roberto Andrade of FAO-Regional, Guillermo Nuñez of REDLACH , Ana Maria Ponce of lnfoAndina, and Gabriela Ugarte of REDESMA. The other participating networks agreed to support the diffusion of activities related to the Al M."},{"index":6,"size":102,"text":"• Organization of, and participation in, ltinerant Workshops Workshops coordinated by the Networks of CONDESAN-Infoandina, CORPOICA-REDEPAPA, and REDECO-CIA T too k place in Palmira, Tunja, and Bogota. These events counted on the participation of local organizations, governmental and nongovernmental, with the purpose of revealing the services offered by the regional information networks, and to promote the participation of local institutions and the use of available information resources. • Elaboration, diffusion, and analysis of the evaluative survey of REDECO services. The presentation was carried out through the Network Web page and by E-mail. The survey was oriented to comply with the following objectives:"},{"index":7,"size":77,"text":"../ Know the users and institutions, beneficia ríes of the information, and put together with them a Directory of Experts. -1' Know the utility of the services that REDECO offers at present and to identify needs in the area of information. -~' Analyze the utility of the information divulged through REDECO to the activitíes of the lntemational Center of Tropical Agriculture (CIA T) and the extent of influence of this information upon the development of users' activities."},{"index":8,"size":31,"text":"The survey results are being processed and will be presented at the 11 Meeting of the lnformation Networks for the Sustainable Qevelopment of Latín America in November 2001 at Mérida, Venezuela. "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"2000 Routine operation of the Ecoregional Network. Project monitoring and svaluation training. Case studies on natural resources and sustainable development monitoring published. Development and validation of institutional assessment tools started. Organization of a regional workshop to share experiences and extract lessons on innovative funding mechanism for rural development processes. Publication of workshop findings. 2001 Routine operation of the Ecoregional Network. Elaboration and diffusion of the evaluative survey of RED ECO services. First phase of the documentation of the Directory of Experts. New RED ECO Web Page in accordance with the new institutional design. Organization of and participation in national and international events. Elaboration of interactive multi-media material {CD-ROM) of the Proceedings of the Course on Marketing and Commercialization of Organic Products organized by Development of Rural Agro-enterprises Project and EARTH College with the support of the Ecoregional Network. "},{"text":" Thematic Areas: Work documents generated by persons or members of institutions, tor publication on the Network: • Agroforestry: In Collaboration with CATIE's area of agroforestry • Participative Diagnostic • Wetlands and Coastal Zones: In collaboration with this thematíc area of the UICN-ORMA • Monitoring and Evaluation: In collaboration with the initíatíve of Monitoring and Evaluation of the UICN • Land ownership in Latín America Methodologies and Tools: Methodological instruments developed by the projects or organizatíons, to facilitate decision taking in the field of research on the management and conservation of natural resources and rural development. "},{"text":" Figure1shows !he mernber countries involved in the Network with number of members from each country. "},{"text":"• Net directories and report on the number of messages sent vi a the Net LOGFRAME OUTPUT 1: Ecoregional Network partnerships  MILESTONE LOGFRAME OUTPUT 2: Exchange ADVANCE TEAM MILESTONE LOGFRAME OUTPUT 2: ExchangeADVANCETEAM Exchange of information , experiences, methodologies, lessons leamed, and tools with the Ecoregional Network members up to 30 Oct. 2001  Exchange of information , experiences, methodologies, lessons leamed, and tools with the Ecoregional Network membersup to 30 Oct. 2001 Ecoregional Directory of the Ecoregional Network   Ecoregional Directory of the Ecoregional Network • Completad . Publication available. 340 entries fully documentad. 840 E-mail entries . • First phase of the elaboration of the Net's Directory of Experts. 100% 30% L Rojas J Correa • Completad . Publication available. 340 entries fully documentad. 840 E-mail entries . • First phase of the elaboration of the Net's Directory of Experts.100% 30%L Rojas J Correa Propasa! for activities with lnfoAndina-CONDESAN and CIP 10% L Rojas Propasa! for activities with lnfoAndina-CONDESAN and CIP10%L Rojas lmplement a Virtual Fair of promising products of the region, with the purpose of making known the existing wortd of biodiversity and attracting the attention of financiers who wish to support the development of these  AM Ponce S Salas lmplement a Virtual Fair of promising products of the region, with the purpose of making known the existing wortd of biodiversity and attracting the attention of financiers who wish to support the development of theseAM Ponce S Salas products.   products. Activities with CONDESAN and CORPOICA 100% L Rojas Activities with CONDESAN and CORPOICA100%L Rojas ltinerant workshops: Workshops coordinated by the CONDESAN-InfoAndina, CORPOICA-REDEPAPA, and REDECO-CIAT Nets, held in Palmira, Tunja, and Bogotá.  AM Ponce JL Alonso ltinerant workshops: Workshops coordinated by the CONDESAN-InfoAndina, CORPOICA-REDEPAPA, and REDECO-CIAT Nets, held in Palmira, Tunja, and Bogotá.AM Ponce JL Alonso Activities with the CIAT Communications Unit and CONDESAN-InfoAndina 50% L Rojas N Russell Activities with the CIAT Communications Unit and CONDESAN-InfoAndina50%L Rojas N Russell 11 Meeting of the lnformation Networks for the Sustainable Development of Latín America, Mérida,  A Ponce 11 Meeting of the lnformation Networks for the Sustainable Development of Latín America, Mérida,A Ponce Venezuela, 28-30 November 2001 .   Venezuela, 28-30 November 2001 . Proposal for collaborative work with CIAT's SN-1 Agroenterprise Project and EARTH college  R. Best Proposal for collaborative work with CIAT's SN-1 Agroenterprise Project and EARTH collegeR. Best Support in elaborating the interactiva multimedia material (CD-ROM) of the Proceedings of the Course on  M. Lundy Support in elaborating the interactiva multimedia material (CD-ROM) of the Proceedings of the Course onM. Lundy Marketing and Commercialization of Organic Products  A. Carpio Marketing and Commercialization of Organic ProductsA. Carpio   J . Correa J . Correa   L. Rojas L. Rojas   S. Cook S. Cook  "},{"text":" Workshops coordinated by the CONDESAN-InfoAndina, CORPOICA-REDEPAPA, and REDECO-CIAT Nets, carried out in Palmira, Tunja, and Bogotá. 4.    4. LOGFRAME OUTPUT 4: lnternational projection    LOGFRAME OUTPUT 4: lnternational projection Trip reports on participation in international events  100% L Rojas Trip reports on participation in international events100%L Rojas 1st Meeting of lnfonnation Networks for the Agricultura! and Rural Development of Latín Ame rica,   1st Meeting of lnfonnation Networks for the Agricultura! and Rural Development of Latín Ame rica, November 2000 in Santiago de Chile.    November 2000 in Santiago de Chile. Trip report on organization and participation in local events  100% L Rojas Trip report on organization and participation in local events100%L Rojas ltinerant workshops: Summons and Press Bulletin on the 2nd Meeting of lnfonnation Networks  100% L Rojas ltinerant workshops: Summons and Press Bulletin on the 2nd Meeting of lnfonnation Networks100%L Rojas Elaboration of the summons and press bulletin on the 2nd Meeting of lnfonnation Networks for the Sustainable Development of Latin America.  SA Perez AM Ponce Elaboration of the summons and press bulletin on the 2nd Meeting of lnfonnation Networks for the Sustainable Development of Latin America.SA Perez AM Ponce LOGFRAME OUTPUT 5: CIAT activities    LOGFRAME OUTPUT 5: CIAT activities Annual workplan  100% L Rojas Annual workplan100%L Rojas Annual report  100% L Rojas Annual report100%L Rojas lnterim report completed    lnterim report completed Performance evaluation 28-30 November 2001 . About 15 information networks participated . Annual workplan outputs achieved within budget limits-Annual report LOGFRAME OUTPUT 3: Research Mérida , Venezuela, 0% 60% S Cook JC Arruralde L Rojas WEykman L Rojas Contmued . LP Torres Performance evaluation 28-30 November 2001 . About 15 information networks participated . Annual workplan outputs achieved within budget limits-Annual report LOGFRAME OUTPUT 3: ResearchMérida , Venezuela,0% 60%S Cook JC Arruralde L Rojas WEykman L Rojas Contmued . LP Torres Evaluativa survey of REDECO services  80% L Rojas Evaluativa survey of REDECO services80%L Rojas  "},{"text":" work in diffusion of material necessitates attendance at meetings and workshops. This year, we participated in the First Meeting of Networks of lnformation for Agricultura! and Rural Development in Latín America , held in Santiago de Chile, Chile, November 2000. We al so took part in itinerant workshops coordinated by the Networks of CONDESAN-InfoAndina, CORPOICA-REDEPAPA, and REDECO-CIAT, taking place in Palmira, Tunja, and Bogotá in January 2001 . We supported the preparation of the multi-media product (CD-ROM) of the Proceedings of the Course on Marketing and Commercialization of Organic Products. We are organizing and will participate in the 11 Meeting of lnformation Networks for the Sustainable Development of Latín America . The event will take place within the IV lntemational Symposium of Sustainable Oevelopment in the Andes \"The Andean Strategy for the XXI Century\" at the University of los Andes , Mérida, Venezuela in November 2001.  "},{"text":"Table 1 . Red Ecorregional para América Latina (REDECO) Network exchanges from November 2000 to October 2001 .Organization of, and participation in, the 11 lnformation Networks Meeting for the Sustainable Development of Latín America . The event is carried out within the framework of the IV lntemational Symposium of Sustainable Development in the Andes \"The Andean Strategy for the XXI Century\" at the University of the Andes, Mérida, Venezuela in November 2001. The objectives of this meeting are to:-1' Strengthen the integration and formation of the Network of lnformation Networks for the Sustainable Development of Latín America through the definition of policies and strategies of cooperation . ../ Exchange information and experiences among those responsible for the networks and participants with the purpose of leaming mutual lessons and improving the information systems offered to users . ../ Evaluate the progress, needs, and future orientation of the activities of the Sub-Committees of Networks and Al M 2002.• Adaptation of the content and design of the REDECO Web page, in agreement with the new version of the lnstitutional Web page. The following tasks were carried out inventory and revision of the content of the previous Web page, selection and edition of the new contents, and adaptation of the texts in the format required by the Program Dream Weaver. Type of message sent Nov De e Jan Feb March April M ay June July Aug Sept Oct Total Type of message sentNovDe eJanFebMarchAprilM ayJuneJulyAugSeptOctTotal   2000 2000           20002000 Eventsa  13 7 10 20 28 16 25 32 23 29 29 40 272 Eventsa13710202816253223292940272 CIAT inlorrnation 4 Publlc/ SN-1/ REDECO/ GIS 3 2 News News unit 2 Ubrary GIS unit 1 News 2 1 1 PE-3 Library Vacancy 3 Publlc 3 Events/ SN-1 CD 2 Vacs 3 REDECO survey/ Public 1 Ubrary 27 CIAT inlorrnation4 Publlc/ SN-1/ REDECO/ GIS 3 2 News News unit2 Ubrary GIS unit 1 News 2 1 1 PE-3 LibraryVacancy3 Publlc3 Events/ SN-1 CD2 Vacs3 REDECO survey/ Public1 Ubrary27 CGIAR infonnation 1   1 1 1 2  3 1  1 11 CGIAR infonnation1111231111   CONDESAN   IPGRI/ CIP CIRAD CONDESAN CONDESAN /IFPRI  ILRI/ ICARDAI CIMMYT CIP  IPGRI CONDESANIPGRI/ CIP CIRADCONDESAN CONDESAN /IFPRIILRI/ ICARDAI CIMMYTCIPIPGRI Scholarships 2 2  4 2 1 3 3 2 2   21 Scholarships22421332221 Volunteered      2     1 1 4 Volunteered2114 Job opportunities 6  1 5 1 1 4 3 3 2 1 1 28 Job opportunities6151143321128 Notice of meetings/ fund      1 2   2   6 Notice of meetings/ fund1226 sources              sources Requests for infonnation 31 8  14 16 7 16 18 17 11 6 16 160 Requests for infonnation3181416716181711616160 Related Web pages 9   11 12 8 8     15 63 Related Web pages91112881563 lnformation resources  10           10 lnformation resources1010 a. Courscs, convcntions, scminars, postgraduate work, etc.          a.Courscs, convcntions, scminars, postgraduate work, etc.  "},{"text":"• Support in elaborating the interactive multimedia material (CD-ROM) of the Proceedings of the Course on Marketing and Commercíalization of Organic Products. The material constitutes a tool to support the demand for information of persons linked to the sector of organic production. The facilitators are the Rural Agroenterprises Development Project (SN-1) and EARTH College, with the support of the Ecoregional Network. Comité Gestión Integral del Agua en Bolivia (CGIAB) ~ Movimiento Agroecológico de América Latina y el Caribe (MAELA) Consorcio para el Desarrollo Sostenible de la Ecorregión Andina CONDESAN-InfoAndina ~ Red Colombiana de Reservas Naturales de la Sociedad Civil 6. 1 O. Publications Acronyms and Abbreviations U sed 6. 1 O.Publications Acronyms and Abbreviations U sed CIAT (Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical). 2001 . Directorio Red Ecorregional ;.;.. Secretaria de Agricultura Acronyms CIAT (Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical). 2001 . Directorio Red Ecorregional ;.;.. Secretaria de Agricultura Acronyms informacion completa . CIA T, Cali, Colombia. 153 p. CIAT (Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical). 2001 . Directorio de Miembros Red > Instituto Colombiano Agricola-ICA Al M :> CORPOBOYACA CATIE informacion completa . CIA T, Cali, Colombia. 153 p. CIAT (Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical). 2001 . Directorio de Miembros Red > Instituto Colombiano Agricola-ICA Al M :> CORPOBOYACA CATIE Ecorregional por paises. CIA T, Cali, Colombia. 169 p. CGIAB > Usochicamocha CGIAR :> Agrochicamocha CIPASLA Ecorregional por paises. CIA T, Cali, Colombia. 169 p. CGIAB > Usochicamocha CGIAR :> Agrochicamocha CIPASLA 7. CIPAV ~ Red de Desarrollo Sostenible y Medio Ambiente (REDESMA) Partner Organizations during 2000 > Proalbio ;.;.. Distrito de Riego Sama ca \"As usa\" 7. CIPAV ~ Red de Desarrollo Sostenible y Medio Ambiente (REDESMA) Partner Organizations during 2000 > Proalbio ;.;.. Distrito de Riego Sama ca \"As usa\" :> Instituto Colombiano Agropecuario-leA CONDESAN :> Instituto Colombiano Agropecuario-leA CONDESAN CORPOBOYACA :> Instituto Interamericano de Cooperación para la Agricultura-liGA CORPOICA CORPOBOYACA :> Instituto Interamericano de Cooperación para la Agricultura-liGA CORPOICA >-Corporación Autonoma Regionai-Cundinamarca CORPOTUNlA cvc >-Corporación Autonoma Regionai-Cundinamarca CORPOTUNlA cvc 8. EARTH Program Staff EMBRAPA  8. EARTH Program Staff EMBRAPA FAO Simon Cook, ~roject Manager Land Use FIDA FAO Simon Cook, ~roject Manager Land Use FIDA Liliana Rojas A. , M.Sc., Research Assistant, Ecoregional Network FIDAMERICA Liliana Rojas A. , M.Sc., Research Assistant, Ecoregional Network FIDAMERICA ICA Jenny Correa, Assistant Editor, Ecoregional Network liCA ICA Jenny Correa, Assistant Editor, Ecoregional Network liCA INFOAGUA Lilian Patricia Torres G. , Administrative Assistant•• MAELA INFOAGUA Lilian Patricia Torres G. , Administrative Assistant•• MAELA ORMA Gloria Stella Torres R., Program Secretary•• PREVAL ORMA Gloria Stella Torres R., Program Secretary•• PREVAL Otoniel Madrid, Research Assistant•• REDCAPA Otoniel Madrid, Research Assistant•• REDCAPA RED ECO •• Land Use Project Staff that supported the Eco regional Network during 2001 REDEPAPA RED ECO •• Land Use Project Staff that supported the Eco regional Network during 2001 REDEPAPA 9. REDESMA Budget 2001 REDLACH  9. REDESMA Budget 2001 REDLACH RIMISP    RIMISP SIDALC So urce Amount (US$) Proportion (%) SIDALCSo urceAmount (US$)Proportion (%) SIPRE ~ Ecofuturo Extra income 2001 > Fundacion Centro Para la Investigación en Sistemas Sostenibles de Produccion 7,000 20.53 Carry over from 2000 27,092 79.47 UICN SIPRE ~ Ecofuturo Extra income 2001 > Fundacion Centro Para la Investigación en Sistemas Sostenibles de Produccion 7,000 20.53 Carry over from 2000 27,092 79.47 UICN  Agropecuaria-CIPAV  Agropecuaria-CIPAV > Universidad Nacional-Palmira Totals 34,092 100.0 > Universidad Nacional-Palmira Totals34,092100.0     15 15  "}],"sieverID":"394d20a1-3833-4805-9486-e2f44c1b43df","abstract":""}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"04636369cb74b349ad8474a32c634e9b","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/61cef43d-ede9-43fc-98b5-23f589abee08/retrieve"},"pageCount":19,"title":"Genome-Wide Association Study Revealed SNP Alleles Associated with Seed Size Traits in African Yam Bean (Sphenostylis stenocarpa (Hochst ex. A. Rich.) Harms)","keywords":["Olomitutu, O.E.","Paliwal, R.","Abe, A.","Oluwole, O.O.","Oyatomi, O.A.","Abberton, M.T. Genome-Wide Association Study African yam bean","phenotypic variation","genomic-assisted breeding","marker-trait association","seed size traits","SNP alleles"],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":158,"text":"Meeting global food and nutritional demands under limited growing space and changing climatic conditions is now the major target in crop breeding programs. Recently, the focus has shifted to relatively unknown indigenous legumes such as African yam bean (AYB) due to its dietary protein and mineral content and adaptive nature to wide climatic and soil conditions [1,2]. African yam bean is economically the most important species in the genus Sphenostylis and the most important tuberous legume of tropical Africa [3,4]. The utilization of its food substances (tubers and pulse) is a feature of cultural diversity in Africa [4,5]. The tuber contains, on average, 15.5% crude protein, 1.3% crude fat, and 68.3% carbohydrate [6]. The seed contains 22.5% protein, 53.7% carbohydrate, and 3.6% crude fat content [7]. Despite its numerous other benefits, low seed yield is one of the major constraints to its production [8,9] due to the absence of improved varieties and a lack of significant research attention."},{"index":2,"size":175,"text":"Yield is a complex trait, difficult to improve directly. It is an expression of several component traits that are highly subject to environmental influences [10]. In crop breeding, the greatest yield improvements are associated with the selection and optimization of its component traits. Since the beginning of domestication in agriculture, increased seed size has been a major target as an important yield component trait [11]. Seed size is crucial to plant fitness in crops whose main mode of propagation is by seed and a key factor affecting eating quality and tolerance to abiotic stresses [12][13][14][15]. Compared with small seeds, large seeds accumulate sufficient nourishing substances for faster germination and stronger seedlings that can better compete for light and nutrition and have stronger tolerance to abiotic stresses [12,15,16]. Small seeds, on the other hand, are efficient at dispersal and colonization [17,18]. Seed size is the most commercially valued trait in dry grain legumes, and it varies widely among AYB accessions [4,19,20]. However, the genetic basis for variation in seed size in AYB is not yet known."},{"index":3,"size":336,"text":"Recent advances in high-throughput genomic platforms have created the opportunity for the genome-wide-level understanding of the genetic basis of variation in complex traits at a finer resolution. Association mapping (AM), originally developed for use in mapping human disease genes [21], is now a popular method of maker-trait association studies in plants. Association mapping detects linkage disequilibrium between genetic markers and genes controlling the trait of interest by exploiting recombination events accumulating over many generations in natural populations [22]. It evaluates whether certain alleles within a population are found with specific phenotypes more frequently than expected [23]. Once genes and/or loci are identified and validated, they could be fixed to develop improved genotypes. Association mapping has several advantages over traditional linkage mapping. These include an increased resolution, a reduced research time (using existing populations rather than generating population via biparental crosses), and a higher allele number detection per locus as opposed to only two [24][25][26]. Association mapping also suffers some shortcomings, such as the detection of false positives in the population structure, which is a result of the linkage between causal and noncausal sites, more than one causal site, and epistasis. However, advancement in statistical methods has helped to reduce the rate of false positives [27]. Several GWAS reports have identified putative QTLs/genes in many leguminous crops [28][29][30][31][32][33] that played an important role in understanding the inheritance of quantitative traits [34,35] and trait deployment using a marker-assisted selection approach [36,37]. In legumes, several QTLs have been identified for seed size traits in cowpea [11], soybean [38], and common bean [39,40]. Unfortunately, very limited molecular research has been conducted in indigenous African legumes, including AYB. In AYB, the only available report of association mapping is the preliminary assessment for nutritional qualities by Oluwole et al. [41]. Here, a maker-traits association study was conducted to investigate the genetic basis of variation in seed size traits (seed length, seed width, seed thickness, and 100-seed weight) in AYB using diversity array technology sequence (DArTseq) genotype-by-sequencing (GBS)-based single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) markers."}]},{"head":"Materials and Methods","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Germplasm","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":40,"text":"The germplasm consisted of 196 AYB accessions obtained from the existing collection of landraces at the Genetic Resource Center, International Institute of Tropical Agriculture, Ibadan, Nigeria. The passport data of the accessions can be found in Olomitutu et al. [9]."}]},{"head":"Phenotyping","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":136,"text":"The accessions were phenotyped under optimal field conditions across three IITA research farms in Nigeria-Ibadan, Kano, and Ubiaja-during the 2018 and 2019 cropping seasons. The experimental design was a 14 × 14 α lattice with three replications. Each experimental unit consisted of 4 m single-row plots, with an inter-row spacing of 0.75 m and intrarow spacing of 0.5 m. Phosphorus fertilizer application in the form of triple super-phosphate at a rate of 50 kg P/ha and staking were performed three weeks after planting. Manual weeding was carried out when necessary to keep the field clean. Details of the phenotyping methodology are described in Olomitutu et al. [9]. At harvest, data were recorded on 100-seed weight (g), seed length (mm), seed width (mm), and seed thickness (mm) on a plot basis using IITA descriptors for AYB [42]."}]},{"head":"Genotyping and Quality Control","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":108,"text":"Leaf samples were collected from three-week-old seedlings of each 196 AYB accession and stored at −80 • C. Genomic DNA (gDNA) was extracted using the diversity array technology (DArT) DNA extraction protocol (https://ordering.seqart.net/files/DArT_ DNA_isolation.pdf accessed on 20 January 2019). The isolated gDNA were qualified on 1% agarose gel electrophoresis and quantified using a Nanodrop 2000 spectrophotometer (Thermo Scientific, Waltham, MA, USA) following the manufacturer's protocol. The highquality DNA (100 ng/µL) samples were shipped to DArT Pty Ltd., Canberra, Australia, for genotyping using the whole genome profiling service of DArTseq technology [43]. Detailed methodology on complexity reduction, cloning, library construction, and cleaning was described by Egea et al. [44]."},{"index":2,"size":98,"text":"A raw dataset of 5416 DArTseq SNPs was generated. The DArTseq SNPs were filtered using call rate ≥ 70%, average reproducibility ≥ 95%, minor allele frequency (MAF) ≥ 0.01, and 20% missing SNP data to remove poor-quality SNPs. After SNP quality control, a total of 2491 SNPs from 195 accessions were retained and used for the genome-wide association study (GWAS). Accession TSs-442 was filtered out due to low-quality SNPs. In the absence of the AYB genome, trimmed sequences of filtered SNPs were aligned on the common bean reference genome v1.1 (available at https://phytozome-next.jgi.doe.gov, (accessed on 20 January 2019))."}]},{"head":"Phenotypic Data Analysis","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":147,"text":"Based on plot means across test locations, a combined analysis of variance (ANOVA) was performed using PROC GLM in SAS [45], with the RANDOM statement and TEST option. Location and year were considered fixed, while all other factors were regarded as random effects. Broad-sense heritability (H 2 ) was estimated from the phenotypic (σ 2 p ) and genotypic (σ 2 g ) variances [46] and categorized as low (0-30%), moderate (30-60%), and high (>60%) according to [47]. Correlation analysis among the traits was performed using the corPlot function in R [48]. Distribution plots were also constructed for traits using the hist function in R. The plot means of the remaining 195 accessions (in each and combined locations) were used to calculate the best linear unbiased estimate (BLUE) using META-R version 6.04 [49]. The calculated BLUE value of each genotype was further used in the GWAS analysis."}]},{"head":"Genome-Wide Association Study and Candidate Gene Identification","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":133,"text":"The 2491 filtered SNPs from 195 accessions were used for the assessment of population structure and GWAS using TASSEL 5 [50]. The population structure and relatedness analysis among genotypes in the AYB population were conducted using the genomic principal component analysis (PCA) matrix (P) and kinship matrix (K) [51,52]. Markertrait associations were determined using two different models based on the estimated BLUEs for phenotypic traits (in each and combined locations) and filtered SNPs: the general linear model (GLM) with PCA as the fixed effect (GLM + PCA) and the mixed linear model (MLM) mixed linear model (MLM + PCA + K) [39]. Based on the distribution of p-values for traits, marker-trait associations were declared significant at p-values of ≥10 −4 [53,54]. Manhattan and quantile-quantile (Q-Q) plots were constructed using CMplot package in R."},{"index":2,"size":196,"text":"The SNP markers that were significantly associated with seed size traits through GWAS in the combined location analysis were annotated for candidate gene identification in the LIS-legume information systems (https://www.legumeinfo.org accessed on 4 April 2020). Since AYB currently lacks a reference genome, which is a limitation to candidate gene mapping, the genome of a related legume, the common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris), was used. A blast search was performed for trimmed nucleotide sequence (60-80 bps) of significant AYB SNPs on the Phaseolus vulgaris genome database (Phaseolus vulgaris G19833 genome v2.0) in the legume information system. Synteny of related legumes (Glycine max 2.0, Vigna angularis 3.0, and Cajanus cajan 1.0) was also included in the search. After marking the annotated position in the Phaseolus vulgaris genome database, the scroll was zoomed to 1 Mb (500 Kbp up and downstream from the annotated position of the AYB SNP tag in the Phaseolus vulgaris genome database) to check for the surrounding candidate genes and their encoding protein products and know if they regulate the traits of interest. Identified putative candidate genes in the Phaseolus vulgaris genome database were also subsequently further researched in the previous crop studies literature for verification."}]},{"head":"Results","index":8,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Phenotypic Evaluations","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":123,"text":"The ANOVA across the test locations revealed significant accession, location, location × year, accession × location, and accession × location × year effects for the four seed size traits. The accession × year interactions effect was significant only for 100-seed weight and seed length, while year effect was significant for seed length and seed width. High broad-sense heritability (66.4%) was obtained in seed length, while seed thickness (57.8%), 100-seed weight (51.6%), and seed width (50.0%) had moderate heritability estimates (Table 1). The distribution of the seed size traits evaluated in the six environments and the correlation coefficients between the traits are presented in Figures 1 and 2. The relationships among the traits were positive and significant, and the distribution of traits was near-normal.     "}]},{"head":"Genotyping and SNP Filtering","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":167,"text":"A diverse set of 196 AYB accessions were genotyped using a high-depth DArTseq SNP approach and generated a total of 5416 SNPs. After SNP quality control (call rate ≥ 0.70, marker reproducibility ≥ 0.95, MAF ≥ 0.01, and missing rate ≤ 0.20) (Supplementary Figures S1-S3), a total of 2491 SNPs were retained and used for GWAS analysis. The MAF ranged between 0.01 and 0.49, with an average of 0.16 (Supplementary Figure S4). The average heterozygosity of the population was 0.15, while TSs-137 accession (0.006) and TSs-10 (0.41) showed minimum and maximum heterozygosity in the AYB population (Supplementary Figures S5 and S6). The average proportion of missing data (based on genotypes) was 0.012 in the AYB population (Supplementary Figure S7). Out of 2491 AYB SNPs, only 422 showed genome-wide syntenic relationships with the common bean reference genome. In the common bean genome, most SNPs were aligned on chromosome 2 (58 SNPs), followed by chromosome 3 (51 SNPs), and the least on chromosome 10 (13 SNPs) (Supplementary Figure S8)."}]},{"head":"Association Analysis","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":78,"text":"Principal component analysis revealed that the first three principal components (PCs) respectively accounted for 5.9, 4.8, and 3.7% of the variation among the AYB accessions. No clear clustering (population structure) could be deduced among the accessions based on these two PCs (Figure 3). The coefficient of relatedness in the pairwise kinship matrix ranged between −0.33 and 2.52. The kinship heatmap plot was developed to visualize the relatedness within the population, which indicated low relatedness between accessions (Figure 3)."},{"index":2,"size":10,"text":"Genes 2022, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 20"}]},{"head":"Genotyping and SNP Filtering","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":164,"text":"A diverse set of 196 AYB accessions were genotyped using a high-depth DArTseq SNP approach and generated a total of 5416 SNPs. After SNP quality control (call rate ≥0.70, marker reproducibility ≥0.95, MAF ≥ 0.01, and missing rate ≤0.20) (Supplementary Figures S1-S3), a total of 2491 SNPs were retained and used for GWAS analysis. The MAF ranged between 0.01 and 0.49, with an average of 0.16 (Supplementary Figure S4). The average heterozygosity of the population was 0.15, while TSs-137 accession (0.006) and TSs-10 (0.41) showed minimum and maximum heterozygosity in the AYB population (Supplementary Figures S5 and S6). The average proportion of missing data (based on genotypes) was 0.012 in the AYB population (Supplementary Figure S7). Out of 2491 AYB SNPs, only 422 showed genome-wide syntenic relationships with the common bean reference genome. In the common bean genome, most SNPs were aligned on chromosome 2 (58 SNPs), followed by chromosome 3 (51 SNPs), and the least on chromosome 10 (13 SNPs) (Supplementary Figure S8)."}]},{"head":"Association Analysis","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":687,"text":"Principal component analysis revealed that the first three principal components (PCs) respectively accounted for 5.9, 4.8, and 3.7% of the variation among the AYB accessions. No clear clustering (population structure) could be deduced among the accessions based on these two PCs (Figure 3). The coefficient of relatedness in the pairwise kinship matrix ranged between -0.33 and 2.52. The kinship heatmap plot was developed to visualize the relatedness within the population, which indicated low relatedness between accessions (Figure 3).  A total of 58 marker-trait associations were detected for the four seed size traits at a threshold of p-values of ≥10 −4 in each and combined locations analyses (Table 2, Supplementary Table S1). The combined test environments analysis revealed that 12 significant SNP markers were associated with all four seed size traits, seven of which were codetected by the two statistical methods (GLM and MLM) used. The 12 SNPs explained 6.5-10.8% of the phenotypic variation. In the GLM, six SNPs were associated with 100-seed weight, four with seed thickness, three with seed width, and one with seed length. One SNP marker each was associated with 100-seed weight and seed length, three with seed width, and four with seed thickness in the MLM. Two markers (29420334|F|0-52:C>G-52:C>G and 29420736|F|0-57:G>T-57:G>T) with pleiotropic effects were both associated with seed width and seed thickness. Six out of the twelve markers were significant in at least one of the location and combined location analyses for the same traits (Table 2). Manhattan and Q-Q plots of the SNP-based associations mapping for the four traits based on GLM and MLM are presented in Figures 4 and 5, respectively. The observed p-values for all traits aligned with expected p-values, as shown by the Q-Q plots. Evaluations in Ibadan over the 2 years revealed significant associations among 30 SNP markers with the four seed size traits (Supplementary Table S1). Seventeen of these SNPs were codetected by the two statistical methods. The markers explained 5.9 to 10.6% of the observed variance. Two markers with pleiotropic effects, 29421951|F|0-37:A>C-37:A>C (associated with 100-seed weight and seed width) and 100006540|F|0-20:T>G-20:T>G (associated with seed thickness and seed width), were found. In Kano, 14 markers displayed significant associations with all four seed size traits, 11 of which were codetected by both statistical methods. The variance explained by these markers ranged from 7.1 to 9.7%. Three markers, 29422320|F|0-37:T>C-37:T>C (associated with 100-seed weight and seed length), 29421428|F|0-9:C>A-9:C>A (associated with seed length and seed width) and 29420736|F|0-57:G>T-57:G>T (associated with seed thickness and seed width), were found to have pleiotropic effects. In Ubiaja, 12 markers, half of which were codetected by both statistical methods, were significantly associated with all traits. The contribution of all the markers to the phenotypic variation ranged from 5.0 and 10.5%. Evaluations in Ubiaja did not reveal any marker with a pleiotropic effect. Two marker overlaps were found: 29421549|F|0-25:A>C-25:A>C (for HSW in Kano and Ubiaja) and 29420736|F|0-57:G>T-57:G>T (for ST in Ibadan and Kano). Chromosome positions were not given because AYB is yet to have a reference genome (Supplementary Table S1).     Candidate gene analysis was performed by blasting trimmed nucleotide sequences (60-80 bps) of significant AYB SNPs in the combined location analysis on the Phaseolus vulgaris genome database (Phaseolus vulgaris G19833 genome v2.0) in the legume information system. Forty-three candidate genes were identified. These genes were located near (less than 500 kbp) five SNP markers (100026424|F|0-37:C>T-37:C>T, 100041049|F|0-42:G>C-42:G>C, 100034480|F|0-31:C>A-31:C>A, 29420365|F|0-55:C>G-55:C>G, and 29420736|F|0-57:G>T-57:G>T) associated with the four AYB seed traits (Figure 6, Table 3). The five SNP markers were located on chromosomes 1, 2, 6, and 7 of Phaseolus vulgaris. The 43 candidate genes have 34 encoding protein products, with some having similar encoding protein products (Table 3). The encoding gene products are known to regulate seed development (UDP-glycosyltransferase superfamily protein, RING-H2 finger protein 2B), seed/fruit size (cytochrome P450 superfamily protein, pentatricopeptide repeat (PPR) superfamily protein; ovate family protein 13), seed weight (cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor family protein; ATP-binding ABC transporter), seed length (β-carotene isomerase D27), and grain shape (serine/threonine protein phosphatase 2A) in field crops.   Phvul.007G280200 P. vulgaris 7 ATP-binding/protein serine/threonine kinase Regulate seed size [76] HSW, hundred seeds weight; SL, seed length; SW, seed width; ST, seed thickness."}]},{"head":"Discussion","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":139,"text":"The significant differences observed among the accessions for the seed size traits revealed the existence of adequate genetic variability among them. Seeds of AYB are known to harbor vast genetic variability in color, shape, and size [4,19,20,87]. Adewale et al. [4] had earlier suggested the use of six seed characters (seed length, width, and thickness and their ratios) as unique indices for discriminating among AYB accessions. The significant accession × location × year effects for all traits indicated the distinctiveness of the environments in discriminating among the accessions. Moderate to high heritability estimates observed for all traits implied increased power of SNP detection in the accession, hence, identification of true associations between a marker and putative gene [53]. The significant positive correlations between pairs of traits suggest the possibility of simultaneous improvements in the traits to enhance seed yield."},{"index":2,"size":525,"text":"At the genetic level, differences in the extent of relatedness among individuals in a population used for association mapping can lead to the formation of a population structure that can cause spurious associations between genotypes and the traits of interest [88]. Principal component analysis is a widely used multivariate statistical approach proposed by Price et al. [89] that can calculate population relatedness and count groups in a population in order to reduce dimensional genotype data and control population structure (by selecting the first few PCs that present most of the total variation among individuals based on their SNP data). In this study, however, population structure analysis using the PCA approach showed barely noticeable differentiation among accessions. This result of subtle population structure was also confirmed by the multidimensional scaling (MDS) approach using Tassel software. The first three principal components of PCA had a high correlation with the first three principal components of MDS (data not shown). This might have resulted from the fact that most of the accessions, especially the large proportion whose origins are unknown (102 accessions), are possibly from Nigeria. Association analyses between specific phenotypes and genotypes within a genome are an important step toward the discovery of genes controlling the traits [53,90]. Of the 195 accessions used in this study, 137 have been previously utilized for conducting genome-wide association studies for nutritional traits, and several significant SNPs were found to be associated with the studied traits [41]. In this study, model fitness for the GWAS was confirmed by the Q-Q plots. The alignment of observed and expected p-values in the Q-Q plots for all the measured traits indicated that spurious associations as a result of population structure and familial relatedness were largely corrected. Using two alternative GWAS models, we found that the MLM model had a stricter decrease in the number of significant markers than the GLM model. This is because GLM is considered a naive model with a high rate of false positives because it does not take population structure into account [91], whereas MLM takes population structure into account and avoids spurious associations [92,93]. Though subtle population structure was found in this study, both models were reported because this was the first attempt at dissecting the genetic basis of seed size traits in AYB using GWAS. Significant QTLs associated with agronomic traits have also been reported in the absence of population structure using GLM and MLM models of GWAS in rice and faba bean crops [92,94]. The contribution of all the significant markers to the phenotypic variation, which ranged from 5.0 to 10.4%, suggested that the markers could be useful for marker-assisted selection in AYB improvement. However, due to the nonexistence of a reference genome for AYB, the exact locations of the markers on the chromosomes remain unknown. The Alliance for Accelerated Crop Improvement in Africa (ACACIA) is currently undertaking the whole genome sequencing of AYB [95]. Markers with pleiotropic effects could be useful in the simultaneous improvement of the correlated traits. The six significant markers that were consistent in the one location and the combined location analyses for the same traits in this study could be considered putative makers."},{"index":3,"size":278,"text":"In this study, the common bean genome was used to align AYB SNPs, and 17% of the filtered 2491 SNPs aligned widely on common bean chr01 to chr11, including six SNPs on scaffolds. These suggest that the two crops have a syntenic relationship, which might be due to their close evolutionary relationship. Similar results have been reported for another African indigenous legume (Bambara groundnut) having syntenic relationships with other legumes (common bean, adzuki bean, and mung bean) [96,97]. The five significant markers found in Phaseolus vulgaris genome at a location close to genes whose encoding proteins had been reported in other crops to regulate the same traits as those with which they are associated in AYB can also be considered candidate makers. For example, markers (29420365|F|0-55:C>G-55:C>G and 29420736|F|0-57:G>T-57:G>T) associated with seed length, seed width, and seed thickness were found located close to genes (Phvul.001G153000 and Phvul.007G269900) having ovate family protein 13 as their encoding protein. Ovate family protein 13 is known to regulate fruit shape and seed size in tomato and rice, respectively [80]. Likewise, the pentatricopeptide repeat (PPR) superfamily protein, the encoding protein of genes (Phvul.006G047700, Phvul.006G047700, Phvul.002G024100, Phvul.001G153700, and Phvul.007G278500) located close to markers (100026424|F|0-37:C>T-37:C>T, 100041049|F|0-42:G>C-42:G>C, 100034480|F|0-31:C>A-31:C>A, 29420365|F|0-55:C>G-55:C>G, and 29420736|F|0-57:G>T-57:G>T) associated with the four seed size and shape traits of AYB is known to regulate seed physical traits by participating in RNA intron splicing during seed development [66]. Though significant marker-trait associations were detected in this study, the result serves as a foundation for the genetic understanding of putative makers underlying seed size traits in AYB. The identified significant makers could be targeted by plant breeders in marker-assisted selection to accelerate the genetic improvement of AYB."}]},{"head":"Conclusions","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":98,"text":"To the best of our knowledge, this study is the first attempt at dissecting the genetic basis of seed size traits in AYB using genome-wide association mapping. Several SNPs were significantly associated with seed size traits in AYB. The five significant SNP markers (100026424|F|0-37:C>T-37:C>T, 100041049|F|0-42:G>C-42:G>C, 100034480|F|0-31:C>A-31:C>A, 29420365|F|0-55:C>G-55:C>G, and 29420736|F|0-57:G>T-57:G>T) found on the Phaseolus vulgaris genome should be regarded as candidate markers. It is, therefore, recommended that efforts should be directed toward the validation of the identified significant makers using several mapping populations before they can be targeted for use in marker-assisted selection for seed size traits in AYB."}]},{"head":"Supplementary Materials:","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":29,"text":"The following supporting information can be downloaded at: https: //www.mdpi.com/article/10.3390/genes13122350/s1, Figure S1 Funding: This study is funded by the Crop Trust through the Genetic Resource Center, IITA, Ibadan, Nigeria."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure 1 . Figure 1. Distribution of seed size traits of 196 accessions of African yam bean evaluated dur 2018 and 2019 cropping seasons at three locations in Nigeria: (A) hundred seeds weight (g), ( length (mm), (C) seed thickness (mm), and (D) seed width (mm). "},{"text":"Figure 2 .Figure 1 . Figure 2. Phenotypic correlation coefficient of seed size traits of 196 accessions of African yam "},{"text":"Figure 1 . Figure 1. Distribution of seed size traits of 196 accessions of African yam bean evaluated during the 2018 and 2019 cropping seasons at three locations in Nigeria: (A) hundred seeds weight (g), (B) seed length (mm), (C) seed thickness (mm), and (D) seed width (mm). "},{"text":"Figure 2 . Figure 2. Phenotypic correlation coefficient of seed size traits of 196 accessions of African yam bean evaluated during the 2018 and 2019 cropping seasons at three locations in Nigeria: HSW, 100-seed weight; SL, seed length; SW, seed width; ST, seed thickness. "},{"text":"Figure 2 . Figure 2. Phenotypic correlation coefficient of seed size traits of 196 accessions of African yam bean evaluated during the 2018 and 2019 cropping seasons at three locations in Nigeria: HSW, 100-seed weight; SL, seed length; SW, seed width; ST, seed thickness. "},{"text":"Figure 3 . Figure 3. Principal component analysis (a-c) of AYB population and heatmap plot of kinship matrix (d) of 195 African yam bean accessions genotyped with the 2491 DArTseq SNPs. "},{"text":"Figure 3 . Figure 3. Principal component analysis (a-c) of AYB population and heatmap plot of kinship matrix (d) of 195 African yam bean accessions genotyped with the 2491 DArTseq SNPs. "},{"text":"Figure 4 . Figure 4. The Manhattan plots and Q-Q plots of the DArTSeq SNP-based associations map the combined test environments analysis for: (A) hundred seeds weight (HSW), (B) seed leng (C) seed thickness (ST), and (D) seed width (SW) using the GLM approach. "},{"text":"Figure 4 . Figure 4. The Manhattan plots and Q-Q plots of the DArTSeq SNP-based associations mapping in the combined test environments analysis for: (A) hundred seeds weight (HSW), (B) seed length (SL), (C) seed thickness (ST), and (D) seed width (SW) using the GLM approach. "},{"text":"Figure 5 . Figure 5. The Manhattan plots and Q-Q plots of the DArTSeq SNP-based associations map the combined test environments analysis for: (A) hundred seeds weight (HSW), (B) seed leng (C) seed thickness (ST), and (D) seed width (SW) using the MLM approach. "},{"text":"Figure 5 . Figure 5. The Manhattan plots and Q-Q plots of the DArTSeq SNP-based associations mapping in the combined test environments analysis for: (A) hundred seeds weight (HSW), (B) seed length (SL), (C) seed thickness (ST), and (D) seed width (SW) using the MLM approach. "},{"text":"Genes 2022 , 20 Figure 6 . Figure 6. Cord diagram 43 of candidate genes (based on their encoded protein products) associated with five SNP markers associated with seed size traits in the AYB population. "},{"text":"Figure 6 . Figure 6. Cord diagram 43 of candidate genes (based on their encoded protein products) associated with five SNP markers associated with seed size traits in the AYB population. "},{"text":" : call rate distribution in the AYB population, Figure S2: marker reproducibility distribution in the AYB population, Figure S3: proportion of missing data (SNP markers) distribution in the AYB population, Figure S4: minor allele frequency distribution in the AYB population, Figure S5: proportion of heterozygous (SNP markers) distribution in the AYB population, Figure S6: proportion of heterozygous (based on genotypes) distribution in the AYB population, Figure S7: proportion of missing data (based on genotypes) distribution in the AYB population, Figure S8: African yam bean SNPs aligned on different chromosomes of common bean genome, Table S1: DArTseq SNP markers having significant association with seed size traits of 195 accessions of African yam bean evaluated during the 2018 and 2019 cropping seasons in Ibadan, Kano, and Ubiaja. Author Contributions: Conceptualization, M.T.A., O.E.O. and R.P.; funding acquisition, M.T.A.; investigation, O.E.O.; methodology, O.E.O., A.A., R.P., O.O.O. and O.A.O.; data curation, O.E.O. and O.O.O.; formal analysis, O.E.O. and R.P.; project administration, M.T.A. and O.A.O.; supervision, M.T.A., A.A., O.A.O. and R.P.; writing-original draft, O.E.O.; writing-review and editing, A.A. and R.P. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript. "},{"text":"Table 1 . Mean squares from analysis of variance for four seed size traits of 196 accessions of African yam bean evaluated at three test locations in Nigeria. SOV DF HSW SL SW ST SOVDFHSWSLSWST Accession 195 52.18 ** 1.26 *** 0.55 ** 0.88 *** Accession19552.18 **1.26 ***0.55 **0.88 *** Location 2 5863.2 *** 117.51 *** 126.96 *** 148.95 *** Location25863.2 *** 117.51 *** 126.96 *** 148.95 *** Year 1 78.6 23.45 *** 22.8 *** 0.36 Year178.623.45 ***22.8 ***0.36 Location × Year 2 536.66 ** 19.46 *** 4.32 ** 9.39 *** Location × Year2536.66 **19.46 ***4.32 **9.39 *** Accession × Location 390 29.7 ** 0.49 *** 0.32 ** 0.45 ** Accession × Location39029.7 **0.49 ***0.32 **0.45 ** Accession × Year 195 28.1 ** 0.46 ** 0.25 0.31 Accession × Year19528.1 **0.46 **0.250.31 Accession × Location × Year 390 20.74 *** 0.33 *** 0.23 *** 0.33 *** Accession × Location × Year39020.74 ***0.33 ***0.23 ***0.33 *** Replication (Location × Year) 12 66.67 *** 0.54 ** 0.37 ** 0.52 ** Replication (Location × Year)1266.67 ***0.54 **0.37 **0.52 ** Block (Replication × Location × Year) 234 17.14 * 0.22 0.14 0.2 Block (Replication × Location × Year) 23417.14 *0.220.140.2 Error 2107 14.1 0.22 0.14 0.21 Error210714.10.220.140.21 Heritability  0.52 0.66 0.5 0.58 Heritability0.520.660.50.58  "},{"text":"Table 2 . DArTseq SNPs markers with significant associations with seed size traits of 195 accessions of African yam bean evaluated during the 2018 and 2019 cropping seasons at three locations in Nigeria (Ibadan, Kano, and Ubiaja).    GLM  MLM  Significant in GLMMLMSignificant in SN Trait Marker Positions p-Value Marker R 2 p-Value Marker R 2 Individual Locations SN TraitMarkerPositionsp-ValueMarker R 2p-ValueMarker R 2Individual Locations HSW 29421549|F|0-25:A>C-25:A>C 1124 1.14 × 10 −4 0.08362 8.76 × 10 −4 0.0754 KANO, UBIAJA HSW 29421549|F|0-25:A>C-25:A>C11241.14 × 10 −4 0.083628.76 × 10 −4 0.0754KANO, UBIAJA HSW 100026424|F|0-37:C>T-37:C>T 177 1.62 × 10 −4 0.06499   UBIAJA HSW 100026424|F|0-37:C>T-37:C>T1771.62 × 10 −4 0.06499UBIAJA HSW 100008851|F|0-26:T>C-26:T>C 106 2.31 × 10 −4 0.07655    HSW 100008851|F|0-26:T>C-26:T>C1062.31 × 10 −4 0.07655 HSW 100041049|F|0-42:G>C-42:G>C 249 7.12 × 10 −4 0.06635    HSW 100041049|F|0-42:G>C-42:G>C 2497.12 × 10 −4 0.06635 HSW 100026423|F|0-13:A>T-13:A>T 2228 7.12 × 10 −4 0.06635    HSW 100026423|F|0-13:A>T-13:A>T22287.12 × 10 −4 0.06635 HSW 29421658|F|0-5:G>A-5:G>A 1156 8.34 × 10 −4 0.06495    HSW 29421658|F|0-5:G>A-5:G>A11568.34 × 10 −4 0.06495 SL 29420365|F|0-55:C>G-55:C>G 2152 4.35 × 10 −4 0.07298 8.84 × 10 −4 0.0769  SL29420365|F|0-55:C>G-55:C>G21524.35 × 10 −4 0.072988.84 × 10 −4 0.0769 ST 100034480|F|0-31:C>A-31:C>A 216 1.02 × 10 −5 0.09925 3.42 × 10 −5 0.1036 UBIAJA ST100034480|F|0-31:C>A-31:C>A 2161.02 × 10 −5 0.099253.42 × 10 −5 0.1036UBIAJA ST 29420736|F|0-57:G>T-57:G>T 2364 4.59 × 10 −5 0.08693 9.84 × 10 −5 0.0925 IBADAN, KANO ST29420736|F|0-57:G>T-57:G>T23644.59 × 10 −5 0.086939.84 × 10 −5 0.0925IBADAN, KANO ST 29420680|F|0-49:T>G-49:T>G 729 4.41 × 10 −4 0.06803 7.61 × 10 −4 0.0712  ST29420680|F|0-49:T>G-49:T>G7294.41 × 10 −4 0.068037.61 × 10 −4 0.0712 ST 29420334|F|0-52:C>G-52:C>G 525 5.16 × 10 −4 0.06702 7.09 × 10 −4 0.0719  ST29420334|F|0-52:C>G-52:C>G5255.16 × 10 −4 0.067027.09 × 10 −4 0.0719 SW 29420736|F|0-57:G>T-57:G>T 2364 1.40 × 10 −5 0.10405 3.63 × 10 −5 0.1084 KANO SW29420736|F|0-57:G>T-57:G>T23641.40 × 10 −5 0.104053.63 × 10 −5 0.1084KANO SW 29421428|F|0-9:C>A-9:C>A 1088 1.19 × 10 −4 0.08505 2.08 × 10 −4 0.0891 KANO SW29421428|F|0-9:C>A-9:C>A10881.19 × 10 −4 0.085052.08 × 10 −4 0.0891KANO SW 29420334|F|0-52:C>G-52:C>G 525 5.98 × 10 −4 0.0708 7.94 × 10 −4 0.0746  SW29420334|F|0-52:C>G-52:C>G5255.98 × 10 −4 0.07087.94 × 10 −4 0.0746  "},{"text":"Table 3 . Cont.     SN Trait Marker Position Gene ID Crop Chromosome Encoding Product Role SN Trait MarkerPositionGene IDCropChromosome Encoding ProductRole  "},{"text":"Table 3 . Cont.     SN Trait Marker Position Gene ID Crop Chromosome Encoding Product Role References SN TraitMarkerPositionGene IDCropChromosome Encoding ProductRoleReferences 5 ST, SW 29420736|F|0-57:G>T-57:G>T Pv07:40,040,935..40,041,1 Phvul.007G269900 P. vulgaris 7 Ovate family protein 13 Regulate seed/fruit size [79,80] 5ST, SW 29420736|F|0-57:G>T-57:G>T Pv07:40,040,935..40,041,1 Phvul.007G269900 P. vulgaris 7Ovate family protein 13Regulate seed/fruit size[79,80]     Phvul.007G270100 P. vulgaris 7 Ubiquitin-conjugating enzyme 20 Regulate seed size [15,56] Phvul.007G270100 P. vulgaris 7Ubiquitin-conjugating enzyme 20 Regulate seed size[15,56]     Phvul.007G272700 P. vulgaris 7 RING-H2 finger protein 2B Seed development [62] Phvul.007G272700 P. vulgaris 7RING-H2 finger protein 2BSeed development[62]     Phvul.007G273100 P. vulgaris 7 Serine/threonine protein phosphatase 2A Regulate grain shape [76,84] Phvul.007G273100 P. vulgaris 7Serine/threonine protein phosphatase 2ARegulate grain shape[76,84]     Phvul.007G273400 P. vulgaris 7 Myb transcription factor Regulate grain size [63,64] Phvul.007G273400 P. vulgaris 7Myb transcription factorRegulate grain size [63,64]     Phvul.007G278500 P. vulgaris 7 Pentatricopeptide repeat (PPR) superfamily protein Regulate seed size [65] Phvul.007G278500 P. vulgaris 7Pentatricopeptide repeat (PPR) superfamily proteinRegulate seed size[65]     Phvul.007G278600 P. vulgaris 7 Argonaute family protein Regulate seed size [85] Phvul.007G278600 P. vulgaris 7Argonaute family proteinRegulate seed size[85]     Phvul.007G279400 P. vulgaris 7 ARM repeat superfamily protein Regulate seed size [86] Phvul.007G279400 P. vulgaris 7ARM repeat superfamily protein Regulate seed size[86]  "}],"sieverID":"5b9a6acc-08be-44cf-9fe9-e68e845ed5f8","abstract":"Seed size is an important yield and quality-determining trait in higher plants and is also crucial to their evolutionary fitness. In African yam bean (AYB), seed size varies widely among different accessions. However, the genetic basis of such variation has not been adequately documented. A genome-wide marker-trait association study was conducted to identify genomic regions associated with four seed size traits (seed length, seed width, seed thickness, and 100-seed weight) in a panel of 195 AYB accessions. A total of 5416 SNP markers were generated from the diversity array technology sequence (DArTseq) genotype-by-sequencing (GBS)-approach, in which 2491 SNPs were retained after SNP quality control and used for marker-trait association analysis. Significant phenotypic variation was observed for the traits. Broad-sense heritability ranged from 50.0% (seed width) to 66.4% (seed length). The relationships among the traits were positive and significant. Genome-wide association study (GWAS) using the general linear model (GLM) and the mixed linear model (MLM) approaches identified 12 SNP markers significantly associated with seed size traits across the six test environments. The 12 makers explained 6.5-10.8% of the phenotypic variation. Two markers (29420334|F|0-52:C>G-52:C>G and 29420736|F|0-57:G>T-57:G>T) with pleiotropic effects associated with seed width and seed thickness were found. A candidate gene search identified five significant markers (100026424|F|0"}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0491ef88f1628927f1911063c1e81ed2","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://publications.iwmi.org/pdf/H043379.pdf"},"pageCount":8,"title":"Economic Assessment of Water Storage in Sub-Saharan Africa","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":60,"text":"The recent interest of international funding organizations for financing large water storage schemes in Africa has revived the debate on welfare assessment through cost and benefit analyses (CBA) (World Bank, 2004). CBA related analyses are widely acknowledged as the most appropriate approach for selecting water storage options due to the relatively straightforward valuation of marketed goods and services (Panayotou, 2003)."},{"index":2,"size":132,"text":"However, there are some cases where a CBA may be prone to errors due to complexities in assessment procedure. For example, significant problems may arise when prices are not property adjusted to true market conditions. When the market conditions are inferred though surrogate markets or individuals' preferences they are equally prone to errors (Panayotou, 2003). In the case of surrogate markets for instance, the natural water filtration in riverine ecosystems is usually valued by comparison with mechanical filters. However, this tends to undervalue the other natural services provided by riverine ecosystems, such as the values associated with biodiversity and aesthetics. In the case of individuals' preferences, where the research is often conducted through a survey, it is common to face biases in the research design, the survey application and the analysis stage."},{"index":3,"size":68,"text":"The current paper addresses the need for re-thinking economic assessment in the selection of water storage options in Sub-Saharan Africa. With this intention, an outranking approach enhanced with diversified economic related criteria has been developed. The proposed methodology has been applied through the application of a survey and subsequent analyses. The approach is proposed for Sub-Saharan countries, with a particular focus on Ethiopia where the survey was tested."}]},{"head":"Methodology","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":68,"text":"It is common that the procedure for water storage selection adopts a form of CBA for the identification of the most appropriate option. The purpose of CBA is to facilitate the more efficient allocation of resources by identifying the most efficient economic solution for water storage (Bann, 1997). However, in cases where imperfect market conditions occur and non-market goods and services appear, CBA may lead to incorrect results."},{"index":2,"size":164,"text":"The first weakness of CBA arises from the prevalence of the strong comparability principle which occurs through the monetization of heterogeneous goods and services (O'Connor and Spash, 1998). The monetization of all elements inevitably leads to reductionism and loss of information about the nature of each factor (Munda, 1996). Second, the assumption of absolute substitutability among goods and service (i.e. complete trade off conditions) also tends to cause errors (Munda, 1996). For instance, the revenues derived from the electricity produced by a hydroenergy plant can outweigh the financial costs arising from the displacement of communities and the flooding of age-old forests. Another major constraint is the irreversibility of conditions that may occur through the development of a project. For example, the construction of a hydropower dam usually entails soil erosion due to clear-felling, which results in siltation of downstream areas and loss of wildlife (Hanley and Spash, 1998). These impacts will irreversibly affect the surroundings of the dam site without offering a replacement option."},{"index":3,"size":90,"text":"The issue of ecosystem complexity is another major issue poorly handled by CBA methods. For example, the climate change projections for Sub-Saharan countries highlight the likely increase in rainfall variability (IPCC, 2007). Such changes, may drastically affect the costs and benefits over the lifespan of a planned water storage project. Further, institutional capture is largely considered as an impediment for the CBA concept. The discount rate to be introduced for future estimations and the distributional aspects (i.e who gains and who losses) are not well handled in CBA (Söderbaum, 2005)."},{"index":4,"size":142,"text":"To overcome the aforementioned constraints, the methodology proposed suggests the introduction of an outranking approach based on diversified criteria related to economic efficiency in water storage selection. For this, the Borda's rule was adopted as an appropriate outranking assumption (OECD, 2008). The suggested Borda's rule adopts a weak comparability condition through the application of a pairwise procedure (Young, 1974). The first best solution is determined by the prioritization given to each criterion. Points are attributed to each criterion according to the anticipated benefits. The number of points given to each criterion is determined by the number of options available in the assessment process (Brian, 2008). In the simplest form, if there are three options then a component will receive three points each time it is ranked first, two each time it is ranked second and one each time it is ranked third."},{"index":5,"size":155,"text":"The institutional constraints occurring in CBA are in part managed in this approach. In particular the discount rate is not an applicable measure since a non monetary solution is proposed. Further, the distributional aspects can be handled by the establishment of a weighting scale (DTLR, 2002). Initially, in the case of water storage selection the target groups to be acknowledged as the most vulnerable, should be identified. For these groups, a weighting factor could be introduced to attribute more gravity in the groups who are related with the selected criteria (Bann, 1997). For example, we may have a criteria related to the costs required for irrigation purposes and another one related to the willingness to pay for a good water quality status. If we chose to attribute significance to economically weaker farmers we may introduce a weighting factor to this sub-group (weaker farmers) related to these specific criteria. For example, we assume that we have"},{"index":6,"size":90,"text":"where g 1 (a) = criteria related to the costs required for irrigation purposes g 2 (a) = criteria related to willingness to pay for a good water quality status a= a finite set of N alternative options related to water storage we can then define a specific subset of economically weaker groups where a weighting factor will be introduced as below: For the estimation of the final points to be to be attributed to all the criteria the weighting factors of all the subsets should be accounted as below:"},{"index":7,"size":10,"text":"Where, = the Option A with the weighted average points."}]},{"head":"p A","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":118,"text":"Finally, the constraints of irreversibility and ecosystem complexity are handled by the introduction of pseudo -criteria, usually introduced as thresholds (DTLR, 2002). More often than not, it is the outranking methodologies based on the incomparability concept that introduce such approaches (Seager, 2004). In practice, we initially set a veto threshold for the comparison among two alternatives. In case the difference between the two options is above the determined threshold then the comparability among the options cannot proceed. Otherwise, the outranking process continues until the final ranking is completed (Kangas et al, 2001). If we want to describe mathematically the threshold in the criteria of irrigation costs and water quality as adopted above, the following relation will be developed:"},{"index":2,"size":17,"text":"Where ik D the condition with i criteria and k options j v = the veto threshold"}]},{"head":"Criteria of economic efficiency","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":38,"text":"The criteria for economic efficiency were selected for two purposes. Initially, the crucial aspects of economic efficiency related to both agricultural and domestic water use were identified. This first objective was achieved through the derivation of eight criteria."},{"index":2,"size":35,"text":"The second objective investigates farmers' perceptions towards water and soil conservation practices. In this case, the economic efficiency is estimated according to users' preferences on practices related to water storage options. Six criteria were derived."},{"index":3,"size":136,"text":"A concise description of the criteria for both objectives is presented. For the economic efficiency, the first criterion is related to the revenues raised by farming and livestock. The second criterion relates to the costs of the same activities. The analysis does not include the capital costs of land possession due to the highly intertwined property status in the two examined countries 1 . The third criterion relates to the water charges set by surface irrigation networks, groundwater sources and potential water trading. The intention is to isolate water costs from the other cost function attributes. The fourth criterion refers to domestic water use and the economic effort required to fetch freshwater for the household. Further, the fifth criterion relates to the potential impact on human health derived from water borne diseases related to water storage."},{"index":4,"size":280,"text":"For the sixth criterion an informal choice experiment approach through contingent ranking is used to test the relevance of major attributes of water and land use. As Pearce and Ozdemirolou (2002) note \"Choice experiments present respondents with a baseline scenario corresponding to the status quo and several alternative options in which specified attributes are changed in quantity.\" The chosen attributes, which construct the scenarios, represent the most important parameters plus a direct or implicit money value. The seventh criterion provides additional insights into farmers' preferences on water pricing and the qualitative and quantitative status of the water. A Willingness to Pay (WTP) technique is introduced and the reasons of abstaining from the hypothetical contribution are explored. Finally, the level of satisfaction associated with both the quantity and quality of water (i.e. its general status) as well as the methods of abstraction is dealt with by the eight criterion. The eight criteria are summarized in Table 1. For the economic efficiency related to water and soil conservation practices, the first criterion relates to the potential improvements stemming from investments in these practices over a time period of five years 2 . The second criterion relates to the level of difficulty of installing water and soil conversation schemes. The third and fourth criteria pertain to the potential investments and the level of difficulty related to these investments in water and soil practices. Finally, the fifth and sixth and criteria relate to farmers' perception about the technical and economic performance of water and storage options. The six criteria are presented in Table 2. The responses are determined in a percentage ratio while the reference year responds to the time the survey is undertaken."}]},{"head":"Case Studies in Ethiopia","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":30,"text":"The research was based on a detailed survey conducted in three selected sites in Ethiopia. The three sites provided an opportunity to study various indigenous and modern water storage types."},{"index":2,"size":236,"text":"The first site is located to the south of the Blue Nile river in the West Shoa zone of the Oromia regional state. It is situated at about 130 km North-west of Addis Ababa, in Toke Kutaye district (woreda). The Guder-Idris small-scale irrigation scheme uses water that originates from the Western central Shoa highlands and flows in the Idris river. The area is located at a medium altitude and with a relatively warm ecology that supports smallholder farming systems based on cereals and various vegetables. On the upstream side of the scheme farmers practice traditional water storage whereby water is diverted from the main river canal using local materials like wood, soil, crop residues, and mud as water canal. In the downstream area, water diversions are made at two locations using cement materials. Besides the traditional smallholders systems, there are few emerging small-scale private commercial activities in horticultural production. The use of water for irrigation is not yet intensified and in only a few cases pumps are used for water abstraction. However, in recent years, the introduction of small-scale pumps has been supported by the regional government and it is anticipated that an increased number of pumps will intensify production. A total of 130 farmer households (50% from the upstream and 50% from the downstream (i.e. below the dam and irrigation user community) were selected for the quantitative survey. The study was conducted in Birbirssa Kebele."},{"index":3,"size":145,"text":"The second studied site is a rural kebele called Quahar Michael located in the Fogera district. Fogera is located in the South Gonder zone of the Amhara regional State and it is part of the Tana Lake basin. Lots of water storage and abstraction methods including hand dug-wells are used in this area. Small-scale irrigation is undertaken using water from streams which flow to Lake Tana. In addition, recession agriculture is undertaken on the remnant moisture when the lake overflow and flood recedes in the early months after the main rainy season. Rice production is becoming an emerging and prominent production system across the entire Fogera plain. For the quantitative survey and data collection, 170 farmers households (30% from hand dug well users, 30% from water pump (motor) users and 40% from other kind of users (i.e canal, geo-membrane, springs etc.) were selected and interviewed."},{"index":4,"size":235,"text":"The third survey site is Koga irrigation dam located in the Mecha district of the West Gojam zone in Amhara region. The dam site is 40 km south of the regional capital, Bahir Dar. The Koga dam is a large-scale irrigation investment implemented by the Federal government of Ethiopia. The potential irrigable land of about 6000 ha is to be developed using the water stored in the system. As the construction work is nearing completion, some farming communities have now accessed water while others are waiting to be connected. There are however some neighbouring rural communities that will not have the opportunity to use the irrigation water at all due to gravitational reasons. The quantitative survey in the Koga dam area covered 200 farm households. These were selected from communities who already have water and irrigate their farms (35% of sample); from those farmers who haven't yet received water but expect to get in the future (30% of the sample) and from those communities who will not get any irrigation water (they are above the dam and canal area and water will not reach them (35% of the sample). The very preliminary results reveal that the multiple storage option is more appealing to the sample with slight difference from small reservoirs and moderate difference from large schemes. However, it is underlined that the findings are still premature since only very few responses have been processed."}]},{"head":"Conclusion","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":212,"text":"This paper attempted to assess economic criteria, which affect the valuation of water storage options in Sub-Saharan Africa, with specific reference to Ethiopia. There are some limitations to the method proposed. For instance, Borda's rule can be subject to tactical manipulation in cases where the respondents are predisposed to one specific option in preference to others. We attempted to eliminate this methodological constraint by avoiding group surveys and the biases of preoccupied respondents. Furthermore, in cases where a strong inclination towards a specific water storage option was presented, further explanation for this preference was always requested. We also omitted the outliers from the statistical analysis derived from open ended questions. This enabled us to better screen the real situation in the case study areas (Osborne and Overbay, 2004). Also, the criteria developed for both the data extraction and for ascertaining farmers perceptions' could be described as inappropriate or of limited applicability in some instances. It is understood that the suggested approach cannot capture all the aspects of economic efficiency applicable for water storage options in an area as large as Sub-Saharan Africa. Consequently, we attempted to design those most applicable to the conditions occurring in Sub-Saharan countries. Nevertheless the framework could undoubtedly be further improved using the feedback obtained from the surveys."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Table 1 . Criteria related to economic efficiency in agricultural and domestic water use  Revenues from Agriculture (Cultivation Cost from Agriculture (Cultivation &Livestock) Revenues from Agriculture (CultivationCost from Agriculture (Cultivation &Livestock) &Livestock)  &Livestock) Cost of Water Use for farming Water for Domestic Use Cost of Water Use for farmingWater for Domestic Use Choice experiment on different water stor- Impact of Water Use on Health Choice experiment on different water stor-Impact of Water Use on Health age options  age options Willingness to Pay for water quality and Level of Satisfaction of quantitative and qualitative Willingness to Pay for water quality andLevel of Satisfaction of quantitative and qualitative quantity status water status in agricultural and domestic sectors quantity statuswater status in agricultural and domestic sectors  "},{"text":"Table 2 . Criteria related to water and soil conservation practices  Investment on Water Conservation practices Investment on Soil Conservation practices Investment on Water Conservation practicesInvestment on Soil Conservation practices Level of improvement from Water and Soil Conserva- Level of difficulty from Water and Soil Conser- Level of improvement from Water and Soil Conserva-Level of difficulty from Water and Soil Conser- tion practices vation practices tion practicesvation practices Technical efficiency of water and storage types Economic efficiency of water and storage types Technical efficiency of water and storage typesEconomic efficiency of water and storage types  "},{"text":"(27.67)> A(26.54)>C (23.55)  B 5* (2*0.85+2.1*0.1+2.05*0.15) A 4* (2*0.6+2.1*0.2+2.05*0.2) C 4* (2*0.75+2.1*0.1+2.05*0.15) B 5* (2*0.85+2.1*0.1+2.05*0.15) A 4* (2*0.6+2.1*0.2+2.05*0.2)C 4* (2*0.75+2.1*0.1+2.05*0.15) A 5* (1*0.6+1.1*0.2+1.05*0.2) B 4* (1*0.85+1.1*0.1+1.05*0.15) C 3* (1*0.85+1.1*0.15+1.05*0.1) A 5* (1*0.6+1.1*0.2+1.05*0.2)B 4* (1*0.85+1.1*0.1+1.05*0.15) C 3* (1*0.85+1.1*0.15+1.05*0.1)    Points   Points  5 Criteria  4 Criteria  4 Criteria 5 Criteria4 Criteria4 Criteria C 12.12 A 13.27 B 12.12 C12.12A13.27B12.12 B 11.087 A 8.12 C 8.07 B11.087A8.12C8.07 A 5.15 B 4.47 C 3.36 A5.15B4.47C3.36 Ranking: B      Ranking: B  "}],"sieverID":"0a33ff8c-f7da-4b48-bff1-abae29964597","abstract":"The development of water storage schemes is considered a major aid for agricultural regions in Sub-Saharan Africa with scarce water. The selection of storage options is often conducted through the valuation of direct costs and benefits. Such an approach, based solely on monetary values, often leads to reductionism in the assessment process and loss of valuable information. This in turn can result in less than optimal decision-making. Against this background, this paper proposes an alternative approach based on a range of different criteria. Though based on the underlying principle of economic efficiency, the approach proposed avoids some of the weaknesses of simple cost-benefit analyses. The new approach has been evaluated through application to case studies in Ethiopia."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"04d0987078fd6a5547a222de1203e572","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/8f589bb0-c03f-465a-a255-2460a2ee1089/retrieve"},"pageCount":1,"title":"Linking public breeding with private enterprise in Kenya","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":48,"text":"In 2008, a large, red mottled bean known as KK8 was bred by the Kenya Agriculture and Livestock Research Organisation (KALRO), using germplasm from the International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT) in Colombia. KK8 is resistant to bean root rot, gives high yields, cooks quickly, and tastes good."},{"index":2,"size":44,"text":"But until 2 years ago, many farmers had never heard of KK8, reflecting previous neglect of beans, even though they are among Kenya's most important food crops, second only to maize. Bean breeding, seed production, and distribution have largely remained in the public domain."},{"index":3,"size":43,"text":"A new public-private partnership, brokered by the Syngenta Foundation for Sustainable Agriculture and led by KALRO, is getting improved bean varieties into the hands of more farmers. The catalyst for change was a disease outbreak that devastated maize in western Kenya during 2012."},{"index":4,"size":56,"text":"Hundreds of thousands of smallholders affected were working with One Acre Fund, which had a crop insurance scheme but also scaled up plans to diversify into other crops. For beans, they ran into a hurdle: seed availability. Of Kenya's 35 private seed companies, only a few sold bean seed, and not one could meet the demand."},{"index":5,"size":49,"text":"Bubayi Products Ltd., a family-run seed business in Kenya's North Rift Region, had the capacity to produce quality seed and was willing to take the risk. While Bubayi tested bean varieties for yield and disease resistance, One Acre Fund tried out the new seeds with farmers: They selected KK8."},{"index":6,"size":44,"text":"The seeds -certified to ensure quality -are proving popular. In 2013, Bubayi supplied 100 tons of KK8 seed to One Acre Fund. The following year, demand among One Acre Fund clients grew by 8%, demonstrating that farmers are willing to invest in bean seed."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "}],"sieverID":"97fcfc8a-2ebb-4702-9661-0356868c1dde","abstract":"Even though bean farmers would tend to purchase new seed only every 3 years (sowing seed from their own harvests in most years), commercial bean seed production is still potentially profitable."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0513a526d587d94d365f6b5cb98a025c","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/6c3fb948-d546-46ff-9e68-8baf85e45f49/retrieve"},"pageCount":15,"title":"Effective Altruism as an Ethical Lens on Research Priorities","keywords":["analytical and theoretical plant pathology","disease control and pest management","ecology and epidemiology","genetics and resistance"],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":23,"text":"Tout zetwal klere, men tout zetwal pa klere menn jan All stars shine, but not all stars shine the same way -Haitian proverb"}]},{"head":"EFFECTIVE ALTRUISM AND ITS RELEVANCE TO SETTING RESEARCH PRIORITIES","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":239,"text":"Effective altruism is a framework for making altruism more efficient, advocated by some utilitarian consequentialist ethicists (MacAskill 2015;Singer 2015;Unger 1996) and others (Pummer 2016). One motive for the development of effective altruism is the tendency for people to invest philanthropic efforts based on unconsidered impulses so that, for example, people may tend to donate money to a charity with more effective advertising instead of a charity that demonstrably provides more benefits to people. Emerging from philosophical debate on the duty and prioritization for philanthropic giving, effective altruism's concepts do not necessarily require adherence to a specific moral philosophy but, importantly, rely on an evidence-based rationale to prioritize allocation of resources. Ideas in the effective altruism framework may therefore be particularly helpful for evaluating research priorities, where there is often a similar lack of clarity about how to prioritize investments. Of course, part of this lack of clarity is due to the inherent complexity of most important problems-but some share is also due to limited ethical consideration of the positive effects of research and current limitations in the development of the science of science (Fortunato et al. 2018) and policy to support science. Discussions of research ethics often stop short at defining what should not be done: plagiarizing, harassment, falsifying data, taking advantage of research subjects, and so on. Effective altruism offers a perspective on how to use evidence about likely impacts to make research investments as beneficial as possible."},{"index":2,"size":62,"text":"Our objectives in this article are to (i) describe the effective altruism framework and related concepts, as they can be translated into evaluation for research prioritization; (ii) apply these ethical concepts to evaluate prioritization of altruism-driven plant pathology research in terms of pathosystems, stakeholders, research questions, and technologies; and (iii) provide recommendations for individual scientists and policy makers based on these considerations."},{"index":3,"size":197,"text":"For the purposes of discussing effective altruism, we might consider that there are three types of research: (i) curiosity-driven or \"blue sky\" research, (ii) research to support endeavors in scenarios where primary stakeholders are already successful enough and powerful enough to generate funding (which we term \"resourcedriven\"), and (iii) research with the goal of providing as substantial a benefit to humans and other species as possible (which we term \"altruism-driven\") (Fig. 1). These categories for research are not mutually exclusive, and there might be elements of each type in any given research project. Another useful set of metrics for research considers two axes: the degree to which the research addresses fundamental scientific questions and the degree to which it is oriented toward use (Stokes 2011). Pasteur's demonstration of the role of microbes in disease and the potential for vaccination is provided as a prime example of research that was both very successful at contributing to fundamental science and very useful (illustrating that merely categorizing research as basic or applied is overly simplistic). These two sets of categories can be combined as follows (Fig. 1). Curiosity-driven research can be considered successful if it advances fundamental understanding of science."},{"index":4,"size":256,"text":"Resource-driven research can be considered successful if it is perceived to be of substantial use by its funders and stakeholders. Altruism-driven research can be considered successful if it produces a substantial benefit to humans or other species; that is, if it is effective altruism. Of course, the categories are not mutually exclusive; increased fundamental understanding may produce a substantial benefit to humans and other species in the long run, if translational science efforts are also in place. Downstream scientific outputs build on a large body of fundamental science, for which a specific end use may or may not have been predicted. The combination of curiosity-driven, resource-driven, and altruismdriven research may create a resilient \"research ecosystem\". Altruism-driven research deserves more attention, as does associated research to understand how research can be purposefully designed to generate the greatest benefit. Some may find the term \"altruism\" misleading in the context of research priorities, because individuals and institutions have complex motivations for embarking on philanthropic projects, including access to resources, personal financial gain, publicity, and elevated standing or prestige in society. The point here is not a lack of benefit for the researcher but to maximize the overall benefits to other people and other species. We acknowledge the peculiarity in our use of the term \"altruism-driven research\" but the term is appropriate insofar as many of the concepts used to describe this form of research are borrowed directly from the effective altruism framework. Those who are squeamish about the term \"altruism\" in this context may consider altruism-driven research as \"consequence-driven\"."}]},{"head":"FIGURE 1","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":75,"text":"Three categories of research based on motive, and definitions of success associated with them. Translational research can link across these three types. In some cases, altruism-driven research will be research to translate results from curiosity-driven research and resource-driven research to try to achieve the greatest benefits. One point that this article emphasizes is that altruism-driven research may or may not be effective; the effective altruism framework offers concepts to support making altruism-driven research more effective."}]},{"head":"GENERAL CONCEPTS FROM EFFECTIVE ALTRUISM ABOUT PRIORITIZING INVESTMENTS","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":301,"text":"Effective altruism frameworks tend to address investments of money and time (e.g., choice of career) but the ideas are relevant for considering research priorities as well. One concept is that investments made where other people are likely to replace withdrawn resources are generally less effective than investments made where alternate resources are unlikely. For example, a person might choose to become a physician to try to have a positive effect on people's lives. If this person works in a prosperous region, they might readily be replaced by another physician of approximately the same abilities (Singer 2015). If the person becomes a physician where there are too few physicians, this would tend to have a greater effect. A second, somewhat related concept is that investments in addressing lowprobability but high-damage scenarios can have particularly important effects. For example, the probability that a giant meteor will strike the Earth in the near future is low but humans and other species dependent on our current environment are likely better off if some people invest effort into formulating response strategies (Singer 2015). A third concept is weighting the benefit provided to people and other species. For example, providing a benefit to people in great need would be more effective than providing the same benefit to people who are already in a good situation. Providing a benefit to more people would likewise be more effective than providing the same benefit to fewer people, assuming equal need. Finally, a fourth and related concept is \"tractability\": the solvability of the problem addressed by a potential research priority (effectivealtruism.org 2019). For example, the elimination of human aging might have a great positive effect on some people's lives but the problem of aging is highly intractable and, thus, an effective altruism framework might not recommend prioritizing investments in anti-aging research."},{"index":2,"size":101,"text":"Effective altruism has sometimes been a controversial approach for determining resource investment choices. Critics have argued that effective altruism ignores institutional change in favor of individualist philanthropic efforts, and that it overlooks considerations of justice in favor of maximizing general well-being no matter the means (Dietz 2018;Gabriel 2017). These critiques should be kept in mind when adapting the effective altruism framework as a tool for specific application to research prioritization. Plant disease research has often been evaluated with general benefits to society in mind, as in Bentley et al. (1995), and effective altruism offers a complementary ethical framework for evaluating benefits."}]},{"head":"HOW RESEARCH IN PLANT PATHOLOGY FURTHERS THE GOALS OF EFFECTIVE ALTRUISM","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":306,"text":"Research in plant pathology addresses several major societal problems; principal among them are food security, food safety, and conservation of wildlands and general ecosystem services provided by plants. Although notoriously challenging to calculate (Savary et al. 2012;Wilson 2016), estimates of global food production lost annually in the battle against plant pathogens range from 10% to 30 to 40% (Savary et al. 2019;Strange and Scott 2005;Flood 2010). In addition to direct loss through lower crop yield and reduced quality, plant disease causes effects that are likely much greater on food quality and contamination with toxins in food supply chains worldwide (Savary et al. 2012). The management of crop disease adds to the financial and greenhouse gas burdens of agriculture, with additional effects on nontarget species from pesticide use. In the worst cases, such as the Irish Potato Famine, crop diseases have contributed to great human suffering and death through critical food shortages and malnutrition, altering the course of nations (Wilson 2016). Presently, many pathogens remain strongly regionalized, despite the increasingly global distribution and reliance on key staple crops (Bebber et al. 2014); however, pathogen spread continues to accelerate and cause new havoc across the world. For example, Fusarium odoratissimum (or F. oxysporum f. sp. cubense tropical race 4), a major threat to banana and plantain production (Dita et al. 2018), was recently reported in the Americas for the first time (Garcia-Bastidas et al. 2020). Crop pathogens are a particular threat to food security in times and places where people rely on a limited number of key crop species, with few alternative food sources. Pathogens threaten the livelihood of over 1 billion resource-poor smallholder farming households globally. Food safety threats to human health such as aflatoxin in maize (Mutiga et al. 2015) are important, although new biological control options are becoming more widely used (Bandyopadhyay et al. 2016)."},{"index":2,"size":117,"text":"Plant pathogens affect wildlands by wiping out plant species such as trees that are key to system productivity (Graziosi et al. 2020). Dramatic examples in the United States include the loss of productive chestnut trees to chestnut blight, the loss of trees in the Lauraceae family to laurel wilt, and the loss of oak and multiple other tree species to Phytophthora ramorum; while, in Australia, P. cinnamomi (Burgess et al. 2017) and Austropuccinia psidii (Berthon et al. 2018) threaten whole plant communities. Recognizing the enormous societal and environmental consequences of plant disease, researchers and funding agencies face an ethical dilemma: how to weigh such consequential outcomes and set research priorities in an increasingly competitive research funding landscape."}]},{"head":"SHIFTING FOOD SECURITY PRIORITIES: FROM LIFEBOATS AND TRIAGE TO NUTRITION AND FOOD SOVEREIGNTY","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":215,"text":"It's worth taking a moment to contemplate progress in global food security, and the shift in ethical considerations related to food security. Although problems in wildland conservation and the development of global strategies for climate change mitigation and adaptation continue, at least for now, a whole category of ethical considerations for food security is no longer under discussion. Lifeboat and triage ethics for food access were commonly presented in the 1970s (Hardin 1974). The general idea was that the world could not produce enough food for everyone; therefore, ethical consideration was given to who would have to be left out when the insufficient resources were distributed. There would only be so much room on the lifeboat-trying to include additional people would mean everyone would be lost as the lifeboat sank. Since then, increases in production have shifted discourse away from caloric deficiencies to focus more on food security, sustainability, and increasing nutritional quality. Nevertheless, approximately 800 million people still suffer from chronic insufficient food supply (Willett et al. 2019), a number that has increased in recent years, and reductions in agricultural diversity arguably increase food system vulnerability to global pandemics of plant disease. These are strong motivations for prioritizing altruism-driven research programs and using frameworks such as effective altruism to identify the most beneficial investments."},{"index":2,"size":75,"text":"Effective altruism relies on a series of evaluations to identify areas of potential impact. As summarized by Gabriel (2017), these include contextual assessment on the scale of global problems, identification of issues and proven interventions, and whether the problem is neglected to a degree that additional funds are likely to make a difference. We discuss potential rationales for prioritizing research in terms of the traits of stakeholders, pathosystems, and research questions and technologies (Table 1)."}]},{"head":"PRIORITIZING STAKEHOLDERS","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":382,"text":"Rationales for prioritizing stakeholders for research in food security and food safety. The choice of stakeholders to prioritize in research in food security and food safety for effective altruism would generally be based on consideration of how many people benefit and how much difference the benefit makes to their lives, often based on socioeconomic analyses (Fig. 2). Resource-driven research would tend to focus on (i) improving and protecting agricultural industries that are already successful enough to provide funding for research through means such as farmer check-off programs, private industry investment, or lobbying of federal research and funding groups, and (ii) current hot topics that are exciting to the scientific community because of their novelty and potential. Altruism-driven research aimed at benefits to humans would tend to focus on problems faced by people who stand to gain the most from better crop disease management. This would often be people who have limited livelihood options outside agriculture and have limited options in terms of crop species that they can profitably produce and, thus, are at risk of regional and household food insecurity. These groups also typically have limited ability to exert influence over allocation of funds from governments or donors. Smallholder farmers in many countries fall into this sector. Criteria for basic living standards such as those in the United Nations (UN) Sustainable Development Goals may be useful (for example, ending hunger, escaping childhood stunting and wasting, access to primary and secondary education, and so on), where communities that have not reached these basic development standards would generally have the greatest benefits from improvements to food security through reduced crop disease. Countries designated by the UN as having least-developed-country status are likely priorities. Improved technologies for women farmers may have important benefits for their family members, as well. Of course, selecting the stakeholders for the most effective research investments may not be so simple when tractability is considered. For example, due to \"poverty traps\" (Banerjee and Duflo 2011), extremely resourcepoor farmers may not be able to afford or otherwise benefit from improved technologies after project investment ends, whereas moderately resource-poor farmers may be able to use improved technologies and have a greater impact on regional food security. Introducing technologies such that adoption continues after project funding ends is a significant challenge in resource-poor regions."},{"index":2,"size":55,"text":"The CGIAR example. CGIAR (formerly the Consultative Group for International Agricultural Research) was established in 1971 as an example of a generally altruism-driven research organization. CGIAR's research mandate is based on maximizing social well-being through research for development in poverty  (Mill and Bentham 1987) a Prioritization of projects with high quantitative impact on human populations"},{"index":3,"size":10,"text":"• High reduction in yield or quality due to pathogen"},{"index":4,"size":35,"text":"• Evidence that the disease is likely to become a greater problem under global change, such that managers will have to make a difficult adjustment Prioritization of projects with high qualitative impact on human populations"},{"index":5,"size":7,"text":"• High health risk through toxin production"},{"index":6,"size":27,"text":"• Threats to landscapes with high social or spiritual value, traditional knowledge, or other intangible cultural heritage Prioritization of projects with high quantitative impact on nonhuman populations"},{"index":7,"size":18,"text":"• Risk of species extinction due to pathogen Prioritization of projects with high qualitative impact on nonhuman populations"},{"index":8,"size":28,"text":"• Loss of ecosystem integrity due to pathogen Prioritization of projects with high administrative impact (situational factors suggest wide scope of effect, or ease or stability of implementation)"},{"index":9,"size":21,"text":"• Likely disease responsiveness to management possibilities, such that research investments are likely to be successful in providing appropriate management options"},{"index":10,"size":15,"text":"• Likely sufficient adoption of research results, such that there is benefit to regional management"},{"index":11,"size":20,"text":"• Pathogen not present in some countries or continents, such that preventing introduction and establishment has a wide geographic impact"},{"index":12,"size":16,"text":"• Other important pathosystems are likely to be similar, so that research spillover will be efficient"},{"index":13,"size":13,"text":"• Likely benefits in the short run, through rapid availability of management approach"},{"index":14,"size":32,"text":"• Likely long-term benefits that are widespread in terms of numbers of people or geographic reach Prioritization of projects of important human benefit likely to be overlooked by other avenues of research"},{"index":15,"size":19,"text":"• Stakeholders for the pathosystem belong to groups that are important priorities for altruism-driven research but otherwise often underserved"},{"index":16,"size":24,"text":"• Stakeholders for the pathosystem have previously been ignored or actively disenfranchised, so that addressing their interests now would be an issue of justice"},{"index":17,"size":21,"text":"• The pathosystem is unlikely to be a priority for resource-driven research, so that it could qualify as an \"orphan pathosystem\""},{"index":18,"size":25,"text":"• The project will result in public goods that are not readily monetized, so that private businesses are unlikely to invest in the research areas"}]},{"head":"Prioritization of projects unlikely to have adverse effects on other altruism-driven research goals","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":12,"text":"• Trade-offs are unlikely between benefits for key groups of human stakeholders"},{"index":2,"size":22,"text":"• Trade-offs are unlikely in benefits for humans and for nonhuman species Prioritization of projects likely to result in future beneficial projects"},{"index":3,"size":15,"text":"• Providing experimental proof of concept is likely to attract future resources for similar projects"},{"index":4,"size":39,"text":"• Projects provide capacity building likely to result in future initiatives by stakeholders who previously lacked the skills to undertake them a A potential altruism-driven research project could be scored in terms of how well it matches these points."},{"index":5,"size":446,"text":"reduction, sustainable natural resource management, food security, and human health and nutrition. A recent example is the identification of strategic priorities for cassava research through economic modeling and poverty impact simulations (Alene et al. 2018), an explicit effort to approach research prioritization from a consequentialist perspective. An initial and continuing focus has been on crop breeding, and the success of CGIAR is often evaluated in terms of hectarage planted to cultivars derived from CGIAR genetic material, their increased yield and yield stability, and the resulting return on investment (Raitzer and Kelley 2008;Renkow and Byerlee 2010). The \"green revolution\" for improved wheat and rice varieties beginning in the 1960s was then driven by two CGIAR centers, the International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT) and the International Rice Research Institute (IRRI), in partnership with national programs (Byerlee and Dubin 2009). The green revolution saved millions of people from starvation and, although it can be criticized for not benefiting all potential stakeholders, had a massive positive effect through saving lives (Evenson and Gollin 2003). A more recent example of CGIAR efforts to impact key stakeholders is the introduction of b-carotene biofortified, orange-fleshed sweet potato by HarvestPlus and the International Potato Center (CIP) (Low et al. 2017) to combat childhood vitamin A deficiency in sub-Saharan Africa. Biocontrol for cassava mealybug (Paracoccus manihoti) by an introduced parasitoid wasp (Anagryus lopezi) had a massive effect on food security in 20 cassava-dependent sub-Saharan African countries (Herren et al. 1987), and this biocontrol research had an important spillover effect in Southeast Asia, where the cassava mealybug outbreak in 2008 was quickly controlled using the same technology (Wyckhuys et al. 2018). CGIAR research has expanded across the decades to include more policy and natural resource management, in \"boundary work\" aimed at improving agricultural systems through enhanced links between communities of expertise and contributions to decisionmaking and informed negotiation (Clark et al. 2016). In an analysis of 113 studies of research impacts by CGIAR and others for agriculture in sub-Saharan Africa, Pardey et al. (2016) reported an internal rate of return with mean 42% and median 35%, indicating both the general substantial benefits of the research and also the skewed distribution of the benefits, where the mean return is higher than the median because of the large influence of a limited number of great successes. Such studies are useful for understanding what research has been impactful in the past, to develop frameworks for identifying what types of research are likely to be most useful in the future. \"Theories of change\" are being developed to guide CGIAR research planning, in part to evaluate impacts of research that are challenging to measure directly (Douthwaite and Hoffecker 2017)."},{"index":6,"size":231,"text":"War zones produce particularly vulnerable stakeholders. Wars and natural disasters limit the options of stakeholders, whether stakeholders are farmers managing disease or consumers with limited access to food; therefore, research to offset the damage from war may be particularly valuable. These stakeholders may be priorities from the effective altruism perspective, while their chaotic conditions make improvements challenging and their problems potentially intractable. Considering approaches to ensure food security before the exigencies of war can help to reduce the types of damage people experienced in the following examples. A bumper harvest of potato in Germany during World War I led to an overabundance of potato tubers that were stored in warm and moist basements (Horsfall and Cowling 1978). These tubers were sometimes asymptomatically infected with late blight (caused by Phytophthora infestans), leading to heavily damaging epidemics and famine in the subsequent year. Copper-based pesticides that could have offset the epidemic were unavailable due to wartime restrictions on the materials, and approximately 70,000 civilians starved to death. During World War II, the Bengal region of India was affected by a severe famine caused by a combination of factors, including wartime shortages of rice, rice exports, and brown spot of rice, caused by the fungal pathogen Helminthosporium oryzae (Padmanabhan 1973). Approximately 1.5 million Indians died of starvation during the crisis, which was aggravated by strong rains and disease-conducive conditions. Recent conflicts in Africa likely"}]},{"head":"FIGURE 2","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":11,"text":"Factors contributing to prioritization for effective altruism-driven research in plant pathology."},{"index":2,"size":47,"text":"contributed to the spread of Xanthomonas wilt of banana, moving with migrants attempting to escape the warzone or with soldiers and equipment from affected regions (Ndungo et al. 2008). Introductions of pests and pathogens during war and conflict can devastate food supplies, often affecting civilians most heavily."},{"index":3,"size":200,"text":"War and conflict also threaten germplasm resources needed for disease management. The Syrian Civil War disrupted the International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas (ICARDA) seed bank in Aleppo, Syria, forcing researchers to rely on duplicate collections at sites in Lebanon and Morocco (Bhattacharya 2016). These germplasm repositories are necessary to maintain drought-and disease-tolerant crops for a region that is being heavily affected by climate change and is the source of many important staple crops, including wheat, barley, and lentil. In Peru, CIP maintains a large catalog of potato varieties from throughout the Andes, the center of diversity for potato. CIP was able to repatriate local tuber varieties after conflicts involving the terrorist group Shining Path led many people to lose their local potato varieties (Huamán and Schmiediche 1999). Root, tuber, and banana crops are important for low-income areas experiencing conflict, because they are less sensitive to harvest timing (compared with crops such as maize)-they can be left in the ground during conflict periods and harvested later, when conditions are safer. Germplasm repositories that store these crops, and research to support their success, are especially critical for regional resilience to famine and climate change (Burns et al. 2010)."},{"index":4,"size":217,"text":"Rationales for prioritizing stakeholders or systems for research in wildland conservation. Damage to wildlands is often considered a loss for all people, based on the idea that all humans have wildlands as part of their \"natural inheritance\". In some cases, specific key stakeholders may also be implicated, such as vulnerable populations who rely on foraging in natural systems to support regional and household food security. Likewise, particular plant species may have important cultural significance for human communities. For example, laurel wilt threatens members of the Lauraceae family (including redbay and swampbay) that are important for cultural celebrations and ceremonies for the Miccosukee and Seminole tribes in Florida (Hughes et al. 2015). Even though these species are unlikely to be driven extinct globally, local extinctions will diminish people's access to them. Although laurel wilt's impact on native forests was severe and is still expanding, it had not been made a high priority for research until the pathogen spread to avocado and the threat of economic damage provided impetus to fund research that spanned production systems and native forest conservation efforts. Another factor for optimization could be the likelihood of success (i.e., tractability) of efforts to protect particular regions. Chestnut blight provides an example of a seemingly intractable problem, extremely difficult to resolve even in a politically stable region."},{"index":5,"size":196,"text":"The choice of stakeholders for altruism-driven research in wildland conservation is complicated by the wide range of potentially convincing ideas about what the goals of conservation should be. Protecting ecosystem services such as the pollinators that impact food production is one human-centered goal for wildlands. The ecosystem services framework provides a means for considering the array of benefits that people receive from ecosystems, wild or agricultural, and interactions that support or counteract benefits (Bennett et al. 2009;Cheatham et al. 2009;Delaquis et al. 2018b;Raudsepp-Hearne et al. 2010). Preventing species extinctions, or at least limiting extinction rates to those observed before widespread human impacts on extinction, is another compelling goal. Conservation biology has addressed optimization in this context by identifying hotspots for biodiversity, so that success in protecting a certain unit of land is likely to protect more species (Myers et al. 2000). Prioritization may also consider the overlap of species' distributions where particularly susceptible species are more likely to spread disease to other hosts at risk of extinction (Berthon et al. 2018). Another factor for optimization could be the likelihood of success in protecting particular regions, where political instability and food insecurity may make conservation less likely."},{"index":6,"size":220,"text":"For research in plant pathology, systems where plant pathogens are having major impacts on wildlands (e.g., as mentioned above, P. ramorum and P. cinnamomi), often through damage to keystone tree species, are obvious priorities. Tree species provide structural diversity in wildlands and loss of this diversity has significant impacts on other components of forest ecosystems, where loss of forests leads to increased runoff and water turbidity, forest fires, and loss of ecosystem services (Embrey et al. 2012). The loss of tree species is particularly problematic given the time lag between reforestation initiatives and return of a forest canopy and its associated ecosystem services. The long life span of trees makes further demands on research, because effective conservation efforts need to consider both current and future climate scenarios. Tractability of altruism-driven research in wildland conservation is complicated by the effective altruist's commitment to the ethical significance of nonhuman animals (Delon and Purves 2018;Ng 1995Ng , 2016;;Sandler 2012;Soulé 1985), whereas concern for the well-being of individual wild animals has previously been assumed to be outside of the scope of conservation biology. A complete picture of altruismdriven research priorities would require an assessment of the comparative ethical importance of the various human interests affected by wildlife conservation, the intrinsic value of native and nonnative species and biodiversity, and the well-being of wild animals."}]},{"head":"PRIORITIZING PATHOSYSTEMS","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":116,"text":"Rationales for prioritizing pathosystems for food security and food safety. For research addressing food security and food safety, there are several potential approaches for identifying the pathosystems that will provide the biggest payoff from research investment, where optimizing across these criteria is likely to give the best results, where possible (Table 1). We can also consider other common points that are issues for consequentialists. A choice between two potential research investments may be better informed if the choice takes into account the potential harm of not pursuing the rejected choice. For example, if the research investment selected provides some benefit but the rejected choice would have resulted in much greater benefit, this is an important consideration."},{"index":2,"size":212,"text":"Yield loss as one important component of prioritization. Yield loss is a common metric for assessing the impact of a disease on a crop, where the highest potential yield is compared with the realized yield under stress conditions (Lobell et al. 2009). Yield loss is generally difficult to assess on a landscape scale, and good global estimates of yield loss in the field are rare (Savary et al. 2019). Although some diseases may cause acute disease loss in some fields, in some seasons, a potentially more useful metric would be regional annual yield loss. Research to provide solutions for diseases that cause high yield loss across a large area or many households may provide the greatest societal benefit. There may be trade-offs, because if yields are \"too high\" on all farms in a region, there is the potential for a price drop in the market, potentially lowering the profit of individual farmers while benefiting shortterm food security in the region. Addressing yield loss is also a challenge because it may be difficult to combine disease resistance and other desirable quality traits in the same variety. Obtaining better yield loss estimates for diseases, and understanding potential yield-quality trade-offs, would be a priority research pursuit for the effective prioritization of research projects and technologies."},{"index":3,"size":257,"text":"Orphan crops and orphan pathosystems. Orphan crops and orphan pathosystems represent one type of research investment that is less likely to be replaced by other investors. Orphan crops are crops that may be of high importance to particular communities but have not attracted substantial resource-driven research (Naylor et al. 2004;Nelson et al. 2004;Varshney et al. 2012). For example, resource-driven research often addresses maize, rice, wheat, soybean, and canola, and model systems such as Arabidopsis and Medicago truncatula. In contrast, orphan crops include teff (the primary grain in Ethiopia), millet, cowpea, taro, and yam. Orphan crops often have important regional economic and cultural value, and may be particularly nutritious and well adapted to specific challenging environments. Orphan crops may also represent a case of \"low-hanging fruit\", where the same research effort may result in big improvements in crop breeding and disease management compared with crops such as maize and wheat where the \"easy\" advances may already have been made. For example, lodging problems were addressed in wheat and rice breeding as part of the green revolution but lodging can still be an issue in teff (van Delden et al. 2010). Orphan crops also illustrate the idea that research results may spill over from resource-driven research with the potential to support effective altruism-driven research. Ideally, investment in breeding tools for crops such as maize would produce tools that can be applied, with minor modifications, to orphan crops such as finger millet, investment in M. truncatula benefiting orphan legume crops, and so on (Naylor et al. 2004;Nelson et al. 2004)."},{"index":4,"size":288,"text":"Orphan pathosystems include diseases of orphan crops such as quinoa downy mildew and taro leaf blight. Relatively little attention was paid to taro leaf blight until it spread across the Pacific, reportedly contributing to the deaths of >3,000 people in a famine in Bougainville, Papua New Guinea, around the end of World War II, causing massive loss of taro diversity in Hawaii and other Pacific islands, and later destroying 99% of Samoa's primary agricultural export in 1994 (Singh et al. 2012). Diseases of major crops such as rice sheath blight might also be considered orphan pathosystems. Although some orphan pathosystems are caused by pathogens with close relatives from which to draw inference about disease management and biology, others are more unique. Because of the limited cultivated area and the spatial aggregation of orphan crops, diseases may disappear and reemerge later, creating a sputtering epidemic pattern. Many soilborne diseases are understudied due to the difficulty in assessing both cause and effect without destructive sampling. Orphan crops may also have expanded importance if they host diseases shared with other crop species and can act as reservoirs and bridges in the landscape. For example, ulluco (Ullucus tuberosus) would be considered an orphan crop, though it is the second most widely cultivated tuber after potato in the Andean region, and is infected by viruses including ullucus virus C and ullucus mild mottle virus (Lizárraga et al. 2001). Recently, eight viruses in ulluco grown in England were detected by highthroughput sequencing, demonstrating the potential for pathogens to spread in less-known crops \"under the radar\" (Fox et al. 2019). Finally, pathogens contributing to postharvest losses are generally understudied despite causing great losses, with too few plant pathologists contributing to better strategies to address them."},{"index":5,"size":226,"text":"Maize lethal necrosis (MLN) is an example of a disease first observed and then effectively managed in one region, only to emerge later in regions with greater food security concerns. MLN was first reported in 1976 in Kansas (Niblett and Claflin 1978), caused by a mixed infection of maize chlorotic mottle virus (MCMV) and potyviruses, and spread to Nebraska, causing yield losses in maize up to 91% (Niblett and Claflin 1978;Uyemoto 1983). Management strategies were effective in preventing the spread of MLN by managing MCMV (Uyemoto 1983), although MCMV and sugarcane mosaic virus, along with other potyviruses, were still present (Braidwood et al. 2018;Silva-Rosales et al. 2015). MLN was reported again, 35 years later, in Kenya (Wangai et al. 2012), and spread to neighboring countries in sub-Saharan Africa, causing devastating losses to a major staple food in the African continent (Redinbaugh and Stewart 2018). A combination of factors contributed to the reemergence of MLN that involved stakeholders at all levels: the use of maize varieties susceptible to MCMV and sugarcane mosaic virus in East Africa, lack of cultural practices such as crop rotation, and lack of virus-free seed. Research addressing how a disease managed in one region emerges in other regions could motivate improved phytosanitary standards for exporting or importing countries and seed distributors, and programs to increase awareness of potential new outcomes from known diseases."}]},{"head":"PRIORITIZING RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND TECHNOLOGIES","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":34,"text":"Some research questions and technologies are more likely to benefit key stakeholders and systems for effective altruism (Table 1) than are others, and research can also target how best to reach these key stakeholders."},{"index":2,"size":305,"text":"The value of information as one practical criterion for research prioritization. The concept of the \"value of information\" refers to the degree to which decision making is improved by availability of a particular unit of information (Canessa et al. 2015;Claxton and Sculpher 2006) such as a new research product meant to benefit key stakeholders. When researchers choose among potential experiments to generate new information to further their goals in effective altruism, they can evaluate the degree to which the experiments are likely to generate information that improves decision-making-such as improving weather-based disease forecasting systems or better characterizing disease resistance profiles for deciding among crop varieties-and evaluate the degree to which these improvements translate into increased yield, profit, sustainability, or other benefits for key stakeholders. The value of information can also be evaluated for other decision makers such as policy makers and donors. For example, a donor might be considering investing in training smallholder farmers who save their own seed in the use of positive selection (i.e., training in how to evaluate disease symptoms and identify plants that look healthy for seed saving) (Gildemacher et al. 2011;Thomas-Sharma et al. 2016). An analysis of the regions where positive selection is likely to have bigger benefits by mapping how well positive selection is likely to work could improve decision-making about geographic priorities for training (Buddenhagen et al. 2018), and could be linked with other effective altruism priorities when integrated with maps of poverty (Bellon et al. 2005). Effective altruism strategies might also include analyses of the value of information that are modified to give higher weight to improved decision-making by higher-priority stakeholders. Integrating analyses of the value of information and geographic risk assessment would help to respond to the charge by critics that effective altruism fails to adequately address policy development due to uncertainty regarding impacts (Gabriel 2017)."},{"index":3,"size":348,"text":"The value of information and technologies in networks and landscapes. Impact network analysis is a framework designed to evaluate the value of research products (new information and technologies) in regional systems (Fig. 3) (Garrett 2018;Garrett et al. 2018), an analysis of the regional value of information in the broad sense. It formalizes ideas such as \"herd immunity\", where effective disease management in enough locations can protect other neighboring locations where management is not implemented-an added preventative dimension which, in some cases, could shift the balance when evaluating effective altruism priorities. This type of system-level analysis can contribute to research prioritization for effective altruism by identifying research products likely to be adopted widely enough to provide substantial regional benefits, as well as strategies to reach key stakeholders within the system. When linked socioeconomic and biophysical networks are understood, we can consider the role of network nodes (in this case, representing individual stakeholders) in terms of the priority they would have in effective altruism strategies and also in terms of their likely roles in epidemic networks-where both of these factors may contribute to the degree of prioritization for stakeholders that produces the greatest benefit (Table 1). For example, crop seed systems in many parts of the world do not live up to their potential (Almekinders et al. 2019) and managing inadvertent spread of disease through seed systems may rely on identifying key nodes in seed distribution networks (Andersen et al. 2019, Buddenhagen et al. 2017, Delaquis et al. 2018a). These key nodes might be identified in terms of both how important benefits would be to the particular farmers and how important disease management would be at particular farms for stopping epidemic spread. For researchers and others in agricultural networks, are the ethical responsibilities of individuals a function of their role in the network, so that the Peter Parker Principle would be adapted to, \"with great node degree or betweenness centrality comes great responsibility\"? In general, understanding the potential for research products to be technologies that scale up to substantial regional benefits is an important research area (Wigboldus et al. 2016)."},{"index":4,"size":140,"text":"A new program to redesign agricultural landscapes in Mexico is being implemented to \"reactivate\" agricultural land in rural areas in 19 states. The plan considers planting approximately 1 million ha in timber, fruit trees, cacao, coffee, vegetables, and maize (https:// www.gob.mx/bienestar/acciones-y-programas/programa-sembrandovida). Landowners with 2.5 ha or more can be considered for this agroforestry project, the goal being to elevate quality of life, generate jobs, and restore deforested areas. However, this increase in cultivated land will convert some isolated regions with low planting rates to medium or high density, modifying the cropland connectivity of Mexico (Margosian et al. 2009;Xing et al. 2017) and potentially increasing the risk of plant pathogen buildup and spread (Fig. 4). Research to identify the potential epidemic role of specific locations can contribute to formulating strategies to protect regional crop health while providing benefits to key stakeholders."},{"index":5,"size":198,"text":"Big ethics for big data and digital agriculture. As \"big data\" layers become more readily available to support strategies for regional and global disease management, research can also support digital agriculture, leading to greater incorporation of robots and artificial intelligence in farming (Wolfert et al. 2017), with a potential side effect of fewer jobs for farm workers. Data collected across farms can generate better information and predictions for farmers, and can help reduce the ecological footprint of farms through potential reduced pesticide and fossil fuel use. Despite the potential benefits, smart farming and big data have raised several ethical issues about who benefits from research to support digital agriculture, in particular (i) data ownership and access, (ii) distribution of power, (iii) impacts on human life and society, and (iv) fairness and discrimination (van der Burg et al. 2019). The concept of \"responsible innovation\" was developed to explicitly address the balance between the economic, social, and environmental effects of innovations on multiple stakeholders (Blok and Lemmens 2015;Koops 2015). Responsible innovation is designed to guide innovation toward socially and ethically acceptable ends (Stilgoe et al. 2013), prioritizing the inclusion of rights holders historically marginalized in innovation decision processes (Bronson 2018)."},{"index":6,"size":48,"text":"Ownership of data associated with smart farming technologies is not always clearly defined or easily understood. \"Advanced tractors\" have sensors that can collect data about crop and soil health, while the associated software is trademarked and the resulting data are, in most cases, not openly available beyond those"}]},{"head":"FIGURE 3","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":416,"text":"Impact network analysis is a framework for evaluating how research products affect regional outcomes. This framework formalizes how the decisions by people represented by nodes in the socioeconomic network (where nodes might be individuals or groups) determine the benefits that a region will experience from technologies. If too few adopt the technology, the region benefits less. Some nodes have a more important role than others in influencing the outcome, because of their position in the socioeconomic network or because of the position of the land they manage in the biophysical network. A dotted line between the network layers indicates that a decision-maker manages the corresponding node (e.g., a farm or farming region, or a biological reserve) in an epidemic network. Evaluating priority stakeholders in this system from the standpoint of effective altruism could be based on (i) the traits of the stakeholders, (ii) the roles of stakeholders in the socioeconomic network, and (iii) the role of the land units the stakeholders manage in the epidemic network. authorized by the owners, such as crop consultants. There may be conflicts of interest if people wish to benefit from large databases and models to interpret the data while keeping their own data to themselves, or if the interests of individual farmers and industries diverge (van der Burg et al. 2019). Groups such as the Open Ag Data Alliance (http://openag.io/) address issues of data ownership and access. The United Nations program for Global Open Data for Agriculture and Nutrition (https://www.godan.info/) advocates for the right to open access to agricultural data as a basic right that could be integrated into the fight against global food insecurity, and CGIAR is moving toward a 100% open access data model. Truly open access farm data raises issues about farmer privacy and data ownership rights, and whether the benefits of market competition can be maintained. The availability of good models is equally important to make good use of data. To avoid a scenario where development of algorithms only occurs by private corporations, it is imperative for the public sector to participate in algorithm development. For example, corporate systems often provide API access to pull and push data to the system; thus, there is potential for a hybrid public-private partnership toward technology development. Private-sector companies can also contribute to open-source communities while developing their own proprietary systems. Governments have a responsibility to ensure that taxpayer money, invested in the development of technologies including smart farming, contributes to the good of society as a whole (Bronson 2018)."},{"index":2,"size":111,"text":"Future automated decision making about crop disease management may depend on weighing the greenhouse gas budget implications of management options (Mahmuti et al. 2009), the nontarget effects of pesticide use, and the likely effects of local decisions on regional epidemics, in addition to local and global agricultural profit, while dealing with the uncertainty associated with each factor. Futurists such as Harari (2018) discuss complex automated decision-making problems. For example, two self-driving cars may be less likely to hit each other because they will be networked together and, thus, aware of the decisions being made by one another. Analogously for land management and disease management, decision making will become more consolidated and"}]},{"head":"FIGURE 4","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":212,"text":"Cropland connectivity of coffee production in Mexico. Higher cropland connectivity (darker shading) indicates a likely more important role for a location in potential networks of spread by crop-specific pathogens or other pests through a region. The connectivity of this region is scheduled to increase under the new Mexican plan to boost planting of coffee and other crops. Taking into account cropland connectivity could guide new plantings so as to avoid large increases in connectivity and to keep in mind the risk of spread where connectivity is high. Ethical responsibilities for disease and pest management may be higher where connectivity is greater and, thus, the effects on the common pool regional microbiome are greater. Cropland connectivity risk was evaluated based on two standard global cropland distribution data sets: Monfreda et al. (2008), circa 2000, and the Spatial Production Allocation Model, circa 2010, v1.0 (International Food Policy Research Institute 2019). The analysis of a cropland connectivity risk index (CCRI) followed the methods from Xing et al. (2017), applied to regional coffee production, using an uncertainty quantification to evaluate the mean across negative exponential and inverse power law dispersal parameters. The CCRI is a weighted mean of betweenness centrality, node strength, the sum of nearest neighbors' node degrees, and eigenvector centrality (Xing et al. 2017)."},{"index":2,"size":76,"text":"more networked; therefore, less-networked land managers may make decisions in greater isolation. Are the people developing digital agriculture algorithms responsible for their accuracy, or for the cumulative effects of the decisions based on them? And what types of existential threats could occur from globally networked bad decisions about agricultural management? Linked agricultural systems will also need to be protected from cyberattacks such as ransomware attacks in the same way as national power systems and financial systems."},{"index":3,"size":307,"text":"Dual-use technology and bioterrorism risks. \"Dual-use\" research results and technologies are those that may offer societal benefits but also have the potential to support goals destructive to society, such as bioterrorism. For consequentialists, avoiding potential harm may be more important than seeking potential benefit (Shiffrin 1999). Most research in plant pathology might be considered to have some dual-use risk, if only because it might (i) contribute to the use of existing pathogens as weapons and (ii) ultimately support applications of synthetic biology to generate more harmful pathogens. Fortunately, intentional dissemination of plant pathogens for destructive purposes has been rare compared with other terrorist activities (Suffert et al. 2009), although both the United States and Soviet forces stockpiled spores of Puccinia graminis, the causal agent of wheat stem rust, during the cold war (Mackenzie 2007), and there is an example of likely intentional introduction of the cacao witch's broom pathogen (Crinipellis perniciosa) to the southern Brazilian region of Bahia (Caldas and Perz 2013). There is debate about whether the design of insects to deploy genetic information to plants in a virus-like form, as a potential means for spreading positive traits such as disease resistance (Bextine 2018a), is a risk for development of biological weapons-where, even though the technology is not being used as such by the United States, it could motivate other countries to join the race to develop insect deployment of viruses (Bextine 2018b;Reeves et al. 2018). In addition to state actors who may use pathogens and vectors destructively, upscaling of the availability of synthetic biology techniques may result in individuals or groups attempting to produce more destructive pathogens, as well as unanticipated problems analogous to unforeseen problems with upscaled social media. For example, the ease and prevalence of futures and commodity trading for crop products provides one possibility for abuse of pathogen research for personal gain."},{"index":4,"size":388,"text":"Doomsday pathogens: low likelihood but high damage scenarios. One effective altruism strategy for providing important benefits is to address disastrous scenarios that are unlikely and, thus, might be overlooked by other researchers. One possibility is a plant pathogen that creates a \"doomsday\" scenario, such as an aggressive generalist pathogen of the Poaceae decimating large swaths of staple crops and disrupting regional or global food security, resulting in widespread famine and armed conflict (Horsfall and Cowling 1978;Mackenzie 2007;Ndungo et al. 2008). Such a \"black swan\" event could impose major stress on global food security because few institutions are prepared to quickly manage such a situation (Ploetz et al. 2013). A doomsday-scale scenario could result from a major shift in one or more components of the disease triangle. The recent emergence of the Ug99 wheat stem rust variant was largely due to a pathogen genotype that was able to overcome the durable SR31 resistance allele (Mackenzie 2007). As industrial agriculture becomes more consolidated, crop homogenization is an increasingly important risk factor. The switch from self-pollinated to hybrid corn led to a unique susceptibility in the Texas cytoplasm T maize variants in the early 1970s, leading to a massive and seemingly unpredictable U.S. epidemic of southern corn leaf blight (Levings 1990), although fortunately in a context where it had limited effect on food security. Climate change will likely alter suitability for many diseases, where little-understood thresholds for disease effects in some regions may result in surprising magnitudes of effects (Garrett et al. 2011). Mitigating these risks with global seed banks like the Svalbard seed vault may help to moderate disease risk, although these seed banks themselves are not invulnerable to risk (Carrington 2017) and are capable of maintaining only a small fraction of crop diversity, and their use implies a substantial lag time before seed can become widely available for planting. In general, it would be useful for researchers to invest some time in evaluating the worst-case scenarios for the systems they work with in a global context, and the response that would be necessary to deal with these scenarios, even when such scenarios are unlikely. It would be valuable for this to become a standard practice in formats analogous to pest risk assessments, potentially organized by a risk assessment network in a future global surveillance system (Carvajal-Yepes et al. 2019)."},{"index":5,"size":270,"text":"Designing sustainable and resilient systems. Resilience and sustainability are key for any system to achieve long-term benefits from interventions. Resilience is a system's ability to return to function after experiencing a stressor, where stressors might be predictable or unforeseen (Oliver et al. 2015;Walker et al. 2004). Sustainability is a system's ability to continue to provide functions or productivity into the future, without hampering the ability of future generations to meet their needs (Chapin et al. 2010). Research on increasing resilience and sustainability of agricultural systems can use concepts from effective altruism to orient the assessment of risks and benefits to key stakeholders (Table 1) related to relevant current or potential threats. New diseases, reemergence of known diseases, unpredictable climate consequences, and wars and conflicts represent some of the potential shocks that jeopardize food security. Curiosity-driven and resource-driven research may generally help to boost system resilience and sustainability by offering more options, so that systems are more likely to meet future demands for food and feed. Preparedness can be via global research initiatives such as the Borlaug global rust initiative to counterbalance the effect of new genotypes of wheat stem rust such as Ug99 (Singh et al. 2015) and a proposed global surveillance system to link efforts for addressing new diseases (Carvajal-Yepes et al. 2019). Svalbard seed vault resources (the seed of an ancient Syrian grass, Aegilops tauschii) were used to identify candidate genes for resistance to the devastating pest Hessian fly (Miranda et al. 2010;Singh et al. 2019), which caused an annual yield loss of 5 to 10% in U.S.-grown wheat (Schmid et al. 2018) and threatens wheat production worldwide."},{"index":6,"size":90,"text":"Increases in productivity can also reduce land pressure for competing uses (such as wildland conservation). Increases in cereal productivity during the green revolution are estimated to have prevented 2 million ha of deforestation and 16 to 25 million ha of conversion of pasture, which would have otherwise been needed to obtain 2004 cereal production levels with pre-green-revolution yields (Stevenson et al. 2013). Estimates of land sparing due to development require a number of assumptions (Byerlee et al. 2014) but it must be true that desperation for food production was reduced."},{"index":7,"size":337,"text":"Difficult trade-offs and wicked problems. Success in identifying key systems and scientific questions to benefit key stakeholders depends on understanding what information and technologies will provide substantial benefits. In most systems of real importance to the well-being of humans and other species, enduring problems tend to be \"wicked problems\", meaning those with no single solution for all stakeholders and, thus, requiring the weighing of complex tradeoffs (as opposed to \"tame\" problems, for which a single optimal solution can be found) (Rittel and Webber 1973). Reductionist tame questions such as questions about the effect of a gene, the genome sequence of a pathogen, the causal agent of a disease, the model describing pathogen dispersal probabilities across space, or the effect of weather on disease risk are often successfully addressed by plant pathologists. In contrast, wicked problems are difficult to define, situationally unique, and often related to trade-offs in public policy. Issues that might be considered wicked problems, or at least difficult trade-offs, related to plant disease management include the following. (i) New forms of crop disease resistance may increase yields for farmers but increased crop availability may reduce market prices, such that farmers experience reduced profits-or the technologies might greatly benefit medium-resource farmers but cause low-resource growers to go out of business. (ii) New, productive genotypes or crop species that people hoped would contribute to reduced pressure for conversion of wildlands to agriculture may be so profitable that they motivate increased land conversion. (iii) Crop subsidies intended to support farmers afflicted by a plant disease may provide incentives to continue unsustainable production methods, prolonging and exacerbating the problem by incentivizing avoidance of the systemic issues leading to the instability. (iv) Successful new disease-resistant cultivars may threaten crop biodiversity as they displace traditional varieties, and they may produce strong selection pressures for pathogen evolution when they are planted across wide regions (Helfer 2014). Wicked problems are a strong motivation for research in plant pathology to link with other disciplines such as socioeconomics to increase the likelihood of substantial benefits."},{"index":8,"size":323,"text":"Global public goods and avoiding the tragedy of the microbiome commons. When research products are \"common pool goods\", their benefits will often be less sustainable (Fig. 5). The idea of the tragedy of the commons was introduced in the context of common grazing lands, where shepherds are individually motivated to graze as much as possible but cumulatively degrade the productivity of the grazing lands (Hardin 1968). The microbiome of a geographic region, and especially regional pathogen meta-communities, can also be thought of as common pool goods, along with air and water (Fig. 5). An individual land manager who chooses not to invest in disease management can reduce the quality of the regional microbiome for all land managers. Research products that depend on lower regional inoculum loads for successful implementation, such as some variety mixtures and resistance genes that only reduce inoculum production, may become useless in the context of poor management by neighbors. Similarly, management decisions of a small number of individuals that select for antibiotic resistance will also compromise the utility or availability of antibiotics/pesticides. Research may be more beneficial in many ways if it results in global public goods such as public data and models for disease management and publicly available durable disease resistance genes (Fig. 5). In many cases, however, durable resistance is not available and disease management must rely on cooperation, making people vulnerable to the decisions of others but also potentially building cooperation (social capital) that would be useful in other ways. Financial incentives for the distribution of \"exclusive\" technologies can support their spread, just as bottled soft drinks are available in some areas of the world where clean water is not. A combination of public and private enterprise may be most sustainable for systems such as breeding for resistance (Garrett et al. 2017) or the development of digital agriculture technologies and, more generally, where systems may benefit from both functional diversity and redundancy (Biggs et al. 2012)."}]},{"head":"RECOMMENDATIONS AND CONCLUSIONS","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":28,"text":"Options for individual researchers. In times of funding challenges, it would usually only be practical for individual researchers to invest in altruism-driven research that is simultaneously resource-driven or"}]},{"head":"FIGURE 5","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":206,"text":"Goods such as research products can be classified as private, common pool, club (toll), or public, depending on whether the goods can be used up or degraded (rival as opposed to nonrival) and whether access to the goods is controlled (exclusive as opposed to nonexclusive) (CGIAR Science Council 2006). A problematic combination is the \"commons,\" the common pool goods that are nonexclusive, so that all have access, at the same time that they can be used up or reduced in quality. Regional microbiomes and regional pathogen metacommunities can be thought of as common pool goods, just like the example of air and water, because they also are open to the influence of all people who have access to them and who may degrade them through poor plant disease management choices. We also present a categorization for several important types of plant pathology research products. Research targeted to developing more durable resistance genes, and pesticides less vulnerable to antibiotic resistance, move these products toward the nonrival category, and make systems more likely to be resilient. Seed systems, resistance genes, and data and models may all be exclusive or nonexclusive-if they are common pool goods, they are vulnerable; whereas, as public goods, they can provide benefits more sustainably."},{"index":2,"size":277,"text":"has prospects for transitioning to resource-driven research. Of course, some funders have priorities that overlap substantially with priorities for altruism-driven research. Even when researchers generally address resource-or curiosity-driven agendas, they could add a component of altruism-driven research, and use an effective altruism framework to guide prioritization. For example, it is common for plant pathologists in the United States to have responsibility for a major industrial crop and its needs in a particular state. These researchers might dedicate the majority of their time to that topic but could make a point of dedicating some part of their time to pathology needs for stakeholders who would be a high priority in an effective altruism framework. These research efforts might include (i) partnerships with pathologists in countries that have more limited research resources but are well positioned to benefit priority stakeholders, providing training and mentoring when useful, working to improve capacity and knowledge about funding opportunities, and developing professional networks and global communities of practice; (ii) including plant genotypes or pathogen isolates from priority regions in studies when useful; (iii) developing strategies to facilitate research spillover to other plant species, especially orphan crops or threatened wild species, and developing low-cost versions of research and management systems; (iv) extending epidemiological risk assessments beyond the initial project focus, when data are available, and evaluating low-probability worst-case global scenarios; and (v) using reproducible research approaches, with data and code publicly available, in support of the open plant pathology community (https://openplantpathology.org/). Training components of research agendas could provide open-access materials online and engage global plant pathologists in helping to make the materials relevant globally, supported by research about how to make e-learning more impactful."},{"index":3,"size":257,"text":"Options for policymakers and funders. It can be challenging for individual researchers to carve out the time to add obligations, even when they are personally motivated to use ideas from effective altruism to guide some of their research priorities. Altruism-driven research will be more practical if policy makers and funders have a general policy of supporting and rewarding researchers' altruismdriven research time investments. Policy makers could consider supporting registration of projects designed to contribute to reaching the UN sustainable development goals (Capua and Giovannini 2019), and designing and implementing an ontology for project traits that support effective altruism. For funders who already emphasize benefits to humanity and wildlands, effective altruism provides a framework for better prioritizing research (Table 1). For funders who emphasize benefits to particular industries, a component of altruismdriven research could be a standard element, with researchers asked to explicitly consider how new technologies are likely to have effects beyond direct stakeholders; likewise, underutilized computational and data storage resources could be made available to altruism-driven research efforts, and free licensing for access to intellectual property or paid software. For funders who emphasize curiosity-driven research, statements about the broader impacts of studies could be held to a higher standard in the review process. In the same way that curiosity-driven research may provide practical benefits in the long run, research to address effective altruism priorities may inspire fundamental scientific progress in new multidisciplinary and nonreductionist areas, including the science of science policy, increasing clarity about how to create the most substantial benefits from research and strengthening systems."},{"index":4,"size":257,"text":"Conclusions. Effective altruism can be a useful framework for developing research priorities but ethical frameworks remain underused by most researchers and funders. Of course, there is often a high level of uncertainty about the downstream effects of research efforts, particularly in curiosity-driven research. It is precisely for this reason that effective altruism and its evidencebased ethical system provides an important structure for supporting prioritization exercises. For altruism-driven research, otherwise appealing projects may prove to have limited effectiveness because of misunderstood socioeconomic incentives and constraints, or even misunderstood biology. However, it will often be possible to roughly rank the likely benefits of different candidates for altruism-driven research efforts through the lens of effective altruism, considering criteria such as those in Table 1. This concept is analogous to effective altruism applications in philanthropy, such as the ranking aggregation website GiveWell (https://www.givewell.org/), designed for choosing among charities based on effective altruism concepts. Using effective altruism ideas to rank prospective research foci encourages a widening of perspective and realistic evaluation of potential impacts, and may be particularly successful when participatory evaluations with stakeholders ensure needed perspective. Supporting the science of science policy in research to better understand outcomes for human well-being and wildland conservation can have multiplying effects by helping researchers to make their altruismdriven research efforts more effective, potentially beyond the usual scope of their activities. An important research focus for the science of science policy will be to better understand how resource-driven research may interact with, conflict with, or serve altruism-driven research, particularly in the context of effective altruism."},{"index":5,"size":46,"text":"There are many more potential strategies for boosting the effectiveness of altruism-driven research beyond those proposed here for individual researchers and for policymakers and donors. We propose to support ideas from the plant pathology community in a living document, with more details available at https:// www.garrettlab.com/effective-altruism/."}]}],"figures":[{"text":" Links in the biophysical network indicate the potential for pathogen spread between land nodes. The set of decisions by land managers creates a disease management landscape. Altruism-driven research would prioritize the development of technologies that should maximize benefits. (Figure reproduced from Garrett et al. (2018) with permission from Annual Reviews.) "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"TABLE 1 Traits of good candidates for altruism-driven research, in the spirit of classic consequentialism  "}],"sieverID":"b411b452-512c-49ce-a3e2-9933e5537533","abstract":"Effective altruism is an ethical framework for identifying the greatest potential benefits from investments. Here, we apply effective altruism concepts to maximize research benefits through identification of priority stakeholders, pathosystems, and research questions and technologies. Priority stakeholders for research benefits may include smallholder farmers who have not yet attained the minimal standards set out by the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals; these farmers would often have the most to gain from better crop disease management, if their management problems are tractable. In wildlands, prioritization has been based on the risk of extirpating keystone species, protecting ecosystem services, and preserving wild resources of importance to vulnerable people. Pathosystems may be prioritized based on yield and quality loss, and also factors such as whether other researchers would be unlikely to replace the research efforts if efforts were withdrawn, such as in the case of orphan crops and orphan pathosystems. Research products that help build sustainable and resilient systems can be particularly beneficial. The \"value of information\" from research can be evaluated in epidemic networks and landscapes, to identify priority locations for both benefits to individuals and to constrain regional epidemics. As decision-making becomes more consolidated and more networked in digital agricultural systems, the range of ethical considerations expands. Low-likelihood but high-damage scenarios such as generalist doomsday pathogens may be research priorities because of the extreme potential cost. Regional microbiomes constitute a commons, and avoiding the \"tragedy of the microbiome commons\" may depend on shifting research products from \"common pool goods\" to \"public goods\" or other categories. We provide suggestions for how individual researchers and funders may make altruism-driven research more effective."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0590ba99c0f18358778fe12a0fa3e79e","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/a7237f18-2801-4c4b-8b4e-4d08c6a0ddd7/retrieve"},"pageCount":22,"title":"Financial Literacy for Smallholder Sheep Fattening Farmers Training Manual","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Content","index":1,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Introduction","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":243,"text":"The International Center for Agricultural Research in Dry Areas, in close cooperation with regional agricultural research institutes and partners, implements improved sheep fattening methods and technologies in Ethiopia. The project aims to improve the income of rural farmers from sheep fattening. Sheep farming is one of the lucrative commercial businesses in Ethiopia. With basic knowledge of sheep husbandry and management, farmers and young people in Ethiopia can be successful in sheep fattening and generate good income from the sector. Young people from rural areas who are unemployed or have little land ownership are getting involved in sheep farming. From an economic point of view, farmers seek a balance between production levels and economic outcomes of their livestock systems. However, farmers have made minimal progress towards commercial fattening with clear production goals and financial means. The factors necessary for development of entrepreneurship, such as risk-taking, access to easy finance and coordination between factors of production, are limited. Financial literacy can provide farmers with the knowledge and skills they need to successfully set financial goals, plan and manage their money, as well as build their wealth. These skills will help them manage their daily expenses, expand their entrepreneurial opportunities, and reduce their overall vulnerability. This financial literacy manual has been adapted as a guide for community and development trainers for members of farmer groups involved in sheep production. It is designed to impart basic knowledge, skills, attitudes, and practices for personal and cooperative money management."}]},{"head":"Session 1. Introduction to Financial Literacy","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":123,"text":"Economic processes in today's world are becoming increasingly complex and involve investments, a wide range of banking products and insurance systems and consequently require an understanding of financial literacy. Even if these new financial services improve the quality of life and business success, rural populations often remain unprepared to use them owing to a lack of knowledge and skills often. This particularly affects risk groups such as farmers, women and the youth. These groups are notoriously prone to the general local psychology and public hysteria that leads them to bypass economic affairs or to expand their knowledge of financial services. In addition, illiteracy in the financial sector tends to have a negative impact on the personal well-being of people and the financial sector."}]},{"head":"Session Objective","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":52,"text":"The purpose of this session is to help sheep fatteners understand basic financial concepts so that they can better manage their money. This session, will help sheep fatteners better understand their financial situation, by covering areas such as the concept of financial literacy, its benefits and the need to gain financial literacy"}]},{"head":"After this learning session, trainees will be able to:","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":13,"text":"▪ Define financial literacy ▪ Describe the relevance and importance of financial literacy"}]},{"head":"Pre and post evaluation questions:","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":13,"text":"1. What is financial literacy? 2. What is the importance of financial literacy?"}]},{"head":"What are the characters/behaviors of a financially literate","index":7,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"What is Financial Literacy?","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":86,"text":"Financial literacy refers to a set of skills and understanding that enables individuals to make informed and effective decisions about money matters. It is a combination of financial responsiveness, knowledge, skills, attitude, and behavior that are necessary to make sound financial decisions and eventually achieve individual economic well-being. In general, the cognitive insight into financial modules and skills such as budgeting, saving, investing, borrowing, taxation, and personal finance management is referred to as financial literacy. Hence, lack of these skills is known as being financially illiterate."}]},{"head":"Why is it important to be financially literate?","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":140,"text":"Sheep fattening farmers, both individual and cooperatives, need financial literacy because, it enables them to: ▪ Understand key financial services and products such as personal or enterprise financial management, budgeting, saving, investing and lending. ▪ Change the way they think about financial services ▪ Access and benefit from financial services. ▪ Have knowledge and skills that enhances understanding of personal finance issues and the ability to apply financial literacy knowledge to manage personal finances. ▪ Predict future spending and investments by setting financial goals. ▪ Make good financial decisions about spending and saving and investing throughout their life or to keep their business running and optimize its performance. ▪ Keep proper records of financial transactions to manage their income and expenses. ▪ Respond competently to changes and risks that could affect the daily financial well-being of their households and businesses."}]},{"head":"What are the behaviors or characters of a financially literate individual?","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":11,"text":"Financially illiterate people exhibit the following behaviors after becoming financially literate: "}]},{"head":"Session Objective","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":49,"text":"The aim of this session is to provide sheep fatteners with an understanding of how they and their families should manage their money especially their income and expenses, by understanding the concept of financial planning, budgeting and the importance of these two in their daily lives and business practices."},{"index":2,"size":9,"text":"After this session, the trainees will be able to: "}]},{"head":"Pre and post evaluation questions:","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":27,"text":"1. What do we mean by financial plan/goal? 2. What is the importance of setting a financial plan? 3. What is budgeting and what does it entail."}]},{"head":"Part 1: Choices about spending","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":12,"text":"By the end of this section, the trainees will be able to:"},{"index":2,"size":21,"text":"▪ Familiarize themselves with wanting and needing something. ▪ Identify and prioritize spending. ▪ Understand how to prioritize when spending money."}]},{"head":"What can you do with your money?","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":74,"text":"It is obvious that people need money for so many reasons that all over the world including your trainees are striving to ensure that they have enough money to cover their daily expenses such as groceries, clothing, running sheep to hold on, pay off debts, pay for school and marriage for themselves or their children, meet future needs for the purchase of a property or a house, and provide for a secure old age."}]},{"head":"What do we mean by needing and wanting something?","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":85,"text":"A need is something that is needed for survival. It is one thing that is necessary for an individual's healthy life. The needs remain. While a desire is something that a person desires or wants to have. Wishes are entertaining. It is important to strike a balance between needs and wants, with a person planning to have his or her basic needs met before considering luxury. For example, before spending any money on expensive household items, make sure your children's school fees have been paid."}]},{"head":"Group exercise:","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":47,"text":"The trainees form a group consisting of 5 members (one group only men, other only women only and the rest mixed-sex groups) and discuss and list down the things they need and want in their life. By the end of this session, trainees will be able to:"},{"index":2,"size":15,"text":"▪ Familiarize themselves with defining financial goals. ▪ Understand the importance of a financial plan."},{"index":3,"size":9,"text":"▪ Determine how we can set a financial goal."}]},{"head":"Discussion points","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":52,"text":"▪ What are your sources of income? ▪ Which of these sources of income are rare or irregular? Why? ▪ How people spend their money? ▪ What expenses do you pay every now and then as opposed to daily or weekly? ▪ What can you do to make your own financial plan?"},{"index":2,"size":46,"text":"▪ If you make a large income from time to time, how are you going to use it to pay for year-round expenses? ▪ How do you plan expenses that only arise now and then? ▪ What are the options for improving money management through budgeting?"}]},{"head":"What is a financial plan?","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":166,"text":"As discussed above, money is essential to meeting our basic needs and needs. However, the type or choice of spending is just as important as having money. For example, in order to keep your sheep fattening business going or to let it grow, your money/financial management style should be improved. To do this, it is important to set financial objectives. Financial goals are the short-or long-term goals you set for yourself or your business in terms of how you will save and spend money. These can be goals that you want to achieve in the near or long term. Either way, it is much easier to identify your goals in advance to achieve them. Like other expenses, financial goals should be included in your budget so you can take meaningful steps to achieve them while you still have cash left over for other expenses. Calculate how long it will take to complete each goal and how much money you will have to spend in that time"}]},{"head":"What is the importance of setting a financial plan?","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":82,"text":"Setting yourself goals and developing a realistic plan to achieve them can help track your progress and encourage you to move on. It's easier to say that setting financial goals can help you change your future by influencing your current actions. In general, the financial plan/budget preparation will: -▪ Help determine your future expenses or expenses. ▪ Allows you to be disciplined in your saving and spending. ▪ Helps you avoid a money crisis. ▪ Allows you to feed less financially stressed."},{"index":2,"size":7,"text":"To set a financial plan, one should:"},{"index":3,"size":17,"text":"• Determine what is important, review, and weigh them, from practical and urgent to unusual and distant."},{"index":4,"size":34,"text":"• Sort out what is achievable, what will take some time, and what needs to be part of the long-term plan. • Make sure the goals are SMART (Specific, Measurable, Achievable, Relevant and Timely)."},{"index":5,"size":67,"text":"• Determine the sources of income and the way in which you will spend your money. ▪ Planning for expenses that are not incurred on a regular basis is critical to effective money management. ▪ If you receive a substantial sum at once, it is important to consider how you can use this money effectively to meet basic needs, save for the future and pay off expenses."}]},{"head":"Part 3: Budgeting","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":11,"text":"By the end of this session, trainees will be able to:"},{"index":2,"size":20,"text":"▪ Define budget ▪ Understand the importance of budget planning ▪ Identify ways to improve their money management through budgeting"}]},{"head":"What is budgeting?","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":81,"text":"Farmers, including sheep fattening farms, usually start out with a lot of hope and excitement into their particular production or business, but without a budget they will struggle to develop a workable plan of action. It is easy for them to get involved in the day-to-day issues of running a business and lose sight of the bigger picture. Successful companies take the time to create and manage budgets, draft and review business plans, and regularly track their financial condition and performance."},{"index":2,"size":76,"text":"Budgeting is a strategy of dividing your income between the basic cost of living, savings, and investments over a period of time. It is a tool that helps in making decisions about how to make and spend money to achieve desired goals or visions. It is helpful in determining how you will use your income to pay for expenses such as living expenses, loan repayments, livestock inputs and how much you can save for the future."}]},{"head":"What is the importance of budgeting?","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":1,"text":"Budgeting "}]},{"head":"Session 3. Savings","index":23,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Session Objective","index":24,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":51,"text":"As entrepreneurs, sheep fatteners have the opportunity to increase their wealth, but they also get into unexpected financial difficulties and must therefore be prepared to avoid risks and setbacks. This session aims to familiarize sheep farmers with the idea of saving and the importance of saving to experience greater financial security"}]},{"head":"Pre and post evaluation questions:","index":25,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":19,"text":"1. What is saving? 2. What is the importance of saving? 3. How do you create a saving plan?"},{"index":2,"size":20,"text":"\"A budget is a breakdown of expected earnings and how they will be spent over a set period of time.\""}]},{"head":"At the end of this learning module, trainees will be able to:","index":26,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":9,"text":"▪ Describe the importance, reasons and benefits of savings."},{"index":2,"size":7,"text":"▪ Identify the different forms of savings."},{"index":3,"size":8,"text":"▪ Learn how to create a savings plan."}]},{"head":"Part 1: What is saving?","index":27,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":12,"text":"By the end of this learning session, trainees will be able to:"},{"index":2,"size":116,"text":"Saving is the act of setting aside a portion of current income for future use, be it in the form of cash, sheep or other livestock, or production inputs. In times of scarcity or in an emergency, savings are made. It is done over a period, not all at once. It is possible that you may have to forego current indulgences to save for a better future. Savings can be in the form of increased bank or cooperative deposits, more sheep or livestock or cash on hand. An individual's willingness to save is influenced by their preferences for future expenses over current consumption, their expectations of future income and, to a lesser extent, the interest rate."}]},{"head":"Discussion points","index":28,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":42,"text":"▪ What are the main reasons people save? ▪ What are the savings goals for your family or business? ▪ Where and how can we save our money? ▪ What do you have to consider before you decide on our savings options?"}]},{"head":"Where can you save your money?","index":29,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":24,"text":"Before deciding where to save your money, please make sure of the following: ▪ It is safe and secure. ▪ It is easily accessible."}]},{"head":"▪ A simple process to open an account.","index":30,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":42,"text":"▪ There is good interest rate on the savings. ▪ There is little or no fees on your account (make sure your monthly interest is higher than monthly fees). ▪ The cooperative/group or bank values and treats you well as a client."},{"index":2,"size":27,"text":"\"Savings is the process of putting aside a portion of one's current income for future use, or the flow of resources collected in this way over time.\""},{"index":3,"size":10,"text":"There are different options where to save your money, including:"},{"index":4,"size":123,"text":"▪ In an account with a formal institution for saving money such as a commercial bank, credit institution or micro-depository institution. Banks hold and manage your savings. They are a safe option to keep your money with. They come with a monthly or annual fee. ▪ With a Savings and Loan Association or any other self-help group. People from the same village or farmers group save their money together to make the money grow. SLAs give out loans to members and collect interest. The money generated by the interest repayment is then shared among the members. ▪ With a registered financial cooperative (SACCO). A SACCO is a savings and credit cooperative. This is a legal entity with formal and defined structures and systems."},{"index":5,"size":77,"text":"Operations are very formally run by applicable policies and procedures. SACCOs have an account with a commercial institution ▪ Home saving, in a box/tin, under the mattress, or in a hole in the ground inside the house. This is the least secure way of saving. ▪ Assets like sheep or livestock are a savings method of saving because they retain value and can be resold at a later date (for the same amount of money or more)."}]},{"head":"Part 2. Making a saving plan","index":31,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":12,"text":"By the end of this learning session, trainees will be able to:"},{"index":2,"size":16,"text":"▪ Determine considerations before create a saving plan. ▪ Understand how to create a saving plan."}]},{"head":"What are saving goals?","index":32,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":65,"text":"Savings goals are the short-or long-term goals that you set for yourself or your business to save your excess money or income. These can be goals that you want to achieve in the near or long term. Savings goals can be short-term plans that could be achieved in less than 1 year or long-term goals that could take more than 1 year to be achieved. "}]},{"head":"Session 4. Loans","index":33,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Session Objective","index":34,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":67,"text":"Businesses, including sheep fattening, require financial capital at various stages of operations, e.g. At each stage, however, there seems to be next to no funding. As entrepreneurs, sheep farmers need to find out how to get the most out of the available resources in every possible way. This session is designed to help the farmer understand credit as well as the costs, obligations, and risks of borrowing."}]},{"head":"Pre and post evaluation questions:","index":35,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":9,"text":"1. What is loan and its importance for business?"},{"index":2,"size":12,"text":"2. What are the reasons or times for taking loans or borrowing?"},{"index":3,"size":8,"text":"3. Where do we get money to borrow?"}]},{"head":"At the end of this learning session, trainees will be able to:","index":36,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":5,"text":"▪ Understand loans and credit."},{"index":2,"size":8,"text":"▪ Determine the costs and risks of borrowing."},{"index":3,"size":7,"text":"▪ Understand how to meet borrowing obligations."}]},{"head":"What is a loan?","index":37,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":51,"text":"A loan is an amount of money that a person, a group or a cooperative can borrow from banks or other financial institutions in order to financially cope with planned or unplanned events. This creates a debt for the borrower, which he must repay with interest and within a certain period."},{"index":2,"size":80,"text":"The recipient and the lender must agree on the terms of the loan before money changes hands. In some cases, the lender requires that the borrower offer an asset as collateral, which is described in the loan document. Loans can be given to individuals, groups, cooperatives or even governments. The main idea behind of taking loans is to raise funds to increase the total amount of money. The interest and fees serve as a source of income for the lender."},{"index":3,"size":16,"text":"Loans can be further divided into secured and unsecured, open and closed, and conventional loan types."}]},{"head":"Secured and unsecured loans;","index":38,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":106,"text":"A secured loan is a loan that is secured by some form of collateral. For example, most financial institutions require borrowers to present their title deeds or other documents proving ownership of an asset until they have paid back the loans in full. Other assets that can be pledged as collateral include livestock or other personal property. Conversely, an unsecured loan means that the borrower does not have to offer an asset as collateral. With unsecured loans, lenders are very thorough in assessing the borrower's financial condition. In this way, they can assess the recipient's ability to repay and decide whether the loan will be granted."}]},{"head":"Open-end and closed-end loans:","index":39,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":119,"text":"With an open-ended loan, a person has the freedom to borrow repeatedly. However, a credit limit is the highest amount of money that one can borrow at any one time. Depending on an individual's financial needs, they can use all or part of their credit limit. In the case of closed loans, private individuals are only allowed to take out loans again after they have paid them back. With the repayment of the closed loan, the loan balance decreases. However, if the borrower wants more money, they will have to apply for a new loan from scratch. The process involves submitting documents proving creditworthiness and waiting for approval. Examples of closed-end loans are house loans, land loans, education/student loans."},{"index":2,"size":12,"text":"Conventional loans\" These are loans that are not insured by government agencies."},{"index":3,"size":14,"text":"Before deciding or planning to take a loan, here are some things to consider:"},{"index":4,"size":71,"text":"▪ Purpose of the loan. ▪ Total cost of the loan e.g. interest and additional charges. ▪ Payback period ▪ Additional benefits that come with the loan e.g. grace period ▪ The economic returns on the loan. ▪ Repayment period. ▪ Time of disbursement and duration of loan processing for the intended purpose. ▪ Internal controls available to ensure financial discipline. ▪ Compare offers for similar products from other financial providers."}]},{"head":"Session 5. Investment","index":40,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Session Objective","index":41,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":74,"text":"It is true that opportunities come with risks and that investments can sometimes lead to losses. It is for this reason that it is crucial for sheep farmers to educate themselves about investments in order to meet the challenges and opportunities that the market presents for them. The purpose of this session, therefore, is to enable sheep fattening farmers to understand investments and their various forms, and to determine how investment decisions are made"}]},{"head":"Pre and post evaluation questions:","index":42,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":4,"text":"1. What is investment?"},{"index":2,"size":5,"text":"2. Why should we invest?"},{"index":3,"size":8,"text":"3. What is the best time to invest?"},{"index":4,"size":12,"text":"At the end of this learning session, trainees will be able to:"},{"index":5,"size":7,"text":"▪ Name the different types of investment."},{"index":6,"size":9,"text":"▪ Describe the different reasons why one should invest."},{"index":7,"size":6,"text":"▪ Describe what influences investment decisions."}]},{"head":"What is investment and its forms?","index":43,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":98,"text":"An investment is the purchase of assets that are not consumed today but will be used to build wealth or increase in value in the future and can be sold at a higher price. You have chosen not to spend your money on household expenses, but instead to buy an asset that will make you more money. In short, these are expenses that will make you more money. The difference between saving and investing is that to save, you put money aside for future use, while investing puts money into a productive activity in order to multiply it."},{"index":2,"size":24,"text":"There are 3 common types of investments that are classified according to the time it takes for the investor to generate returns. These include:"}]},{"head":"Short-term Investments:","index":44,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":20,"text":"The invested money should soon bring income (income). It usually takes less than two years to obtain the expected returns."},{"index":2,"size":17,"text":"\"Investment is forgoing today's consumption for an activity that will bring you more income in the future.\""},{"index":3,"size":36,"text":"Medium-term Investments: These are investments that are expected to have cash flow after two years; it can be a lump sum or a regular flow of money. Examples include developing your business to be more productive."},{"index":4,"size":64,"text":"Long-term investments: These are investments that require a lot of money and take a long time to generate income. Your income can flow in once it's completed, but it will be a long time before you get the money you put into the project. It takes a long time to get your money back. This includes investing in breeding animals or buying a farm."}]},{"head":"What to consider before making an investment decision?","index":45,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":16,"text":"Before making an investment decision, the most important points must be understood by the investor, namely:"},{"index":2,"size":89,"text":"▪ What are your investment goals -short term capital accumulation, long term financial security? ▪ Do I have the knowledge and skills to make the investment work? ▪ What are the investment costs, do I have the money? ▪ What is its income potential? -Is it good enough for my goal? ▪ How long will the investment produce returns in the short, medium, or long term ▪ What are the risks associated with the investment? Are you ready to take these risks? Session 6. Risk and Responsibility (Livestock Insurance)"}]},{"head":"Session Objective","index":46,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":71,"text":"This session aims to familiarize sheep farmers with the concept of risk, its sources and management, as identifying, measuring and managing risk is a key activity for businesses. In this session, trainees will identify the fundamental nature of risk and how different perceptions of risk lead to different decisions about how to deal with risk. risk and how different perceptions towards risk lead to different decisions on how to manage it."}]},{"head":"Pre and post evaluation questions:","index":47,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":28,"text":"1. What does risk mean to you? 2. What are the sources of danger in your locality and business? 3. What is insurance and why is it important?"}]},{"head":"After this session, trainees should be able to:","index":48,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":3,"text":"▪ Understand insurance."},{"index":2,"size":8,"text":"▪ Familiarize yourself with the importance of insurance."}]},{"head":"What is insurance?","index":49,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":45,"text":"Insurance is a contract under which an insurance company pays a person or a company for specific damage, such as bad weather (drought), an accident, fire or death. An insured person pays a predetermined amount of money (premium) to be compensated when the event occurs."}]},{"head":"What is the benefit of insurance?","index":50,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":12,"text":"Insurance benefits both people and businesses in a number of ways, including:"},{"index":2,"size":29,"text":"▪ Protection against uncertainties: This is one of the most important and important advantages of insurance. The insured person or company is compensated against damage under the insurance policy."},{"index":3,"size":37,"text":"▪ Cash flow management: The uncertainty of paying for the losses incurred out of the pocket has a significant impact on cash flow management. With an insurance policy, however, one can counteract this uncertainty without any problems."},{"index":4,"size":6,"text":"As a business owner, one should:"},{"index":5,"size":49,"text":"▪ Prepare for the unexpected: Purchasing insurance mitigates some of the financial risks associated with unforeseen disasters. For example, if a farmer insures his or her fattening sheep or farm, he or she will be reimbursed for some of the money lost if output is harmed by sudden disasters."},{"index":6,"size":37,"text":"▪ Look for the best service from an insurance company or broker (\"shop around\"). Consider the conditions, processes, and time it will take to receive compensation in the event of a loss when selecting the insurance company."},{"index":7,"size":12,"text":"▪ Take the necessary action to maintain your insurance coverage or product."}]},{"head":"Session 7. Financial Management at Cooperative level","index":51,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Session Objective","index":52,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":72,"text":"Sheep fattening groups and cooperatives and their members should be aware of and pay particular attention to all financial matters related to the operations and functioning of their collective groups. Members do not require professional qualifications but should have financial training and understand the need for sound financial management for the cooperatives to be successful. This session aims to provide sheep farmers with basic information on cooperative financial management and associated instruments."}]},{"head":"Pre and post evaluation questions:","index":53,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":19,"text":"1. What are cooperatives? 2. What is cooperative financial management? 3. Why and how do you practice financial management?"},{"index":2,"size":12,"text":"At the end of this learning session, trainees will be able to:"},{"index":3,"size":24,"text":"▪ Define cooperatives and their principles. ▪ Understand cooperative financial management. ▪ Identify the tools for cooperative financial management. ▪ Practice cooperative financial management."}]},{"head":"What are cooperatives?","index":54,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":31,"text":"A cooperative is an autonomous group of people who have come together voluntarily to achieve their common economic, social and cultural needs and goals through a democratically run, jointly owned company."},{"index":2,"size":6,"text":"Cooperatives have common characteristics such as:"},{"index":3,"size":65,"text":"▪ The members have at least one common interest. ▪ Members strive to improve their economic and social situation through cooperation. ▪ Members use an entity that is jointly owned and operated to provide services or goods. ▪ Regardless of their physical size or activity, cooperatives aim to use the common resources of the members to produce or purchase goods or services for the members."}]},{"head":"What is cooperative financial management?","index":55,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":146,"text":"Cooperative financial management can be defined as managing the finances of a cooperative to provide satisfactory service to its members in accordance with the bylaws. Financial management for sheep fattening cooperatives is all about budgeting and making decisions that enable the cooperative to exist and be financially viable, while also ensuring that its money is spent efficiently. Financial management is crucial for cooperatives in many ways, including: ▪ Establishment of appropriate financial management structures and accounting procedures. ▪ Organize accounting books and journals in a professional manner. ▪ Preparation of monthly, quarterly, and annual budget plans and support in compliance with and adherence to the financial policy of the cooperatives. ▪ Help to follow and respect the financial policy of the cooperative. ▪ Record transactions chronologically and perform a monthly, quarterly, and yearly cash inventory. ▪ Assist in processing payments according to the cooperative's budget plan."},{"index":2,"size":28,"text":"▪ Prepare monthly, quarterly, and yearly financial reports and communicate them to the management committee. ▪ Submit the audit report and findings to members at the general meeting."},{"index":3,"size":81,"text":"Components of cooperative financial management a. Financial statements Financial statements are official records of a company's financial activities and status. They are important because they enable the evaluation of previous measures and serve as a basis for the selection of future projects. However, the most important financial accounts for businesses are cash flow, income statements, and balance sheets. A cash flow statement: A financial statement that shows how much money has been generated and spent over a specific period of time."},{"index":4,"size":27,"text":"A profit and loss statement: A financial statement that shows how much money was earned and how much money was spent over a certain period of time."},{"index":5,"size":22,"text":"A balance sheet: Annual financial statement that shows a cooperative's assets, liabilities, and equity (total value) at a specific point in time."},{"index":6,"size":20,"text":"These three statements are always required at the end of the financial year and after the audit has been completed."}]},{"head":"b. Financial controls","index":56,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":130,"text":"The systems, rules, and means by which a cooperative monitors and regulates the management, allocation, and use of funds are known as financial controls. In a cooperative, these are the focus of resource management and operational efficiency. The following are examples of financial controls: Internal control: This is a process that ensures accurate financial reporting, efficient operations, and compliance with applicable rules and regulations. It includes the cooperative's plan as well as any coordination mechanisms used within a sheep fattening operation to protect assets, ensure the integrity and reliability of accounting data, improve operational efficiency, and promote compliance with the cooperative's statutes and regulations. Operational controls, accounting and financial controls, and compliance controls are examples of internal controls. External control: This is bookkeeping and financial control by an external auditor."}]},{"head":"a. Financial recording","index":57,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":59,"text":"Financial accounting is the most important primary level of financial management that enables cooperatives to oversee monetary business transactions by showing the correct picture of assets, liabilities, profits and losses. Keeping financial records is important as it enables cooperatives to: ▪ Prepare proper and timely financial accounts. ▪ Provide data for financial management and business decisions in the cooperative."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"  "},{"text":"Session 2. Personal/Household Budgeting and Planning Making financial decisions is difficult. Individuals and families must make appropriate decisions based on their circumstances. The important thing is that you carefully analyze your options before making a decision, and that you have a strategy in place to deal with the implications. Every household must strike a compromise between basic needs, debt settlement and savings. You need to set economic goals in order to manage your money efficiently. Think about what you want to achieve in life and set goals for yourself that will help you achieve them. If you are working towards something that matters to you and have a plan of action, you are likely to be more successful. Financially illiterate Financially literate Financially illiterateFinancially literate ▪ Refuse to look into financial affairs and ▪ Access financial services confidently ▪ Refuse to look into financial affairs and▪ Access financial services confidently access financial services  access financial services ▪ Mistrust for financial services and experts ▪ Ask for advice and counseling from experts when it ▪ Mistrust for financial services and experts▪ Ask for advice and counseling from experts when it  comes to financial services comes to financial services ▪ Live on a day-to-day basis ▪ Make a spending and budget plan and adopt it to ▪ Live on a day-to-day basis▪ Make a spending and budget plan and adopt it to  manage his/her business manage his/her business ▪ Saving is not related to financial goal and ▪ Have a savings plan with clear objectives and ▪ Saving is not related to financial goal and▪ Have a savings plan with clear objectives and generally borrows for emergencies maintains an emergency savings fund generally borrows for emergenciesmaintains an emergency savings fund ▪ Can't choose the right investment ▪ Choose the right investment ▪ Can't choose the right investment▪ Choose the right investment ▪ Unable to track processes, income and ▪ Keep records to track progress, income and expenses ▪ Unable to track processes, income and▪ Keep records to track progress, income and expenses expenses and do not forecast the future and capable to forecast the future expenses and do not forecast the futureand capable to forecast the future  "},{"text":" Determine how and when to spend money. ▪ Familiarize yourself with the functional plan and what it means. ▪ Understand what budget/budgeting is and what it entails.  "},{"text":" Decide how much money you have now and how you will use their money to save and invest to meet your goals. If you don't have enough cash on hand, look for ways to raise extra cash. • S.N. Goals Income sources Expenses • S.N.GoalsIncome sourcesExpenses Short-term Long-term Regular Irregular Regular Irregular Short-termLong-termRegularIrregularRegularIrregular 1      1 2      2 3      3 4   \"A financial plan is a tool to help you 4\"A financial plan is a tool to help you 5   decide how to use your money to 5decide how to use your money to 6    achieve your goals.\" 6achieve your goals.\" 7      7  "},{"text":" determines the currently available capital, estimates expenses, and forecasts future income. Businesses can compare production outputs versus spending and ensure that resources are available to support business growth and development by referring to the budget. It allows sheep farmers to focus on cash flow, cost reduction, profit management, and return on investment as business owners. Any business success is based on budgeting. It helps in planning and managing finances of the business because planning is worthless without spending control, and without planning, there are no goals to meet.  "},{"text":" help you know what to do, increase your savings discipline, and achieve your savings goals more successfully. To meet your savings goals, you must, decide what you want to save for and find out how much it costs, whether it is buying a house, land, starting/upgrading your sheep fattening business, studying, or saving for your child's school fees, etc. Make sure you are saving realistic and not over-ambitious.▪ Start saving now -the sooner you start, the sooner you will get there. ▪ Put your savings in a safe place where you will earn good interest. ▪ Saving regularly and over a longer period. Only then can your money accumulate. By setting savings goals, By setting savings goals, you can: you can: ▪ Decide your spending priorities for the future. ▪ Decide your spending priorities for the future. ▪ Discipline in spending and saving. ▪ Discipline in spending and saving. ▪ Avoid unexpected shortages of money. ▪ Avoid unexpected shortages of money. ▪ Feel less financial stress. ▪ Feel less financial stress.  "}],"sieverID":"1cd35fab-a689-454c-9fb2-2534817f44ae","abstract":"CGIAR is a global partnership that unites organizations engaged in research for a food-secure future. The CGIAR Research Program on Livestock provides research-based solutions to help smallholder farmers, pastoralists and agro-pastoralists transition to sustainable, resilient livelihoods and to productive enterprises that will help feed future generations. It aims to increase the productivity and profitability of livestock agri-food systems in sustainable ways, making meat, milk and eggs more available and affordable across the developing world. The Program brings together five core partners: the International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI) with a mandate on livestock; the International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT), which works on forages; the International Center for Research in the Dry Areas (ICARDA), which works on small ruminants and dryland systems; the Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences (SLU) with expertise particularly in animal health and genetics and the Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ) which connects research into development and innovation and scaling processes.The Program thanks all donors and organizations who globally supported its work through their contributions to the CGIAR system."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"059477b1c8c494cd982023968038c9ba","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/154ef25d-df92-43f4-995e-84187af23400/retrieve"},"pageCount":16,"title":"Adopting ICTs on small islands","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"types of ICTs, with mobile phone opportunities emerging as the most preferred option","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":23,"text":"A Pacific-wide online discussion looked at the use of mobile phones and how fast-improving internet access will bring about change in the region."}]},{"head":"Operationalising programmes","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":94,"text":"Mobile phone ICT technology is used primarily as a tool to operationalise programmes. Examples include mobile banking via M-PAiSA and Mobile Money (in Kenya 20% of the country's GDP is exchanged via this format); Smart Dial texting of codes to access information; the proposed e-ticketing system for buses; web portals and email-based knowledge-sharing exchanges. In particular, those striving for twoway communications include the Fiji Makete 'farm to supplier' direct sales systems, mHealth comprehensive 'smart dial' system, and the Organic Matters Foundation's approach to integrate mobile phone technology into agri-training during and after the training."},{"index":2,"size":31,"text":"emerging as the most preferred option for use in programmes ahead of social media, email and internet, digital media, e-learning technologies, radio (though radio tops the list during disasters) and others."},{"index":3,"size":57,"text":"The reason for this preference is improved access and capacity. An estimated 95% of Fiji has mobile coverage and a similar trend is cited in Vanuatu and other Pacific nations. On the other hand, many communities do not have internet access, so the use of internet-based social media is limited but where available it is growing fast."},{"index":4,"size":61,"text":"Although mobile phones are arguably not the best tool for the job for some programmes, they are the tool of choice given their prevalence (versus a lack of internet capacity, for example). Compounding this situation is a lack of technical capacity, with many programme teams still navigating through the many ICT and social media options seemingly available but difficult to implement."},{"index":5,"size":60,"text":"In future, a more diverse range of social media and integrated technologies are likely to be used in programmes as internet capacity and peoples' technical know-how improve. Already, the use of smartphones is on the rise. Also, this growth needs to be balanced with guidelines to ensure social media and personal information is used ethically and within accepted organisational strategies."},{"index":6,"size":103,"text":"In terms of resourcing, respondents stressed that ICTs and social media are not 'set and forget' solutions, but rather tools used to improve existing systems. For this reason planning phases should determine the best ICT tool for the programme by first clarifying the desired data and outcomes. And these phases should provide longer-term planning to support the system's sustainability. Part of this resource commitment should include training, in the form of ongoing IT support, teaching staff the basics of how to use ICTs, 'training the trainers' and e-learning. ICTs are an additional way of reaching communities, and not a replacement for human interaction."}]},{"head":"Mostly operational","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":40,"text":"The PSE discussion provided many case studies and examples. They essentially fell into three categories, with some crossover: M&E, operational and promotional. Although respondents' case studies had limited there is great potential to shift this mobile capacity more into M&E."},{"index":2,"size":50,"text":"Social media use is still restricted by a lack of internet access, and its use is primarily promotional -though there appears to be a cultural propensity in the Pacific to adopt social media, and so this is likely to be a significant growth opportunity for programmes as internet access improves."},{"index":3,"size":89,"text":"Finally, while modern ICTs and social media are fast expanding in their use within programmes, it is the oldfashioned radio that remains most used in disaster situations, and a highly effective medium to transfer information to rural communities. There are also exciting opportunities where old and new technologies can be combined, for example radio broadcasts on instant news combined with instant feedback -including photos and dataon social media like Twitter. ◀ Anju Mangal ([email protected]), Secretariat of the Pacific Community and Jacqui Berrell ([email protected]), facilitator, Pacific Solution Exchange (www.solutionexchange-un. net/pacific)."},{"index":4,"size":26,"text":"M&E and 'community report back', they did illustrate that a clear future pathway is being forged starting with the use of mobile phone SMS for M&E."},{"index":5,"size":161,"text":"This technology is expanding to link with portals and databases either indirectly, via manual data entry, or directly, via e-forms. These approaches are usually two-way communications, though some are more interactive than others. Examples include: While much is happening in terms of current and planned use of ICTs and social media, their use in M&E programmes in the Pacific is limited. Indeed, the current focus is more on operational and to a lesser extent promotional purposes. Thus, there is significant use of mobile phone technology to operationalise initiatives such as mHealth and Fiji Makete -and T he Caribbean offers a number of opportunities that make the region prime for the development of its mobile innovation ecosystem. It has a high adoption rate of mobile phones (with over 100% penetration), nearly 100% network coverage on many islands, expanding 3G and 4G networks, a growing demand for mobile applications and a policy environment that makes it easy for citizens to start a business."},{"index":6,"size":98,"text":"The development of the region's mobile industry faces several challenges, however. Several factors are currently missing in the region that would help mobile startup businesses to thrive. First, there is limited collaboration between mobile innovation communities from different islands in the Caribbean, which is a typical feature of thriving startup ecosystems. There is also a lack of mentors and role models who can pass their industry knowledge on to aspiring entrepreneurs. Finally, there is an inadequate level of seed financing, and many developers have not been able to monetise their apps in order to develop a sustainable business."}]},{"head":"Boosting mobile innovation","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":71,"text":"To address these issues, infoDev, a division of the World Bank that supports global entrepreneurship and innovation (see infoDev box), has launched a seven-year programme, the Entrepreneurship Program for Innovation in the Caribbean (EPIC). Funded by the Canadian government, the programme will support entrepreneurs and business incubators in the region. In particular, one of the industries infoDev will assist -with its EPIC Mobile Innovation Project (MIP) -is the mobile innovation sector."},{"index":2,"size":117,"text":"The target beneficiaries of the project are mobile app innovators and aspiring and existing entrepreneurs with a particular focus on youth, who are ready and early adopters of technology. The project will nurture teams to bring their mobile applications, services and content to the market, and will then support the best growth-oriented startups to scale their companies into successful enterprises. infoDev and selected partners on the ground are designing a number of regional and local activities that will target early stage innovators and guide them to market readiness. The project will create a regional pool of high-growth potential mobile startups with the capacity to release their apps to the market and raise additional capital for future growth."},{"index":3,"size":56,"text":"Over the next five years the project will include local activities on at least six islands. infoDev's extensive research on the technology sector in the region has shown that each island is at a different stage of its ecosystem development. This diverse market means some islands are more ready than others to benefit from the project."},{"index":4,"size":87,"text":"These countries include Jamaica, Trinidad and Tobago, and Barbados. It should be noted that while some of the activities will occur on these three islands, the focus of the Mobile Innovation Project is on the entire region. To ensure reach throughout the region, there will be a competitive bidding process to select partners who have the scope and ability to deliver the necessary services across the Caribbean. Given the virtual nature of the mobile innovation ecosystem, infoDev expects this process to be feasible for most partner organisations."},{"index":5,"size":87,"text":"Over three weeks in November and December 2012, infoDev hosted workshops on seven islands (Antigua, Barbados, Grenada, Jamaica, St. Lucia, St. Vincent, and Trinidad and Tobago). The workshops gave local stakeholders the opportunity to actively shape the project, specifically on individual islands. Building on two previous workshops held in the region early in 2012, infoDev sought the knowledge and expertise of key stakeholders on each island to discuss the local feasibility of the project's goals and activities. Over the course of these seven workshops, infoDev received a"}]},{"head":"Mobile innovation on Caribbean islands","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":34,"text":"The Caribbean mobile Innovation Project, launched by infoDev, aims to help mobile app innovators in the region bring their mobile apps, services and content to the market and build growth-oriented startups into successful enterprises."},{"index":2,"size":29,"text":"Toni Eliasz ([email protected]) is co-leading infoDev's mobile innovation programme at the World Bank. This includes activities that accelerate the commercialisation of mobile innovations and startup ecosystems in developing countries."},{"index":3,"size":41,"text":"Rick Doerr ([email protected]) is an analyst for the Mobile Innovation Project (MIP) within the Entrepreneurship Program for Innovation in the Caribbean (EPIC). He designed and developed the business plan for the MIP and is assisting in the implementation of the plan."}]},{"head":"Small islands and e-resilience","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":158,"text":"generally positive response about the model for the MIP. Here are some highlights of the most valuable comments: From mind to market infoDev focuses on what it calls 'from mind to market' . These are the steps from the moment an entrepreneur has an idea to the creation of an actual product or service and its entrance into the market. The project tries to understand the current gaps in this path for startups in the region so it can fill these gaps and create a better business climate for them. These gaps include the capacity for local and regional partners to provide the necessary services, the quantity of talent among entrepreneurs and developers in the region to generate enough investment offers for growthoriented companies, a supply of qualified and interested mentors to provide advice to new startups, sufficient revenue generated within the project to create sustainability and a policy environment in the region that benefits the startup communities."},{"index":2,"size":110,"text":"The main opportunity that will arise from the Mobile Innovation Project will be the creation of a regional pool of mobile startups with high growth potential. Not only will this create high-skilled jobs but, as shown in other technology ecosystems, it will have a ripple effect on the number of total jobs in the region. For example, in the United States, for each job created in the technology sector, roughly four jobs are created in other sectors. The project will also highlight the region as a hub for mobile app development, which will lead to further investment in the region, as well as generate revenue via taxes for island governments."},{"index":3,"size":89,"text":"Within the context of the MIP, the development of ICT services and apps that serve the special needs of the local islands occurs through the creation of competitions that have a wide variety of relevant categories. For example, during the 2012 m2Work Hackathon, infoDev selected a specific area in which to move from mind to market. In this case, the initial competition focused on ideas for mobile microwork, where individuals are paid to complete small digital tasks on their mobile phones which do not require special skills or training."},{"index":4,"size":61,"text":"CAro/AlAmy Creating a regional pool of mobile startups in the Caribbean will not only create highskilled jobs but, as shown in other technology ecosystems, it will have a ripple effect on the number of total jobs in the region. For example, in the United States, for each job created in the technology sector, roughly four jobs are created in other sectors."}]},{"head":"For each job created in the technology sector, roughly four jobs are created in other sectors","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":79,"text":"The second round focused on the development of those ideas into a technology prototype. To facilitate the development of special needs apps, additional stimulation through competitions or other initiatives can encourage innovation. Another potential driver in the development of special needs apps is the government. Since governments in the Caribbean tend to be the largest purchasers of technology, they can solicit local developers to build apps in order to improve their overall efficiency, including service delivery to underserved citizens."},{"index":2,"size":55,"text":"Building on the m2Work Challenge experience, infoDev also launched pitchIT Caribbean in late 2012, a pitching and business mentoring competition for the region's mobile and web entrepreneurs. The winner was announced on 18 March 2012. Trinidad and Tobago's Rick Cooper claimed the pitchIT Caribbean grand prize with his Interact XL, an online math tutoring platform."},{"index":3,"size":33,"text":"The 'People's Choice' prize, meanwhile, was awarded to Jennifer Raffoul and Miles Abraham. They received the most online votes through Facebook for their e-commerce marketplace for handcrafted local goods, Made in the Caribbean."}]},{"head":"Ingredients to success","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":48,"text":"Infrastructure is a key ingredient to success in mobile startup communities, but it needs to be combined with other components, including a high adoption rate of handsets. Once the infrastructure and adoption of mobile phones are in place, the next component is the creation of the service layer."},{"index":2,"size":201,"text":"This includes app and content creation. The mobile network operators create a platform (i.e. mobile connectivity), and this provides opportunities for the development of technology to plug into the platform. The challenge in the Caribbean is the small market, which limits a startup's revenues and therefore its sustainability. But, along with the government, the local markets can provide a quick testing ground for developers to rapidly enter a market and learn from their customers with limited investment. This testing will help to further develop the product or service before releasing it in other markets or globally. ◀ infoDev infoDev is a global partnership programme within the World Bank Group which works at the intersection of innovation, technology, and entrepreneurship to create opportunities for inclusive growth, job creation and poverty reduction. infoDev assists governments and technology-focused small and medium enterprises to grow jobs, improve capacity and skills, increase access to finance and markets, ensure the appropriate enabling policy and regulatory environment for business to flourish, and test out innovative solutions in developing country markets. infoDev does this in partnership with other development programmes, with World Bank/IFC colleagues, and with stakeholders from the public, private and civil society sectors in the developing world."},{"index":3,"size":73,"text":"eye UbIqUIToUs/AlAmy EPIC is a seven-year, CA$20 million programme funded by the Canadian government. The Canadian government has engaged infoDev to be the main implementer of EPIC. The programme aims to create competitive growthoriented MSMEs across the Caribbean. It focuses on three areas of activity: mobile innovation, climate innovation and women's entrepreneurship. Financing will be available for each of these areas, as well as capacity building for incubation professionals involved in the project."},{"index":4,"size":78,"text":"In the area of mobile innovation, infoDev is collaborating with a number of groups within the World Bank, including Digital Jam 2.0. The global technology community is also involved as infoDev has established partnerships with Blackberry and Microsoft. Regionally, the national governments on many of the islands have expressed interest in participating in the project. Finally, and most importantly, the technology communities on each island have been actively involved in the design and eventual implementation of the project."}]},{"head":"Entrepreneurship Program for Innovation in the Caribbean (EPIC)","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":72,"text":"I nformation is the glue that holds together the members of value chains -from raw material processing, packaging and marketing, to the final consumer. Access to timely, relevant and accurate information by members of value chains is essential for the development of individual businesses and of their sector. Governments and agricultural support institutions across the Caribbean have therefore sought to develop ICT initiatives that benefit the value chains in their respective jurisdictions."},{"index":2,"size":59,"text":"These initiatives collectively provide a variety of services -from daily commodity prices, to virtual shopping carts and mobile applications -as well as an extensive archive of market information from previous years. They seek to develop and promote investments in the agri-food sector by providing timely information to enable all stakeholders to make sound strategic, investment, management and policy decisions."},{"index":3,"size":36,"text":"In order to avoid overlap, the Caribbean Community (CARICOM) is now leading efforts to implement a Regional Agricultural Market Intelligence System that would integrate the services offered by the many individual states onto a single platform."}]},{"head":"The challenge","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":283,"text":"In 2011, mobile phone penetration rates among the small island states of the Caribbean region were among the highest in the world, with some islands achieving 166%, compared with 128% in Europe, 104% in the United States and 76% in China. Broadband internet access is also increasingly accessible in many states at a reasonable cost. But despite these advancements, initial studies on the adoption and use of ICTs by Caribbean small and medium enterprises (SMEs) have revealed that few of the smallholders and SMEs in the agro-business and agro-processing sectors are making full use of ICTs in their business activities. This is a matter of concern for Caribbean governments and economic planners. While more rigorous studies are needed, sector experts from the Caribbean region have identified the following challenges: • Awareness: smallholder and subsistence farmers in the Caribbean are often unaware of existing ICT services. Furthermore, those who are aware may not be inclined to use the services because the information is not presented in an easily accessible form. Few of the farmers in the region have smartphones that can access online services, so SMS-based applications may be more useful to farmers who either do not have smartphones or are not inclined to uptake data and mobile internet packages.  More of these kinds of training programmes are needed in the regional sector to develop the crossfunctional skills needed to support sector-wide information sharing. They will also help improve the strategic understanding of how and where each of the technology tools taught best fits within the various value chains. ◀ Despite high mobile penetration in Caribbean developing nations, using ICTs for business activities is still an obstacle for many smallholders in the agricultural sector."},{"index":2,"size":47,"text":"James Antoine ([email protected]) and Atiba Phillips ([email protected]) both work as consultants at INFOCOMM Technologies Ltd (www.ict.co.tt) in Barataria, Trinidad and Tobago. They are experts in Caribbean e-government, e-business and ICT use among small and medium enterprises, including those operating in the agro-business, telecommunications and energy service sectors."},{"index":3,"size":53,"text":"Small Caribbean island states have some of the highest mobile phone penetration rates in the world. Affordable broadband internet is also increasingly available. Nevertheless, initial studies on the use of ICTs by Caribbean smallholders show that few of them in the agricultural sector are making full use of ICTs in their business activities."}]},{"head":"Small islands and e-resilience mArTIn ThomAs PhoTogrAPhy/AlAmy","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":81,"text":"Jutta May ([email protected]) is information and database management advisor (www.pacificdisaster.net) of the Disaster Reduction Programme, SPC SOPAC in Suva, Fiji. The aim of the Framework at the regional level was to develop a coordinated approach to address the increasing vulnerability of Pacific island nations -small islands in particular -to the impacts of disasters. At the national level the aim was to develop national action plans in which governments and key agencies would work closely with local, national, regional and international stakeholders."},{"index":2,"size":70,"text":"The Framework became the guiding policy for disaster risk management in the Pacific and was followed by a number of initiatives to improve disaster management in the region and the quality of life of its people. In 2006, the Pacific Islands Applied Geoscience Commission, now the Secretariat of the Pacific Community's Applied Geoscience and Technology Division (SPC SOPAC), took the lead in establishing the Pacific Disaster Risk Management Partnership Network."},{"index":3,"size":49,"text":"One of the Partnership's main objectives is to provide regional support for the development of national action plans as advocated in the Framework. These initiatives are now underway in 12 Pacific states: the Cook Islands, the Federated States of Micronesia, Fiji, Kiribati, the Marshall Islands, Palau, Papua New Guinea,"}]},{"head":"Disaster risk management","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":35,"text":"Pacific Disaster net is one of several initiatives that brings together a wide selection of information and tools that supports stakeholders and communities to prepare for and manage natural disasters in the Pacific island region."},{"index":2,"size":8,"text":"Samoa, the Solomon Islands, Tonga, Tuvalu and Vanuatu."}]},{"head":"Pacific Disaster Net","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":79,"text":"One of the key initiatives (see box for other examples) supported by the Partnership is the Pacific Disaster Net (PDN). PDN was launched in September 2008 as the new portal and growing information resource for all disaster risk management partners working in the Pacific region, including government agencies, regional bodies, non-governmental organisations and international agencies. PDN provides regional and national information in a range of formats, including contacts, alerts, documents, disaster details, calendars, contacts, and audio and visual files."},{"index":2,"size":6,"text":"Pacific Disaster Net has two functions:"}]},{"head":"Small islands and e-resilience rob Few / IFrC","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":151,"text":"• First, it aims to support disaster risk management activities by national and regional governments and organisations at all levels in order to build communities and nations resilient to disasters; and • Second, it forms a solid knowledge foundation on which the safe and secure future of Pacific nations can be built, by bringing together the widest selection of information sources available and supplying tools that the disaster risk management community needs. An example of PDN's information management support during disasters is the 2009 tsunami that affected Samoa and Tonga and other areas. The PDN portal published a range of information including the minutes of the meetings held by the Samoa Interagency Standing Committee and the Pacific Humanitarian Team and operational guidelines on human rights and natural disasters, which outline the steps for providing adequate food, water, shelter and housing, clothing, health services and sanitation to areas affected by natural disasters."},{"index":2,"size":67,"text":"Other sections of the PDN portal dedicated to the 2009 tsunami published scientific and technical reports on the cause of the tsunami, statistics describing how many people were affected and where, situation reports that update readers on the status of affected areas and articles reporting on ongoing relief efforts. Pictures of the damage caused by the tsunami were also uploaded in the 'Images' section of the portal."}]},{"head":"Special features","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":57,"text":"PDN is maintained by SPC SOPAC in Suva, Fiji. It receives support from a variety of international partners, such as the International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies, the United Nations Development Programme Pacific Centre, the United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs and the United Nations International Strategy for Disaster Risk Reduction."},{"index":2,"size":61,"text":"Dedicated SOPAC staff members facilitate the information management for PDN, distributing important information to a broad range of subscribers. This information comes in the form of weekly updates and a monthly disaster risk management calendar for the Pacific region. PDN also runs an emergency repository on the Google Cloud Platform so that alerts and disaster-related information remain available during power outages."},{"index":3,"size":65,"text":"PDN is custom built and contains features that anticipate the varying levels of internet access throughout the Pacific region. The PDN 'Local Edition', for example, is an offline version that can be run on DVDs. It therefore does not require an internet connection. The DVDs are also used for training purposes and in meetings and conferences. The only system requirement is Adobe Flash Player 8+."},{"index":4,"size":96,"text":"The PDN 'Mobile Edition' allows users to access information on their handheld devices. It contains all the categories that are also found in the desktop version, such as articles, alerts, events, the calendar, contacts and media. RSS feeds provide easy and quick information about new content in the PDN portal. The PDN portal hosts a forum for online discussions on subjects such as disaster risk reduction, early warning systems, preparedness, response and recovery, risk assessment, and training and tools. Videos can be accessed within the PDN user interface and images are available on a Picasa page."},{"index":5,"size":58,"text":"Five years after its launch, PDN is being redesigned in order to improve user friendliness and update the technology in line with the fastgrowing volume. The redesign aims to improve access to the more than 10,000 documents available on the network, strengthen the disaster loss database, integrate a multi-lingual user interface and exchange information with systems from partners."}]},{"head":"Challenges","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":71,"text":"Digital information management in the Pacific region is an exciting and dynamic field with a lot of potential and opportunities, but it needs additional resources and support to solve the many challenges it faces. The number of people with broadband subscriptions and the percentage of individuals who use the internet in the Pacific region vary widely. New Caledonia and French Polynesia top these lists due to support from the French government."},{"index":2,"size":90,"text":"Recent figures reveal that in 2011, approximately 17 out of every 100 inhabitants in New Caledonia had a broadband subscription. In French Polynesia, that number was approximately 13, compared to Fiji and Tonga, where the numbers were just under three and just over one, respectively, or to Kiribati, where that number was less than one. New Caledonia and French Polynesia also top the 2011 list of number of people who use the internet, with 50 and 49 per 100 inhabitants, respectively, compared to 28 and 25 in Fiji and Tonga."},{"index":3,"size":62,"text":"In addition to limited internet access, the lack of skilled information professionals is another significant challenge. Government departments in Pacific island countries and other agencies often use the term ICT as a general umbrella term to encompass not only the human side of the term, such as system developers, programmers and technicians, but also the technical side, i.e. the software and hardware."},{"index":4,"size":60,"text":"This can lead to miscommunication and create gaps in information sharing and communication outreach, however. A government department may expect ICT professionals to update content, for example, even though they are technicians and not writers. Investing in dedicated capacities for information and knowledge management in governments and agencies will strengthen informed decision making significantly and lead to cost efficiency. ◀"},{"index":5,"size":82,"text":"The Pacific Disaster Net portal published scientific and technical reports on the 2009 tsunami in Samoa, American Samoa, Tonga and other areas. The portal also published statistics describing how many people were affected and where, situation reports that updated readers on the status of affected areas and articles reporting on ongoing relief efforts. programmes, is now available to students who cannot be physically present in a classroom, while online and offline teletraining courses offer opportunities for them to develop their professional skills."}]},{"head":"PhoTosToCk-IsrAel/AlAmy","index":17,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Disaster risk management information and initiatives in the Pacific","index":18,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Pacific Catastrophe Risk Assessment and Financing Initiative","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":76,"text":"At the functional level, ICTs can improve democratic processes, through online voting systems, for example, as well as by encouraging political participation. This can be achieved by making information more easily available and improving contact with politicians. Similarly, teleadministration, such as 'electronic town halls', makes it easier for individuals and companies to submit their tax returns, register new businesses and obtain official documents. ICTs can also promote pluralism, by enabling citizens to contribute to online debates."},{"index":2,"size":72,"text":"At the economic level, ICTs can benefit island economies in areas such as logistics, marketing and tourism. For farmers, ICTs offer access to new markets and business services, as well as to sources of information and professional advice such as which crops to grow and what to charge for them, and which new distribution channels are available. ICTs also provide access to local product databases and modern methods of banking and financing."},{"index":3,"size":24,"text":"At the physical level, the use of ICTs can have a positive impact on the environment by reducing the need for transport and movement."}]},{"head":"Customised ICT infrastructure","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":83,"text":"Designing and implementing an ICTbased development framework for small islands is easier said than done. Indeed, there are major constraints, not only physical ones, such as a lack of a standard infrastructure and remoteness, but also less tangible ones, such as poor local capacity and governance capability. For example, ICTs need to be affordable and accessible if they are to bring benefits. But investors are not attracted to islands because their markets are small, and their remoteness usually means high investment costs. A"}]},{"head":"An ICT-based development framework","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":25,"text":"ICTs delivered through an appropriate development framework can help overcome the physical boundaries that limit small islands' capacity to conduct economic, political and social transactions."},{"index":2,"size":55,"text":"T he geographical isolation of small island economies may have limited their development in the past, but information and communication technologies can now help to bridge the gap. Indeed, ICTS offer a great degree of flexibility and can help overcome or alter development barriers at four levels: social, functional (political and cultural), economic and physical."},{"index":3,"size":78,"text":"At the social level, ICTs can benefit remote island communities by offering access to a variety of online healthcare and education services. Telemedicine, for example, provides access to medical services and advice that may save lives in emergency situations. Teleeducation, such as distance learning Ilias Kontakos ([email protected]) is a specialist in ICT-based island development. He is an independent consultant operating between Greece, the Netherlands and Belgium in sectors related to ICT4D and investment in agriculture and the environment."},{"index":4,"size":29,"text":"strong support network from the public sector and other sources is a key way to attract investors since ICT providers are more willing to respond to substantial, well-supported programmes."},{"index":5,"size":72,"text":"In addition, for the ICT infrastructure and services to be effectively used by island communities, they will have to be customised to local needs. This is especially the case with island societies that have retained a communal way of life, or where protective barriers against external economic and social influences need to be considered. If technologies are transferred without taking such circumstances into account, this is likely to create a 'suitability' gap."},{"index":6,"size":89,"text":"By avoiding technological determinism, which assumes that technology is the driving force that shapes societies, island societies can enjoy significant benefits, without having to compromise their diversity. In addition, ICT frameworks that take into account local diversity help societies reorganise, and contribute to the formulation of policies based on local needs, help create jobs, expand the economic base and improve the quality of community services. The more solid the institutional structure, the more people will benefit from it since these institutions can mediate between local stakeholders and ICT providers."},{"index":7,"size":242,"text":"Ultimately, ICTs are nothing more than new development tools, however powerful, in the hands of policy makers. As such, they provide great flexibility in service delivery, since they help to minimise distance, which is a key obstacle in island regions. Successfully setting up suitable ICT infrastructures and services on small islands requires a development framework where regional stakeholders, and technical and other expertise, are committed to its success. Moreover, they must have an open mind towards change and innovation processes and services in an island environment to which older, overly bureaucratic structures may fail to adjust. ◀ Attracting ICT investors is a difficult task small islands. Small islands are small markets too, and their remoteness usually means high investment costs. A strong support network is a key way to attract investors since ICT providers are more willing to respond to well-supported programmes. Globalisation has resulted in increased trade and encouraged the migration of people. But it has also helped to spread many plant pests and diseases that can cause severe economic and environmental damage and threaten biodiversity, especially in island states. It is essential that effective systems are in place to assist in the fight against the increasing risk of pest invasion. PestNet, based in Fiji, was one of the first organisations to set up a system of pest outbreak alerts to help farmers identify, prevent and control invasive species -arthropods, pathogens, molluscs or weeds -that threaten the islands of the Pacific."}]},{"head":"Small islands and e-resilience","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":23,"text":"PestNet is a free, email-based question-and-answer forum designed to provide information for farmers, researchers and extension agents on appropriate plant pest control measures."},{"index":2,"size":44,"text":"The network was launched in 1999 as a crop protection service for the Pacific, moderated by volunteer plant pest experts, but since then has expanded to Southeast Asia and the Caribbean. The network now welcomes anyone interested in crop protection anywhere in the world."},{"index":3,"size":113,"text":"PestNet's user base has grown to over 1300 members worldwide, and includes government agencies, NGOs, universities and the private sector, as well as students and farmers. Members can send messages asking for advice and information, respond to questions posed by other users, or join in the discussions on many aspects of pest control. Once approved by the moderators, the messages are shared with other members via the network's mailing list. One of the reasons for the success of the network is that subscribers receive email messages directly, so there is no need to visit the website or the Yahoo! Groups page, an important consideration in areas where internet connections are limited or unreliable."},{"index":4,"size":95,"text":"To subscribe to PestNet, all that is needed is an email address, a computer with a dial-up internet connection and a browser. The PestNet website provides guidance on the registration process, appropriate message content and attachment format, and how to submit specimens for identification by regular mail. Over the years the network has received thousands of requests for advice or information, and the network's email archive serves as a database of questions and answers that can easily be searched by simply going to the Yahoo! Groups page and entering a keyword in the search box."},{"index":5,"size":39,"text":"The network offers a variety of other services, including pest identification from digital images, pest outbreak alerts, advice on pest management (biological, cultural and chemical), plant protection regulations in the member countries, and lists of pests intercepted in quarantine."},{"index":6,"size":74,"text":"Members who encounter an unusual insect, plant disease or weed can send a digital photo to the network as an email attachment. The maximum image size is limited to 75 KB so that it can be downloaded by users in areas where connection speeds are slow. To simplify the identification of the pest, users are requested to include a scale and provide additional information such as details of the host, symptoms and growing conditions."},{"index":7,"size":45,"text":"The website provides summaries of previous discussions, arranged under four main headings: crops, pests, non-pests and pests that remain unidentified. The summaries include links to the original emails and images of the pests sent for identification, as well as the replies and recommendations of experts."},{"index":8,"size":102,"text":"PestNet has been a resounding success. Each month, the network's email forum distributes, on average, 75 approved messages and answers. It clearly shows that the forum caters to the needs of the community of farmers in the Pacific and the Caribbean as well as professionals concerned about the growing threats posed by plant diseases, insect pests and invasive species to the farming economies of small islands around the world. ◀ Globalisation has helped to spread plant pests and diseases that can cause severe economic and environmental damage and threaten biodiversity, especially in island states. Plant pest entities include insects, nematodes and bacteria."}]},{"head":"Small islands and e-resilience","index":23,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":13,"text":"The network now welcomes anyone interested in crop protection anywhere in the world "}]},{"head":"Web resources","index":24,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":68,"text":"Small island reporting service Small Island Developing States Policy and Practice is a reporting service and knowledge management project maintained by the International Institute for Sustainable Development. It facilitates the exchange of experience among small island states, keeping its subscribers informed with summarised updates sent on a daily basis via RSS feeds and email newsletters on the policy and practice of sustainable development on these islands. ➜ http://sids-l.iisd.org/"}]},{"head":"SIDSnet","index":25,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":90,"text":"SIDSnet is a tool for information sharing for Small Island Developing States Policy and Practice. A knowledge management platform, it focuses on decentralised content management and stakeholder engagement, filling gaps in data availability on sustainable development. SIDSnet responds to several critical challenges faced by small islands, including remoteness, isolation and geographic dispersion, poor connectivity and data management, limited human and technological capacity, and the need for greater international recognition. By registering you can access the full directory of experts, submit articles, create events and join online discussion groups. ➜ http://www.sidsnet.org"}]},{"head":"Vanuatu and climate change","index":26,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":76,"text":"The Vanuatu National Advisory Board on Climate Change and Disaster Risk Reduction is the island's web portal for the latest information on the government's climate change mitigation and adaptation actions. Frequent updates on the website offer Vanuatu's citizens and regional partners easy access to project documentation, a directory of experts and online web resources. This platform also monitors research and developments in sectors related to climate change, such as agriculture, fisheries and island ecosystems. ➜ www.nab.vu/"}]},{"head":"Projects","index":27,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":89,"text":"Fiji Makete Fiji Makete is a buying and selling platform for mobile phones. The application, launched in early 2013, allows farmers to access information about market pricing for their cash crops. It provides information on prices, sellers and buyers, products and registration processes. Users who wish to sell a product will receive a list of offers in a text message from interested buyers. The platform gives buyers in surrounding communities and urban areas the opportunity to see products for sale that they normally might not know about. ➜ http://goo.gl/3hv0Z"}]},{"head":"Q&A for farmers","index":28,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":77,"text":"The LifeLines Mobile Phone Q&A for farmers is an ICT-led helpline programme that aims to increase livelihood and income opportunities for rural communities through access to key decisive agricultural information. Since 2006, the LifeLines programme has been providing farmers with expert answers to their agricultural queries on their mobile phones. The answers are all delivered by voice rather than text to avoid the literacy barrier, and the aim is to provide answers within 24 hours. ➜ http://goo.gl/EwT0M"}]},{"head":"Wireless for Communities (W4C)","index":29,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":134,"text":"The aim of the W4C programme is to create community-wide wireless communication networks in rural India. Globally, the 2.4 Ghz, 3. What are the biggest connectivity challenges facing small islands? ➜ The biggest challenge for small island states, especially those that have many islands separated by large distances, is lack of connectivity caused by high costs and economies of scale. The best way to improve connectivity would be through satellite broadband. But that is an extremely expensive solution, especially in countries with low per capita income. There is another problem as well. There tends to be little competition in the telecom industry in small island states. This results in monopolies, and that in turn could drive prices up. Service provision, which is usually better when an industry is competitive, could also be below par."}]},{"head":"Politically speaking, what is changing regarding ICTs for small islands?","index":30,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":102,"text":"➜ At the political level, ICTs are seen as important and necessary for economic growth. But when there are pressing priorities such as education, poverty reduction and climate change, then ICTs take a back seat. The problem is that most people think of hardware or printers or things like that when they hear the word ICTs. So we have to work hard to make sure that people become conscious of the full potential of ICTs and establish a direct link between ICTs and national development goals. Indeed, we need to clearly demonstrate how ICTs can improve lives and contribute to these goals."},{"index":2,"size":148,"text":"Are there any recent ICT innovations on small islands that stand out? ➜ The government of Antigua in the Caribbean region has successfully launched mobile technology access centres in 2008 as part of their Connect Antigua and Barbuda initiative. These centres are buses equipped with 12 netbooks with internet access. They travel across the island, especially to remote communities and primary schools without access to technology, to provide access to technology and the internet for a variety of useseducation, news and government services. Minister of State Edmond Mansoor has described the goals of the government's ICT policy to improve the country's intellectual capital and create an open, pluralistic society, where everyone has access to information and knowledge. There are also private sector initiatives, such as the Bank of Antigua's Bank on Wheels, a mobile unit in a red double-decker bus that is equipped to process most customer transactions."}]},{"head":"Are local entrepreneurs embracing ICT development?","index":31,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":127,"text":"➜ Perhaps not surprisingly, local entrepreneurs are only willing to embrace ICT4D if there is something in it for them. Public-private partnerships are one mechanism that could be used to create collaborative initiatives between the private sector and governments to develop local ICT industries. There are precedents. Malta and Singapore are good examples. The governments of these countries have made a conscious effort to develop their ICT infrastructures. They automated their government systems and developed ICT infrastructures that are now being managed by the private sector. The latter in turn is trying to develop key ICT industries. However, the starting point for any government that wants to adopt ICTs is the development of a national ICT strategy which is directly linked to that country's national development goals."},{"index":2,"size":154,"text":"What is the best way to encourage people to invest in ICTs for small islands? ➜ First, as indicated above, governments and the business sector have to work together to start building an ICT infrastructure. This will automatically help to attract foreign direct investment in ICTs. Donors and multilateral organisations could play an important role as well. They can provide some of the resources, capacity building and knowledge needed to establish a knowledge society that is well positioned to function in the 21st century. Whoever is involved in setting up ICT infrastructures and creating knowledge societies should also focus on regional areas. This will help them assess the demand for ICTs and enable them to better share skills and resources and adopt critical standards. Indeed, they should be driven by the notion of 'build it once, use it many times', so systems and applications can be shared among member states in a given region."},{"index":3,"size":114,"text":"Are there any particular problems in the agricultural sectors of small islands that ICTs can help to solve? ➜ Yes, because the main problem with agriculture in small island states is the high cost of production. As a result, many of these countries find it impossible to compete with large producing countries. But that's where ICTs could come in. Tony Ming (a.ming@commonwealth. int) implemented ICT initiatives for the Ontario government in Canada for 30 years. He joined the Commonwealth Secretariat in London, UK, in 2008, where he and his team implement technology-related mandates issued by Commonwealth heads of government. He also provides strategic and policy advice to 54 member countries in high-priority development areas."}]},{"head":"Small islands and e-resilience hemIs/AlAmy","index":32,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":26,"text":"The starting point for any government that wants to adopt ICTs is a national ICT strategy which is directly linked to that country's national development goals"}]},{"head":"Fast browser for low-end phones","index":33,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":185,"text":"Baidu, a Chinese web services company and the country's largest search engine, has joined forces with France Télécom-Orange to develop El Browzer, according to SciDev.Net. The new Android browser is more data-efficient than the ones usually found on smartphones. According to Tania Aydenian, mobile partnerships manager at Orange, the browser's ability to compress data can reduce the amount of data consumed by 30% to 90%. This makes it cheaper for users to navigate the internet, and it benefits operators because it frees up valuable bandwidth. The browser also simplifies web access by using one-click links to preferred services The browser's main target group is consumers in Africa, the Middle East and Asia, where low-end versions of smartphones are becoming increasingly popular. Indeed, El Browzer was launched in Egypt in AlertNet says that a general lack of rain gauges across Africa hinders countries' ability to monitor water resources and improve early warning systems that could save lives and cut the cost of flooding. Indeed, PNAS researchers claim that their findings can improve the situation in Africa and other places that lack a network of rain gauges."},{"index":2,"size":67,"text":"The PNAS study estimated average rainfall intensity from telecommunication network data for the Netherlands, according to AlertNet, taking advantage of the fact that rain causes signal losses between mobile-phone masts. These estimated rainfall maps were then compared with those generated from radar and rain gauges. The researchers hope their study will persuade mobile-phone companies to release relevant data freely for use in research and to measure rainfall."},{"index":3,"size":146,"text":"Aart Overeem, lead author of the study, warns that the rain-measuring technique must be studied further both over a longer period and in places such as the tropics, where mobile-phone masts often operate at lower radio frequencies. At such frequencies, there is a more complex relationship between rain and signal weakening that could affect the accuracy of rainfall maps. ➜ Original article http://goo.gl/uq9OY Much has improved in Ghana's ICT infrastructure since 2000. By late 2011, the penetration rate of mobile telephony was 75%, up from 52.4% in 2008. ICT services are more decentralised, and this has created new business opportunities for small businesses. Many rural banks are now automated and networked. As a result, employees at small businesses, traders and farmers no longer have to carry huge sums of money on them for transactions. They can now deposit money at one bank and withdraw from another."},{"index":4,"size":56,"text":"ICTs have made distance learning possible in rural areas in Ghana. This has huge educational implications since 56.2% of the country's population live in rural areas. It has opened up learning opportunities to people who would otherwise not have had access to education because they live too far from educational centres and have limited financial resources."},{"index":5,"size":40,"text":"Distance learning is also keeping people in rural areas since they no longer have to move to urban areas to upgrade their knowledge and skills. And people are more willing to accept work in rural areas for the same reason."},{"index":6,"size":113,"text":"The next step is to build a more robust ICT infrastructure in rural Ghana. The paper recommends improving access to electricity and making ICT equipment internet access more affordable, since telecentres and internet cafes are still the main means of accessing ICTs. ➜ http://goo.gl/k4hA6 % of Papua New Guineans who access radio do so on mobile phones. Households there have more access to mobile phones than radios. http://goo.gl/G9vw9 % fewer women in developing countries are online than men. In Senegal, 10% of women and 20.2% of men have access to a computer. http://goo.gl/bOVOj in 10 women in developing nations who do have web access reported using the internet to further their education. http://goo.gl/tFEqT"}]},{"head":"Cloud services in Africa","index":34,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":54,"text":"Pamoja, the cloud services business unit of Pan-African ICT enabler SEACOM, has officially launched its business model and go-to-market strategy in Johannesburg, South Africa, according to IT News Africa, with management offering a detailed explanation of how SMEs and partners form part of the plan to build a cloud services market for the continent."},{"index":2,"size":35,"text":"The Pamoja business model is based on the aggregation and wholesale delivery of cloud services to the African market. The key tenets of the model are business value services, connectivity services and cloud computing services."},{"index":3,"size":30,"text":"Pamoja uses a one-stop-shop approach. This means that SMEs, the ultimate end-users of Pamoja's services, benefit from the fact that all their ICT needs are serviced by a single supplier."},{"index":4,"size":104,"text":"Pamoja's cloud services will be provided via the company's network of data centres, according to IT News Africa. The first cloud platform is up and running in South Africa, and the second platform is planned for Kenya, after which subsequent platforms will be set up based on demand. The report predicts that mobile subscriptions will exceed the world population by 2014. More than half of all mobile subscriptions are now in Asia, which remains the powerhouse of market growth, and by the end of 2013 overall mobile penetration rates will have reached 96% globally, 128% in the developed world and 89% in developing countries."},{"index":5,"size":41,"text":"With many markets saturated, and penetration at over 100% in four of the six ITU world regions, mobile-cellular uptake is already slowing substantially, with growth rates falling to their lowest levels ever in both the developed and developing worlds. The rebooT-FlICkr"}]}],"figures":[{"text":"I n October 2005, leaders of Pacific nations endorsed A Framework for Action 2005-2015: Building the Resilience of Nations and Communities to Disasters. "},{"text":" with smartphones for monitoring agricultural development, a 2013 conference paper from the ACM Symposium on Computing for Development, shows how people can use a smartphone-based system to assess agricultural areas such as fields or ponds by pinpointing their exact location. The system's simple and intuitive workflow can be used by laymen, which makes it possible to crowdsource geo-data on a local level. ➜ http://goo.gl/LUnik e-agriculture in ACP countries This background report reviews the general state of e-agriculture policies and strategies in selected ACP and non-ACP countries. It contains desk research that was developed in preparation for the 2013 ICT Observatory meeting and aims to provide a quick overview of e-agriculture. It identifies some of the key challenges, target orientations and key areas of support for national e-agriculture policies or strategy development as reported by the various stakeholders. ➜ http://goo.gl/PJFtT Pacific ICT revolution Digital islands, a paper published in late 2012 by the Lowy Institute for International Policy, describes some of the early impacts of the Pacific region's ICT revolution. Powerful digital tools have given Pacific islanders greater opportunity to harness, influence and promote political and social change in the region. Led by bloggers, digital entrepreneurs and social media groups in Papua New Guinea, a Pacific digital generation has emerged that is playing an increasingly influential role in society. This analysis provides an overview of the changing ICT landscape in the Pacific. ➜ http://goo.gl/2Jezo "},{"text":" 3 Ghz and 5.8 Ghz frequency bands have been reserved as license-free spectrum. W4C uses low-cost Wi-Fi-based equipment and unlicensed spectrum to empower under-served communities. The project offers training on wireless mesh technology and studies the impact of deploying a wireless mesh network in a cluster-based environment. ➜ www.apc.org/en/node/ "},{"text":" February 2013. Arabic and English versions of the free browser are available pre-installed on Android devices sold via Mobinil, an Egyptian firm partly owned by France Télécom-Orange. A French version is also being developed. ➜ Original article http://goo.gl/iV1rX Expanding access to ICTs The Broadband Commission for Digital Development was set up by ITU and UNESCO in 2010 to promote improved broadband access in all countries, no matter what stage of development they are in. The Commission believes that better broadband access will help countries meet the Millennium Development Goals more easily by the 2105 target date. A 2013 report by the Commission's working group on education, Technology broadband and education: Advancing the Education for All agenda, highlights the reasons for using ICTs in education. It points out that although ICT skills are important for participating in the global economy, schools often focus more on gaining knowledge than using it. Students therefore don't have the right tools to become successful digital citizens in a knowledge economy. Better access to ICTs and government policies that promote the proper use of ICTs, particularly in developing countries, will go a long way to solving this challenge, according to the report. The report recommends the following actions: • increase access to ICTs and broadband, particularly for women and marginalised groups; • incorporate ICTs into job training and continuing education; • teach ICT skills and digital literacy to all educators and learners; • promote mobile learning and online educational resources; • development content adapted to local contexts and languages; and • bridge the digital divide among and within countries. ➜ http://goo.gl/gf5T7 Dispatches According to AlertNet, a free humanitarian news service, mobile-phone masts could be used for a variety of new innovative purposes in Africa. In an article published in February 2013, AlertNet describes findings in a study published in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (PNAS) in February 2013, which suggest that mobile masts could be used to measure rainfall in areas without rain gauges. "},{"text":" Ghana was one of the first countries in Africa to reform its ICT sector. The country's government liberalised telecommunications in the 1990s and introduced its ICT for accelerated development policy in 2003. These measures attracted investment from the private sector, which has become actively involved in modernising Ghana's ICT infrastructure. This paper on the role of ICTs in Ghana's rural development takes a detailed look at ICT developments in rural Ghana since the turn of the century. "},{"text":"➜ Original article http://goo.gl/lQaip The world in 2013: ICT facts and figures ITU's facts and figures report features estimates for its key telecommunication and ICT indicators. It highlights the latest global ICT facts and trends and includes figures on internet use, gender, fixed and mobile broadband subscriptions and prices, home ICT access and more. "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"Adopting ICTs on small islands Q&A They could help bring down the cost of production by creating a vibrant agricultural knowledge network. Farmers could consult this network to obtain advice from other farmers across the globe on how to use ICTs to create more efficient farming systems. ◀ Governments in the Governments in the Caribbean region have Caribbean region have launched various mobile launched various mobile technology initiatives, technology initiatives, including buses including buses equipped with netbooks equipped with netbooks with internet with internet connections that connections that provide access to provide access to education, news and education, news and government services, government services, and mobile banks and mobile banks equipped to process equipped to process most customer most customer transactions. transactions.  "}],"sieverID":"b564250a-a683-42dd-973c-0e5ec61ce479","abstract":"A programme in the Caribbean is boosting the mobile innovation sector ICTs are improving natural disaster management in the Pacific ICTs are helping small islands overcome geographical isolation"}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"06113f0a7ac4c946db96eda1040e238e","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/adc2d7c5-61e6-4fcc-b9ac-9c86157ab2c2/retrieve"},"pageCount":18,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":45,"text":"Adequate nutrition for the West African population can rightly be perceived as a product of interventions requiring several essential inputs for its development and execution. Each sector identified on the schema has its unique expertise to provide its own unique and indispensable set of inputs."},{"index":2,"size":168,"text":"It is becoming abundantly clear that no one sector working alone, can effect sustainable improvements in the nutrition and health of populations. Vital inputs from several sectors, public and private institutions are required in order to ensure the desired goals of adequate food security, nutrition and health of a population. The need for collaborative partnership is increasingly being recognized in West Africa where during the past four years, a strong regional collaborative, multi-disciplinary and cross-sectoral partnership has developed involving the West African Health Organization (WAHO), the ECOWAS Commission on Agriculture, the regional network of small-scale food producers (Reseau des Organisations Paysannes et des Producteurs Agricole de l'Afrique de l'Ouest -ROPPA), in collaboration with Bioversity International and the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO). The overarching objective of this initiative is to ensure, through its activities, the effective promotion of use of local food resources from West Africa's traditional food systems in households, and in strategies and interventions against food insecurity, micronutrient deficiencies and diet related chronic diseases."},{"index":3,"size":29,"text":"Representatives of member organizations of this initiative consortium, as well as stakeholders from research, public and private sector organizations (See participants' list) met in Abuja, May 18-20, 2010 to:"},{"index":4,"size":55,"text":"(1) Assess progress on the implementation of previously identified priority activities (See report of November 2009 Ouagadougou WAHO/ROPPA/Bioversity Regional Workshop) (2) Develop guidelines for a 5-year operational plan to facilitate increases in production, availability and use of traditional foods by urban and rural households, as well as increased use in food and nutrition intervention programmes."}]},{"head":"Summary of Stakeholders' Recommendations","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Research","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":165,"text":" Continue with ongoing food data compilation and the creation of an interim user-friendly food composition database from existing published and unpublished data on the compositional attributes of food resources from West Africa's traditional food systems  Through a task force comprising FAO, WAHO and Bioversity International and research institutions, verify, validate, adopt and disseminate the created User-database.  Identify information gaps and food resources requiring new or further research activities  Make resources available for additional research to close the information gaps in order to provide new and reliable data on the compositional attributes of a larger selection of traditional and gathered food resources from the region's food systems  Create a network of research institutions and food analysts with a mandate and the necessary resources to undertake research and make available new data on the nutritional and health attributes of traditional foods  Regularly update the created User-database with new research data  Continuously support research through existing regional agriculture programs, especially ECOWAP."}]},{"head":"Raising Public Awareness for Action and Change in Dietary Habits","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":121,"text":" Produce and disseminate a pictorial book of food resources from the region's food systems with information on their nutrition and health attributes  Produce a regional recipe book containing at least 20 recipes per country  By use of social marketing techniques and programmes, promote the use of local foods in households and in governments' social functions in order to boost pride in the local food culture  Organize national and local feedback workshops to disseminate and widely make available information on the nutrition and health attributes of local food resources reported in the food composition database  Integrate the use of the information on the nutrient values of local foods in nutrition education, health promotion and school feeding programs."},{"index":2,"size":118,"text":"Advocacy at National and Regional Levels  Develop and implement an advocacy strategy to raise awareness among decision makers  Organize quarterly regional and national roundtables on the importance of using foods from local food systems for improved nutrition and health, in collaboration with the media, private sector organizations, NGOs and civil society groups  Organize on a regular basis regional/national food fairs, food exhibition and cooking competitions under the auspices of the Executive President of ECOWAS  Organize biannual regional/national policy advocacy workshops involving relevant public sector directors with the objective of enabling policy makers to integrate agricultural biodiversity for improved nutrition and health into national development plans, and in ECOWAS health policies and agricultural investment plans."}]},{"head":"Capacity Building","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":125,"text":" Increase, through regular training, the critical mass of local experts trained in the generation, development and dissemination of data on the compositional attributes of local/traditional foods  Train local experts on ways and means of maintaining quality control of data generated  Train ROPPA members (food producers and processors), as well as other food processing groups, on the need and use of nutrient data in public awareness, food labeling and information, marketing of food products, and in advocacy  Train food processors on the key role that information on the compositional attributes of local foods play in correct packaging and labeling of fresh and packaged food products both for local and international markets  Train junior researchers in the development of food composition databases."}]},{"head":"BACKGROUND","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":48,"text":"Dietary diversification is vital to tackling the problems of hunger, micronutrient malnutrition and diet-related chronic diseases. Studies in the sub-region reveal high prevalence rates of these conditions in most ECOWAS Member States and these conditions put immense strain on the health services infrastructure of governments in the sub-region."},{"index":2,"size":259,"text":"Dietary diversification requires diversity in agricultural production leading to diversity in the food supply systems of the population. Reports also show that the increasing nutrition and health problems of population groups in West Africa are paralleled by the decline in the use of foods from the traditional food systems, and by the loss of indigenous knowledge that is essential for the full and sustainable exploitation of these food resources, generally known for their positive nutrition and health benefits. Small-scale food producers -members of ROPPA, whose production systems are characterized by large varieties of carbohydrate staples, pulses and bean varieties, leafy vegetable varieties, fruits, food condiments and spices, and animal-sourced foods, play a pivotal role in the maintenance of diversity in national food systems. The production, easy availability, and use by households of these nutrient-rich traditional foods are therefore sine qua non in the ongoing regional battle against food insecurity, micronutrient malnutrition and diet-related chronic diseases. This regional initiative for the promotion of local foods from West Africa's traditional food systems has set itself the goal of catalyzing strategic actions of national governments and regional institutions to increase knowledge of the nutrition and health benefits of the region's traditional food resources, increase their production and use by the population, thereby effectively mainstreaming these food resources in everyday family diets. Furthermore, it is hoped that the established collaborative partnerships would provide platforms to bring together stakeholders from related disciplines, allowing them to coordinate their efforts and optimize the use of increasingly scarce resources for policy development as well as programme implementation."}]},{"head":"RATIONALE","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":250,"text":"The West African sub-region is blessed with abundant food variety -millet, sorghum, fonio, local rice, maize, sesame, bambara groundnut, cowpeas and well over 30 bean varieties, roots and tubers, over 200 indigenous leaf and fruit vegetables, and fruits. The physical geography of the region largely determines the distribution of these food crops, creating a grain-based subsistence agriculture in the north of the sub-region and a tuber based system in the south. With intraregional trade in food crops, this makes for diversity in the food supply, in food choices and in household diets. However, this diversity of foods in family diets has now been replaced by diets of predominantly rice, maize, wheat and their products. Family diets in the sub region now lack the diversity of foods that ensure optimum daily supplies of micronutrients and health protecting phytochemicals. It is therefore not surprising that nutrition and health data from the subregion show very high rates of infant and under-five mortality rates, as well as high rates of growth retardation in young children. Among adults the changes in dietary patterns from traditionally diversified to diets high in carbohydrates and fats have resulted in increasingly high rates of obesity and dietrelated non-communicable diseases. These are the results of fundamental changes in the region's food systems. It is thus vital that frontline interventions aimed at reversing these high rates of micronutrient deficiencies and diet-related chronic diseases address the root cause of the situation, which is lack of diversity in national and regional food supplies."},{"index":2,"size":95,"text":"The resilience and sustainability of West Africa's traditional food systems are pivotal to tackling the multiple problems of micronutrient malnutrition and diet-related chronic diseases. West Africa's agriculture is dominated by small-scale farmers whose production systems hold the key to diversification of the region's food supply. Thus the active participation of small-scale food producers through their network-ROPPA in this initiative comes at an opportune and critical juncture in the regional and global search for sustainable solutions to the food security, and health problems resulting (double burden of malnutrition) viewed, in a context globalization and food crisis."},{"index":3,"size":182,"text":"The problem to be tackled being clearly defined, there was a clear need to expand the partnership and bring in national, regional, and international partners with competences required to achieve the stated objectives of the initiative. The stakeholders' meeting brought together a multidisciplinary and multisectoral group of experts to map out strategies and action plans for achieving specific target objectives, and to assume responsibilities for specific output targets. The meeting broke into two working groups to deliberate further and, based on priority plans earlier identified during discussions by the experts,, develop a five-year operational plan which will constitute a road-map for activities aimed at: -Providing needed support to ROPPA members in order to facilitate and effect increases in the production and marketing of traditional foods from the local food systems. -Increasing the use by households, as well as in food and nutrition intervention programmes, of traditional foods from local food systems. The working groups considered research, public awareness, advocacy and capacity building as four impact oriented priority areas that need to be tackled in a 5-year operational plan (See attached suggested workplan)."}]},{"head":"RECOMMENDATIONS","index":8,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Research","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":255,"text":"There is a commonly held belief that foods from the region's traditional food systems contain high levels of micronutrient and health protecting bioactive compounds. However such beliefs are based more on anecdotal evidence. The stakeholders recognized the importance and vital role that empirical data on the nutritional and health protecting attributes of these food resources would play in policy development and programme implementation of several sectors-agriculture, health, trade, rural development and environment. They argued that, although there was still a dearth of compositional data on these food resources, more recent research has provided some data to confirm the micronutrient superiority of the not-socommonly-used food varieties, as well as some wild cultivars which have remained part of the traditional food systems. The working groups therefore recommended that research activities of the 5-year operational plan needed to concentrate on the development of a comprehensive user-database of the compositional attributes of food resources from West Africa's food systems. The participants also recommended much closer ties between researchers and members of small-scale farmers groups to ensure that agronomic research activities are based on farmers' needs for improvement in their agricultural production. Furthermore, the participants acknowledged that a lot of research had been conducted to determine best agronomic practices for local food production but noted that such results were largely not communicated to the food producers. They therefore recommended that, in the development and implementation of the ECOWAS Agricultural Policies such as the Regional Agriculture Policy for West Africa (ECOWAP), the vital links between research, policy and practice be strengthened."}]},{"head":"Raising Public Awareness for Action","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":259,"text":"It was recognized that the marketing of local foods was still a major obstacle to the creation of demand. However effective marketing strategies cannot be developed without scientific based information on the composition of the local foods. The ultimate beneficiaries of programmes to increase the availability, access and use of the diversity of food resources from local food systems are resource-poor households in both rural and urban areas whose dietary practices have changed significantly over the years and are now characterized by carbohydrate-rich staples, sugars and fats. The participants noted that it would take enormous and concerted efforts by governments, working with public, private sector organizations and the civil society to develop public awareness campaign messages targeting nutrition information and education, in order to counteract the strong competition which imported and subsidized carbohydrate staples such as rice and wheat posed to local food resources. The participants therefore recommended that, in addition to planned public awareness programmes and activities, and as part of a national and regional public awareness campaign, the use of local foods and products be institutionalized in all government and public sector official functions. They also recommended that social marketing techniques that target change in food habits by use of data showing the high nutritional qualities of traditional foods, be used to promote their increased consumption by the population. The stakeholders argued that such social marketing programmes will not only result in positive changes in household food habits and the increased consumption of local food resources, the will stimulate demand, resulting in increased production of these foods."}]},{"head":"Advocacy at National and Regional Levels","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":177,"text":"Advocacy is an ongoing activity for members of the regional associations of small-scale food producers (ROPPA) and so the participants urged the ROPPA stakeholders to maintain constant pressure on national governments in order to ensure that the Heads of States Maputo agreement of devoting 10 percent of national budgets to agriculture be realized. Participants noted that advocacy was a vital and effective tool for raising awareness on social issues, not only among the population at large but also among policy and decision makers within public and private sector institutions. Thus, while advocacy was identified as one of the priority action areas, the participants noted that a multipronged strong and continuous advocacy is required of all institutional members of the initiative including ECOWAS and national parliaments, for the promotion of local food resources from West Africa's traditional food systems, in order to speedily achieve the desired results. They also recommended that \"champions\" of the cause among political leaders and influential members of the public be identified to be involved in \"headlining\" planned national and regional level advocacy activities."}]},{"head":"Capacity Building","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":155,"text":"As rightly noted by the participating stakeholders, the first victims of any food crisis are rural communities, women within these communities being particularly affected. In West Africa, women dominate the food processing industry. They are involved in harvesting and other post-harvest activitiesprocessing, storage, distribution and marketing of food resources from the local food systems. The stakeholders therefore recommended that particular attention be paid to reinforcing the value adding capacities of women food producers in the areas of processing, packaging, storage of processed products and their marketing in order to enable these women food producers to meet the challenges and competition for market share posed by food imports and the externally owned large-scale food processors. The representatives of ROPPA at the stakeholders' meeting expressed the need for improvements in the sharing of new technologies, quality control, and food production information which they believe would help to ensure sustainable conservation and use of agro-biodiversity by their members."},{"index":2,"size":63,"text":"The participants also expressed the need to develop short training programmes for all categories of local food processors on food packaging and labeling using nutritional data from the regional food composition table being developed. They believed that such labeling of nutrient content would provide the needed nutrition information and further increase demand and consumption of local processed food resources by an informed population."},{"index":3,"size":71,"text":"The need to continuously develop the capacities of the providers of the vital nutrition information was also addressed by the participants. Bearing in mind the key role that information on the nutrition and health attributes of foods from local food systems play in the promotion and mainstreaming of local food resources in household diets, the stakeholders recommended increasing, through regular training, the number of experts who generate and disseminate this information."}]},{"head":"WRAP-UP DISCUSSIONS","index":13,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Expanding the List of Collaborating Research Institutions and Individual Researchers for the Food Composition Database Initiative","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":48,"text":"The suggestion to establish a list of universities and research institutes participating in the food composition database initiative was discussed in plenary, and the decision was taken to identify participating researchers and research institutions based on specific required competencies as well as institutions' laboratory infrastructure and analytical facilities."}]},{"head":"Establishing a Task Force to Direct the Activities of the Food Composition Database Initiative","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":85,"text":"Some participating stakeholders from regional institutions and research institutes (Universite Cheikh Anta Diop, University of Ghana Legon, , Bioversity International, WAHO, CILSS and FAO) were proposed to lead the task force while, the country-level consultants who were involved in the initial compilations of existing published and unpublished food composition data (Ms P. Addy, Mr Etel Fagbohoun, Dr Victor Enujiugha, Mr Romaric Bayili, Mr B. Samb) would constitute the members of the task force. The full mandate of this task force is yet to be developed."}]},{"head":"Expanding the Multi-Sectorial Collaborative Partnership","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":51,"text":"The representative of the ECOWAS Agriculture Commission suggested raising the existing WAHO/ROPPA/FAO/Bioversity/CILSS, ECOWAS Agriculture collaborative partnership to Ministerial level. It was also suggested that the collaboration be expanded to include the ministries of Education, Finance and Rural development, as well as other public, private sectors, civil society organizations and donor groups."}]},{"head":"CLOSING COMMENTS","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":178,"text":"Through closing comments from representatives of ROPPA, ECOWAS/WAHO and Bioversity International, the stakeholders were reminded of the progress that had been made since 2006 before which such collaborative partnerships were non-existent, to the year 2010 when WAHO could report, not only about an active and functional multisector collaborative partnership, but also the achievement of concrete results from the partnership activities. The participants recognized the active participation of the representative of the African Development Bank (ABD) and expressed the hope that ABD would continue to be actively engaged and provide needed funding support for the activities of the regional initiative for the promotion of foods from the region's food systems. Participants were also encouraged to continue to cultivate the existing partnership and alliances between institutions and individual stakeholders in order to convince other agencies and groups of the need for such collaborative partnerships. This allows partnerships formed to take full advantage of the specific competences of partners, thereby maximizing limited resources in the development and successful implementation of programmes that ensure sustainable food and nutrition security in the sub-region. "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Draft 5-Year Operational Work Plan for Recommended Priority Actions (2011-2016)  includes priority foods attached to meetings strategy tools, and public and /FAO HKI ENDA   includes priority foods attached to meetings strategytools, and public and/FAO HKIENDA Priority Area: (Research) Assembly of scientifically proven food composition data following harmonized and acceptable standards Activities Timing Indicator(s) Principal Actor(s) Partners Indicative Budget Source of Funds Compilation of scientific data to create database 2011-2013 Tables of composition available for specific crops WAFOODS & WAHO National Food Research Institutions & Universities, ROPPA/OP, CILSS etc. USD 50.000 ECOWAS, ADB 1 , WAHO Scientific verification and validation of data in database by Task Force 2011-2016 (Every 6 months) Availability of validated data every 6 months. WAHO/Bioversity /FAO WAHO, Bioversity, WAFOODS Coordinator 50000 ECOWAS, ADB, USAID, WAHO Continuation of compilation of existing data into an archival dbase and verification 2011-2016 Completion of the collection of existing data WAHO/Bioversity Creation of an expanded 2012-2013 Existence of a WAHO/Bioversity Universities/ research USD 30,000 ECOWAS, ADB Activities Timing Indicator(s) Principal Actor(s) Partners Indicative Budget Source of Funds Organization of regional round-table discussions with the 2013 Three regional round table meetings Bioveristy/WAHO/ ROPPA/ ECOWAS NGO's /Civil Society/ Chambers of Commerce/ Media USD 30.000 etc) translated partners channels, languages developed, ECOWAS, ROPPA and groups, message, tools, and support /FAO Universities/ research institutes USD 150,000 ECOWAS, ADB, WAHO/ USAID identified by ROPPA (food producers and processors) Organization of a feedback workshop making the user database available and reinforce a transversal communication strategy within the region 2013 Information well disseminated on ROPPA Bioveristy /WAHO ECOWAS/ NGO'S/ Consumer USD 70.000 ECOWAS, ADB implementation plan Strategy 2012-2016 National:-National -Producers or Experts in Biodiversity for 120.000 ECOWAS, ROPPA & Organization of regional food fairs/food exhibition/cooking 2013 Three Regional Food fairs/ exhibition Bioveristy/WAHO/ ROPPA/ECOWAS/CILSS Chambers of agriculture/ consumer USD 12, 000 ECOWAS ROPPA and private sector Sub-regional: stakeholders; parners WAHO Associations/Food Associations implementation Policy makers Farmers Coordinating nutrition & health, Task Partners, USAID competition under the organized industries existence of user integrate Council (Farmers Force, WAHO auspices of the database and its use Identification of information gaps that require further research actions on the nutritional and health benefits of foods 2013-2016 Information gaps and needs for new research identified Bioveristy/WAHO/FAO Universities/ research institutes USD 70,000 ECOWAS, ADB Institutional adoption of validated data by competent ECOWAS structures (WAHO) 2016 Resolutions on adopted validated data every 12 months WAHO WAFOODS, Task Force 60.000 ECOWAS, ADB, WAHO Priority Area: Advocacy at National and Regional Levels biodiversity for nutrition in national development plan in some countries Regional: biodiversity for nutrition in plan. Develop public awareness/communicat ion strategy (target 2011-2012 Strategy document ROPPA/OP, Training tools ENDA Bioversity International, AMLD, CILSS, 60000 ROPPA & Partners the FC Database ECOWAS & Partners, composition tables on the use of investment International (HKI) Budget and use of Food knowledgeable policies and ENDA, Hellen Keller Activities Timing Indicator(s) Principal Actor(s) Partners Indicative Source of Funds processors) on the need informed and ECOWAS Regional:-ROPPA, CILSS, AMLD, producers and Members well Priority Area: Raising Public Awareness for Action training of ROPPA members(food example, ROPPA ROPPA Integration of Organization) executive president of Priority Area: Capacity Building Bioversity International ECOWAS & Inter-Ministerial Committee (Ag, Env, Health) Development of regional recipe books 2013 Regional recipe book available with 20 recipes Bioveristy/WAHO/ Consumer associations/ USD 50000 Activities Timing Indicator(s) Principal Actor(s) Partners Indicative Source of Funds ROPPA and partners Budget Food processors/ ROPPA/ECOWAS Womens' groups Identification of target 2011-2016 Identified target Bioveristy/ Universities/ research USD 70,000 ECOWAS & Partners; per country groups and their focal persons. For example, groups & focal persons. For institutes AMLD, ENDA, ROPPA & Donor WAHO/FAO/ CILSS Partners, WAHO Priority Area: (Research) Assembly of scientifically proven food composition data following harmonized and acceptable standards Activities Timing Indicator(s) Principal Actor(s) Partners Indicative Budget Source of Funds Compilation of scientific data to create database 2011-2013 Tables of composition available for specific crops WAFOODS & WAHO National Food Research Institutions & Universities, ROPPA/OP, CILSS etc. USD 50.000 ECOWAS, ADB 1 , WAHO Scientific verification and validation of data in database by Task Force 2011-2016 (Every 6 months) Availability of validated data every 6 months. WAHO/Bioversity /FAO WAHO, Bioversity, WAFOODS Coordinator 50000 ECOWAS, ADB, USAID, WAHO Continuation of compilation of existing data into an archival dbase and verification 2011-2016 Completion of the collection of existing data WAHO/Bioversity Creation of an expanded 2012-2013 Existence of a WAHO/Bioversity Universities/ research USD 30,000 ECOWAS, ADB Activities Timing Indicator(s) Principal Actor(s) Partners Indicative Budget Source of Funds Organization of regional round-table discussions with the 2013 Three regional round table meetings Bioveristy/WAHO/ ROPPA/ ECOWAS NGO's /Civil Society/ Chambers of Commerce/ Media USD 30.000 etc) translated partners channels, languages developed, ECOWAS, ROPPA and groups, message, tools, and support /FAO Universities/ research institutes USD 150,000 ECOWAS, ADB, WAHO/ USAID identified by ROPPA (food producers and processors) Organization of a feedback workshop making the user database available and reinforce a transversal communication strategy within the region 2013 Information well disseminated on ROPPA Bioveristy /WAHO ECOWAS/ NGO'S/ Consumer USD 70.000 ECOWAS, ADB implementation plan Strategy 2012-2016 National:-National -Producers or Experts in Biodiversity for 120.000 ECOWAS, ROPPA & Organization of regional food fairs/food exhibition/cooking 2013 Three Regional Food fairs/ exhibition Bioveristy/WAHO/ ROPPA/ECOWAS/CILSS Chambers of agriculture/ consumer USD 12, 000 ECOWAS ROPPA and private sector Sub-regional: stakeholders; parners WAHO Associations/Food Associations implementation Policy makers Farmers Coordinating nutrition & health, Task Partners, USAID competition under the organized industries existence of user integrate Council (Farmers Force, WAHO auspices of the database and its use Identification of information gaps that require further research actions on the nutritional and health benefits of foods 2013-2016 Information gaps and needs for new research identified Bioveristy/WAHO/FAO Universities/ research institutes USD 70,000 ECOWAS, ADB Institutional adoption of validated data by competent ECOWAS structures (WAHO) 2016 Resolutions on adopted validated data every 12 months WAHO WAFOODS, Task Force 60.000 ECOWAS, ADB, WAHO Priority Area: Advocacy at National and Regional Levels biodiversity for nutrition in national development plan in some countries Regional: biodiversity for nutrition in plan. Develop public awareness/communicat ion strategy (target 2011-2012 Strategy document ROPPA/OP, Training tools ENDA Bioversity International, AMLD, CILSS, 60000 ROPPA & Partners the FC Database ECOWAS & Partners, composition tables on the use of investment International (HKI) Budget and use of Food knowledgeable policies and ENDA, Hellen Keller Activities Timing Indicator(s) Principal Actor(s) Partners Indicative Source of Funds processors) on the need informed and ECOWAS Regional:-ROPPA, CILSS, AMLD, producers and Members well Priority Area: Raising Public Awareness for Action training of ROPPA members(food example, ROPPA ROPPA Integration of Organization) executive president of Priority Area: Capacity Building Bioversity International ECOWAS & Inter-Ministerial Committee (Ag, Env, Health) Development of regional recipe books 2013 Regional recipe book available with 20 recipes Bioveristy/WAHO/ Consumer associations/ USD 50000 Activities Timing Indicator(s) Principal Actor(s) Partners Indicative Source of Funds ROPPA and partners Budget Food processors/ ROPPA/ECOWAS Womens' groups Identification of target 2011-2016 Identified target Bioveristy/ Universities/ research USD 70,000 ECOWAS & Partners; per country groups and their focal persons. For example, groups & focal persons. For institutes AMLD, ENDA, ROPPA & Donor WAHO/FAO/ CILSS Partners, WAHO user database to be validated by FAO that Develop advocacy strategic plan & tools media and restaurant Implementation of operators (Three round table meetings public awareness & communication user database Strategy document containing organized 2012-2016 Tools & 2011 channels; Feedback from Consultants to be engaged by WAHO National: ENDA, ROPPA/OP & partners, institutes/ROPPA ROPPA, WAHO, Bioversity International, Task Force, CILSS, AMLD, Bioversity International 60000 80000 ECOWAS, USAID ECOWAS & ROPPA + partners user database to be validated by FAO that Develop advocacy strategic plan & tools media and restaurant Implementation of operators (Three round table meetings public awareness & communicationuser database Strategy document containing organized 2012-2016 Tools & 2011 channels; Feedback fromConsultants to be engaged by WAHO National: ENDA, ROPPA/OP & partners,institutes/ROPPA ROPPA, WAHO, Bioversity International, Task Force, CILSS, AMLD, Bioversity International60000 80000ECOWAS, USAID ECOWAS & ROPPA + partners  "}],"sieverID":"acfb78e2-740a-439c-8467-f03f26be1a68","abstract":""}

data/part_1/06c14c9ae75273b055339736c4ff3e34.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"06c14c9ae75273b055339736c4ff3e34","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/c6dc9be1-8fc7-440f-8f6b-f496ce2272a4/retrieve"},"pageCount":44,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Working Papers","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":87,"text":"The publications in this series record the work and thinking of IWMI researchers, and knowledge that the Institute's scientific management feels is worthy of documenting. This series will ensure that scientific data and other information gathered or prepared as a part of the research work of the Institute are recorded and referenced. Working Papers could include project reports, case studies, conference or workshop proceedings, discussion papers or reports on progress of research, country-specific research reports, monographs, etc. Working Papers may be copublished, by IWMI and partner organizations."},{"index":2,"size":64,"text":"Although most of the reports are published by IWMI staff and their collaborators, we welcome contributions from others. Each report is reviewed internally by IWMI staff. The reports are published and distributed both in hard copy and electronically (www.iwmi.org) and where possible all data and analyses will be available as separate downloadable files. Reports may be copied freely and cited with due acknowledgment. vii"}]},{"head":"Executive Summary","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":85,"text":"Background Small reservoirs are a critical mechanism to strengthen resilience and enhance rural livelihoods in Africa. They provide a range of benefits, including increased access to water in local communities, improved household food security, diversified livelihood options, female empowerment and enhanced entrepreneurial activities. As a result, governments, development agencies and the private sector have invested significant resources in constructing new or rehabilitating existing small reservoirs. However, a range of factors, including insufficient maintenance, rapid siltation and ineffective institutions, can weaken the performance of small reservoirs."},{"index":2,"size":100,"text":"Reconciling mixed evidence to generate a balanced picture -Despite existing data on various benefits and costs of small reservoirs in Africa, no comprehensive assessment of their impacts has been undertaken. Case studies yield important insights, but cannot be used individually to confidently generalize. This paper responds to the lack of comprehensive examination of the impacts of small reservoirs by undertaking a stock-take of available evidence to understand the frequency of reporting of various impacts, benefits and costs. A survey of available evidence provides the basis for more conclusive guidance on how to improve the performance of small reservoirs in Africa."},{"index":3,"size":135,"text":"Objectives and methods -This paper synthesizes available literature on the benefits, performance and challenges of small reservoirs, and provides recommendations that can inform future investment. The study compiled and classified more than 80 documents concerning about 4,000 small reservoirs in Africa, according to a set of basic, descriptive and explanatory parameters. Basic parameters describe a reservoir's name, location and investment status. Descriptive parameters capture the impacts of a reservoir (what happened) and explanatory parameters capture the determinants of the impact (why it happened). In addition, the study included field-based research on the conditions around a set of 10 small reservoirs in southern Zambia, which enabled more nuanced analysis and discussion of key findings. Field-based data were collected through conducting interviews on a set of key parameters including benefits, costs, degree of functionality, institutions and maintenance."},{"index":4,"size":138,"text":"Results from document analysis -Results from the desktop study show a range of benefits derived from small reservoirs. These benefits include improved reliability of access to domestic water and expanded irrigation water supply, as well as increased livestock watering and greater entrepreneurial activities. Further, positive impacts realized include improved household food security, increased household income, reduced out-migration and the empowerment of women. Identified costs were relatively fewer than benefits. Costs were limited to conflicts in communities on water and land use, membership fees for users, and negative health impacts arising from water-related diseases. The performance of small reservoirs is generally rated as mixed to poor. Operational lifespans of less than 10 years, and high water loss rates in small reservoirs illustrate this poor performance. Reasons for the poor performance include weak institutions, sedimentation, poor siting and inadequate maintenance."},{"index":5,"size":120,"text":"Results from fieldwork -The case study based on fieldwork in southern Zambia confirmed both the benefits and challenges of small reservoirs that emerged from the document analysis. Further, fieldwork identified that the short-term planning horizon for investments in small reservoirs, often driven by emergency response, contributes to a rapid decline in the functionality of small reservoir infrastructure, the primary factor for such an outcome being sedimentation. However, the advocacyoriented nature of investments in small reservoirs may create a positive narrative that eclipses their generally poor performance. More significantly, fieldwork provided evidence that suggests that reinvesting in old infrastructure might be more cost-effective than building a new reservoir, particularly since the structural quality of new small dams seems to be declining."}]},{"head":"Introduction","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":142,"text":"Small reservoirs are critical to food security and resilience in Africa, providing essential services in rural areas. Erratic rainfall and associated variability in water resources availability are major constraints to improving food security and alleviating poverty in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). Small reservoirs are a primary mechanism to cope with this variability and have been recognized as being important for multiple water uses, rural livelihoods and economies in the Limpopo (Senzanje et al. 2008) and Volta (Namara et al. 2010;Acheampong et al. 2014;Katic et al. 2014) basins. Reflecting the demand for their benefits, there are more than 1,000 small reservoirs in each of the Limpopo and Volta basins (Kibret et al. In submission). The benefits of small reservoirs are recognized elsewhere in Africa, such as in Tunisia (Khlifi et al. 2010;Boufaroua et al. 2013) and Ethiopia (Lasage et al. 2015;Berhane et al. 2016)."},{"index":2,"size":166,"text":"Limited evidence suggests that investments in small reservoirs in Africa have met with mixed success. Some small reservoir projects have been determined to be successful (Khlifi et al. 2010;Boufaroua et al. 2013;Lasage et al. 2015). Khlifi et al. (2010) highlighted the increase in crop and livestock production due to small reservoir operations. Boufaroua et al. (2013) stated that land and water conservation in Tunisia was successfully achieved through the construction of small reservoirs. Lasage et al. (2015) described sand dams as reliable sources of safe drinking water in Ethiopia. However, other investments in small reservoirs have been described as unsuccessful (Sally 2002;Birner et al. 2010;Berhane et al. 2016). Sally (2002) highlighted how the lack of maintenance and unclear accountability contributes to poor reservoir performance. Birner et al. (2010) cited institutional factors, notably user groups, accountability and inadequate financing as reasons for lack of success. Berhane et al. (2016) found that the lack of operation and maintenance, siltation and poor management derail the success of small reservoirs."},{"index":3,"size":247,"text":"Support for small reservoirs continues. Despite questions on whether investments in small reservoirs are economically sustainable, provide substantial and equitable benefit to the poor in rural communities, and produce positive environmental impacts, public institutions and stakeholders continue to request support for investment in the creation or rehabilitation of reservoirs in SSA. This has resulted in numerous small reservoir programs in Africa in recent years. For example, Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ) supported a small reservoirs project in the Limpopo and Volta basins between 2004 and 2007 (http://www.smallreservoirs.org/ -accessed in 2017). Also, the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation supported an agricultural water management solutions project (AgWater Solutions Project) between 2009 and 2012 that included a focus on small reservoirs (Evans et al. 2012a(Evans et al. , 2012b(Evans et al. , 2012c)). Further, the African Development Bank (AfDB) supported the development of guidelines that govern and promote investments in multipurpose small dams in Zambia (AfDB 2012); the United States Agency for International Development (USAID) has supported the expansion of small water infrastructure to improve food security in Mali (USAID 2019). African governments, with assistance from international development agencies, have also made efforts to develop water infrastructure for community use. For example, the Government of Tigray Regional State, Ethiopia, invested in small reservoirs in 1995 to eradicate poverty (Gebregziabher et al. 2009); and the Government of Malawi also rolled out a program in the mid-1990s to revitalize colonial era small reservoirs in order to improve rural livelihoods (Nkhoma 2011)."},{"index":4,"size":170,"text":"There is a need for evidence that guides investments in small reservoirs. Some work has been done to generate guidance for future investments in small reservoirs. The Small Reservoirs Project (http://www.smallreservoirs.org/ -accessed on February 25, 2019) produced a toolkit outlining ways to achieve effective investments in small reservoirs. Sally et al. (2011) examined two case studies in Burkina Faso, and highlighted the need for more reliable data and awareness of power relationships to strengthen performance. Nkhoma (2011) examined small dams in Malawi and concluded that strengthening performance can be through better understanding of local contexts. Evans et al. (2012b) reviewed small reservoirs in Zambia and offered a set of governance and management suggestions for improving return on investment. Venot et al. (2012) reviewed small reservoir experiences in four countries and highlighted the need for more integrated approaches to their planning and management. Despite this important work, a comprehensive and up-to-date review of experience on investments in small reservoirs that is oriented toward the provision of implementation guidance is not available."},{"index":5,"size":41,"text":"Objectives of this paper -This paper seeks to synthesize research on the impact of small reservoirs to identify conditions and factors that enhance the sustainable benefits from investments in them. In particular, the paper seeks to respond to the following questions:"},{"index":6,"size":73,"text":"1. What financial and institutional factors determine the level of infrastructure sustainability (particularly economic)? 2. What biophysical factors are most important for environmental sustainability of small reservoirs? 3. What are the trade-offs of investments in small reservoirs under different conditions and contexts, e.g., in relation to health (e.g., malaria risks)? 4. What factors affect the infrastructure longevity of small reservoirs? 5. What is the potential for (re)investment in small reservoirs under various conditions?"},{"index":7,"size":64,"text":"To respond to these questions, the paper provides a review of literature on small reservoirs in Africa. The paper applies a framework to capture -or reveal the absence of information on -the critical development areas highlighted by the five questions above. Moreover, this paper seeks to contribute to the development of an approach that strengthens investments in small reservoirs in Africa to enhance sustainability."},{"index":8,"size":106,"text":"Complementing desktop work with a case study -The desktop review of literature on small reservoirs generated a number of insights about the benefits and challenges, complemented by a case study of investments in small reservoirs in the Southern Province of Zambia. The objective of the case study was to assess a sample of investments in small reservoirs according to the costs and benefits they produced, and to understand the factors that explain variations in performance. Particular focus was on two key knowledge gaps: (i) longevity of small reservoir infrastructure, and (ii) benefits of investing in new infrastructure versus reinvesting in the rehabilitation of old degraded infrastructure."}]},{"head":"Approach and Methods","index":4,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Defining Small Reservoirs","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":185,"text":"Small reservoirs have been variously defined using surface area, height of the dam wall, storage capacity and the availability of water (WCD 2000;van de Giesen et al. 2010;Evans et al. 2012aEvans et al. , 2012c;;Ayantunde et al. 2016;Balana et al. 2016). WCD (2000) described a small reservoir as being, at most, 100 hectares (ha) in surface area, with a storage capacity below 30 million cubic meters (Mm 3 ) behind a dam wall that is less than 15 meters (m) in height. Van de Giesen et al. (2010) defined a small reservoir using the same surface area and dam height. By contrast, Evans et al. (2012c) indicated that a small reservoir's dam is less than 7.5 m high, with a storage capacity of 1 Mm 3 and a maximum irrigation area of 50 ha. Balana et al. (2016) agreed with the storage capacity specified by Evans et al. (2012c), but proposed a maximum dam height of 15 m. Ayantunde et al. (2016) described dams with a wall height of less than 10 m as a small reservoir; storage capacity is not considered a defining factor."},{"index":2,"size":67,"text":"In this paper, we seek to foster inclusion of small reservoirs under various definitions, by adopting a relaxed standard that enables capture of information under the different interpretations elaborated above. The standard applied for this report is as follows: maximum dam height is 15 m, surface area is less than 100 ha, and reservoir storage capacity is less than 1 Mm 3 , with perennial water storage."}]},{"head":"Methods for Desktop Review","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":83,"text":"This review of investments in small reservoirs focused on Africa. Literature searches in the library of the International Water Management Institute (IWMI) and online searches provided information on location, water use, impacts, performance and institutional issues around small reservoirs. The literature searches used the following key words: small reservoirs, Africa, infrastructure, performance, investments, climate change, sustainability, institutions, health, environment, livelihoods, and gender. Overall, the literature search produced a list of 80 documents. Most of these documents included information on a set of reservoirs."},{"index":2,"size":58,"text":"The documents were classified into basic, descriptive and explanatory parameters (Table 1). Basic parameters include the type of source from which data were extracted, reservoir(s) name and location, and whether a reservoir (and/or associated program) was a new investment or reinvestment. 1 Descriptive parameters aim to capture \"what happened\" while explanatory parameters aim to capture \"why it happened.\""},{"index":3,"size":115,"text":"Descriptive parameters Descriptive parameters enable the capture of impacts that result from the creation or presence of small reservoirs. The social, economic and environmental changes in the local landscape resulting from a reservoir(s), categorized as impacts, may be positive or negative. Examples of positive impacts are improved incomes and food security, while an example of a negative impact is conflict among water users. Performance measures included different metrics, from crop productivity to income. To capture this spectrum of metrics, a parameter on performance benchmarks was considered. In performance, we assess the degree to which a reservoir satisfies project-identified performance indicators. Health refers to the water-related health impacts resulting from the creation of a small reservoir."},{"index":4,"size":186,"text":"Explanatory parameters Explanatory parameters attempt to capture the factors behind the evidenced impacts of reservoirs, which include financing, institutions, maintenance and suitability. Financing includes the funding sources, and structures of funding for the construction or rehabilitation of the reservoir. This may include a government contribution and donor contribution, or donor financing with a list of government obligations. Institutions refer to the community and national policy context of the management arrangements around the reservoir. Maintenance refers to measures in place to sustain the reservoir infrastructure. Suitability refers to the biophysical factors affecting the environmental sustainability of a reservoir. To identify factors not otherwise reflected that may be important to outcomes of reservoirs, we also sought to capture any mention of such factors that were noted as keys to success. Following the classification of documents based on the above framework, a review and presentation of information was undertaken on the following 14 points. For each point, except for the first three, a link to the five key questions, elaborated in the introduction, is shown in parentheses. Please note that effective performance is viewed as being important for sustainability."},{"index":5,"size":10,"text":"1. Geographic distribution of small reservoirs of focus in Africa."},{"index":6,"size":16,"text":"2. Temporal dimension of sources and identification of whether they focus on new investments or reinvestments."},{"index":7,"size":6,"text":"3. Focus of small reservoir documents."}]},{"head":"Number of documents focused on new investments versus reinvestments (potential for reinvestment).","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":18,"text":"5. Positive impacts or benefits of small reservoirs as well as frequency of reference to such benefits (trade-offs)."},{"index":2,"size":21,"text":"6. Costs or negative impacts of small reservoirs as well as frequency of reference to such costs or negative impacts (trade-offs)."},{"index":3,"size":20,"text":"7. Impacts on health that have been documented as well as frequency with which these impacts have been documented (trade-offs)."},{"index":4,"size":14,"text":"8. Factors identified to contribute to the longevity or sustainability of small reservoirs (longevity)."},{"index":5,"size":11,"text":"9. Benchmarks used to assess the performance of small reservoirs (trade-offs)."},{"index":6,"size":19,"text":"10. Assessment of the performance of small reservoirs, divided into assessments based on qualitative versus quantitative criteria (infrastructure sustainability)."},{"index":7,"size":14,"text":"11. Factors that render a site suitable for effective small reservoir performance (infrastructure sustainability)."},{"index":8,"size":16,"text":"12. Financing source and structure are used to support reservoir creation or rehabilitation (institutions and financing)."},{"index":9,"size":17,"text":"13. Types of institutions that have governed the operation and maintenance of small reservoirs (institutions and financing)."},{"index":10,"size":11,"text":"14. Factors identified as keys and barriers to success (reservoir longevity)."},{"index":11,"size":59,"text":"Attempts were made to address the following two questions in the context of each point: (i) What does the weight of evidence tell us? and (ii) What major gaps exist in the knowledge presented? The depth of data generally did not lend itself to the application of statistical analyses. Therefore, both analytical thrusts used qualitative and simple quantitative methods."}]},{"head":"Methods for the Case Study","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":84,"text":"Key organizations that are active in investments in small reservoirs in southern Africa were approached, and assistance was obtained from CARE International (Zambia) and the Department of Geography and Environmental Studies at the University of Zambia (UNZA). CARE International implemented a program to rehabilitate small reservoirs from 2006 to 2010. UNZA currently oversees a program aimed at creating a database of small reservoirs in Zambia, through a project conducted by the Southern African Science Service Centre for Climate Change and Adaptive Land Management (SASSCAL)."},{"index":2,"size":108,"text":"Data collection through interviews -Interviews conducted with key informants available at 10 reservoirs helped to gather data on the benefits and costs of the reservoir, reservoir longevity and performance trends, institutional arrangements, maintenance and conflicts. The questionnaire used for these interviews is given in the Annex. Basic information was also recorded, and this included coordinates, reservoir name, year of construction and, when relevant, year of rehabilitation, funding agency, and number of villages using the water in the reservoir. To the extent possible, we used data in UNZA's database to verify information obtained from water users. Direct observations assessed water quality -turbidity -and vegetation cover around the reservoir shoreline."},{"index":3,"size":79,"text":"Schedule -The site visits took place during the period September 27-29, 2017. Visits to the first four sites, all in the Monze District, took place on September 27, 2017. On September 28, 2017, another four sites were visited -two in Choma District and one each in Kalomo and Zimba districts. The remaining two sites, both in Kazungula District, were visited on September 29, 2017. At each site, interviews were conducted with at least two users of the small reservoir."},{"index":4,"size":31,"text":"Aims of data collection and examination -Qualitative methods were necessary as the depth of the data did not warrant statistical analysis. Key thrusts driving data collection and examination included the following:"},{"index":5,"size":6,"text":"• Benefits realized by water users."},{"index":6,"size":6,"text":"• Costs resulting from the reservoirs."},{"index":7,"size":14,"text":"• Duration of reservoir use, current level of functionality (i.e., siltation) and performance trends."},{"index":8,"size":10,"text":"• New versus rehabilitated reservoir and nature of any rehabilitation."},{"index":9,"size":11,"text":"• Institutional arrangements controlling access to the reservoir and encouraging maintenance."},{"index":10,"size":7,"text":"• Level of dependence on the reservoir."},{"index":11,"size":3,"text":"• Gender dynamics."},{"index":12,"size":73,"text":"Sites in Southern Province, Zambia -Reservoir sites were selected to include several new investments and reinvestments. Sites were identified with the assistance of CARE Zambia and UNZA. Ultimately, 10 sites were selected so that there was a balance between the reservoirs operated by CARE Zambia and those which were of interest to UNZA. Seven reservoirs stored water in approximately 9 months of the year (~January-September). Three reservoirs had water available all year round."}]},{"head":"Results","index":9,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Desktop Review","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":461,"text":"Geographic distribution of small reservoir literature -The bulk of analytical work on small reservoirs focuses within the Volta and Limpopo basins. More than one-third of the literature collected focuses on the southwestern part of Burkina Faso and the Upper East Region of Ghana, in the Volta Basin. The focus of over 15% of the literature was within the Limpopo Basin, mostly in the Mzingwane sub-catchment in southern Zimbabwe. Some notable work undertaken in the Tigray Region of Ethiopia constitutes 15% of the literature collected. Several studies have been conducted in Kenya, Mali, Tanzania, Tunisia and Zambia, and the literature covers individual studies from Botswana, Malawi, Morocco, Mozambique, South Africa and Uganda. About 5% of the literature focused broadly on the SSA region as a whole. Figure 1 provides an indication of the spatial distribution of the focus of literature on small reservoirs. 2 Chronology of literature on small reservoirs -The majority of the studies were published within the last 20 years. About 80% (i.e., 64 documents) of the literature collected is from 2001 to 2010, while only six documents are from the period 1991-2000 and only one document is from the period 1981-1990. Scholarship is mostly from academic papers, research reports and working papers. Papers from peer-reviewed journals make up over half (55%) of the literature collected. Research reports and working papers from research institutions make up just over 12% of the literature collected. Grey literature including project reports, conference papers, best practice manuals, graduate student theses, book chapters and policy briefs constitute about a third of the literature collected. Focus of the literature on small reservoirs -The primary focus of the more than 80 papers included in this review are characterized in 11 broad categories (Table 2). Sedimentation receives the most attention with 11 citations, followed by reservoir performance and productivity, and livelihood impacts and project evaluation, with 10 citations each. Irrigation, and institutions governing the operation of reservoirs, both receive eight citations each. Similarly, hydrological processes and best practice guidelines both receive seven citations each. Water use and information and communication technology (ICT) also receive five citations each, while health impacts receive the least focus with four citations. Approximately seven other documents placed central focus on other topics such as water quality, gender, conservation and climate change; grouped under the heading of 'Other'. New investment versus reinvestment -More than half of the sources do not mention whether a project is a new investment or reinvestment (Figure 2). Nonetheless, 41% of the literature specifies investment status, of which 26% of the projects are new investments and the remaining 15% are reinvestments. It is not clear whether such a distribution reflects realities on the ground of greater focus on new investment or whether the literature places greater focus on new investments."},{"index":2,"size":252,"text":"Project funding -Only 24 documents mention the source of project funds clearly. In the 24 cases, the government appears only twice as exclusive funder of a project. In the other 22 cases, donors funded the projects with the government playing some part (13 cases) or exclusively by donors (nine cases). Several international organizations are mentioned more than once -the International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD) (five times), AfDB (four times), and Action Aid and Red Cross (twice each). Other international bodies that received a single mention are the Danish International Development Agency (DANIDA), Finnish International Development Agency (FINNIDA), Plan International, USAID, the World Bank and World Vision, and the governments of China, Germany and France. Some local nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) that contribute to project funding include the Relief Society of Tigray (Ethiopia), Sahelian Solutions Foundation (Kenya) and SAIPRO (Tanzania). Descriptions of the exact structure of the funding are given in FIGURE 2. Investment status of projects. six documents that are project reports. In all six cases, donors provided the bulk of the funding (>80%), with the government providing the remainder. For example, governments provided 12% in the Small Dams Rehabilitation Programme, Burkina Faso (Tibaldeschi and Boulenger 2002), and 10% in the Bankable Investments' Small Dams Project in Mozambique (GoM 2004). It is not clear whether these government contributions were monetary or otherwise. In the two cases where the government exclusively funded projects (e.g., the Hill Lakes Project in Tunisia and the Mhakwe Dam Project in Zimbabwe), the project costs are not stated."},{"index":3,"size":152,"text":"Institutions -There is a prevalence of participatory institutions in the management of small reservoirs. While only 22 documents state the type of local institutions involved in the running of reservoir operations, 21 of the 22 documents disclose that elected user associations (e.g., water user associations, dam committees or local water committees) and farming groups (where the reservoirs are used for irrigation purposes) such as farmer cooperatives are in charge. Only in a single case is a reservoir governed exclusively by a traditional authority. Members of user associations pay user fees or water levies to contribute to the running of the reservoir administration, or some specified amount towards capital cost of the projects. For example, in Chimanimani, Zimbabwe, members pay ~USD 3 a month (Rusinga et al. 2011), and in Bahir Dar, Ethiopia, they pay ~USD 1-2 as a joining fee and ~USD 4-7 as a capital contribution fee (Eguavoen et al. 2012)."},{"index":4,"size":230,"text":"Benefits and positive impacts -Benefits or positive impacts of small reservoirs can be grouped into 15 categories (Table 3). The most notable are increased availability of irrigation water (25 citations), livestock watering (18 citations), domestic water supply and improved sanitation (16 citations), and entrepreneurial and local employment opportunities (16 citations). These direct benefits contributed to other positive impacts such as improved household income (16 citations) and improved food security (15 citations). Other significant benefits include ecosystem services (10 citations), local economic development and poverty alleviation (seven citations), and recreation and aesthetics (four citations). The empowerment of women, improved drought resilience and aquifer recharge are cited four times each, while reduced youth migration, improved farming systems and promotion of conservation activities all appear less significant.  The benefits of small reservoirs have contributed substantially to community and household welfare. The availability of irrigation water supply in Burkina Faso, for example, enabled families to acquire 50% of income from irrigation plots (Sally 2002). In Jendouba, Tunisia, household income rose by 55% due to improved farming systems and increased productivity from the use of irrigation water (Khlifi et al. 2010). Entrepreneurial activities such as brick-making also account for significant household income in Chivi, Zimbabwe (Burns and Suji 2007). Furthermore, the existence of small reservoirs has led to conservation measures such as contour farming, reforestation and strategies employed to mitigate siltation (Tibaldeschi and Boulenger 2002)."},{"index":5,"size":169,"text":"Negative impacts -There is relatively little reference to negative impacts of small reservoirs in the literature (Table 4). The most frequently referenced adverse impact is conflicts among users and between beneficiaries and non-beneficiaries of reservoir projects (seven citations). The second most frequently referenced negative impact is the membership fees of user associations (three citations). Finally, the reduction of downstream flow is cited only twice as a negative impact. Conflicts are common in small reservoir communities. Conflict between traditional authorities and user associations was reported in Chimanimani, Zimbabwe (Rusinga et al. 2011), while conflicts between reservoir beneficiaries and non-beneficiaries were also reported in the Upper East region, Ghana (IFAD 2005). Further, conflicts may develop among the water users, as seen in Comoé and Nakamba, Burkina Faso, where local power relations skewed access to water (Sally et al. 2011). Reduction of downstream flow from the damming of the river, a notable negative impact, is evidenced in Boroma, Ethiopia, where flow was reduced by as much as 19% (Lasage et al. 2015)."},{"index":6,"size":127,"text":"Health impacts -The health impacts of small reservoirs are both positive and negative. On the positive side, improvement in household nutrition (five citations) is the most notable, coupled with improved hygiene (two citations). Burns and Suji (2007) recorded improved nutrition in Chivi, Zimbabwe, for example, and both nutrition and hygiene improved considerably in several regions of Burkina Faso (Boelee et al. 2009a). On the negative side, the increased risk of waterborne disease (six citations) is the only impact reported. Diseases such as malaria and schistosomiasis are a real risk -both being cited four times each in literature. Incidences of malaria increased in settlements near reservoirs in Tigray, Ethiopia (Ghebreyesus et al. 1999), and the prevalence of schistosomiasis increases in the Upper East region of Ghana (IFAD 1998)."},{"index":7,"size":186,"text":"Performance benchmarks -Systematic assessment of reservoir performance is not extensive. Assessment of reservoir performance can be divided into eight parameters that can each be assessed by quantitative indicators. These parameters are water storage efficiency, physical condition of infrastructure, water supply/use, agricultural productivity, institutional effectiveness, socioeconomic development, economic returns and health impacts (Table 5). However, the population of the indicators in this study often relied on qualitative user perceptions and rapid appraisals on dam sites. Two indicators measure water storage efficiency. The most cited is the rate of sedimentation (nine citations), which determines the lifespan of a dam. The higher the sedimentation rate, the lower the performance of the reservoir. The second indicator is dam and system losses (five citations) resulting from seepage, leakage and evaporation. The second parameter -physical state of infrastructure -measures the degree to which a reservoir is functional. It is measured by the status/function of dam infrastructure (six citations), essentially whether or not a dam is operational. Water supply is measured by the water availability versus water requirements (three citations), which essentially measures the extent of a reservoir's capacity in meeting water demand."},{"index":8,"size":106,"text":"Since many reservoirs serve an irrigation purpose, considerable attention has been spent on measuring the productivity of agriculture as a determinant of reservoir performance. Five indicators were apparent. Water productivity (six citations) measures crop yields per volume of water used, while extent of irrigated area (three citations), as compared to the total command area, assesses land utilization. The number of irrigators (three citations) refers to the uptake of irrigated farming as an indicator of reservoir efficacy. Farm profitability (three citations) is measured using gross product value per hectare, net present value per hectare, irrigation service fee per hectare, or cost of operation and maintenance per hectare."},{"index":9,"size":149,"text":"Institutional effectiveness is measured by effectiveness of reservoir management (four citations), as seen by the fee collection rate and conflict resolution capacity, for example. Another measure is the equity of institutional arrangements, which is an assessment of the access of members to the authority that governs reservoir operations, whether it is a traditional authority or an elected user association (four citations). Socioeconomic assessments are largely qualitative measures where, using a baseline, the project achievements are evaluated after a certain period of reservoir operations. Such measures include the number of benefits realized (four citations), changes in nutrition/diet (three citations) and changes in the mean household income (three citations). One study (Katic et al. 2014) offered only economic assessments of performance, for which a cost-benefit analysis measured through the net present value and economic rate of return is most common. Health impacts, a measure of waterborne disease prevalence, were cited twice."},{"index":10,"size":190,"text":"Performance -Although the literature proposes multiple performance indicators, they are rarely applied to assess the performance of the projects they report on. Only about a quarter of the documents (i.e., 21 documents) reviewed attempts to measure performance. Of these 21 documents, just over half (11 documents) point to less-than-favorable performance due to lower-than-expected irrigation production and greater-than-expected levels of sedimentation; to a lesser extent, adverse health impacts and the poor condition of dam infrastructure were also noted to explain poor performance. Less than half of the studies (8 documents) report satisfactory to positive performance generally based on socioeconomic and livelihood impacts. Performance can indeed be meagre, as shown in the Mutangi case, where productive water use was only 3% of total storage volume, with over 90% of storage lost through evaporation and leakages (Mugabe et al. 2003). With respect to sedimentation, predictions suggest that some reservoirs will silt up before half their expected life span in northern Ethiopia (Tamene et al. 2006). In the Tigray region, dams with an envisioned lifespan of 30 years were set to run their cycle in just 4.4 to 5.7 years (Aynekulu et al. 2006)."},{"index":11,"size":63,"text":"It is not immediately clear that the investment status of the reservoirs directly influences performance (Table 6). Only five of the poorly performing reservoir programs have information on their investment status -three are reinvestments and two are new investments. Of the seven studies that state investment status and where performance was deemed satisfactory to high, four are new investments and three are reinvestments. "}]},{"head":"Factors affecting reservoir longevity: (a)","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":12,"text":"The role of sedimentation -Sedimentation constitutes a persistent problem in small reservoirs."},{"index":2,"size":250,"text":"Studies show that 50% of reservoirs studied in Ethiopia were on course to lose their economic life before even half of their design period (Haregeweyn et al. 2006). HR Wallingford (2004a) found out that 15% of small reservoirs in Zimbabwe and Tanzania, whose life was expected to be 20 years, were going to be silted in about half that time. The global average of annual storage loss due to siltation is 0.5 to 1% of total reservoir storage capacity, but it seems African reservoirs are silting up considerably faster than average. Major reasons given for this massive sedimentation include land use practices (cultivation and grazing), insufficient flow, excessive seepage, poor surface cover and slope relief (Tamene et al. 2006;Mufute et al. 2008). Tumbare (2013) argued that a storage ratio (net storage capacity to annual average inflow) of 10% is required to minimize the rate of sedimentation. (b) Suitability of a dam site -Less than a quarter of the literature (i.e., 14 documents) reference the suitability of a reservoir site, and these bring forth four factors that determine the location of a small reservoir. The most cited (seven citations) is the catchment size, which determines the runoff yield the reservoir will achieve. Caution is advised on building a small reservoir in a large catchment or vice versa. The slope and character of landscape, as determinants of erosion, reservoir depth and dam size, are cited three times. The rock and soil types (three citations each) determine the seepage and reservoir foundation stability."},{"index":3,"size":213,"text":"(c) The significance of a dam's design -Only four elements of dam design emerge more than once in the literature (Table 7). The most cited is spillway material (four citations), which should be concrete in order to avoid erosion, especially in sand dams. Surface area (two citations) determines the rate of evaporation. A wide and shallow reservoir loses more water to evaporation compared to a deep and narrow reservoir. Other factors that can be incorporated in the design is the mitigation of disease risk (two citations), which can be accomplished through infiltration galleries (for guinea worm), and the provision for environmental flows by creating a bottom outlet on the dam. (d) The role of maintenance -While the literature emphasizes the critical role of maintenance in prolonging reservoir lifespan, rarely do documents elaborate beyond simply mentioning maintenance as best practice. Only three documents refer to the importance of letting the water users collectively organize reservoir maintenance. The bigger challenge has been the levying and collection of sufficient user fees to fund maintenance (Lasage et al. 2008;Katic et al. 2014). Worth noting, however, is the recommendation from IFAD (2005) that routine maintenance can be delegated to water users but major maintenance should be the responsibility of the local government that can secure the required expertise."},{"index":4,"size":243,"text":"Keys to success -Predictably, the most common key to successful reservoir performance is strong institutions (Table 8). Responsive institutions, the water management rules and regulations around a reservoir, received 12 citations, followed by catchment protection and siltation management (9 citations). Capacity building and coordination received six citations each. The importance of information for technical decision making (five citations) is the same as the recognition of multiple water uses. Participation of stakeholders in planning and assessment has been cited as important, as well as accurate siting and carrying out feasibility studies before investments, all with four citations each. Less significant are efficient water use, with three citations, and simple design, health education, cost-benefit analysis and effective planning are all cited only twice each.  Examples highlighting the importance of institutions and coordination are abundant. In Upper East Ghana, the satisfactory performance of reservoirs was attributed to the recognition of local institutional realities and the acceptance of multiple water uses by the community (Acheampong et al. 2014). In Kenya, effective community organization led to the positive impacts that were realized by water users (Lasage et al. 2008). The importance of effective coordination is substantiated by Nkhoma (2011), who found that a lack of political interest in promoting small reservoirs, coupled with very weak actor coordination, contributed to the very poor performance of small reservoirs in Malawi. It was also identified that feasibility studies and stronger coordination could have improved performance in Zambia (Evans et al. 2012c)."}]},{"head":"Case Study","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":87,"text":"Examining a sample of small reservoir case studies -Performance of 10 reservoirs in the Southern Province of Zambia (Figure 3) were examined. Overall, while the reservoirs played a consistently critical role in sustaining rural communities, their performance was generally not strong (Table 9). This finding crosscuts reservoirs constructed in different years -new and rehabilitated reservoirs. Poor performance was typically due to severe siltation, which compromised storage capacity and therefore the ability to derive benefits from the reservoirs. Only two of the 10 reservoirs appeared unaffected by siltation."},{"index":2,"size":79,"text":"Benefits of reservoirs -Water in reservoirs is mainly used for livestock watering. This is the case for all the reservoirs (Figure 4). While agriculture is practiced, priority is generally given to livestock. Year-round cultivation is reported in only six reservoirs -Bodela, Mboole and Mulabalaba. Brick-making is a notable income-generating venture, practiced in six reservoirs. The potential to use reservoirs for fish production was typically constrained by the reality that most reservoirs are dry for approximately 3 months each year."},{"index":3,"size":226,"text":"Negative impacts of reservoirs -There appeared to be limited adverse effects to the community from the reservoirs. No major waterborne diseases have been recorded, while malaria cases were mentioned only around two reservoirs. Nonetheless, the turbidity of water in the heavily silted dams appeared to increase rates of diarrhea and other diseases in cattle, which constrains their development.  Reservoir longevity -Six reservoirs are more than 50 years old. Of these, two have not been rehabilitated but retain some level of functionality. Seven of the ten reservoirs have been rehabilitated at some stage. Although factors beyond the status of the initial structure may drive an organization to undertake a rehabilitation, it would appear that dams built earlier survive longer than those built more recently (Table 10). Dams built in the 1960s or before endured 28 to 61 years until rehabilitation. Dams built in the 1990s or after lasted 5 to 19 years until rehabilitation. Diminishing returns -Eight of the ten reservoirs produced diminishing returns due to lost storage capacity resulting from siltation. It is only at Mboole (constructed in 2002) and Mulabalaba (renovated recently) that villagers failed to mention siltation as a problem. On the other hand, Chuuka, Milangu and Nteme have lost over half their storage capacity due to siltation. In addition, at other reservoirs, such as Chifusa and Makoye, inadequate water storage has suspended agriculture."},{"index":4,"size":183,"text":"What exactly is rehabilitation? -The nature of rehabilitation varied across sites but was often a relatively minor, several-month activity (Table 11). It mainly involved repairing of spillways, raising embankments, and planting grass around the reservoir. This typically involves manual labor, sponsored by NGOs or government programs, where members of the community receive food and a small allowance for each day of work. Only in one case was there some desilting using heavy machinery. Costs of rehabilitation could not be immediately verified. Given the similar benefits realized from rehabilitation and existing reservoirs compared to the higher construction costs of new reservoirs, it would appear that rehabilitation brings greater return on investment. Who finances investments in small reservoirs? -Financing for investments in reservoirs, especially in new sites, generally comes from the government (Figure 5). The government built eight of the ten reservoirs. In one case, the community constructed the reservoir, and an NGO financed another. However, NGOs are more involved in rehabilitation than new construction. In three cases, the government rehabilitated the reservoirs for which they provided funding. In four cases, an NGO financed rehabilitation."},{"index":5,"size":8,"text":"FIGURE 5. Sources of financing for small reservoirs."},{"index":6,"size":54,"text":"Number of villages using reservoirs -Demand varied considerably across reservoirs. Some reservoirs serve only two villages while others serve as many as 27. Reservoirs used by a greater number of villages appear to be used mainly for livestock watering. Reservoirs used for multiple purposes, including agriculture, were often used by 10 villages or less."},{"index":7,"size":94,"text":"Institutional arrangements appear weak -Dam committees, usually established during construction or rehabilitation, often appear to lose momentum following completion of the investment project. Only three reservoirs possess active committees, and all these had both livestock and significant irrigation water use. As such, dam maintenance and enforcement of rules -mainly on prioritization of water use, reservoir bank access, dispute resolution and membership contributions -are generally poor. In nine of the ten sites, traditional authorities enforce rules, but enforcement is largely limited to dispute resolution. Only in one site was the committee able to organize maintenance."},{"index":8,"size":47,"text":"Vegetation to reduce siltation -Reservoir conservation mostly consists of planting grass around the reservoir perimeter. This is common in rehabilitated sites, where five reservoirs have grass planted around them. Older sites do not. An NGO provided the grass. The type of grass could not be conclusively determined."},{"index":9,"size":42,"text":"Gender issues did not emerge -Key informants -which included women and men -did not identify gender imbalances, and suggested access to land and water, and ownership of cows, were not constrained by an individual's gender. Dam committees include both men and women. "}]},{"head":"Government","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":2,"text":"NGOs Community"}]},{"head":"Number of sites","index":14,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Construc�on Rehabilita�on","index":15,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Discussion","index":16,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Headline Findings","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":88,"text":"This paper reviewed over 80 documents concerning more than 4,000 small reservoirs in East, Southern and West Africa, and this was complemented with visits to 10 sites in southern Zambia. It synthesizes past experience and provides guidance for an approach to strengthen future investments in small reservoirs. Despite the availability of wide-ranging literature focused on small reservoirs in Africa, a stock-take of available evidence was not available. The findings from the evidence on investments in small reservoirs presented in this paper are among the most conclusive in existence."},{"index":2,"size":99,"text":"The study produced five major findings. First, small reservoirs produce a range of benefits that exceed the costs, providing considerable value to rural communities. Second, the performance of small reservoirs -measured through economic analysis, reservoir longevity or other means -is generally not spectacular. Third, the primary factor explaining the decrease in reservoir viability over time is sedimentation. Sedimentation is the result of a host of factors, of which institutions is prominent. Fourth, generally, rehabilitation of existing reservoirs may be a better investment than the construction of new dams. Fifth, the quality of construction of small reservoirs may be declining."},{"index":3,"size":111,"text":"Small reservoirs produce a range of benefits -Benefits of small reservoirs include, inter alia: domestic water supply, irrigation water supply, livestock watering and support to varied entrepreneurial activities. These benefits contribute to a set of broader outcomes, including household food security, income generation and drought resilience in the short term, and local economic development, reduced out-migration and the economic empowerment of women in the long term. Negative impacts are limited to the occasional increase in disease, sporadic conflict between water users and labor requirement for manual repair of infrastructure. Ultimately, it appears that small reservoirs hold potential for achieving transformational benefits in rural communities with relatively limited risk of adverse impacts."},{"index":4,"size":83,"text":"Small reservoirs may not reflect good investments using conventional measures -Performance of small reservoirs is variable to low when measured against economic and water resource indicators or longevity. Water productivity and relative water supply in small reservoirs are generally low, storage water losses (evaporation and seepage) are generally high, and the state of infrastructure is often poor. Central to poor performance of small reservoirs are: (i) sedimentation that reduces the life span of the dams, and (ii) weak institutions that govern reservoir maintenance."},{"index":5,"size":101,"text":"Reconciling evidence of extensive benefits with poor performance -Valid questions can be raised in relation to how narratives of extensive benefits can be squared with evidence of low levels of performance. It may be that the evidence of benefits documented -which seem consistent with the value often attached to reservoirs by communities -comes mainly from the advocacy and NGO community. Whereas critical scrutiny of performance may be driven by another set of actors, notably the academic community. Whatever the case, the bottom line is that poor performance of small reservoirs is common and small reservoirs often fail to provide sustained benefits."},{"index":6,"size":129,"text":"The role of sedimentation and the need for a shift toward a long-term approach to achieve sustainability -Sedimentation remains the central determinant of reservoir longevity, yet the institutions governing reservoirs at a local (e.g., committees) or regional (e.g., government program) level may not recognize the importance of sediment control. 'Responsive institutions' were cited as being key to the sustainability of small reservoirs. Nevertheless, the strength and viability of user associations tend to be variable to weak; and traditional authorities, where accountability is not entirely clear, often remain in control. To manage small reservoirs and control siltation effectively, local institutions may need to implement proactive measures to reduce sediment flows. Regional institutions should monitor water and sediment flows to enable the provision of guidance and support to reduce such flows."},{"index":7,"size":157,"text":"Rehabilitation is a better investment -Evidence from southern Zambia suggests that it may be more beneficial to reinvest in existing small reservoir infrastructure than to build new infrastructure. Rehabilitated sites are likely to achieve greater return on investment due to their production of similar benefits at lower costs. While the nature of rehabilitation no doubt varies, the time and resources required appeared far less than that needed for the construction of new dams. Further, rehabilitation may be more demand-responsive. Indeed, while it is not entirely clear whether existing reservoirs have gradually created demand for their use or whether construction of the existing reservoirs responded to preexisting community demand that lacked a water supply, what seems clear is that older sites have demand that is often not fully satisfied. Rehabilitation to augment water availability at existing sites, therefore, often enables harnessing of potential benefits. Conversely, new sites may lack such immediate demand, resulting in potential not immediately utilized."}]},{"head":"Additional Considerations","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":162,"text":"There may be danger of a build-neglect-rebuild cycle: NGOs and governments may lack incentives for construction that lasts long term -While rehabilitation achieves more benefits at a lower cost thereby comprising a stronger investment, such dynamic may also present a perverse incentive for both the government and NGOs to construct dams that do not last. Rehabilitation indeed offers an opportunity to produce and document high short-term benefits for low short-term costs, which will reflect well in impact assessment reports conducted in the aftermath of project completion. However, any incentive to construct infrastructure that lasts long term would not appear to exist, as there is rarely long-term monitoring and reporting by investors. There may even be an incentive to construct dams that do not last long term since degraded sites may present opportunities to rehabilitate, which reflect good investments. Contractual processes around bidding and implementing small reservoir projects are lucrative, and incentives may not always reside where they should (Venot et al. 2012)."},{"index":2,"size":135,"text":"Benefits of a systems approach: Dams used for agriculture and other uses appear better maintained -A final note, generated only from the field portion of the research, is that reservoirs mainly used for livestock watering do not attract the same maintenance levels as those that support both livestock watering and agriculture. Part of the explanation for this may relate to the reality that reservoirs used solely for livestock are generally polluted with cow dung and not particularly pleasant. Another part may relate to the reality that agriculture brings people closer to the reservoir perimeter, provides a filter that may reduce siltation, and fosters development of agricultural cooperatives that contribute to a sense of community ownership. Therefore, a systems approach that integrates livestock and irrigation may harness the potential for better-maintained, multi-purpose reservoirs that last longer."}]},{"head":"Conclusions","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":130,"text":"Small reservoirs are a critical coping mechanism in water-stressed rural areas in Africa, providing immense livelihood benefits that include improved food and water security, entrepreneurial activities and climate resilience. Challenges associated with the implementation of investments in small reservoirs include appropriate site selection, weak institutions, insufficient maintenance and sedimentation. The findings from this study suggest that the benefits of small reservoirs may be tapped more efficiently by rehabilitating old sites rather than building new infrastructure. However, the findings also point to broader lessons on the need to change the way of doing business, i.e., to adopt a long-term, more holistic approach (or model) to the construction and maintenance of small reservoirs that matches the degree of the challenge associated with sustainably tapping the benefits of the water that they store."},{"index":2,"size":82,"text":"Returning to the questions posed in the description of objectives, some points have emerged as less important than predicted (Table 12). Key trade-offs between positive and negative impacts, for example, did not come through as a major issue. Rather, the major issue is sustaining positive impacts generated. Doing so, in turn, may require strong, motivated and capacitated local institutions reinforced by national programs. Further, it may require a longer-term perspective to development than is typically implemented. TABLE 12. Key questions and responses."}]},{"head":"Questions Responses","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":37,"text":"What financial and institutional factors Source of finance does not appear to have a direct effect on determine the level of infrastructure sustainability. Indirectly, NGO-financed infrastructure focused on sustainability (particularly economic)? rehabilitation nonetheless correlates with reduced sustainability."},{"index":2,"size":21,"text":"What biophysical factors are most important Upstream watershed management to reduce sedimentation is key. for the environmental sustainability of small reservoirs?"},{"index":3,"size":48,"text":"What are the trade-offs of investments in small Negative impacts did not come through strongly. Trade-offs may reservoirs under different conditions and be viewed as minimal. The larger issue is fostering effective contexts, e.g., in relation to health management and governance to promote infrastructure longevity. (i.e., malaria risks)?"},{"index":4,"size":99,"text":"What factors affect the infrastructure longevity Community ownership, and strong local institutions based on of small reservoirs? participation and reinforced by national programs What is the potential for (re)investment in Potential for reinvestment should be high. However, there may small reservoirs under various conditions? be a perverse incentive encouraging the creation of reinvestment opportunities through poor quality construction. As such, adopting a longer-term view to development and management, while ultimately better, may reduce reinvestment opportunities. The potential for new investments is nonetheless high as long as long-term time horizons are realized through prolonged (e.g., > 20 years) reservoir functionality."},{"index":5,"size":87,"text":"Three final points: First, it may be time to adapt the design of advocacy-based, disaster-responsive investments in small reservoirs, by drawing more evidence-and practice-based approaches to investments in small reservoirs. This may provide for greater sustainability of benefits. Activities for sedimentation management and institutional development, in particular, could incorporate a focus on sustainability from the outset. Further, acknowledging the challenges associated with achieving sustainability in both these areas could foster appreciation for the importance attached to sustainability; including quantification of benefits forgone through failing to achieve sustainability."},{"index":6,"size":115,"text":"Second, related to the long-term approach needed for investments in sustainable small reservoirs will require institutions that facilitate sustainability by managing and maintaining infrastructure. Commitment to such sustainability could be reflected in the formulation of specific arrangements for dam management and maintenance by institutions both at a local and regional level-as well as plans for how institutions at alternate levels may interact in a mutually reinforcing way to foster sustainability. The bottom line is that it may be time to move beyond general box-ticking on implementation of soft activities (e.g., capacity development) expected to foster sustainability to the creation of institutional arrangements, matched to the local context, to ensure benefits of small reservoirs are sustained."},{"index":7,"size":128,"text":"Third, critical to the success of a long-term approach to investments in small reservoirs is regular monitoring of reservoirs after investment. Effective monitoring that gathers and uses relevant information for reservoir management, assesses institutional effectiveness (e.g., frequency of meetings and level of payment of levies), and measures storage capacity (e.g., sedimentation rate) can greatly enhance the potential for sustained realization of benefits. Important indicators for long-term monitoring include water storage efficiency, physical state of infrastructure, institutional effectiveness and health impacts. In the resource-constrained contexts that pervade Africa, application of an effective monitoring framework can allow management institutions to target their maintenance efforts to those sites most in need. Monitoring is, therefore, critical and should be undertaken in conjunction with bodies responsible for management and maintenance of small reservoirs."},{"index":8,"size":135,"text":"The limitations of this paper are acknowledged. First, this paper is a synthesis or stock-take of available evidence on small reservoirs in Africa. It is not a rigorous cost-benefit analysis of the performance of small reservoirs in Africa, as the data derived from the secondary sources utilized do not support a rigorous economic analysis. However, the data does allow for the identification of broad trends and determination of relative weights of evidence. Second, the representativeness of small reservoirs in southern Zambia could not be conclusively determined. The authors assume that the sample of small reservoirs examined broadly reflects conditions in much of Africa, and findings derived from such reservoirs help to explain the broader, Africa-level results. Definitive confirmation of the consistency of such sites with those found throughout the rest of Africa was not possible."},{"index":9,"size":75,"text":"Ultimately, small reservoirs provide essential benefits that can be more sustainably realized. A disproportionate focus on short-term impacts -as seems to be the norm -undoubtedly results in lost benefits in the long term. It is critical to foster a shift in perspective toward the long term, in order to harness the full benefits of small reservoirs and enable their performance to transition from currently evidenced levels to a level that renders more attractive investment opportunities."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"FIGURE 1 . FIGURE 1. Geographic focus of the small reservoir literature. "},{"text":"FIGURE 3 . FIGURE 3. Map showing the location of reservoirs. "},{"text":"FIGURE FIGURE 4. Benefits of reservoirs. "},{"text":"TABLE 1 . Classification framework for the list of documents produced by the literature search. Category Parameter Explanation CategoryParameterExplanation Basic Document citation Self-explanatory BasicDocument citationSelf-explanatory  Type of source Journal, research report, policy paper Type of sourceJournal, research report, policy paper  Reservoir location Country, basin and coordinates Reservoir locationCountry, basin and coordinates  Reservoir name(s) Self-explanatory Reservoir name(s)Self-explanatory  Year of completion Self-explanatory Year of completionSelf-explanatory  New investment or Self-explanatory New investment orSelf-explanatory  reinvestment?  reinvestment? Descriptive Positive impacts and benefits Positive outcomes the reservoir contributes to DescriptivePositive impacts and benefitsPositive outcomes the reservoir contributes to  Negative impacts Negative effects of the reservoir on the local Negative impactsNegative effects of the reservoir on the local   community community  Performance benchmarks Criteria or measures against which reservoir Performance benchmarksCriteria or measures against which reservoir   performance is assessed performance is assessed  Performance Evaluation of each reservoir's performance: PerformanceEvaluation of each reservoir's performance:   Good, average, poor (stratification also Good, average, poor (stratification also   conducted to reveal verdicts is based on conducted to reveal verdicts is based on   qualitative versus quantitative assessment) qualitative versus quantitative assessment)  Health Disease risk and impact associated with the reservoir HealthDisease risk and impact associated with the reservoir Explanatory Financing Source and structure of reservoir funding ExplanatoryFinancingSource and structure of reservoir funding  Institutions Community and national regulations used to InstitutionsCommunity and national regulations used to   operate reservoir operate reservoir  Maintenance Arrangements in place to maintain reservoir MaintenanceArrangements in place to maintain reservoir   infrastructure infrastructure  Suitability Biophysical location of reservoir SuitabilityBiophysical location of reservoir  Keys to success Factors identified as critical to reservoir success Keys to successFactors identified as critical to reservoir success  "},{"text":"TABLE 2 . Broad focus areas of the literature collected. Broader focus # Sources Sources Broader focus# SourcesSources Sedimentation 11 Sichingabula 1997; Aynekulu et al. 2006; Haregeweyn et al. 2006; Sedimentation11Sichingabula 1997; Aynekulu et al. 2006; Haregeweyn et al. 2006;   Tamene et al. 2006; Adwubi et al. 2009; Hentati et al. 2010; Ndomba Tamene et al. 2006; Adwubi et al. 2009; Hentati et al. 2010; Ndomba   2011; Chihombori et al. 2013; Tumbare 2013; Schmengler and Vlek 2011; Chihombori et al. 2013; Tumbare 2013; Schmengler and Vlek   2015; Alahiane et al. 2016 2015; Alahiane et al. 2016 Reservoir performance 10 Abernethy 1994; Faulkner et al. 2008; Mdemu et al. 2009; Mufute et Reservoir performance10Abernethy 1994; Faulkner et al. 2008; Mdemu et al. 2009; Mufute et and productivity  al. 2008; Senzanje et al. 2008; Khlifi et al. 2010; Venot et al. 2012; and productivityal. 2008; Senzanje et al. 2008; Khlifi et al. 2010; Venot et al. 2012;   Teka et al. 2013; Acheampong et al. 2014; Katic et al. 2014 Teka et al. 2013; Acheampong et al. 2014; Katic et al. 2014 Livelihood impacts and 10 IFAD 1998, 2005; Tibaldeschi and Boulenger 2002; GoM 2004; Livelihood impacts and10IFAD 1998, 2005; Tibaldeschi and Boulenger 2002; GoM 2004; project evaluation  Sawunyama et al. 2005; Burns and Suji 2007; Lasage et al. 2008; project evaluationSawunyama et al. 2005; Burns and Suji 2007; Lasage et al. 2008;   Venot and Hirvonen 2013; Nkhoma 2011; Gwazani et al. 2012 Venot and Hirvonen 2013; Nkhoma 2011; Gwazani et al. 2012 Irrigation 8 Stephens 1984; Mugabe et al. 2003; Makurira et al. 2007; Wisser et Irrigation8Stephens 1984; Mugabe et al. 2003; Makurira et al. 2007; Wisser et   al. 2010; Eguavoen et al. 2012; Evans et al. 2012a, 2012b, 2012c al. 2010; Eguavoen et al. 2012; Evans et al. 2012a, 2012b, 2012c Institutions governing the 8 Sullivan et al. 2009; Birner et al. 2010; Rusinga et al. 2011; Sally et Institutions governing the8Sullivan et al. 2009; Birner et al. 2010; Rusinga et al. 2011; Sally et operation of reservoirs  al. 2011; Venot et al. 2011; Venot and Krishnan 2011; Otto and Venot operation of reservoirsal. 2011; Venot et al. 2011; Venot and Krishnan 2011; Otto and Venot   2012; Venot 2014 2012; Venot 2014 Hydrological processes 7 Meigh 1995; van de Giesen et al. 2005; Basima et al. 2006; Hydrological processes7Meigh 1995; van de Giesen et al. 2005; Basima et al. 2006;   Leemhuis et al. 2009; Mantel et al. 2010; Berhane et al. 2013; Leemhuis et al. 2009; Mantel et al. 2010; Berhane et al. 2013;   Lasage et al. 2015 Lasage et al. 2015 Best practice guidelines 7 Fowler 1989; HR Wallingford 2004a, 2004b; Nissen-Petersen 2006; Best practice guidelines7Fowler 1989; HR Wallingford 2004a, 2004b; Nissen-Petersen 2006; for design and operation  Stephens 2010; AfDB 2012; Andreini et al. 2005 for design and operationStephens 2010; AfDB 2012; Andreini et al. 2005 Water use 5 Rusere 2005; Senzanje et al. 2008; Balana 2015; Fowe et al. 2015; Water use5Rusere 2005; Senzanje et al. 2008; Balana 2015; Fowe et al. 2015;   Ayantunde et al. 2016 Ayantunde et al. 2016 Use of ICT in 5 Liebe et al. 2005; Sawunyama et al. 2006; Annor et al. 2009; Use of ICT in5Liebe et al. 2005; Sawunyama et al. 2006; Annor et al. 2009; reservoir management  Mulengera et al. 2012; Munamati et al. 2007 reservoir managementMulengera et al. 2012; Munamati et al. 2007 Health impacts 4 Tayeh 1998; Ghebreyesus et al. 1999; Ersado 2005; Boelee et al. Health impacts4Tayeh 1998; Ghebreyesus et al. 1999; Ersado 2005; Boelee et al.   2009a 2009a Other (e.g., water quality, 7 van de Giesen et al. 2010; Mbinji 2010; Namara et al. 2010; Other (e.g., water quality,7van de Giesen et al. 2010; Mbinji 2010; Namara et al. 2010; gender, climate change)  Boufaroua et al. 2013; Balana et al. 2016; Berhane et al. 2016; gender, climate change)Boufaroua et al. 2013; Balana et al. 2016; Berhane et al. 2016;   Liebe et al. 2007 Liebe et al. 2007  "},{"text":"TABLE 3 . Benefits or positive impacts of small reservoirs. Benefit or # References Sources Benefit or# ReferencesSources positive impact   positive impact Irrigation water supply 25 Meigh 1995; IFAD 1998, 2005; Tayeh 1998; GoM 2004; Rusere Irrigation water supply25Meigh 1995; IFAD 1998, 2005; Tayeh 1998; GoM 2004; Rusere   2005; Burns and Suji 2007; Faulkner et al. 2008; Mdemu et al. 2009; 2005; Burns and Suji 2007; Faulkner et al. 2008; Mdemu et al. 2009;   Lasage et al. 2008; van de Giesen et al. 2010; Namara et al. 2010; Lasage et al. 2008; van de Giesen et al. 2010; Namara et al. 2010;   Rusinga et al. 2011; Evans et al. 2012a, 2012c; Eguavoen et al. 2012; Rusinga et al. 2011; Evans et al. 2012a, 2012c; Eguavoen et al. 2012;   Gwazani et al. 2012; Venot et al. 2012; Katic et al. 2014; Venot Gwazani et al. 2012; Venot et al. 2012; Katic et al. 2014; Venot   2014; Schmengler and Vlek 2015; Ayantunde et al. 2016; Balana et 2014; Schmengler and Vlek 2015; Ayantunde et al. 2016; Balana et   al. 2016; Berhane et al. 2016; Liebe et al. 2005 al. 2016; Berhane et al. 2016; Liebe et al. 2005 Livestock watering 18 Meigh 1995; Tayeh 1998; GoM 2004; Rusere 2005; Sawunyama et Livestock watering18Meigh 1995; Tayeh 1998; GoM 2004; Rusere 2005; Sawunyama et   al. 2005; Burns and Suji 2007; Mdemu et al. 2009; Senzanje et al. al. 2005; Burns and Suji 2007; Mdemu et al. 2009; Senzanje et al.   2008; Khlifi et al. 2010; Eguavoen et al. 2012; Evans et al. 2012a, 2008; Khlifi et al. 2010; Eguavoen et al. 2012; Evans et al. 2012a,   2012c; Venot et al. 2012; Venot 2014; Schmengler and Vlek 2015; 2012c; Venot et al. 2012; Venot 2014; Schmengler and Vlek 2015;   Ayantunde et al. 2016; Berhane et al. 2016 Ayantunde et al. 2016; Berhane et al. 2016 Domestic water supply 16 Tayeh 1998; GoM 2004; Rusere 2005; Sawunyama et al. 2005; Domestic water supply16Tayeh 1998; GoM 2004; Rusere 2005; Sawunyama et al. 2005; and improved sanitation  Burns and Suji 2007; Lasage et al. 2008; Senzanje et al. 2008; and improved sanitationBurns and Suji 2007; Lasage et al. 2008; Senzanje et al. 2008;   Boelee et al. 2009a; Evans et al. 2012a, 2012c; Venot et al. 2012; Boelee et al. 2009a; Evans et al. 2012a, 2012c; Venot et al. 2012;   Lasage et al. 2015; Venot 2014; Schmengler and Vlek 2015; Lasage et al. 2015; Venot 2014; Schmengler and Vlek 2015;   Ayantunde et al. 2016; Balana et al. 2016 Ayantunde et al. 2016; Balana et al. 2016 Entrepreneurial and local 16 IFAD 1998, 2005; Rusere 2005; Basima et al. 2006; Burns and Suji Entrepreneurial and local16IFAD 1998, 2005; Rusere 2005; Basima et al. 2006; Burns and Suji employment opportunities  20072016; employment opportunities20072016;   Liebe et al. 2007 Liebe et al. 2007 Improved food security 15 GoM 2004; IFAD 2005; Ersado 2005; Sawunyama et al. 2005; Burns Improved food security15GoM 2004; IFAD 2005; Ersado 2005; Sawunyama et al. 2005; Burns   and Suji 2007; Makurira et al. 2007; Lasage et al. 2008; Annor et al. and Suji 2007; Makurira et al. 2007; Lasage et al. 2008; Annor et al.   2009; Boelee et al. 2009a; Mbinji 2010; Wisser et al. 2010; 2009; Boelee et al. 2009a; Mbinji 2010; Wisser et al. 2010;   Egua voen et al. 2012; Boufaroua et al. 2013; Katic et al. 2014; Liebe Egua voen et al. 2012; Boufaroua et al. 2013; Katic et al. 2014; Liebe   et al. 2007 et al. 2007 Ecosystem services: 10 IFAD 2005; Rusere 2005; Burns and Suji 2007; Mdemu et al. 2009; Ecosystem services:10IFAD 2005; Rusere 2005; Burns and Suji 2007; Mdemu et al. 2009; fishing, aquaculture,  Senzanje et al. 2008; Annor et al. 2009; Rusinga et al. 2011; Evans et fishing, aquaculture,Senzanje et al. 2008; Annor et al. 2009; Rusinga et al. 2011; Evans et reed harvest  al. 2012c; Venot 2014; Ayantunde et al. 2016; Balana et al. 2016 reed harvestal. 2012c; Venot 2014; Ayantunde et al. 2016; Balana et al. 2016 Local economic 7 GoM 2004; Burns and Suji 2007; AfDB 2012; Eguavoen et al. 2012; Local economic7GoM 2004; Burns and Suji 2007; AfDB 2012; Eguavoen et al. 2012; development and  Venot et al. 2012; Boufaroua et al. 2013; Balana et al. 2016 development andVenot et al. 2012; Boufaroua et al. 2013; Balana et al. 2016 poverty alleviation   poverty alleviation Recreation and aesthetics 4 Senzanje et al. 2008; Venot et al. 2012; Boufaroua et al. 2013; Venot Recreation and aesthetics4Senzanje et al. 2008; Venot et al. 2012; Boufaroua et al. 2013; Venot   2014 2014 Empowerment of women 4 Tibaldeschi and Boulenger 2002; Venot et al. 2012; Eguavoen et al. Empowerment of women4Tibaldeschi and Boulenger 2002; Venot et al. 2012; Eguavoen et al.   2012; Venot 2014 2012; Venot 2014 Enhanced drought resilience 4 Liebe et al. 2005; Venot and Hirvonen 2013; Venot et al. 2012; Enhanced drought resilience4Liebe et al. 2005; Venot and Hirvonen 2013; Venot et al. 2012;   Lasage et al. 2015 Lasage et al. 2015 Aquifer recharge 4 Sawunyama et al. 2005; Boelee et al. 2009a; Boufaroua et al. 2013; Aquifer recharge4Sawunyama et al. 2005; Boelee et al. 2009a; Boufaroua et al. 2013;   Berhane et al. 2016 Berhane et al. 2016 Reduced youth migration 3 IFAD 2005; Boelee et al. 2009a; Venot 2014 Reduced youth migration3IFAD 2005; Boelee et al. 2009a; Venot 2014 Improved farming systems 3 IFAD 2005; Ersado 2005; Katic et al. 2014; Berhane et al. 2016 Improved farming systems3IFAD 2005; Ersado 2005; Katic et al. 2014; Berhane et al. 2016 Promotion of conservation 3 Tibaldeschi and Boulenger 2002; Venot et al. 2012; Boufaroua et al. Promotion of conservation3Tibaldeschi and Boulenger 2002; Venot et al. 2012; Boufaroua et al. activities  2013 activities2013  "},{"text":"TABLE 4 . Negative impacts of small reservoirs. Negative impacts # References Sources Negative impacts# ReferencesSources Water and land  7 IFAD 2005; Burns and Suji 2007; van de Giesen et al. 2010; Venot Water and land7IFAD 2005; Burns and Suji 2007; van de Giesen et al. 2010; Venot use conflicts   and Hirvonen 2013; Rusinga et al. 2011; Sally et al. 2011; Eguavoen use conflictsand Hirvonen 2013; Rusinga et al. 2011; Sally et al. 2011; Eguavoen    et al. 2012; Venot et al. 2012 et al. 2012; Venot et al. 2012 Membership fees of  3 Faulkner et al. 2008; Rusinga et al. 2011; Eguavoen et al. 2012 Membership fees of3Faulkner et al. 2008; Rusinga et al. 2011; Eguavoen et al. 2012 user associations   user associations Reduction of downstream flow 2 Lasage et al. 2008, 2015 Reduction of downstream flow2Lasage et al. 2008, 2015  "},{"text":"TABLE 5 . Performance benchmarks. Parameter Performance indicators # References Sources ParameterPerformance indicators # ReferencesSources Water storage Rate of sedimentation 9 Sichingabula 1997; Tamene et al. 2006; Adwubi Water storageRate of sedimentation9Sichingabula 1997; Tamene et al. 2006; Adwubi efficiency   et al. 2009; Hentati et al. 2010; Ndomba 2011; efficiencyet al. 2009; Hentati et al. 2010; Ndomba 2011;    Chihombori et al. 2013; Schmengler and Vlek Chihombori et al. 2013; Schmengler and Vlek    2015; Alahiane et al. 2016; Aynekulu et al. 2006 2015; Alahiane et al. 2016; Aynekulu et al. 2006  Dam and system losses 5 Mugabe et al. 2003; HR Wallingford 2004a; Dam and system losses5Mugabe et al. 2003; HR Wallingford 2004a;    Makurira et al. 2007; Lasage et al. 2015; Teka et al. Makurira et al. 2007; Lasage et al. 2015; Teka et al.    2013 2013 Physical state of Status/function of dam 6 Mufute et al. 2008; Mbinji 2010; Evans et al. Physical state ofStatus/function of dam6Mufute et al. 2008; Mbinji 2010; Evans et al. infrastructure infrastructure  2012c; Venot et al. 2012; Acheampong et al. 2014; infrastructureinfrastructure2012c; Venot et al. 2012; Acheampong et al. 2014;    Venot 2014 Venot 2014 Water supply/use Water availability versus 3 Makurira et al. 2007; Teka et al. 2013; Boelee et al. Water supply/useWater availability versus3Makurira et al. 2007; Teka et al. 2013; Boelee et al.  water requirements  2009b water requirements2009b Agricultural Water productivity 6 Abernethy 1994; Faulkner et al. 2008; Mdemu et al. AgriculturalWater productivity6Abernethy 1994; Faulkner et al. 2008; Mdemu et al. productivity   2009; Senzanje et al. 2008; Venot et al. 2012; Venot productivity2009; Senzanje et al. 2008; Venot et al. 2012; Venot    2014 2014  Extent of irrigated area 3 IFAD 2005; Venot et al. 2012; Venot 2014 Extent of irrigated area3IFAD 2005; Venot et al. 2012; Venot 2014  Number of irrigators 3 IFAD 2005; Venot et al. 2012; Venot 2014 Number of irrigators3IFAD 2005; Venot et al. 2012; Venot 2014  Farm profitability 3 Abernethy 1994; Faulkner et al. 2008; Boelee et al. Farm profitability3Abernethy 1994; Faulkner et al. 2008; Boelee et al.    2009b 2009b Institutional Effectiveness of reservoir 4 IFAD 2005; Senzanje et al. 2008; Evans et al. InstitutionalEffectiveness of reservoir4IFAD 2005; Senzanje et al. 2008; Evans et al. effectiveness management  2012c; Acheampong et al. 2014; effectivenessmanagement2012c; Acheampong et al. 2014;  Equity of institutional 4 IFAD 2005; Evans et al. 2012c; Acheampong et al. Equity of institutional4IFAD 2005; Evans et al. 2012c; Acheampong et al.  arrangements  2014; Boelee et al. 2009b arrangements2014; Boelee et al. 2009b  Equitable access to resource 3 Mbinji 2010; Venot et al. 2012; Acheampong et al. Equitable access to resource 3Mbinji 2010; Venot et al. 2012; Acheampong et al.    2014 2014 Socioeconomic Number of benefits realized 4 IFAD 2005; Mbinji 2010; Evans et al. 2012c; Venot SocioeconomicNumber of benefits realized 4IFAD 2005; Mbinji 2010; Evans et al. 2012c; Venot development   et al. 2012 developmentet al. 2012  Nutrition/diet 3 IFAD 2005; Lasage et al. 2008; Boelee et al. 2009b Nutrition/diet3IFAD 2005; Lasage et al. 2008; Boelee et al. 2009b  Mean household income 3 Abernethy 1994; IFAD 2005; Boelee et al. 2009b Mean household income3Abernethy 1994; IFAD 2005; Boelee et al. 2009b Economic returns Cost-benefit analysis: net 3 Abernethy 1994; Evans et al. 2012a; Katic et al. Economic returnsCost-benefit analysis: net3Abernethy 1994; Evans et al. 2012a; Katic et al.  present value and economic  2014 present value and economic2014  rate of return   rate of return Health impacts Disease prevalence 2 Abernethy 1994; Boelee et al. 2009b Health impactsDisease prevalence2Abernethy 1994; Boelee et al. 2009b  "},{"text":"TABLE 6 . Performance stratified by investment status.  Documents that assess New investment Reinvestment Documents that assessNew investmentReinvestment  performance and indicate  performance and indicate  investment status  investment status Satisfactory-to-high 7 -IFAD 1998, 2005; Lasage et al.  Satisfactory-to-high7 -IFAD 1998, 2005; Lasage et al.  "},{"text":"TABLE 7 . Design factors. Factor Explanation # References Sources FactorExplanation# ReferencesSources Spillway material Stones or concrete to avoid erosion 4 Stephens 1984; Fowler 1989; Spillway materialStones or concrete to avoid erosion4Stephens 1984; Fowler 1989;    HR Wallingford 2004a; HR Wallingford 2004a;    Birner et al. 2010 Birner et al. 2010 Surface area Deep and narrow is better than wide 2 Teka et al. 2013; Surface areaDeep and narrow is better than wide2Teka et al. 2013;  and shallow  Fowler 1989 and shallowFowler 1989 Mitigation of Provision to mitigate possible adverse 2 Tayeh 1998; Lasage et al. Mitigation ofProvision to mitigate possible adverse2Tayeh 1998; Lasage et al. disease risk health impacts  2008 disease riskhealth impacts2008 Environmental flows Provide outlet for ecological flow 2 Stephens 2010; Tumbare Environmental flows Provide outlet for ecological flow2Stephens 2010; Tumbare    2013 2013  "},{"text":"TABLE 8 . Keys to the success of a reservoir. Factor Explanation # References Sources FactorExplanation# ReferencesSources Responsive Acceptance of multiple institutions and 12 Faulkner et al. 2008; Birner ResponsiveAcceptance of multiple institutions and12Faulkner et al. 2008; Birner institutions recognition of local informal institutions  et al. 2010; Namara et al. institutionsrecognition of local informal institutionset al. 2010; Namara et al.    2010; Gwazani et al. 2012; 2010; Gwazani et al. 2012;    Otto and Venot 2012; Sally et Otto and Venot 2012; Sally et    al. 2011; Evans et al. 2012a, al. 2011; Evans et al. 2012a,    2012b, 2012c; Venot et al. 2012b, 2012c; Venot et al.    2012; Acheampong et al. 2012; Acheampong et al.    2014; Sullivan et al. 2009 2014; Sullivan et al. 2009 Catchment Strategies to limit sedimentation, e.g., 9 Fowler 1989; Sichingabula CatchmentStrategies to limit sedimentation, e.g.,9Fowler 1989; Sichingabula protection and build in-stream thresholds, bottom  1997; Haregeweyn et al. protection andbuild in-stream thresholds, bottom1997; Haregeweyn et al. siltation outlets and sediment by-pass  2006; Adwubi et al. 2009; siltationoutlets and sediment by-pass2006; Adwubi et al. 2009; management reforestation, erosion control, grazing  Hentati et al. 2010; Mbinji managementreforestation, erosion control, grazingHentati et al. 2010; Mbinji  control  2010; Evans et al. 2012b; control2010; Evans et al. 2012b;    Chihombori et al. 2013; Chihombori et al. 2013;    Alahiane et al. 2016 Alahiane et al. 2016 Capacity building Train and empower water user 6 IFAD 2005; Mufute et al. Capacity buildingTrain and empower water user6IFAD 2005; Mufute et al.  associations, and also government  2008; Birner et al. 2010; Sally associations, and also government2008; Birner et al. 2010; Sally  officers  et al. 2011; Evans et al. officerset al. 2011; Evans et al.    2012a, 2012c 2012a, 2012c Coordination Strong organization of stakeholders 6 Ghebreyesus et al. 1999; CoordinationStrong organization of stakeholders6Ghebreyesus et al. 1999;  and clarity of roles  Lasage et al. 2008; Mufute et and clarity of rolesLasage et al. 2008; Mufute et    al. 2008; Birner et al. 2010; al. 2008; Birner et al. 2010;    Evans et al. 2012c; Sullivan Evans et al. 2012c; Sullivan    et al. 2009 et al. 2009 Information Storage and use of technical 5 HR Wallingford 2004a; Liebe InformationStorage and use of technical5HR Wallingford 2004a; Liebe  information for monitoring  et al. 2005; Haregeweyn et al. information for monitoringet al. 2005; Haregeweyn et al.    2006; Sawunyama et al. 2006; 2006; Sawunyama et al. 2006;    Andreini et al. 2009 Andreini et al. 2009 Recognition of In the design of dams and crafting 5 Otto and Venot 2012; Evans Recognition ofIn the design of dams and crafting5Otto and Venot 2012; Evans multiple water uses of institutions  et al. 2012b; Venot et al. multiple water usesof institutionset al. 2012b; Venot et al.    2012; Acheampong et al. 2012; Acheampong et al.    2014; Ayantunde et al. 2016 2014; Ayantunde et al. 2016 Participation of Avoid externally driven assessment 4 Venot and Hirvonen 2013; Participation ofAvoid externally driven assessment4Venot and Hirvonen 2013; stakeholders or top-down planning  Venot et al. 2012; Ayantunde stakeholdersor top-down planningVenot et al. 2012; Ayantunde    et al. 2016; Boelee et al. et al. 2016; Boelee et al.    2009b 2009b Siting Relief (of slope), aridity of area, 4 Mantel et al. 2010; Evans et SitingRelief (of slope), aridity of area,4Mantel et al. 2010; Evans et  etc., must inform choice of site  al. 2012a; Boufaroua et al. etc., must inform choice of siteal. 2012a; Boufaroua et al.    2013; Tumbare 2013 2013; Tumbare 2013    (Continued) (Continued)  "},{"text":"TABLE 8 . Keys to the success of a reservoir.(Continued)     Factor Explanation # References Sources FactorExplanation# ReferencesSources Feasibility studies To include water requirements, health 4 Sichingabula 1997; HR Feasibility studiesTo include water requirements, health4Sichingabula 1997; HR  risks, and positive and negative impacts  Wallingford 2004b; Evans et risks, and positive and negative impactsWallingford 2004b; Evans et    al. 2012a, 2012c al. 2012a, 2012c Efficient water use For irrigation and other water uses 3 Makurira et al. 2007; Mbinji Efficient water useFor irrigation and other water uses3Makurira et al. 2007; Mbinji    2010; Liebe et al. 2005 2010; Liebe et al. 2005 Simple design That is easily accessible and caters for 2 Nissen-Petersen 2006; Lasage Simple designThat is easily accessible and caters for2Nissen-Petersen 2006; Lasage  multiple uses  et al. 2008 multiple useset al. 2008 Health education To minimize health impacts 2 Tayeh 1998; Boelee et al. Health educationTo minimize health impacts2Tayeh 1998; Boelee et al.    2009a 2009a Cost-benefit analysis Carried out before investing 2 Ersado 2005; Evans et al. Cost-benefit analysis Carried out before investing2Ersado 2005; Evans et al.    2012a 2012a Effective Planning Should follow adaptive learning 2 Nkhoma 2011; Evans et al. Effective PlanningShould follow adaptive learning2Nkhoma 2011; Evans et al.  and be demand driven  2012b and be demand driven2012b  "},{"text":"TABLE 10 . Longevity of \"old\" versus \"new\" dams.  Dam Construction Rehabilitation Years between construction and DamConstructionRehabilitationYears between construction and   year year rehabilitation yearyearrehabilitation \"Old\" dams Keemba 1964 1992 (minor) 28 \"Old\" damsKeemba19641992 (minor)28  Makoye 1940 1984 and 1988 44 Makoye19401984 and 198844  Bodela / Siyafakwenda 1960s 2000, 2015, 2017 ~35 Bodela / Siyafakwenda1960s2000, 2015, 2017~35  Chifusa 1948 2009 61 Chifusa1948200961 \"New\" dams Chuundwe 1999 2011 12 \"New\" damsChuundwe1999201112  Milangu 1990 2009 19 Milangu1990200919  Mulabalaba 2004 2009 5 Mulabalaba200420095  "},{"text":"TABLE 11 . Reservoir rehabilitation. Dam Description of rehabilitation Time involved in rehabilitation DamDescription of rehabilitationTime involved in rehabilitation Keemba Repair of spillway 1 month KeembaRepair of spillway1 month Bodela Repair of embankment and spillway, planting grass 2 months BodelaRepair of embankment and spillway, planting grass2 months Chifusa Repair of spillway, raising of embankment, planting grass 2 months ChifusaRepair of spillway, raising of embankment, planting grass2 months Chuundwe Raising of spillway, planting grass 3 months ChuundweRaising of spillway, planting grass3 months Makoye Dredging, repair of spillway, planting grass 6 months MakoyeDredging, repair of spillway, planting grass6 months Milangu Repair of embankment, planting grass 1 year MilanguRepair of embankment, planting grass1 year Mulabalaba Raising of embankment, repair of spillway 2 years MulabalabaRaising of embankment, repair of spillway2 years  "}],"sieverID":"53da50b3-0cab-4ddd-9bec-19f21ec16056","abstract":"Key messages -The results point to five key messages. First, small reservoirs produce a range of benefits that provide practical value to rural communities. Second, the performance of small reservoirs -measured through economic analysis, reservoir longevity or other means -is generally not spectacular. Third, the primary factor explaining the temporal decrease in reservoir lifespan is sedimentation -explained by a host of factors, including institutions. Fourth, rehabilitation appears to be a better investment than new dam construction. Fifth, the quality of small dam infrastructure may be declining.Conclusions -Ultimately, findings from this study suggest that rehabilitating existing reservoirs may be more efficient than building new infrastructure to gain the benefits of small reservoirs. At the same time, findings also point to broader lessons on the need to change the approach to small reservoir development and management. In other words, to consider adopting a long-term, more holistic approach (or model) to the construction and maintenance of small reservoirs that match the challenges associated with sustainably tapping the benefits of the water that they store. The following three points are worth mentioning in this regard:• It is time to adapt the design of advocacy-based, disaster-responsive investments in small reservoirs, by drawing more evidence-based, practically informed approaches. In practice, this may mean insistence on the achievement of certain benchmarks by local institutions, such as provision for the collection and management of recurring costs of controlling sedimentation.• The long-term approach needed for investments in sustainable small reservoirs will require formal institutions, presumably national small reservoir programs, to ensure sustainability by managing and maintaining infrastructure.• Regular monitoring of reservoirs after investment is critical to the success of a long-term approach to investments in small reservoirs."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"070a20d55c60041fabe29b2983809a9d","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/30b38ffc-d671-48b7-ad0f-57f7a2bab883/retrieve"},"pageCount":6,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":86,"text":"De Belgische ontwikkelingssamenwerking richt zich op het verwezenlijken van de Millennium Ontwikkelingsdoelstellingen (Millennium Development Goals -MDG's), met de nadruk op het bevorderen van gelijkheid tussen mannen en vrouwen en het vinden van duurzame oplossingen voor de bestrijding van wijdverspreide ziektes zoals HIV/AIDS en malaria. Door zijn steun aan landbouwonderzoek wenst België in het bijzonder bij te dragen tot het Drie criteria werden aangewend om deze prioriteiten te identificeren: de verwachte uitwerking; de mate waarin het onderzoek internationale publieke goederen oplevert en het bestaan van alternatieve bevoorradingsbronnen."},{"index":2,"size":51,"text":"Vijf prioriteitsgebieden werden onderkend: duurzame biodiversiteit; via genetische verbeteringen meer en beter voedsel aan lagere kostprijzen produceren landelijke armoede verlagen via landbouwdiversificatie en opkomende mogelijkheden voor het bekomen van hoogwaardige goederen en producten; de armoede verlichten en duurzaam beheer van water, grond en bosland bevorderen; beleidslijnen verbeteren en institutionele vernieuwing bevorderen."},{"index":3,"size":20,"text":"De prioriteiten zullen jaarlijks worden herzien en men is thans op verkenning voor mechanismen die een geschikte financiering kunnen verzekeren.  "}]}],"figures":[{"text":" d o rr e tr o p e n g e b ie d e n G e n e ti s c h e h u lp b ro n n e n B e h e e r n a tu u rl ij k e h u lp b ro n n e n Agrarische diversificatie G en et is ch e ve rb et er in g B io d iv e r s it e it in s t a n d h o u d id s n o r m e n / I n s t e ll in g e n "},{"text":" stoelen op de hervormingsinspanningen van de vorige jaren die de volgende centrale doelstellingen hadden: "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":" België vervoegde de Adviesgroep Internationaal Landbouwonderzoek (Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research -CGIAR) in 1971. Als een van de stichtende leden en een leidende investeerder onderhoudt België een sterk partnerschap met de CGIAR. Het land draagt bij tot het werk van de groep door middel van belangrijke financiële, wetenschappelijke en technische middelen en bepaalt mede haar beleidslijnen en oriëntatie. verhogen van voedselveiligheid en de verbetering van de coördinatie van -internationaal instituut voor doorheen het systeem te verwezenlijken en verhogen van voedselveiligheid ende verbetering van de coördinatie van-internationaal instituut voor doorheen het systeem te verwezenlijken en het verminderen van armoede via Europese beleidslijnen ter rijstonderzoek) werken samen met dus tot een efficiënter en meer doelgericht het verminderen van armoede viaEuropese beleidslijnen terrijstonderzoek) werken samen met dus tot een efficiënter en meer doelgericht partnerschappen, opbouw van ondersteuning van landbouwonderzoek onderzoekscentra over de wereld gebruik van de door België en andere partnerschappen, opbouw vanondersteuning van landbouwonderzoekonderzoekscentra over de wereld gebruik van de door België en andere capaciteiten en steunverlening aan ten behoeve van ontwikkeling en om op rijst gesteunde hooglan-investeerders ver-leende steun te komen. capaciteiten en steunverlening aanten behoeve van ontwikkeling enom op rijst gesteunde hooglan-investeerders ver-leende steun te komen. beleidslijnen die duurzame neemt hiertoe deel aan vergaderingen dlandbouwsystemen te valoriseren. beleidslijnen die duurzameneemt hiertoe deel aan vergaderingendlandbouwsystemen te valoriseren. ontwikkeling nastreven. Deze van de beheerraad van de CGIAR. Prioriteiten voor systeemonderzoek: ontwikkeling nastreven. Dezevan de beheerraad van de CGIAR.Prioriteiten voor systeemonderzoek: prioriteiten liggen volledig in lijn   In December 2005 hebben de prioriteiten liggen volledig in lijnIn December 2005 hebben de met deze van de CGIAR die nauw   CGIAR-leden op hun jaarlijkse algemene met deze van de CGIAR die nauwCGIAR-leden op hun jaarlijkse algemene samenwerkt met de Belgische   vergadering nieuwe prioriteiten voor samenwerkt met de Belgischevergadering nieuwe prioriteiten voor Directie-Generaal voor Internationale   systeemonderzoek voor de CGIAR voor de Directie-Generaal voor Internationalesysteemonderzoek voor de CGIAR voor de Samenwerking (DGIS). In deze   periode 2005 -2015 goedgekeurd. Deze Samenwerking (DGIS). In dezeperiode 2005 -2015 goedgekeurd. Deze samenwerking wordt bijzondere   prioriteiten waren voorheen via uitgebreide samenwerking wordt bijzondereprioriteiten waren voorheen via uitgebreide aandacht besteed aan het onderzoek Hieronder volgen enkele belangrijke consultatie ontwikkeld. aandacht besteed aan het onderzoekHieronder volgen enkele belangrijkeconsultatie ontwikkeld. in Subsahara-Afrika. initiatieven van de centra die mede in Subsahara-Afrika.initiatieven van de centra die mede  door de Belgische steun mogelijk door de Belgische steun mogelijk De door de CGIAR ondersteunde werden gemaakt: De door de CGIAR ondersteundewerden gemaakt: internationale centra werken samen n In het begin der tachtiger jaren was internationale centra werken samennIn het begin der tachtiger jaren was met leidende Belgische universiteiten,  België een belangrijke partner in de met leidende Belgische universiteiten,België een belangrijke partner in de gespecialiseerde onderzoeksinstituten  oprichting van het INIBAP gespecialiseerde onderzoeksinstitutenoprichting van het INIBAP en ontwikkelingsorganisaties. In 2005  (International Network for the n en ontwikkelingsorganisaties. In 2005(International Network for then zetelden vier Belgen in de trusteeraden  Improvement of Banana and zetelden vier Belgen in de trusteeradenImprovement of Banana and van eenzelfde aantal centra. België  Plantain -internationaal netwerk van eenzelfde aantal centra. BelgiëPlantain -internationaal netwerk steunt tevens actief het uitzenden van  ter verbetering van bananenteelt) en steunt tevens actief het uitzenden vanter verbetering van bananenteelt) en wetenschappers en jonge Congo (DRC). Het verschaft meer dan  het land blijft 20 procent van dan een miljoen meter stengelstekken wetenschappers en jonge Congo (DRC). Het verschaft meer danhet land blijft 20 procent van dan een miljoen meter stengelstekken professionelen naar de centra. 65 procent van de voedselenergie voor  het budget van het netwerk voor van teeltsoorten die weerstand tegen professionelen naar de centra. 65 procent van de voedselenergie voorhet budget van het netwerk voor van teeltsoorten die weerstand tegen 70 procent van de bevolking. Sinds het  zijn rekening nemen. Het land ACMV vertoonden werden ter beschik- 70 procent van de bevolking. Sinds hetzijn rekening nemen. Het land ACMV vertoonden werden ter beschik- Een derde van de Belgische begin van de negentiger jaren is de jaar-  onder-steunt meer bepaald het king van internationale organisaties Een derde van de Belgische begin van de negentiger jaren is de jaar-onder-steunt meer bepaald het king van internationale organisaties financiële steun komt in de vorm van lijkse maniokproductie in de DRC  onderhoud van de internationale gesteld om ze op grote schaal te ver- financiële steun komt in de vorm van lijkse maniokproductie in de DRConderhoud van de internationale gesteld om ze op grote schaal te ver- rechtstreekse financiering. Dit is vitaal gedaald van ongeveer 20 miljoen ton  collectie van Musa kiemplasma die menigvuldigen en naar de landbouwers rechtstreekse financiering. Dit is vitaal gedaald van ongeveer 20 miljoen toncollectie van Musa kiemplasma die menigvuldigen en naar de landbouwers om de strategische focus van het tot minder dan 15 miljoen ton in het  werd opgebouwd in het INIBAP toe te verdelen. om de strategische focus van het tot minder dan 15 miljoen ton in hetwerd opgebouwd in het INIBAP toe te verdelen. gezamenlijk onderzoek van de centra jaar 2000, hoofdzakelijk tengevolge van  Transit Centre (ITC) dat zich in de gezamenlijk onderzoek van de centra jaar 2000, hoofdzakelijk tengevolge vanTransit Centre (ITC) dat zich in de te kunnen handhaven en het duidt op het Afrikaanse maniokmozaiekvi-rus  Katholieke Universiteit Leuven bevindt. te kunnen handhaven en het duidt op het Afrikaanse maniokmozaiekvi-rusKatholieke Universiteit Leuven bevindt. een sterk Belgisch engagement in onze (African Cassava Mosaic Virus -  Met meer dan 1100 geregistreerde een sterk Belgisch engagement in onze (African Cassava Mosaic Virus -Met meer dan 1100 geregistreerde partnerschap. ACMV). Om deze bedreiging te helpen  speciën, waaronder zowel wilde partnerschap. ACMV). Om deze bedreiging te helpenspeciën, waaronder zowel wilde indijken introduceerde het Internationaal  speciën als locale en verbeterde indijken introduceerde het Internationaalspeciën als locale en verbeterde België is een actief lid van het Europese Instituut voor Tropische Landbouw  variëteiten, is het ITC het tehuis voor België is een actief lid van het Europese Instituut voor Tropische Landbouwvariëteiten, is het ITC het tehuis voor Initiatief voor Landbouwkundig (Internatio-nal Institute of Tropical de grootste bananencollectie ter De CGIAR is een strategisch verbond van Initiatief voor Landbouwkundig (Internatio-nal Institute of Tropicalde grootste bananencollectie ter De CGIAR is een strategisch verbond van Onderzoek ten behoeve van Agriculture -IITA) gedurende het jaar wereld en het verspreidt gemiddeld 4 landen, internationale en regionale Onderzoek ten behoeve van Agriculture -IITA) gedurende het jaarwereld en het verspreidt gemiddeld 4 landen, internationale en regionale Ontwikkeling (European Initiative for 2000 twee honderd elitegenotypen van regi-straties per dag naar organisaties en privéstichtingen die 15 Ontwikkeling (European Initiative for 2000 twee honderd elitegenotypen vanregi-straties per dag naar organisaties en privéstichtingen die 15 Agricultural Research for Development maniok in de vorm van weefselcultuur. onderzoekers en landbouwers internationale landbouwonderzoekscentra Agricultural Research for Development maniok in de vorm van weefselcultuur.onderzoekers en landbouwers internationale landbouwonderzoekscentra -EIARD) dat de 25 lidstaten van de Deze materialen werden geëvalueerd in doorheen de wereld. ondersteunen en wetenschap ten voordele -EIARD) dat de 25 lidstaten van de Deze materialen werden geëvalueerd indoorheen de wereld. ondersteunen en wetenschap ten voordele Europese Unie alsmede de Europese testen in experimentele centra en Wetenschappers van de Katholieke van de armen mobiliseert. Het verbond n Europese Unie alsmede de Europese testen in experimentele centra enWetenschappers van de Katholieke van de armen mobiliseert. Het verbond n Commissie en Zwitserland en beproefd in landbouwbedrijven in negen Universiteit Leuven en het IRRI werkt op diverse wijzen om, zoals n Commissie en Zwitserland en beproefd in landbouwbedrijven in negenUniversiteit Leuven en het IRRI werkt op diverse wijzen om, zoalsn Noorwegen omvat. EIARD werkt aan van de elf provincies van het land. Meer (International Rice Research Institute hieronder samengevat, grotere coherentie Noorwegen omvat. EIARD werkt aan van de elf provincies van het land. Meer(International Rice Research Institute hieronder samengevat, grotere coherentie  "}],"sieverID":"fc51d4e0-0d0b-4ab9-8798-d384e1e761f4","abstract":"Ve rs te vi gi ng va n de in st el lin ge n P e u lv ru c h te n Wo rte ls en kn oll en V oe d se lb el ei d A g ro b o s b o u w & B o s b o u w L e v e n d e a q u a ti s c h e h u lp b r o n n e n Tarwe Vee en weiland en Droge zones Beheer natuurlijke hulpbronnen R ij s t M a ïs"}

data/part_1/0715d26828d147fc7545580eaa865e6f.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0715d26828d147fc7545580eaa865e6f","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/32090049-3399-4740-b5f9-04cc9fa2adb6/retrieve"},"pageCount":8,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Organising to market animals and milk","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":22,"text":"To market animals or milk successfully, pastoralists need certain skills -and they need to get organised! This Practical Guide tells you how."}]},{"head":"Advantages of groups","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":3,"text":"As a group…"},{"index":2,"size":167,"text":"• You can sell in bulk. You have enough milk to fill a can or enough animals to fill a pick-up or lorry. That saves your time and the trader's time. Traders normally pay more if they do not have to waste time looking for animals to buy. • You can negotiate higher prices. You can approach two or more buyers and sell to the one who gives you the best price. • You can specialise. One person can deliver the animals; another takes care of negotiations; another does the paperwork. • You can process the product. For example, together the group may have enough milk to make and sell butter and cheese. That brings in more money than milk. • You can learn from one another. Group members can share ideas and experiences. • You can get services from the government or other organisations. For example, a group can ask a government extension worker for advice. It can approach a bank and ask for a loan."}]},{"head":"Belonging to a group has many advantages","index":3,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Types of groups","index":4,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Milk-collection groups","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":15,"text":"These collect milk from their members and sell it to consumers, collection centres or dairies."}]},{"head":"Livestock marketing groups","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":5,"text":"These market their animals collectively."}]},{"head":"Processing groups","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":35,"text":"These add value to the raw product. For example, small-scale tanneries turn hides into leather. Dairies turn milk into butter and other products. Processed products are more valuable and less perishable than the raw items."}]},{"head":"Savings and credit groups","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":11,"text":"These groups save money and lend it to members in turn."}]},{"head":"Cooperatives","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":14,"text":"Cooperatives are formal organisations that enable their members to collaborate on marketing and processing."},{"index":2,"size":24,"text":"Members of savings and credit groups save a small amount of money each week. When they need cash, they can borrow from the group."}]},{"head":"How to organise?","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":6,"text":"Begin with those who are interested"},{"index":2,"size":33,"text":"Find other people who are interested in working together, for example to sell their animals or milk as a group. They should live close together and have about the same number of animals."}]},{"head":"Decide what you want to do","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":21,"text":"Agree with the group members what they want to do. For example, maybe you all want to sell goats each month."}]},{"head":"Find out about the market","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":22,"text":"Find out the prices, potential buyers and the type of product they want. See the next page for how to do this."}]},{"head":"Decide on the rules","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":58,"text":"• In a savings group, how much money should each member save? How often should you meet? Who can borrow money? How much interest must they pay? • In a marketing group, how much milk or how many animals should each member supply? Who will negotiate with buyers? Who will manage the deliveries? Who will handle the money?"}]},{"head":"Elect leaders","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":6,"text":"A group will need at least:"},{"index":2,"size":24,"text":"• A chairperson to call the meetings and lead them • A secretary to keep records • A treasurer to look after the money."},{"index":3,"size":16,"text":"The group may also need other leaders, such as a marketing coordinator or a transport manager."}]},{"head":"Get advice","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":26,"text":"Find out where you can get the information and skills you need. Possibilities include government extension workers, development organisations, traders and people in other successful groups."},{"index":2,"size":12,"text":"Begin with those who are interested in improving their production and marketing."}]},{"head":"Do some market research","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":21,"text":"Interested in selling to an abattoir or dairy? Organise a visit for your group to find out what their requirements are."},{"index":2,"size":33,"text":"Want to sell to traders in town? Get some contacts, then arrange to meet them. Find out what you can about each buyer's needs and decide where you will get the best deal."}]},{"head":"Things to ask","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":10,"text":"When you meet a potential buyer, ask about these things:"}]},{"head":"For live animals","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":5,"text":"What does the buyer want?"},{"index":2,"size":16,"text":"• What types of animal (cattle, goats, sheep, camels)? • How many animals at a time?"},{"index":3,"size":15,"text":"• What age and weight? What quality? • How often does the buyer want deliveries?"}]},{"head":"Transport and delivery","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":7,"text":"• Where should the animals be delivered?"},{"index":2,"size":27,"text":"• Who will take them there? Who will pay for the transport? • How should the animals be transported? • What are the health and quarantine requirements?"},{"index":3,"size":4,"text":"What about the price?"},{"index":4,"size":7,"text":"• What price will the buyer pay?"},{"index":5,"size":12,"text":"• When will the buyer pay? Before delivery, on delivery, or afterwards?"}]},{"head":"For milk","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":5,"text":"What does the buyer want?"},{"index":2,"size":8,"text":"• How much milk does the buyer want?"},{"index":3,"size":7,"text":"• When does the buyer want it?"}]},{"head":"Transport and delivery","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":7,"text":"• Where should the milk be delivered?"},{"index":2,"size":58,"text":"• Who will transport it? Who will pay for the transport? • What are the hygiene requirements? Does the milk have to be tested? Does it have to be pasteurised? Does it have to be cooled? • How should the milk be transported? In jerry cans or in aluminium cans? On foot, by bicycle, or by motor vehicle?"},{"index":3,"size":4,"text":"What about the price?"},{"index":4,"size":7,"text":"• What price will the buyer pay?"},{"index":5,"size":19,"text":"• When will the buyer pay? Before delivery, on delivery, or afterwards? Every day, each week, or each month?"},{"index":6,"size":14,"text":"Do some market research to find out where and to whom you might sell."}]},{"head":"Make a business plan","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":46,"text":"If you form a marketing group, you will need a business plan. Write down what you plan to do, and work out whether it will be worthwhile. If so, make sure all the group members agree, and put your plan into action. Some things to include:"},{"index":2,"size":4,"text":"The product The buyers"},{"index":3,"size":41,"text":"• Who do you want to sell to? A travelling trader, a market trader, a shop, an abattoir, a butcher…? What type of animal or product do they want? • How can you identify potential buyers? How can you contact them?"},{"index":4,"size":25,"text":"• How can you get the animals or milk to the buyer? Will the buyer pick them up, or will you have to deliver them?"}]},{"head":"Income","index":23,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":12,"text":"• What price can you realistically expect for your animals or milk?"},{"index":2,"size":14,"text":"• Will you get the money straight away, or will you have to wait?"}]},{"head":"Production","index":24,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":42,"text":"• What do you need to do to produce the amount and quality required? Will you have to put in more work or learn new skills? • Will you have to invest in inputs such as feed, medicine, a building or equipment?"},{"index":2,"size":15,"text":"Where can you get these items? Will you need a loan to cover the costs?"}]},{"head":"Costs","index":25,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":27,"text":"• What will the additional costs be? Include the costs of extra inputs, transport and negotiating with buyers. If you need a loan, include the interest payments."}]},{"head":"Profit","index":26,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":24,"text":"• This is your income minus the costs. Is it more than what you currently earn? If so, the extra effort may be worthwhile."},{"index":2,"size":9,"text":"Get advice on how to write a business plan."}]},{"head":"How to build your skills","index":27,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":31,"text":"You do not need to learn all the skills yourself. Learn just some of them. Other people in your family and community can learn others, then you can help each other."},{"index":2,"size":5,"text":"Ways to build your skills: "}]},{"head":"Skills you will need","index":28,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":17,"text":"Here are some skills you will need to organise the marketing of your livestock and livestock products:"}]}],"figures":[{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"• Listen to experts. Maybe there is someone in the community you can learn from. For example, a friendly trader can advise you about what types of animals will fetch a good price. • Attend training offered by the government or by a development organisation. • Join a pastoralist field school supported by a development organisation in your area. • Join a community group and learn from other people in the group. • Learn to be a community trainer, and you can help other people learn. • Learn by doing: try out a new idea on a small scale. If it works, do it more. If it doesn't, try something else. • Read and listen to the radio. You can learn a lot from books and radio programmes. Livestock and milk production Business and marketing skills Livestock and milk productionBusiness and marketing skills You may need to learn new skills in: • Finding out about markets and You may need to learn new skills in:• Finding out about markets and • Breeding choosing a product • Breedingchoosing a product • Animal health care • Obtaining and using market • Animal health care• Obtaining and using market • Feeding information • Feedinginformation • Milk production and hygiene. • Identifying and negotiating with • Milk production and hygiene.• Identifying and negotiating with Organisation and leadership skills buyers. Organisation and leadership skillsbuyers. • Forming and managing organisations Finance • Forming and managing organisationsFinance • Planning, monitoring • Financial literacy: calculating • Planning, monitoring• Financial literacy: calculating • Managing meetings costs and profits, keeping records, • Managing meetingscosts and profits, keeping records, • Keeping records. monitoring costs and income. • Keeping records.monitoring costs and income.  • Savings and loans: saving money, • Savings and loans: saving money,  and obtaining and repaying loans. and obtaining and repaying loans.  "}],"sieverID":"53573815-1fbf-4416-889b-1f5228621529","abstract":""}

data/part_1/0722448ba7eae42c1abefbf9c1a5dfad.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0722448ba7eae42c1abefbf9c1a5dfad","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/6a1821ce-7e7b-4f1c-8593-13cd81e911ed/retrieve"},"pageCount":1,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":44,"text":"Innovation policy is moving beyond supply-driven approaches that focus on R and D and specific technologies promoting to a network-based setting, in which a more inclusive, interactive and participatory approach fosters greater innovation in response to pressing challenges facing the food and agriculture systems."},{"index":2,"size":313,"text":"The new perspective of agricultural innovation system can be defined as the network of organizations, individuals, and institutions involved in generating, disseminating, and utilizing agricultural innovations. This system includes all the actors involved in the agricultural innovation process, including farmers, researchers, policymakers, extension workers, private sector actors, and other stakeholders. The AIS approach emphasizes the importance of collaboration and knowledge exchange among these actors to foster innovation and improve agricultural productivity, sustainability, and resilience. It also recognizes that innovation is not just about new technologies but also encompasses changes in policies, institutions, and social practices that can contribute to more sustainable and inclusive agricultural development (Spielman et al., 2009) One of the commonly used methods to study AIS is the Rapid Appraisal of Agricultural Innovation Systems (RAAIS) which is a participatory and rapid assessment approach that aims to identify the strengths and weaknesses of existing Agricultural Innovation Systems. The RAAIS approach is based on the belief that effective agricultural innovation requires the collaboration and interaction of different actors within the system, including farmers, researchers, extension agents, policymakers, and private sector actors. The RAAIS approach involves a series of structured and participatory activities, including interviews, focus group discussions, and stakeholder workshops, to identify the actors, institutions, and relationships involved in the AIS, as well as the strengths and weaknesses of the system. The approach also identifies the key drivers and barriers to innovation, and helps to identify opportunities for enhancing the effectiveness of the AIS. The RAAIS approach is designed to be flexible and adaptable to local contexts, and it can be used by a range of stakeholders, including development practitioners, policymakers, and researchers. The approach can help to facilitate a more inclusive and collaborative approach to agricultural innovation, and can support the design and implementation of more effective policies, programs, and projects to enhance agricultural productivity and sustainable development (Schut et al., 2015)."}]},{"head":"Method","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":19,"text":"Conceptual framework for RAAIS • Stakeholders' identification In agricultural innovation system stakeholders can be divided into 5 major groups"}]},{"head":"Table1. Stakeholders' classification and diversity","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":93,"text":"• Understanding the complexity of agricultural problems: Complex agricultural problems are those that include a variety of actors and stakeholders, have numerous dimensions (an interplay of biophysical, technical, social-cultural, economic, institutional, and political elements), and are rooted in interactions at several levels (schut et al., 2013). Actors can be anybody who is directly or indirectly connected to an issue or its possible solution. Participants in the exploration of potential solutions to complex agricultural problems are known as stakeholders, and their involvement is seen as a crucial success element (e.g. Giller et al., 2011)."},{"index":2,"size":47,"text":"• Qualifying Innovation capacity in the agricultural system: The ability of these actors and organizations to create new and mobilize existing competences to continuously identify and prioritize barriers to innovation and opportunities in a dynamic systems context is referred to as innovation capacity in the agricultural system."},{"index":3,"size":41,"text":"• Identifying the agricultural innovation support system: The structural circumstances that can promote (when present) or restrain (when missing or dysfunctional) innovation within the agricultural system and its subsystems are provided by the agricultural innovation support system (Wieczorek and Hekkert, 2012)."}]},{"head":"Table2. Different structural conditions for innovation","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":29,"text":"• Defining the interactions between complex agricultural problems, innovation capacity and the agricultural innovation support system to provide a coherent set of specific and generic entry points for innovation"}]},{"head":"Methodological framework for RAAIS (data collection)","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":15,"text":"• Multi-stakeholder workshops: to identify, categorize and analyze constraints for innovation in the agricultural system."},{"index":2,"size":69,"text":"• Semi-structured in-depth interviews: To identify and to anticipate interesting storylines related to the problem under review, and allows validation of data that was gathered during previous interviews or during the workshops. • Surveys: To provide more insights about the socio-economic characteristics of smallholder agriculture. • Secondary data collection: To analyze the complexity of agricultural problems, the innovation capacity of the system or the functioning of the support system."}]},{"head":"Results","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":34,"text":"The full perspective To consider this full perspective (Figure 1) a bundle of methods is needed (Table 3) helping to understand the complexity of the system and the under-review problem (Schut et al., 2013)."}]},{"head":"Methods to adapt and apply RAAIS","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":24,"text":"Based on literature Giller et al., 2011;Sartas et al., 2018;Sartas et al., 2019; a set of methods (table3.) is needed to obtain accurate results."}]},{"head":"Table3. Suggested analysis among different levels","index":8,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Discussion","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":25,"text":"In the realm of understanding Agricultural Innovation Systems (AIS), various methods have were proposed in literature, each with its own set of advantages and limitations."},{"index":2,"size":62,"text":"One such method is the Rapid Appraisal of Agricultural Innovation System (RAAIS), which offers a swift and localized assessment of innovation systems, ideal for pinpointing key actors, connections, and constraints at the community or specific level. RAAIS excels in efficiency and resource economy, making it an apt choice for smaller-scale, ground-level projects (Giller et al., 2011;Sartas et al., 2018;Sartas et al., 2019)."},{"index":3,"size":78,"text":"In contrast, the Kaleidoscope Model for Policy Changes adopts a more comprehensive approach, diving deeply into systemic and policy aspects at a national or regional level. This model is better suited for strategic analyses, particularly for crafting policy changes and promoting innovation on a larger scale. However, it comes with the trade-off of requiring more time and resources due to its broader scope (Quintero & McCartney, 2021;Blesh et al., 2023;Dhehibi et al., 2023;Resnick et al., 2018;Larsen et al.,2019)."},{"index":4,"size":27,"text":"The selection between these methods should be driven by the specific project goals, scale, and available resources, ensuring the most effective analysis of the Agricultural Innovation System."}]}],"figures":[],"sieverID":"fa22ed45-11dd-40f2-a98d-f3960bd4b8aa","abstract":"Transdisciplinary thinking is an essential approach in agricultural innovation systems because it brings together diverse perspectives and knowledge from different disciplines to address complex and dynamic challenges. Agricultural systems are complex, dynamic and multi-dimensional, and require a holistic and integrated approach to problem-solving."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"086c336a697eea2e9cf2e47c8126bffc","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/c02baf85-87c5-488a-bf12-69b244f58eaa/retrieve"},"pageCount":2,"title":"Conceptual framework on women's tenure security on collective lands","keywords":["P663 -5","1","1 Enhancing Tenure Security"],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[]}],"figures":[{"text":"Innovation type: Social Science Stage of innovation: Stage 1: discovery/proof of concept (PC -end of research phase)  "},{"text":"Geographic Scope: Global Number of individual improved lines/varieties: <Not Applicable> Description of Stage reached: This framework was presented at the Seeds of Change conference (2019) and described in a Discussion Paper published in 2021. Name Name  "},{"text":"of lead organization/entity to take innovation to this stage: <Not Defined> Names of top five contributing organizations/entities to this stage:  • IFPRI -International Food Policy Research Institute • IFPRI -International Food Policy Research Institute • University of Oxford -University of Oxford • University of Oxford -University of Oxford • CIFOR -Center for International Forestry Research • CIFOR -Center for International Forestry Research • ILRI -International Livestock Research Institute • ILRI -International Livestock Research Institute • IIED -International Institute for Environment and Development • IIED -International Institute for Environment and Development Milestones: Milestones: • Evidence on tenure security and governance informs national level reforms in 6 countries • Evidence on tenure security and governance informs national level reforms in 6 countries Sub-IDOs: Sub-IDOs: • 36 -Gender-equitable control of productive assets and resources • 36 -Gender-equitable control of productive assets and resources Contributing Centers/PPA partners: Contributing Centers/PPA partners: • IFPRI -International Food Policy Research Institute • IFPRI -International Food Policy Research Institute • ILRI -International Livestock Research Institute • ILRI -International Livestock Research Institute • CIFOR -Center for International Forestry Research • CIFOR -Center for International Forestry Research  "}],"sieverID":"aede0c0b-043c-43e0-ad7f-2b5730e5c41a","abstract":"There is an important gap in conceptual tools, empirical understanding, and policy recommendations on women's land rights within collective tenure. To address this gap and lay the foundations for a sound body of empirical studies and appropriate policies, PIM researchers have developed a conceptual framework to improve understanding of women's land rights under collective tenure."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"086d40e4ee8a77260a12811a6a2af247","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/319db6b5-c7d7-4d9b-8027-ca312c002786/retrieve"},"pageCount":4,"title":"Measuring Changes in Zambia's Agri-Food System","keywords":["20","2 21","4 21","5 21","5 22","6 23","2 Agriculture"],"chapters":[{"head":"Summary","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":6,"text":"Projecting AgGDP+ in Zambia ($ bil.)"},{"index":2,"size":25,"text":"• In 2020, the AFS generated 22.2% of total GDP in Zambia and 67.6% of total employment, while agriculture alone represented 3.6% and 59.1%, respectively."},{"index":3,"size":23,"text":"• AgGDP+ and AgEMP+ grew at 1.5% and 4.4% respectively between 2019 and 2020, reaching $4.8 billion and 4.5 million workers in 2020. "}]},{"head":"Zambia's Agri-Food System in 2020","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":59,"text":"This section provides data on the structure of Zambia's economy as a whole and of its agri-food system in 2020. Table 1 shows the breakdown of national GDP, employment, and trade. Table 2 reports AgGDP+ and AgEMP+ estimates broken down by the components of the AFS. Table 3 disaggregates the latest AgGDP+ estimate across major products or value chains."},{"index":2,"size":458,"text":"Table 1 shows that agriculture is a small part of Zambia's economy in GDP, but it is the largest sector for employment, generating 59.1% of total employment in 2020. Agriculture GDP, which is reported as 3.6% of total GDP, seems to be systematically underestimated over time when it is compared to the number of persons working in agriculture. Within agriculture, crops dominate the sector's GDP, while livestock dominates the sector's employment. Part of agriculture's output is supplied to the manufacturing sector for processing, and manufacturing generated 7.4% of GDP and 4.4% of employment. Zambia less depends on primary agricultural exports and more on manufacturing exports in which copper is the dominant exporting product. Most foreign earnings are used to pay for imported manufactured goods, such as machinery, vehicles, and refined petroleum. More than half of total GDP is generated from services with trade & transport the largest service subsector. The role of agriculture for the economy extends well beyond the sector itself, with many industrial and service sectors forming parts of the AFS. Table 2 reports estimates of AgGDP+ and AgEMP+ by component of the AFS. Agriculture generated $0.8 billion in GDP and employed 3.9 million workers in 2020. Agro-processing generated a further $0.5 billion in GDP and 0.1 million jobs. Both sectors use domestic inputs, whose production created more value-added and jobs. However, the supply of inputs to farmers and processors accounts for a relatively small share of the AFS. The largest component of Zambia's AFS is the trading of agriculture-related products between farmers, processors, and consumers. This created $1.6 billion in GDP and employment for 0.3 million workers. In total, Zambia's AFS generated 22% of total GDP and 52% of employment in 2020. Table 3 breaks down the AFS into different value chains based on major product groupings. The cereals value-chain, for example, includes the on-farm cultivation of cereal crops (agriculture); the milling of cereals into flours (manufacturing); the trading and transporting of cereal products; and the preparation of meals in hotels and restaurants using raw and processed cereal inputs (food services). The cereals value-chain makes up 13.3% of Zambia's AFS. The last column shows the share of off-farm components (beyond the farm gate) in AFS GDP by each value chain. For example, of the GDP generated by the cereals value-chain, 74% comes from off-farm activities. 0.9 0.0 0.9 19.6 0.0 25.0 100.0 Source: IFPRI estimates using supply-use tables. Note: GDP is gross domestic product measured in constant 2019 US$. Off-farm GDP includes agri-food processing; trading and transport of agricultural and food products; food services; and the domestic production of inputs (see Table 2). The final column is the ratio of off-farm to total GDP generated by each value chain (column 3 divided by column 1)."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Table 1 . Structure of Zambia's Economy in 2020 Source: IFPRI estimates using supply-use tables, national accounts, and ILO employment data. Note: GDP is gross domestic product measured in constant 2019 US$. Economic sector  Share of total (%)  Economic sectorShare of total (%)  GDP Employ Exports Imports GDPEmployExports Imports   -ment   -ment Total 100 100 100 100 Total100100100100 Agriculture 3.6 59.1 2.4 1.0 Agriculture3.659.12.41.0 Crops 1.6 7.7 2.1 0.7 Crops1.67.72.10.7 Livestock 0.9 26.5 0.3 0.1 Livestock0.926.50.30.1 Forestry 0.5 14.3 0.1 0.0 Forestry0.514.30.10.0 Fishing 0.6 10.5 0.0 0.1 Fishing0.610.50.00.1 Industry 38.8 8.7 91.1 78.6 Industry38.88.791.178.6 Mining 16.6 1.0 2.0 6.8 Mining16.61.02.06.8 Manufacturing 7.4 4.4 88.1 71.4 Manufacturing7.44.488.171.4 Electricity & water 3.6 0.3 1.0 0.0 Electricity & water3.60.31.00.0 Construction 11.2 2.8 0.0 0.4 Construction11.22.80.00.4 Services 57.6 32.2 6.5 20.4 Services57.632.26.520.4 Trade & transport 32.5 17.1 0.9 7.9 Trade & transport32.517.10.97.9 Hotels & food services 1.0 1.3 4.6 7.3 Hotels & food services1.01.34.67.3 Finance & business services 14.4 3.4 0.8 4.4 Finance & business services14.43.40.84.4 Government, health & education 9.0 6.1 0.0 0.8 Government, health & education9.06.10.00.8 Other services 0.7 4.3 0.2 0.0 Other services0.74.30.20.0  "},{"text":"Table 2 . GDP and Employment in Zambia's Agri-Food System in 2020 Source: IFPRI estimates using supply-use tables and ILO employment data. Note: GDP is gross domestic product measured in constant 2019 US$. Economic sector Value Share of total Economic sectorValueShare of total  GDP Employment GDP Employment GDPEmploymentGDPEmployment  ($ billion) (millions) (%) (%) ($ billion)(millions)(%)(%) Total 21.5 6.6 100 100 Total21.56.6100100 Agri-food system 4.8 4.5 22.2 67.6 Agri-food system4.84.522.267.6 Agriculture 0.8 3.9 3.6 59.1 Agriculture0.83.93.659.1 Agro-processing 0.5 0.1 2.5 2.2 Agro-processing0.50.12.52.2 Input supply 0.2 0.0 0.7 0.3 Input supply0.20.00.70.3 Trade & transport 1.6 0.3 7.6 4.6 Trade & transport1.60.37.64.6 Hotels & food services 1.6 0.1 7.6 1.5 Hotels & food services1.60.17.61.5 Rest of the economy 16.8 2.1 77.8 32.4 Rest of the economy16.82.177.832.4  "},{"text":"Table 3 . Breakdown of Zambia's Agri-Food System GDP by Value Chains, 2020 Value chains GDP ($ billion) Share (%) Off-farm share of total (%) Total On- farm Off- farm Total On- farm Off- farm Agri-food system (AFS)   4.8 1.0 3.7 100 100 100 78.3 4.81.03.710010010078.3 Cereals 0.6 0.2 0.5 13.3 16.0 12.5 73.9 Cereals0.60.20.513.316.012.573.9 Pulses & oilseeds 0.2 0.1 0.1 4.4 7.0 3.7 65.9 Pulses & oilseeds0.20.10.14.47.03.765.9 Roots 0.2 0.1 0.1 4.3 7.6 3.3 61.1 Roots0.20.10.14.37.63.361.1 Horticulture 0.6 0.0 0.6 13.2 4.4 15.6 92.7 Horticulture0.60.00.613.24.415.692.7 Livestock products 0.8 0.3 0.6 17.4 24.4 15.5 69.7 Livestock products0.80.30.617.424.415.569.7 Fish products 0.5 0.2 0.3 10.1 15.4 8.6 66.8 Fish products0.50.20.310.115.48.666.8 Export-oriented foods 0.3 0.0 0.3 6.3 3.2 7.2 89.0 Export-oriented foods0.30.00.36.33.27.289.0 Export-oriented nonfoods 0.2 0.1 0.1 3.6 7.3 2.5 55.8 Export-oriented nonfoods0.20.10.13.67.32.555.8 Forestry products 0.4 0.2 0.2 7.8 14.7 5.9 59.1 Forestry products0.40.20.27.814.75.959.1 Beverages & other foods        Beverages & other foods  "}],"sieverID":"2e5d5951-74ce-44c4-b44a-8564a465d641","abstract":"Transformation of the agri-food system (AFS) is a leading pathway to achieve the USG Global Food Security Strategy Objective 1 of \"Inclusive agriculture-led growth\". The AFS encompasses the primary agricultural sector, as well as all upstream and downstream agriculture-related activities. An expansion of the AFS's off-farm components is central to the process of agricultural transformation and is strongly associated with economic development. The Percent change in value-added in the agri-food system (AgGDP+) and Employment in the agrifood system (AgEMP+) indicators are useful to track this process."}

data/part_1/0922e00af4561ddaad6ebe1348fa111c.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0922e00af4561ddaad6ebe1348fa111c","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/6c45550c-4e15-490c-88b4-a3dc7acc5dcc/retrieve"},"pageCount":10,"title":"Fruit and vegetable biodiversity for nutritionally diverse diets: Challenges, opportunities, and knowledge gaps","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Background","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":174,"text":"The idea of planetary health brings together intrinsically linked issues of human health and the state of the natural systems on which we depend (Dangour et al., 2017). Within this framework, it has long been understood that nutrition and biodiversity are connected (Johns and Eyzaguirre, 2006). Fruits and vegetables are an important part of dietsproviding essential nutrients, phytonutrients, and fibre for health (FAO, 2021) and of agrobiodiversityabout 1,100 vegetable species are recognized worldwide (Meldrum et al., 2018) and there are at least 1, 250 documented fruit species in Latin America alone (Bioversity International, 2021). Over millennia, human activities have shaped fruit and vegetable biodiversity towards our dietary preferences, which have co-evolved with the availability of different fruits and vegetables in different agroecological settings. The use and maintenance of this biocultural heritage in contemporary food systems depends on a wide range of social, cultural, political, environmental, and economic factors, and there is an important interplay between current and future availability of fruit and vegetable biodiversity, and current and future dietary diversity, within these complex contexts."},{"index":2,"size":140,"text":"This paper reviews literature produced in the fifteen years since Johns and Eyzaguirre's initial study on the issue of biodiversity and nutrition more broadly (Johns and Eyzaguirre, 2006). We focus specifically on recent evidence of how fruit and vegetable biodiversity underpins dietary diversity for current populations, and evidence on ways to conserve and improve these for future generations. The aim is to bring together key research findings to frame what we know about links between fruit and vegetable biodiversity and dietary diversity. A food systems lensencompassing all the elements and activities that relate to producing, transforming, delivering, and consuming food for humansis used to better understand the links between healthy people and a healthy planet (HLPE, 2017(HLPE, , 2020)), and identify challenges and opportunities; knowledge gaps for further research; and support for decision-makers and practitioners in achieving global development goals."}]},{"head":"Changes and challenges","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Threats to fruit and vegetable biodiversity","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":95,"text":"While overall biodiversity is defined as the sum of all living organisms at the genetic, species, and ecosystem levels, agrobiodiversity is more narrowly defined as the range of species, varieties, and ecosystems -together with crop wild relatives, pollinators, and other associated organisms -which are used by humans for food and agriculture (FAO, 2004;Frison et al., 2011). Agrobiodiversity sustains and stabilizes both agro and natural ecosystems of food production and harvesting, and is the source of genetic diversity for developing future foods that can tolerate changing environments and keep pace with changing food needs and preferences."},{"index":2,"size":180,"text":"Fruit and vegetable biodiversity is part of agrobiodiversity. For the purpose of this review, this is defined as any genetic planting material of fruit and vegetable species, and their wild relatives, for current and future food and agriculture, in line with the concept of Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture (PGRFA). Besides the large number of vegetable and fruit species that occur worldwide, crop wild relatives are a special group of genetically-related species of fruit and vegetable species, which can be used in breeding new varieties because they can provide characteristics related to climate resilience and other desirable traits (Kilian et al., 2021). Below the species level, local fruit and vegetable varieties and wild populations of fruit and vegetables are also part of a biocultural heritage with unique tastes and histories (Dwivedi et al., 2019;van Zonneveld et al., 2018). These provide for distinct food cultures, as well as an important source of genetic variation needed for developing new cultivated varieties with traits to ensure current and future food supplies (Jansen et al., 2020;Kilian et al., 2021;Schouten et al., 2019)."},{"index":3,"size":182,"text":"Contemporary fruit and vegetable biodiversity continues to decline in farmers' fields, at landscape level, and generally in ecosystems, in parallel with the rapid global decline in overall biodiversity (Díaz et al., 2019). Ecosystems in 88% of the world's 846 terrestrial ecoregions are poorly conserved, degraded, or disappearing as a result of human actions (Dinerstein et al., 2017). The richness and abundance of wild fruit and vegetable species, as well as the crop wild relatives of fruit and vegetable species and pollinators and seed dispersers, decline with the degradation and loss of these ecosystems under the pressures of land-use change, global climate change, and other threats (Díaz et al., 2019;Pilling et al., 2020). Not all crop wild relatives are threatened, and several benefit from environmental degradation when they become weeds or invasive (Syfert et al., 2016). But endemic and other narrowly-distributed wild relatives are the most vulnerable to extinction caused by land use change and degradation following the criteria of the International Union for Conservation of Nature's (IUCN) Red List of Threatened Species (Cadima et al., 2014;Khoury et al., 2020;Scheldeman et al., 2006)."},{"index":4,"size":305,"text":"Four out of five studies on crop genetic erosion has found evidence of crop diversity loss, the magnitude varying by species, geographic scale, and region, as well as analytical approach (Khoury et al., 2021). So far, most genetic erosion studies have been done on cereal crops and their wild relatives; few studies are available on the rate of varietal and genetic losses in fruit and vegetable species (Khoury et al., 2021). For some crops, such as tomato, farmers have already replaced most local varieties in many regions (Cebolla-Cornejo et al., 2012;Walters et al., 2018) and the development of new varieties relies almost entirely on the planting materials safeguarded in crop genebanks and seed-saver networks (Bauchet and Causse, 2012). But whereas tomato is relatively well represented in existing genebank collections, the genetic resources of most other fruits and vegetables are poorly conserved in genebanks, or not at all. For example, 39% of 883 globally-assessed wild fruit and vegetable species requires urgent conservation because they are poorly or not conserved in genebanks or in protected areas; another 58% has a medium priority for conservation; while only 3% is well conserved (Khoury et al., 2019). A quarter of the 1,100 recognized vegetable species worldwide have no samples at all conserved in any genebank (Meldrum et al., 2018), and most fruit tree species and their wild relatives, particularly those of tropical origins, are challenging to conserve in genebanks because their seed does not tolerate the desiccation and low temperatures of orthodox seed storage, and most fruit cultivars have specific genetic combinations that can be maintained only through vegetative propagation (Dawson et al., 2013). Without better conservation options on farms, at landscape level, and in protected areas, and without genebank back-up, these fruit and vegetable genetic resources are at risk of being lost as land use, climate, and agriculture change."}]},{"head":"Changing dietary diversity and fruits and vegetables","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":231,"text":"Dietary diversity is defined as the variety of foods consumed in a certain time period, and thus far has been described for children, women, and households, with higher individual dietary diversity associated with better nutrient adequacy (Arimond and Ruel, 2004;Arimond et al., 2010). Therefore, from a food system perspective, diversifying diets both within and across food groups is a key strategy. Consuming a diversity of fruits and vegetables-with the nutrients, phytonutrients and dietary fibres contained therein-is important for good health (FAO, 2020). Studies have suggested intake ranges of 300-600g per day (200-600g of vegetables and 100-300g of fruits) to meet the twin goals of human health and sustainable food supply without overly negative effects on the environment (particularly through water use and chemical inputs) (Afshin et al., 2019;Loken et al., 2020;Willett et al., 2019). The World Health Organisation (WHO) recommends adults to eat at least 5 portions or 400g of fruits and vegetables per day for protective nutritional effects (World Health Organisation, 2003), with national food-based dietary guidelines translating these into recommendations to eat multiple portions of a variety of fruits and vegetables each day (Herforth et al., 2019). Despite this need for diversity, intraspecific fruit and vegetable biodiversity, and diversity of diets within the fruit and vegetable food group in particular, are little explored in nutrition, which tends to look for diversity across food groups only (World Health Organization, 2015)."},{"index":2,"size":147,"text":"Globally, the intake of fruit and vegetables remains low for a majority of the population (Afshin et al., 2019;Kalmpourtzidou et al., 2020). Low fruit and vegetable consumption is among the top five risk factors for poor health, with over 2 million deaths and 65 million Disability-Adjusted Life Years (DALYs) attributable to low intake of fruits, and 1.5 million deaths and 34 million DALYs attributable to low intake of vegetables worldwide each year, and particularly in low-and middle-income countries (Afshin et al., 2019). Low consumption of fruits and vegetables is a global problem: only 7% of countries in Africa, 7% in the Americas, and 11% in Europe reach 240 g/day of vegetables per person on average (Kalmpourtzidou et al., 2020). Looking at within-country variation, only 20% of individuals in low-and middle-income countries reach the recommendation of 5 servings of fruits and vegetables per day (Frank et al., 2019)."},{"index":3,"size":205,"text":"The nutrition transition, whereby global diets are moving away from local traditional patterns through changing demographic and food system drivers, may make diverse fruits and vegetables either more or less locally available, depending on context (Global Panel on Agriculture and Food Systems for Nutrition, 2016; Popkin et al., 2020). While global fruit and vegetable supply has started to increase proportional to staple crops in recent decades, global focus remains predominantly on cereal production (Gould, 2017), and documented supplies remain insufficient for most countries to meet the WHO recommendation: in 1965, sufficient fruits and vegetables (≥400 g/day) were available for 17% of the global population, increasing to 55% in 2015 (Mason-D 'Croz et al., 2019). Supply varies widely: in Africa, only 13% of countries have an adequate vegetable supply, while in Asia 61% do (Kalmpourtzidou et al., 2020). All of these data are limited, likely missing the proportion of neglected and underutilized and wild-harvested food species, missing food loss and waste, and missing within-country variation. In Africa particularly, the consumption of wild vegetables is reported in many countries (Achigan-Dako et al., 2011;Maundu et al., 2009), but data are unavailable on consumption frequency or amount across the continent, and the level of wild harvest is rarely documented."},{"index":4,"size":156,"text":"Fruits and vegetables purchased through markets are unaffordable for many, with three billion people, and up to 90% of the population in some countries, unable to afford diverse healthy diets in 2017 (Herforth et al., 2020). Fruits and vegetables appear more affordable than staple foods when comparing prices per micronutrient, where they are likely to be a relatively low-cost source of varied vitamins, minerals, and phytonutrientsbut this is not how most families choose their food, with particularly poorer households focusing on acquiring calories. Even if fruits and vegetables are available, accessible and affordable, most people still do not consume sufficient quantities (Hall et al., 2009), particularly if they are not considered an acceptable or desirable food choice, for instance due to food safety concerns, taste, convenience, or cultural appropriateness, or if people have low knowledge or awareness about the importance of fruit and vegetables for health (Aggarwal et al., 2016;Ha et al., 2020;Hammelman and Hayes-Conroy, 2014),."}]},{"head":"Bringing fruit and vegetable biodiversity and dietary diversity together","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":177,"text":"Food availability, accessibility, affordability, and desirability are therefore the food system links between agrobiodiversity and dietary diversity (Toledo and Burlingame, 2006;Turner et al., 2018) with more species-diverse food associated with better micronutrient-quality diets (Lachat et al., 2018). In specific agricultural diversity studies, and mainly in rural areas, agrobiodiversity has been associated with dietary diversity at the local level: greater crop diversity managed by farming households is usually associated with greater dietary diversity at the farm household level, though depending significantly on local agroecological context (Jones, 2017). Associations between crop diversity and fruit and vegetable intake have been seen specifically in some studies (Herforth, 2010;Jones et al., 2014), though many do not examine this connection explicitly, and fruits and vegetables are often combined into a single food group or assessed together with other plant foods such as pulses. Magnitudes of association tend to be very small when only factoring in cultivated foods (Jones, 2017), prompting some to suggest that increasing production diversity is not an efficient tool to improve nutrition at the household level (Sibhatu and Qaim, 2018)."},{"index":2,"size":167,"text":"Associations may be stronger when including wild food plants in agrobiodiversity metrics in contexts where these are eaten: In Kenya, for example, when food plants collected from a wider landscape are taken into account, a one unit increase in household access to agrobiodiversity (species diversity score) is associated with a 13% increase in probability of micronutrient adequacy in the diet (Oduor et al., 2019). In a similar way, a case study in Tanzania found a significant association between diversity of vegetables produced or collected from the wider landscape, and micronutrient adequacy and dietary diversity (Keding et al., 2012). In some settings and seasons, wild-harvested fruits and vegetables contribute significantly to nutrient intake (Powell et al., 2013) and incomes (McMullin et al., 2021), with estimates of a billion people relying at least in part on foods gathered in their surrounding environment (World Health Organization, 2015). In some contexts analysed, up to 75% of consumed vegetables and fruits are gathered rather than cultivated or bought (Powell et al., 2015)."},{"index":3,"size":212,"text":"Despite the wide occurrence of food gathering, it has been suggested that reliance on collecting wild food plants is often a coping mechanism in the face of scarcity, rather than an active choice, which needs to be better understood (Jones, 2017). In addition, overharvesting is a threat to the genetic resources of some wild-harvested species, and high demand for wild food plants could reinforce this threat, or even deteriorate whole ecosystems. For example, in the case of buruti, an ecologically important palm species from the Amazon that is valued for its vitamin-A rich fruits, people destructively harvest female plants, degrading wild buruti populations with potentially negative impacts on species richness and carbon stocks of Amazonian peatlands (Bhomia et al., 2019;Endress et al., 2013). Similar cases of overharvesting have been observed around the world, and there has been call to domesticate threatened food plants so that people can grow them in their yards or farm fields, to reduce harvesting pressure on wild populations while making these nutritious foods available and accessible to a wider public (Akinnifesi et al., 2006;Sundriyal and Sundriyal, 2003). In parallel, research and development initiatives are supporting decision-makers and communities in the implementation and monitoring of sustainable fruit and vegetable harvesting practices at landscape level (Van Loon et al., 2021)."},{"index":4,"size":147,"text":"While agrobiodiversity may have only moderate associations with dietary diversity at the household level, availability of a diversity of fruits and vegetables is a prerequisite for diverse diets at the food system level. As a sum of local changes, in food systems globally food plant diversity is associated with a food system's capacity to provide sufficient nutrients through different environmental, social, and economic shocks (including population growth and climate change), but over the past five decades this capacity has declined in all regions except Asia (Nicholson et al., 2021;Pingali, 2012). Studies have found that existing agrobiodiversity is underutilized in national food systems, with species consumption globally moderate, and lowest in low-income countries (Jones et al., 2021) and many food species limited to consumption in small geographic regions (Lachat et al., 2018) -though caveats on the limitations of data on wild and local foods, discussed above, still apply."},{"index":5,"size":224,"text":"The current food system in many ways contributes to agrobiodiversity loss (Hunter et al., 2016), and fruit species and to a lesser degree vegetables are among the major crop types dependent on pollination services that are in decline (Gallai et al., 2009). Changing diets globally as a result of socio-economic, demographic, agricultural, and food system pressures is a process that while it can bring opportunities of scale and trade, can also be seen as a narrowing of the food base on which humans depend (Frison et al., 2006;Powell et al., 2013;World Health Organization, 2015). Large structural changes such as globalization of supply chains and societies, and changing demographics and urbanisation, have shaped food regimes over the past half-century to prioritise foods that are less perishable and more globally tradable (Lang and Heasman, 2015;Magnan, 2012), side-lining perishable fruits and vegetables requiring local production, processing, or complex food chains to get them safely from farm to fork. Large-scale, high-input monoculture production systems for pineapple, banana, and avocado among other commercial fruit crops, have led to excessive environmental degradation and biodiversity loss (Magrach and Sanz, 2020;Ploetz, 2021;Shaver et al., 2015). In the case of banana, genetic impoverishment has led to a highly vulnerable supply system that largely relies on a single clone that is susceptible to Panama disease, threatening global banana supply (Kema et al., 2021;Ploetz, 2021)."},{"index":6,"size":90,"text":"In addition to the micronutrients in fruit and vegetable species that we know about, there are also a range of phytonutrients and bioactive compounds across fruit and vegetable species, whose nutritional functions are still poorly understood (Lutaladio et al., 2010). Despite issues of bioavailability of nutrients and the various effects of processing and cooking on available nutrients, dietary diversity within fruits and vegetables is likely to be important, and conserving fruit and vegetable biodiversity for current and future availability may protect health through food in ways we don't yet know."}]},{"head":"Options and actions","index":6,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Maintaining fruit and vegetable biodiversity for current and future generations","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":218,"text":"Several important trends are increasing the conservation and use of fruit and vegetable biodiversity in food systems at global and local levels. In addition to the fact that the proportion of fruit and vegetables in global food production is increasing (Gould, 2017;Khoury et al., 2014;Martin et al., 2019), advanced technologies are now accessible to public and private breeders and researchers globally to mainstream the use of genetic diversity for developing new varieties of fruits and vegetables (Jamnadass et al., 2020;Schouten et al., 2019). Cities are becoming important hubs of crop diversity because immigrants bring planting material from their home areas (Rimlinger et al., 2021;Taylor and Lovell, 2014), while at the same time the coverage of protected natural and biocultural environments has tripled in the last 40 years (Pringle, 2017), and at least 35% of the terrestrial protected areas are owned and/or managed by local and Indigenous communities, who play an important role in maintaining agrobiodiversity worldwide (Díaz et al., 2019). Although these trends could possibly bend the curve of decline in fruit and vegetable biodiversity, they may not completely halt, let alone reverse, the loss. For example, the expansion of protected areas provides some opportunities for conservation, but ecosystems in these areas may be degraded already, and fruit and vegetable biodiversity within the landscape may decline (Pringle, 2017)."},{"index":2,"size":68,"text":"Crop wild relatives stand further away from people's diets and are often relevant for breeding only. Their conservation is taken up by many governments in protected area management (Dulloo and Maxted, 2019), but crop wild relatives of fruit and vegetable species are still of low priority compared to those of cereals and pulses; it is important to raise awareness about the need to conserve the former as well."},{"index":3,"size":135,"text":"Local fruit and vegetable species and varieties are still maintained and shared by farmers and communities in different production systems (Dulloo et al., 2017). These plants provide nutritional and food security, income-generating opportunities, and ecosystem services, and contribute to cultural identity (Sthapit et al., 2016), and also represent a valuable conservation of biodiversity for food. To preserve these, governments and societal actors can recognize the custodian farmers and communities who maintain these unique and traditional production systems, such as governments in some countries are doing already for important agricultural heritage systems (Koohafkan and Altieri, 2011). Governments and societal actors can further support these farmers and communities to establish or maintain seed networks, and encourage equitable business linkages to markets for more resilient livelihoods based in maintaining biodiversity, through incentives and regulation (Dulloo et al., 2017)."},{"index":4,"size":177,"text":"Complementary to local conservation on farms and in protected areas and local seed-sharing, large national and international fruit and vegetable germplasm collections have been established in genebanks in North America, South America, Asia, and Europe (Byrne et al., 2018;Cunha Alves and Azevedo, 2018;Engle and Faustino, 2007;Jacob et al., 2015;Loskutov, 2020;Van Den Houwe et al., 2020). They safeguard fruit and vegetable biodiversity to improve availability of planting material for food and nutrition of current and future human generations, and are a source for breeding and germplasm exchange to develop new foods for new tastes or new agricultural conditions. Sub-Saharan Africa presents a gap in the genebank network; only one out of three countries in this region has a national crop genebank (World Bank, 2017). Investment in genebank infrastructure in this region would help to maintain and document sub-Saharan African fruit and vegetable genetic resources. At the same time, several collections from the existing genebank network are vulnerable because they have large backlogs of old or original fruit and vegetable germplasm samples that require propagation and re-storage (Fu, 2017)."},{"index":5,"size":118,"text":"Complex access and benefit sharing policies and regulations, in particular domestic policies and regulations that implement the Nagoya Protocol of the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), increasingly govern international efforts to conserve and use the diversity of local varieties and wild populations (Brink and van Hintum, 2020). These policies recognize the rights of countries and local communities over genetic resources within their territories, yet all countries and communities depend on each other for genetic resources of fruit and vegetable species for food and nutrition, including neglected and underutilized species (Khoury et al., 2016;van Zonneveld et al., 2021). This interdependence is expected to increase under global climate change (Burke et al., 2009), and regulations will need to evolve alongside."},{"index":6,"size":194,"text":"Currently, germplasm exchange of most fruit and vegetable species is limited, including because they are underrepresented in the Multilateral System of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture (Plant Treaty) that is established to enhance exchange of plant genetic resources for food and agriculture between countries. Furthermore, debates about the relationship and interplay between breeders' rights and farmers' rights are ongoing (Dias, 2011;Gupta and Negi, 2019;Salazar et al., 2007), affecting the development of new plant material and the use of seed by growers. The 2011-2021 Global Crop Wild Relatives project led by the Crop Trust showed how global partnerships for collecting, conservation, and germplasm availability are possible for crop wild relatives of fruit and vegetable species that fall under the framework of the Plant Treaty, such as banana, apple, eggplant, and carrot (Müller et al., 2021). Similar workable agreements enable rescue of germplasm of other fruit and vegetable species and give farmers, breeders, and researchers access to planting material for food and nutrition; these agreements provide a framework for access and benefit sharing following all applicable current laws and regulations at national and international level (Brink and van Hintum, 2020)."}]},{"head":"Enabling access to a wide range of fruits and vegetables","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":213,"text":"Promoting neglected and underutilized food plants, such as many traditional fruit and vegetable species, is a key policy option that addresses both healthy diets and agrobiodiversity (Pedersen et al., 2020). The pool of underutilized plant biodiversity includes fruit and vegetable species with exceptionally high nutritional value, such as micronutrient-rich African leafy vegetables adapted to rain-fed conditions (Maundu et al., 2009) and vitamin-rich Amazonian fruit trees that withstand flooding and waterlogging (Van Loon et al., 2021;van Zonneveld et al., 2020), giving impetus to connections between biodiversity and nutrition. The latest generation of food-based dietary guidelines starts to move in the direction of more diverse dietsbut these efforts can better consider cultural acceptability, and may require promotional efforts to increase the willingness of consumers to shift their diets to new or forgotten foods and diversify within the fruit and vegetables food groups (Davis et al., 2021). Alongside improving availability and access, the challenge is to enhance consumer choice of, and preference for, these foods. There is clear evidence that focusing on education at all levels is to some extent effective for modifying behavioural changes in general, whether dietary or environmental (Alderman and Headey, 2017); and nutrition literacy, social norms for healthy eating, and self-efficacy are key components of health-related behaviour change (Eker et al., 2019)."},{"index":2,"size":205,"text":"We know less for fruits and vegetables in particular, though the general evidence on dietary behaviour change can be tested, and social marketing has been used to promote a return to diverse traditional vegetables in several contexts (Powell et al., 2015). Nutrition literacy programs generally target women, who are in many cases custodians of household nutrition and of local agrobiodiversity, but there will also be a need for community-targeted messages to change social norms around both diets and conservation (Van den Bold et al., 2013). There are reasons that changing food demand might help to reverse the trends reducing agrobiodiversity and homogenizing food systems: There is greater global awareness about the benefits of diverse diets with sufficient fruits and vegetables, though this knowledge has not reached all populations equally. Encouragingly, some neglected and underutilized fruit and vegetable species have regained relevance in urban diets through public and private initiatives in gastronomy and niche markets for local, healthy, or ethnic food (Borelli et al., 2020), and appealing to aspiration can be a powerful promoter of foods. But decades of work on the nutrition transition makes it clear that these positive food system and dietary changes are the exception rather than the norm (Popkin et al., 2020)."},{"index":3,"size":191,"text":"Deciding what to eat is embedded in the broader food environment, and within people's daily realities (Blake et al., 2021). Promoting home and community fruit and vegetable production, or facilitation of foraging, is a small-scale option where the agrobiodiversity and broader context allows (Baliki et al., 2019;Powell et al., 2015;Schreinemachers et al., 2016), but approaches are needed that can clearly provide for the nutritional needs of large (often urban) populations. Addressing affordability of fruits and vegetables is key to creating an environment where all can access a healthy diet, given that most people buy at least a proportion of their food, and affordability can come from a combination of lower retail prices of diverse fruits and vegetables (through productivity improvements, reduced postharvest losses, or increased market efficiency for stable prices) and higher incomes (from inclusive economic growth, living wages, and social safety nets) (Hirvonen et al., 2019). Cheap food is not necessarily good for healthy diets, fair livelihoods or agrobiodiversity however, so a focus on affordability through equitable economies is important where foods are purchased (Benton et al., 2021), and decisions will have to be made regarding priorities and trade-offs (below)."},{"index":4,"size":179,"text":"Big-picture policy and political driversincluding research and development investment focus, trade regimes, and a focus on calorie security rather than nutritionhave oriented food systems away from pathways prioritising diverse fruits and vegetable species in diets, and away from agronomic and food system paradigms that might promote a return to more biodiverse production systems and diverse diets (Leach et al., 2020;Patnaik and Oenema, 2015;Rosset and Altieri, 2017;Vivero-Pol et al., 2018). The policy environment in terms of evidence, politics, and capacityand the framing of theseis important for sustainable change in biodiversity and diets (Hunter et al., 2016), though in global analyses the political commitment is low for conserving and using fruit and vegetable biodiversity (Jones et al., 2021) and for improving nutrition (te Lintelo and Lakshman, 2015). This is despite efforts such as the Voluntary Guidelines for Mainstreaming Biodiversity into Policies, Programmes and National and Regional Plans of Action on Nutrition, endorsed by the Commission on Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture (CGRFA) in 2015, which recognize many of these issues but do not hold powers of accountability for their action."}]},{"head":"Synergies and trade-offs","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":124,"text":"There are potential synergies between a food systems approach to nutrition and an integrated conservation of fruit and vegetable biodiversity on farms, at landscape level, and in protected areas (Powell et al., 2013). Linking agrobiodiversity and nutrition can in theory address some of the negative consequences of current food systems (Johns and Eyzaguirre, 2006): Promoting diverse food consumption can promote conservation of agrobiodiversity; and promoting agrobiodiversity is a practical approach for dietary diversity, food security, and rural development, so there are win-wins to be had in theory (Toledo and Burlingame, 2006). There are also potential trade-offs between preserving agrobiodiversity and enabling diverse diets for everyone everywhere, alongside promoting fair food system livelihoods, which need to be resolved through evidence, policy engagement, and inclusive dialogue."},{"index":2,"size":129,"text":"Clearly, more availability of a variety of fruits and vegetables is needed for human populations to meet dietary recommendations, but there are different ways to achieve this, with implications for the use of crop biodiversity at different geographic scales. For sustainable use of fruit and vegetable biodiversity a wide range of approaches depending on contexts, including sustainable intensification and diversification approaches to improve yields while adapting climate change, have been suggested to maintain fruit and vegetable production and livelihoods while minimizing environmental degradation (Godfray and Garnett, 2014;Schreinemachers et al., 2018;van Zonneveld et al., 2020). Participatory approaches that consider multiple criteria including agronomic, environmental, social, economic, and political factors have prooved useful to guide decision-making in balancing sometimes competing interests in making these production decisions (van Zonneveld et al., 2020)."},{"index":3,"size":322,"text":"Producing sufficient fruits and vegetables can have relatively high requirements for land, water, and chemical inputs, depending on context and production method (Aleksandrowicz et al., 2016), and with one third of global greenhouse gas emissions produced by the food system there is a need to better understand the role of fruits and vegetables in land and input use (Crippa et al., 2021). While we can in theory produce sufficient fruits and vegetables for healthy diets within planetary boundaries (Willett et al., 2019), achieving national food-based dietary guidelines has been found to be incompatible with climate and environmental targets in a majority of 85 countries studied (Springmann et al., 2020). One key solution is a better use of fruit and vegetable biodiversity in breeding globally to make varieties available to producers that are nutrient-rich, eco-efficient in production, and adapted to changing climate conditions. Producing according to context is another key solution. Local production, home garden production, and food gathering may be important sources of biodiverse plant foods in many contexts, to buffer food production homogenization and increase the use of fruit and vegetable diversity at national and local levels (Bharucha and Pretty, 2010;Galluzzi et al., 2010;Schreinemachers et al., 2015). Urban agriculture also brings opportunities for agrobiodiversity in urban spaces (World Health Organization, 2015), with benefits including reducing food losses along the value chain by producing food closer to where it is consumed; creating jobs for urban populations; improving quality of life through greening of urban environments; and closing nutrient cycles by re-using urban waste (Lutaladio et al., 2010). Agroecology research and practice in particular tries to develop, test, and promote practices that promote sustainable production and equitable diets through inclusive and participatory approaches (Méndez et al., 2015;Rosset and Altieri, 2017), and considers the potential of local fruit and vegetable species for sustainable production in specific agroecological zones and adaptation to changing climates (Nabhan et al., 2020;van Zonneveld et al., 2020;Waha et al., 2018)."},{"index":4,"size":391,"text":"Current discourses encourage integrated approaches between different conservation practices (Dulloo et al., 2017) and between environmental sustainability and human diets (Willett et al., 2019). Notwithstanding, there are trade-offs among conservation of biodiversity as an end in itself vs. leveraging fruit and vegetable agrobiodiversity to provide food options and improve diets, given scarce resources. The approaches mentioned above prioritise agrobiodiversity conservation for human food, which while important for us humans, is not necessarily all that is needed to preserve levels of biodiversity that the planet requires to function well. Within the context of a diet for a healthy planet, there are trade-offs and synergies between leveraging agrobiodiversity to improve diets with more volume of vegetables and fruits, and making food production more eco-efficient with an investment in a broader conservation of biodiversity and environmental sustainability. There are also trade-offs among our ability to preserve the biodiversity of different species, and our requirements in diets: Typically, small and orthodox seed of many vegetables and berries can be saved in genebanks and seed saver networks for exchange, breeding and future use (Hong et al., 1996). In contrast, many fruit species can only be maintained in field collections, or by conserving living tissue in tubes (in vitro), or through cryopreservation in liquid nitrogen because they usually have large and recalcitrant seed that cannot be stored for long time periods (Panis et al., 2020). Appropriate planting material is one of the major bottlenecks for farmers to grow a wide range of fruit and vegetable species (McMullin et al., 2021), so genebanks of vegetable and fruit species can actively engage with different users groups to provide inter-and intraspecific crop diversity for developing and growing planting material with high nutrient values for a win-win scenario (Smale and Jamora, 2020;Stoilova et al., 2019). The fruit and vegetable biodiversity conserved in genebanks and by seed saver networks complements plant genetic resources maintained in farmer fields, at landscape level, and in protected areas (Dulloo et al., 2017). Connecting these genebanks and networks to these efforts on the ground optimizes conservation of fruit and vegetable biodiversity while providing local users opportunities to access new and diverse planting material. The latter being particular relevant under climate change. The way and extent these different practices are implemented and connected may differ depending contexts, with different implications for different societal groups in the food system."},{"index":5,"size":254,"text":"In practice, decision-makers and societal actors may need to make a choice between the contemporary use of certain species and varieties in production systems to feed today's population, and conserving agrobiodiversity at a broader scale (including todays' neglected and underutilized species and varieties) to safeguard a biocultural heritage and to keep future food options open. Decisions need to be made about the levels and type of fruit and vegetable biodiversity to be conserved at national and local levels with an eye on the future, depending the local and global importance and potential of certain species and varieties for human diets under climate change, and in the context of global efforts of conservation and germplasm exchange, such as the Global System of PGRFA (Engels and Ebert, 2021). Also with an eye on future generations, agrobiodiversity promotion through school gardens, sometimes in combination with locally-procured school meals, combines early nutrition education and diverse production as a potential win-win engaging with future eaters and conservers (Hunter and Monville-Oro, 2020;Shrestha et al., 2020). Further down the food system, reduction of food prices through market efficiency and food production homogenization can lead to agrobiodiversity losses, so a trade-off in some contexts is between affordability of food and the availability of agrobiodiversity, which requires further understanding and debate on agrobiodiversity use in value chains and the amount of investment to counteract agrobiodiversity losses through rescue and conservation. Considering trade-offs between current and future populations is part of these deliberations, including with a focus on intergenerational equity (Nisbett et al., 2021)."},{"index":6,"size":157,"text":"Regarding equity for today's human populations, some of the most nutrition-insecure people live in some of the most biodiverse areas, so issues of nutrition equity and conservation should be considered in national and international policies to link fruit and vegetable biodiversity to dietary diversity (Herrero et al., 2017;Johns and Eyzaguirre, 2006). For example, while the Amazon is a hotspot of fruit and vegetable biodiversity, these territories are also characterized by complex socioeconomic problems that affect local agrobiodiversity as well as health and welfare of indigenous communities, such as the nutrition transition and poor health and sanitation infrastructure (Borges et al., 2015;Coimbra et al., 2013). Costs and benefits of conservation and fruit and vegetable production do not accrue equally or fairly in different dimensions of the food systembut different facets of equity have been described (Nisbett et al., 2021), and can be explicitly factored in to inclusive decision-making processes to debate trade-offs and decide priorities at different levels."}]},{"head":"Knowledge gaps","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":134,"text":"Overall, there is considerable literature focused on agrobiodiversity for local diets, including the role of fruit and vegetable biodiversity in populated rural areas; but far less on biodiversity in urban areas, and not enough understanding of the nuances of different agroecological or socio-cultural contexts or production approaches. There are also research efforts highlighting national-level agrobiodiversity and its use in food systems, and specifically on metrics for measuring this, though little looking at the impacts of national policies on the crossovers identified above. Trading and international interdependence are relevant topics at regional and global levels, with some literature on broad food system changes and their impacts on agrobiodiversity and dietary diversity, but there is little literature looking at fruits and vegetables at this level. Below we highlight key research and knowledge gaps from this review."},{"index":2,"size":218,"text":"A key knowledge gap is that we don't have good data on the diversity of fruit and vegetable species in farmer's fields or landscapes, as well as in genebanks, especially within species. There is often high nutrient variability among fruit and vegetable varieties, a clear link between agrobiodiversity and nutrition, but data are limited on this, and particularly for neglected and underutilized food plants (Johns and Eyzaguirre, 2006). These include many traditional fruits and vegetables relevant for local production and harvesting but often left out of data collection, policy considerations and agricultural extension (Hunter et al., 2019;Raihana et al., 2015). Many locally cultivated and wild-harvested food plants are missed in available dietary and production data (Jones et al., 2021), limiting our knowledge about real diets and food environments; at the same time, fruit and vegetable specieswhich have very different agronomic, trade, and nutritional profilesare often lumped together into a single 'fruits and vegetables' group, further hampering nuanced research efforts (Harris et al., 2021). Investment in screening the diversity of neglected and underutilized fruit and vegetable species can reveal varieties with high nutrient content (Yang and Keding, 2009) providing evidence for nutrition and marketing messages to promote diet and crop diversification with more fruit and vegetable species among households and producers, and a basis for breeding of nutrient-rich varieties."},{"index":3,"size":162,"text":"There is also a key knowledge gap in the diversity of fruit and vegetable species in people's diets. There is little research available on what is eaten where, in particular the use of wild-harvested food plants (World Health Organization, 2015), though in some places and in different languages there may be ethnobotanical and anthropological literature that can be drawn on more than it currently isand that rescues and recognizes traditional knowledge from local voices that still can be heard in some places on how to grow these species, and how to process them for food consumption. There is also a gap in terms of why different fruits and vegetables are preferred in different places, and in the role of nutritional information, aspiration, and gastronomy in inspiring people to eat more diverse plant foods. The lack of data on intra-species food composition, and the context-specificity of diets, means that more research is needed to provide more general policy advice (Hunter et al., 2016)."},{"index":4,"size":139,"text":"Much of the research on agrobiodiversity in food systems and for diets has focused on rural parts of middle-income countries, where smallholder farming is common, but other regions are important to understand. Rural and urban communities in some middle-and highincome countries especially in Asia and the Mediterranean region have retained aspects of traditional biodiverse production systems in combination with the maintenance of traditional food consumption customs, and seem to have better health outcomes compared to those regions which have notat least so far (Johns and Eyzaguirre, 2006). To which extent biodiverse wild-harvested fruits and vegetables are accessible for urban dwellers and can be used for food-plant harvesting, also remains to be investigated (Rimlinger et al., 2021;Shackleton et al., 2017). Low-income countries are particularly under-represented in food system studies of fruits and vegetables for healthy diets (Harris et al., 2021)."},{"index":5,"size":162,"text":"We also need better evidence as to how greater agrobiodiversity in general would bring benefits in terms of healthier diets and more sustainable food production. While raising crop diversity at the level of individual farms may indeed not be the most effective strategy to increase dietary diversity in those households (Jones, 2017), at the food system level producing diversity is of course a necessary precondition for being able to consume a diversity of foods, and we need to better understand those pathways. There is little research on effective strategies to promote more diversity in modern or informal supply chains (from producers and traders to processors and vendors), and there is a need to better understand this missing middle and trade-offs among scaling production for broader availability in diets, and conserving fruit and vegetable agrobiodiversity and the broader environment. More research is needed on the potential of agroecological practices to make fruit and vegetable production more compatible with national climate and environmental targets."},{"index":6,"size":87,"text":"Given the range of factors important in understanding the links between agrobiodiversity and dietary diversityfrom plant genetic resources and ethnobotany, to nutritional screening and breeding, to socio-cultural behaviours and political economyinterdisciplinary research is clearly needed (Hunter et al., 2016;Méndez et al., 2015). Bringing this research together into a body of evidence can be difficult, as even standard epidemiological studies of agrobiodiversity and dietary diversity can use quite different measures and metrics (Jones, 2017), but it is urgent given rapidly changing diets and declining fruit and vegetable biodiversity."}]},{"head":"Conclusion","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":110,"text":"This paper has brought together key research to frame what we know about the links between agrobiodiversity and dietary diversity in the context of fruits and vegetables, and to clarify knowledge gaps for further research. Planetary health through the conservation of fruit and vegetable biodiversity and the consumption of diverse diets is lacking, and in many contexts getting worse. Agrobiodiversity and nutrition are linked, so addressing them together can bring synergies in terms of valuing both issues together and building on the other's gains. There are also potential trade-offs however, and the impacts on health, sustainability and equity of policy or practice change in each area should be closely monitored."},{"index":2,"size":145,"text":"The evidence reviewed here is an input into policy engagement, but more research is clearly neededparticularly in the context of fruits and vegetables, which have not been the focus of most agrobiodiversity or dietary diversity research. In the meantime, and building on what we do already know, food system actors from global experts to national governments to local communities must have input into global guidelines and context-specific actions that ensure different perspectives, needs and interests are balanced equitably, for instance through mechanisms such as the UN Committee on Food Security. Building on food system synergies among diverse diets, conservation, and sustainable use of agrobiodiversity is possible, but acknowledging and debating trade-offs and the winners and losers from change is also vital as we move on from the 2021 UN Food Systems Summit and COP26 and seek to improve fruit and vegetable food systems for all."}]}],"figures":[],"sieverID":"b0297937-f6cc-4905-8b61-3b9b67cb927e","abstract":"Planetary health brings together intrinsically linked issues of human health and natural systems. This paper reviews evidence of how agrobiodiversity underpins dietary diversity for current human populations in the context of fruits and vegetables, and ways to maintain and improve these for future generations.Both the conservation and sustainable use of fruit and vegetable biodiversity and the consumption of diverse diets are sub-optimal, and in many contexts getting worse. Agrobiodiversity and nutrition are linked through food availability, access, conservation and consumption, with potential win-wins but notable trade-offs for policy and action through time, place, agrobiodiversity use, and equity. We pinpoint research gaps and call for inclusive deliberation for action."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"096039e7860f6398718be07028b582e9","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/aa7c9d1f-fa9c-4447-bb37-221cd9e087d1/retrieve"},"pageCount":16,"title":"INFORME FINAL -BIOSHURO I. INFORMACIÓN GENERAL Nombre del proyecto Bioshuro Descripción del proyecto Nuestro Biol Líquido Orgánico Bioshuro, es un producto innovador perfecto para aquellos que buscan una alternativa natural y sostenible para potenciar el crecimiento de sus plantas. Bioshuro se elabora con ingredientes orgánicos de la más alta calidad, fermentado de guano de caballo con un innovador proceso de cianobacterias, sin pesticidas ni químicos dañinos. Esto garantiza que tu cultivo crezca de manera saludable, respetando al mismo tiempo el equilibrio del medio ambiente. Asimismo, está enriquecido con una mezcla equilibrada de nutrientes esenciales, ya que proporciona a tus plantas la alimentación necesaria para un desarrollo óptimo. Desde macronutrientes como nitrógeno, fósforo y potasio hasta micronutrientes clave, este fertilizante orgánico tiene todo lo que tus plantas necesitan. Del mismo modo, fomenta la salud del suelo al impulsar la actividad microbiana beneficiosa. Este proceso natural mejora la absorción de nutrientes, fortalece las raíces y contribuye a la resistencia contra enfermedades","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":28,"text":"Bioshuro se adapta a todos los espacios de cultivo ya sea un jardín doméstico, huerto urbano o cultivo comercial, presentará beneficios de diversas necesidades y tipos de plantas."}]},{"head":"Problema que quiere resolver","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":17,"text":"Los suelos áridos y pobres en nutrientes de Lima los cuales reducen el rendimiento de diversos cultivos."},{"index":2,"size":27,"text":".Objetivo General • Producir Bioshuro para el uso en las pruebas de validación en campo y la eficaz comprobación para su comercialización en diversas zonas de Lima."},{"index":3,"size":2,"text":".Objetivos Específicos"},{"index":4,"size":26,"text":"• Las pruebas en campo para la comparación entre el grupo control y los grupos experimentales de abonos de la competencia para pruebas a los clientes."},{"index":5,"size":25,"text":"• Establecer preferencias de los productores o agricultores en cuanto a abonos y la realización de comprobación con los mismos para obtener un posible mercado."},{"index":6,"size":21,"text":"• Obtener nuestro posible modelo de negocio a través de canales de ventas y físicos y el tiempo delimitado para generarlo."}]},{"head":"II. INFORMACIÓN DEL PROYECTO","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":2,"text":"Impacto Social:"},{"index":2,"size":42,"text":"• Bioshuro promueve la reducción de la utilización de químicos sintéticos en la agricultura contribuye a la mejora de la calidad del agua y la reducción de la exposición de agricultores y comunidades a productos químicos tóxicos, mejorando así la salud humana."},{"index":3,"size":33,"text":"• El fortalecimiento de la salud del suelo y la diversificación de prácticas agrícolas pueden aumentar la resiliencia de los agricultores frente a eventos climáticos extremos y variaciones en las condiciones del suelo."},{"index":4,"size":2,"text":"Impacto Ambiental:"},{"index":5,"size":139,"text":"• El uso del biol puede mejorar la salud del suelo al aumentar la diversidad y actividad de microorganismos beneficiosos, constituyendo a la formación de una estructura del suelo más saludable, mejorando la retención de agua y reduciendo la erosión. • Se fomenta la gestión sostenible de residuos orgánicos a la reutilización de estos materiales tales como el guano de caballo y en los envases de venta como las botellas siendo reusadas evitando que terminen en vertederos, reduciendo así la contaminación y emisiones asociadas. • Se contribuye a cerrar el ciclo de nutrientes al utilizar ingredientes orgánicos que provienen de fuentes renovables, teniendo un enfoque más circular y sostenible en la gestión de nutrientes en la agricultura. Asimismo, disminuye la contaminación del suelo y del agua, así como la exposición de los agricultores y consumidores a sustancias químicas nocivas."}]},{"head":"III. DESARROLLO DEL PROYECTO Actividades: a. Elaboración del MVP","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":98,"text":"Nuestro equipo, ya cuenta con un producto minimo viable, el cual fue desarrollado con anticipación. BioShuro, un abono liquido organico presenta multiples ventajas comparativas con el resto de bioles en el mercado. La presente prueba experimental se llevó a cabo en el marco del Programa de Leguminosas, con la colaboración y asesoría de profesores de la Facultad de Agronomía. El enfoque principal de este estudio se centró en el cultivo de maíz, específicamente evaluando cuatro tratamientos diferentes, cada uno con seis repeticiones. Los tratamientos incluyeron Biol de \"Casa Blanca\", Biol de \"Pescado\", BioShuro, y un grupo de control."}]},{"head":"Materiales y Métodos:","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":40,"text":"Para la ejecución de la investigación, se dispusieron 24 macetas, cada una con una capacidad de 20 kg. El sustrato seleccionado fue arena de río lavada, adaptada para el cultivo de maíz amarillo duro destinado a la producción de chala."}]},{"head":"Procedimientos:","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":4,"text":"a. Fertilización y Sustrato:"},{"index":2,"size":35,"text":"Se aplicó una fertilización con sustitución parcial del 70% fertilización orgánica en un sustrato neutro. Este enfoque permitió aislar y analizar de manera precisa los efectos individuales de cada biol en el rendimiento del maíz."}]},{"head":"b. Siembra Indirecta:","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":27,"text":"La siembra se llevó a cabo de manera indirecta para optimizar las condiciones iniciales de crecimiento. Se implementó una fertilización a fondo en esta etapa del proceso. "}]},{"head":"Titulo: BioShuro, abono orgánico líquido","index":8,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Hipotesis:","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":48,"text":"1. Los agricultores prefieren productos que sean seguros para el medio ambiente y la salud. ¿Considera que la composición orgánica de Bioshuro cumple con sus estándares de seguridad ambiental y salud de los cultivos? 2. Los agricultores valoran la simplicidad y facilidad de uso en los productos agrícolas."},{"index":2,"size":46,"text":"¿Cómo percibe la facilidad de integrar Bioshuro en sus prácticas agrícolas cotidianas? 3. Los agricultores buscan soluciones que les proporcionen una ventaja competitiva en el mercado. ¿Cómo cree que la aplicación de Bioshuro podría diferenciar y mejorar la calidad de sus productos frente a la competencia?"}]},{"head":"Preguntas:","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":63,"text":"1. Los agricultores valoran la durabilidad y almacenamiento efectivo de los productos agrícolas. ¿Cómo cree que Bioshuro se compara en términos de duración y almacenamiento en comparación con otros fertilizantes? 2. Los agricultores buscan soluciones que les brinden resultados consistentes a lo largo del tiempo. ¿Cómo cree que el uso continuo de Bioshuro podría mantener y mejorar constantemente la calidad de sus cultivos?"}]},{"head":"d. Analisis de información obtenida","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":76,"text":"El 80% de los entrevistados participantes en el estudio se identificaron como productores agrícolas con una extensión de cultivo superior a 10 hectáreas. Notablemente, este grupo demostró una predisposición positiva hacia la adopción del producto \"BioShuro\". La aceptación para probar este producto en sus cultivos sugiere un interés significativo y una disposición a explorar nuevas soluciones en la gestión agrícola. Este hallazgo respalda la viabilidad de la implementación de \"BioShuro\" en entornos agrícolas de mayor escala."},{"index":2,"size":106,"text":"En el caso de la empresa \" Incaterra Agroexport EIRL\" , que se encuentra en Paijan tiene los cultivos de palto, sandía y espárrago. En el caso del cultivo de sandía, los resultados revelaron un crecimiento notable con un menor incremento de plagas, evidenciando una mayor resistencia del cultivo ante posibles infestaciones. Destacadamente, el 60% de las semillas de sandía germinaron de manera más rápida en comparación con condiciones convencionales. Estos hallazgos indican un impacto positivo de las condiciones de cultivo, sugiriendo que el uso de prácticas específicas o productos como \"BioShuro\" podría influir positivamente en el desarrollo inicial y la resistencia del cultivo de sandía."},{"index":3,"size":52,"text":"Además, el usuario utilizó BioShuro a través del fertiriego, lo que representa un beneficio significativo al simplificar el proceso y reducir la carga de trabajo. Esta metodología permite la aplicación eficiente del producto durante el riego, facilitando su integración en la rutina agrícola sin generar una carga adicional de trabajo para este."},{"index":4,"size":13,"text":"Figura N°10 . Fertiriego y pequeño plantón de sandía Fuente. Elaboración propia, (2023)"},{"index":5,"size":72,"text":"Este cliente llevó a cabo pruebas de \"BioShuro\" en su cultivo de espárragos, un producto que constituye una parte significativa de sus ventas a gran escala. Observó beneficios sustanciales para su cultivo, sin embargo, manifestó su decisión de no dejar de utilizar fertilizantes. Aunque reconoció la eficacia de \"BioShuro\" en mejorar la producción, subrayó la importancia continua de los fertilizantes, indicando que estos siguen siendo una parte esencial de su estrategia agrícola."},{"index":6,"size":121,"text":"Figura N °11. Aplicación de BioShuro en espárrago cuando está en etapa 3 de crecimiento. Fuente. Elaboración propia, (2023) En el caso del cultivo de palto, los resultados no mostraron significancias tan notables en los 2 meses de uso, dada la naturaleza frutal del cultivo, que requiere un tiempo considerable para el desarrollo de frutos. No obstante, se observó una ligera disminución en la incidencia de plagas y enfermedades en los plantones. Aunque los beneficios no fueron inmediatos en términos de producción de frutos, la reducción de plagas en las etapas tempranas del crecimiento sugiere un impacto positivo en la salud y vigor de los plantones de palto. Figura N°12 . Aplicación de BioShuro en plantón de etapa 4 de palto."},{"index":7,"size":5,"text":"Fuente. Elaboración propia , (2023)"},{"index":8,"size":75,"text":"El productor agrícola de gran escala expresó su convicción de convertirse en un cliente recurrente para la producción comercial de \"BioShuro\". Sin embargo, señaló que no consideraría utilizar el producto para la agroexportación, debido a la necesidad de obtener un registro sanitario por parte de \"BioShuro\". Esta percepción sugiere que, aunque confía en la eficacia del producto para su operación local, las barreras regulatorias asociadas con la exportación podrían requerir consideraciones adicionales y procesos administrativos."},{"index":9,"size":64,"text":"En el caso de Ica en Independencia, ell cliente optó por utilizar BioShuro en el cultivo frutal de granado durante la etapa de cuaje, observando un notable incremento del 30% en el crecimiento de este. Estos resultados sugieren un impacto positivo específicamente durante la fase crucial de desarrollo de frutos, destacando el potencial beneficioso de la aplicación de BioShuro en el cultivo de granado."},{"index":10,"size":16,"text":"Figura N°13 . Cultivo de Granado en Independencia -Ica de Leonardo Salazar Fuente. Elaboración propia,( 2023)"},{"index":11,"size":62,"text":"Durante la entrevista, el cliente expresó su preferencia por BioShuro debido a su menor costo en comparación con el fertilizante. Destacó que, además del aspecto económico, valora la rapidez en la efectividad del producto. Esta elección resalta la importancia que el cliente asigna tanto a la eficiencia económica como a la prontitud de los resultados al tomar decisiones relacionadas con insumos agrícolas."},{"index":12,"size":10,"text":"Figura N°14. Leonardo Salazar adquiendo BioShuro Fuente. Elaboración propia, (2023)"},{"index":13,"size":57,"text":"En comparación de el productor de Paiján tiene la intención de mantener el uso de fertilizantes, pero busca complementarlo con BioShuro. En lugar de abandonar por completo los fertilizantes, lo podria utilizar equilibrando su estrategia agrícola incorporando BioShuro, posiblemente con el objetivo de optimizar la eficacia y rendimiento de su cultivo mediante una combinación de ambos productos."},{"index":14,"size":13,"text":"Figura N°15. Campo de granado en Independencia -Ica Fuente. Elaboración propia, ( 2023)"},{"index":15,"size":105,"text":"En el caso de otro cliente de la zona de Asia, el cultivo de higo, se aplicó BioShuro exclusivamente en el área foliar. Hasta el momento, no se han observado cambios significativos, dado que el higo es un árbol y los resultados pueden requerir más tiempo para manifestarse plenamente. Sin embargo, se ha notado un aumento en la cantidad de hojas, indicando que la aplicación podría estar influyendo positivamente en el desarrollo foliar del árbol. Es posible que los efectos más notorios en el rendimiento y salud del cultivo se manifiesten en etapas posteriores del ciclo de crecimiento o que la dosis deba ser mayor."},{"index":16,"size":20,"text":"Figura N°16 Árbol de higo con el aumento de hojas y Marcos Luyo adquiriendo el producto. Fuente. Elaboración propia, (2023)"}]},{"head":"Resultados","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":53,"text":"• Los efectos de Bioshuro. Los resultados de la aplicación de BioShuro fueron mayormente positivos en varios cultivos, como espárragos, sandías, paltos y granados. No obstante, en el caso del cultivo de higo, donde es un árbol, los impactos no fueron tan significativos, posiblemente debido a las particularidades de este tipo de planta."},{"index":2,"size":43,"text":"Estos hallazgos sugieren que la utilidad de BioShuro se manifiesta de manera más destacada en frutales y hortalizas, donde se observaron aumentos en la producción. Esto respalda la eficacia potencial de este biol en la mejora de rendimientos en ciertos tipos de cultivos."},{"index":3,"size":73,"text":"Además, la respuesta de los productores agrícolas que probaron el producto varió en términos de fidelidad. Algunos se convirtieron en clientes fijos, optando por adquirir BioShuro de manera regular para sus campañas agrícolas, mientras que otros, aunque no necesitaban el producto a gran escala, expresaron su interés en convertirse en clientes recurrentes. Este patrón indica una aceptación positiva del producto, tanto para necesidades específicas como para un uso continuo en sus operaciones agrícolas."},{"index":4,"size":84,"text":"• El agricultor prefieren productos que sean seguros para el medio ambiente y la salud. Los agricultores expresan una preferencia por productos que sean seguros para el medio ambiente y la salud. A pesar de esta preferencia, algunos de ellos no están dispuestos a dejar de utilizar sus fertilizantes químicos debido a la rapidez en la efectividad que ofrecen. Sin embargo, la mayoría considera reducir la cantidad de fertilizantes químicos, y en este contexto, BioShuro se presenta como un complemento valioso para sus cultivos."},{"index":5,"size":55,"text":"Adicionalmente, otro grupo de productores agrícolas se inclina más hacia la consideración del costo, incluso si BioShuro tarda un poco más en demostrar resultados comparados con los fertilizantes químicos. Este enfoque destaca la importancia del aspecto económico en las decisiones agrícolas, aunque estén dispuestos a esperar si el producto puede ofrecer beneficios a largo plazo."},{"index":6,"size":25,"text":"En conjunto, estos hallazgos ilustran la diversidad de prioridades y consideraciones que los agricultores tienen al evaluar y adoptar nuevos productos en sus prácticas agrícolas."},{"index":7,"size":72,"text":"• El incremento de clientes hasta Noviembre. La empresa experimentó una mejora significativa en la cantidad de clientes, destacando la adquisición de clientes recurrentes en las zonas de Ica y Asia. Además, se aseguró un cliente fijo en la zona de Paiján. Esta respuesta positiva indica que la eficacia percibida de los productos de la empresa ha contribuido a la lealtad del cliente y a la repetición de compras en áreas específicas."},{"index":8,"size":77,"text":"Estos resultados han permitido a la empresa potenciar su presencia en el mercado de agricultura orgánica y expandirse a nuevas zonas. La adquisición de un cliente destacado en Paiján, quien fue el mayor comprador de productos, subraya el impacto positivo de los resultados observados en los cultivos de dicho cliente. Este éxito no solo fortalece la posición de la empresa en el mercado actual, sino que también sugiere un potencial para un crecimiento adicional en otras regiones."},{"index":9,"size":1,"text":"Conclusiones."},{"index":10,"size":34,"text":"-BioShuro demostró efectos mayormente positivos en diversos cultivos, como espárragos, sandías, paltos y granados. Estos resultados respaldan la eficacia potencial de este producto en la mejora de rendimientos agrícolas, especialmente en frutales y hortalizas."},{"index":11,"size":50,"text":"-Se observó que los impactos de BioShuro fueron menos significativos en el cultivo de higo, particularmente al ser un árbol. Esto sugiere que la efectividad del producto puede variar según el tipo de planta, destacando la importancia de considerar las particularidades de cada cultivo al aplicar este tipo de productos."},{"index":12,"size":47,"text":"-La respuesta de los agricultores a BioShuro fue diversa en términos de fidelidad. Algunos se convirtieron en clientes fijos, mientras que otros expresaron interés en ser clientes recurrentes. Esta variabilidad indica que la aceptación del producto puede depender de las necesidades y preferencias específicas de cada agricultor."},{"index":13,"size":50,"text":"-Existe una preferencia general entre los agricultores por productos seguros para el medio ambiente y la salud. Sin embargo, algunos priorizan la rapidez en la efectividad de los fertilizantes químicos. Otro grupo considera principalmente el costo, mostrando que la toma de decisiones agrícolas es influenciada por factores económicos y ambientales."},{"index":14,"size":52,"text":"-El aumento significativo en la cantidad de clientes hasta noviembre es un indicador claro del éxito de la empresa. La adquisición de clientes recurrentes en Ica y Asia, así como un cliente fijo en Paiján, sugiere una aceptación positiva del mercado y la capacidad de la empresa para expandirse en nuevas áreas."},{"index":15,"size":52,"text":"-La mejora en la cantidad de clientes ha permitido a la empresa fortalecer su presencia en el mercado de agricultura orgánica. El hecho de que un cliente en Paiján haya sido el mayor comprador destaca la posibilidad de un crecimiento adicional, respaldando la eficacia y la aceptación de BioShuro en diversas regiones."}]},{"head":"RECURSOS HUMANOS INVOLUCRADOS EN EL PROYECTO","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":18,"text":"Información de todas las integrantes del equipo, sean o no parte de un círculo de investigación, a continuación: "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figura N°1 . Figura N°1. Ficha técnica de BioShuro,con el anterior nombre Green Biol plus(2022)     "},{"text":"Figura N°4 . Figura N°4. Almacigos de maiz Fuente. Elaboración propia(2023)     "},{"text":"Figura Figura N°8 . El señor David Salazar con su hijo Julio Salazar en el cultivo de palto en Paiján -Trujillo Fuente. Elaboración propia, (2023) "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "}],"sieverID":"01cee555-1700-4383-bddc-0ab9bd2548f0","abstract":""}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0975e9129d9a81effde29908cb5df5ba","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/56d08168-0bfd-45a2-8d17-11fc84c2cb87/retrieve"},"pageCount":8,"title":"Reprinted with permission from Sociedad Colombiana de Entomología SOCOLEN. Originally published in Revista colombiana de Entomología 27(3-4): 129-136, Copyright 2001","keywords":[],"chapters":[],"figures":[],"sieverID":"2ef15953-61f5-4588-9e91-65c5e1d166f5","abstract":""}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0981f61e76d87ad9fd3e9804b6d197f3","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/8310ec42-7669-4f89-8a7c-a36decdf42f6/retrieve"},"pageCount":34,"title":"CGIAR Research Program on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security (CCAFS) Summary of Baseline Household Survey Results: Lushoto, Tanzania","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":69,"text":"Other weather--related factors cited as reasons for making farming practice changes were more erratic rainfall, less overall rainfall, more frequent droughts, and an earlier start of the rains. This led to some respondents adopting shorter--cycle and drought--tolerant crop varieties, preparing their land for planting earlier than they used to, planting earlier (particularly maize), but also planting some crops at a later date than they had previously (beans and cassava)."},{"index":2,"size":66,"text":"Land--related drivers of change were also reported, particularly 'less productive land' and 'decreasing land size'. To mitigate the low land productivity, changes such as the use of manure and mineral fertilizers have been widely adopted, mainly on maize and beans, the principal crops in the surveyed area. Investments in drought--resistant crops such as cassava have also been frequently made over the last decade by these households."},{"index":3,"size":36,"text":"The survey also found that less than one--third of farmers have adopted the improved soil and water conservation practices that are key to combatting the challenges of a changing climate, reduced soil fertility, and marketing--related challenges."},{"index":4,"size":30,"text":"For more information about CCAFS, see: http://www.ccafs.cgiar.org . A complementary community--level survey was also conducted in Lushoto and those survey guidelines and reports will also be available on the website."},{"index":5,"size":46,"text":"This baseline survey has provided some key indicators relating to household well--being and agricultural adaptation strategies that will be monitored over time. This information will help to better target interventions aimed at improving them, as well as identifying key gaps in information that warrant further research."}]},{"head":"Introduction","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":30,"text":"This report presents the results of an analysis of the CCAFS baseline household survey carried out in January 2011 in seven villages, with 140 households, in Lushoto, Tanzania (Figure 1)."},{"index":2,"size":129,"text":"The objective of this survey was to gather baseline information at the household--level about some basic indicators of welfare, information sources, livelihood/agriculture/natural resource management strategies, needs and uses of climate and agricultural--related information and current risk management, mitigation and adaptation practices. The aim was to capture some of the diversity in the landscape, across communities and households, with sufficient precision in some of these indicators to encapsulate changes that occur over time, as these same households will be revisited in 5--10 years and these changes observed. For full details of survey team members and villages surveyed see Annexes 1 and 2. The questionnaire and training materials associated with it, including data entry and management guidelines, can be found at www.ccafs.cgiar.org/resources/baseline-surveys. The questionnaire was divided into ten sections, as follows:"},{"index":3,"size":5,"text":"• Household respondent and type"},{"index":4,"size":2,"text":"• Demography"},{"index":5,"size":32,"text":"• Sources of livelihood • Crop, farm animals/fish, tree, soil, land and water management changes This report provides a summary of the main findings of the analysis of the household survey data."}]},{"head":"Household demography","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":53,"text":"A total of 140 household respondents were interviewed, of whom 66% were male and 34% female. Over half the respondents were heads of households, 21% spouses of the household head, and 6% were parents. Twenty--two percent of households were female--headed; 5% of these reported having husbands that were away most of the time."},{"index":2,"size":29,"text":"The ethnic group of the majority of respondents (93%) was Wasambaa, with the remainder coming from minority ethnic groups, the Wambugu (3%), Wachaga (2%), Wapare (1%) and Wazigua (1%)."},{"index":3,"size":85,"text":"The average size of the interviewed households (i.e. residents for the majority of the year) was six people, with a range of 1 to 15 persons (Figure 2.1). 2.2 shows the proportion of the household of working age (between 5 and 60 years old). A small proportion of households, 7% (the green and blue in Figure 2.2), have relatively few members of working age (40% or less). The vast majority of households (93%) have at least 60% of family members that are of working age. "}]},{"head":"Figure 2.1 Size of surveyed households Figure","index":4,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Education levels","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":42,"text":"The majority (88%) of the interviewed households have a member with at least a primary education, while 12% have no--one with a formal education residing in the household. Few households have a member at a post--secondary education level 3.0 Sources of livelihood"}]},{"head":"On--farm livelihood sources","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":36,"text":"All households produce and consume crops grown on their farms, and 75% of respondents said they were selling some of the food crops produced (Table 3.1). Sixty--one percent are also producing a cash crop (primarily coffee)."},{"index":2,"size":73,"text":"Fruits and vegetables are also important sources of livelihoods in Lushoto, with over two--thirds of households producing these products. Both of these are also important for home consumption as well as income, as 61% of households also sell some fruits and 60% sell vegetables. Related to livestock, fodder is produced by 45% of households and sold by around one--fifth of them, and manure/compost is produced by three--quarters (with few households also selling manure)."},{"index":3,"size":26,"text":"Fuelwood (produced by 58% of households) and timber (46%) are also important on--farm livelihood sources, mostly for own--consumption, but some households are also selling these products."}]},{"head":"Off--farm livelihood sources and diversification indices","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":50,"text":"Off--farm livelihood sources were fairly limited (Table 3.2), with 22% of households producing/harvesting food crops (and 15% selling it) and 8% gathering fruit (and all of those selling some) from places other than their own farms. Very few households reported gathering fuelwood or timber outside of the land they own. "}]},{"head":"Diversification Indices","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":37,"text":"An agricultural production diversification index was created by adding up the total number of agricultural/livestock products produced on--farm, where 1=1--4 products (low production diversification); 2=5--8 products (intermediate production diversification); and 3=more than 8 products (high production diversification)."},{"index":2,"size":49,"text":"On the selling/commercialization side, the total numbers of agricultural/livestock products produced on their own farms, with some of those products also sold, were added up, where: 0=no products sold (no commercialization); 1=1--2 products sold (low commercialization); 2=3--5 products sold (intermediate commercialization); and 3=more than 5 products sold (high commercialization)."},{"index":3,"size":47,"text":"The results of these diversification indices for our surveyed households in the Lushoto site are shown in Table 3.3. We found that 16% produced 4 or fewer different types of agricultural products. One-half produced 5 to 8 products. Thirty--four percent of households produced more than 8 products."},{"index":4,"size":16,"text":"On the selling side, 3% of households obtained no income at all from agriculture or livestock."},{"index":5,"size":16,"text":"Eighteen percent sold only one or two types of products, and one--half sold 3--5 different products."},{"index":6,"size":18,"text":"Almost one--third of households fell into the highly diversified category (selling more than 6 types of agricultural products). "}]},{"head":"Who does most of the work on and off--farm?","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":126,"text":"Respondents were asked who did the majority of the work in order to produce the different agricultural outputs. While an imperfect indicator of detailed labour allocation, nonetheless, it does give an idea of types of agricultural work that are considered women's versus men's responsibility. Most households reported that several people within the household shared the workloads for many products (yellow section in Figure 3.1). Women bear the majority of the workload for around 1/3 of total agricultural tasks (brown section in Figure 3.1). Women appear to be particularly involved in food crop production and rearing small livestock, where one--fifth of households reported that women do most of the work. This increased to 27% with respect to tasks relating to production of livestock products (e.g. milk, eggs). "}]},{"head":"Sources of Cash Income","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":92,"text":"Table 3.4 shows diversity of cash income sources from off--farm activities. Only 14% of households have no other source of off--farm income. Employment on other peoples' farms is a source of income for just over one--half of households. Remittances are also an important source of cash income for one--half of surveyed households. Thirty--four percent are receiving some income from small businesses. Households report not receiving any loans or credit from formal sources such as banks, and 14% are accessing informal credit. 4.0 Crop, farm animals/fish, tree, soil, land and water management changes"}]},{"head":"Crop related changes","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":112,"text":"Almost all households (90%) have been living in this locality for at least 10 years. Of the 124 households that are long--time residents, only 5% reported making no changes to their cropping practices in the last decade. Maize was mentioned by 87% of the households as one of their main crops (i.e. first, second or third in importance in terms of overall livelihoods). Beans were mentioned by 75% of the households as a main crop currently, and tomatoes were the third most widely cited main crop, grown by 27% of households. Potatoes, bananas and cassava are also important crops in Lushoto, mentioned as main crops currently grown by roughly one--quarter of households."},{"index":2,"size":28,"text":"Respondents were also asked about the main crops they produced 10 years ago. These remained the same as 10 years previously --maize (77%), beans (71%) and tomatoes (25%)."}]},{"head":"Adoption of new crops and/or varieties","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":44,"text":"When asked about what changes they had made in terms of adoption of new crops or new varieties, 78% of long--time residents said they had introduced three or more new crops and/or varieties, and 10% had introduced no new crops or varieties (Table 4.1)."}]},{"head":"Table 4.1 Adoption of new crop varieties over the last 10 years","index":13,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Change in Practice % of households","index":14,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"No introduction of new crops or varieties 10","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":10,"text":"Have introduced 1 or 2 new crops and/or varieties 12"},{"index":2,"size":10,"text":"Have introduced 3 or more new crops and/or varieties 78"},{"index":3,"size":61,"text":"As maize is an important crop for most households, we further examine what kinds of changes were made with respect to maize varieties (Table 4.2). Introduction of higher yielding varieties, pre-treated/improved seeds, shorter--cycle varieties and drought tolerant varieties were most frequently adopted. However, some households at the same time adopted longer--cycle maize varieties. Disease and pest resistant varieties were also introduced."}]},{"head":"Table 4.2 Varietal changes made to maize","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":8,"text":"Type of varietal change --maize % of cases*"}]},{"head":"Planting higher yielding variety 67","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":6,"text":"Planting pre--treated or improved seed 68"},{"index":2,"size":5,"text":"Planting shorter cycle variety 53"}]},{"head":"Planting longer cycle variety 18","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":5,"text":"Planting drought tolerant variety 30"},{"index":2,"size":5,"text":"Planting disease resistant variety 28"},{"index":3,"size":8,"text":"Planting pest resistant variety 28 *multiple responses possible"}]},{"head":"Water management related changes","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":12,"text":"For the water management--related changes, the following changes in practice were considered:"},{"index":2,"size":3,"text":"• Started irrigating;"},{"index":3,"size":3,"text":"• Introduced micro--catchments;"},{"index":4,"size":4,"text":"• Introduced improved irrigation;"},{"index":5,"size":4,"text":"• Introduced improved drainage."},{"index":6,"size":34,"text":"Here, we found that 44% of households had made no water management--related changes over the last 10 years, 36% had made 2 such changes, and 19% had made two or more of these changes."}]},{"head":"Soil Management related changes","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":11,"text":"For the soil management related changes, we explored the following possibilities:"},{"index":2,"size":3,"text":"• Stopped burning;"},{"index":3,"size":4,"text":"• Introduced crop cover;"},{"index":4,"size":5,"text":"• Introduced ridges or bunds;"},{"index":5,"size":3,"text":"• Introduced mulching;"},{"index":6,"size":3,"text":"• Introduced terraces;"},{"index":7,"size":4,"text":"• Introduced stone lines;"},{"index":8,"size":4,"text":"• Introduced contour ploughing;"},{"index":9,"size":3,"text":"• Introduced rotations;"},{"index":10,"size":8,"text":"• Started using or using more mineral/chemical fertiliser;"},{"index":11,"size":33,"text":"• Started using manure/compost. 7% of respondents reported making no soil management--related changes in the last 10 years. 12% had made one such change, and 81% said they had made 2 or more."},{"index":12,"size":22,"text":"We examine in further detail the land management--related changes that have been made relating to maize in the Lushoto site (Table 4.3). "}]},{"head":"Tree/Agroforestry management related changes","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":77,"text":"The results show that 41% of households made no tree/agroforestry management--related changes in the last decade, and 59% reported having made some kind of changes here. When asked how many trees they had planted on their farms in the last year, 55% of households had planted no trees, 14% had planted less than 10 trees, 23% had planted 11--50 trees, and 9% had planted over 50 trees. Only 22% of households had produced or purchased tree seedlings."},{"index":2,"size":117,"text":"Respondents reported that they grow both indigenous and exotic types of trees. All indigenous trees are endangered and hence protected by district and village by--laws. Farmers can grow them in their fields but when they want to harvest them for either timber or fuel wood they must seek permission from the district authorities. Indigenous trees grown in the study area are Ng'weti (Rauvolfia cafra), Mshai (albizia spp), Mkuyu (Ficus nataeleusis), Mvumo (Ficus thonningii), Ng'weng'we (Dacaena usambarensis), and Mlombelombe. Respondents reported that they value indigenous trees as they are perceived as good for soil improvement and water availability. \"Anywhere you find an indigenous tree growing there is good vegetation underneath and plenty of water,\" said some older respondents."},{"index":3,"size":75,"text":"Exotic trees are Mkabela (Grevillea spp) which is the most popular tree grown, Eucaliptus spp, and Mwati (Acasia mearnsii), Mpera (Guava spp), Apple (Mulrus silvestris), Matunda damu (Plums), Mfyoksi Peach (Prunus Persia), and Avocado (Persea amaericana). Trees are normally grown around the homesteads. Grevillea is intercropped with other crops such as maize, coffee and beans. Woodlots are not a common practice but wherever they occur, they are mainly planted with Acacia mearnsii and occasionally Eucalyptus."}]},{"head":"Reasons for Crop--related changes","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":60,"text":"Households who made crop--related changes did so for various reasons (Table 4.4). One or combinations of factors/reasons typically triggered the changes. Markets. As can be seen in Table 4.4, market forces were a key reason behind many of the changes made. These included better yield, price and/or more opportunities to sell as major factors influencing them to make the changes."},{"index":2,"size":30,"text":"Land. Land--related reasons were also key drivers of change. In 89% of cases, land--related reasons, including shortage of farm land or loss in productivity were reasons given for making changes."}]},{"head":"Pests and diseases.","index":23,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":13,"text":"Pest and disease problems were also drivers of change in many cases (80%)."},{"index":2,"size":14,"text":"Projects. Project or program--related drivers of change were also mentioned by many households (62%)."},{"index":3,"size":84,"text":"Climate. Eighty--nine percent of respondents made changes due to climate--related reasons. When these were examined in more detail (Table 4.5), we see both perceptions that overall rainfall is now lower (77%), and higher (39%). More erratic rainfall was given as a reason in 75% of cases. More frequent droughts are also a frequently cited factor behind changes in practices. Some felt that the rains were starting later (65%), while 77% thought the opposite, i.e. the rains were now starting earlier than they used to. "}]},{"head":"Livestock--related changes","index":24,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":39,"text":"The majority of respondents (84%) keep small animals (sheep, goats, chickens or other poultry, and/or pigs), whereas only 43% of them keep large livestock (mainly cattle, but some buffalo for traction). Only seven households had no livestock at all."},{"index":2,"size":58,"text":"Livestock in the surveyed area and in neighbouring villages is largely kept under a zero--grazing system, associated with tethering around the homestead during the day. Feeding resources are mainly local and cultivated fodder, banana leaves and pseudo stems, and crop residues. A few farmers who have interacted with development partners, such as researchers and NGOs use fodder trees."},{"index":3,"size":86,"text":"When asked what their main animals kept now are (in terms of overall importance to their livelihoods), chickens, dairy cows and goats were most frequently cited. This has not changed significantly from 10 years ago (Table 4.6). Households have been adopting new animal types or breeds -41% said they had introduced 1 or 2 new animal types and/or breeds, and 19% said they had introduced 3 or more. Forty percent of households had made no changes in breeds or animal types raised over the last decade."},{"index":4,"size":63,"text":"There have also been changes made in livestock management practices (Table not shown). Thirty percent of households had started producing chickens over the last 10 years, and another 22% had increased the numbers of chickens kept (table not shown). Over the same period, 11% reduced their chicken numbers and 7% of households stopped producing chickens altogether. Only 6% had introduced new chicken breeds."},{"index":5,"size":55,"text":"For dairy, the most frequent change cited was the introduction of cut and carry, by almost all dairy producers, while 2/3 of them had introduced new breeds, and half had introduced stall keeping. Sixty households reported introducing fodder crops, and 22 had improved their pastures. But only one--fifth of dairy producers are now storing fodder."}]},{"head":"Reasons for livestock management--related changes","index":25,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":71,"text":"The reasons given for making livestock management changes are shown in Table 4.7. Pests and diseases were one driving force behind the changes made. Market--related reasons, described as having more productive animals, getting better prices, and having new opportunities to sell, were also important. Projects were behind one--fifth of the responses as to why these changes were made. Climate--related changes were not important drivers of change with respect to livestock practices. "}]},{"head":"Adaptability/Innovation Index","index":26,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":22,"text":"An Adaptability/Innovation Index was defined as the following: 0--1=zero or one change made in farming practices over last 10 years (low level)"},{"index":2,"size":8,"text":"1=2--10 changes made in farming practices (intermediate level)"},{"index":3,"size":10,"text":"2=11 or more changes made in farming practices (high level)"},{"index":4,"size":45,"text":"As can be seen in Table 4.8, 82% of households made over 11 different kinds of changes to their agricultural practices in the last 10 years and 16% made between 2 and 10 changes. Two households had made virtually no changes over the last decade. "}]},{"head":"Mitigation Indices","index":27,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":12,"text":"Several climate mitigation--related behavioral changes were used to create the following indices:"},{"index":2,"size":18,"text":"Tree management. This index shows whether a household has either protected or planted trees within the last year."},{"index":3,"size":27,"text":"Soil amendments. This index shows if the household has used fertilizer in the last year, or have started using fertilizer or manure on at least one crop."},{"index":4,"size":44,"text":"Input intensification. There are 7 'changes in agricultural practices/behavior over the last 10 years considered here to create an index with 3 levels --no intensification (none of the following), low intensification (1--3 of the following), and high intensification (4--7 of the following). They are:"},{"index":5,"size":91,"text":"• Purchased fertilizer • Started to irrigate • Started using manure/compost • Started using mineral/chemical fertilizers • Started using pesticides/herbicides • Started using integrated pest management techniques • Planted higher yielding varieties Productivity Index. This index shows if a household has reported achieving a better yield from any crop, or that their land is more productive for any crop over the last 10 years -such households are classified as showing an \"increase in productivity\". Table 4.9 shows the results for the mitigation-related indices for the surveyed households in the Lushoto site."},{"index":6,"size":74,"text":"Three--quarters of households reported having made some changes in terms of agroforestry practices (e.g. planting trees on their farms). The vast majority are taking actions to improve their soil fertility. Most (90%) also encouragingly reported seeing some productivity increases over the last decade. In terms of the degree of intensification (i.e. higher input use), almost half reported a low level and half have been intensifying their production systems at higher levels of input use. "}]},{"head":"Food Security","index":28,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":55,"text":"The monthly source of food for the family was queried, i.e. whether it came mainly from their own farm or elsewhere, for each month (in an average and not extreme rainfall year). Households were also asked during which months of the year they struggled to have enough food to feed their family, from any source."},{"index":2,"size":102,"text":"The survey shows that food deficits are high from January to June, May being the highest, when 81% of households report that food comes mainly from off--farm sources (Figure 5.1). The food deficit months are those before harvesting (Figure 5.2). Respondents reported that these are the months where cash is especially needed to buy foodstuffs from shops and markets; hence the reasons why quick cash--earning crops such as tomatoes are currently surpassing traditional cash--generating crops like coffee. Harvesting starts in May with early maturing crops like beans and vegetables, and peaks in August--September when most of the households have just enough food.  "}]},{"head":"Food security index","index":29,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":34,"text":"The food security index we created is based upon the number of months that the household has difficulty getting food from any source (i.e. from their own farm or stores, gifts, purchases or transfers)."},{"index":2,"size":70,"text":"For our surveyed households in Lushoto, only 4% are 'food secure' all year long (Table 5.1). 7% access enough food for their families for at least 10--11 months of the year. 26% of these households struggle to get enough food to feed their family for 3--4 months/year, 27% face 5--6 food deficit months, and over one--third deal with more than 6 food deficit months per year. 6.0 Land and water"}]},{"head":"Water for Agriculture","index":30,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":70,"text":"Households' access to different types of on--farm water for agriculture is shown in Table 6.1. It shows that 42% of households have sources of water for irrigation on their own farms. The area surveyed, like the most of Lushoto, has V--shaped valleys with narrow flat bottoms with rivers and streams. These valleys are mostly used as a source of water and to produce vegetables, off--season maize, Irish potatoes and sugarcane. "}]},{"head":"Land Use","index":31,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":55,"text":"The land available for each household includes both land that is owned by the household and land that is rented. As seen in Table 6.2, two--thirds of households have access to less than one hectare of land and one--third have between 1 and 5 hectares. None of the surveyed households own more than 5 hectares."}]},{"head":"Table 6.2 Total land size accessed by households","index":32,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Number of hectares of land owned and rented in % of households","index":33,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":8,"text":"Less than one hectare 66 1--5 hectares 34"},{"index":2,"size":4,"text":"Over 5 hectares 0"}]},{"head":"Hiring of labour and farm machinery","index":34,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":87,"text":"All respondents reported that they do not use tractors, and only one rented an animal drawn plough. Tractors are not used mainly due to the steep and narrow terrain, and animal drawn ploughs have traditionally not been used in this area for various reasons. Only 14% of household reported hiring any farm labour. This is consistent with Lyamchai et al (1998) who reported that 90% of the labour supply for farm activities in Kwalei catchment in Lushoto, which is neighbouring the surveyed area, comes from the family."}]},{"head":"Climate and weather information","index":35,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":29,"text":"Most households (78%) reported having received some kind of weather or climate--related information during the last year. The types, sources, recipients and use of this information are described below."}]},{"head":"Types of weather--related information","index":36,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":126,"text":"We see in Table 8.1 that forecasts on the start of the rains is the type of information received most frequently, by 71% of households. Forecasts of extreme events are heard by 63% of households, and pest or disease outbreak predictions by just over one--half of households. Only 28% and 27% of the respondents said they had heard a longer--run (2--3 month) weather forecast, or a short--term (i.e. daily) forecast of the weather for the next 1--3 days. For those that are receiving weather--related information, virtually all are also receiving some kind of advice with it that they are able to make use of, except in the case of short-term weather forecasts, where around one--third of households are receiving no other agricultural--related advice alongside that information."}]},{"head":"Who is receiving weather--related information","index":37,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":31,"text":"The results suggest women are not quite as well informed regarding weather predictions as are the men (Table 8.2). In one--half of surveyed households, only the males are hearing weather forecasts."},{"index":2,"size":27,"text":"Women are receiving predictions as to the timing of the start of the rains, pest and disease outbreaks, and extreme events in 60% or more of households. "}]},{"head":"Sources of weather--related information","index":38,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":126,"text":"Regarding sources of weather-related information, Table 8.3 shows the most common sources of different types of information for those households that are receiving it. It suggests that the radio is the most common source of all types of information. These households are also relying heavily on friends and relatives, as well as their own observations, particularly when it comes to forecasting the weather, both in the short and longer run. The government is a key source of information regarding pest and disease outbreak projections, and traditional sources/indigenous knowledge are still relied upon by some, particularly with respect to forecasts of extreme events and the timing of the start of the rains. Newspapers, local groups and NGO's/projects are not common sources of weather-related information in this area. "}]},{"head":"Use of weather--related information","index":39,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":130,"text":"In terms of making changes to their agricultural practices upon receiving weather--related information, Table 8.4 suggests that all types of weather--related information is being used to make changes to how their farmland is managed, and adjustments to the timing of their activities. The type of crop planted changes in response to news on extreme events, predicted start of the rains, and long run weather forecasts, as does change to the particular variety planted. Adjustments in input use are much more influenced by predicted pest and disease outbreaks than other types of weather information. The only use of daily weather forecasts is reported to be changes in land and/or feed management practices. Note: the percentages above are with respect to households receiving information with advice that they were able to use."}]},{"head":"Community groups","index":40,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":29,"text":"When asked whether they belong to any group related to agricultural or natural resource management--related activities, 87% of respondents reported that they belong to no such group (Table 9.1)."},{"index":2,"size":57,"text":"Six households have a member that belongs to a tree nursery group. Having members belonging to groups related to vegetable production, soil, land or water management activities, savings and credit, and soil improvement activities were reported by 2 households each. The total number of assets in all categories was added up and the following asset indicator created:"},{"index":3,"size":69,"text":"0=no assets (basic level) 1=1--3 assets (intermediate level) 2=4 or more assets (high level) It is important to note that this indicator is not intended to include every possible type of asset, and that the checklist includes some indicators that we expect to see becoming more important in the future than they may be at present. It also does not include a critical asset for resource--poor households, livestock assets."},{"index":4,"size":125,"text":"The results of the analysis for the respondents show that 16% have none of the household assets we inquired about, 79% of the surveyed households have between 1 and 3 of these assets, and 5% own 4 or more of these assets (Table 10.1).  10.2 shows the percentage of households with various assets and access to utilities. 75% of households own a radio and 60% have a cellphone. Nine percent own a bicycle, 2% have a motorcycle, and 2% own a car or truck. Next to none have electricity or running water in their homes. Only 4% of these households have a bank account. Improved stoves have been adopted by only 4% of households, and one household has a solar panel. None has a computer."}]},{"head":"ANNEX 2. Village selection and data collection process","index":41,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":175,"text":"The 10 km x 10 km block was chosen by the CCAFS team according to the established criteria. Within this block, all the villages were listed, and seven were chosen randomly. The topography of all the seven selected villages is composed of undulating relief with steep slopes of 10 0 --15 0 but slopes of 25 0 --30 0 are frequent. Valleys are V--shaped with narrow flat bottoms of alluvial and colluvial origin (Pfeifer 1990). In all villages the valleys are used for vegetable production -mainly cabbage, tomato, carrot, sweet pepper and potato -and there are relatively large open fields where maize and beans are cultivated during the long rainy season of March to July. Within the seven villages, a list of all households was generated with the help of village authorities, and a total of 20 households were then randomly selected for each of them (140 households in all), and visited. Features of the selected block are shown in Table A1. The villages covered in the survey are highlighted in bold in Table A2.  "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"• Food security • Land and water • Input and credits • Climate and weather information • Community groups • Assets "},{"text":"Figure 2 . 2 Figure 2.2 Proportion of the household of working age "},{"text":"Figure 3 . 1 Figure 3.1 Labour responsibilities, all agricultural products, by sex "},{"text":"Figure 5 . 1 Figure 5.1 Main source of food for the household "},{"text":"Figure 5 . 2 Figure 5.2 Food deficit/shortage months "},{"text":"Table 2 .1 Levels of education Highest Level of education of any resident household member Number of households % of households  No formal education 17 12 No formal education1712 Primary 89 64 Primary8964 Secondary 31 22 Secondary3122 Post secondary 3 2 Post secondary32 Total 140 100 Total140100  "},{"text":"Table 3 .1 Percentage of households producing, consuming and selling various agricultural products from their own farm Product Percent of households: Livestock production is also important for most households. Most (84%) produce and consume small livestock, and 58% reported selling sheep, goats and/or chickens. Cattle are raised by 43% of surveyed households and sold by 21%.  Producing Consuming Selling ProducingConsumingSelling Food crops 100 98 75 Food crops1009875 Cash crops 61 51 56 Cash crops615156 Fruits 69 66 61 Fruits696661 Vegetables 70 63 60 Vegetables706360 Fodder 45 41 11 Fodder454111 Large livestock 43 16 21 Large livestock431621 Small livestock 84 64 58 Small livestock846458 Livestock products 78 74 48 Livestock products787448 Fish 1 1 1 Fish111 Timber 46 26 21 Timber462621 Fuel wood 58 54 11 Fuel wood585411 Charcoal 1 1 0 Charcoal110 Honey 1 1 1 Honey111 Manure/compost 75 73 8 Manure/compost75738  "},{"text":"Table 3 .2 Off--farm livelihood sources  Product % of households: Product% of households:  Producing/ Selling Producing/Selling  harvesting  harvesting Food crops 22 15 Food crops2215 Fruits 8 8 Fruits88 Fodder 3 0 Fodder30 Timber 6 1 Timber61 Fuel wood 4 0 Fuel wood40 Charcoal 0 0 Charcoal00 Honey 0 0 Honey00 Manure 3 0 Manure30  "},{"text":"Table 3 .3 Diversification Indices Product Diversification:  % of % of households households  "},{"text":"Table 3 .4 Sources of cash income Sources of Cash Income % of households  Employment on someone else's farm 54 Employment on someone else's farm54 Other off farm employment 6 Other off farm employment6 Business 34 Business34 Remittances/gifts 50 Remittances/gifts50 Payments for environmental services 2 Payments for environmental services2 Payments from government or other 1 Payments from government or other1 projects/programs  projects/programs Loan or credit from a formal institution 2 Loan or credit from a formal institution2 Informal loan or credit 14 Informal loan or credit14 No other source 14 No other source14  "},{"text":"Table 4 .3 Land management--related changes made to maize Type of varietal change --maize  % of Type of varietal change -- % of % ofType of varietal change --% of cases* maize cases* cases*maizecases*  "},{"text":"Table 4 .4 Reasons for crop--related changes   Responses   Responses Reasons   Percent of ReasonsPercent of N Percent Cases NPercentCases Markets 126 20 93 Markets1262093 Climate 120 19 89 Climate1201989 Land 114 18 84 Land1141884 Labor 95 15 70 Labor951570 Pests/diseases 108 17 80 Pests/diseases1081780 Projects 84 13 62 Projects841362  "},{"text":"Table 4 .5 Weather/Climate--related reasons for changes in cropping practices Weather/Climate related Reason % of cases*  More erratic rainfall 75 More erratic rainfall75 Less overall rainfall 88 Less overall rainfall88 More overall rainfall 39 More overall rainfall39 More frequent droughts 71 More frequent droughts71 Later start of rains 65 Later start of rains65 Earlier start of rains 77 Earlier start of rains77 *multiple responses possible  *multiple responses possible  "},{"text":"Table 4 .6 Three most important animals in terms of livelihoods now and 10 years ago 10 years ago Now   % of  % of % of% of Animal cases Animal cases AnimalcasesAnimalcases Chickens 87 Chickens 82 Chickens87Chickens82 Dairy cows 62 Dairy cows 56 Dairy cows62Dairy cows56 Goats 40 Goats 39 Goats40Goats39  "},{"text":"Table 4 .7 Reasons for changing livestock practices, by category  Reason for changing livestock % of responses Reason for changing livestock% of responses practices, related to:  practices, related to: Markets 29 Markets29 Weather/climate 11 Weather/climate11 Labor 8 Labor8 Pests/diseases 31 Pests/diseases31 Projects 20 Projects20  "},{"text":"Table 4 .8 Adaptability/Innovation index Number of changes made in farming practices in last 10 years:  % of % of households households  "},{"text":"Table 4 .9 Mitigation--related indices Index % of households None Some  Tree management 23 77 Tree management2377 Soil amendments 6 94 Soil amendments694 Productivity increase 10 90 Productivity increase1090 Input intensification 1 Low--43 Input intensification1Low--43   High--55 High--55  "},{"text":"Table 5 .1 Food Security Index Percent of surveyed households reporting:  More than 6 food 5--6 food deficit 3--4 food deficit 1--2 food deficit Food all year More than 6 food5--6 food deficit3--4 food deficit1--2 food deficitFood all year deficit months/year months/year months/year round/No food deficitmonths/yearmonths/yearmonths/yearround/No food months/year    deficit period months/yeardeficit period 35 27 26 7 4 35272674  "},{"text":"Table 6 .1 Water sources for agriculture on--farm On--farm agricultural water source % of households  Irrigation 42 Irrigation42 Dams or water ponds 4 Dams or water ponds4 Boreholes 0 Boreholes0 Tanks /water harvesting 0 Tanks /water harvesting0 None of the above 54 None of the above54  "},{"text":"Table 8 .1 Type of weather--related information received and used Proportion of Farmers Receiving and Using Weather--related Information to Change Practices  Type of information % of % of those % of Type of information% of% of those% of  households households households householdshouseholdshouseholds  receiving also receiving receiving receivingalso receivingreceiving  information advice with advice that informationadvice withadvice that   information were able to informationwere able to    use it use it Forecast of extreme event 63 99 95 Forecast of extreme event639995 Forecast of pest or disease outbreak 54 96 100 Forecast of pest or disease outbreak5496100 Forecast of the start of the rains 71 95 99 Forecast of the start of the rains719599 Forecast of the weather for 2--3 28 100 100 Forecast of the weather for 2--328100100 months    months Forecast of the weather 1--3 days 27 68 85 Forecast of the weather 1--3 days276885  "},{"text":"Table 8 .2 Gender breakdown of different kinds of weather--related information Of those households accessing this type of information Type of weather--related information % of households reporting women receiving this information % of households reporting both women and men receive this information % of households reporting only men receive this information  Extreme events 17 40 43 Extreme events174043 Pest or disease outbreak 15 37 48 Pest or disease outbreak153748 Start of the rains 14 36 49 Start of the rains143649 Weather for the next 2--3 13 51 36 Weather for the next 2--3135136 months    months Weather for the next 2--3 11 53 32 Weather for the next 2--3115332 days    days  "},{"text":"Table 8 .3 Type and Sources of Climate and Weather Information Percentage of those households that have received information by source  Type of information Radio TV Govt NGO Trad'l Friend News-- Own Local Type of information RadioTVGovt NGO Trad'l Friend News--OwnLocal        paper Obs group paperObsgroup Forecast of extreme 92 18 23 0 21 55 1 30 0 Forecast of extreme921823021551300 event          event Forecast of pest or 89 17 63 1 9 49 0 11 0 Forecast of pest or89176319490110 disease outbreak          disease outbreak Forecast of the start 90 14 17 0 24 53 3 32 1 Forecast of the start901417024533321 of the rains          of the rains Forecast of the 90 8 8 0 6 59 0 74 0 Forecast of the908806590740 weather for 2--3          weather for 2--3 months          months Forecast of the 89 24 11 0 5 14 3 60 0 Forecast of the89241105143600 weather for 1--3 days          weather for 1--3 days  "},{"text":"Table 8 .4 How Weather Information was used Practices changed Percent of households receiving information regarding:   extreme start of the pest & 2--3 month 2--3 day extremestart of thepest &2--3 month2--3 day  event info rains disease weather weather event inforainsdiseaseweatherweather   prediction outbreak forecast forecast predictionoutbreakforecastforecast    prediction   prediction Timing of farming 48 15 1 8 5 Timing of farming4815185 activities      activities Crop type 81 38 0 51 0 Crop type81380510 Crop variety 54 20 3 13 5 Crop variety54203135 Input use (seed, 10 0 19 0 0 Input use (seed,1001900 fertiliser, pesticides)      fertiliser, pesticides) Manure/compost/mu 0 29 1 62 0 Manure/compost/mu0291620 lch use      lch use Field location 2 0 0 0 0 Field location20000 Planted trees 1 2 0 0 0 Planted trees12000 Land management 43 75 44 85 57 Land management4375448557 practices      practices Soil and water 1 1 1 0 5 Soil and water11105 conservation      conservation practices      practices Irrigation practices 4 3 3 0 0 Irrigation practices43300 Feed management 2 20 46 18 24 Feed management220461824  "},{"text":"Table 9 .1 Group membership Does someone in your household belong to the following type of groups? Households were asked about household assets they had, from a set list. The assets they were asked about include the following:Luxury items: Fridge, Air conditioning, Electric fan, Bank account, Improved Stove. Number of Number of households households  "},{"text":"Table 10 .1 Asset Indicator Number of queried assets % of households  None (basic level) 16 None (basic level)16 1--3 (intermediate level) 79 1--3 (intermediate level)79 4 or more 5 4 or more5 Table  Table  "},{"text":"Table A1 . Features of the selected block  Agro - Altitude (m Rainfall Average air Soil type Crop types Agro -Altitude (mRainfallAverage airSoil typeCrop types ecological zone ) above sea (mm) temperature  ecological zone) above sea(mm)temperature  level)  ( 0 C)  level)(0 C) Humid warm 800 --1500 800 --1700  22 Chromic Luvisol Tea, coffee, Humid warm800 --1500800 --170022Chromic LuvisolTea, coffee,       vegetables, sugar vegetables, sugar      Rhodic ferrasol cane, maize, Rhodic ferrasolcane, maize,       beans, sunflower beans, sunflower       paprika, Vanilla paprika, Vanilla Humid cold 900 --1700 600 --1200  18 Luvic phaezem Coffee, Humid cold900 --1700600 --120018Luvic phaezemCoffee,       vegetables, vegetables,      Chromic Luvisol banana, irish Chromic Luvisolbanana, irish       potato, potato,       temperate fruits, temperate fruits,       beans, maize, beans, maize,       paprika, vanilla paprika, vanilla  "},{"text":"Table A2 : Block Villages, those randomly selected in bold, by agroecological zone  Humid warm zone Humid cold zone Humid warm zoneHumid cold zone Boheloi Gare BoheloiGare Lwandai Yamba LwandaiYamba Mshizii Magamba MshiziiMagamba Nyasa Migambo NyasaMigambo Mbuzii Kwefingo MbuziiKwefingo Kwang'wenda Milungui Kwang'wendaMilungui  Masange Masange  Kwemashai Kwemashai  "},{"text":"Table A3 : Number of Households/Surveyed Village and previous/ongoing agricultural programs Village Verified number of households Previous/Ongoing Agricultural Programmes within Village  Masange 735 SECAP, District Council, Masange735 SECAP, District Council, Kwang'wenda 408 SECAP, District Council, Kwang'wenda408 SECAP, District Council, Mbuzii 481 SECAP, District Council, Mbuzii481 SECAP, District Council,  AHI, SARI, TIP, FARM-Africa, AHI, SARI, TIP, FARM-Africa, Boheloi 882 SECAP, District Council, AHI, SARI Boheloi882 SECAP, District Council, AHI, SARI Gare 538 SECAP. District Council, Gare538 SECAP. District Council, Yamba 657 SECAP, District Council, Yamba657 SECAP, District Council, Milungui --SECAP, District Council, Milungui--SECAP, District Council,  "}],"sieverID":"d2137a93-a0e6-45bf-a7d4-77c8343a0e5f","abstract":"This report summarizes the results of a baseline household--level survey, led by the Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security Consortium Research Program 1 (CCAFS), carried out in 7 villages and 140 households in Lushoto, Tanzania in January 2011. The objective of this baseline effort was to describe the characteristics of the farming systems found across a wide range of research sites in 12 countries, including the Lushoto site, and to better understand what kinds of farming practice changes households have been making and why.We gathered information on the socio--economic and demographic characteristics of these randomly chosen farming households, basic livelihood and welfare indicators, agriculture and natural resources management practices and strategies, access to and use of climate and agricultural-related information, and current risk management, mitigation and adaptation practices.The study found that there have been several changes in land use and crop management over the past 10 years, including the introduction of new, higher yielding crop varieties of maize, beans and tomatoes, and switching to disease--resistant varieties of cassava, bananas and maize.The land use and crop management changes respondents reported having made were driven by many factors, including the availability of high yielding varieties more resistant to pests and diseases, and more profitable market prices. Less productive land was another reason given by households that were making changes to their farming practices.Respondents also gave weather--related reasons for adapting their agricultural practices. One--third of households reported making changes due to an increase in the amount of rainfall. Maize, beans and tree--based crops (peaches, apples and coffee) have been planted in recent years to utilize the increased moisture."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"099387fde3874703eadd24b44d014d3d","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/821d0b5c-9050-414c-8aa6-ec96c8ef1678/retrieve"},"pageCount":7,"title":"Shamba Shape Up/ Munda Make-Over in Zambia Communication for impact and scale CGIAR week of science and practice of scaling agrifood system innovation","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Intended impacts","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":18,"text":"• In Kenya, Shamba Shape Up's audience has grown from 3 million to 8 million among smallholder farmers."}]},{"head":"•","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":36,"text":"Research in Kenya shows that, those farmers who adopted new dairy practices as a result of watching Shamba Shape Up created a net increase in the value of milk produced in Kenya of over US$24 million."}]},{"head":"•","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":21,"text":"Of farmer who watched the last series, 9 out of 10 said it was their most trusted source of agricultural information."},{"index":2,"size":32,"text":"• Behaviour change is difficult to effect. But of farmers who watched the last series in Kenya 93% claimed to make a change on their farm as a result of the programme."}]},{"head":"•","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":13,"text":"As a result of these changes made, 63% reported better yields and income."}]}],"figures":[],"sieverID":"54ae48b3-8e8d-48ca-b386-3e344df2c2e3","abstract":""}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0a1d0992ef9ecd595bc9a9a49677d3ce","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://www.cifor.org/publications/pdf_files/Wpapers/CIFOR-ICRAF-WP-16.pdf"},"pageCount":29,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Figures","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":20,"text":"1 The adaptation cycle that should be applied in coastal areas where adaptation can be carried out if necessary v"}]},{"head":"Executive summary","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":31,"text":"Mangrove blue carbon has significant climate change mitigation potential. This relates to the huge carbon stocks in mangrove ecosystems, which are 3-5 times higher than carbon stocks in protected tropical forests."},{"index":2,"size":95,"text":"With a coastline of more than 90,000 km -the second longest after Canada-it is in Indonesia's interests to protect its coastal areas from climate change impacts, particularly as the majority of Indonesia's people live in vulnerable coastal areas. The high population densities in these areas require governments and communities to make the sustainable utilization of coastal areas a paradigm that must be continually mainstreamed. In addition to population pressures directly impacting coastal ecosystems, another threat is rising sea levels resulting from climate change. The enormity of the risks facing coastal areas makes them highly vulnerable."},{"index":3,"size":26,"text":"Therefore, the existence and preservation of extensive coastal vegetation like mangroves and seagrasses are key to successful conservation and a nature-based solution to ongoing climate change."},{"index":4,"size":26,"text":"Regarding efforts to tackle climate change impacts, coastal ecosystems also present a huge opportunity for supporting Low Carbon Development (LCD) initiatives and Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)."},{"index":5,"size":58,"text":"Positioning coastal area management in the Nationally Determined Contribution (NDC) is a smart move. The expectation is that coastal ecosystems, which are carbon rich and at the same time support the livelihoods of the majority of Indonesia's poor, can be managed wisely though the balancing of sustainable mitigation and adaptation measures according to direction under the Paris Agreement."},{"index":6,"size":47,"text":"Coastal area rehabilitation/restoration needs to prioritize climate change adaptation. Therefore, the roles of coastal areas in overcoming rising sea levels, waves, coastal erosion, flooding, and inundation must be restored, so the resilience of communities, particularly fishing communities living in coastal areas, can be maintained or even enhanced."},{"index":7,"size":83,"text":"Opportunities and challenges faced in mainstreaming coastal area and blue carbon mangrove ecosystems have been identified and should be anticipated when coastal areas are included in national strategies to achieve NDC targets. Coastal area resilience not only relates to physical aspects (abrasion, sedimentation, and flooding/inundation), but also community socioeconomic aspects and their supporting institutions. Therefore, information and funding flows must be transparent for all stakeholders, so adaptation agenda, decision making, and implementation can be carried out effectively, efficiently, and in a balanced manner."},{"index":8,"size":71,"text":"This paper demonstrates efforts to bundle adaptation and mitigation measures to secure optimum outcomes in coastal area rehabilitation/restoration, as recommended in the Paris Agreement. It suggests adopting a responsive adaptation cycle so adaptive measures in these strategic coastal areas can commence immediately, and be monitored and evaluated. In this regard, emissions mitigation scenarios linked to adaptation measures can be considered to facilitate the achievement of 2030 NDC targets and SDG goals."}]},{"head":"Introduction","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":59,"text":"Climate change adaptation is a logical response for humankind to build its durability in facing the consequences of climate change. IPCC (2022) indicated that adaptation together with mitigation measures constitute a combination of response systems in anticipating negative impacts and measures to overcome causes of climate change. Adaptation is undertaken to reduce vulnerability to the effects of climate change."},{"index":2,"size":75,"text":"Due to high carbon saturation levels and carbon remaining in the atmosphere for hundreds of years, it will take time for Earth's temperatures to return to normal. Therefore, global warming will not only impact current generations, but many generations to come. Through adaptation measures, the expectation is that the capacity of humankind to face climate change can increase in parallel with its efforts to reduce the cause of global warming, namely greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions."},{"index":3,"size":81,"text":"Of all impacts anticipated as a result of rising GHG emissions, one of the most significant is rising sea levels, which are expected to become increasingly problematic in years to come and pose a real threat to life in coastal areas. To date, domino effects observed from rising sea levels include erosion in coastal areas, damage to or loss of coastal ecosystems, losses of livelihood sources for coastal communities, and increased flooding in coastal cities and towns (Diposaptono et al. 2009)."},{"index":4,"size":45,"text":"These impacts are being exacerbated by anthropogenic activities with increasingly massive and destructive environmental impacts. In addressing this, the world's nations are preparing and implementing mitigation and adaptation strategies to reduce potential climate change damage, both ongoing, and damage predicted to occur in the future."},{"index":5,"size":4,"text":"Photo by Donny Iqbal/CIFOR-ICRAF"},{"index":6,"size":14,"text":"In relation to this response, mitigation measures are generally focused on reducing GHG emissions."},{"index":7,"size":103,"text":"One of these measures is by utilizing the capacity of the Earth's vegetation to sequester carbon. Accordingly, in a coastal area context, rehabilitation and restoration of marine and coastal vegetation is one priority choice. Conversely, adaptation measures tend to focus more on efforts to enhance the ability of coastal communities to be more prepared, more resilient, and more proactive in responding to changes resulting from climate change. Changes that have already occurred show us that no matter how large or aggressive measures taken to reduce GHG emissions have been to date, changes in global climate cycles will still continue and become increasingly significant."},{"index":8,"size":13,"text":"Therefore, effective adaptation strategies are required to increase the resilience of coastal areas."},{"index":9,"size":109,"text":"As impacts are global and oblivious to regional borders, every one of the world's nations, including Indonesia, is forced to play their part in efforts to tackle climate change. The main strategies for achieving NDC adaptation targets by 2030 are: 1. Supporting economic resilience of at least 1.72% of gross domestic product (GDP) through a transformation to a low carbon economy, and food, water, and energy security; 2. Creating social and livelihood resilience of 0.32% of GDP through capacity development in various life systems; 3. Increasing ecosystem services and landscape resilience to 0.83% of GDP through an integrated landscape approach in the management of terrestrial, marine, and coastal ecosystems."},{"index":10,"size":30,"text":"It is apparent from these three strategies that in regard to adaptation, it is important to create climate resilience in the form of socioeconomic, ecosystem, and landscape resilience (KLHK 2021)."},{"index":11,"size":127,"text":"The submission of these NDCs to UNFCCC signifies Indonesia's commitment and readiness to transition to Low Carbon Development (LCD) and mainstream a green economy. NDC documents elaborate strategies that will be applied, and enabling environments needed to meet emissions reduction targets, which increase in stages over set timeframes. These are to achieve the global goal of stopping average global temperatures increasing by 2°C and striving to limit them to 1.5°C above pre-industrial levels (KLHK 2021b Further, the government also announced a green economy (Bappenas 2019a), where LCD is predicted to be able to generate around 6% of GDP annually to 2045. A green economy -which constitutes part of the climate change adaptation strategy -is defined as an economy that is low carbon, resource efficient and socially inclusive."}]},{"head":"Utilization of blue carbon in climate change adaptation","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":76,"text":"Coastal areas, which are transition zones between terrestrial and marine ecosystems, are vulnerable to various forms of change, both on land and at sea. During the 1970-2010 period, a progressive increase in sea temperatures by 0.11°C per decade caused sea levels to rise at an average of 2 mm year¯¹ (IPCC 2022). The Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5°C (IPCC 2018) states that various essential and unique ecosystems are under serious threat from climate change."},{"index":2,"size":43,"text":"Climate change will increase atmospheric temperatures, change rainfall patterns, increase seawater surface temperatures, raise sea levels, increase ocean acidity, alter ocean currents, and increase incidence of extreme weather events, which will affect the existence of ecosystems, including those in coastal areas (IPCC 2018)."},{"index":3,"size":45,"text":"Rising sea levels can result in tidal floods, shortages of fresh water, coastal erosion, and even the disappearance of small islands. Meanwhile, for coastal cities and towns, rising sea levels also increase the vulnerability of road infrastructure, buildings, bridges, water structures, and other public facilities."},{"index":4,"size":40,"text":"All of these impacts will eventually affect human health and economic activities. Not only that, the tourism sector, including cultural artefacts and urban biodiversity, will also be affected by the abovementioned negative impacts of climate change (Hunt and Watkiss 2011)."},{"index":5,"size":42,"text":"Coastal areas have different characteristics due to a dependence on marine natural resources among various economic players: fishers, fish farmers, fisheries product processors and marketers, and other economic players located on the coast. Considering the potential impacts of climate change in various"},{"index":6,"size":49,"text":"Photo by Rifky/CIFOR-ICRAF regions in Indonesia, the segment of society deemed most at risk is rural communities, particularly those in coastal and small island areas (Sakuntaladewi and Sylviani 2014). Climate change will result in lower earnings, which in turn will result in economic pressures and social unrest in society."},{"index":7,"size":45,"text":"The vulnerability of coastal areas in Indonesia is also caused by human activities, as evidenced by largescale conversion of forests with no regard for sustainability; use of fossil fuels; conversion of mangroves in coastal areas; and massive ongoing destruction of coral reefs (Purnobasuki 2011;Mustaqim 2018)."},{"index":8,"size":127,"text":"Blue carbon ecosystems (mangroves, seagrass beds, and tidal marshes) cover a relatively small area compared with other marine and terrestrial ecosystems. However, they have huge capacity to store carbon, particularly in their sediments, and also have high net primary production (NPP) compared with terrestrial ecosystems (Larkum et al. 2006). Globally, mangroves are estimated to have carbon stock of 4-20 billion metric tons (Donato et al. 2011) and seagrasses of 0.4-0.8 billion metric tons (Fourqurean et al. 2012). Carbon stock in Indonesia's mangroves, which are the most extensive in the world at more than 3 million ha, reaches 3.14 billion metric tons (Murdiyarso et al. 2015). Combined with seagrass beds, total stock reaches 3.41 billion metric tons, or around 17% of global blue carbon (Alongi et al. 2016)."},{"index":9,"size":69,"text":"Since 2017, PPN/Bappenas has seriously and consistently addressed the important value of blue carbon, including through establishing the Indonesia Blue Carbon Strategy Framework. Also, in early 2019, the RPJMN 2020-2040 Technocratic Draft was finalized in which blue carbon conservation is included in the Priority Programme (PP): Low Carbon Development. This programme then focused on mangrove and seagrass bed inventories and rehabilitation/restoration activities in several regions of Indonesia (Bappenas 2019c)."},{"index":10,"size":116,"text":"Nevertheless, regulation modalities established by the government to facilitate the achievement of coastal area adaptation targets have not necessarily made the implementation of coastal area rehabilitation and restoration strategies any easier. Challenges in coastal area utilization include: 1. coastal ecosystem (mangrove and seagrass bed) degradation rates being higher than rehabilitation/ restoration rates 2. limited information and accurate data on the status of blue carbon ecosystems 3. tenurial or land ownership conflicts 4. conflicting interests in use of regions for livelihoods 5. carbon stock quantification methods not being uniform 6. implementation of co-benefits and proceeds of blue carbon utilization for livelihoods 7. low capacity of local institutions in guarding and ensuring the preservation of rehabilitated/ restored regions"},{"index":11,"size":51,"text":"Based on discussions during the webinar, a strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats (SWOT) analysis was conducted on the utilization of blue carbon in climate change adaptation. This analysis was laid out in a matrix of internal factors (S and W) and external factors (O and T), as illustrated in Table 1."},{"index":12,"size":68,"text":"With this matrix, four coastal area management strategies were extracted by considering their opportunities and threats, as well as strengths and weaknesses. In other words, strategy choices should be adapted to actual conditions in the coastal areas being managed, as a strategy that suits one particular area may not be applicable in others. Mangrove and seagrass beds are vital ecosystems in coastal regions due to their high biodiversity."},{"index":13,"size":72,"text":"Mangrove forests are communities of tropical and subtropical coastal vegetation dominated by mangrove species able to grow and develop in muddy tidal areas. They have various functions and benefits that play important ecological, social, and economic roles in people's lives. Bearing in mind the importance of mangrove forests for human survival, and of preventing the further spread of mangrove forest degradation, a management plan is needed that considers their preservation and sustainability."},{"index":14,"size":27,"text":"Existing potential, both products and environmental services, must be used wisely and in a planned manner to provide human and development benefits (Chow 2017;Ellison et al. 2020)."},{"index":15,"size":46,"text":"Mangroves are some of the most productive and ecologically important ecosystems on earth. They are even considered one of the most efficient of all terrestrial and coastal ecosystems in terms of improving atmospheric carbon content and storing carbon in biomass and sediments (Hilmi et al. 2021)."},{"index":16,"size":14,"text":"Mangroves can capture approximately 24 million metric tons of carbon every year (Alongi 2012)."},{"index":17,"size":68,"text":"Seagrasses are flowering plants with true leaves, rhizomes, fruits, flowers and roots, which grow in muddy, sandy, and rocky substrates, and live underwater. Seagrass beds play an important ecological role for living organisms, particularly as spawning and feeding grounds for fish (Fourqurean et al. 2012). Seagrass beds have multiple economic functions that play important roles in fisheries dynamics and the preservation of ecosystems and organisms, particularly for fish."},{"index":18,"size":73,"text":"Photo by Aulia Erlangga/CIFOR-ICRAF Seagrass beds also play an important function as carbon stores. Their relatively large long-term accumulation capacity gives seagrass beds an important role in carbon storage (Herr and Landis 2016). Seagrass bed ecosystems have the capacity to sequester and transport huge volumes of carbon from the atmosphere every day, and deposit it in sediments for long periods of time, meaning seagrasses are essential for the carbon sequestration service they provide."},{"index":19,"size":39,"text":"Carbon absorption occurs through biological processes in the form of photosynthesis. In oceans, photosynthetic processes begin with microscopic plankton or vegetation that only lives along coastlines, such as mangroves, seagrass beds, or plants living in tidal marshes (Rahmawati 2011)."},{"index":20,"size":111,"text":"Coastal ecosystems, such as mangroves, seagrass beds, and tidal marshes, are natural sequesters that can absorb and store large volumes of carbon over long periods of time. Carbon stored in these coastal ecosystems is known as blue carbon (Macreadie et al. 2019). Research by the Ministry of Marine Affairs and Fisheries (KKP) over the last five years suggests Indonesia's seagrass beds have the potential to capture and store around 4.88 metric tons of carbon per hectare, or a total of 16.11 million tons annually. Meanwhile, mangrove ecosystems can absorb and store an average of 38.80 tons of carbon per hectare, or a total of 122.22 million metric tons annually (Ambari 2020)."},{"index":21,"size":57,"text":"Globally, mangroves can store 20 PgC with 70%-80% of this stored in the ground as organic carbon (Murdiyarso et al. 2014). Mangroves' sequestration of CO₂ is closely related to mangrove biomass; both aboveground biomass like trunks, branches, leaves, flowers and fruits; and belowground biomass like roots and soil. Soil in mangrove forests can store the most carbon."},{"index":22,"size":124,"text":"Indonesia has climate change mitigation and adaptation goals with targets to reduce GHG emissions by 29% unconditionally and 41% with international assistance. Indonesia has around 3.3 million ha of mangroves. In addition to this extent, mangroves in Indonesia have potential as a nature-based climate solution (NBCS). As a special component of the NDC, mangroves have the potential to be an important asset in GHG emissions reduction (Atteridge et al. 2019). This is highly relevant for Indonesia bearing in mind it has the largest extent of mangroves in the world. In addition to providing an opportunity to fill gaps in emissions reduction programmes, this demonstrates Indonesia's active support for the marine sector as a focus of climate change mitigation and adaptation (Sidik et al. 2017). "}]},{"head":"Mitigation strategies","index":5,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Adaptation strategies","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":50,"text":"Climate change impacts that have already occurred and are felt by living creatures can no longer be avoided. Losses brought about by climate change impacts can reach trillions of rupiah, and not only impact the economy, but also other aspects of human life as well as ecosystems, including coastal ecosystems."},{"index":2,"size":83,"text":"Preventing extreme impacts necessitates preventative and repressive strategies in controlling climate change. Such strategies involve adaptation and mitigation. Adaptation is a response to a stressor, as opposed to mitigation, which involves pre-empting challenges and taking steps to avoid threats, like reducing emissions or reducing flood impacts by constructing levees. There are many varying definitions of adaptation and mitigation. Adaptation according to this understanding veers more towards repressive measures, whereas mitigation can be carried out for preventative or repressive reasons (Wibowo and Satria 2015)."},{"index":3,"size":98,"text":"Adaptation is an effort to adapt oneself to an impact. In the context of climate change, adaptation is important as it is more local or contextual in nature and carried out reactively or anticipatively (Diposaptono et al. 2009). This means climate adaptation processes can differ from place to place, and relate to knowledge, experience, potential, and costs required. Adaptation is holistic where it reaches all associated social, economic, and ecological factors and government roles. Adaptation is not only beneficial for humans socially and economically, but also supports ecological preparedness in the process of adapting to changes that occur."},{"index":4,"size":77,"text":"In contrast to adaptation in rural communities, which is generally sociocultural in nature, adaptation in urban areas is carried out by communities with government help and private sector support. Economic and infrastructure development in urban areas are an important part of helping communities and the ecological environment to reduce climate change impacts. However, urban poverty in coastal areas receives little attention and becomes a point of vulnerability that affects adaptation in urban coastal social and ecological systems."},{"index":5,"size":36,"text":"The need for planning and implementation strategies in reducing climate change impacts is increasingly urgent. This is because climate change is difficult to control and because of its huge impacts, both now and in the future."},{"index":6,"size":55,"text":"Understanding vulnerabilities resulting from climate change can become the foundation for building adaptation strategies. The aims of climate change adaptation are to sustain strong community economies; ensure food security; and protect community livelihoods and well-being by building resilience for impacted communities, as well as sectoral resilience like ecosystem, economic and livelihood system resilience (KLHK 2015)."},{"index":7,"size":56,"text":"The cycle of adaptation measures for coastal areas illustrated in Figure 1 shows that such measures should continually be monitored and evaluated. These are not one-off actions that immediately reach their targets due to the vulnerability of those targets and the highly dynamic strength of impacts. Consequently, adaptation measures always require adjustments when actions are ongoing."},{"index":8,"size":111,"text":"According to Smit and Wandel (2006), there are two types of adaptation activities: autonomousresponsive/reactive adaptation; and planned-anticipative adaptation (see Efforts to integrate the role of blue carbon in adaptation efforts should prioritize conservation and sustainable utilization in various areas. Then, as the country with the second longest coastline in the world, coastal and marine ecosystem roles in Indonesia's first NDC must be integrated into mitigation from the marine sector, and this has yet to be stated quantitively as there are many technical issues that must be carried out and still require comprehensive calculations and quantitative figures that can then be included in stages in the updated NDC (Rosyada et al. 2021)."},{"index":9,"size":40,"text":"Blue carbon has huge potential in supporting national programmes on carbon emissions reductions, food security and poverty eradication. However, management complexities and implementation capacity still need improving into the future. Sustainable management still requires coordination between ministries and other stakeholders."},{"index":10,"size":177,"text":"A roadmap for coastal and marine ecosystem research has been developed in a framework of climate change control, but research outcomes have yet to be implemented. Key activities among them also relevant to adaptation strategies include: coastal community empowerment; increased community participation in monitoring; dissemination and assimilation of research results and development of marine and fisheries science and technology; development of marine, brackish water, and freshwater cultivation; development of marine and fisheries resources; empowerment of small island communities and facilitating integrated coastal region management; and improvement of marine and fisheries research resources capacity (Bappenas 2010).  As a regulator, involvement of stakeholders and related ministries/institutions should begin with planning processes and policy intervention in the form of coastal region development integration and maintenance of coastal ecosystems. To develop blue carbon potential, government and stakeholders need to initiate policy, science and technology, sustainable financing, and outreach domains aimed at mainstreaming various initiatives and plans relating to blue carbon in Indonesia's development planning schemes, particularly those for coastal and marine ecosystems, in line with the LCD direction in RPJMN 2020-2024."},{"index":11,"size":47,"text":"Adaptation action involves all stakeholders with no one left behind, from the ministerial/agency (party stakeholder) level to regional governments, private sector initiatives, community groups, and the activities of international partners located in Indonesia. Contributions from these stakeholders then need to be reviewed comprehensively in action framework schemes."}]},{"head":"Ministries/institutions","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":110,"text":"As the national focal point for UNFCCC, KLHK's support for and intersectoral cooperation with different stakeholders are essential in NDC implementation processes, as adaptation targets are not sector specific, but more about meeting basic needs for the survival and sustainability of community life in Indonesia. In addition, partnerships between the government and non-party stakeholders (NPSs) such as provincial, regency and municipal governments, private companies, non-governmental organizations (NGOs), academia and local communities need to be formed as NDC implementation requires support from various parties. NPSs are also mentioned in the Forestry and Other Land Uses (FOLU) Net Sink 2030 Operational Plan, meaning all stakeholders involved in tackling climate change (KLHK 2022)."},{"index":2,"size":94,"text":"Referencing the National Action Plan for Climate Change Adaptation (RAN-API) 2014, the government has already given mandates to 17 ministries and agencies to contribute in enhancing resilience to climate change impact risks. These institutions are expected to play active roles in mainstreaming climate change in various programmes and policies. In addition, it does not close the door on other ministries and agencies that might already have taken part in and contributed to supporting climate change action in Indonesia, but not been given a specific mandate to reduce GHG emissions, increase resilience, or lessen vulnerability."},{"index":3,"size":38,"text":"Photo by Donny Iqbal/CIFOR-ICRAF Government institutions must be able to collaborate in handling climate change. Cooperation between government institutions (KLHK, KKP, BRIN) can result in the formulation and preparation of policies relating to blue carbon development in Indonesia."}]},{"head":"Non-party stakeholders","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":49,"text":"The Paris Agreement's recognition of non-party stakeholders (NPSs) is laid out in Section V of the Preamble to Paris Agreement Dec.1/CP.21 on the roles and action of NPSs, which under the agreement cover civil society organizations (CSOs), the private sector, academics, researchers and developers, regional governments, and financial institutions."},{"index":2,"size":32,"text":"In collaborating with the Government of Indonesia, international NGOs must have licences from the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and then be established as partners in accordance with their focus field or area."},{"index":3,"size":104,"text":"The utilization of blue carbon in climate change adaptation in coastal areas requires inter-sectoral coordination, as in addition to GHG emissions originating from various sectors, their impacts affect fields that are economic sources of development. Blue carbon issues involve multiple sectors, so require synergy between different institutions in building national commitments. The establishment of working groups or networks between the scientific community and national policymakers will provide forums for sharing lessons learned, while at the same time strengthening Indonesia's blue carbon framework. Successes in synergizing Indonesia's blue carbon with international blue carbon can be achieved with Indonesia taking an active role in international forums."}]},{"head":"Funding","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":109,"text":"The world, including Indonesia, is vigorously encouraging low carbon development to minimize the impacts of climate change. To support this, Indonesia ideally requires annual low carbon development investments of IDR 306 trillion. This ideal investment figure is based on an analysis by PPN/Bappenas (LCDI 2020). Based on this analysis, LCD investment would ideally come from the government or state budget (APBN), and non-government parties such as private companies, state-owned enterprises, philanthropists, and other sources. Investment requirements for low carbon development are divided into two, based on their sources: government investment or funding of IDR 72.22 trillion (24%); and funding of IDR 232.56 trillion (76%) from non-government sources (LCDI 2020)."}]},{"head":"Recommendations","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":48,"text":"A rapidly changing world means multiple challenges confronting us, such as extreme climate impacts and Earth's rising temperatures, affecting food productivity significantly and increasing the risk of climate-related natural disasters. This highlights the importance of low carbon development and green economy for realizing a prosperous and sustainable future."},{"index":2,"size":29,"text":"As the world's largest archipelagic nation, with the longest tropical productive coastline in the world, Indonesia is highly invested in sustainable development and utilization of resources in coastal areas."},{"index":3,"size":56,"text":"After synthesizing and summarizing information from various references on the utilization of blue carbon in climate change impact adaptation measures, including consideration of the Government of Indonesia's ambitious programme to rehabilitate 600,000 ha of mangroves, and Indonesia's efforts to meet its NDC commitments, we present a number of recommendations based on different scenarios that warrant consideration:"}]},{"head":"Base scenario","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":28,"text":"This scenario works on the basic assumption that there are no new policies, but considers degradation. It reflects the continuation of historic economic, societal, climate, and environmental trends."},{"index":2,"size":64,"text":"Under this scenario, various climate change impacts that will arise and affect coastal areas will require handling as usual without policy, strategy or programme interventions to control those impacts. Without such interventions, impacts arising will not only be linear in financial terms but may even be exponential. Further, the environmental services provided by coastal areas will plummet sharply over the increasingly short time remaining."},{"index":3,"size":4,"text":"Photo by Aulia Erlangga/CIFOR-ICRAF"}]},{"head":"Moderate LCD scenario","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":51,"text":"This scenario covers the new low carbon development policy for 2020-2045 achieving the unconditional NDC target. It is consistent with Indonesia's efforts to achieve the unconditional climate target announced in the NDC, namely an emissions reduction of 31.89% by 2030 compared with the baseline (up from the earlier 29% by 2020)."},{"index":2,"size":34,"text":"Under this scenario, an estimated USD 14.8 billion in additional investment is required annually for 2020-2024 (around 1.15% of GDP), and USD 40.9 billion annually from 2025 to 2045 (1.39% of GDP) (Bappenas 2019b)."},{"index":3,"size":72,"text":"The achievement of Indonesia's unconditional NDC target requires rapid action, and full implementation of policies elaborated in this report on land and energy systems; there is no room to accommodate only one of a series of policies, or only to achieve partial and short-term targets. As all mitigation actions are oriented at domestic markets, stakeholders have no opportunities to interact with global market players. Therefore, adaptation capacity is not expected to develop."}]},{"head":"High LCD scenario","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":104,"text":"This scenario is more ambitious than the moderate LCD scenario for 2020-2045 so it can achieve the conditional NDC target (Bappenas 2019b). It aims towards a 43% emissions reduction by 2030 compared with the set baseline, consistent with Indonesia's effort to achieve its conditional NDC emissions reduction target of 41% by 2030. Total GHG emissions fall from 2.14 GtCO 2 e in 2017 to 1.49 GtCO 2 e in 2030 (Bappenas 2019a). The fulfilment of this target depends on adequate and timely financial and other support from the international community. The achievement of this scenario will necessitate additional investment compared with the moderate scenario."},{"index":2,"size":70,"text":"Total annual investment in this high LCD scenario averages: USD 22.0 billion (1.7% of GDP) for 2020-2024; and USD 70.3 billion (2.34% of GDP) for 2025-2045 (Bappenas 2019b). Achievement of the conditional NDC target requires efforts to bring about all measures in the moderate LCD scenario, with additional stepwise increases in restoration and forest protection actions, and reduced energy intensity and increased application of renewable energies to 2045 (Bappenas 2019a)."},{"index":3,"size":32,"text":"Under this scenario, stakeholders start to learn and increase their adaptation capacities, as adaptation is carried out by utilizing all mitigation opportunities. In such a way, mitigation actions are adaptive in nature."}]},{"head":"LCD-Plus scenario","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":42,"text":"This scenario covers the high LCD scenario for 2020-2024, and the subsequent application of additional, more ambitious policies. It combines extra measures in the preparation of low carbon policies that begin around 2025, so emissions continue to fall to 2045 and beyond."},{"index":2,"size":175,"text":"This fourth scenario necessitates a series of measures that have yet to be considered in the current RPJMN, such as: the introduction of a mechanism for setting carbon prices; a higher reforestation target; and policies to increase energy efficiency and reduce waste, especially through action at the city level. These measures will become part of a new generation of policies that will be implemented in the post-RPJMN 2020-2024 period, and require transformational changes in administrations, the private sector, and civil society in general. Under this scenario, annual economic growth will be sustainable and average 5.6% by 2024, and 6.0% by 2045. By 2045, GDP is predicted to increase by USD 5.4 trillion; the poverty rate to fall to 4.2% (compared with 9.22% in 2019); 15.3 million jobs to be created; 16 million ha of forest loss to be prevented (from a 2014 baseline, and using the more than 1 million ha lost from 2009-2012 as a comparator); air quality to improve; living standards to increase; and regional and gender disparities to be resolved (Bappenas 2019b)."},{"index":3,"size":77,"text":"Many climate change adaptation measures are already being undertaken, and their policies already exist. However, based on climate risk analyses, many stages still need improving, including climate change impact analysis, and measures to strengthen coastal area climate change vulnerability studies/ assessments. By improving these stages, the expectation is that community and state capacity to adapt can be built more effectively. In this regard, there are several adaptation options that could be chosen, as presented in Table 3."},{"index":4,"size":34,"text":"Increasing national domestic earnings that constitute a reflection of earnings at various strata in society provides significant capital for increasing adaptation capacity. This capacity includes understanding problems, types of steps/actions taken, and setting priorities."},{"index":5,"size":87,"text":"Adaptation approaches have developed to become more oriented towards developing resilience, with interventions to overcome causes of vulnerability resulting from climate change impacts; manage climate risks; and build adaptation capacity. KLHK (2020) in the NDC roadmap ambitiously targets climate change adaptation by building resilience and increasing adaptive capacity to reduce risks of loss resulting from climate change by around 2.87% (median value) of national GDP through economic, social, livelihood source, ecosystem and landscape resilience in meeting basic societal needs: food, water and energy with a landscape approach."},{"index":6,"size":116,"text":"In line with the SWOT analysis presented in Table 1, various opportunities and challenges were encountered in preparing the NDC roadmap, as presented in Table 4. As adaptation measure planning in this table does not use climate change scenarios that can be adopted for Indonesia, estimated impacts are qualitative rather than quantitative, so impact reductions and resilience increases cannot be formulated quantitatively. Adaptation measure planning is still a relatively new thing in Indonesia. Equally, including coastal area sectors remains a huge challenge. Nevertheless, in mitigation-based adaptation measures, these processes can be simplified and accelerated, and have multiple benefits, because by bundling the two together, current adaptation measures can reduce worse climate change impacts in the future."},{"index":7,"size":39,"text":"A trial-and-error approach should be anticipated to increase stakeholder capacity. Adjustments should be made so anticipation of climate change impacts and changes in institutional capacity and the adaptation capacity of those institutions can be accommodated in revised action drafts."},{"index":8,"size":116,"text":"Coastal areas are strategic systems in which to start all this, bearing in mind the urgency of problems and the potential benefits. These urgent problems relate to population densities and numbers of people impacted in these highly vulnerable ecosystems. Mitigation-based adaptation in coastal areas has far-reaching and significant financial impacts, bearing in mind the economic activities in these areas and the rich carbon these areas contain. With a coastline of more than 90,000 km -the second longest after Canada -it is in Indonesia's interests to protect its coastal areas from climate change impacts. The continued existence and preservation of extensive coastal vegetation like mangroves and seagrasses is a nature-based solution for successful adaptation to climate change."},{"index":9,"size":78,"text":"A coastal area rehabilitation/restoration agenda for climate change adaptation must be able to increase areas' resilience in overcoming rising sea levels, waves, coastal erosion, flooding and inundation, so the resilience of communities, particularly fishing communities living in coastal areas, can be enhanced. Communities' social cohesion, economic opportunities, and institutional capacity must also improve. Information and funding flows must be transparent for all stakeholders, so adaptation agenda decision making and implementation can be carried out effectively, efficiently and equitably."},{"index":10,"size":76,"text":"This paper demonstrates efforts to bundle adaptation and mitigation measures to secure optimum outcomes in coastal area rehabilitation/restoration, as recommended in the Paris Agreement. It proposes adopting a responsive adaptation cycle so adaptive measures in these strategic coastal areas can commence immediately, and be monitored and evaluated. In this regard, emissions mitigation scenarios linked to adaptation measures can be considered to facilitate the achievement of 2030 Nationally Determined Contribution (NDC) targets and Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)."}]},{"head":"CIFOR-ICRAF","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":39,"text":"The Center for International Forestry Research (CIFOR) and World Agroforestry (ICRAF) envision a more equitable world where trees in all landscapes, from drylands to the humid tropics, enhance the environment and well-being for all. CIFOR-ICRAF are CGIAR Research Centers."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":" Indonesia is the world's largest archipelagic state with a maritime area of 3,257,357 km². Located on the equator with a tropical climate and abundant natural resources, Indonesia has an important role to play in coastal area management in efforts to tackle climate change. submitted submitted its first Nationally Determined Contribution (NDC) to UNFCCC. Five years later, Indonesia submitted its its first Nationally Determined Contribution (NDC) to UNFCCC. Five years later, Indonesia submitted its updated NDC to the same institution (Ministry of Environment and Forestry (KLHK) 2021). updated NDC to the same institution (Ministry of Environment and Forestry (KLHK) 2021).  "},{"text":" ). Addressing Indonesia's commitment to transform towards environmentally friendly development Addressing Indonesia's commitment to transform towards environmentally friendly development through the conservation and rehabilitation/restoration of blue carbon areas, in 2017 the Ministry through the conservation and rehabilitation/restoration of blue carbon areas, in 2017 the Ministry of National Development Planning/National Development Planning Agency (PPN/Bappenas) launched of National Development Planning/National Development Planning Agency (PPN/Bappenas) launched the LCD programme. The explicit objective of the programme as a climate change mitigation and the LCD programme. The explicit objective of the programme as a climate change mitigation and adaptation measure, which constitutes a new paradigm in Indonesia's development, is to include GHG adaptation measure, which constitutes a new paradigm in Indonesia's development, is to include GHG emissions reduction targets -together with interventions to preserve and restore natural resources - emissions reduction targets -together with interventions to preserve and restore natural resources - in policy planning. in policy planning. The LCD policy has been internalized into the National Medium-Term Development Plan (RPJMN) The LCD policy has been internalized into the National Medium-Term Development Plan (RPJMN) 2019-2024, which constitutes part of the National Long-Term Development Plan (RPJPN) 2004-2024. 2019-2024, which constitutes part of the National Long-Term Development Plan (RPJPN) 2004-2024. It is expected to help Indonesia achieve its target of becoming a developed nation by 2045 as laid out in It is expected to help Indonesia achieve its target of becoming a developed nation by 2045 as laid out in its Visi Indonesia Maju 2045 vision. For that reason, RPJPN 2025-2044 should have content on coastal its Visi Indonesia Maju 2045 vision. For that reason, RPJPN 2025-2044 should have content on coastal areas and blue carbon where a GHG emissions reduction of 43% is predicted, exceeding the set target areas and blue carbon where a GHG emissions reduction of 43% is predicted, exceeding the set target of 41%. of 41%.  "},{"text":"Table 1 . SWOT analysis on blue carbon utilization in climate change adaptation Internal factors    Opportunities (O) Threats (T) Opportunities (O)Threats (T)   1. Coastal areas can 1. Land expanse in coastal areas 1. Coastal areas can1. Land expanse in coastal areas  External factors become centres for is shrinking and veering External factorsbecome centres foris shrinking and veering   tourism towards beach degradation tourismtowards beach degradation   2. Coastal ecosystems 2. No policies as yet on 2. Coastal ecosystems2. No policies as yet on   can encourage the enactment of beach can encouragethe enactment of beach   coastal communities conservation coastal communitiesconservation   to improve  to improve   economies  economies  1. Extent of coastal areas Strategy 1 (S-O) Strategy 2 (S-T) 1. Extent of coastal areasStrategy 1 (S-O)Strategy 2 (S-T) Strength (S) influencing blue carbon absorption 2. Gross regional domestic product (GRDP) potential Allocate spaces specifically for coastal area rehabilitation/ restoration and so they can become conservation activities Provide coastal ecosystem management policies as protectors of beach ecosystems so the extent of coastal areas can be maintained or even grow Strength (S)influencing blue carbon absorption 2. Gross regional domestic product (GRDP) potentialAllocate spaces specifically for coastal area rehabilitation/ restoration and so they can become conservation activitiesProvide coastal ecosystem management policies as protectors of beach ecosystems so the extent of coastal areas can be maintained or even grow   ecotourism and eco-  ecotourism and eco-   education areas  education areas  1. Conversion of coastal Strategy 3 (W-O) Strategy 4 (W-T) 1. Conversion of coastalStrategy 3 (W-O)Strategy 4 (W-T) Weakness (W) ecosystems to other forms of cultivation thereby reducing land area 2. No proper and structured management from institutions or from policies Support the limitation of cultivation activities, especially for areas established in coastal regions, with and community institutional support Enact strict policies from local governments or authorities to control conversion and conservation through outreach and giving incentives and disincentives for implementors Weakness (W)ecosystems to other forms of cultivation thereby reducing land area 2. No proper and structured management from institutions or from policiesSupport the limitation of cultivation activities, especially for areas established in coastal regions, with and community institutional supportEnact strict policies from local governments or authorities to control conversion and conservation through outreach and giving incentives and disincentives for implementors   empowerment  empowerment  "},{"text":" Considering provisions in Article 19 paragraph (1) of Law No. 25/2004 on the National Development Planning System, on 17 January 2020, President Joko Widodo (Jokowi) signed Presidential Regulation No. 18/2020 on the National Medium-Term Development Plan (RPJMN) 2020-2024. This RPJMN suggests a shift towards LCD, a paradigm shift towards a new green economy in Indonesia, with an expectation that low carbon development can create a country that is developed and independent, fair and democratic, and peaceful and united. The LCD policy initiative will be conducted to achieve Visi Indonesia 2045(Bappenas 2019a). Steps that have already been undertaken in this direction include: imposing stricter licensing Steps that have already been undertaken in this direction include: imposing stricter licensing requirements for extractive and exploitative industries in coastal areas; integrating mangrove requirements for extractive and exploitative industries in coastal areas; integrating mangrove management policies into regional spatial plans; integrating coastal area management into climate management policies into regional spatial plans; integrating coastal area management into climate change adaptation and NDC policies; encouraging green investments in coastal areas; implementing change adaptation and NDC policies; encouraging green investments in coastal areas; implementing blue carbon socioeconomic values; preparing a technical planning document entitled, Indonesia: blue carbon socioeconomic values; preparing a technical planning document entitled, Indonesia: Long-Term Strategy for Low Carbon and Climate Resilience 2050; enforcing laws on coastal ecosystem Long-Term Strategy for Low Carbon and Climate Resilience 2050; enforcing laws on coastal ecosystem  "},{"text":"Table 2  ). Autonomous ). Autonomous  "},{"text":"Figure 1. The adaptation cycle that should be applied in coastal areas where adaptation can be carried out if necessary     Adaptation  Adaptation    planning  planning  Achieves objectives?  Accords with standards?  Investment impacts? Monitoring and evaluation A d j u s m e n t s Current vulnerabilities  Impacts and coastal area vulnerability to climate change  Evaluation of social/economic impacts on coastal communities  Achieves objectives?  Accords with standards?  Investment impacts?Monitoring and evaluationA d j u s m e n t sCurrent vulnerabilities Impacts and coastal area vulnerability to climate change  Evaluation of social/economic impacts on coastal communities  Mangrove rehabilitation  Building sea walls  Community relocation Adaptation options  Predicted future conditions  Plummeting quality of life  Climate change  Rising sea levels  Serious erosion  Mangrove rehabilitation  Building sea walls  Community relocationAdaptation optionsPredicted future conditions Plummeting quality of life  Climate change  Rising sea levels  Serious erosion  "},{"text":"Table 2 . Climate change adaptation options for coastal/marine areas  Reactive/Responsive Proactive/Anticipative Reactive/ResponsiveProactive/Anticipative 1. Protection of economic infrastructure 1. Integrated coastal zone management 1. Protection of economic infrastructure1. Integrated coastal zone management 2. Public awareness raising to increase protection of 2. Better planning and determination of coastal 2. Public awareness raising to increase protection of2. Better planning and determination of coastal coastal and marine ecosystems zones coastal and marine ecosystemszones 3. Construction of sea walls and beach reinforcement 3. Development of regulations on coastal protection 3. Construction of sea walls and beach reinforcement3. Development of regulations on coastal protection 4. Protection and conservation of coral reefs, 4. Research on and monitoring of coastal areas and 4. Protection and conservation of coral reefs,4. Research on and monitoring of coastal areas and mangroves, seagrasses and beachside vegetation ecosystems mangroves, seagrasses and beachside vegetationecosystems Source: Smit and Wandel (2006)  Source: Smit and Wandel (2006)  "},{"text":"Table 3 . Examples of climate change adaptation recommendations Increasing the extent of mangrove conservation areas • Using climate stress-resistant seedlings (Avicennia sp., Aegiceras spp., Aegiatilitis spp., Sonneratia spp., Osbornia spp., Lumnitzera spp., Laguncularia spp., Rhizophora stylosa, Ceriops, and Excocaria) • Increasing availability of and ease of access to weather data and information, particularly in relation to coastal and marine areas associated with Building cooperation with private parties in coastal area-based product distribution channels and sales • Facilitating ecosystem resilience-based ecotourism management Source: Climate change document (KLHK 2021a) presented by Dra. Sri Tantri Arundhati in the Webinar on Coastal Zone Rehabilitation for Low Carbon Development on 31 March 2022 No. Indicator Recommended adaptation options No. IndicatorRecommended adaptation options 1 Air temperatures, seawater surface temperatures • planning mangrove monitoring 1Air temperatures, seawater surface temperatures• planning mangrove monitoring   • Developing the capacity of coastal communities in cultivation with conserva- • Developing the capacity of coastal communities in cultivation with conserva-   tion, restoration and rehabilitation objectives tion, restoration and rehabilitation objectives   • Conducting research and development on mangrove ecosystems specific to • Conducting research and development on mangrove ecosystems specific to   climate risk responses climate risk responses 2 Environmental • Planning and spatial arrangement of coastal areas with climate change 2Environmental• Planning and spatial arrangement of coastal areas with climate change  carrying capacity impact risks carrying capacityimpact risks   • Ensuring mutually beneficial co-management of regions • Ensuring mutually beneficial co-management of regions   • Strengthening of policies and law enforcement against illegal activities like • Strengthening of policies and law enforcement against illegal activities like   illicit mining and regional spatial plan (RTRW) violations illicit mining and regional spatial plan (RTRW) violations   • Limiting the freeing up of land for development • Limiting the freeing up of land for development   • Preparing mitigation steps in efforts to control abrasion/accretion • Preparing mitigation steps in efforts to control abrasion/accretion 3 Population • Limiting and regulating development in coastal areas 3Population• Limiting and regulating development in coastal areas   • Maintaining balance between community livelihood resources and numbers • Maintaining balance between community livelihood resources and numbers   of people of people   • Preparing food resource distribution scenarios to vulnerable groups • Preparing food resource distribution scenarios to vulnerable groups 4 Education level • Preparing informal education for strengthening and risk acceleration 4Education level• Preparing informal education for strengthening and risk acceleration   • Preparing education schemes and schools accessible to coastal communities • Preparing education schemes and schools accessible to coastal communities 5 Well-being level • Capacity building for coastal communities on the management of resources 5Well-being level• Capacity building for coastal communities on the management of resources   originating from mangrove plants originating from mangrove plants   • •  "},{"text":"Table 4 . Identification of challenges and opportunities in NDC roadmap preparation Challenges Opportunities Notes  Climate Climate condition baseline analysis Preparing a baseline Consideration of earlier ClimateClimate condition baseline analysisPreparing a baselineConsideration of earlier projection (2010) based on 1991-2020 available climate projections projection(2010)based on 1991-2020available climate projections   climate models  climate models  Future climate scenario according Climate scenarios More than one climate Future climate scenario accordingClimate scenariosMore than one climate  with NDC targets (2030) needed for 2021- model is needed by with NDC targets (2030)needed for 2021-model is needed by   2050 considering future 2050considering future    uncertainties uncertainties Impact The mandate of Article 21 of Law The need to separate An impact model is needed ImpactThe mandate of Article 21 of LawThe need to separateAn impact model is needed analysis No. 32/2009, where ecosystem analyses of climate that can separate climate analysisNo. 32/2009, where ecosystemanalyses of climatethat can separate climate  degradation and climate change impacts from impacts from non-climate degradation and climatechange impacts fromimpacts from non-climate  change become new criteria for non-climate impacts impacts change become new criteria fornon-climate impactsimpacts  environmental degradation   environmental degradation  The mandate of Law No. 16/2016, Commitment needed Climate change impact The mandate of Law No. 16/2016,Commitment neededClimate change impact  where climate change control is a to protect citizens' assessments need to be where climate change control is ato protect citizens'assessments need to be  constitutional mandate under which basic life needs from carried out on citizens' basic constitutional mandate under whichbasic life needs fromcarried out on citizens' basic  every person has the right to live potential climate life needs (food, water, every person has the right to livepotential climatelife needs (food, water,  prosperously, to a home, to a clean change impact risks energy and health) prosperously, to a home, to a cleanchange impact risksenergy and health)  and healthy environment, and to   and healthy environment, and to  secure health services   secure health services Strategy Climate change management must The need for clear Strategies prepared that can StrategyClimate change management mustThe need for clearStrategies prepared that can  become everyone's responsibility strategy direction at be implemented down to the become everyone's responsibilitystrategy direction atbe implemented down to the   various levels grassroots level various levelsgrassroots level  Climate change adaptation must be Development of a Needs to consider regional Climate change adaptation must beDevelopment of aNeeds to consider regional  mainstreamed down to the grassroots climate change one adaptation strategies, plans, mainstreamed down to the grassrootsclimate change oneadaptation strategies, plans,  level in various areas of life data policy and requirements level in various areas of lifedata policyand requirements Funding Poor climate change adaptation The need for direction Adaptation funds need FundingPoor climate change adaptationThe need for directionAdaptation funds need  funding management capacity at the for and estimation to be grouped into funds funding management capacity at thefor and estimationto be grouped into funds  local level of adaptation for governance and funds local levelof adaptationfor governance and funds   fund budgeting for adaptation action fund budgetingfor adaptation action   requirements implementation requirementsimplementation Source: KLHK (2020)   Source: KLHK (2020)  "},{"text":"DOI: 10.17528/cifor-icraf/008956 cifor-icraf.org cifor.org | worldagroforestry.org CIFOR-ICRAF Working Papers contain preliminary or advanced research results on important tropical forest issues that need to be published in a timely manner to inform and promote discussion. This content has been internally reviewed but has not undergone external peer review.   "}],"sieverID":"541eff94-71b8-4f68-91d1-c18cdf14ef47","abstract":"Table of contents Executive summary v Foreword vi vi"}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0a6dfeb2a50982f3dc9e7750005b91fe","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/06ee92ff-80ab-4bf3-bfe3-e7385ca7672d/retrieve"},"pageCount":45,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":46,"text":"Many Telecentres or community information centre initiatives have been supported by international (e.g. UNESCO, UNDP, FAO, EU) and bilateral donors (IDRC, SDC,USAID) and implemented through projects with (inter)national NGOs in the last 2 decades. These initiatives were set up as pilots with differing methodologies and services."},{"index":2,"size":23,"text":"It is necessary to take stock of results and impacts of these initiatives and provide a framework for upscaling in a learning mode."}]},{"head":"THE CONCEPT OF TELECENTRES / COMMUNITY MULTIMEDIA CENTR ES","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":52,"text":"The concept of shared access to information was first launched in Europe and Canada in the early 1980s through the movement of \"telecottage\". This movement was accelerated in the second half of the 1990s and was especially boosted by the digital revolution and the emerging interest of development organizations and private sectors."},{"index":2,"size":120,"text":"Attempts to define Telecentres are therefore diverse: some see them as information kiosks with a mix of ICT tools such as radio, photocopier, telephone, fax … and Internet connection; other focuses on the nature of services offered such as telemedicine or money transfer. But there is no real consensus around this question. As stated in an IDRC report, the concept of Telecentre «is a phenomenon still in discovery and in the various places where it is created, the local context colours its final form. It is an instrument for development whose adaptation and mutation is far from complete and perhaps not for some time yet. As a result, attempts to classify the currently existing types are still quite unsophisticated »."},{"index":3,"size":62,"text":"Nevertheless what matters is the development objective of mainly looking for ways of providing the population involved with autonomous instruments that facilitate social and economic exchanges. Telecentres have therefore a double aim: to serve as a platform of exploitation of local knowledge on one hand and to be at the heart of economic and financial transactions of the community on the other."}]},{"head":"KEY CHALLENGES","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":34,"text":"Many countries in Africa as well as other continents are facing similar challenges with respect to the use of ICT to address social and economic concerns in rural areas. These are mainly the following:"}]},{"head":"CHALLENGING ECONOMIC ENVIRONMENT","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":21,"text":"o Poor or no access to connectivity infrastructure, as Internet Service Providers and mobile communication companies are concentrated in urban areas."},{"index":2,"size":64,"text":"o Limited access of rural population to social and economic information o Lack of awareness and access to ICTs resulting in slow penetration, integration and non use or poor application of ICTs by rural people within identified localities o Poor delivery of economic and social services from public and private sector institutions to local level institutions o Lack of access to business/market information services."}]},{"head":"OPERATIONAL CHALLENG ES","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":16,"text":"The above factors are coupled with common problems that affect effective functioning of Telecentres such as:"},{"index":2,"size":15,"text":"Lack of sustainability and consistent revenue to support expenditures for connectivity and other communication services"},{"index":3,"size":49,"text":"Lack of awareness on relevant content and content development Technical problems with maintenance of equipment, hardware as well as software. This includes the break down of equipment, virus invasions, LAN and PC maintenance Insufficient skills and awareness to optimize the use of ICTs e.g. word-processing, optimal use of Internet."}]},{"head":"SUSTAINABILITY","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":20,"text":"With regard to sustainability, increased impact, and upscaling of Telecentres in Africa, the key challenges seem to be the following:"},{"index":2,"size":48,"text":"1. Identifying appropriate technologies for rural Telecentres -Low-cost, easy-to-implement technology platforms, affordable and stable Internet connections and suitable energy solutions 2. Demand-led content development & information services -Well-packaged, easy-to-replicate community services for Telecentres such as a range of information, communication and business services, computer training, telemedicine, e-learning, e-Government)"},{"index":3,"size":55,"text":"3. Development of a conducive (socio-economic, technical and policy) environment for the Telecentres through identification of the needs of (different layers of) the main stakeholders, assessment of the local situation and possible settings, capacity building for end-users and service providers, development of suitable business models, innovative social appropriation mechanisms and a supportive ICT policy strategy."}]},{"head":"THE WORKSHOP PURPOSE OF THE WORKSHOP","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":15,"text":"Contribute to the identification of key factors of success for sustainable rural telecentres in Africa."}]},{"head":"EXPECTED RESULTS","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":6,"text":"At the end of the workshop:"},{"index":2,"size":16,"text":"The participants will have gained insight into the reasons for success and failure of rural Telecentres"},{"index":3,"size":14,"text":"They will have acquired knowledge on solutions contributing to sustainability of Telecentres in Africa."},{"index":4,"size":26,"text":"A shared web resource on sustainable Telecentres in Southern Africa will be available for all organizations, institutes and companies involved in telecentres initiatives in the region."}]},{"head":"EXPECTED OUTPUTS","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":15,"text":"Insight into the key factors for sustainable rural Telecentres, based on experiences in the field."}]},{"head":"Web portal on the sustainable Telecentres in Southern Africa","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":50,"text":"Video/audio stories on practical experiences of the management of community multimedia rural telecentres o Analyze input from participants and others (all factors influencing telecentre performance) Result will be a 'Telecentre Map' with main factors influencing the performance which will form the basis for initial problem analysis session on Day 1"}]},{"head":"APPROACH","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":11,"text":"o Prepare a video on Multimedia Centre experiences in West Africa."}]},{"head":"DURING THE WORKSHOP","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":17,"text":"A number of cases of the 'Practitioners Group' will serve as the basis for the workshop programme."},{"index":2,"size":79,"text":"All participants in the workshop will contribute their experiences in the different workshop sessions with regard to the selected topics of the workshop. Together these cases will bring a range of different guidelines, technologies, and practices that will be discussed in workshop sessions given below and from which the most appropriate solutions will be selected and further elaborated. All sessions of the workshop will be facilitated by a 'facilitation Team' with members in each of the 3 workshop groups."},{"index":3,"size":40,"text":"The programme will consist of three main sessions, each with a number of facilitated group discussion sessions using different process tools. This will be followed by plenary sessions to discuss findings of the different working groups. The sessions will comprise:"},{"index":4,"size":105,"text":"1. Problem analysis session in which main bottlenecks and key issues will be identified based on an initial list of cases brought together by participants before the workshop and complemented with new cases brought in during group discussions. 2. Brainstorming & Problem solving session providing the most appropriate and feasible solutions for the identified list of cases and key issues. Elaboration of a selected number of case in predefined format to facilitate comparison and evaluation by participants 3. Synthesis session in which key success (& failure) factors, appropriate models, technologies and services for sustainable Telecentres in Africa will be presented using the above elaborated cases."}]},{"head":"AFTER THE WORKSHOP","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":33,"text":"After the workshop information provision on workshop themes will continue with a web portal on Sustainable Telecentres in Africa (www.share4dev.info/telecentres) with information on telecentre initiatives in Africa and other regions of the world."},{"index":2,"size":45,"text":"At the same time a pilot Telecentre project will be launched in Zambia based on the findings and recommendations of the workshop. This will be the first of four sustainable Telecentres in Zambia and one of the pilot telecentre project in Africa supported by CTA."},{"index":3,"size":42,"text":"InfoBridge Foundation and CTA being involved in several ICT4D initiatives in Asia, Africa, Caribbean and Pacific, will share the results of the workshop with their partners and where possible introduce solutions for appropriate technology, services ad sustainability challenges identified in the workshop."}]},{"head":"THEMES OF THE WORKSHOP","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":16,"text":"The following main themes have been discussed in the workshop focusing on the topics given below:"},{"index":2,"size":1,"text":"1 "}]},{"head":"ORGANIZERS THE TECHNICAL CENTRE FOR AGRICULTURAL AND RURAL CO-OPERATION (CTA)","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":95,"text":"For over 25 years, CTA has had a well-deserved reputation for collaboration with ACP governments, public and private sector bodies and civil society representatives in the course of implementing the mandate set out for it under the Cotonou agreement. In this respect, the Centre has successfully developed pragmatic and fruitful working relationships with all the major development agencies operating in the areas of information and communication management (ICM) and agricultural and rural development. Therefore, one of the main Centres' strategies consists in building its intervention on existing initiatives especially those promoting local knowledge and practices."}]},{"head":"INFOBRIDGE FOUNDATION (IBF)","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":120,"text":"InfoBridge foundation (IBF) is a non-profit organization, founded in 2002 in the Netherlands for fostering public-domain information sharing for sustainable development and poverty alleviation. IBF supports the InfoBridge Partnership, a multi-stakeholder framework for sharing information on projects, good practices, experts and partner organisations and manages a web-based repository and interaction tools and provides training to partner organisations and networks. IBF is actively involved in ICT4D initiatives in Africa and Asia to set up information and service centres in rural areas and is promoting shared open-access information resources that can be used by rural Telecentres , and intermediary organisations to provide multimedia information on questions and requests by local communities that they can to solve problems they face in their livelihoods."}]},{"head":"ZAMBIA ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF INFORMATION AND COMMUNICAT ION TECHNOLOGY (ZAA-ICT) ZAMBIA -(LOCAL ORGANIZING COMMITTEE)","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":60,"text":"ZAA-ICT is an Zambian NGO aimed at enhancing use of ICT for development especially by fostering sustainable Telecentres and works together with partners in Zambia and outside that are active in the area of ICT and Telecentres. ZAA-ICT also spearheads the thematic group on Rural Access and has carried out several studies on national ICT and Telecentre activities in Zambia."}]},{"head":"Other partners TELECENTRE.ORG","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":20,"text":"This is a community of people and organizations committed increasing the social and economic impact of telecentres around the world."},{"index":2,"size":11,"text":"They work together to create the resources telecentres need to succeed:"},{"index":3,"size":103,"text":"o Locally relevant content and services o Support and learning opportunities o Networks that help telecentre activists connect to each other With these things in hand, tens of thousands of telecentres will be in a better position to enrich the communities they serve. The telecentre.org community includes grassroots activists, national telecentre networks, content and service providers, governments, and organizations which fund telecentre activities. Initial efforts to convene and resource this community were led by a consortium of Canada's International Development Research Centre (IDRC), Microsoft, and the Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation (SDC). These partners continue to invest in the efforts described above."}]},{"head":"INTERNATIONAL INSTIT UTE FOR COMMUNICATION AND DEVELOPMENT (IICD)","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":124,"text":"IICD assists developing countries to realise locally owned sustainable development by harnessing the potential of Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs). IICD realizes its mission through two strategic approaches. First, Country Programmes bring local organizations together and help them to formulate and execute ICT-supported development policies and projects. The approach aims to strengthen local institutional capacities to develop and manage Country Programmes, which are currently being implemented in Bolivia, Burkina Faso, Ecuador, Ghana, Jamaica, Mali, Tanzania, Uganda and Zambia. Second, Thematic Networking links country and international partners working in similar areas, connecting local knowledge with global knowledge and promoting South-South and South-North exchanges. Thematic Networking focuses on sectors like education, health, governance, environment, livelihood opportunities -especially agriculture -and overarching issues such as training and evaluation."}]},{"head":"PARTICIPANTS","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":89,"text":"Some 50 participants (telecentre practitioners, Topic experts and strategic regional partners) were invited for the workshop based on the following criteria: 1. Practitioners: Telecentre managers from selected countries in Africa where Telecentre initiatives have been initiated in recent years. Practitioners should be able to present and discuss their own Telecentre set up/management. 2. Topic experts: Telecentre and ICT4D specialists dealing with one of more of the themes of the workshop 3. Key strategic partners: organizations actively supporting and financing Telecentre initiatives in Africa and elsewhere in the developing countries."},{"index":2,"size":16,"text":"A list of the participants can be found in Annex 1 and in Report Part II."}]},{"head":"LANGUAGES","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":14,"text":"The workshop was in English and French. Simultaneous translation was provided during the workshop."}]},{"head":"VENUE AND DATES","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":12,"text":"The workshop was held in Lusaka, Zambia, from 17 -19 June 2008."}]},{"head":"PROGRAMME","index":23,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":13,"text":"The workshop programme for the three days can be found in Annex 2."}]},{"head":"RESULTS OF THE WORKSHOP OPENING CEREMONY","index":24,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":24,"text":"Mr Claes Rosvall of COMESA and Ms Oumy Ndiaye of CTA started the Opening Ceremony respectively with an Introductory Remark and a Welcome Address."},{"index":2,"size":53,"text":"After that the workshop was officially opened by the Minister of Transport and Communication of Zambia, the Honorable Mrs Dora Siliya with an inspiring speech on the challenges of Telecentres in Zambia and the other countries in Africa. The full text of the speech of the Minister can be found in Annex 3"},{"index":3,"size":31,"text":"Ms Sola Phosiso of SAFIRE Zimbabwe spoke a Word of Thanks on behalf of the organizers and participants. The presentation of Mr Rosvall can be found on the Telecentre website (www.share4dev.info/telecentres)."}]},{"head":"SESSION 1 KEY NOT E PRESENT AT IO N ON THE T HREE THEMES OF T HE WORKSHOP","index":25,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":34,"text":"In the second half of the morning key note presentations were given on the three themes of the workshop after an overview of the workshop agenda presented by Mr Ruud Crul of InfoBridge Foundation."},{"index":2,"size":20,"text":"Mr After the key notes there was a plenary discussion in which participants could comment on the three key notes."}]},{"head":"SESSION 2","index":26,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"IDENTIFICATION OF MAIN CHALLENGES","index":27,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":110,"text":"In the afternoon the first working group session took place after an introduction of Mr Ruud Crul on the approach of the working group sessions, procedures and expected results. The participants were divided into three working groups based on their preference for the respective themes and the groups discussed and identified the main challenges with their own theme using a long-list of telecentre issues. This long-list of telecentre issues was prepared on the basis of existing publications on Telecentres in Africa and the results of the questionnaire that was filled online in 'SurveyMonkey' by the participants before the workshop. The long-lists of the three themes are given in Annex 4."},{"index":2,"size":50,"text":"The three working groups discussed the long-list of telecentre issues and identified most important challenges. The discussions in the groups were summarized and presented by the rapporteurs of the three working groups and discussed in a plenary session at the end of Day 1. Results are given in Annex 5."},{"index":3,"size":86,"text":"The Bulletin of Day 1 was prepared by Mr. Souleymane Ouattara of JADE Production (Burkina Faso) invited by the Steering Committee to cover the workshop. The Bulletin (in French) can be found on the Telecentre website (Bulletins of the Telecentre Workshop ). Experience has shown that the staff turn over is inevitable with well trained staff but it is possible to reduce the effects by increasing the number of persons trained and by creating a more favourable working environment for trained staff (fixed salaries, exposure, etc.)"},{"index":4,"size":112,"text":"M. Koda Traore insisted on the need for social appropriation as an additional factor for ensuring sustainability. To reach this objective, it is important for telecentre to collect some key indicators which can contribute to increasing the full participation of the rural communities in the setting and management of the telecentres. The efficiency of the telecentre should be based mainly on the following key aspects: (1) improved management including actors involved, access to relevant content, improved channels and process to deliver and share content) and ( 2) improved partnership: which should take into account the involvement of the rural communities, relevance of the content, training of trainers, geographical coverage and financial inputs."},{"index":5,"size":44,"text":"Describing the current model of telecentre financed by public national or international funds, M. Traore insisted that Telecentre should progressively move to a model where they can position themselves as enterprises capable of generating incomes and at the same time pursuing their social objectives."},{"index":6,"size":39,"text":"After the panel discussion, the working groups met again to identify solutions for identified main challenges using the shortlists of Day 1. This resulted in combined challenges -solutions lists for each of the three themes given in Annex 5."},{"index":7,"size":25,"text":"The short-lists of combined challenges and solutions were presented by the rapporteurs in a plenary session at the end of the morning of Day 2."},{"index":8,"size":42,"text":"The Bulletin of Day 2 was prepared by Mr. Souleymane Ouattara of JADE Production (Burkina Faso) invited by the Steering Committee to cover the workshop. The Bulletin (in French) can be found on the Telecentre website (Bulletins of the Telecentre Workshop )."}]},{"head":"FIELD VISIT TO THE CHINYUNYU TELECENTRE","index":28,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":30,"text":"In the afternoon a field visit to the Chinyunyu community information and multipurpose Telecentre set up by the GRZ-MCT/UNIDO/GEF project, some 80 km outside Lusaka was visited by the participants."},{"index":2,"size":54,"text":"The telecentre is \"expected to significantly contribute to the improvement of living standards of the targeted communities\". The telecentres different communication services such as public and mobile phones, internet access and a community cinema to the community of Chinyunyu district. Other services include Computer classes and Internet, Printing and Photocopying, Battery and Phone charging."},{"index":3,"size":46,"text":"Though most of the participants were impressed by the facilities available (solar energy panel, satellite internet access etc.), many think that it may be difficult to maintain and sustain this kind of projects and eventually expand it at larger scale without continuous supports from external funds."}]},{"head":"SESSION 4 DESCRIBING SOLUTIONS","index":29,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":49,"text":"On Day 3 of the workshop the participants worked again in the working groups to describe solutions that were identified for the main challenges. Each of the working groups was asked to described 2 or 3 solutions. In Annex 6 the solutions that the Working Groups prepared are given."},{"index":2,"size":25,"text":"The Bulletin of Day 3, prepared by Mr. Souleymane Ouattara, (in French) can be found on the Telecentre website (Bulletins of the Telecentre Workshop )."}]},{"head":"SESSION 5 PRESENTATIONS OF ORGANIZERS AND VIDEOS OF PARTICIPATING ORGANIZATIONS","index":30,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":112,"text":"In this section the organizers presented their activities and tools that can be used by Telecentres in Africa. First Mr Meddie Mayanja of Telecentre.org presented the activities of its global network. Ms Oumy Ndiaye and Mr Koda-Traoré of CTA presented the CTA activities and its web portals for information sharing. Mr Ruud Crul of InfoBridge Foundation informed the participants on the information sharing tools for sustainable development and the Telecentre projects of InfoBridge in Asia (India and Bangladesh) and Africa (Uganda and Kenya). Finally Mr Olaf Erz of IICD talked about the project activities of IICD in Africa and Latin America. All presentations of the organizers are uploaded to the telecentre website."},{"index":2,"size":29,"text":"In the afternoon a session was dedicated to the display of videos brought by some of the participants introducing and presenting their own telecentre activities, approach and success stories."}]},{"head":"SESSION 6 REGIONAL, NATIONAL AND INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION AND NETWORKING","index":31,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":49,"text":"This session started with presentations by Ms Animata Maïga, (AfriLinks Mali), Mr Sula Ndaula (Ugabytes, Uganda), Mr Mamy Keita, (ACA, Guinea) and Ms Polly Gaster (CIUEM, University, Mozambique) on regional initiatives and national activities on telecentres. The presentations were followed by a panel discussion on national and regional cooperation."},{"index":2,"size":35,"text":"The set up of the regional telecentre network for Southern Africa (SATNET) was announced by Mr Dean Mulozi of ZAA-ICT. The day after the workshop a meeting was dedicated to the organization of the SATNET."}]},{"head":"SESSION 7 -SYNTHESIS AND WORKSHOP RECOMMENDATIONS","index":32,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":16,"text":"For each of the themes the conclusions are summarized below. For additional information see the annexes: "}]},{"head":"TECHNOLOGY","index":33,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"ENSURING SUSTAINABILITY (SOCIO-ECONOMIC CONTEXT)","index":34,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":75,"text":"Partnerships: Two-way partnerships should be given more thrust: service providers and Service seekers both should be helped to converge at the telecentre level Need to develop a repository of services and information through a telecentre network for better efficiency Sustainability Ownership  Needs a set of guiding principles that may be developed as a mission statement and memorandum of agreement  Distinction between policy level initiatives and managerial initiatives through a standard operating procedures (SOP)"},{"index":2,"size":13,"text":"In addition CTA indicated the next steps that will be implemented in 2008-2009:"}]},{"head":"OUTPUTS","index":35,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":49,"text":"► Develop a \"Guide\" on how to establish sustainable rural telecentres. The guide will also link to existing resources and experiences ► The Telecentre Africa website (www.share4dev.info/telecentres) will be used and enhanced by the participants to continue discussing identified issues, accessing resources available and sharing their experiences (individual basis)."},{"index":2,"size":141,"text":"► The Website is proposed to be used by the up-coming Southern Africa ICT and Telecentre Network (SATNET), and will be linked to Telecentre.org COLLABORATION ► CTA will continue to support its partners to adopt the telecentres approach and to enhance the Telecentre initiatives in Africa especially in Southern Africa ► InfoBridge expertise and tools will be available through its partnership programme to telecentres, organisations and networks involved in strengthening sustainable development of local communities ► The organising partners agree to contribute towards telecentres initiatives in Africa especially in Southern Africa. Mr Mbumaye reaffirmed the commitment of his government in the telecentre movement as part of the global ICT development agenda. He invited the international partners involved in the workshop to sustain their efforts in supporting the ICTs deployment and adoption in Africa in general and in Southern Africa in particular."}]},{"head":"SESSION 8 CLOSURE","index":36,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Ms","index":37,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":100,"text":"In her intervention, Dr Okello drawn the attention of participants on the gender dimension in ICT adoption and pleaded for an increased support to improving rural women access to ICTs as one of the main factor for sustainability.  Firstly, I wish to welcome all our international visitors to Zambia. I am reliably informed that Africa is well represented at this meeting through the regional groupings, that is, North, East, West and Southern Africa. It is my sincere hope that you will find Zambia as one of Africa's mostly friendly countries as well as a prime destination for investment in ICTs."},{"index":2,"size":83,"text":"Allow me to bring congratulations from the Government on your choosing to bring this workshop to Zambia. In the same token, let me assure you of Government support in your endeavour to contribute to development of Africa in the area of ICT. Going by the number of investments in ICTs around Africa, particularly telecommunications, it is befitting that local and international NGOs must come together to shape the destiny for Africa in a world that is now heavily driven by information and knowledge."},{"index":3,"size":31,"text":"Therefore, it is gratifying to note that NGOs and Zambians in particular are forging ahead to respond and take advantage of the development policies made possible by various Governments in Africa."},{"index":4,"size":66,"text":"Ladies and Gentlemen, I am aware that your workshop is focusing on sustainability of Rural Telecentres in Africa. In line with your workshop, allow me to highlight four areas that my Government is focusing on in relation to Information and Communication Technology (ICT) in Zambia which may be common to Africa in General. These are: (1) Telecommunications Infrastructure ( 2) Technology (3) Content and (4). Access."},{"index":5,"size":138,"text":"Mr. Chairman, Telecommunications infrastructure is cardinal to the development of ICTs in Africa. It is for this reason that the African Union is spearheading a number of initiatives such as laying of fibre optic cables to ease and ensure broadband connectivity across the continent. In Zambia, Government has through policies ensured that fibre optic connectivity brings about the much needed infrastructure for provisioning of various ICT services across the country. In this regard, over 2,250 kilometres of Fibre cable has been laid by various operators. This stretches from Katima Mulilo at the border with Namibia through Livingstone to the Copperbelt en route to Solwezi up to Lumwana via Chingola. All Copperbelt towns are now connected to the fibre cable stretching over 500 kilometres. The target is to reach about 5,000km by 2010 to ensure coverage across the country."},{"index":6,"size":137,"text":"Ladies & Gentlemen, This is the basis for bringing ICT products and services through appropriate technologies to communities. While high technologies such as WIMAX seem a pipedream in Africa, you must take a leaf from the impact of mobile phone technologies which has made Africa and other developing countries the highest in terms of new investment and penetration in telecommunication services. Therefore, as you deliberate on the sustainability of Rural Telecentres, do not forget that new technologies may be the real answer to Africa's ICT revolution. However, for this to happen, Rural Telecentres must be responsive to the needs of Africa's rural population. In this regard, content becomes the key driver to the use of the telecentres. Ironically, this will in turn drive the demand for more advanced yet necessary services such as mobile banking and e-learning."},{"index":7,"size":231,"text":"Invited Guests, This brings me to the issue of affordable access to ICTs. The mobile phone has succeeded as one of the most accessed device in the world over a very short period of time far more than the TV and Computer. One of the reasons for this is the low cost of the device which has been dropping to levels affordable to rural communities as well. Therefore, as you plan your strategies, address the core issues of access which owing to the economic levels prevailing in most African countries has caused low uptake of lCTs. This is a serious challenge which requires well thought out strategies, programmes and activities which will stimulate growth in the ICT market on the continent. In Zambia, my Government is playing a part by developing programmes aimed at the rural communities. In this respect, the Fifth National Development Plan 2006-2010 highlights the need to set-up rural ICT initiatives. To this effect, the Rural JCT Programme for this year has a budget of K800 Million Kwacha. Government is in the process of ensuring that resources to the tune of over K14 Billion under the Rural ICT Fund at Communications Authority is implemented to ensure access to lCTs by the rural population. It is such initiatives which will empower Zambians by unlocking the resources for creation of jobs and wealth as outlined in the Zambia's Vision 2030."},{"index":8,"size":158,"text":"Ladies & Gentlemen, I leave you with a challenge to answer the needs of the many stakeholders particularly Africans that have made it possible for you to attend this workshop by taking back to them solutions that will address their core issues in your respective societies through the use of ICTs. Lastly but not the least, I wish to thank Zambia Association for the Advancement of ICTs, IICD, ICRD, InfoBridge, COMESA and CTA for this wonderful gesture of bringing together Consultants and practitioners in ICTs as well as operators of telecentres in Africa to this workshop. However, I challenge you to leave an impression in Zambia by working, and ensuring sustainable partnerships with Government, local NGOs and Communities so that ICTs will not be spoken, used and practiced by only a few in workshops like this one without addressing real issues for Africa to join and be an equal player in world affairs including social and economic development."},{"index":9,"size":3,"text":"I thank you.  "}]},{"head":"(COMMUNITY) SERVICES","index":38,"paragraphs":[]}],"figures":[{"text":"o Conduct studies on Telecentre experiences in Mali, Senegal and Mozambique. The reports of these studies can be found on the Telecentres Africa website. See Workshop Preparatory Documents including studies. o Use information from the field as basis for Workshop programme next to desk study on existing publications and workshop reports o Request through mailing and questionnaire (see Report -Part II) already basic information on successes and failures of telecentres from potential participants and other sourceso Bring together a number of telecentre experiences from Practitioners to be used as cases presented during the workshop. Presentations of selected cases and other information on the telecentre initiatives in which participants are involved will be presented at the Telecentres workshop website. "},{"text":"SESSION 3 FINDING SOLUTIONS OF MAIN CHALLENGES AND PRIORIT Y SETT INGDay 2 started with a panel discussion on finding solutions to the key constraints identified. The discussions focussed more on analyzing the solutions rather than just listing them. The discussions were introduced by two presentations from Mr. Koda Traoré, CTA and Mr Jean-Ernest Ouédraogo a CTA consultant who has conducted the pilot study in Mali Based on the result of his study, Mr Ouedraogo estimated that the decision to set up a telecentre should be based on viability study. Managers of telecentres of the telecentres should benefit from training in management and maintenance of equipment. The staff motivation is also crucial, he said. "},{"text":" workshop on behalf of the participants. Subsequently the Secretary General of the Ministry of Transport and Communication of Zambia, Mr Mbumaye, officially closed the workshop. "},{"text":" of the Mrs. Dora Siliya, Minister of Transport and Communication of Zambia 4. Longlists of challenges for working group sessions 5. Reports of working groups -challenges -priority setting (day 1-2) 6. Reports of working groups -Solutions (day 3) ANNEX 1 -LIST OF PARTICIPANTS "},{"text":" the report gives access to the supporting documents to the workshop and all contributions by Participants: all reports, studies, videos for the workshop, and the contributions (presentations, reports) by the participants in the workshop and the reporting/coverage of the workshop itself(reports, video, photos, bulletins).LIST OF DOCUMENTS1. Studies of Telecentre experiences in Mali, Senegal and Mozambique a. Study on CMC in Mali (French) This study, commissioned by CTA, gives an overview of the current status of the CMC experiences in Mali. It identified the major constraints with regard to technologies, content and services provided and socioeconomic factors that may affect the sustainability of the centres. The study also proposed a framework of actions for CTA. Download links: http://www.anancy.net/uploads/file_fr/Rapport-CMC-Mali-final.pdf b. Etude d'avant projet sur les centres multimédias communautaires : cas des CMC au Sénégal (French) This study, commissioned by CTA, gives an overview of the current status of the CMC experiences in Senegal. It identified the major constraints with regard to technologies, content and services provided and socioeconomic factors that may affect the sustainability of the centres. Download Links: http://www.anancy.net/uploads/file_fr/Rapport_Senegal.pdf c. Telecentres in Mozambique: staying online (English) This study, commissioned by CTA, gives an overview of the current status of the Telecentres/CMC experiences in Mozambique. It identified the major constraints with regard to technologies, content and services provided and socioeconomic factors that may affect the sustainability of the centres. The study also proposed a framework of actions for CTA. Download link: http://www.anancy.net/uploads/file_en/Telecenters_Mozambique_final.pdf "},{"text":"  "},{"text":". Appropriate technologies for rural Telecentres in Africa  a. Low-cost, easy-to-implement technology platforms a. Low-cost, easy-to-implement technology platforms b. Affordable and stable Internet connectivity b. Affordable and stable Internet connectivity c. Suitable energy solutions c. Suitable energy solutions 2. Appropriate demand-led content development & information services 2. Appropriate demand-led content development & information services a. Need assessment, monitoring client satisfaction, improvement of services a. Need assessment, monitoring client satisfaction, improvement of services b. Well-packaged, easy-to-replicate community services b. Well-packaged, easy-to-replicate community services c. Content development, local knowledge and repackaging of information c. Content development, local knowledge and repackaging of information 3. Ensuring sustainability 3. Ensuring sustainability a. Assessment of needs and local setting a. Assessment of needs and local setting b. Capacity building for Telecentre managers b. Capacity building for Telecentre managers c. Affordability/accessibility by end users c. Affordability/accessibility by end users d. Appropriate business models d. Appropriate business models e. Innovative social appropriation mechanisms e. Innovative social appropriation mechanisms f. Innovative ICT policy environment. f. Innovative ICT policy environment.  "},{"text":"SPEECH BY HON. DORA SILIYA, MP MINISTER OF COMMUNICATIONS AND TRANSPORT PRESENTED AT THE WORKSHOP FOR SUSTAINABLE RURAL TELECENTERS IN AFRICA, 17TH JUNE 2008, CRESTA GOLFVIEW HOTEL, LUSAKA Mr . David Kema, Acting Permanent Secretary, Ministry of Communications and Transport, Ms. Oumy Ndiaye, Head of Programmes, CTA, The Netherlands Mr. Koda Traore, Programme Manager, CTA, The Netherlands Mr. Ruud Crul, InfoBridge Foundation, The Netherlands Mr. Claes Rosvall, Programme Manager, COMESA Regional ICT Programme Mr. Olaf Erz, Country Manager for Zambia, IICD, The Netherlands, Mr. Meddle Mayanja, Head of Programmes, Telecentre.org, IDRC, Canada Mr. Dean Mulozi, Chairperson, Zambia Association for Advancement of ICTs, Zambia ANNEX 2 -PROGRAMME OF WORKSHOP ANNEX 2 -PROGRAMME OF WORKSHOP Mr Samuel D. BOK Mr Suthani MAZHANI Mr Kishore NARAN M. Souleymane OUATTARA M. Jean Paul NKURUNZIZA Mr Meddie MAYANJA Mr Abebe CHEKOL Mr Mamy KEITA Dr Arun VARMA Mr Frederick Ochieng OLUOCH M. Jean Ernest OUEDRAOGO M. Louka DIARRA Mme Aminata MAIGA Ms Polly GASTER M. YOUSSOUF Mohamed Elmoctar Réseau des Chambres d'Agriculture (RECA) -Niger Department of Research Science and Technology -Botswana Botswana Technology Centre -Botswana Dept of Information Technology -Botswana JADE Production -Burkina Faso Burundi Community Telecentre Network or BYTC -Burundi IDRC, Telecentre.org -Canada UNECA, ICT, Science and Technology Division -Ethiopia Agence pour la Commercialisation Agricole (ACA) -Guinea IL&FS Educ. and Technology Services Ltd, Dep. of Inform. Technology -India Kendat -Kenya Consultant in Communication -Mali Radio Beldougou Mali Afriklinks -Mali Centro de Informatica da Universidade Eduardo Mondlane (CIUEM) -Mozambique Mr Roméo MBENGOU Day 1 Telecentre Challenges 08:30-09:00 On-site registration Plenary OPENING 09:00-09:15 Plenary Introductory remark Mr Claes Rosvall -Programme Manager of the Regional ICT Support Programme COMESA 09:15-09:30 Plenary Welcome address Ms Oumy Ndiaye -Head of Department Communication Channels and Services, CTA 09:30-09:55 Plenary Official Opening Address ANNEX 3 -Government Leaders Present, Hon. Dora Siliya -Minister of Members of the Press, Transport and Communication Association AZUR Développement -République du Congo M. Paul BARERA Distinguished Invited Guests, Rwanda Telecentre Network -Rwanda M. Abdoulaye DIAKO Ndoogu Communication -Senegal 09:55 -10:00 Plenary Word of Thanks Dr Sola Phosiso, SAFIRE, Zimbabwe Ladies and Gentlemen, Mr Samuel D. BOK Mr Suthani MAZHANI Mr Kishore NARAN M. Souleymane OUATTARA M. Jean Paul NKURUNZIZA Mr Meddie MAYANJA Mr Abebe CHEKOL Mr Mamy KEITA Dr Arun VARMA Mr Frederick Ochieng OLUOCH M. Jean Ernest OUEDRAOGO M. Louka DIARRA Mme Aminata MAIGA Ms Polly GASTER M. YOUSSOUF Mohamed Elmoctar Réseau des Chambres d'Agriculture (RECA) -Niger Department of Research Science and Technology -Botswana Botswana Technology Centre -Botswana Dept of Information Technology -Botswana JADE Production -Burkina Faso Burundi Community Telecentre Network or BYTC -Burundi IDRC, Telecentre.org -Canada UNECA, ICT, Science and Technology Division -Ethiopia Agence pour la Commercialisation Agricole (ACA) -Guinea IL&FS Educ. and Technology Services Ltd, Dep. of Inform. Technology -India Kendat -Kenya Consultant in Communication -Mali Radio Beldougou Mali Afriklinks -Mali Centro de Informatica da Universidade Eduardo Mondlane (CIUEM) -Mozambique Mr Roméo MBENGOU Day 1 Telecentre Challenges 08:30-09:00 On-site registration Plenary OPENING 09:00-09:15 Plenary Introductory remark Mr Claes Rosvall -Programme Manager of the Regional ICT Support Programme COMESA 09:15-09:30 Plenary Welcome address Ms Oumy Ndiaye -Head of Department Communication Channels and Services, CTA 09:30-09:55 Plenary Official Opening Address ANNEX 3 -Government Leaders Present, Hon. Dora Siliya -Minister of Members of the Press, Transport and Communication Association AZUR Développement -République du Congo M. Paul BARERA Distinguished Invited Guests, Rwanda Telecentre Network -Rwanda M. Abdoulaye DIAKO Ndoogu Communication -Senegal 09:55 -10:00 Plenary Word of Thanks Dr Sola Phosiso, SAFIRE, Zimbabwe Ladies and Gentlemen, Mr Dion JERLING Mrs Patricia Khanyisile MAKORO 10:00-10:45 Coffee break Connect Africa -South Africa Mr Dion JERLING Mrs Patricia Khanyisile MAKORO 10:00-10:45 Coffee breakConnect Africa -South Africa Mr Martine DEVOTHA Ms Marina CHERBONNIER 10:45-11:00 Plenary Fadeco Telecentre -Tanzania CTA -The Netherlands Overview of the Workshop Agenda InfoBridge (Ruud Crul) Mr Martine DEVOTHA Ms Marina CHERBONNIER 10:45-11:00 PlenaryFadeco Telecentre -Tanzania CTA -The Netherlands Overview of the Workshop Agenda InfoBridge (Ruud Crul) Mr Ruud -CRUL Mr Simon André JASPERSE Mr Olaf -ERZ Ms Oumy K.NDIAYE 11:00-11:20 Plenary (Presentation) InfoBridge Foundation -The Netherlands InfoBridge Foundation -The Netherlands IICD -The Netherlands CTA -The Netherlands Focus: Appropriate Telecentres in Africa Technologies for rural Dion Jerling (Connect Africa) Mr Ruud -CRUL Mr Simon André JASPERSE Mr Olaf -ERZ Ms Oumy K.NDIAYE 11:00-11:20 Plenary (Presentation)InfoBridge Foundation -The Netherlands InfoBridge Foundation -The Netherlands IICD -The Netherlands CTA -The Netherlands Focus: Appropriate Telecentres in Africa Technologies for rural Dion Jerling (Connect Africa) Mr A. Koda -TRAORE Mr Michael -LUBOWA Mr Sula NDAULA 11:20-11:40 Plenary (Presentation) CTA -The Netherlands MIDWAY CENTRE -Uganda Ugabytes -Uganda Focus: Demand-Led Content Development and services Dr Arun Varma (ILFS, India) Mr A. Koda -TRAORE Mr Michael -LUBOWA Mr Sula NDAULA 11:20-11:40 Plenary (Presentation)CTA -The Netherlands MIDWAY CENTRE -Uganda Ugabytes -Uganda Focus: Demand-Led Content Development and services Dr Arun Varma (ILFS, India) Mr Peter BALABA Mr Ivan Gaayi KIBIRIGE Mrs Twanza Berna NGOLOBE 11:40-12:00 Plenary (Presentation) Nakaseke Telecentre -Uganda Nabweru Community Multimedia Centre -Uganda Women of Uganda Network -WOUGNET -Uganda Focus: Ensuring Sustainability Mr Michael Lubowa (UNIDO, Uganda) Mr Peter BALABA Mr Ivan Gaayi KIBIRIGE Mrs Twanza Berna NGOLOBE 11:40-12:00 Plenary (Presentation)Nakaseke Telecentre -Uganda Nabweru Community Multimedia Centre -Uganda Women of Uganda Network -WOUGNET -Uganda Focus: Ensuring Sustainability Mr Michael Lubowa (UNIDO, Uganda) Dr Dorothy OKELLO Mr Victor MBUMWAE 12:00-13:00 Discussions Community Wireless Resource Centre (CWRC) -Uganda Ministry of Communications and Transport Dr Dorothy OKELLO Mr Victor MBUMWAE 12:00-13:00 DiscussionsCommunity Wireless Resource Centre (CWRC) -Uganda Ministry of Communications and Transport Mr. Austin CHILALA Mr Dean MULOZI 13:00-14:00 Logistics and Lunch break GRZ-MCT/UNIDO/GEF -Zambia ZAA-ICT -Zambia Mr. Austin CHILALA Mr Dean MULOZI 13:00-14:00 Logistics and Lunch break GRZ-MCT/UNIDO/GEF -Zambia ZAA-ICT -Zambia Mr Paul MUWOWO Ms Rhoda CHISENGALUMBASE Mr Lee MUZALA 14:00-14:15 Plenary DOPE -Zambia ZAA-ICT -Zambia E-Brain Forum of Zambia -Zambia -Working group introduction (procedures & expected outputs) -Ruud Crul (InfoBridge) Mr Paul MUWOWO Ms Rhoda CHISENGALUMBASE Mr Lee MUZALA 14:00-14:15 PlenaryDOPE -Zambia ZAA-ICT -Zambia E-Brain Forum of Zambia -Zambia -Working group introduction (procedures & expected outputs) -Ruud Crul (InfoBridge) Dr Gay NYAKWENDE Dr Lemba D. NYIRENDA Mr Chitenda SILUNGWE Mrs Joyce MUKANDO Mr Wamupu NOYOO 14:15-15:45 Working Group sessions One World Africa -Zambia -GRZ-MCT/UNIDO/GEF -Zambia Mporokoso Bwafwano central Board -Zambia Mporokoso Bwafwano Central Board -Zambia ZAA-ICT -Zambia Group 1 : Group 2: Challenges: Group 3: Challenges: Challenges: identification & identification & priority identification & priority setting priority setting setting Dr Gay NYAKWENDE Dr Lemba D. NYIRENDA Mr Chitenda SILUNGWE Mrs Joyce MUKANDO Mr Wamupu NOYOO 14:15-15:45 Working Group sessionsOne World Africa -Zambia -GRZ-MCT/UNIDO/GEF -Zambia Mporokoso Bwafwano central Board -Zambia Mporokoso Bwafwano Central Board -Zambia ZAA-ICT -Zambia Group 1 : Group 2: Challenges: Group 3: Challenges: Challenges: identification & identification & priority identification & priority setting priority setting setting Mr Mark BENNETT Ms Anne Johnson 15:45-16:00 Tea break Africonnect Zambia Ltd Africonnect Zambia Ltd Zambia Zambia Mr Mark BENNETT Ms Anne Johnson 15:45-16:00 Tea breakAfriconnect Zambia Ltd Africonnect Zambia LtdZambia Zambia Mr Kalunda -CHOMBA Mr Changwe -MANDISHI 16:00-16:45 Plenary Translator -Zambia Translator -Zambia Working group reports Mr Kalunda -CHOMBA Mr Changwe -MANDISHI 16:00-16:45 PlenaryTranslator -Zambia Translator -Zambia Working group reports Dr SOLA PHOSISO Mr Kundhlande GLADMAN 16:45-17:30 Plenary SAFIRE -Zimbabwe SAFIRE -Zimbabwe Discussions and Priority setting Dr SOLA PHOSISO Mr Kundhlande GLADMAN 16:45-17:30 PlenarySAFIRE -Zimbabwe SAFIRE -Zimbabwe Discussions and Priority setting Evening Cocktail  EveningCocktail  "},{"text":".3. ICT Policy & regulations 2.4. Capacity building Lack of clarity of the motivation to engage in telecentre worksPartnershipsCriteria setting for groups interested in partnership; regulatory fund reduces private sector involvement in the telecentre works M&E/Impact assessment Ensuring that the M and E are is incorporated in the telecentre works right from the beginning2.2. EquityGender e.g. unequal access for women to ICT; Limited content addressing specific gender interest, low relevance; illiteracy; cultural limitations to public access and time of exposure; FACTORS FACTORS REMARKS ON CHALLENGES REMARKS ON CHALLENGES IMPOR-IMPOR-TANCE TANCE FACTORS FACTORSREMARKS ON CHALLENGES REMARKS ON CHALLENGESIMPOR-IMPOR-TANCE TANCE 2. EQUIPMENT 3. AVAILABILITY OF   2 2. EQUIPMENT 3. AVAILABILITY OF2 POWER/ENERGY Factors Needs assessments Methodology scans/surveys Locality, content, refurnish existing computers, flexibility, Solar energy Challenges 2 POWER/ENERGY FactorsNeeds assessments Methodology scans/surveys Locality, content, refurnish existing computers, flexibility, Solar energy Challenges2 1.1. e-Governance services 2.1. Selection of equipment 3.1. Electricity supply 2. INSTITUTIONAL CONTEXT Legal forms Land ownership records Certificates power grid 2.1. Ownership Power cuts Licences/permits 1.2. Transactional services PC training Limited PC skills with clients local needs, initial/maintenance costs, complexity -single PRA RRA No electricity, no telecentre purpose, price/quality relation Market analysis e-Readiness Disseminate non-customized/ Ambiguous ownership bringing about unclear Governance and 100 $ computer? Too small, not sophisticated enough, poor marketing management structure problems wind Mouse Quality first 2. CONTENT 3.2. RE solutions 1.2.1. Business services customized content 2.2. PCs & adequate user interfaces Community based Maintenance of installation Organisations involvement 1.1. e-Governance services 2.1. Selection of equipment 3.1. Electricity supply 2. INSTITUTIONAL CONTEXT Legal forms Land ownership records Certificates power grid 2.1. Ownership Power cuts Licences/permits 1.2. Transactional services PC training Limited PC skills with clients local needs, initial/maintenance costs, complexity -single PRA RRA No electricity, no telecentre purpose, price/quality relation Market analysis e-Readiness Disseminate non-customized/ Ambiguous ownership bringing about unclear Governance and 100 $ computer? Too small, not sophisticated enough, poor marketing management structure problems wind Mouse Quality first 2. CONTENT 3.2. RE solutions 1.2.1. Business services customized content 2.2. PCs & adequate user interfaces Community based Maintenance of installation Organisations involvement Literacy & basic education level 2.1. Non-customized Information Literacy & basic education level2.1. Non-customized Information Other business courses Typewriting business skills Solar panels keyboard Quality first Micro-hydro 2.1.1. Sector specific info Market prices Meteo & weather Other business courses Typewriting business skills Solar panels keyboard Quality first Micro-hydro2.1.1. Sector specific info Market prices Meteo & weather Desktop publishing Printing Other Quality first Input suppliers Technologies and good practices Desktop publishing Printing OtherQuality firstInput suppliers Technologies and good practices Photography e-Banking e-Commerce Screens Power consumption, location flat screen not dust resistant Q&A services 3.3. Alternatives power supply Telemedicine eLearning during power cuts Photography e-Banking e-Commerce Screens Power consumption, location flat screen not dust resistant Q&A services 3.3. Alternatives power supply Telemedicine eLearning during power cuts Other Web services Website design/hosting 1.2.2. Communication Hardware maintenance Service level agreements e.g. Illiteracy and use of ICT Batteries Software Promote open source versus commercial deals Job opportunities Early warning systems/info 2.1.2. Information quality Poorest groups Age Diesel engine Fax Mobile Phone Internet Internet Email FTP 2.2. Medium 4. CONNECTIVITY Flexible choose system according to conditions, stability, Disabled groups Low sharing of good examples addressing the groups; Open source no support. Microsoft subsidised telecentres, Electronic copies Printed copies IPR Video clips Radio SMS (Gateway) Open source software vs Licensed software Microsoft certificates wanted in the market. Costs favourable, commercial deals 2.3. Phone (fixed line) Call centres fixed x ADSL, modem costs, fibre optics, land lines reputation is poor, data transfer not evident -exchange system, cost implications 4.1. Awareness /knowledge Telecentre can operate without connectivity 22.4.1. Training 3 Other Web services Website design/hosting 1.2.2. Communication Hardware maintenance Service level agreements e.g. Illiteracy and use of ICT Batteries Software Promote open source versus commercial deals Job opportunities Early warning systems/info 2.1.2. Information quality Poorest groups Age Diesel engine Fax Mobile Phone Internet Internet Email FTP 2.2. Medium 4. CONNECTIVITY Flexible choose system according to conditions, stability, Disabled groups Low sharing of good examples addressing the groups; Open source no support. Microsoft subsidised telecentres, Electronic copies Printed copies IPR Video clips Radio SMS (Gateway) Open source software vs Licensed software Microsoft certificates wanted in the market. Costs favourable, commercial deals 2.3. Phone (fixed line) Call centres fixed x ADSL, modem costs, fibre optics, land lines reputation is poor, data transfer not evident -exchange system, cost implications 4.1. Awareness /knowledge Telecentre can operate without connectivity 22.4.1. Training3 1.3. Informational services 1.3.1. Organisational Model Understand community's needs and 2.3. Fax 5. HUMAN FACTOR Skills needed to use and maintain the system Technical skills High turnover and keeping a continuous cycle of training Fax services 2.3. Customized information Local language(s) Competition? Economies of scale, remarket big bundles, 5.1 Capacity building Responsibility for management Communication skills Costs of sustaining the training eg are they free, who gives, what quality 1 1.3. Informational services 1.3.1. Organisational Model Understand community's needs and 2.3. Fax 5. HUMAN FACTOR Skills needed to use and maintain the system Technical skills High turnover and keeping a continuous cycle of training Fax services 2.3. Customized information Local language(s) Competition? Economies of scale, remarket big bundles, 5.1 Capacity building Responsibility for management Communication skills Costs of sustaining the training eg are they free, who gives, what quality 1 ICT environment Local ICT surveys and scans 2.4. Mobile Phone(s) Networks Botswana 80% reach of mobiles, mobile phones sold in illiterate and poorest people Disabled people telecentres, business centres 5.2 Awareness and who pays Train computer skills at school 5.3 Technical skills Creative skills 3 ICT environment Local ICT surveys and scans 2.4. Mobile Phone(s) Networks Botswana 80% reach of mobiles, mobile phones sold in illiterate and poorest people Disabled people telecentres, business centres 5.2 Awareness and who pays Train computer skills at school 5.3 Technical skills Creative skills3 Business skills   Business skills 2.4.2. Organisational Support e.g. Limited sharing of successful projects/initiatives 2.4.2. Organisational Supporte.g. Limited sharing of successful projects/initiatives  e.g. No/limited sharing of failures e.g. No/limited sharing of failures  "}],"sieverID":"0723f460-7e0d-49a5-8da0-ba5ecfcb6295","abstract":"The importance of ICTs in development is no longer debatable. For development practitioners the main challenge is to find the best ways of integrating them in a development context, especially in poor rural areas of developing countries. Thus, the international community has put ICTs amongst the top priorities in the Agendas for development."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0acaffeb377ca44050aafce5b61c0527","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/48d156c8-4a0e-41c4-99f2-7d05f9dab904/retrieve"},"pageCount":22,"title":"Opciones para la agricultura en la conferencia sobre cambio climático en Marrakech: mensajes para los negociadores de agricultura del grupo de trabajo SBSTA 45 Edición","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Tabla de contenido","index":1,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Abreviaciones y siglas","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Mensajes clave","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":151,"text":"Introducción OPCIÓN 1: Vincular la adaptación de la agricultura al mecanismo de financiación de la CMNUCC OPCIÓN 2: Fortalecer acciones de adaptación de la agricultura en los procesos de transferencia tecnológica y desarrollo de capacidades OPCIÓN 3: Prestar apoyo técnico para ayudar a las partes con la implementación de sus NDC OPCIÓN 4: Programa de trabajo de SBSTA sobre agricultura OPCIÓN 5: Abordar la adaptación de la agricultura a través de procesos por fuera de la Convención OPCIÓN 6: Llevar a cabo un proceso para discutir el tema de la mitigación como co-beneficio de las intervenciones de adaptación en la agricultura OPCIÓN 7: Desarrollar una plataforma de conocimiento y aprendizaje en temas agropecuarios OPCIÓN 8: Medir la eficacia de las intervenciones de adaptación en la agricultura OPCIÓN 9: Apoyar el desarrollo de sistemas de alerta temprana OPCIÓN 10: Realizar otros procesos conforme a la CMNUCC para el avance de la agricultura"}]},{"head":"Referencias","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":60,"text":"Abreviaciones y siglas • El grupo de trabajo SBSTA 45 en Marrakech representa una oportunidad única para que las partes tomen decisiones sobre el futuro de la agricultura dentro de la CMNUCC. El proceso de las discusiones sobre los temas relacionados con la agricultura que se inició en la COP17 en Durban 2011 finalizará en la COP22 en Marrakech 2016."},{"index":2,"size":54,"text":"• La referencia explícita a la seguridad alimentaria en el preámbulo del Acuerdo de París y en las Contribuciones Nacionales Previstas Determinadas, los cuales priorizan la agricultura como sector para acciones de adaptación y mitigación, sirven de base para que las Partes desarrollen marcos de trabajo adecuados para apoyar acciones en el sector agropecuario."},{"index":3,"size":43,"text":"• Los talleres de SBSTA sobre agricultura realizados en 2015 y 2016 permitieron a las Partes compartir sus experiencias, identificar prioridades y plantear maneras de emprender acciones en el sector agropecuario, brindando así la base de conocimiento fundamental para el trabajo a realizar."},{"index":4,"size":54,"text":"• Cuando las Partes tomen una decisión sobre los temas relacionados con la agricultura en SBSTA 45, se contará con varias opciones. Este informe plantea 10 opciones que podrían contribuir a la toma de una decisión, teniendo en cuenta las prioridades políticas, la coordinación de la implementación, los cronogramas y el nivel de ambición."},{"index":5,"size":19,"text":"• Las opciones descritas en este informe no se excluyen mutuamente y pueden ser combinadas de muchas maneras diferentes."}]},{"head":"Mensajes clave","index":5,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Introducción","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":161,"text":"El cambio climático afectará todos los cuatro aspectos de la seguridad alimentaria: disponibilidad, acceso, estabilidad y aprovechamiento de los alimentos (Schmidhuber y Tubiello 2007). La disponibilidad de alimentos provenientes de cultivos, ganadería y pesca se verá afectada (Campbell et al. 2016) debido tanto a las tendencias a largo plazo en la temperatura, la precipitación, los rendimientos, la calidad y las enfermedades, como a los aumentos a corto plazo en la variabilidad climática, lo cual significa sequías más frecuentes o más intensas, oleadas de calor, oleadas de frío, marejadas y otros fenómenos meteorológicos extremos. Las grandes brechas en el conocimiento sobre el cambio climático afecta a los subsectores no relacionados con los cultivos, tales como la ganadería y la pesca, así como al nivel de sistemas alimentarios o nivel de paisaje. Por ejemplo, las disyuntivas entre los beneficios nutricionales y ambientales limitan la capacidad mundial para garantizar la seguridad alimentaria a medida que el cambio climático continúa avanzando (Campbell et al. 2016)."},{"index":2,"size":219,"text":"El Acuerdo de París, el cual se suscribió en 2015, se refiere explícitamente a la protección de la seguridad alimentaria en su preámbulo y las Contribuciones Nacionales Previstas Determinadas (INDC, por sus iniciales en inglés) de una vasta mayoría de países priorizan la agricultura como sector para medidas de adaptación y mitigación. Estos avances ofrecen una oportunidad crucial para que las Partes desarrollen marcos de trabajo apropiados con miras a apoyar acciones en el sector agropecuario. La movilización de este compromiso político y el emprendimiento de acciones para transformar el sector agropecuario formarán parte de los temas clave a discutir este año en la reunión de la Conferencia de las Partes (COP) a realizarse en Marrakech, en la que las Partes finalizarán las discusiones relacionadas con la agricultura en el Organismo Subsidiario de Asesoría Científica y Tecnológica (SBSTA, por sus iniciales en inglés), de la Convención Marco de las Naciones Unidas sobre Cambio Climático (CMNUCC), el cual presta asesoría científica y tecnológica a la COP. Este informe presenta opciones que las Partes pueden tener en cuenta en sus deliberaciones en la sesión No. 45 del SBSTA y llegar a una decisión sobre el tema de la agricultura. Las opciones planteadas se derivan de los documentos presentados por las Partes y de las deliberaciones en SBSTA 42 y SBSTA 44."}]},{"head":"Antecedentes","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":241,"text":"Dentro de la CMNUCC, el tema de las medidas climáticas en la agricultura se aproxima al final de un extenso proceso que determinará los caminos para abordar el tema en el futuro. El proceso de discusión de los temas relacionados con la agricultura se inició en el 2011, cuando la COP17 realizada en Durban remitió el tema de la agricultura al SBSTA para una discusión más detallada. Después de intercambiar opiniones sobre el tema en 2012, el SBSTA en su sesión No. 38 solicitó la presentación de documentos de las Partes y de las organizaciones observadoras sobre el estado actual del conocimiento científico sobre cómo mejorar la adaptación de la agricultura a los impactos del cambio climático, promoviendo al mismo tiempo el desarrollo rural, el desarrollo sostenible y la productividad de los sistemas agropecuarios y la seguridad alimentaria en todos los países, pero particularmente en los países en desarrollo. Esto debería tener en cuenta la diversidad de los sistemas agropecuarios y las diferencias en escala así como los posibles co-beneficios de la adaptación (CMNUCC 2013). Se recibieron los documentos presentados por las Partes y las organizaciones observadoras en un taller sobre el tema en el periodo de sesiones de SBSTA 39 en noviembre de 2013. Esto fue seguido de una conclusión en el SBSTA 40 en junio de 2014 (CMNUCC 2014a) para reunir las opiniones de las Partes sobre la realización de una labor técnica y científica en las siguientes áreas:"},{"index":2,"size":37,"text":"• El desarrollo de sistemas de alerta temprana y planes de contingencia con relación a eventos meteorológicos extremos y sus efectos, incluidos desertificación, sequías, inundaciones, avalanchas, marejadas de tormenta, erosión del suelo e intrusión de agua salina."},{"index":3,"size":32,"text":"• La evaluación del riesgo y la vulnerabilidad de los sistemas agropecuarios a distintos escenarios de cambio climático a nivel local, regional y nacional, los cuales incluyen, entre otros, plagas y enfermedades."},{"index":4,"size":53,"text":"• La identificación de medidas de adaptación, teniendo en cuenta la diversidad de los sistemas agropecuarios, sistemas de conocimiento indígena y las diferencias en escala, así como los posibles co-beneficios y el intercambio de experiencias en la investigación y el desarrollo y actividades en el terreno, incluyendo aspectos socioeconómicos, ambientales y de género."},{"index":5,"size":47,"text":"• La identificación y evaluación de prácticas y tecnologías agropecuarias para mejorar la productividad de manera sostenible, la seguridad alimentaria y la resiliencia, considerando las diferencias en las zonas agroecológicas y los sistemas de cultivo, tales como diferentes prácticas y sistemas de pastizales y terrenos de cultivo."},{"index":6,"size":98,"text":"SBSTA instó a las Partes y a las organizaciones observadoras a exponer sus opiniones con relación a estos temas y le solicitó al Secretariado que organizara talleres durante el periodo de sesiones sobre estos temas conjuntamente con SBSTA 42 y 44. En el recuadro 1 se resumen los mensajes clave de estos talleres. Después de la realización de estos talleres y de la elaboración de los informes respectivos, el SBSTA 45 se reunirá en Marrakech en noviembre de 2016 con el fin de decidir los pasos a seguir para avanzar en la agricultura en SBSTA y la CMNUCC."},{"index":7,"size":8,"text":"Recuadro 1: Talleres del SBSTA sobre la agricultura"},{"index":8,"size":43,"text":"Taller sobre el desarrollo de sistemas de alerta temprana y planes de contingencia con relación a eventos meteorológicos extremos y sus efectos, como desertificación, sequías, inundaciones, avalanchas, marejadas de tormenta, erosión del suelo e intrusión de agua salina -2 de junio de 2015"},{"index":9,"size":126,"text":"Las Partes destacaron la importancia del papel de los sistemas de alerta temprana (SAT) y los planes de contingencia en respuesta al impacto del cambio climático en el sector agropecuario (CMNUCC 2015b). Se identificaron varios cambios, incluida la disponibilidad de datos científicos de alta calidad, capacidad humana y financiamiento. Se hizo mención a la importancia de las sinergias entre los procesos de la Convención, incluido el Programa de Trabajo de Nairobi (NWP, por sus iniciales en inglés), la investigación y el desarrollo, la transferencia de tecnología, el desarrollo de capacidades y la respuesta a emergencias. Las Partes identificaron posibles maneras de proceder en el futuro tales como: (1) La evaluación sistemática de la situación actual relacionada con los SAT acoplada al intercambio de información y experiencias;"},{"index":10,"size":36,"text":"(2) El desarrollo de una plataforma para intercambio de información en la red; y (3) La búsqueda de maneras prácticas para apoyar a las Partes con el desarrollo de SAT a nivel regional, subnacional y nacional."},{"index":11,"size":38,"text":"Taller sobre la evaluación del riesgo y la vulnerabilidad de los sistemas agropecuarios a distintos escenarios de cambio climático a nivel local, regional y nacional, los cuales incluyen, entre otros, plagas y enfermedades -3 de junio de 2015"},{"index":12,"size":73,"text":"Las Partes llegaron al consenso en el sentido de que el cambio climático, el aumento en la variabilidad del clima y los eventos meteorológicos extremos tienen efectos adversos en la agricultura y en la producción de alimentos (CMNUCC 2015a). Teniendo en cuenta la importancia del sector agropecuario en el cumplimiento de las metas de seguridad alimentaria, se identificó que la evaluación del riesgo y la vulnerabilidad de los sistemas agropecuarios es una prioridad."},{"index":13,"size":128,"text":"Se reconocieron los desafíos asociados a la realización de dichas evaluaciones, tales como las brechas técnicas y en las capacidades. Las Partes identificaron posibles maneras de proceder en el futuro tales como: (1) La exploración de sinergias entre los procesos conforme a la Convención (por ej. relacionadas con la financiación, la transferencia de tecnología, el desarrollo de capacidades y la evaluación de los requerimientos tecnológicos); (2) El fomento de la cooperación a través de actividades para el intercambio de conocimiento de la Convención (por ej. desarrollo de bases de datos, compartir información, intercambio de expertos); y (3) El desarrollo de una plataforma en la red para el intercambio de información (por ej. sobre experiencias adquiridas, buenas prácticas, herramientas y modelos de apoyo, bases de datos y lecciones aprendidas)."},{"index":14,"size":59,"text":"Taller sobre la identificación de medidas de adaptación, teniendo en cuenta la diversidad de los sistemas agropecuarios, sistemas de conocimiento indígena y las diferencias en escala, así como los posibles cobeneficios y el intercambio de experiencias en la investigación y el desarrollo y actividades en el terreno, incluyendo aspectos socioeconómicos, ambientales y de género -20 de mayo de 2016"},{"index":15,"size":253,"text":"Las Partes intercambiaron sus experiencias con relación a medidas de adaptación y destacaron sus respectivas prioridades. Entre las prioridades y necesidades en común se identificaron la transferencia de tecnología, el desarrollo de capacidades, la reducción de escala de datos y escenarios climáticos a niveles locales, garantizando la seguridad alimentaria y mejorando la inocuidad alimentaria. Las Partes reconocieron que las medidas de adaptación deberían ser específicas para cada contexto a nivel local, nacional y regional. Algunas de las Partes requirieron un enfoque en el conocimiento indígena así como enfoques científicos. Algunas de las Partes destacaron la necesidad de enfocarse en soluciones que sean sensibles a los temas de género, teniendo en cuenta la importancia del rol de la mujer en los sistemas agropecuarios, en particular en países en desarrollo. Las Partes señalaron que los diferentes procesos conforme a la Convención, tales como el NWP, el Centro y Red de Tecnología Climática (CTCN) y el mecanismo de tecnología, las reuniones de expertos técnicos sobre la adaptación y los mecanismos de financiamiento pueden ser sinérgicos con la labor del SBSTA en la agricultura. Con respecto al papel del SBSTA en el futuro, algunas de las Partes mencionaron que el SBSTA podría enfocarse en la evaluación de información técnica y científica, el intercambio de datos, el apoyo a la investigación y a la medición del posible impacto. Durante el desarrollo del taller, el co-presidente mencionó que se deberían explorar todas las opciones para la cooperación y que se requiere inversión en medidas de adaptación en la agricultura."},{"index":16,"size":54,"text":"Taller sobre la identificación y evaluación de prácticas y tecnologías agropecuarias para mejorar la productividad de manera sostenible, la seguridad alimentaria y la resiliencia, considerando las diferencias en las zonas agroecológicas y los sistemas de cultivo, tales como las distintas prácticas y sistemas de pastizales y terrenos de cultivo -23 de mayo de 2016"},{"index":17,"size":141,"text":"Las Partes compartieron sus experiencias sobre prácticas y tecnologías agropecuarias que mejoran la productividad de manera sostenible. Partiendo de la premisa que las prácticas y las tecnologías demostradas y económicas ofrecen las mejores opciones para la implementación a mayor escala, las Partes destacaron la amplia gama de enfoques que se han ensayado y evaluado en diferentes países. Las prácticas y las tecnologías discutidas en el taller incluyeron las relacionadas con el manejo de cultivos, suelos y recursos hídricos, manejo de ganadería y terrenos de pastoreo, información climática y gestión de riesgo. Las Partes discutieron además las diferencias en las escala de aplicación de estas prácticas y tecnologías. Las Partes hicieron énfasis en el rol que SBSTA puede desempeñar en el futuro con relación a plagas y enfermedades, variedades resistentes al estrés, identificación de tecnologías, evaluación de alternativas e intercambio de conocimiento."}]},{"head":"Identificación de opciones para la agricultura","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":98,"text":"Con el fin de apoyar a las Partes cuando tomen una decisión sobre la agricultura en el SBSTA 45, el Programa de Investigación de CGIAR en Cambio Climático, Agricultura y Seguridad Alimentaria (CCAFS) y sus socios identificaron opciones que las Partes pueden contemplar en el SBSTA 45 (véase Tabla 1). Dichas opciones se basan en: la documentación presentada por las Partes al SBSTA 42 y al SBSTA 44, declaraciones y discusiones realizadas durante los cuatro talleres así como los informes de los talleres sobre agricultura del SBSTA 42. Para cada una de las opciones, se plantea lo siguiente:"},{"index":2,"size":7,"text":"• Una descripción general de la opción;"},{"index":3,"size":8,"text":"• Posibles pros y contras de la opción;"},{"index":4,"size":10,"text":"• Posibles maneras de implementar la opción en el futuro."}]},{"head":"Adoptar opciones para la agricultura","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":109,"text":"Las opciones descritas en este informe no son exhaustivas ni mutuamente excluyentes. Las Partes pueden contemplar distintas combinaciones de estas y otras opciones dependiendo de las prioridades políticas, técnicas e institucionales. Cada opción describe en general diferentes caminos para las iniciativas futuras. La selección de las opciones tiene implicaciones en términos del nivel de ambición, la complejidad en la implementación, cronogramas y costos. Los autores no están a favor de la adopción de ninguna opción en particular, pero se esfuerzan por suministrar información a las Partes con relación a los aspectos prácticos asociados a la implementación de cada una de las opciones así como sus pros y sus contras."},{"index":2,"size":15,"text":"Opción 1 Vincular la adaptación de la agricultura al mecanismo de financiación de la CMNUCC"}]},{"head":"Opción 2","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":17,"text":"Fortalecer acciones de adaptación de la agricultura en los procesos de transferencia tecnológica y desarrollo de capacidades"}]},{"head":"Opción 3","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":23,"text":"Prestar apoyo técnico para ayudar a las partes con la implementación de sus NDC Opción 4 Programa de trabajo de SBSTA sobre agricultura"},{"index":2,"size":17,"text":"Opción 5 Abordar la adaptación de la agricultura a través de procesos por fuera de la Convención"}]},{"head":"Opción 6","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":22,"text":"Llevar a cabo un proceso para discutir el tema de la mitigación como co-beneficio de las intervenciones de adaptación en la agricultura"}]},{"head":"Opción 7","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":10,"text":"Desarrollar una plataforma de conocimiento y aprendizaje en temas agropecuarios"}]},{"head":"Opción 8","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":11,"text":"Medir la eficacia de las intervenciones de adaptación en la agricultura"}]},{"head":"Opción 9","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":8,"text":"Apoyar el desarrollo de sistemas de alerta temprana"}]},{"head":"Opción 10","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":22,"text":"Realizar otros procesos conforme a la CMNUCC para el avance de la agricultura Tabla 1. Opciones para la agricultura en SBSTA 45"},{"index":2,"size":25,"text":"• La obtención de fondos a través del mecanismo de financiamiento es sólo una pequeña parte de las finanzas y la inversión en el clima."},{"index":3,"size":32,"text":"• El GEF y el GCF no trabajan en temas sectoriales específicos como la agricultura, sino en enfoques más transversales, por lo cual se requiere un cambio con respecto al enfoque actual."},{"index":4,"size":37,"text":"• Los fondos para los Programas Nacionales de Acción para la Adaptación (NAPA) del LDCF tienen grandes restricciones y el Fondo de Adaptación carece de recursos. Sin embargo, los fondos del GCF se pueden canalizar hacia allá."},{"index":5,"size":21,"text":"• Poco detalle en los INDC sobre los requerimientos específicos de inversión en la agricultura y carencia general de proyectos financiables."},{"index":6,"size":44,"text":"• La asignación del financiamiento climático ha tenido la tendencia de favorecer aquellos países con capacidad de gasto. Se presentan dificultades para lograr un balance entre el suministro a los más pobres y vulnerables y el mantenimiento del suministro de alimentos a nivel mundial."},{"index":7,"size":185,"text":"Por varios motivos, éste es el momento apropiado para crear un sistema coherente de suministro para impulsar la implementación de intervenciones de adaptación agrícola (IAA) en las Contribuciones Nacionales Determinadas (NDC): La comunidad climática internacional reunió en la COP de París las Contribuciones Nacionales Previstas Determinadas (INDC, por sus iniciales en inglés) demostraron que la agricultura es una prioridad y el avance en el financiamiento verde ha contado con el apoyo del G20 este año. Con un reconocimiento especial a los temas de seguridad alimentaria en el Acuerdo de París, existe una clara justificación para que SBSTA/ Organismo Subsidiario de Implementación (SBI)/COP brinde asesoría sobre temas sustantivos para las entidades que manejan el mecanismo de financiamiento (el bien establecido Fondo Mundial para el Medio Ambiente (GEF) y el recientemente establecido Fondo Verde para el Clima (GCF)) para que den mayor prioridad a la agricultura en sus programas de financiamiento. Hasta ahora, la asesoría de parte del SBSTA/SBI/COP a las entidades que manejan el mecanismo de financiamiento se ha enfocado en temas operacionales más que sustantivos, por lo cual se requiere un cambio en la dirección."},{"index":8,"size":115,"text":"Los resultados de las Reuniones de Expertos Técnicos surgen de una sólida base de conocimiento en cuanto a las medidas y las prácticas pueden funcionar desde la perspectiva de la investigación. Se podrían sacar conclusiones y se podría definir una serie de posibles medidas de implementación que satisfagan las necesidades identificadas en los INDC, con base en la experiencia de todas las fuentes de financiamiento dentro y fuera del mecanismo de financiamiento, o sea a partir del Fondo para Países Menos Desarrollados (LDCF), el Fondo Especial para el Cambio Climático (SCCF), el Fondo de Adaptación, el Programa Piloto de Resiliencia Climática (PPCR) y posiblemente Asistencia Oficial para el Desarrollo (ODA) de tipo bilateral y multilateral."},{"index":9,"size":53,"text":"Cada país cuenta con sus propios acuerdos, planes y estrategias institucionales. Aún se requiere agilizar la interfaz entre el nivel nacional e internacional con los mecanismos de mediación. Además, se ha cuestionado el papel del sector privado con respecto a la inversión de fondos climáticos suministrados públicamente y el GCF está avanzando tentativamente."}]},{"head":"Planes a futuro","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":27,"text":"Se requiere un enfoque en varios frentes para crear un ambiente que facilite la inversión en la adaptación de la agricultura. Las acciones clave incluirían lo siguiente:"},{"index":2,"size":45,"text":"• Trabajar con el Comité Permanente sobre el Financiamiento para acelerar un proceso que agilice la asesoría para el mecanismo de financiamiento. Esto significa que habrá un espacio para brindar orientación específica con el fin de garantizar que se dé mayor prioridad a la agricultura."},{"index":3,"size":18,"text":"• Asegurar que se contemple financiamiento para la agricultura y el clima en el Diálogo Facilitado en 2018."},{"index":4,"size":21,"text":"• Trabajar con miras al avance real que se está logrando y se pueda documentar en el Balance Global en 2023."},{"index":5,"size":37,"text":"• Aprovechar la investigación agropecuaria y la comunidad de profesionales para ayudar y apoyar la elaboración de proyectos a nivel de país con el fin de presentar propuestas a las entidades que manejan el mecanismo de financiamiento."},{"index":6,"size":33,"text":"• Integrar el financiamiento nacional y externo, así como el financiamiento público y privado a nivel nacional, debido a que la mayor parte de la inversión en la agricultura proviene de recursos nacionales."},{"index":7,"size":14,"text":"• Crear ambientes y normas facilitadoras a nivel nacional para apalancamiento del sector privado."},{"index":8,"size":60,"text":"• Aprovechar los foros de discusión y decisión por fuera de la CMNUCC, por ej. una discusión política de alto nivel en el marco del Foro Económico Mundial para apoyar las iniciativas en la Convención y su mecanismo financiero (véase Opción 5 para más información sobre abordar la adaptación de la agricultura a través de procesos fuera de la Convención)."},{"index":9,"size":27,"text":"• Suministrar informes claros a los miembros del Consejo del GEF y a la Junta del GCF sobre la necesidad de avanzar más rápidamente con el AAI."},{"index":10,"size":15,"text":"OPCIÓN 1: Vincular la adaptación de la agricultura al mecanismo de financiación de la CMNUCC"},{"index":11,"size":31,"text":"• Los NDC son un claro argumento a favor de la agricultura como prioridad en las acciones prioritarias de determinación nacional, las cuales pueden ser apoyadas mediante el mecanismo de financiamiento."}]},{"head":"Pros Contras","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":168,"text":"El Mecanismo de Tecnología ha apoyado actividades relacionadas con la resiliencia agropecuaria. La CTCN, la cual tiene la misión de apoyar la eliminación de barreras para las tecnologías climáticas, ha recibido un gran número de solicitudes relacionadas con la agricultura, reflejando así las necesidades de los países en desarrollo en este sector (por ej. uso eficiente del agua y las tierras, sistemas de información agrometeorológica, sistemas de alerta temprana, manejo de ganadería, agrosilvicultura y sistemas de riego). Lo anterior refleja algunas tendencias y prioridades en común que podrían recibir apoyo a nivel regional, con un fuerte énfasis en la colaboración Sur-Sur y el compromiso con el sector privado. El Comité Ejecutivo de Tecnología enfatizó además en las lecciones clave que se han aprendido sobre la resiliencia agropecuaria, las cuales incluyen la importancia de involucrar a los actores locales a través de enfoques participativos y de abajo hacia arriba para garantizar la sostenibilidad y la idoneidad para los contextos locales y facilitar la replicación de innovaciones locales (CMNUCC 2014b)."},{"index":2,"size":159,"text":"Varios organismos y procesos están llevando a cabo iniciativas por el desarrollo de capacidades en la CMNUCC, las cuales incluyen tecnología y mecanismos de financiamiento, siguiendo principios guía dentro de los marcos de trabajo acordados en Marrakech en la COP7. Con el objetivo de ofrecer un panorama del apoyo al desarrollo de capacidades que se está ofreciendo a los países en desarrollo y mejorar el monitoreo de la efectividad del desarrollo de capacidades, en el 2012 se estableció el Foro de Durban sobre el Desarrollo de Capacidades. El Comité de París sobre el Desarrollo de Capacidades también está en el proceso de iniciar actividades y es probable que se tome una decisión con respecto a sus Términos de Referencia en la COP22. En el contexto de los requerimientos de capacidades de las Partes destacados en los talleres de SBSTA sobre la agricultura, este podría asesorar dichos procesos con respecto al desarrollo de capacidades para la adaptación en la agricultura."},{"index":3,"size":155,"text":"OPCIÓN 2: Fortalecer acciones de adaptación de la agricultura en los procesos de transferencia tecnológica y desarrollo de capacidades Los encargados de la planeación nacional necesitan mayores capacidades para incorporar el cambio climático y la resiliencia agropecuaria a las políticas a diferentes escalas y abordar la brecha entre los marcos de trabajo de cambio climático y reducción de la pobreza (Prowse et al. 2015). Varios procesos de la Convención, con orientación del Comité de París sobre Desarrollo de Capacidades, pueden desarrollar la capacidad de los encargados de la planeación nacional. Existen oportunidades para unir las acciones nacionales de tecnología y desarrollo de capacidades al análisis nacional de temas clave de género, tales como el papel de la mujer en las cadenas de valor de la agricultura, el impacto climático del género en el diseño de políticas y programas, y la participación de las organizaciones de mujeres en el desarrollo de capacidades (Huyer et al. 2015)."}]},{"head":"Planes a futuro","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":20,"text":"Las iniciativas por el desarrollo de tecnologías y capacidades conforme a la Convención ya abordan el tema de la agricultura."},{"index":2,"size":167,"text":"Una decisión de SBSTA sobre la agricultura en SBSTA 45 podría hacer una referencia explícita a estos vínculos y solicita que se fortalezcan. Poner en operación nuevas iniciativas por el desarrollo de capacidades para lograr un impacto en el terreno requeriría conectar a los actores (gobierno, empresas, sociedad civil, entidades de extensión e investigadores) y movilizar la voluntad política y a líderes que promuevan el plan de trabajo, así como la construcción de un sistema práctico de monitoreo para consolidar las lecciones (incluyendo la recolección de datos clasificados por sexo para hacer un seguimiento al avance y a los beneficios relacionados con el género). Los vínculos con el mecanismo de financiamiento permitirían acciones y sostenibilidad a mayor escala. Un aumento en los recursos para los organismos que ayudan a las Partes con la transferencia de tecnología y el desarrollo de capacidades les permitiría superar las deficiencias actuales para poder responder a los requerimientos de cada país y apoyarlos con el logro de sus metas en las NDC."},{"index":3,"size":40,"text":"• Las iniciativas para fortalecer acciones de adaptación de la agricultura en los procesos de desarrollo de tecnologías y capacidades se pueden llevar a cabo rápidamente, pues parten de trabajo existente, alianzas efectivas y mecanismos de apoyo en el terreno."},{"index":4,"size":37,"text":"• Este es un buen momento para aumentar las iniciativas impulsadas por los países, pues las Partes han identificado sus prioridades en los INDC y un gran número de Partes están concluyendo sus Evaluaciones de Necesidades Tecnológicas."},{"index":5,"size":26,"text":"• Se puede partir de las lecciones aprendidas sobre la adopción de enfoques impulsados a nivel nacional, género e inclusión social y participación del sector privado."},{"index":6,"size":17,"text":"• El Comité de París sobre Desarrollo de Capacidades se encuentra en las primeras etapas de desarrollo."},{"index":7,"size":11,"text":"• Los recursos financieros disponibles según los mecanismos existentes son limitados."}]},{"head":"Pros Contras","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":98,"text":"Las INDC presentadas por las Partes indican que la agricultura es un sector prioritario para acciones de adaptación y mitigación. CCAFS dio a conocer un informe en diciembre de 2015 y un análisis actualizado en mayo de 2016, los cuales revelaron que 119 Partes incluyen la mitigación de la agricultura en sus INDC y que además casi todas las Partes (127 de 138) que incluyen la adaptación han incorporado la agricultura como una prioridad (Richards et al. 2016). SBSTA tiene la oportunidad de concientizarse sobre estas prioridades y apoyar medidas de adaptación y mitigación en el sector agropecuario."},{"index":2,"size":67,"text":"La prestación de apoyo técnico para facilitar el emprendimiento de acciones de las Partes conforme a sus INDC es crucial para respaldar la implementación de medidas de adaptación y mitigación en el sector agropecuario. En la documentación presentada en los talleres sobre agricultura en SBSTA 42 y 44, las Partes señalaron varios temas prioritarios para la investigación y el apoyo, entre los cuales se cuentan los siguientes:"},{"index":3,"size":10,"text":"• Evaluación de riesgo y vulnerabilidad de los sistemas agropecuarios;"},{"index":4,"size":8,"text":"• Impacto del clima sobre plagas y enfermedades;"},{"index":5,"size":9,"text":"• Planeación de contingencias y sistemas de alerta temprana;"},{"index":6,"size":6,"text":"• Fitomejoramiento y mejoramiento de ganado;"},{"index":7,"size":9,"text":"• Tecnologías de procesamiento para reducir las pérdidas poscosecha;"},{"index":8,"size":8,"text":"• Servicios de información climática para la agricultura;"},{"index":9,"size":4,"text":"• Manejo de cultivos;"},{"index":10,"size":4,"text":"• Manejo de suelos;"},{"index":11,"size":5,"text":"• Gestión de recursos hídricos;"},{"index":12,"size":8,"text":"• Manejo de ganado y terrenos de pastoreo."},{"index":13,"size":42,"text":"Además se hizo énfasis en varios temas transversales por su importancia para el trabajo mencionado anteriormente, los cuales incluyen el conocimiento indígena, la igualdad de género, el escalamiento, la valoración económica de costos y beneficios, y la elaboración de propuestas financieras sólidas."},{"index":14,"size":16,"text":"OPCIÓN 3: Prestar apoyo técnico para ayudar a las partes con la implementación de sus NDC"}]},{"head":"Planes a futuro","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":16,"text":"Varias medidas podrían mejorar el apoyo técnico para la implementación de las NDC en la agricultura."},{"index":2,"size":19,"text":"• El establecimiento de grupos regionales de trabajo para compartir tecnologías, estrategias y acuerdos institucionales relevantes a cada contexto."},{"index":3,"size":24,"text":"• El diseño de la plataforma de conocimiento y aprendizaje agrícola (véase Opción 7) de tal manera que respalde la implementación de las NDC."},{"index":4,"size":37,"text":"• El inicio de un diálogo con el SBI para identificar maneras en las que el SBSTA puede apoyar la implementación de las NDC mediante el suministro de los insumos científicos y de conocimiento que son necesarios."},{"index":5,"size":21,"text":"• La creación de una plataforma en Internet o un repositorio de tecnologías de adaptación y mitigación en el sector agropecuario."},{"index":6,"size":115,"text":"• El logro de sinergias con los procesos externos a la Convención que apoyen las acciones de adaptación y mitigación en el sector agropecuario. Hasta ahora ha existido y, actualmente, se cuenta con un alto nivel de apoyo a las políticas nacionales de adaptación y mitigación y a la planeación de parte de un gran número de entidades, entre las cuales se cuenta el Programa de Desarrollo de las Naciones Unidas (PDNU), la Agencia Alemana de Cooperación Internacional (GIZ), la Red de Conocimiento sobre Clima y Desarrollo (CDKN), el Instituto de Recursos Mundiales (WRI) y el Centro Africano de Políticas Climáticas (ACPC), con el respaldo financiero de varios aliados y fondos importantes para el desarrollo."},{"index":7,"size":42,"text":"• Se requiere urgentemente apoyo técnico para acciones en el campo de la agricultura. Más de 1/3 de las Partes mencionaron la necesidad de transferencia de tecnología relacionada con la agricultura en la documentación presentada sobre sus INDC (Richards et al. 2016)."},{"index":8,"size":47,"text":"• Se presenta la oportunidad de abordar brechas críticas en el conocimiento, por ejemplo, en las barreras para la adopción de nuevas prácticas, retorno financiero y económico para las inversiones en NDC, e indicadores para la adaptación apoyando la investigación y el desarrollo de las capacidades respectivas."},{"index":9,"size":51,"text":"• Las Partes comparten algunas necesidades similares en cuanto al apoyo técnico, por ejemplo, en el acceso al financiamiento o en el desarrollo de protocolos de monitoreo y evaluación (M&E). Sin embargo, muchas de las tecnologías para la adaptación y mitigación del cambio climático en el sector agropecuario son específicas localmente."}]},{"head":"Contras Pros","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":42,"text":"En general, un programa de trabajo de SBSTA en la agricultura (AWP) en el futuro se puede entender como un programa de trabajo conforme a la Convención funcionando según la misión de SBSTA (artículo 9 de la Convención), la cual consiste en:"},{"index":2,"size":16,"text":"• Ofrecer evaluaciones del estado del conocimiento científico relacionado con el cambio climático y sus efectos;"},{"index":3,"size":17,"text":"• Elaborar evaluaciones científicas sobre los efectos de las medidas tomadas en la implementación de la Convención;"},{"index":4,"size":29,"text":"• Identificar el know-how y tecnologías innovadoras, eficientes y de vanguardia y asesorar sobre las maneras y los medios para promover el desarrollo y/o la transferencia de dichas tecnologías;"},{"index":5,"size":37,"text":"• Brindar asesoría sobre programas científicos, cooperación internacional en temas de investigación y desarrollo relacionados con el cambio climático, así como sobre maneras y medios para apoyar el desarrollo de capacidades endógenas en países en desarrollo; y"},{"index":6,"size":23,"text":"• Responder a preguntas científicas, tecnológicas y metodológicas que la Conferencia de las Partes y sus organismos subsidiarios puedan plantear a la entidad."},{"index":7,"size":41,"text":"Además, según el artículo 9, el AWP deberá estar conformado por representantes del gobierno que sean competentes en el campo de experticia respectivo y deberá rendir informes periódicamente a la Conferencia de las Partes sobre todos los aspectos de su trabajo."},{"index":8,"size":146,"text":"Lo más probable es que un AWP incluya una decisión más un anexo. La primera parte de la decisión podría incluir un preámbulo en que se reconozca o señale la importancia de la agricultura con relación al cambio climático, la seguridad alimentaria y al desarrollo sostenible y, posiblemente, recordar decisiones anteriores sobre el asunto, incluyendo los Objetivos de Desarrollo Sostenible (ODS) respectivos. La segunda parte de la decisión podría incluir la adopción del AWP con una solicitud al SBSTA para la implementación del AWP, incluyendo un mandato para continuar elaborando una lista de actividades y resultados. La decisión podría incluir además una invitación a las Partes y a las organizaciones a que apoyen el trabajo, incluyendo apoyo financiero y un cronograma para analizar el AWP. Por otra parte, el anexo podría contener los objetivos, el resultado esperado, el alcance y las metodologías del programa de trabajo."},{"index":9,"size":191,"text":"OPCIÓN 4: Programa de trabajo de SBSTA sobre agricultura Planes a futuro Incluso si las Partes toman la decisión de avanzar con un programa de trabajo en la agricultura, sería un reto llegar a un consenso sobre todos los detalles durante el SBSTA 45. En su lugar, las Partes podrían recurrir a un proceso similar al que se utilizó cuando se tomó una decisión sobre el Programa de Trabajo de Nairobi (NWP). En la COP10, las Partes solicitaron que SBSTA desarrollara un programa de trabajo estructurado a cinco años sobre los aspectos científicos, técnicos y socioeconómicos de los impactos, la vulnerabilidad y la adaptación al cambio climático. La decisión en la COP10 estableció el siguiente alcance: metodologías, datos y modelación; evaluaciones de la vulnerabilidad; planeación, medidas y acciones para la adaptación; y la integración al desarrollo sostenible. Posteriormente, las Partes trabajaron sobre esto en la siguiente sesión de SBSTA a partir de una serie de documentación presentada, desarrollaron un listado de actividades, incluidas las acciones a ser llevadas a cabo por SBSTA y unas fechas tentativas, y finalmente tomaron una decisión sobre el Programa de Trabajo de Nairobi en la COP11."},{"index":10,"size":201,"text":"Siguiendo este enfoque, las Partes necesitarían llegar a un acuerdo sobre una decisión más bien breve en Marrakech abarcando la misión para desarrollar un AWP, preferiblemente con alguna orientación sobre el alcance y, posiblemente, con una referencia a la misión de SBSTA. Sin embargo, esto es implícito cuando se trabaja conforme a SBSTA. Debido a que existen distintas opiniones sobre el alcance y el contexto de un AWP, sería particularmente útil llegar a un acuerdo sobre este tema en Marrakech para que las Partes puedan enfocarse en los pasos a seguir durante 2017. Se podría utilizar parte del lenguaje utilizado para la misión de los talleres llevados a cabo en el SBSTA 42 y 44, teniendo en cuenta la necesidad de un texto genérico para permitir que el programa aborde los aspectos emergentes que las Partes consideren relevantes. En Marrakech las Partes podrían ordenarle al SBSTA un cronograma inicial para el AWP e invitar a las Partes y a las organizaciones observadoras a presentar sus opiniones. Así, durante 2017 las Partes tendrían tiempo para desarrollar un listado de actividades a realizar según un AWP y, finalmente, para SBSTA 47 acordar los objetivos, el alcance del trabajo y las metodologías de trabajo."},{"index":11,"size":33,"text":"• Un AWP exclusivo ofrecería una plataforma integral para el tratamiento técnico y científico de los retos y las oportunidades que se le presentan a la agricultura en el contexto del cambio climático."},{"index":12,"size":65,"text":"• El AWP permitiría que las Partes abordaran las sinergias y las disyuntivas de las distintas prácticas agrícolas y, dependiendo de la decisión que se tome, un AWP podría ser relevante para la agricultura a diferentes escalas, utilizando prácticas diferentes en distintos sistemas climáticos y sería además una base sólida para llegar a las entidades e instituciones que trabajan dentro y fuera de la Convención."},{"index":13,"size":38,"text":"• El riesgo de convertirse en un dispendioso ejercicio de compilación de información que no arroje los resultados que en realidad se necesitan en el sector, a menos que se desarrollen mecanismos para traducir el conocimiento en acciones."},{"index":14,"size":30,"text":"• Dependiendo del contenido real del AWP, habría una mayor necesidad de coordinar con otros programas conforme a la Convención tales como el NWP para evitar la duplicación de trabajo."}]},{"head":"Contras Pros","index":23,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":53,"text":"Gran parte del impulso para el Acuerdo de París proviene de discusiones externas realizadas en paralelo por fuera de la CMNUCC. Además, se pueden apalancar varias opciones fuera de la Convención con el fin de apoyar la adaptación en el sector agropecuario. Entre los procesos y las organizaciones relevantes se cuentan los siguientes:"},{"index":2,"size":9,"text":"Organizaciones y procesos de sistemas comunes de la ONU"},{"index":3,"size":34,"text":"• Procesos de implementación de Objetivos de Desarrollo Sostenible, en particular acciones enfocadas en el logro del ODS2, \"Eliminar el hambre, lograr la seguridad alimentaria y mejorar la nutrición, y promover la agricultura sostenible\"."},{"index":4,"size":26,"text":"• La Organización de las Naciones Unidades para la Alimentación y la Agricultura (FAO), la cual brinda asistencia técnica en temas relacionados con alimentos y agricultura."},{"index":5,"size":25,"text":"• El Fondo Internacional de Desarrollo Agrícola (FIDA), entidad de la ONU que financia acciones para el desarrollo de la agricultura en los países miembros."},{"index":6,"size":15,"text":"• La Organización Meteorológica Mundial (WMO), una entidad de la ONU especializada en temas meteorológicos."},{"index":7,"size":52,"text":"• La Estrategia Internacional de las Naciones Unidas para la Reducción de Desastres (EIRD), la cual respalda las iniciativas para la disminución del riesgo de desastres en los países, incluso a través del Marco de Trabajo de Acciones de Hyogo, el cual tiene como fin disminuir la vulnerabilidad a los desastres naturales."},{"index":8,"size":21,"text":"• El Programa Mundial de Alimentos (PMA), entidad de la ONU que suministra ayuda humanitaria para solucionar problemas de seguridad alimentaria."},{"index":9,"size":23,"text":"• Otras convenciones de Río, como la Convención sobre Biodiversidad (BCD) y la Convención de las Naciones Unidas para Combatir la Desertificación (UNCCD)."},{"index":10,"size":24,"text":"• El Panel Intergubernamental de Expertos sobre Cambio Climático (IPCC), el cual tiene la tarea de realizar evaluaciones científicas relacionadas con el cambio climático."}]},{"head":"Plataformas participativas multilaterales","index":24,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":38,"text":"• La Alianza Global para la Agricultura Sostenible Adaptada al Clima (conocida en inglés como Global Alliance for Climate Smart Agriculture), una coalición voluntaria de actores gubernamentales y no gubernamentales para la colaboración y el intercambio de conocimiento."},{"index":2,"size":22,"text":"• El Marco Mundial para los Servicios Climáticos, un mecanismo para mejorar la cantidad, la calidad y la aplicación de servicios climáticos."},{"index":3,"size":21,"text":"OPCIÓN 5: Abordar la adaptación de la agricultura a través de procesos por fuera de la Convención Procesos del sector privado "}]},{"head":"Bancos Multilaterales de Desarrollo","index":25,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":6,"text":"• Banco Africano de Desarrollo (AfDB)"},{"index":2,"size":6,"text":"• Banco Asiático de Desarrollo (ADB)"},{"index":3,"size":10,"text":"• Banco Europeo para la Reconstrucción y el Desarrollo (EBRB)"},{"index":4,"size":6,"text":"• Banco Interamericano de Desarrollo (BID)"},{"index":5,"size":64,"text":"• Grupo del Banco Mundial Estas organizaciones y procesos están comprometidos con las Partes de la Convención a varios niveles en la implementación y el apoyo a medidas de adaptación en el sector agropecuario. El fortalecimiento de estos vínculos como una opción independiente o conjuntamente con otras opciones hará posible que las Partes aprovechen la experticia y los recursos de estos procesos y organizaciones."},{"index":6,"size":31,"text":"• Las Partes ya se encuentran comprometidas con muchos procesos relevantes externos a la Convención y, por consiguiente, pueden apalancar el compromiso existente con las acciones tempranas y evitar la duplicación."},{"index":7,"size":42,"text":"• Los procesos externos a la convención pueden ayudar a abordar las necesidades de la capacidad de las Partes en áreas específicas (por ej. sistemas de alerta temprana o servicios de información meteorológica) así como a diferentes niveles (regional, subregional y nacional)."},{"index":8,"size":23,"text":"• Los mecanismos externos a la Convención no están necesariamente comprometidos con la Convención en sí, y sería necesario desarrollar algunos vínculos nuevos."},{"index":9,"size":37,"text":"• Es posible que los procesos externos a la Convención carezcan de la responsabilidad democrática y la legitimidad de la CMNUCC, pues están conformados por grupos más pequeños de países (a menudo desarrollados) o actores no gubernamentales."},{"index":10,"size":39,"text":"• Existe además el riesgo de que las organizaciones y los procesos se suscriban a normas, objetivos o instrumentos de políticas contradictorios así como el riesgo de desperdiciar los recursos debido a que muchas instituciones compiten por escasos recursos."}]},{"head":"Planes a futuro","index":26,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":178,"text":"Las Partes de la Convención ya están vinculadas a muchos de estos procesos e instituciones. Mediante el apalancamiento de estos vínculos, SBSTA puede iniciar un proceso para garantizar los insumos de estos procesos y organizaciones con el fin de abordar las necesidades y prioridades destacadas por las Partes en los talleres en SBSTA 42 y 44. El Programa de Trabajo de Nairobi ofrece lecciones para lograr sinergias con los procesos externos a la Convención y se puede adoptar un enfoque similar para abordar temas relacionados con la agricultura. El enfoque del compromiso podría incluir el conocimiento para respaldar la implementación, el intercambio de las mejores prácticas y la movilización de recursos financieros. Se deberían analizar cuidadosamente las acciones clave que pueden ser llevadas a cabo por las distintas entidades con base en sus competencias esenciales que sean sinérgicas con los esfuerzos conforme a la Convención. Por ejemplo, los bancos multilaterales de desarrollo pueden complementar las acciones realizadas conforme al mecanismo de financiamiento. Esta opción se puede lograr conjuntamente con muchas de las otras opciones descritas en este informe."}]},{"head":"Contras Pros","index":27,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":24,"text":"• No todas las Partes pueden manejar un análisis detallado de la mitigación de la agricultura conforme a los procesos formales de la CMNUCC."},{"index":2,"size":27,"text":"• Brechas en la investigación y evidencia incompleta sobre los co-beneficios de mitigación en la adaptación y el manejo de disyuntivas en los casos en que surjan."},{"index":3,"size":21,"text":"• Se requiere una inversión significativa para reducir las incertidumbres en los estimativos de las emisiones de gases de efecto invernadero."},{"index":4,"size":96,"text":"Para cumplir con la meta de París de mantener el calentamiento global por debajo de los 2°C, se requieren profundas reducciones de las emisiones en todos los sectores, incluida la agricultura. Los científicos estiman que la agricultura debe lograr reducciones anuales en las emisiones de una giga tonelada de CO2 cada año para contribuir a la meta 2C sin afectar la seguridad alimentaria (Wollenberg et al. 2016). Este nivel de reducción en las emisiones requiere la adopción generalizada de nuevas políticas y tecnologías en la agricultura, para lo cual la CMNUCC podría brindar un apoyo crucial."},{"index":5,"size":131,"text":"En sus discusiones actuales, SBSTA se enfoca en la adaptación en la agricultura. La mitigación se reconoce como un co-beneficio de las acciones de adaptación. Los co-beneficios de la mitigación se definen como la reducción neta de las emisiones de CO2 a partir de la adaptación al cambio climático. Las medidas de adaptación al cambio climático tales como el aumento del carbono orgánico del suelo, el uso eficiente de fertilizantes de nitrógeno, la intensificación sostenible de ganado rumiante, la agrosilvicultura y el ahorro de agua en el riego de cultivos de arroz pueden ayudar a reducir las emisiones de gases de efecto invernadero (GEI) relacionadas con las proyecciones en las condiciones habituales. Todas estas medidas tienen además la posibilidad de mejorar los sustentos y la seguridad alimentaria en las áreas rurales."},{"index":6,"size":103,"text":"Incluso sin un enfoque explícito en la mitigación, SBSTA podría ofrecer un foro permanente para el avance en la mitigación de la agricultura entre las Partes continuando el reconocimiento de la mitigación como un co-beneficio de las acciones de adaptación en la agricultura. El trabajo técnico sobre la adaptación también podría abordar los requerimientos técnicos para la mitigación en la agricultura, tales como la cuantificación de las emisiones del sector agropecuario y la reducción de las emisiones. Por consiguiente, SBSTA podría apoyar los diferentes tipos de compromisos de las NDC de las Partes en todo el rango de actividades de adaptación y mitigación."},{"index":7,"size":24,"text":"OPCIÓN 6: Llevar a cabo un proceso para discutir el tema de la mitigación como co-beneficio de las intervenciones de adaptación en la agricultura"}]},{"head":"Planes a futuro","index":28,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":144,"text":"En vez de un proceso formal sobre la mitigación en la agricultura en los eventos oficiales de la CMNUCC, los foros de discusión más informales podrían ayudar a avanzar en el tema de la mitigación como co-beneficio de la adaptación, según lo entendido por SBSTA. El primer paso inmediato consistiría en realizar una reunión informal a nivel mundial antes de la decisión en SBSTA 45. Esta reunión y otras discusiones formales podría abordar, por ejemplo, el tema de los co-beneficios de mitigación de actividades específicas de adaptación, mecanismos de financiamiento y asistencia técnica, modalidades para apalancar fondos de mitigación para la adaptación en la agricultura, informes de monitoreo y verificación de acciones de mitigación en la agricultura así como el impacto social y salvaguardas, como por ejemplo para género. Estos procesos informales podrían contribuir a la labor futura del IPCC y al Balance Global."},{"index":2,"size":30,"text":"• Iniciativas más eficientes e inversiones en la adaptación en la agricultura que ofrezcan beneficios para la mitigación, sin afectar el sustento y la seguridad alimentaria en las áreas rurales."},{"index":3,"size":15,"text":"• Apoyo integral tanto a los compromisos de adaptación como de mitigación en las NDC."},{"index":4,"size":14,"text":"• Inclusión más significativa de la agricultura en el Balance Global en el 2023."}]},{"head":"Pros Contras","index":29,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":109,"text":"La plataforma de conocimiento y aprendizaje que se ha propuesto podría incluir lo siguiente: opciones técnicas para la adaptación al cambio climático en la agricultura, sinergias con la mitigación, oportunidades y dinámicas con otros sectores (como por ej. silvicultura, mercados y financiamiento), y mecanismos efectivos para facilitar el intercambio de lecciones aprendidas y el apoyo real de la implementación. Dicha plataforma podría proveer un centro de soluciones de experiencias, tecnologías innovadoras y portafolios comprobados de prácticas y servicios. La plataforma podría no solamente recopilar información y recursos dispersos, como la mayoría de las plataformas existentes, sino que también apoyaría a los países en desarrollo con análisis comparativos transregionales de:"},{"index":2,"size":14,"text":"• Métodos sobre como evaluar la vulnerabilidad agroclimática a nivel local, regional y nacional;"},{"index":3,"size":26,"text":"• La creación de productos financieros e incentivos para apalancar la adaptación al cambio y la variabilidad climática dentro de un marco de trabajo de mercados;"},{"index":4,"size":8,"text":"• Formulación e implementación de planes de contingencia;"},{"index":5,"size":18,"text":"• Herramientas y métodos de M&E para identificar posibles sinergias efectivas sobre seguridad alimentaria, género e inclusión social;"},{"index":6,"size":19,"text":"• Medidas de adaptación y mitigación que puedan contribuir al logro de las metas nacionales y los compromisos internacionales;"},{"index":7,"size":37,"text":"• Apoyo a la articulación de Sistemas Nacionales de Investigación Agropecuaria (NARS) y organismos de extensión con los centros internacionales de investigación para fortalecer las capacidades y dedicarse al desarrollo conjunto de tecnologías y mecanismos de transferencia."},{"index":8,"size":59,"text":"La plataforma podría desarrollar la capacidad y fortalecer la cooperación Sur-Sur a través del reconocimiento de retos, necesidades y condiciones compartidas que se pueden resolver más rápidamente aprendiendo de las experiencias de los demás. La interacción entre sectores (por ejemplo, con el sector de la silvicultura) conectaría las opciones prioritarias de la plataforma con los resultados e impactos reales."},{"index":9,"size":12,"text":"OPCIÓN 7: Desarrollar una plataforma de conocimiento y aprendizaje en temas agropecuarios"}]},{"head":"Planes a futuro","index":30,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":157,"text":"La plataforma de conocimiento y aprendizaje se podría desarrollar bajo el liderazgo de la Secretaría de la CMNUCC o en la CTCN. SBSTA podría solicitar que las Partes presenten sus opiniones sobre el desarrollo de dicha plataforma y podría solicitar que la Secretaría elaborara una síntesis tomando como base la documentación presentada por las Partes. Para implementar la plataforma, las Partes podrían designar un grupo básico que se encargue de coordinar la plataforma y formular los objetivos y el plan de trabajo. Cada grupo de discusión en la plataforma debería estar en capacidad de establecer sus propias prioridades dentro de las pautas del grupo básico. Los mecanismos efectivos y explícitos para la plataforma podrían incluir seminarios en línea, intercambio de información en línea, grupos de discusión virtual, vínculos a otras plataformas, grupos especializados en temas específicos tales como monitoreo, indicadores, género, sinergias sobre la adaptación y la mitigación, instrumentos financieros, herramientas, desafíos y condiciones biofísicas y agroclimáticas."},{"index":2,"size":15,"text":"• Un enfoque en opciones técnicas, de conocimiento y financieras, más que en opciones políticas."},{"index":3,"size":17,"text":"• Un centro de soluciones técnicas para acelerar la implementación a mayor escala de iniciativas locales exitosas."},{"index":4,"size":5,"text":"• Promoción de acciones regionales."},{"index":5,"size":22,"text":"• Construir sobre lo que ya se ha desarrollado podría llevar a un uso más efectivo del limitado financiamiento para la adaptación."},{"index":6,"size":16,"text":"• Respaldar las posiciones de las Partes sobre el tema de la agricultura en las negociaciones."},{"index":7,"size":29,"text":"• La plataforma podría verse afectada por la pérdida de aceptación con el tiempo, convirtiéndose en una de esas plataformas que tiene una gran inauguración, pero un cierre rápido."},{"index":8,"size":9,"text":"• Falta de interés de participación de las Partes."},{"index":9,"size":12,"text":"• Las iniciativas para una plataforma no política podrían no tener éxito."},{"index":10,"size":37,"text":"• Podrían ser dispendiosas y distraer prioridades de mayor nivel para acciones sobre la adaptación. Dicho tipo de plataforma tendría que diseñarse muy cuidadosamente para abordar la renuencia en la aceptación que otras plataformas similares han experimentado."}]},{"head":"Pros Contras","index":31,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":31,"text":"SBSTA tiene la oportunidad de desarrollar pautas y protocolos para el monitoreo, e indicadores SMART (Sencillo, Medible, Exacto, Confiable y Limitado en tiempo) para la adaptación y la resiliencia que puedan:"},{"index":2,"size":32,"text":"• Apoyar la agricultura sostenible y equitativa para cumplir con los objetivos actuales y futuros de seguridad alimentaria con el cambio climático en el contexto de paisajes multifuncionales, multipropósito, productivos y sostenibles."},{"index":3,"size":33,"text":"• Ofrecer un marco de trabajo internacional compartido para desarrollar la resiliencia en la agricultura de tal manera que mejore el intercambio de conocimiento, el desarrollo de capacidades y la transferencia de tecnología."},{"index":4,"size":24,"text":"• Estar impulsados por los países, generales, voluntarios, pragmáticos, transparentes, no prescriptivos y no intrusivos, teniendo en cuenta las circunstancias y las prioridades nacionales."},{"index":5,"size":52,"text":"• Crear, con un enfoque escalonado, enfoques eficientes para todas las Partes a través de la armonización con protocolos de monitoreo e indicadores para GCF, ODS, FAOSTAT y evitando cualquier conflicto con los sistemas de Monitoreo, Reporete y Verificación (MRV) (por ej. para REDD+) y la Evaluación y el Análisis Internacional (IAR)."},{"index":6,"size":27,"text":"• Incluir un análisis específico de los medios de vida dependientes de la agricultura, la reducción de la pobreza en áreas rurales y la seguridad alimentaria familiar."},{"index":7,"size":17,"text":"• Identificar indicadores de género y utilizar datos clasificados por sexo para la adaptación de la agricultura."},{"index":8,"size":18,"text":"• Establecer mecanismos de protección para las inversiones en adaptación y desarrollo de la resiliencia en la agricultura."},{"index":9,"size":16,"text":"OPCIÓN 8: Medir la eficacia de las intervenciones de adaptación en la agricultura Planes a futuro"},{"index":10,"size":37,"text":"• Un cronograma y un proceso para desarrollar el monitoreo y los indicadores para la adaptación en la agricultura se beneficiarían de una alineación estrecha con el desarrollo de las NDC y NAP a nivel de país."},{"index":11,"size":59,"text":"• La coordinación con la CMNUCC siguiente y otros organismos y procesos internacionales sería útil: El SBI (incluso sobre la incorporación del tema de género), NWP, el Comité de Adaptación, el Grupo de Expertos de LDC, el Programa de Adaptación de NAP, la Oficina de Evaluación del GEF, la Organización para la Cooperación y el Desarrollo Económico (OECD), GCF."},{"index":12,"size":52,"text":"• El trabajo con miras a la integración en un marco de trabajo coherente para el monitoreo sobre todos los objetivos ambientales y de desarrollo (por ej. agricultura, bosques, clima, salud, ingresos y medios de vida), armonizando o alineando con los enfoques existentes, e incluyendo la evaluación de desempeño de las políticas."},{"index":13,"size":34,"text":"• Los indicadores y los objetivos de género se deberían definir al principio, consultando las organizaciones de mujeres a nivel nacional o regional y con los puntos focales de género nacional de la CMNUCC."},{"index":14,"size":45,"text":"• Diferentes entidades técnicas, incluida la FAO y el CGIAR, y entidades de desarrollo, incluidas la FIDA y el Banco Mundial están trabajando en esta área conjuntamente con aliados del desarrollo internacional, y el respaldo a esta experiencia aportando su experticia podría acelerar el avance."},{"index":15,"size":24,"text":"• Una fuerte ventaja competitiva en el establecimiento de un acuerdo internacional sobre la medición de la adaptación y la resiliencia en la agricultura."},{"index":16,"size":42,"text":"• Bien posicionado para mejorar la armonización de medidores para la adaptación en la agricultura con relación a todos los frentes de trabajo del SBSTA, SBI, NWP, Comité de Adaptación, Grupo de Expertos de LDC y el Programa de Adaptación de NAP."},{"index":17,"size":19,"text":"• Llevar registros en torno al análisis de los resultados socioeconómicos y temas de equidad social, incluido el género."},{"index":18,"size":27,"text":"• Podría ser dispendioso y distraer de prioridades mayores para la acción sobre la adaptación, teniendo en cuenta el historial de discusiones sobre MRV para la mitigación."},{"index":19,"size":31,"text":"• Dada la especificidad del contexto de los requerimientos de adaptación y las capacidades adaptativas, el potencial para marcos de trabajo significativos a nivel global e indicadores compartidos podría ser limitado."},{"index":20,"size":29,"text":"• Más grupos informales, con el apoyo de entidades técnicas, podrían avanzar más rápidamente sobre los aspectos técnicos de las pautas, los protocolos y los medidores que el SBSTA."}]},{"head":"Contras Pros","index":32,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":84,"text":"En el taller de SBSTA 42 sobre sistemas de alerta temprana (SAT), las Partes llegaron a un acuerdo sobre la importancia vital de los SAT y los planes de contingencia para reducir la vulnerabilidad del sector agropecuario al cambio climático y a los eventos meteorológicos extremos. Muchas de las Partes consideran que los SAT son una herramienta clave para la disminución de los riesgos relacionados con el clima y el daño a la producción agropecuaria y a la capacidad productiva de los sistemas agropecuarios."},{"index":2,"size":205,"text":"Las sugerencias para el trabajo futuro bajo el liderazgo de SBSTA incluyeron la evaluación sistemática del estado actual de los SAT, la evaluación de los requerimientos técnicos, el intercambio de información y experiencias, el desarrollo de una plataforma en la red para el intercambio de información y mecanismos prácticos para apoyar a las Partes con el desarrollo de SAT a nivel regional, subnacional y nacional. SBSTA se encuentra bien posicionado para mejorar la integración de los SAT con mecanismos de financiamiento (por ej. mecanismos de activación de pagos de fondos de seguros internacionales), mejorar la calidad de los datos utilizados en los SAT y expandir el acceso a los SAT entre un grupo más amplio de usuarios, incluidos los pequeños productores (Coffey et al. 2015). SBSTA también estaría en posición de facilitar una mejor integración entre el conocimiento indígena y los enfoques científicos a los SAT y de promover alianzas entre el sector público y el sector privado para el funcionamiento de SAT. SBSTA tiene además la oportunidad de rectificar la carencia anterior de atención a vulnerabilidades y capacidades diferenciadas por género frente al cambio climático (de León et al. 2016) a través del desarrollo de SAT diseñados específicamente para superar las desigualdades de género."},{"index":3,"size":85,"text":"Los vínculos con procesos y organizaciones por fuera de la Convención serían particularmente importantes para la prestación de SAT efectivos. Los procesos y las organizaciones relevantes a nivel mundial incluyen el EIRD (Marco de Trabajo de Hyogo), la WMO [Organización Meteorológica Mundial), el Grupo de Observaciones de la Tierra, la Plataforma de las Naciones Unidas de Información obtenida desde el Espacio para la Gestión de Desastres y la Respuesta de Emergencia (ONU-SPIDER), el Marco Mundial para los Servicios Climáticos (GFCS), PMA, FAO y la CTCN."},{"index":4,"size":46,"text":"OPCIÓN 9: Apoyar el desarrollo de sistemas de alerta temprana Planes a futuro • Encargar la realización de un análisis conciso a corto plazo de la situación actual sobre los SAT y los planes de contingencia para satisfacer las necesidades de información inmediatas de las Partes;"},{"index":5,"size":21,"text":"• Identificar áreas específicas en las que SBSTA podría agregar valor al trabajo en los SAT por fuera de la Convención;"},{"index":6,"size":45,"text":"• Desarrollar sinergias con los procesos existentes en el marco de la Convención, incluyendo el Mecanismo Internacional de Varsovia para Pérdidas y Daños asociados con el Impacto del Cambio Climático, el Marco de Trabajo de Adaptación de Cancún y el Programa de Trabajo de Nairobi;"},{"index":7,"size":29,"text":"• Asegurar que cualquier plataforma de conocimiento sobre la agricultura que se desarrollen en el marco de SBSTA (véase Opción 7) incluya los SAT y los planes de contingencia."},{"index":8,"size":38,"text":"• Se han alcanzado logros impresionantes en los SAT a nivel nacional y en mecanismos regionales de varios países, por ejemplo, en la predicción de sequías y hambruna, suministrando una base firme para los SAT futuros a escala."},{"index":9,"size":26,"text":"• SBSTA se encuentra bien posicionado para promover la integración de los SAT con los mecanismos de financiamiento, el conocimiento indígena y la igualdad de género."},{"index":10,"size":26,"text":"• Los mecanismos de la Convención para el desarrollo de capacidades podrían ser muy útiles para mejorar los SAT, en especial en los Países Menos Desarrollados."},{"index":11,"size":19,"text":"• El riesgo de duplicación con la cantidad considerable de trabajo en los SAT por fuera de la Convención."},{"index":12,"size":33,"text":"• El desarrollo de SAT y planes de contingencia es una combinación compleja de compromiso de los actores e insumos técnicos, los cuales son a menudo específicos del contexto con limitadas lecciones transferibles."},{"index":13,"size":27,"text":"• Los SAT funcionales y los planes de contingencia no son suficientes sin el financiamiento y la capacidad de tomar acciones sobre las proyecciones y los planes."}]},{"head":"Pros Contras","index":33,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":59,"text":"Cualquier acción en el marco del SBSTA se beneficiaría de sinergias con otros mecanismos de la CMNUCC, y en ausencia de avance en la agricultura en SBSTA, la labor en otros eventos de la CMNUCC podría ofrecer continuidad. La agricultura es abordada en varios puntos del plan de trabajo y de los programas en el marco de la Convención:"},{"index":2,"size":96,"text":"• El Programa de Trabajo de Nairobi, el Marco de Trabajo de Adaptación de Cancún, incluyendo el Comité de Adaptación continuará su trabajo en las evaluaciones de vulnerabilidad, la planeación de la adaptación, apoyando a los Países Menos Desarrollados (LDC) con la implementación de Planes Nacionales de Adaptación (NAP), etc. El Grupo de Expertos de los LDC (LEG) continuará apoyando a los LDC con los Programas Nacionales de Acción para la Adaptación (NAPA) así como el trabajo sobre adaptación acordado en el marco del Acuerdo de París. Toda esta labor continuará siendo relevante para la agricultura."},{"index":3,"size":43,"text":"• El punto del plan de trabajo sobre género y cambio climático es otra posibilidad importante para abordar la agricultura en un contexto de género y esto podría abarcar una gran variedad de aspectos incluyendo la adaptación, la mitigación, las tecnologías climáticas, etc."},{"index":4,"size":67,"text":"• La mitigación y la agricultura forman parte de los compromisos para las Partes del Anexo I conforme a la Convención y al Protocolo de Kioto. Está incluido en los esfuerzos de las Partes que no pertenecen al Anexo I para la implementación de Acción Nacional Apropiada de Mitigación (NAMA), REDD+ en el sector forestal, y en las NDC conforme al Acuerdo de París después del 2020."},{"index":5,"size":48,"text":"• El financiamiento de lo relacionado con la agricultura continuará siendo parte del trabajo del Comité Permanente de Finanzas con el respaldo del mecanismo de financiamiento de la Convención (GCF y GEF) (véase Opción 1: Vincular la adaptación de la agricultura al mecanismo de financiación de la CMNUCC)."},{"index":6,"size":15,"text":"OPCIÓN 10: Realizar otros procesos conforme a la CMNUCC para el avance de la agricultura"},{"index":7,"size":73,"text":"• El Mecanismo de Tecnología con su Comité Ejecutivo de Tecnología y el Centro y la Red de Tecnología Climática (CTCN) continuarán facilitando la implementación de acciones mejoradas sobre el desarrollo y transferencia de tecnologías para apoyar a las Partes con las acciones de mitigación y adaptación, incluyendo el sector de la agricultura (véase Opción 2: Fortalecer acciones de adaptación de la agricultura en los procesos de transferencia tecnológica y desarrollo de capacidades)."},{"index":8,"size":62,"text":"• En la COP21, las Partes acordaron establecer el Comité de París para el Desarrollo de Capacidades con el fin de abordar las brechas y las necesidades de desarrollo de capacidades en los países en desarrollo. A pesar de que aún no se ha iniciado, este trabajo ofrece además una oportunidad para incluir a la agricultura con respecto al desarrollo de capacidades."},{"index":9,"size":35,"text":"Aunque es posible lograr sinergias entre estos programas y mecanismos, esto no será solamente a partir de una perspectiva agropecuaria, pues ninguno de dichos programas y mecanismos tiene a la agricultura como su enfoque principal."}]},{"head":"Planes a futuro","index":34,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":121,"text":"Esta opción se puede lograr conjuntamente con muchas de las otras opciones descritas en este informe. Adicionalmente, en ausencia de una decisión de SBSTA en 45ª sesión, en caso de que las Partes no tomaran una decisión sobre pasos nuevos conforme al punto de la agenda acerca de temas relacionados con la agricultura, se aplicaría la regla 16 del procedimiento y, por consiguiente, las Partes continuarían analizando la agricultura en la siguiente sesión, SBSTA 46, a realizarse en Bonn en 2017. Se esperaría que una decisión del SBSTA sobre la agricultura, como por ej. un programa de trabajo como el descrito en la Opción 4, facilitaría la coordinación con las demás iniciativas y mecanismos de la CMNUCC relacionados con la agricultura."},{"index":2,"size":38,"text":"• Los distintos programas y mecanismos de la Convención ofrecen un número sustancial de caminos para tratar los muchos diferentes aspectos de la agricultura, incluso sin haberse tomado una decisión en Marrakech sobre trabajo adicional en la agricultura."},{"index":3,"size":45,"text":"• El financiamiento de las NAMA y NAP así como las NDC puede atraer un financiamiento considerable en el marco de la convención (GCF, GEF) y aprovechar la financiación del sector privado, lo cual llevaría a un avance significativo en los indicadores de impacto críticos."},{"index":4,"size":35,"text":"• El punto de la agenda sobre género brinda una excelente oportunidad para abarcar todo el rango de acciones en la agricultura, dado el importante papel de la mujer en los sistemas agropecuarios y alimentarios."},{"index":5,"size":44,"text":"• Si se toma individualmente, esta opción corre el riesgo de un enfoque altamente fragmentado para la agricultura que luchará por abordar las sinergias y las concesiones entre los diferentes aportes a la seguridad alimentaria, la adaptación y la mitigación ofrecidos por la agricultura."},{"index":6,"size":22,"text":"• La carencia de una evaluación y un monitoreo riguroso y coordinado utilizando varios instrumentos hará que sea difícil evaluar el avance."},{"index":7,"size":19,"text":"• Un enfoque fragmentado no atraerá los expertos que se necesitan para asegurar una cobertura integral de la agricultura."},{"index":8,"size":10,"text":"• Esta opción no atraerá recursos adicionales significativos al sector."}]},{"head":"Pros Contras","index":35,"paragraphs":[]}],"figures":[{"text":" Plataforma de las Naciones Unidas de Información obtenida desde el Espacio para la Gestión de Desastres y la Respuesta de AAI SAARC Intervenciones de adaptación agrícola Comunidad del Pacífico y Asociación del Sudeste Asiático para la Cooperación Regional AAI SAARCIntervenciones de adaptación agrícola Comunidad del Pacífico y Asociación del Sudeste Asiático para la Cooperación Regional ACPC SAT Centro Africano sobre Políticas Climáticas Sistema de Alerta Temprana ACPC SATCentro Africano sobre Políticas Climáticas Sistema de Alerta Temprana ADB SBI Banco Asiático de Desarrollo Organismo Subsidiario de Implementación ADB SBIBanco Asiático de Desarrollo Organismo Subsidiario de Implementación AfDB SBSTA Banco Africano de Desarrollo Organismo Subsidiario de Asesoría Científica y Tecnológica AfDB SBSTABanco Africano de Desarrollo Organismo Subsidiario de Asesoría Científica y Tecnológica ASEAN SCCF Asociación de Naciones del Sudeste Asiático Fondo Especial para el Cambio Climático ASEAN SCCFAsociación de Naciones del Sudeste Asiático Fondo Especial para el Cambio Climático AU SMART Unión Africana Sencillo, Medible, Exacto, Confiable y Limitado en tiempo AU SMARTUnión Africana Sencillo, Medible, Exacto, Confiable y Limitado en tiempo AWP UE Programa de Trabajo Agrícola Unión Europea AWP UEPrograma de Trabajo Agrícola Unión Europea BID UNCCD Banco Interamericano de Desarrollo Convención de las Naciones Unidas para Combatir la Desertificación BID UNCCDBanco Interamericano de Desarrollo Convención de las Naciones Unidas para Combatir la Desertificación CBD WMO Convención sobre Biodiversidad Organización Meteorológica Mundial CBD WMOConvención sobre Biodiversidad Organización Meteorológica Mundial CCAFS Programa de Investigación de CGIAR en Cambio Climático, Agricultura y Seguridad Alimentaria CCAFSPrograma de Investigación de CGIAR en Cambio Climático, Agricultura y Seguridad Alimentaria CDKN Red de Conocimiento sobre Clima y Desarrollo CDKNRed de Conocimiento sobre Clima y Desarrollo CMNUCC Convención Marco de las Naciones Unidas sobre Cambio Climático CMNUCCConvención Marco de las Naciones Unidas sobre Cambio Climático COMESA Mercado Común de África Oriental y Austral COMESAMercado Común de África Oriental y Austral COP Conferencia de las Partes COPConferencia de las Partes CTCN Centro y Red de Tecnología Climática CTCNCentro y Red de Tecnología Climática EBRB Banco Europeo para la Reconstrucción y el Desarrollo EBRBBanco Europeo para la Reconstrucción y el Desarrollo ECOWAS Comunidad Económica de Estados de África Occidental ECOWASComunidad Económica de Estados de África Occidental EIRD Estrategia Internacional de las Naciones Unidas para la Reducción de Desastres EIRDEstrategia Internacional de las Naciones Unidas para la Reducción de Desastres FAO Organización de las Naciones Unidades para la Alimentación y la Agricultura FAOOrganización de las Naciones Unidades para la Alimentación y la Agricultura FAOSTAT Base de Datos Estadísticos Corporativos de la FAO FAOSTATBase de Datos Estadísticos Corporativos de la FAO FIDA Fondo Internacional de Desarrollo Agrícola FIDAFondo Internacional de Desarrollo Agrícola GCF Fondo Verde para el Clima GCFFondo Verde para el Clima GEF Fondo Mundial para el Medio Ambiente GEFFondo Mundial para el Medio Ambiente GEI Gas de efecto invernadero GEIGas de efecto invernadero GFCS Marco Mundial para los Servicios Climáticos GFCSMarco Mundial para los Servicios Climáticos GIZ Agencia Alemana de Cooperación Internacional GIZAgencia Alemana de Cooperación Internacional IAR Evaluación y Análisis Internacional IAREvaluación y Análisis Internacional IPCC Panel Intergubernamental de Expertos sobre Cambio Climático IPCCPanel Intergubernamental de Expertos sobre Cambio Climático LDC Países Menos Desarrollados LDCPaíses Menos Desarrollados LDCF Fondo para Países Menos Desarrollados LDCFFondo para Países Menos Desarrollados LEG Grupo de Expertos para LDC LEGGrupo de Expertos para LDC M&E Monitoreo y Evaluación M&EMonitoreo y Evaluación MRV Monitoreo, Reporte y Verificación MRVMonitoreo, Reporte y Verificación NAMA Acción Nacional Apropiada de Mitigación NAMAAcción Nacional Apropiada de Mitigación NAP Planes Nacionales de Adaptación NAPPlanes Nacionales de Adaptación NAPA Programas Nacionales de Acción para la Adaptación NAPAProgramas Nacionales de Acción para la Adaptación NARS Sistemas Nacionales de Investigación Agropecuaria NARSSistemas Nacionales de Investigación Agropecuaria NDC Contribuciones Nacionales Determinadas NDCContribuciones Nacionales Determinadas NWP Programa de Trabajo de Nairobi NWPPrograma de Trabajo de Nairobi ODA Asistencia Oficial para el Desarrollo ODAAsistencia Oficial para el Desarrollo ODS Objetivos de Desarrollo Sostenible ODSObjetivos de Desarrollo Sostenible OECD Organización para la Cooperación y el Desarrollo Económico OECDOrganización para la Cooperación y el Desarrollo Económico ONU-SPIDER Emergencia ONU-SPIDER Emergencia PMA Programa Mundial de Alimentos PMAPrograma Mundial de Alimentos PNUD Programa de las Naciones Unidas para el Desarrollo PNUDPrograma de las Naciones Unidas para el Desarrollo PPCR Programa Piloto de Resiliencia Climática PPCRPrograma Piloto de Resiliencia Climática  "}],"sieverID":"2f76971b-da25-4d86-bdbe-9e69c8c86326","abstract":"y Seguridad Alimentaria (CCAFS, por su sigla en inglés) es una alianza estratégica entre CGIAR y Future Earth liderado por el Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical (CIAT). El programa se lleva a cabo con financiación de donantes del fondo CGIAR, Australia (ACIAR), Irlanda (Irish Aid), Países Bajos (Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores), Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores y Comercio de Nueva Zelanda, Suiza (SDC), Tailandia, Gobierno del Reino Unido (UK Aid), EE.UU. (USAID), la Unión Europea (UE) y con apoyo técnico del Fondo Internacional para el Desarrollo Agrícola (FIDA). Los autores agradecen al Programa de Investigación de CGIAR en Cambio Climático, Agricultura y Seguridad Alimentaria (CCAFS) por el apoyo brindado a este estudio. Creative Commons License Este documento se encuentra bajo una licencia de Reconocimiento-No comercial-Sin obras derivadas 3.0 Unported de Creative Commons. Esta publicación se puede citar y reproducir libremente, siempre y cuando se reconozca la fuente. No se puede hacer uso de esta publicación para la reventa o con otros fines comerciales. Crédito fotografía de portada: ICARDA © 2016 Programa de Investigación de CGIAR en Cambio Climático, Agricultura y Seguridad Alimentaria (CCAFS) ."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0aee90f040131d0c6687fdb4e6a7459e","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/41abd22e-7a66-4c60-b475-b583ee14723d/retrieve"},"pageCount":3,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":54,"text":"genotyping a random sample of 45 individuals from both cycles. At present, the null hypothesis of drift could be rejected for 47 of the SSR loci after correcting for multiple tests. Many of these loci correspond to previously published QTL for NCLB. 21. As mentioned above, saturation of selected chromosomal segments has been conducted."},{"index":2,"size":216,"text":"Specifically, a region on chromosome 8 has been examined with some 20 SSR loci, nine of which exhibited significant departures from drift. In this region the following resistance loci have been reported: (a) four QTL for NCLB, (b) two major genes for NCLB, (c) three QTL for GLS, (d) two QTL for common rust, (e) one QTL for common smut, and (f) one QTL for maize streak virus. We are now using the maize disease QTL consensus map to select additional SSR loci in the vicinity of previously reported QTL (typically where NCLB QTL co-localize with QTL for several other diseases) for study. 22. Efforts are underway to determine if allelic differences can be associated with phenotypic differences in disease resistance. A random sample of individuals from intermediate cycles (n=40 for cycle 1; n=20 for cycle 3) from four (including Pool 30) of the eight populations were previously crossed with a common maize inbred line, B73. In the summer 2005 season in upstate NY, F 2 populations were derived from 10 random progeny of each F 1 line (n=2,400 F 2 families). Selected F 2 families will be used to conduct an association analysis of putatively selected alleles versus B73 alleles (similar to a bulk-segregant analysis), and to develop further derivatives of the material (e.g., NILs)."},{"index":3,"size":26,"text":"Tangible outputs delivered: 1. Panels of disease resistant maize lines and genetic stocks derived from them. 2. Synthesis of disease QTLs in maize submitted for publication."},{"index":4,"size":36,"text":"We would like to include Southern Corn Leaf Blight as one of the target diseases for the project. An analysis of the literature indicates that this can be justified based on importance in the developing world. "}]},{"head":"Development of","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"MID-YEAR REPORT","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":88,"text":"Wild Manihot germplasm are a wealth of useful genes for the cultivated species M. esculenta but their use in regular breeding programs is restricted due the long reproductive breeding cycle of cassava and linkage drag associated with the use of wild relatives in crop improvemet. This project seeks to identify useful genes for pest and disease resistance, and post-harvest deterioration in cassava and to develop low cost marker tools for their rapid introgression into cassava. During the first six months of the project the following outputs were obtained:"},{"index":2,"size":144,"text":"Previous work revealed that a RAPD marker RME1 and an SSR marker NS158 are the closest markers to the gene CMD2 that confers resistance to the cassava mosaic disease (CMD), they are located at distances of 9 and 4 cM respectively, and are being routinely used for marker-assisted selection (MAS) of CMD resistance at CIAT. To reduce the cost and time as well as accuracy of assaying the most important marker, RME1, the polymorphic RAPD fragment in the CMD resistant parent was eluted from an agarose gel, cloned into pGEMTeasy (Promega inc, Madison) and sequenced. Primers were designed from the sequences (Appendix 1) and the RAPD marker successfully converted into a SCAR marker, this marker is now routinely being used for MAS at CIAT and primer sequences has been sent to NARs partners in preparation for its use in MAS in their breeding programs."},{"index":3,"size":121,"text":"Several previous reports have revealed moderate to high levels of resistance to many pests and diseases that attack cassava. Some of these species are being used in this project to introgress the resistance genes into cassava. Additional evaluations of 5 Wild Manihot species accessions, F1 Inter-specific hybrids, and BC1, derivatives growing in the field at CIAT were conducted to identify high levels of resistance to green mites, mealybugs, whiteflies, and cassava bacterial blight (CBB). Results reveal excellent sources of resistance to white flies, and moderate sources of resistance to mites and mealybugs (Appendix 2). Preliminary results of the evaluation of CBB resistance in BC2 derivatives of M. esculenta sub spp flabellifolia revealed moderate to high levels of resistance in some genotypes."},{"index":4,"size":304,"text":"Sexual seeds of natural wild populations of many wild Manihot species and their interspecific hybrids with cassava were distributed to NAS participants for field establishment and evaluation for pest and diseases endemic in their own environment. Seed lots of a total of 1740 sexual seeds from 175 families representing 5 wild Manihot species namely: M. esculenta sub spp flabelifolia, M. esculenta sub spp peruviana, M.tristis, M, carthaginensis, and M. Fomentosa were each shipped to Brazil, Uganda, Ghana, and Nigeria. Also sent to participating NARs were 1072 sexual seeds of F1 hybrids representing 171 inter-specific families obtained from crossing selections from accessions of the 5 species and elite cassava varieties Wild relatives of cassava are important sources of genes for resistance to pests and diseases and longer shelf life. The only source of dramatically delayed PPD has been identified in an inter-specific hybrid between cassava and Manihot walkerae, a unique source of resistance to the cassava hornworm was also identified in 4th backcross derivatives of M. glaziovii. Moderate to high levels of resistance to white flies have been found in inter-specific hybrids of M. esculenta sub spp flabellifolia. BC1 and S1 mapping populations for the identification of molecular markers for the introgression of delayed PPD, resistance to the cassava hornworm and white were developed last year. They include a cross between CW429-1 (F1 hybrid of M. walkerae) and MTAI 8 (BC1), a total of 205 progenies a cross between MNG11 (BC4 derivative of M. glaziovii) and MTAI8,157 indoviduals, and a cross between CW67-7 (F1 hybrid of M. esculenta sub spp flabellifolia) and MTAI 8, 230 genotypes. The abovementioned crosses were established in vitro from embryo axes and are currently being multiplied, at least 8 plants per genotype, for transfer to the screen house for hardening and eventually to the field during next year's planting season."},{"index":5,"size":135,"text":"An advanced field-based and molecular marker-assisted selection (MAS) breeding course in cassava was held at CIAT from April 11 to May for NARs partners in the GCP competitive grant project from Uganda, Ghana, Nigeria, and Brazil. The purpose of the course was to expose the NARs cassava breeders to methodologies being used at CIAT for MAS and to update them on current methods in scientific field-based breeding of cassava. Specific objectives of the course were to teach participants the theory and practice of every aspect of cassava breeding and to expose them to new approaches, for example, molecular markers in cassava breeding, doubled haploid technology, tissue culture, and genetic transformation. Molecular marker labs have also been established at CRI, Kumasi, Ghana and NRCRI, Umudike, Nigeria, the lab in NAARI, Namulonge, Uganda is still under construction."},{"index":6,"size":3,"text":"Tangible outputs delivered:"},{"index":7,"size":174,"text":"• Development of a low-cost SCAR marker for MAS for breeding resistance to the cassava mosaic disease (CMD) • Evaluations of several natural populations of 5 Manihot species, their F1s and BC1s for resistance to whiteflies and green mites • Shipment of sexual seeds of several natural populations of 5 Manihot species to NARs collaborators in Brazil, Nigeria, Ghana, and Uganda for establishment in the field and eventual evaluations • In vitro establishment of BC1, and S1 gene mapping populations for delayed post-harvest deterioration, resistance to Horn Worm, and whiteflies • Training of NARs partners from Brazil, Nigeria, Uganda, and Ghana in the theory and practice of field-based and molecular breeding during a one month intensive course at CIAT A delay in the shipment of BC2 populations with CMD resistance and tolerance to Mites to NARs partners for Molecular breeding, the plants will now be shipped in early October, the delay has been due to the large volume of in vitro culture work involved in establishing the mapping populations for PPD, whiteflies, and hornworm."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Low-Cost Technologies for Pyramiding Useful Genes from Wild Relatives of Cassava into Elite Progenitors Principal Investigator:  Anthony Bellotti, CIAT Anthony Bellotti, CIAT Co-Principal Investigators: Co-Principal Investigators: Martin Fregene, CIAT Martin Fregene, CIAT Alfredo Alves, EMBRAPA-CNPMF Alfredo Alves, EMBRAPA-CNPMF Collaborating Scientists: Collaborating Scientists: Hernan Ceballos, CIAT Hernan Ceballos, CIAT Elizabeth Alvarez, CIAT Elizabeth Alvarez, CIAT Elizabeth Okay, CRI, Ghana Elizabeth Okay, CRI, Ghana Chiedozie Egesi, NRCRI, Nigeria Chiedozie Egesi, NRCRI, Nigeria Anton Bua, NAARI, Uganda Anton Bua, NAARI, Uganda Titus Alicai, NAARI, Uganda Titus Alicai, NAARI, Uganda Yona Baguma, NAARI, Uganda Yona Baguma, NAARI, Uganda  "}],"sieverID":"d8a817ff-5947-45c0-bfea-62bb06d1d1a9","abstract":""}

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data/part_1/0b75ffdfa4cf99b4bb44582472c97acc.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0b75ffdfa4cf99b4bb44582472c97acc","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://digitalarchive.worldfishcenter.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.12348/4125/48c6eae8a85319d66640067b0138c45a.pdf"},"pageCount":2,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Project Summary","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":24,"text":"Promoting sustainable growth of aquaculture in Myanmar to improve food security and income for communities in the Ayeyarwady Delta and Central Dry Zone (MYCulture)"},{"index":2,"size":87,"text":"The MYCulture (MYFC) project has been implemented in collaboration with DoF, NAG, GRET, PACT-Myanmar, HKI and Pan Taing Shin with funding from the Livelihood and Food Security Fund (LIFT) since 21st September 2015. The project aimed to promote the sustainable growth of aquaculture in the Ayeyarwady Delta (Delta) and suitable agroecological areas in the Central Dry Zone (CDZ). The project's objective was to increase incomes of small-scale producers and improve the food and nutrition security of households through engaging them in aquaculture in the Delta and CDZ."},{"index":3,"size":33,"text":"The final report of MYCulture project covers activities delivered, key achievements and lessons learned during the entire project period from September 2015 to December 2019. The summary with key highlights is provided below:"}]},{"head":"","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":30,"text":"A total of three consecutive scoping missions were carried in delta and CDZ at the onset of the project inception phase with the aim to assessing contexts, aquaculture practices, overall."}]},{"head":"","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":25,"text":"The project focused on developing staff and farmers' capacity mainly on aquaculture technologies, nutrition and gender with the support from IPs mainly through providing training."},{"index":2,"size":37,"text":" A total of five aquaculture systems were tested in 2016 and scaled out from 2017 and beyond within three different water availability regimes (i.e. irrigated all year round, seasonally irrigated and rain-fed) in Delta and CDZ."}]},{"head":"","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":17,"text":"The project introduced Genetically Farmed Gift Tilapia (GIFT) in August 2016 for the first time in Myanmar."}]},{"head":"Project brief","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":4,"text":"Final Report: 2015 -2019"}]}],"figures":[],"sieverID":"856e728c-92e9-43f9-84e2-8d6615b2da87","abstract":""}

data/part_1/0c325a436abd3c37e4d7ad7fe1252a56.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0c325a436abd3c37e4d7ad7fe1252a56","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://apps.worldagroforestry.org/region/sea/publications/download?dl=/MN00120-21.pdf&pubID=4750&li=8932"},"pageCount":63,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"PREFACE","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":65,"text":"One of the key goals of the Vision and Strategic Plan for ASEAN Cooperation in Food, Agriculture andForestry 2016-2025, endorsed at the 37th Meeting of the ASEAN Ministers on Agriculture and Forestry in 2015, is 'expansion of resilient agroforestry systems, where ecologically and economically appropriate', expressed in an action programme under Strategic Thrust 4: To increase resilience to climate change, natural disasters and other shocks."},{"index":2,"size":59,"text":"In line with the effort to support wide-scale adoption of resilient agroforestry systems in ASEAN Member States (AMS), three important knowledge products have been developed by World Agroforestry (ICRAF) together with RECOFTC The Center for People and Forests, ASEAN Secretariat, ASEAN Working Group on Social Forestry Secretariat and partners in the ASEAN-Swiss Partnership on Social Forestry and Climate Change."}]},{"head":"1.","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":5,"text":"ASEAN Guidelines for Agroforestry Development"}]},{"head":"2.","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":6,"text":"Training Manual: Agroforestry for Climate-Resilient Landscapes"}]},{"head":"Practitioner's Field Guide: Agroforestry for Climate-Resilience","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":64,"text":"This field guide, designed to accompany the training manual, aims to support the continuous learning and capacity building of agroforestry practitioners. It provides extension workers, farmers and other practitioners with technical guidance on designing, establishing and managing on-farm agroforestry practices that can assist with coping with the negative impacts of extreme climatic events, such as increased temperatures, extreme and erratic rainfall and prolonged droughts."},{"index":2,"size":35,"text":"This guide is focused on different types of farmland in AMS. In each country, the guide should be adapted in accordance with the specific biophysical and socioeconomic contexts of a given landscape under climate change."}]},{"head":"INTRODUCTION","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":69,"text":"Climate change is increasingly experienced in Southeast Asia in the form of rising temperatures, longer periods of hot weather, prolonged droughts, more powerful typhoons, and extreme rainfall. Farmers in many parts of the region are facing degradation of arable land, shortages of water, increased occurrence of pests and diseases, declines in crop and livestock productivity and loss of yields. Consequently, their income and food security have been severely threatened."},{"index":2,"size":72,"text":"Accordingly, climate-resilient land-use practices have become a critical topic. Agroforestry -the practice of deliberately integrating trees with crops and/ or animals on the same land unit to provide a range of agricultural and forestry products and environmental services -can help to increase the resilience of farmlands and whole landscapes to climatic stresses. However, lack of knowledge and technical skills to design, establish and manage agroforestry restricts practitioners from undertaking such climate-resilient practices."}]},{"head":"PURPOSE","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":45,"text":"This guide has been developed to support the continuous learning and capacity building of agroforestry practitioners. It provides a set of technical instructions and tools for assisting farmers to design, establish and manage on-farm agroforestry practices that are resilient to climate stresses and extreme events."}]},{"head":"TARGET USERS","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":51,"text":"This guide is for agroforestry practitioners who assist farmers to undertake agroforestry practices in the field, including (but not limited to) 1) Extension workers or rural advisors in forestry and agriculture; 2) Forestry and agricultural officers and technicians; 3) Community forestry or natural resource management staff; and 4) Development-project field staff."},{"index":2,"size":36,"text":"It may also be useful for farmers who are interested in the design and practice of agroforestry on their farms and researchers and students who want to learn to develop climate-resilient agroforestry systems in the field."}]},{"head":"HOW TO USE THIS GUIDE","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":52,"text":"This guide is not a ready-made 'cookbook' with recipes to be applied for any location. It is a general, basic guide for designing and practising agroforestry for climate resilience in uplands, lowlands, coastal zones and other areas. In any specific landscape and climatic context, further elaboration of the field guide is needed.   "}]},{"head":"CLIMATE RESILIENCE","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":43,"text":"Resilience is 'the ability of a social or ecological system to absorb disturbances while retaining the same basic structure and ways of functioning, the capacity for self-organization, and the capacity to adapt to stress and change' (IPCC 2008). CHAPTER 2 AGROFORESTRY: A SOLUTION"}]},{"head":"AGROFORESTRY","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":38,"text":"'Agroforestry' refers to land-use systems and technologies in which woody perennials (trees, shrubs, palms, bamboos etc) are deliberately used on the same land-management unit as agricultural crops and/or animals, in some form of spatial arrangement or temporal sequence."},{"index":2,"size":41,"text":"In agroforestry systems, there are both ecological and economic interactions between different components. Agroforestry includes trees on farms and in agricultural landscapes, farming in forests and at forest margins and also tree-crop production. There are several criteria for defining agroforestry practices."},{"index":3,"size":21,"text":"• Intentional: trees, crops and/or livestock are intentionally designed, established and managed to work together and yield multiple products and benefits"},{"index":4,"size":16,"text":"• Intensive: agroforestry practices are created and intensively managed to maintain their productive and protective functions"},{"index":5,"size":19,"text":"• Integrated: the trees, crops and/or animal components are structurally and functionally combined into a single, integrated management unit  "}]},{"head":"AGROFORESTRY'S CONTRIBUTION TO CLIMATE RESILIENCE","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":73,"text":"Diversification of agricultural production. Agroforestry involves multiple production activities that are complementary in both economic and ecological dimensions at farm level. Agroforestry is the pathway for sustainable diversification of agricultural systems, helping to provide a variety (crop, tree and animal) of products and benefits to farmers -such as food, fodder, fuelwood -at different times of the year, thereby, reducing the risk of crop failure and food shortages or insecurity when facing climatic stressors.   "}]},{"head":"N-Fixation Mycorrhiza","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":55,"text":"Ameliorating microclimates. The full genetic potential of many crops and animals can only be exploited under optimal environmental conditions. In an agroforestry system, trees help reduce heat and light, bring favourable changes in microclimatic conditions through influencing radiation fluxes, air temperatures and wind speeds, which protect and improve the productivity of crops, livestock and land."},{"index":2,"size":54,"text":"Mitigating droughts. Tree canopies lower temperatures and increase relative humidity, which lead to a lower transpiration rate. Tree litters and pruning materials act as mulch on the surface of the ground, reducing the evaporative loss of moisture. The water-storage capacity of soil is also increased owing to increased content of organic matter. CHAPTER 3"}]},{"head":"PARTICIPATORY AGROFORESTRY DESIGN FOR CLIMATE RESILIENCE","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":40,"text":"Participatory design of agroforestry is an iterative process to ensure maximum potential for climate resilience. Each step requires monitoring and evaluation as a feedback mechanism, learning both from successes and failures in an action-learning process, similar to the planact-monitor-re-plan cycle."}]},{"head":"GETTING STARTED","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":6,"text":"The first step includes several activities."},{"index":2,"size":32,"text":"• Visit the community or individual farmer to observe the biophysical and socioeconomic conditions, particularly, to gather information related to climatic issues and to check the suitability of the area for agroforestry."},{"index":3,"size":44,"text":"• Share information about agroforestry as a set of climate-resilient practices, explaining why and what it is. This can be done through a slideshow or other methods. Organize farmers into groups to build leadership and take the initiative. Encourage the election of group leaders."},{"index":4,"size":45,"text":"• Identify suitable areas for agroforestry, taking into consideration biophysical and socioeconomic conditions. Agree on achieving common goals and multiple outcomes, such as landscape restoration, ecological and economic benefits like food and nutritional security, employment and income, natural resources management, enhancing biodiversity and sequestering carbon."},{"index":5,"size":20,"text":"Steps in participatory agroforestry design for climate resilience 1. Getting started 2. Understanding the field situation 3. Designing field planting"}]},{"head":"UNDERSTANDING THE FIELD SITUATION: ASSESSMENT OF LAND-USE PRACTICES","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":41,"text":"The objective of this activity is to collect and share information on land use and management practices. Activities include an inventory of local knowledge, innovations and practices and listing useful agroforestry species (native and exotic trees). Several methods can be used."}]},{"head":"• Transect walks","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":8,"text":"• Mapping of land use and land-use changes"},{"index":2,"size":8,"text":"• Matrix scoring of species and cultivation practices"},{"index":3,"size":19,"text":"• Ranking to identify the most promising agroforestry species for planting and the most appropriate management practices to adopt"},{"index":4,"size":12,"text":"The assessment covers biophysical parameters for soils, climate, adapted trees and crops."},{"index":5,"size":18,"text":"• Soil parameters include soil pH, which determines acidity or alkalinity that can influence availability of soil nutrients"},{"index":6,"size":12,"text":"• Climate parameters include rainfall, temperature, humidity, occurrence of storms and droughts"},{"index":7,"size":21,"text":"• Vegetation assessment includes trees and plant species adapted in the area in relation to soil types, climate regime and elevation"}]},{"head":"DESIGNING FIELD PLANTING","index":17,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Key considerations","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":13,"text":"When designing agroforestry systems for climate resilience, the following elements should be considered."},{"index":2,"size":19,"text":"A. Components: There are basic sets of components that can be managed by a farmer in an agroforestry system."},{"index":3,"size":28,"text":"• Trees, which should be producing fodder, fruit, fuelwood, medicines and/or timber or assisting replenishment of soil fertility; and which are adapted to adverse climatic and soil conditions."},{"index":4,"size":16,"text":"• Crops, particularly annual crops like grains and flowers, which are adapted to drought or waterlogging."},{"index":5,"size":32,"text":"• Animals, especially those that can be used for draft power (such as buffalo) or produce meat, eggs or dairy products, which have shown the ability to adapt to a changing climate."},{"index":6,"size":108,"text":"B. Tree root and canopy structure. This refers to how the roots and canopies of trees are layered and spread. The roots of trees and crops should have a combination of spreading roots for soil binding, which reduces soil erosion during intense rainfall, and deeply penetrating roots for soil anchorage, which provide better water infiltration during intense rainfall, thus, avoiding landslides and liquefaction. Appropriate canopy structures are 1) conical crown; 2) flat-topped, spreading crown; 3) tall bole and small, dense crown; and 4) narrow columnar crown. Canopy shapes that should be avoided are 1) rounded crown with dense canopy; 2) wide conical crown; and 3) wide columnar crown."},{"index":7,"size":10,"text":"Socio-economic factors include households' available land, market, labour and capital."},{"index":8,"size":5,"text":"• Land: farm size, tenure"},{"index":9,"size":5,"text":"• Market: distance to markets"},{"index":10,"size":16,"text":"• Labour: seasonal availability, gender, family size, off-farm employment and availability of family and local labour"},{"index":11,"size":21,"text":"• Capital: household cashflows, availability and form of credit. C. Arrangement: Two kinds of arrangement are considered in any agroforestry system."},{"index":12,"size":28,"text":"• Spatial arrangement refers to how plant components are physically arranged. This can be dense mixed stands, which are common features of home gardens, or sparsely mixed stands."}]},{"head":"Rounded crown, dense canopy Conical crown","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":8,"text":"Canopy in layers Tall bole, small dense crown"}]},{"head":"Wide columnar crown","index":20,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Narrow columnar crown","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":6,"text":"Wide conical crown Flat-topped spreading crown"},{"index":2,"size":40,"text":"• Temporal arrangement refers to the pattern of shifting cultivation on a single piece of land. An example of this is using land for cropping for two-to-four years followed by over a decade of fallow when woody species are planted."}]},{"head":"D. Management or function:","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":34,"text":"This refers to the process in which inputs are introduced, managed and converted into outputs over a certain period to attain desired goals. Examples are propagation, weed control, fertilization, control of pests and diseases."}]},{"head":"E. State or interaction:","index":23,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":31,"text":"This refers to how the components of an agroforestry system interact with each other. The interactions may be positive, such as complementation or supplementation, or negative, such as competition or allelopathy."},{"index":2,"size":46,"text":"F. Hierarchy. This refers to the order of needs and priorities of farmers. Farmers may decide to have an annual cropping or perennial system. Selection of tree species, spatial and temporal arrangements are typically influenced by the farmer's decision to undertake annual cropping or perennial system. "}]},{"head":"Selecting tree species","index":24,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":13,"text":"There are several factors to be considered in the selection of tree species."},{"index":2,"size":12,"text":"• Knowledge about management of tree species • Small and open canopy"}]},{"head":"• Good root distribution","index":25,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":8,"text":"Selection may be conducted following the steps below."}]},{"head":"A. Identify preferred species","index":26,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":34,"text":"Different species respond differently to extreme climate events and have varying resistance to pests and diseases. Selecting species that have different responses to extreme climate events will reduce the risks to the farmer's livelihood."},{"index":2,"size":76,"text":"• Select locally grown species that have differing responses to specific climate events Identify the most frequent extreme climate events in the area. This information will be used to decide the role of agroforestry and, ultimately, to identify tree species that can adapt to the area's changing climate. Trees and livestock farming have been reported to be less vulnerable to fluctuating weather conditions than rain-fed crops. Maintaining livestock is important in the event of crop losses."}]},{"head":"Species","index":27,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Arrangement of species for climate-resilient agroforestry","index":28,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":28,"text":"The combination and arrangement of species in an agroforestry system should be based on the farmer's objectives, the biophysical characteristics of the site and the farmer's socioeconomic conditions."},{"index":2,"size":24,"text":"To achieve resilience, a system should combine species with various adaptation capacities to extreme climatic and soil conditions, pests and diseases, and market shocks."},{"index":3,"size":45,"text":"There are different spatial arrangements of system components in agroforestry, which could be intentional or unintentional. For example, in a parkland type of agroforestry, trees are just allowed to grow, or planted sporadically in the field. Examples of intentional spatial tree arrangements are shown below."},{"index":4,"size":18,"text":"• Trees along boundaries. The distance of the trees from other species needs to be considered (Figure 3.4)."},{"index":5,"size":12,"text":"• The double-row (Figure 3.5) and single-row (Figure 3.6) arrangements are common."},{"index":6,"size":18,"text":"• Short-term agricultural plants intercropped between trees (Figure 3.7) or at the centre of the farm (Figure 3.8).  "}]},{"head":"AGROFORESTRY ESTABLISHMENT AND MANAGEMENT FOR CLIMATE RESILIENCE","index":29,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":78,"text":"Climate resilience as well as the success of an agroforestry system are very much dependent on proper establishment and management. After designing the desired agroforestry system, farmers should be ready to implement in the field. However, there are a number of key practices that need to be done with care, such as selecting quality seedlings, preparing the land, spacing and planting trees and crops, maintaining, pruning, thinning, controlling pests and diseases, and deploying methods against specific climatic threats."}]},{"head":"ESTABLISHING AGROFORESTRY","index":30,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Selecting quality seedlings","index":31,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":37,"text":"Trees usually require 3-5 years before starting to yield. If seedlings of poor quality are planted, the survival rate could be very low. Farmers would then have wasted 5 years, receiving poor quality and quantity of yields."},{"index":2,"size":57,"text":"• Select quality sources of seeds or seedlings (registered or known quality). The mother trees should be known for their high production potential, tolerance to extreme biophysical and climate conditions (for example, have gone through at least two harvest cycles with good yields of quality products), resistance to pests and diseases, and normal or superior physical attributes."},{"index":3,"size":27,"text":"• Good performance of seeds or seedlings. They must have good size and colour, free from pests and diseases, strong leaf turgidity, good and sturdy root development."}]},{"head":"Preparing the land","index":32,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":47,"text":"The land must be prepared properly. It should be free from weeds before planting. This can be done through ploughing and harrowing until it is pulverized. Do not plough or till the soil when wet because the soil structure will be destroyed, making clay soil more compact."},{"index":2,"size":21,"text":"To completely eliminate weeds, ploughing should be done during the dry season or at least several months before the wet season. "}]},{"head":"✓","index":33,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":43,"text":"Correct spacing between individual trees is essential. Sufficient spacing reduces competition for light, water and nutrients between and among individual plants; otherwise growth will be inhibited. Spacing in agroforestry systems needs to be regulated both horizontally between plants and vertically between their canopies."},{"index":2,"size":42,"text":"Horizontal spacing is the distance between individual plants in a system. Information on standard dimensions for horizontal spacing can be obtained from extension officers or research institutes. When there is no known standard spacing, it can be estimated using the steps below."},{"index":3,"size":15,"text":"• Find mature, productive trees of the species that grow in a relatively open area."},{"index":4,"size":53,"text":"• To estimate the spacing distance between individuals of the same species: measure the crown width in a diagonal direction (a). Repeat the crown-width measurement in a horizontal direction (b) (Figure 4.2, left). The spacing dimension between trees of the same species will be (a) in length and (b) width or vice versa."},{"index":5,"size":30,"text":"• For different species: Spacing distance is half of the average canopy width of species A (x) + half of average canopy width of species B (y) (Figure 4.2, right)."},{"index":6,"size":13,"text":"Vertical spacing is the distance between the canopies of understorey and upperstorey plants."},{"index":7,"size":80,"text":"The spacing will greatly depend on the light tolerance of the understorey species and the farmer's long-term objective. For example, coffee requires 75% sunlight; young trees need at least 2 m vertical distance between the coffee canopy with its shade trees and at least 5 m for mature trees (Figure 4.3). Some farmers aim to continuously plant crops in between rows of trees while others may want to shift into perennial systems. These aims will influence the spacing of trees. "}]},{"head":"Planting","index":34,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":135,"text":"Make sure that the planting holes for trees are dug in sufficient time before planting to allow sunlight to disinfect the holes from fungus, bacteria and other disease-causing microorganisms. If the soil is heavy clay, dig 50 x 50 x 50 cm. The poorer the soil, the bigger the holes should be. Loamy black soil can be smaller: up to 30 x 30 x 30 cm. For heavy clay and poor soils, mix thoroughly with two sacks of rice hulls, sawdust or sand to one sack of animal manure. Fresh manure or compost should not be used because it produces gas during decomposition that may damage the roots. Fresh organic fertilizer needs to be placed in the holes one month before planting to avoid fungal and bacterial attacks and nutrient immobilization from decomposing organic matters."},{"index":2,"size":34,"text":"The best time to plant is during the wet season or at least three months before the dry season, to allow the roots to develop and the plant to adapt to the changing environment."},{"index":3,"size":12,"text":"• Harden the seedlings before planting to minimize mortality and stunted growth."},{"index":4,"size":25,"text":"• Do not water the seedlings one day prior to planting. Do not subject the plant to water stress, manifested by wilting leaves and shoots."},{"index":5,"size":16,"text":"• Apply fertilizer with more phosphorous to enhance growth and deeper root penetration for better anchorage."},{"index":6,"size":32,"text":"• Fill the hole with a 30 cm thick mixture of topsoil, manure and rice hulls (or sawdust or sand) for clayey soils. For sandy loam soils, add only manure or compost."},{"index":7,"size":15,"text":"• Hold the seedling by its container not its trunk, to avoid damaging the roots."},{"index":8,"size":26,"text":"• Remove the seedling container 1 cm from the bottom. In the event that the ball of soil breaks, remove all the leaves to minimize evapotranspiration."},{"index":9,"size":16,"text":"• Position the seedling in the middle of the planting hole. Add soil around the base."},{"index":10,"size":26,"text":"• Completely remove the container. The roots must be free to grow wider and deeper for deeper anchorage and to make the plant resistant to drought."}]},{"head":"Young plants (below 4 years-old) Productive plants (above 4 years-old)","index":35,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":26,"text":"• Before planting, put a 1.2-1.5 m stake beside the seedling. Tie the seedling to the stake after planting to train the trunk to grow straight."},{"index":2,"size":30,"text":"• On sloping land, fill the hole with the planting medium 2.5-5 cm from the surface. On flat land or areas subject to waterlogging, elevate the base by 30 cm."},{"index":3,"size":5,"text":"• Water immediately after planting. "}]},{"head":"AGROFORESTRY MAINTENANCE AND PROTECTION","index":36,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Maintenance","index":37,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"A. Fertilizing","index":38,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":28,"text":"• Integrated application of a combination of chemical and organic fertilizers is recommended for optimal production. Table 4.1 shows the advantages and disadvantages of chemical and organic fertilizers."},{"index":2,"size":32,"text":"• Organic fertilizers can be applied at the beginning of the wet season and the end of the dry season; chemical fertilizers are best applied at the start of the wet season."},{"index":3,"size":28,"text":"• To support sustainable production of organic fertilizer, keep livestock as sources of both liquid and solid fertilizers and plant fodder crops, such as Arachis pintoi and Gliricidia."}]},{"head":"Chemical fertilizers","index":39,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":10,"text":"Organic fertilizers Advantages • Nutrients are quickly absorbed by plants."},{"index":2,"size":7,"text":"• Provide standard dosage of particular nutrients."},{"index":3,"size":6,"text":"• Improve soil fertility and structure."},{"index":4,"size":5,"text":"• Cheap and easily available."}]},{"head":"Disadvantages","index":40,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":5,"text":"• Expensive and limited stock."},{"index":2,"size":13,"text":"• Excessive dosage is dangerous: can kill the plants and destroy soil fertility."},{"index":3,"size":8,"text":"• There are many fakes on the market."},{"index":4,"size":7,"text":"• Nutrients are slowly absorbed by plants."},{"index":5,"size":11,"text":"• Information on the standard dosage of particular nutrients is limited.  "}]},{"head":"B. Pruning","index":41,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":44,"text":"The general objectives of pruning are to 1) form the tree crown (formative); 2) eliminate plant parts that are infected by pests and diseases (protective); 3) eliminate unproductive shoots or branches; and 4) improve air circulation (productive). Pruning can be divided into several parts."},{"index":2,"size":11,"text":"• Pruning of young plants to improve growth and production (formative)."},{"index":3,"size":38,"text":"• Pruning of productive trees is done a minimum of once a year to 1) stimulate the process of flower sprouting and pollination; 2) provide branches for fruit for the next harvest; and 3) ease in harvesting (productive)."},{"index":4,"size":25,"text":"• Pruning of shade trees is necessary to increase light penetration to crops growing beneath. This improves production, for example, of pepper, coffee and cocoa. "}]},{"head":"C. Thinning","index":42,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":7,"text":"Thinning removes unproductive trees and abnormal fruit."},{"index":2,"size":42,"text":"• Tree thinning removes unproductive trees to reduce competition for water, light and nutrients. Thinning is done if the crown between individual trees overlaps owing to spacing distances that are too close. Remove trees that have low growth rates and abnormal shapes."},{"index":3,"size":74,"text":"• Fruit thinning is usually done to enhance quality by limiting the number of fruits per branch. This allows the remaining fruit to receive sufficient nutrition for growth. When thinning, farmers need to estimate the optimal number of fruits that can be supported by the branch and receive adequate nutrition from the tree. For example, to grow one durian fruit requires at least 100 leaves. Smaller sized and abnormally shaped fruits should be removed. "}]},{"head":"Protective practices","index":43,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":18,"text":"The trees and crops should be protected against fire, wind, scorching sunlight, stray animals and pests and diseases."},{"index":2,"size":27,"text":"• Fire is a serious threat during dry seasons. Risk of fire can be reduced through regular weeding or brush cutting, composting litterfall and establishment of firebreaks."},{"index":3,"size":24,"text":"• Wind damage can be prevented through establishment of windbreaks or temporary stakes to avoid trees rubbing each other during times of strong winds."},{"index":4,"size":41,"text":"• Shade plants are needed to protect young trees from scorching sun, particularly, during dry seasons. Some plants require permanent shade-such as coffee, black pepper and cocoa-which can be provided by leguminous trees, such as Gliricidia sepium, Leucaena spp, Cassia siamea."},{"index":5,"size":31,"text":"• Stray animals can damage young trees. This can be prevented by fencing either using live fences or barbed wire. Live fences of leguminous trees can also provide fodder for livestock."},{"index":6,"size":28,"text":"• Pests and diseases. Healthy plants are able to outgrow pests and diseases. Using hardy species and quality seedlings are the keys to reducing the risk of damage."},{"index":7,"size":9,"text":"Too dense. Number of fruits needs to be reduced "}]},{"head":"AGROFORESTRY MANAGEMENT FOR CLIMATE RESILIENCE","index":44,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":56,"text":"In a climate-resilient landscape, four management techniques are recommended to mitigate the effects of extreme climatic events on production: 1) improving soil organic matters; 2) maintaining soil moisture to reduce impact of prolonged droughts; 3) preventing soil erosion owing to heavy rainfall; 4) reducing fruiting failure owing to strong winds; and 5) controlling pests and diseases."}]},{"head":"Maintaining soil moisture","index":45,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":25,"text":"Soil moisture can be maintained through the application of organic fertilizers and mulch, managing cover crops, and regular irrigation if the soil is too dry."},{"index":2,"size":44,"text":"• Integrated application of chemical and organic fertilizers is recommended for optimal production. Organic fertilizers should be applied at the end of the wet season and the end of the dry season; chemical fertilizers should be applied at the start of the wet season."},{"index":3,"size":30,"text":"• Mulch maintains soil moisture during drought, acting as a lid that keeps moisture in the soil. Recommended mulch thickness is 10-15 cm of rice straw, grass or leaf litter."},{"index":4,"size":124,"text":"The 'rorak' technique (Figure 4.9) can be used to maintain soil moisture and stimulate the growth of new roots. The technique features a pit dug under the tree canopy with the objective to rejuvenate roots. Usually the pit size is 75-100 cm in length, 30-40 cm in depth and 40-60 cm in width. The distance of the pit to the tree trunk is 60-100 cm. The pit is filled with organic fertilizer that maintains soil humidity near the roots. The pits should be prepared and filled at the end of the wet season at least 2-3 months before the dry season. The number of rorak pits per hectare should be 50% of the total number of trees. The rorak pits should be maintained annually."}]},{"head":"Preventing soil erosion and waterlogging owing to heavy rainfall","index":46,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":113,"text":"The application of planting techniques that conserve soil and water can reduce the effects of erosion and waterlogging. Establishing 'natural vegetative strips' (NVS) on slopes and along drainage canals on flat land is effective in controlling soil erosion. This technique uses contour hedgerows to minimize labour input and reduce competition between crops, grasses and trees. The strips are established by marking contour lines along a field, leaving them unploughed during land preparation. The retained vegetation will form a natural terrace and organic matters will accumulate along the contour. Native grasses and weeds will soon form stable hedgerows with natural front-facing terraces. The system can be enhanced with trees planted above them (Figure 4.10).  "}]},{"head":"Reducing fruiting failure owing to strong winds","index":47,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":75,"text":"In some areas, strong winds can cause fruiting failure of agroforestry species such as coffee and cocoa. To mitigate the effects of strong winds, windbreak trees can be planted around the plot or between several tree rows for larger fields. They should not be too dense, however, because completely blocking the wind can cause turbulence over adjacent crops (Figure 4.12). If the windbreak is too dense, branches of some of the trees should be pruned."}]},{"head":"Controlling pests and diseases","index":48,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":31,"text":"Pests are animals that attack crops or livestock, inhibiting growth and decreasing yields. Diseases are plants, fungi, bacteria or viruses that attack crops or livestock, also inhibiting growth and decreasing yields."},{"index":2,"size":31,"text":"Extreme climate events may stimulate outbreaks of pests and diseases. Providing sufficient nutrition for the crops or livestock and maintaining sanitation on the farm can reduce the risk of severe damage."},{"index":3,"size":20,"text":"Identifying and increasing populations of the natural enemies of pests or diseases can assist in the prevention of severe outbreaks."},{"index":4,"size":24,"text":"Planting cover crops with white or yellow flowers can increase the number of insects that can be natural enemies. ASSESSING RESILIENCE TO CLIMATE CHANGE"}]},{"head":"STEPS TO ASSESS THE CLIMATE RESILIENCE OF AGROFORESTRY PRACTICES","index":49,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":11,"text":"The following are several steps in assessing reslience of agroforestry practices:"},{"index":2,"size":7,"text":"Step 1: Decide who will be involved"},{"index":3,"size":31,"text":"• This most important first step can be best carried out through group meetings in the community. This helps to ensure everyone's perspectives are understood and their issues and wisdom incorporated."},{"index":4,"size":18,"text":"• The assessment team may consist of community members, farmers who are undertaking agroforestry and other interested groups."},{"index":5,"size":6,"text":"Step 2: Clarify objectives and scope"},{"index":6,"size":42,"text":"• Several questions need to be discussed: 1) Why do we need an assessment? 2) What do we need to achieve (from the assessment)? 3) What is the intended use of the assessment? 4) How much is the budget of the assessment?"},{"index":7,"size":13,"text":"• The discussions can be held in small group or whole village meetings."}]},{"head":"Step 3: Identify criteria and indicators","index":50,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":14,"text":"Based on the objectives, criteria and indicators need to be developed for each objective."},{"index":2,"size":28,"text":"Criteria and indicators are tools used to guide, monitor and assess the resilience of agroforestry practices to climatic issues in a given context (See 5.2 for more information)."},{"index":3,"size":47,"text":"• Criteria define essential attributes against which resilience is assessed with due consideration to different (ecological, socio-economic) aspects of the agroforestry practice in question. Each criterion related to a key attribute of resilience is a standard for assessment and may be described by one or more indicators."},{"index":4,"size":33,"text":"• Indicators are parameters that correspond to a particular criterion. They are signs that measure resilience. When measured they help to demonstrate or indicate the resilience status of the agroforestry practice in question."},{"index":5,"size":53,"text":"Step 4: Determine methods and collect the data Depending on the indicators that have been selected, several qualitative and quantitative methods could be identified for collecting data, for example, document and secondary data reviews, questionnaires, surveys and interviews (See 5.3 for discussion on methods for assessing resilience of agroforestry practices at farm level)."},{"index":6,"size":8,"text":"Step 5: Develop the questions for the assessment"},{"index":7,"size":39,"text":"Based on the indicators, the assessment questions will be developed to generate responses from applying agroforestry practices for climate resilience. The questions should be agreed through group discussion and ranked in order of importance if there are many questions."},{"index":8,"size":10,"text":"Step 6: Consolidate and analyze the collected data and information"},{"index":9,"size":32,"text":"In this step, the collected data and information is analyzed and synthesized to see if there are patterns or trends in climatic resilience that emerge (See 5.4 for people to be consulted)."},{"index":10,"size":8,"text":"Step 7: Interpret findings, provide feedback and recommendations"},{"index":11,"size":27,"text":"This step is the process of providing recommendations about how to strengthen implementation of the agroforestry practices well as making any adjustments and offering incentives for improvement."},{"index":12,"size":4,"text":"Step 8: Communicate findings"},{"index":13,"size":30,"text":"This step provides insights to everyone involved in the assessment to help decide how to use the results to strengthen the agroforestry practices and their wider adoption (see also 5.4)."}]},{"head":"CRITERIA AND INDICATORS FOR ASSESSING RESILIENCE OF AGROFORESTRY PRACTICES","index":51,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":25,"text":"A set of criteria and indicators should be employed for an assessment (see below). The selected indicators should be SMART: Simple -Measurable -Achievable -Replicable -Time-bound. "}]},{"head":"METHODS FOR ASSESSING RESILIENCE OF AGROFORESTRY PRACTICES ON FARMS","index":52,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":43,"text":"Several quantitative and qualitative methods can be defined and employed for assessing the resilience of the implemented agroforestry practices. These include but are not limited to surveys, biophysical measurements (quantitative methods), key informant interviews, group discussions, direct observations and case studies (qualitative methods)."},{"index":2,"size":29,"text":"For each method, certain tools could be used, for example, structured and semi-structured questionnaires, instruments like soil traps to measure soil erosion, Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA), and case studies."},{"index":3,"size":41,"text":"Survey: commonly used to assess outcomes of the agroforestry practices with target groups. For recording physical measurements, a standardized form may be used, while for socio-economic data, a structured questionnaire can be used to record data from interviews with individual respondents."},{"index":4,"size":41,"text":"Biophysical measurements: measurements of physical change over time, for example, crop yields, soil erosion, water table depths and availability. This may require instruments installed on-site, for example, a soil-trap installed on the lower part of a slope to measure soil erosion."}]},{"head":"Key informant interviews:","index":53,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":30,"text":"focused interviews in which key informants, few in number and purposively selected owing to their particular knowledge and position, are interviewed. This usually makes use of semi-structured or structured questionnaires."}]},{"head":"Various assessment methods","index":54,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Focus-group discussions:","index":55,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":32,"text":"conducted with groups of selected people who are familiar with pertinent issues using various PRA tools. This is useful for assessing changes and their causes and for identifying areas that need improvement."},{"index":2,"size":33,"text":"Direct observation: involves structured observation of phenomena in the field. This can be used to understand the context and explain results of evaluation and should always be used in conjunction with other methods."},{"index":3,"size":53,"text":"Case studies: document the sequence of events over time related to adoption and implementation of agroforestry practices of a household or person or location and facilitate in-depth understanding of the processes and outcomes of agroforestry practices with regard to climate resilience and other objectives as well as the factors behind the observed changes."}]},{"head":"WHO SHOULD BE CONSULTED TO UNDERSTAND AGROFORESTRY RESPONSES TO CLIMATE CHANGE?","index":56,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":25,"text":"Ideally, the process of monitoring and evaluation of agroforestry practices should involve not only farmers but also extension workers, research agencies and the private sector."},{"index":2,"size":29,"text":"Farmers as agroforestry practitioners are expected to conduct regular monitoring and evaluation of their practices. The results of monitoring and evaluation can be shared with a number of groups."},{"index":3,"size":10,"text":"• Extension workers, for technical issues related to agroforestry practices   "}]},{"head":"The triadic approach enhances participation","index":57,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":5,"text":"Local Government Units Technical Facilitators"}]},{"head":"Natural resource management programs","index":58,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Support","index":59,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Feedback","index":60,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Landcare Groups","index":61,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":57,"text":"Farmers' groups can share experience through meetings, visiting exemplary farms, and field days. Material such as posters, photos and games along with field demonstrations can be produced by farmers' groups and extension workers to share important information. Farmers and extension workers can organize 'farmers' summits' to share designs, approaches, results, benefits and issues related to establishing agroforestry."},{"index":2,"size":128,"text":"Farmers' groups can work with neighbours, extension workers and agroforestry specialists to continue the process of participatory agroforestry development. This includes expanding the scale of good agroforestry practices, bringing in new knowledge and planting material, testing new methods and designs of systems and experimenting with new practices, evaluating new species of crops and trees, employing new management approaches to trees, crops and soils, and organizing farmer-to-farmer exchanges and farmers' field schools. In many circumstances, farmers do not have enough capital to undertake agroforestry practices. They encounter common issues, such as lack of knowledge and skills; shortage of available land; low soil fertility; poor quality seeds and seedlings; restricted access to markets; limited or no access to credit and capital for short-and long-term investments; and weak networking or connectedness.  "}]},{"head":"E. EXAMPLE OF CALCULATING NPV","index":62,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":142,"text":"Net Present Value or NPV of an investment in agroforestry refers to the difference between the present value of cash inflows (total revenues) and the present value of cash outflows (total costs) over a period of time. A positive NPV means the investment can yield profit (revenues exceeding costs) over time whereas a negative NPV implies that the costs of investment still exceed the revenues over the specified period of time. Based on the costs and revenues provided in the agroforestry cash-flow plan and assuming the discount rate (R) is 7%, the NPV of the investment in agroforestry can be calculated as follows.  The NPV of the investment in agroforestry as illustrated in the example above is USD 6702.69. This means that over the period of nine years, the investment in agroforestry can yield a positive cash flow (profit) of USD 6702.69."}]},{"head":"Year (t) Variable cost","index":63,"paragraphs":[]}],"figures":[{"text":" Climate change refers to significant changes in average weather parameters -such as temperature, wind and rain -experienced in a region over a long period of time. Increasing temperatures, erratic rainfall patterns, extended droughts, more frequent typhoons, warmer nights and hotter days are commonly associated with climate change (Figure1.1). "},{"text":"Figure 1 . 1 Figure 1 . 2 Figure 1.1 Examples of extreme events owing to climate change "},{"text":"1. 3 . 1 Figure 1 . 3 Figure 1 . 4 Figure 1.3 Highly productive pastures in the tropics require water and nitrogen, therefore, they are highly vulnerable to drought. Note: The figure shows an example of the impact of drought in Llanos Orientals in Colombia. Source: Altieri et al (2015) "},{"text":"Figure 2 . 1 Figure 2.1 Agroforestry is an integrated, dynamic system. Source: Modified from Xu et al (2013) "},{"text":"Figure 2 . 2 Figure2.2 Examples of agroforestry practices. Source:IIRR and FAO (1995)     "},{"text":"Figure 2 . 3 Figure 2 . 4 Figure 2.3 A variety of products and services are produced from agroforestry. Source: Xu et al (2013)Nutrient cycling. Agroforestry practices are critically important for improving soil fertility. For instance, leguminous trees planted with crops can accumulate significant amounts of nitrogen in their leaves and roots, which can subsequently be available to crops. "},{"text":"Figure 2 . 5 Figure 2.5 Trees planted along contours as hedgerows to slow run-off, enhance water infiltration and stabilize the soil "},{"text":"Figure 3 . 1 Figure 3.1 Canopy structures of trees suitable for agroforestry. Source: Mercado et al (2018) "},{"text":"Figure 3 . 2 Figure 3.2 Examples of tree and crop arrangements in an alley-cropping agroforestry system on sloping land, based on a hierarchy of products and priorities. Source: Mercado et al (2016) "},{"text":"Figure 3 . 3 Figure 3.3 Arrangement of tree species in an agroforestry system deployed as a windbreak. Source:Tengnas (1994)  "},{"text":"FigureFigure 3 . 7 Figure 3 . 8 Figure 3.5 Double-row arrangement "},{"text":"Figure 4 . 1 Figure 4.1 Healthy mother trees with the best characteristics should be selected for propagation of superior seeds or seedlings. Source: Martini et al (2017) "},{"text":"Figure 4 . 2 Figure 4 . 3 Figure 4.2 Estimating spacing distance for individuals of the same species (left); and individuals of different species (right). Source: Martini et al (2017) "},{"text":"Figure 4 . 4 Figure 4.4 Hole size for tree seedlings (right) and placing the seedling in the hole (left) "},{"text":"Figure 4 . 5 Figure 4.5 Integrated production: tree fodder for livestock that produce manure for fertilizer "},{"text":"Figure 4 . 6 Figure 4.6 Before (left) and after (right) pruning. Source: Martini et al (2017) "},{"text":"Figure 4 . 7 Figure 4.7 Thinning for increased growth (left); and for better quality fruit (right). Source: Martini et al (2017) "},{"text":"Figure 4 . 8 Figure 4.8 Rubber as nurse trees of cocoa and coffee in Claveria, the Philippines. Photo: World Agroforestry/Agustin Mercado Jr "},{"text":"Figure 4 . 9 Figure 4.9 The rorak technique is used to maintain soil moisture in agroforestry especially when prolonged drought is anticipated "},{"text":"Figure 4 . Figure 4.10 NVS with fruit trees above the strips. Photo: World Agroforestry/Mai Phuong Nguyen "},{"text":" Figure 4.12 Technique for establishing windbreaks in agroforestry systems. Source:Tengnas (1994)  "},{"text":"Figure 6 . 1 Figure 6.1 The triadic approach to participatory development of agroforestry.Note: This approach was promoted under the Landcare Programme in the Philippines. The approach enabled rapid dissemination and adoption of agroforestry amongst farmers, facilitated by technical experts, and supported by local government officials. Source:Mercado et al (2005)  "},{"text":"Figure Figure 6.2 Sharing the knowledge "},{"text":"Figure A1. 1 Figure A1.1 Types of capital. Source: FAO (2003)There are various types of incentives that can be employed in supporting farmers to undertake agroforestry practices. Extension workers or agroforestry practitioners could potentially help farmers to access the different types of incentives listed below. "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"Table 1 . 1 There are serious impacts of climate change on land, water, trees, crops, animals and people. Some examples are listed in the table below. Impacts of changes in climate   Prolonged dry seasons and  Prolonged dry seasons and   droughts  droughts Rising temperatures, prolonged hot spells ↓o C  Extreme, erratic and unpredictable rainfall Rising temperatures, prolonged hot spells ↓o CExtreme, erratic and unpredictable rainfall Lower temperatures, cold spells ↓o C CLIMATE CHANGE Intense storms, typhoons, strong winds Lower temperatures, cold spells↓o CCLIMATE CHANGEIntense storms, typhoons, strong winds Shifting seasons  Sea-level rises, increasing salination Shifting seasonsSea-level rises, increasing salination   El Niño  El Niño  "},{"text":"Forestry + Agriculture Forestry + Livestock Forestry + Fishery Forestry + Others Agroecosystem + human society Plants + animals + people  • Interactive: agroforestry seeks to actively manipulate the biophysical and physical • Interactive: agroforestry seeks to actively manipulate the biophysical and physical interactions among the components to yield multiple harvestable products while providing interactions among the components to yield multiple harvestable products while providing numerous conservation and ecological benefits numerous conservation and ecological benefits  "},{"text":"production during droughts Low production during heavy rainfall  Vegetables Clove VegetablesClove Coconut Fruit (avocado, lansium, durian, parkia, mango- CoconutFruit (avocado, lansium, durian, parkia, mango- Bird's-eye chili steen, archidendron) Bird's-eye chilisteen, archidendron) Ginger Bird's-eye chili GingerBird's-eye chili Rubber Robusta coffee RubberRobusta coffee  Rubber Rubber  Pepper Pepper  "},{"text":"Table 3 . 1 Example of different species with specific responses under coffee agroforestry systems in Ogan Komering Ulu Selatan District, South Sumatra, Indonesia  "},{"text":"• Select species that have differing susceptibility to pests and diseases  "},{"text":"Preferred species Biophysical suitability Market potential Farmers' needs and interest B . Classify the preferred species based on vulnerability to extreme climate events (adaptive capacity, sensitivity and exposure).  "},{"text":"Production response to extreme climate events Response to market potential Heavy rain- fall Drought Strong wind High temperature   "},{"text":"Table 4 . 1 Advantages and disadvantages of chemical and organic fertilizers 50 cm 50 cm 50 cm50 cm  50 cm 50 cm  "},{"text":"Table 5 . 1 Examples of criteria and indicators for resilient agroforestry practices Criterion Indicator Measure CriterionIndicatorMeasure Conservation Reduction in soil erosion Amount of soil loss per ha per year Conservation Reduction in soil erosionAmount of soil loss per ha per year  Increase in soil fertility Soil organic matters/nutrient content Increase in soil fertilitySoil organic matters/nutrient content  Water availability in dry seasons Amount of water for crops and humans Water availability in dry seasonsAmount of water for crops and humans Productivity Increase in crop/livestock yields Yields of crops, livestock harvested per Productivity Increase in crop/livestock yieldsYields of crops, livestock harvested per  Increase in productivity of farmland land unit per year Increase in productivity of farmlandland unit per year   Land equivalent ratio Land equivalent ratio Diversity Existence of various species Number of tree/crop/animal species DiversityExistence of various speciesNumber of tree/crop/animal species  Existence of tree, crop, livestock Different tree, crop, livestock products Existence of tree, crop, livestockDifferent tree, crop, livestock products  products at different times produced throughout the year products at different timesproduced throughout the year  Existence of various income sources Incomes from trees, crops, livestock Existence of various income sourcesIncomes from trees, crops, livestock Adaptability Change in microclimate Temperatures, humidity over a period Adaptability Change in microclimateTemperatures, humidity over a period  Frequency of disease/pest Incidence of diseases/pests in a period Frequency of disease/pestIncidence of diseases/pests in a period  (outbreak) Damage/mortality rate of trees, crops, (outbreak)Damage/mortality rate of trees, crops,  Damage/loss of trees, crops, animals Damage/loss of trees, crops,animals  animals owing to climatic stress Time (e.g. months) needed to recover animals owing to climatic stressTime (e.g. months) needed to recover  Recovery periods after stresses  Recovery periods after stresses Adoption Increase in awareness of the Number/percentage of households AdoptionIncrease in awareness of theNumber/percentage of households  introduced agroforestry practices aware of agroforestry practices introduced agroforestry practicesaware of agroforestry practices  Increase in potential undertaking of Number/percentage of households Increase in potential undertaking ofNumber/percentage of households  agroforestry willing to undertake agroforestry agroforestrywilling to undertake agroforestry   practices practices  "},{"text":"Table A1 . 1 Types of incentives D. EXAMPLES OF USEFUL FORMS AGROFORESTRY ENTERPRISE BUDGET Agroforestry practice: Alley cropping..........Area... ha Species: Black Walnut..............................................Spacing: ....................................................... Alley cropping.........Area ha Tree species: Black Walnut...............................Spacing: ....................................................... Crop/livestock species: Hay................................... Spacing: ...............................................Unit: $ AGROFORESTRY CASHFLOW PLAN    AGROFORESTRY CASHFLOW PLAN No. 1 Agroforestry practice: Year 1 Item Revenues (from products & others) Nuts/fruit Revenues (R) Timber (thinning) Tree Timber (Sawlogs, veneer etc) Crop/livestock 2 Total revenue Variable/operational costs Variable/operational costs (V) 2.1 Establishment Site preparation Tree Seedling and fertilizer Crop/livestock Planting Total variable costs Fixed costs (F) 2.2 Maintenance Fertilization Tree Pruning Crop/livestock Thinning Total fixed cost 3 Fixed costs Net Income/loss = R -V-F Year 2 Amount ($) Year 3 255.00 600.00 2,000.00 50.00 100.00 120.00 45.00 100.00 100.00 Time interval ........ Year (n) Years 11-40 Year 10 Year 40 Year 1 Year 1 Year 1 Year 4-6 Year 12 Year 10 No. 1 Agroforestry practice: Year 1 Item Revenues (from products & others) Nuts/fruit Revenues (R) Timber (thinning) Tree Timber (Sawlogs, veneer etc) Crop/livestock 2 Total revenue Variable/operational costs Variable/operational costs (V) 2.1 Establishment Site preparation Tree Seedling and fertilizer Crop/livestock Planting Total variable costs Fixed costs (F) 2.2 Maintenance Fertilization Tree Pruning Crop/livestock Thinning Total fixed cost 3 Fixed costs Net Income/loss = R -V-FYear 2Amount ($) Year 3 255.00 600.00 2,000.00 50.00 100.00 120.00 45.00 100.00 100.00Time interval ........ Year (n) Years 11-40 Year 10 Year 40 Year 1 Year 1 Year 1 Year 4-6 Year 12 Year 10 Land-use fee  5.00 Year 1-50 Land-use fee5.00Year 1-50 .......    .......  "}],"sieverID":"dfe47539-75ec-4879-82aa-030a66846b7c","abstract":"https://www.recoftc.org"}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0c37233eb5259f0f3b637f536c7a9638","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/64a9c121-34e2-4d21-9aff-a71b8b54d20a/retrieve"},"pageCount":1,"title":"Water Management Challenges in Mega Deltas -The Case of Bangladesh","keywords":["Water management","Agriculture","Polder","Water management issues","Participatory approach","Dialogue","Policy advocacy"],"chapters":[],"figures":[],"sieverID":"7335d8f8-cb80-4762-9bb8-267d33331481","abstract":"Bangladesh as one of the Asian Mega Deltas has gone through different phases of water management experiences in its effort to protect lives and livelihoods of coastal people, particularly farmers, since last six decades. 139 Polders have been constructed with embankments and sluice gates to protect crops, houses, and livelihoods from floods and cyclones. There were heavy long-term investment efforts by national governments, donors, and local agencies to make the environment favorable for agriculture, fisheries, and other livelihoods. National agencies have been engaged for the construction, supervision, and maintenance of these structures. While no one denies the importance of these polders and their cordoned boundaries, there are challenges and concerns about the performance and effective maintenance of these structures and the impact. There are sluice gates, canals, inlets, and outlets to get irrigation water for the crop and to drain out excessive water from the field. Questions have been raised by farmers about the benefit these structures provide to the farmers as most are operated by powerful people that have non-farm interests. This research primarily reveals that most of these structures are not being operated properly as these are being controlled by powerful people linked to local politics from non-farmer groups, whose stake is not primarily farming. Early finding also suggests that hardly any one among farmers or stakeholder of farming in the community can challenge these influential groups. Further detail stakeholder participatory study aims to find out realistic solutions to the problem. The anticipation is that the solution lies with the greater governance and institutionalization issues that to involve local politics and to negotiate right balancing in this front so that water use for farming and for other purposes can be shared judiciously. Study on this continues in two polders of Bangladesh where twenty water management groups and two water management associations will further be interviewed using Focus Group Discussion tools, and necessary recommendations will be prepared in next few months so that the research outcomes are utilized as evidence for further policy dialogues and advocacies at sub-district, district and national level and policies influenced."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0cd890fea2b6b8ef1f2ba99cdc5cf507","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/82da6506-8048-433f-bdc6-e07bb5f5dee0/retrieve"},"pageCount":2,"title":"Facing the challenges of global agriculture today: what can we do about drought?","keywords":["climate change","crop improvement","drought phenotyping","drought tolerance","experimental field design","geographic information system","molecular breeding","water management"],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":82,"text":"It is estimated that the planet's demand for food and feed crops will almost double by 2050 (Foley et al., 2011). Globally, rainfed agriculture is practised in 80% of the total agricultural area and generates 62% of the world's staple food (FAOSTAT, 2011). Taking into consideration global water scarcity and increases in demand for non-agricultural uses of water, expansion of the area under irrigation in developing countries does not appear to be a realistic scenario to address the challenge of food security."},{"index":2,"size":191,"text":"According to the latest climate change scenarios, 20-year extreme annual daily maximum temperature will likely increase by about 1-3 • C by mid-21st century, and by about 2-5 • C by the late 21st century, depending on the region and emissions scenario (IPCC, 2012). Based on historical data collected in Africa on more than 20,000 trials (1999)(2000)(2001)(2002)(2003)(2004)(2005)(2006)(2007), each \"degree day\" spent above 30 • reduced yield by 1% under optimal conditions, and that penalty rose up to 1.7% under water-limited conditions (Lobell et al., 2011). The impact of a changing climate is not only about temperature increase, but it is also affecting the magnitude of rainfall and its distribution, and therefore its availability at critical times of the crop cycle (Feng et al., 2013): in fact, while the total amount of rain increased in Africa over the last few years, the erratic and unpredictable nature of the drought and floods cycle also increased (Douglas et al., 2008). As such, improving the drought tolerance of crops, increasing the efficiency of water use and enhancing agricultural water productivity under rain-fed conditions is a number one priority today in a growing number of countries."},{"index":3,"size":112,"text":"The recent genomics and bioinformatics revolutions offer real opportunities for dissecting drought tolerance into component traits, and then using genomic approaches to select plants with favorable alleles at the underlying genes. Although major achievements have been reported recently by the private sector, the development of effective systems for breeding complex traits such as drought tolerance continues to be a major challenge in the public sector, despite significant investments in research and development. Adoption of molecular breeding in developing countries remains very limited. This is due mainly to a shortage of welltrained personnel, inadequate high-throughput capacity, poor phenotyping infrastructure, and a lack of information systems or adapted analytic tools (Ribaut et al., 2010)."},{"index":4,"size":131,"text":"Created in 2003, the CGIAR Generation Challenge Programme (GCP) is a time-bound initiative ending in 2014. GCP's mission is to use plant genetic diversity, advanced genomic science and comparative biology to develop tools and technologies that will support plant breeders in the developing world in their efforts to produce better crop varieties for resource-poor farmers in drought-prone environments. Generic facilitating technologies developed by GCP include standardized phenotyping protocols, whole-plant physiology modeling, molecular breeding simulation studies, decision-support tools, procedures for creating low-cost trait diagnostics and high-throughput array-based genotyping systems. Since 2009, GCP has been coordinating the Integrated Breeding Platform (IBP). IBP is a one-stop shop where breeders can access the analytical tools and support services to manage their projects, find new knowledge and training opportunities, and access fora for discussion with peers."},{"index":5,"size":116,"text":"Drought tolerance is the main target trait of the Programme, and genomics-assisted breeding for better crop production under water-limited conditions is at the heart of the research supported by GCP during its second phase. Good genetic studies are impossible without reliable phenotypic data, and plant phenotyping must be conducted locally. Most national breeding programmes from developing countries working in partnership in the GCP network have in common a scarcity of suitable field infrastructure for collection of accurate phenotypic data, especially for stresses such as drought. Therefore, GCP recognizes that accurate and reliable phenotyping is the main bottleneck in drought-tolerance research, and is allocating significant resources to improve crop phenotyping in target environments under different water regimes."},{"index":6,"size":77,"text":"To achieve this objective, geographic information system (GIS) tools and soil water balance models have been used to describe the drought scenario faced by the crops in different target GCP environments, and to compare and cluster the phenotyping locations for GCP projects. Facilities and expertise in the different locations have been evaluated, needs have been prioritized, and today GCP is investing about four million US dollars to improve the local infrastructure of partners involved in GCP projects."},{"index":7,"size":54,"text":"Complementary to the effort to improve infrastructure is the need to develop tools and protocols for improving characterization of environments and plant phenotypes, enhancing expertise in testing locations, and stimulating the development and use of innovative drought tolerance-related traits and protocols (e.g., carbon isotope discrimination, spectroradiometry, thermal imaging). This manual contributes to this effort."},{"index":8,"size":71,"text":"The first part of this manual addresses-from a generic perspective-global issues and challenges related to environment selection and characterization, experimental field design, trait selection, and data analysis and management. The second part of the manual is crop-specific for a set of GCP target crops. Each article presents the state-of-the-art of research on drought tolerance and the protocols that are more specifically used to measure different traits for each of those crops."}]}],"figures":[],"sieverID":"6460064d-a5b2-495c-b59e-59c10be19802","abstract":""}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0cdd97025f82d675a11fea9d345ba5ad","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/6921838a-db40-4d52-b564-161c59f6f8e2/retrieve"},"pageCount":10,"title":"PABRA AS A PLATFORM TO ENHANCE IMPACT OF CIAT RESEARCH ON NUTRITION, MARKETS AND ICM","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":9,"text":"•PABRA uses the bean commodity as the entry point "}]},{"head":"Benefits of the Corridor Approach for breeding and ICM","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":14,"text":"• Offers opportunity of linking smallholder farmers to major local regional and international markets"},{"index":2,"size":28,"text":"• Contributes significantly to national and regional trade for food security Implications of corridor approach for breeding and ICM, potential areas for further research for impact, scaling up"},{"index":3,"size":6,"text":"Bean breeding in the bean corridors"},{"index":4,"size":15,"text":"• Diverse array of dry grain types and products (canning beans, fresh and snap beans)"},{"index":5,"size":11,"text":"• Some countries produce, consume and market over 10 grain types"},{"index":6,"size":12,"text":"• Market share of grain types/varieties varied within and among PABRA countries"},{"index":7,"size":32,"text":"• PABRA supports targeted breeding and release of superior market demanded bean varieties, with micronutrient content as a key trait, targeted at the different bean corridors in the face of varying stresses"}]},{"head":"Bean improvement in the bean corridors","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":8,"text":"• Multiple variety releases promote of regional trade"},{"index":2,"size":7,"text":"• Widely adapted market demanded nutritious varieties"},{"index":3,"size":7,"text":"• Wider market access-promotion of regional markets "}]},{"head":"Integrated crop management in the bean corridors","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":11,"text":"• Working in bean corridors helps to better target ICM interventions"},{"index":2,"size":7,"text":"• Suitability mapping/complete characterization of bean corridors:"},{"index":3,"size":3,"text":"• Soil mapping, "}]},{"head":"Integrated crop management in the bean corridors","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":11,"text":"• Assured and well defined markets encourage investment in crop management"},{"index":2,"size":12,"text":"• Large scale adoption of ICM technologies to increase production (including mechanization)"},{"index":3,"size":12,"text":"• Increased demand for inputs created by markets driven by increased production"},{"index":4,"size":14,"text":"• Growth of allied businesses (agro dealer businesses, seed, processing, packaging, shipping companies etc.)"},{"index":5,"size":7,"text":"Increased incomes = improved livelihoods THANK YOU"}]}],"figures":[{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"Corridors are areas of bean economic intensification characterized by flow of products from source to destination, all linked up into a network. •PABRA is promoting the use of a Commodity Corridor Approach to improve the business environment for farmers and private sector and enhance access to agricultural support services Corridors  Corridors contain HUBS.  contain HUBS. HUBS are areas of  HUBS are areas of identifiable  identifiable concentration of  concentration of bean economic  bean economic activities, that  activities, that have an effect on  have an effect on local economies They characterized by clear local economiesThey characterized by clear  production and supply production and supply • Production hubs • Consumption hubs • Distribution or Service hubs pathways, clusters (institutions) with enabling infrastructure, geopolitics, cultures and preferences • Production hubs • Consumption hubs • Distribution or Service hubspathways, clusters (institutions) with enabling infrastructure, geopolitics, cultures and preferences • Transit hubs  • Transit hubs  "}],"sieverID":"6ce47255-e42b-491d-8453-e44cc5e14499","abstract":""}

data/part_1/0d01302c14f2885a7404652b22fc19fe.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0d01302c14f2885a7404652b22fc19fe","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/0aa0d299-221e-43e9-ab74-4b215be47dde/retrieve"},"pageCount":28,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":93,"text":"On 23 and 24 July 2013, the Nile Basin Development Challenge (NBDC) organized a Regional Stakeholder Dialogue in Bahir Dar to share experiences and emerging findings on land and water management in the Blue Nile river basin. Partners from regional and federal/national level were invited to discuss and agree on how to capitalize on these findings. It built on the messages emerging from the 4 th National Platform Meeting, which was held by the National Platform on Land and Water Management in collaboration with the NBDC in February 2013 (see NBDC stakeholder meeting)."},{"index":2,"size":62,"text":"About 55 participants from the regional states in the Blue Nile river Basin (Amhara, Oromia, and Benishangul-gumuz) and from federal and international level participated; they formed a cross section of different type of institutions in Ethiopia, representing the interest of research, extension, academia, development, government and donors (see Annex 1 for list of participants). 1 The overall objective of the workshop was:"},{"index":3,"size":65,"text":"To reflect and look forward to strengthen a potential future rain water management program in the Blue Nile river basin 2 Expected outputs were:  Identification of lessons, key challenges and opportunities for RWM in the Blue Nile river basin  Main characteristics of potential future collaborative RWM program in the Blue Nile river basin  The formation of task force to develop ideas further"},{"index":4,"size":136,"text":"The program formed a mix of reflection on experiences with rain water management, identification of challenges/opportunities, and working on a potential future collaborative program in the Blue Nile river basin (see Annex 2 for workshop agenda). This report gives an overview of the main activities, discussions, results and decisions of the workshop. You can read more about the regional stakeholder dialogue on the NBDC wiki (regional stakeholders' dialogue). 1 The majority of participants were from Amhara, Oromia and national level (where NBDC is active); private sector was missing, while the number of women was very limited (indicating a relevance of gender in any future program) 2 ILRI and IWMI made clear that they cannot guarantee funding for such a program, but will support and participate in the development of promising proposals suggested by the Ethiopian partners"},{"index":5,"size":40,"text":"The workshop was organized by the International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI) and the International Water Management Institute (IWMI), in collaboration with the Amhara Regional Agricultural Research Institute, the Bureau of Agriculture of Amhara regional state, and the Basin Development Authority."},{"index":6,"size":9,"text":"All presentations and workshop notes are accessible at: http://nilebdc.wikispaces.com/bahirdar_july2013"}]},{"head":"Opening","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":15,"text":"The workshop was opened by Amlaku Asres, representative from the Amhara Bureau of Agriculture (BoA)."},{"index":2,"size":15,"text":"Box 1: Excerpts from the opening speech by Melaku Asres (Amhara Region Bureau of Agriculture)"},{"index":3,"size":124,"text":"\"The government of Ethiopia and its partners has developed considerable experience in planning and implementing soil and water conservation and land management interventions, with an aim to conserve natural resources, to improve food security and rural livelihoods. This knowledge and experience has been amplified in the Growth and Transformation Plan (GTP) of the government and is consolidated further into the Government's flagship program, the Sustainable Land Management (SLM) program under the framework of the Ethiopian Strategic Investment Framework (ESIF) for SLM. The strong commitment made by the government to this program has drawn widespread acknowledgement of its efforts and has attracted substantial funds from international donor community and implementing partners. This investment is to be spent over the coming 10 years implementing this work."},{"index":4,"size":128,"text":"Over the past few decades, reinforced by the recent work of the NBDC, there have been some significant achievements made in soil and water management. There has been considerable effort from regional government and supporting projects to take the soil and water conservation agenda forward using the community based integrated watershed management approach. Many of these achievements take the form of building trust and engagement with different stakeholders. Some of the lessons learned by the NBDC and others are the importance of development of partnerships; capacity building; establishment of platforms for dialogue, information exchange and action; characterization and collection of primary data; anticipating future developments. I am sure that these are shared by other projects and programs and will be further developed and talked about in this meeting.\""}]},{"head":"Experiences and lessons learned","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":28,"text":"To build on experience and lesson learned, three (regional) programs were asked to give a presentation on their experience with rain water management in the Blue Nile Basin:"}]},{"head":" Experiences of MERET project of Ministry of Agriculture in Integrated Watershed","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":38,"text":"Management in Ethiopia -by Betru Nedessa  Experience of GIZ-SLM Amhara on agricultural water management -by Abdo Kedir  Success stories of learning watersheds in BNB of Amhara region: Lessons and implications for sustainable RWM -by Gizaw Desta"},{"index":2,"size":14,"text":"Presentations can be viewed below, followed by a short description of the key lessons."}]},{"head":"Experiences of MERET","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":89,"text":"The Meret project stared in the 1980s with support of the WFP. It marked the beginning of large scale land rehabilitation and soil and water conservation in Ethiopia. The objective was to increase the ability of food insecure households to meet necessary food needs and improve livelihoods through land rehabilitation, proper natural resource management, productivity enhancement, asset creation and diversification of livelihoods. MERET operates in 5 regions and one administrative council, covering 72 woredas (including in the Blue Nile). MERET adopted a community based participatory watershed management (CBPWSM) approach."},{"index":2,"size":84,"text":"Some of the success factors and lessons are: 1) the need for a good organizational structure, staffing and strong linkages from top to the grass roots level; 2) community empowerment for decision making; 3) experience sharing among regions, woredas and farmers through regular joint review of performance; 4) combinations of technologies (land rehabilitation and soil and water conservation, integrated with income generating activities); 5) building of technical capacity at all levels and close supervision; 6) testing and demonstration of new technologies (seeing is believing)."},{"index":3,"size":195,"text":"Various challenges and opportunities are identified. Challenges can be found in terms of social & cultural barriers (e.g. free grazing); financial (resource) constraints to scale up best practices, and inadequate impact studies and documentation of best practices, publishing and dissemination. However, there are also several opportunities, such as: availability of conducive policies, strategies for promoting SLM practices; the special attention given by GoE; availability of success stories (proven technologies) on the ground; good expertise and technical capacity for scaling thee up; and a god understanding about NRM by the community especially in areas where successful results have been achieved. Several technical, environmental and social/institutional challenges were experienced; for example, there was inadequate technical capacity at the field level for guiding farmers in proper (irrigation) water management; the tension between a decline in the flow regime contrary to an increase in demand of water for irritation; there is no protection and regular maintenance of implemented in situ soil moisture activities and structures by land users (which can easily be destructed by livestock trampling and during farming operations); the water unit associations also do not have the required technical and financial capacity to govern the scheme properly."},{"index":4,"size":79,"text":"Based on the GIZ-SLM experiences, various recommendations are made: emphasis should be given to watershed management in order to improve the flow regime of the river/streams; operation and regulation practice of the existing system should be adjusted to accommodate new use/condition; when possible construct individual water storage at farm level; strong extension service support should be given to the farmers on irrigation water management; WUA/cooperatives should be strengthened technically and financially to govern the scheme in a better way."},{"index":5,"size":67,"text":"Experiences from ARARI ARARI reflected on rain water management programs over the last few decennia. ARARI pointed out several issues need to be taken into account in rain water management: socio-economic (upstream-downstream relations, capacity, and participation), biophysical issues (water, land degradation, biodiversity, and land-use), scale (at what level activities are needed versus level were decisions are made); and the impact of watershed management (biophysically, socio-economic and politically)."},{"index":6,"size":50,"text":"The RWM interventions and its management in watershed approach can be sustainable if they target the following: empowerment and ownership of processes and outcomes; rehabilitation of natural resources; increase on-site productivity and improve livelihood; create employment; equitable resource use; protection of environment -upstream and downstream connectivity; transferability and scaling out."},{"index":7,"size":54,"text":"In general through, interventions are inclined towards protective function than productive functions; there is no clarity on cost sharing and utilization arrangements of common resources and nor on mechanisms for conflict resolution, regulation of behavior; and there is lack of authorized body with power to implement and regulate the community bylaws on watershed development."},{"index":8,"size":138,"text":"Some of the implications for sustainable rain water management are that: 1) the need to bring change on: a) individual farmers and community behavior towards SLM and managing common property resources, b) empowerment of community and sense of ownership of successes by community and public regulatory functions and private users, c) integration of watershed successes into Government watershed plan for scaling out; 2) research demand for well-established watershed approach and technologies to address land use, water, environment, biodiversity, scale issues and monitoring data of sustainability indicators; 3) Linkage of integrated water resource management and watershed management through basin regulatory functions; 4) Institutional framework for coordinated SLM at grass root level that includes projects and public sectors; 5) Strategy for participatory M&E of R&D at all levels -change in sustainability indicators (practice, behavior, biomass/ productivity, hydrology, biodiversity, employment, equity)."}]},{"head":"Question and answer session","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":98,"text":"Various questions were raised; one of the main ones was that there seems to be many success stories and positive examples, but to what extent have they been taken up in other regions. It was explained that some of the good practices have been integrated in government programs, such as the government programs on mass mobilization and safety nets. Communities seem to be ready to take up some of the lessons learned, but it required close interaction with the communities to work on them; this is a task for the extension services, and that may need more attention."},{"index":2,"size":48,"text":"Experiences from the NBDC Simon Langan from the NNBC was asked to give a short overview of the work of the NBDC over the past three years, and the experiences and lessons so far. The full presentation has been added below; a selection of key issues follows afterwards."},{"index":3,"size":42,"text":"Within the Blue Nile river basin, rain-fed agriculture is the dominant system; it is characterized by: high population; land is upland in nature; farming is subsistence dominated; small land holdings; high occurrence of poverty and food insecurity; and land degradation is common."},{"index":4,"size":42,"text":"Rain-fed systems need to maximize loss through evapotranspiration and reduce other loss through capture and storage and reduce land degradation. To achieve this, Nile BDC focuses on three dimensions: integrated (social, economic, technical), multiple scales (household, communities/catchments, and basin), undertaken in partnerships."},{"index":5,"size":46,"text":"Nile BDC has used the following approaches: biophysical, social and economic data collection and analysis; local innovation platforms; community engagement through: digital stories; NRM planning tools (Wat-a-game, happy strategies), and participatory monitoring; local planning processes; scaling out and GIS; and biophysical, social, economic and integrated modeling."},{"index":6,"size":6,"text":"Key messages on enhancing rainwater management:"},{"index":7,"size":133,"text":" Local community empowerment and leadership, based on demand, equity and inclusiveness  Partnerships integrating and sharing local and other types of knowledge, creating new knowledge through R4D and 'learn by doing and sharing' processes  Strengthening and transforming the institutional and human capacities of all stakeholders, with a special focus on local level extension officers  Creating, aligning and implementing incentives and risk management mechanisms to encourage innovation and successful implementation at scale  Adapting and using new learning and planning tools  Strengthening the integration and synergies among multiple RWM interventions at w.shed and basin scales  Greater attention to the downstream or off-site benefits of RWM in addition to upstream or on-farm benefits and costs  Stronger focus on markets, value chains, and multi-stakeholder institutions to enhance benefits and sustainability"},{"index":8,"size":3,"text":"The way ahead:"},{"index":9,"size":50,"text":" Agricultural intensification and agricultural water management at a watershed/ landscape scale  Inclusive approach to management  To meet these requirements the NBDC has used a range of methods leading to outputs.  These need consolidating and fed into systems to bring about further outcomes and changes in attitudes"}]},{"head":"Question and answer session","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":55,"text":"A major concern raised was on livestock management; free grazing is a problem and major component of our livelihood, while there is a shortage of fodder. It was mentioned that livestock is needed for the farming system. The question is how some small mechanization can be introduced; one intervention should be to replace animal labor."},{"index":2,"size":76,"text":"Another question was how can bring all stakeholders together to bring about a major change. How can we involve everybody who is part of the problem? Up to recently, the ministries have driven the process. Policies are excellent but implementation is an issue. More emphasis is needed for bottom up processes. DA's have a fundamental role and we need to empower them (there is a high staff turnover). We need participation at the grass root level."},{"index":3,"size":71,"text":"Is there anything done in terms of documentation regarding the traditional knowledge of the farmers? Documentation and documentation centers are very important. We need to do our monitoring and evaluation. Documentation is part of the process. Knowledge attitudes and skills should change at all levels. And we need to communicate in different ways and that is when the learning by doing comes in. We also need to change skills and attitudes."}]},{"head":"What do you mean when you say NBDC will feed into government SLM-SSI-TF. Do we have documented practices?","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":160,"text":"Where are all the documents in order to avoid replication? NBDC has set up three sites (Jeldu, Fogera and Diga). We have a regular meeting with the platforms. We have pilot sites in all the three sites. IP's have identified common issues around NRM and designed pilot sites to work improved fodder development as an entry point. In Fogera the main issue identified is free grazing, in Jeldu land degradation and soil erosion while in Diga it is land degradation and termite infestation. We are also trying to pass the data to the local institution for long term sustainability. NBDC have installed hydrological instruments and automatic whether devices at all the three sites. These devices have been used to record daily whether and hydrological data. The data have been used for modeling and research. NBDC is planning to hand over the instruments to its partner universities (Jeldu to Ambo University, Diga to Wollega University and Fogera to Bahir Dar University)."},{"index":2,"size":105,"text":"Several papers have been published? How to link the documents to implementation and recommend to the problems? What is the role of CGIAR to influence the government or local NGO's and how to implement the knowledge already generated and technology particularly related to NBDC. Papers are produced but the question is how we get that to extension. It requires more incentives for the DA's; more on the ground and less at the top. We are trying to put the messages to the donors to the different ministries and feed it to the higher level. We need to scale outmore empowerment to the regions is needed."},{"index":3,"size":98,"text":"General comment from Dr Gete Zeleke, Water and Land Resource Center. My comment on the NBDC is that you have touched all the missing elements but it needs scaling up. WE need a documentation center -at a bigger scale. There is information here and there, but it is not organized. Time and again has been invested in doing the same thing. The WLRC has established an information management system for researchers, policy makers etc. and which will be uploaded in October, but it needs to be developed further. We will post all public information on the web site."},{"index":4,"size":54,"text":"One of the missing links in NRM is knowledge management. We fail to document failure and successes. Another missing element -we tend to forget the higher institutions we only link research and extension. They can assist in generating the knowledge, Also the issue of value chain and the role of private sector are missing."}]},{"head":"Key issues to take forward","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":93,"text":"Buzz groups were formed of 3-4 people to discuss the presentations and own experiences and write on cards: 1 best-bet option (green), 1 lesson learned (yellow), and 1 issue that need to be addressed (red) (see Table 1) Reflection the following issues were brought up: an inclusive approach, integrated work, build on pilot studies; fragmentation, community empowerment, systems and livelihoods, knowledge and sharing; co-ordination and sharing, getting research into practice, livestock and land use planning, scaling and adoption; this seems to be a further re-enforcement of the key messages distilled by the NBDC."},{"index":2,"size":11,"text":"Potential future programs on RWM in the Blue Nile river basin"},{"index":3,"size":40,"text":"Groups were split into four (mixed regions/expertise) and asked to prepare outline research proposals to take the work forward. They were asked to discuss and agree on key characteristics of a future program with following elements: (1) beneficiaries; (2) approach;"},{"index":4,"size":47,"text":"(3) main activities; (4) outcomes; (5) M&E, and Learning; (6) communication; (7) stakeholder coordination. This was reported back in plenary through 4 good presentations in which the work done by the NBDC would be built on and taken forward on a number of fronts (see table 3)."}]},{"head":"Question and answer session","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":2,"text":"Group 1"},{"index":2,"size":93,"text":" Could you explain how mobile technology could be used? We need to disseminate the best practices through SMS and inform the users to tell about our products and inform the products  You mentioned VC approach but you didn't mention the commodity what commodity you are going to use (livestock, crop etc….)? The most important is marketing. We didn't identify the commodity in our programs at the moment  Participatory planning is a problem in innovation platforms? We also use bottom up and up bottom approach. It is not just one sided"},{"index":3,"size":2,"text":"Group 2:"},{"index":4,"size":118,"text":" How do you connect between the partners and beneficiaries they seem disconnected? Major beneficiaries will be farmers themselves. Capacity building will go to the practitioners. All stakeholders will be members of the platform to implement the problem.  What is the innovative element of the project? Gaps that have not been addressed; and demonstrating technologies that already exist  The approach you follow is value chain, but it is not clear for me. Linking all the actors from production of agricultural products and linking them to the market (end users). To link it to water management, when water is improved the agricultural productivity also improves.  What is the role of international organizations? Technical support, new technologies…."}]},{"head":"Group 3","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":186,"text":" How feasibility is it when having limited budget? There is bureau of agriculture that is doing physical activities on ground level. The government and community are part of the project; so most of the arrangement is made by the government so there is no need for too much seed money. It is feasible. Analysis and trying to link it doesn't take a lot of money. Capacity at DA's level can be addressed easily.  Who is the owner of this project? Owner we didn't want to decide. Abay Basin Authority could be the owner (my personal view)  Who is going to own it in terms of facilitation in terms of sustainability; policy and institutional things are internal and harmonious use in the water in the Nile waters is an issue. We want to stay at micro-level. Take small scale irrigation there are upstream and downstream issues. Institutions -overlapping happens most of the time. We want to see the harmonious working together as an outcome.  Is there any role for research institutes coming in the system (CG's)? In knowledge management we depend on them."},{"index":2,"size":2,"text":"Group 4"},{"index":3,"size":70,"text":" The main beneficiaries which are farmers seem to be neglected? The project here is for policy issues. Outcome should be changing the livelihood of the farmers? Outcomes are menu of options  What is new about this proposal? Why hasn't it worked in the past? We apply scientific and traditional knowledge -which is the branding for our proposal  Role of CG's and international organizations? CG's are the owners "}]},{"head":"Discussion","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":88,"text":"There was agreement that NBDC has provided a good platform for research into development centered on natural resource management and specifically rainwater management; and that this work needed to be extended and built upon by another phase to the work. For this to happen there needs to be a concept note and proposal which outlines in sufficient detail all the elements of a proposal such as beneficiaries, activities, outcomes and potential budget. From the discussion the following points on which the proposal should be built from were made:"},{"index":2,"size":181,"text":" The focus of the next phase of the work should go beyond RWM/NRM and be built around increasing agricultural productivity, reducing poverty and diversifying livelihoods  The importance of a joint planning process at regional and federal level, including extension, research, education, and that this needs to be linked to policy; there need to be a coordination mechanisms for this (activities in the region, need to be driven by the regions). Furthermore, that from the outset the proposal needs to be co-constructed to reflect the needs of different partners. The partners represent a diverse set of organizations covering many aspects of water and natural resource management, administration, research, NGO's. Through early involvement it will be possible to increase ownership and ensure it covers all angles-integrated. It was acknowledged there may need to be other organizations under-represented or not currently represented-such as private sector To ensure long term sustainability it was generally agreed that the proposal should be led by Ethiopian organizations with appropriate input and support from ILRI/IWMI. This should increase the long term sustainability of the project if successful."},{"index":3,"size":469,"text":" Currently task force is a bit under-represented in the extension area and unsure of representation from Benishangul-Gumuz. To help rectify tit was suggested that we should ask Dr. Fentahun to delegate someone from EIAR to take part in the task force; also Adana Kassa (Water action/current chain of the National platform) has shown interest.  Activities/Concepts/Content: The proposal and project will contain elements of interventions, capacity building, innovation platforms, empowerment, knowledge centres (with reference material), joint working practices and internships, value chains, gender, scaling and outreach, monitoring and evaluation. Perhaps a bridge between agriculture and energy and the GERD, although the principal focus will be as an aid and input to SLM2. The types of activities envisaged include-review of existing outputs and outcomes on which to build (and fill in gaps), further trial interventions and roll out of interventions both biophysical and institutional, design and specify implementation of capacity building for a range of stakeholders beyond research, including short training courses, model future scenarios to assist what are the likely consequences of interventions at a variety of scales and points in the basin. Highlight benefits of cross institutional learning through internships and placements. This could also include CG post-docs working within partner organizations. Include some thinking on mechanisms for out-scaling and communicating achievements and outcomes of successes (and failures). After thought it might be worth putting in the scope of the work the work will also support the Ethiopian Governments drive on CRGE.  Scale/sites: Work should utilize data and knowledge collected from three principal sites worked on during the current NBDC program. Further consideration of fourth site Kabi watershed and possibly another in Benishangul-Gumuz. These may be associated with other, learning catchments. The detail of activities that should occur at these sites was not discussed but presumably they should build on pilot interventions, provide data and knowledge relating to participation, ideas on empowerment of community and relating to capacity. Afterthoughtperhaps need to consider idea of moving onto more sites in subsequent years as part of roll out and development of distributed demonstration sites.  Timescales. Two phased approach to the proposal were suggested and agreed. The first phase is to produce an outline draft proposal ad this will be generated through e-mail exchange between members of the taskforce. The second phase would be to provide further detail and finalize the proposal; this would be done through concerted effort over a two day workshop, probably in Addis Abeba. The dates of these activities have to be finalized but the overall time-scales are:  Outline draft of proposal structure mid-August  Draft proposal-end of August  Proposal write shop mid/late September Action points ARARI and BDU to make first attempt and initiate an outline proposal for all partners at the meeting to contribute to according to the timescale above"}]}],"figures":[{"text":"  "},{"text":"Table 1 : Best-bet options, lessons learned, and key issues to be addressed in a rain water management program based on the presentation and own experiences. Best-bet option Lesson learned Issues to be addressed Best-bet optionLesson learnedIssues to be addressed Efforts to involve most of the Lack of coordination of technology Why is it not that the Efforts to involve most of theLack of coordination of technologyWhy is it not that the stakeholders is a strength generation and dissemination outcome/impact of the project stakeholders is a strengthgeneration and disseminationoutcome/impact of the project Inclusive approach to local among development stakeholder addressed? Inclusive approach to localamong development stakeholderaddressed? development interventions Stakeholders integration, Linking theory with practice (real development interventionsStakeholders integration,Linking theory with practice (real Establishment of regular networking world application) Establishment of regularnetworkingworld application) platform at regional level Community empowerment Attitude change at top level. platform at regional levelCommunity empowermentAttitude change at top level. Stakeholders harmonized Documentation Value of the contribution of Stakeholders harmonizedDocumentationValue of the contribution of Community empowerment and Strong platform livestock in relation to SLM Community empowerment andStrong platformlivestock in relation to SLM ownership Lessons learned are too Alternatives for free grazing ownershipLessons learned are tooAlternatives for free grazing Upgrading traditional irrigation fragmented Documentation + scaling up best Upgrading traditional irrigationfragmentedDocumentation + scaling up best practices Best experience sharing practices R &E linkage practicesBest experience sharingpractices R &E linkage Optimizing benefits from crop production and livestock to decide on the size of livestock Participants do not have adequate information on what is being done by others (need exchange of Land use management -is it implemented in the intervention areas Optimizing benefits from crop production and livestock to decide on the size of livestockParticipants do not have adequate information on what is being done by others (need exchange ofLand use management -is it implemented in the intervention areas Area closure experience) Identifying adoption barriers for Area closureexperience)Identifying adoption barriers for Small scale water harvesting Good commitment for NRM best practices Small scale water harvestingGood commitment for NRMbest practices Improving irrigation scheme Integrated system approach for Standardization of best practices Improving irrigation schemeIntegrated system approach forStandardization of best practices efficiency watersheds management Proper livestock policy and efficiencywatersheds managementProper livestock policy and M & E system The impact of RWM on improving management M & E systemThe impact of RWM on improvingmanagement Organization is good Sustainability problem analysis Integrated rehabilitation of degraded land (MERET) NRM activities from generation enhancement conservation to income livelihoods (MERET project) A lot of NRM efforts and outputs, but disintegrated and less community empowerment Community involvement in Linking protective with productive planning and implementation Enhancing knowledge generation and management Up scaling best practices Coordination and synergy among stakeholders Organize regional platforms Organization is good Sustainability problem analysis Integrated rehabilitation of degraded land (MERET) NRM activities from generation enhancement conservation to incomelivelihoods (MERET project) A lot of NRM efforts and outputs, but disintegrated and less community empowerment Community involvement in Linking protective with productive planning and implementationEnhancing knowledge generation and management Up scaling best practices Coordination and synergy among stakeholders Organize regional platforms  "},{"text":" After the NBDC stakeholder dialogue meeting held in Bahir Dar, July 23-24, 2013 a small group of interested partners got together as a task force to explore how to take forward the work initiated in the current project which will come to a close in December.AttendanceRepresentatives from ABA (Dr. Antenah Zewdie), ARARI (Dr. Birru Yitaferu), BDU (Dr Yihenew Gebreselassie), ORARI (Dr. Assefa Taa), Ambo U (Dr Asmare Dejen), Wollo U together with ILRI and IWMI were present. Apologies but with a strong interest in participating were received from CIDA (Yacob Wondimkun), World Bank (Million Alemayehu) and Amhara BOA (Teshome Walle). Debre Zeit Benshangul Gumuz Benshangul Gumuz Ambo Addis Ababa Bahir Dar Bahir Dar Addis Ababa Bahir Dar Bahir Dar Addis Ababa Addis Ababa Addis Ababa Bahir Dar Bahir Dar Bahir Dar Addis Ababa [email protected] Annex 3 Minutes task force meeting Mitiku Bekele Oromia Rural Land and Environmental Protection Bureau [email protected] Mohammed Negesse BoARD Muleta Wambr BoARD [email protected] Niguse Bekele Dirbaba Ambo University [email protected] Rahel Mesganaw ILRI [email protected] Sewmehon Demissie ARARI [email protected] Sileshie Mesfin Water Research Bureau [email protected] Simon Langan ILRI [email protected] Tadesse Amsalu Bahir Dar University [email protected] Temsgen Bogale BoA [email protected] Tesfaye Mebrhatu GIZ [email protected] Tilahun Galeto Bedada OARI [email protected] Yacob Wondimkun CIDA [email protected] Yigzaw Dessalegn ARARI [email protected] Yihenew Gebreselassie Bahir Dar University [email protected] Yinager Dessie ANRS [email protected] Yitayew Abebe USAID Debre Zeit Benshangul Gumuz Benshangul Gumuz Ambo Addis Ababa Bahir Dar Bahir Dar Addis Ababa Bahir Dar Bahir Dar Addis Ababa Addis Ababa Addis Ababa Bahir Dar Bahir Dar Bahir Dar Addis Ababa [email protected] Annex 3 Minutes task force meeting Mitiku Bekele Oromia Rural Land and Environmental Protection Bureau [email protected] Mohammed Negesse BoARD Muleta Wambr BoARD [email protected] Niguse Bekele Dirbaba Ambo University [email protected] Rahel Mesganaw ILRI [email protected] Sewmehon Demissie ARARI [email protected] Sileshie Mesfin Water Research Bureau [email protected] Simon Langan ILRI [email protected] Tadesse Amsalu Bahir Dar University [email protected] Temsgen Bogale BoA [email protected] Tesfaye Mebrhatu GIZ [email protected] Tilahun Galeto Bedada OARI [email protected] Yacob Wondimkun CIDA [email protected] Yigzaw Dessalegn ARARI [email protected] Yihenew Gebreselassie Bahir Dar University [email protected] Yinager Dessie ANRS [email protected] Yitayew Abebe USAID  "}],"sieverID":"62f5ab1e-9452-419b-8620-6017b4492d6e","abstract":"Fair dealing and other rights are in no way affected by the above. The parts used must not misrepresent the meaning of the publication. ILRI would appreciate being sent a copy of any materials in which text, photos etc. have been used.Editing, design and layout-"}