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+{"metadata":{"id":"0007f674f8df0f8de3aac250f7eed425","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/a4190133-9ceb-43b0-8665-3ce4f22e24f9/retrieve"},"pageCount":32,"title":"Science-policy interactions for climate-smart agriculture uptake: lessons learnt from national sciencepolicy dialogue platforms in West Africa Working Paper No. No.265 CGIAR Research Program on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security (CCAFS)","keywords":["Climate change","policy","institution","partnership","knowledge","capacity building"],"chapters":[{"head":"Table of Contents","index":1,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Discussion","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":12,"text":"4.1 How did the platforms' operations contributed to improved sciencepolicy decision making?"}]},{"head":"Concluding remarks","index":3,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"References","index":4,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Introduction","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":55,"text":"With the current trend of population growth in West Africa, the increased demand for food is a foremost challenge. When one takes into account the effects of climate change (higher temperatures, shifting seasons, more frequent and extreme weather events, flooding and drought) on food production (Jalloh et al., 2012), that challenge grows even more daunting."},{"index":2,"size":112,"text":"Agriculture as the major source of livelihood for majority of West Africans is being seriously impacted, thus creating a great threat to farmers in the region. Addressing the negative impacts of climate change on agriculture will require adaptation and mitigation efforts in line with the Malabo Declaration regarding the commitment to enhancing the resilience of livelihoods and production systems to climate variability and related risks (NEPAD, 2014). These efforts will also contribute to achieving the Sustainable Development Goals on climate action and zero hunger. The concept of climate-smart agriculture (CSA) is based on this development priorities and aims at sustainably improving food security, reducing climate-related risks and mitigating climate change (FAO, 2010)."},{"index":3,"size":236,"text":"Given the cross-sectoral nature of climate change impact, improving the adaptive capacity of people would require an inter-disciplinary approach for climate-smart technologies, policies and institutions, which will constitute the backbone for informed development of agricultural programs, plans and strategies (Dinesh et al., 2018). Indeed, meeting the challenges associated with climate change and its impacts on agriculture and food security are unlikely without transforming the ways researchers, policymakers, farmers, civil society, and the private sector all interact. With the new challenges posed by climate change, a multitude of development actors have emerged in West Africa, yet the coordination, communication and exchange of information on the subject still remain very weak (Totin et al., 2017). For effective, timely and informed decision-making, actors need advice or insight for the multiple issues underlying their decisions. However, according to Schut et al. (2016), until now, this has been slow to materialize due to the lack of appropriate strategies to establish a fruitful dialogue between researchers and decision-makers [6]. Very often, the lack of opportunities for meetings between stakeholders, or the adequate instruments for disseminating research results do not allow \"uninitiated people\" to have quick access and clear understanding to use them. To address this problem, establishment of multi-stakeholder science-policy dialogue platforms is considered an opportunity to improve interactions among stakeholders in order to foster the development and strengthening of climate change policies that benefit the agricultural sector (Schut et al., 2015)."},{"index":4,"size":70,"text":"These science-policy dialogue platforms, analogue to agricultural innovation platforms, can be at the village, national, regional or global levels. As a multi-stakeholder platform, they represent the larger socio-ecological system within which a particular agricultural innovation operates ( Van Rooyen et al., 2017). The mode of operation of agricultural policy dialogue and innovation platforms is seen in their interaction, negotiation and collective action towards a common goal (Schut et al., 2016)."},{"index":5,"size":1,"text":"In "}]},{"head":"Methodology","index":6,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Analytical framework","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":160,"text":"Science-policy interface (SPI) is a well-researched area in the environmental and agricultural sciences. In most environmental issues, which require inter-and transdisciplinary approaches, SPI is considered as an effective approach to take into account a variety of knowledge types, views and interests of scientists, policy actors and other decision makers (Lopez-Rodriguez et al., 2015). In the scholarly literature, ways to understand the interfaces of science and policy have been conceptualized theoretically in a number of ways. Funtowicz and Strand (2007) contextualized policy engagement strategies that may be adopted by scientists as modern, precautionary, consensus, demarcation and extended participation models. These are described in Table 1 and known to be context-specific with their advantages and downsides. Dilling and Lemos (2011) and Landry et al. (2001) also explained the different ways by which knowledge must be produced and disseminated for effective science-policy interaction. They categorized this into three different models of science creation -science-push model, demand-pull model and the co-production model (Figure 1)."},{"index":2,"size":169,"text":"Basically, the science-push model assumes that decision-makers will make use of scientific knowledge because of their needs. Scientific production is driven by the pursuit of knowledge by the researcher rather than the policymaker (Dilling and Lemos, 2011) although the advances in the findings of the research is considered a major determinant to the utilization of knowledge by the policymaker (Landry et al., 2001). For the demand-pull model, Landry et al. (2001) indicate that through questing for solutions to problems, policymakers demand researchers to conduct scientific research. According to Sarewitz and Pielke (2007) the demand-pull model may sometimes lead to users of knowledge requesting for scientific information that may be difficult to produce [13]. However, knowledge produced through the demand-pull model generally have higher expectation of uptake even if not used straightforward. The third model known as the coproduction model combines the science-push and demand-pull models. In this model, knowledge is co-produced through the frequentativity or close iteratively between the scientific community and the potential users (Landry et al., 2001)."},{"index":3,"size":69,"text":"According to Cash et al. (2003), the development of knowledge products at the interface of science and policy and the scientists or institutions that produce them must be credible, salient and legitimate for an effective science-policy interaction that yields expected outcomes. By credibility they referred to the trustworthiness, standard, technical adequacy and scientific plausibility of scientists and information delivered in the policy process ( Van Enst et al., 2014)."},{"index":4,"size":51,"text":"Salience was described as the relevance of scientists and information generated to policy processes; while legitimacy was described as the manner by which scientists or knowledge developed and used in the policy process is fair, respectful of varying values and beliefs of stakeholders and their political acceptability (Cash et al., 2003 "}]},{"head":"Methodology for analysis of platforms' modes of operation and achievements","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":268,"text":"To advance knowledge on how the modes of operation and achievements of the NSPDP-CSA improve our understanding of the science-policy interfaces of agricultural and climate change decision making, we first employed the three analytical categories defined by Cash et al. (2003) to determine how the platform was considered credible, salient and legitimate in carrying out their mandate of influencing policy decision-making processes. To do this, we considered the NSPDP-CSA as institutions whose implementation successes and failures may be attributed in part, to their recognition and operational strategies (Koetz et al., 2012;Koerts et al., 2011). By institutions, we do not refer to rules and norms, clusters of rights, rules, and decision-making procedures that give rise to social practice, assign roles to participants, and guide interactions as defined by Young et al. (2014). Instead, we consider institutions to be any organization, establishment, foundation, or the like, devoted to the promotion of a particular cause or program, especially one of public character (Koetz et al., 2012). Secondly, we related the platforms engagement with policymakers to the theoretical models of science-policy interactions described by Funtowicz and Strand (2007) and Udovyk (2014). The models briefly described in Table 1 have been used by several researchers to address problems in the present practices of interfacing the science and policy of complex issues (Funtowicz and Strand, 2007) such as climate change. The models help determine engagement strategies and communication pathways that applied in the case of the platforms. We used context-specific actions, achievements and knowledge products of the platforms to illustrate the above determinants, thus consistent with the interpretation of CSA (FAO, 2010).  (Udovyk, 2014)."}]},{"head":"Consensus model","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":60,"text":"This model acknowledges the multiple avenues or voices by which science speaks to policy which can be often conflicting, truths to power seen as a rescue of the modern model from conflicting certainties. Important elements in the model include scientific dialogue, creation of inter-subjective knowledge in intergovernmental expert panels, and the search for robust findings (Udovyk, 2014;Wardekker et al., 2008)."}]},{"head":"Demarcation model","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":103,"text":"This model assumes that individuals and institutions generating science may alter the conclusions or content of their findings based on their interests and values. As such, advice provided cannot be guaranteed to be objective and neutral which might abuse science when used as evidence in the policy process. For this reason, the demarcation between the providers of scientific information and users is recommended as a means of protecting science from potential 'political' interferences that may undermine its integrity. This demarcation is meant to ensure that political accountability rests with policy makers and is not shifted, inappropriately, to scientists (Funtowicz and Strand, 2007;Udovyk, 2014)."}]},{"head":"Extended participation model","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":196,"text":"This model challenges the approach of the modern model. It recommends the consideration of all knowledge systems in science-policy interactions. Instead of considering science as the sole legitimate provider of knowledge, the model suggests a more participatory approach to the management and generation of advisory services based on science. In brief, the extended participation model recommends that science should be one part of the 'relevant knowledge' or should be brought in as evidence for a decision or policy process (Funtowicz and Strand, 2007;Udovyk, 2014). those from other respondents. In addition, we conducted reviews of various information sources produced by the platforms. Indeed, the numerous reports and knowledge products developed by the platforms (Table 3) were powerful means to cross-check results achieved and coherence of views expressed by the respondent vis-à-vis the platforms' operation strategies, communication strategy, knowledge products developed, activities and achievements. In total, about 28 knowledge documents for Ghana, 24 for Mali and 28 for Senegal were used as sources of information. While of qualitative nature, information and opinions collected from respondents were also important to better understand perspectives and experiences of countries' actors involved or interested by these national platforms (Sarewitz and Pielke, 2007)."}]},{"head":"Results","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":37,"text":"The operations and achievements of the NSPDP-CSA were analyzed vis-à-vis the 3 expected determinants: (1) Mandate of influencing policy decision-making, (2) knowledge generation for effective science-policy interaction and (3) engagement and communication pathways for effective science-policy interaction."}]},{"head":"Mandate of the platforms for influencing policy decision-making","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":105,"text":"We analyzed the credibility, legitimacy and saliency of the platforms as institutions carrying out the mandate of producing and sharing scientific knowledge that will influence sciencepolicy interaction for decision-making (Cash et al., 2003). Considering the cross-cutting nature and corollary complexities of climate change issues, it is crucial that the platforms be legitimated to undertake the science-policy interactions for climate change policy decisionmaking. Legitimacy was described as the manner by which scientists or knowledge developed and used in the policy process is fair, respectful of varying values and beliefs of stakeholders and their political acceptability (Cash et al., 2003;Van Enst et al., 2014;Koetz et al., 2012)."},{"index":2,"size":66,"text":"This was triggered through the use of a participatory approach to set up the country platforms as explained in Figure 2. Such participatory approach allowed for the development of multistakeholder entities with cognitive diversity and have interest in climate-smart agriculture decision-making processes (Joyce, 2003). The setup of the country platforms started with a regional workshop in Dakar, Senegal with various representatives of Ghana, Mali and Senegal."},{"index":3,"size":525,"text":"Generally, the representatives originated from six key sectors: environment, agriculture, research, Academia, farmers and civil society organizations. The goal of the workshop was to have high level representation of decision makers or policy advisors from the above sectors to discuss the relevance of putting in place a specific national science-policy dialogue platform for each of the three countries, and in case such platforms already existed in a given country, what specific actions would be needed to make it operational. As such, and besides specific goals to be pursued by the platforms, they were also expected to help fill some gaps within the already existing national climate change committees (NCCC) in the countries. As an example, a study by Sogoba et al. (2014) in Mali revealed that although the five thematic groups defined within the National Climate Change Committee cover national climate change priority areas, they haven't been able to generate information products that can inform decisions by policymakers. The NSPDP-CSA can therefore contribute in this direction. Following the regional workshop, participatory in-country meetings led to the definition of composition, leadership, vision, mission and operating strategies of the platforms. Considered as complementary to already existing initiatives and knowledge networks for combating climate change, it was recommended first and foremost by majority of stakeholders at the workshop to establish a core of up to ten national organizations, and then proceed further with the gradual engagement of other categories of actors. The country core teams also decided to designate an institutional focal point that will coordinate and facilitate the platform operations. The choice was to select the most appropriate organization that could ease bringing on board the thematic shortcomings of countries' NCCC vis-à-vis agriculture and food security. On this basis, the  In Mali, the chairperson is from agriculture sector (DNA) while the vice-chair is from the environment sector (AEDD). The participatory and inclusive organization and implementation of the above processes for structuring the platforms also contributed to their credibility among national stakeholders. By Regular meetings (on average once a month) are organized to review progress of activities. In addition, capacity training workshops were organized for knowledge sharing and learning around specific climate change topics and policy studies defined by the platform. Indeed, given the diversity and field of specializations of the different stakeholders within the platforms, it was necessary that their capacities be built to enable them effectively engage policymakers in addressing knowledge gaps on climate change, while also getting to know evidence-based CSA solutions. This is identified as a core requirement for effective science-policy interactions (Totin et al., 2017). Numerous awareness-raising meetings were organized on various topics of interest for the countries (e.g. the importance of climate information for decision-making on climate risk management, the concept of CSA and what it entails for countries' climate change strategies and policies, public debates on national TV about national adaptation plans, highlevel policy events with policy and decision-makers). Some of the above-mentioned awarenessraising initiatives have used capitalization documents developed by the platforms. For instance, Ghana produced 4 working papers, Mali 3 and Senegal 3, which saliently address topics covering doubts and uncertainties among policymakers (Table 3). The platforms also attended "}]},{"head":"Knowledge generation","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":26,"text":"We relate knowledge generation strategies of the platforms to the three different models of science creation i.e. science push-model, demand-pull model and the co-production (Figure 1)."},{"index":2,"size":25,"text":"From the interviews, the platforms revealed that the main approaches for defining activities 20 focused at generating knowledge and informing and engaging policy decision makers."},{"index":3,"size":164,"text":"Respondents confirmed that knowing what national agricultural policy, plan, program or strategy to target for climate change and/or CSA mainstreaming was a challenging one. To do this, they use desktop reviews and also organize meetings with decision-makers (mostly highlevel government officials and heads of government departments) within the ministries of agriculture and in some instances with parliamentarians in their network, to develop a compendium of existing and proposed national policies, plans, programs and strategies in the agricultural sector that are being drafted, finalized, validated or approved by parliament (. In addition, the platforms resort to both primary and secondary research information to characterize the agricultural sectors of the countries, and review information on climate change vulnerabilities, impacts on agriculture and food security and existing adaptation strategies. In doing this, they also develop a compendium of available CSA options that can help farmers build adaptive capacity to climate change and variability. The costs and benefits of adopting specific CSA options are also evaluated and explained."},{"index":4,"size":138,"text":"Deciding on what agricultural policy or development plan to prioritize for CSA mainstreaming has depended on what decision makers deem as most urgent and relevant. The platforms therefore worked in collaboration with policymakers in the identification and implementation of solutions. With this approach, the platform members gain awareness of the variety of directions in which their research findings can impact policy while policymakers/decisionmakers note areas where more applied research may be required. The platforms consider this manner of working and co-creating knowledge with decision-makers as central for improving the uptake of policy recommendations. In Mali for instance, the adoption of the two-way communication approach emanated from a diagnosis study that analyzed and shed light on the current situation of actors and organizations, barriers and opportunities for an operational dialogue between national climate change stakeholders (Sogoba et al., 2014)."},{"index":5,"size":15,"text":"Recommendations from the study, contributed to improving inter-institutional dialogue and well-informed decision-making on climate change."},{"index":6,"size":41,"text":"All scientific evidences on climate change vulnerabilities, impacts on agriculture, adaptation strategies and CSA options are published as easily accessible communication products such as working papers, policy briefs, Info Notes which come in both paper prints and electronic forms (Table 3). "}]},{"head":"Engagement and communication pathways for effective sciencepolicy interaction","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":91,"text":"We analyzed the platforms engagement and communication pathways based on the theoretical models of science-policy interactions described by Funtowicz and Strand (2007) and Udovyk (2014) (Table 1). Funtowicz and Strand (2007) contextualized policy engagement strategies that may be adopted by scientists as modern, precautionary, consensus, demarcation and extended participation models. The communication within the platforms and with other national The other platforms have created dedicated web pages within the focal entity's website (Table 2). Examples on how the above-described communication pathways were effective are detailed in below sections on countries' achievements."}]},{"head":"Examples of the platforms' activities and achievements","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":118,"text":"Although several results were achieved by each platform, the aim of this section is to provide specific examples that could feed the discussions on how lessons learnt from the science-policy dialogue platforms in Ghana, Mali and Senegal can contribute to advancing knowledge about how the roles and modes of operation of multi-stakeholder policy dialogue platforms can inform sound policy decision making. In most cases, the example achievements are a result of the combination of the 3 above determinants expected from the platforms (Mandate, Knowledge generation, engagement and communication). Information reported here were obtained from reviews of various technical reports submitted by the platforms to CCAFS and crossed with interviews with the chairpersons and secretary members of the platforms."}]},{"head":"Ghana","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":204,"text":"In the quest to identify agricultural policy initiatives for CSA mainstreaming, the platform in January 2014 organized a high-level national policy event which saw the attendance of government ministers, members of parliament, national research directors, academics and other high-level policymakers. The aim of the event was (1) to make parliamentarians and high-level policymakers aware of the vulnerability of Ghana's agriculture and food systems to climate Specific strategies were formulated in the CSA action plan to contribute to developing climateresilient agriculture and food systems for all agro-ecological zones, as well as the human resource capacity required for a climate-resilient agriculture promotion in Ghana. Its development was made possible through the active engagement of various public and private entities in Ghana through dialogue and knowledge exchanges. The methodology for developing the national CSA action plan comprised desk research, data collection through interviews and participatory workshops and small group meetings. Today, the CSA action plan is recognized by all stakeholders as a ground operation policy document for agricultural development in Ghana. A financial plan for the implementation of the action plan is currently being developed by the platform in close collaboration with various stakeholders such as the ministries of agriculture, environment, finance, local government and rural development."}]},{"head":"Mali","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":292,"text":"Pursuant to the Paris Agreement, the Government of Mali identified the potential for its agricultural sectors to deliver adaptation-mitigation synergies, as well as economic, environmental and social co-benefits. CSA is therefore identified in the Nationally Determined Contributions (NDC) of Mali as one viable strategy to meeting its adaptation and mitigation goals. In view of this, the government is taking major steps to demonstrate its intentions to mainstream CSA by looking at ways to prioritize CSA options, and develop bankable proposals that can help solicit funds from climate finance initiatives such as the Green Climate Fund In recognition of the composition of the platform with government ministries and agencies such as AEDD involved in their activity, the platform was called upon to undertake a critical stocktaking of ongoing and promising CSA practices in Mali. Following this, a series of workshops were organized by the platform with the participation of key national and international stakeholders for the co-development and prioritization of two CSA portfolios and related action plans for the Malian Sudanese zone. They identified CSA practices that potentially increase productivity, resilience, and mitigation, while also being profitable to farmers and society (Sogoba et al., 2014). This initiative resulted in the implementation of prioritized practices in research and development programs in Mali. In response to the request by the Ministry of Agriculture and the Parliament, the platform is presently playing instrumental role in the CSA mainstreaming process (Andrieu et al., 2017). As a step forward, the platform was able to use these prioritized CSA options to collaborate with selected government departments in developing a US$ 1 million bankable proposal that has been submitted to the GCF. Successful fund acquisition will contribute to leveraging local funding sources to successfully meet the budgets for NDC implementation."}]},{"head":"Senegal","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":45,"text":"In Senegal, the CCAFS platform engaged with policymakers using workshops as means for Recommendations from the analysis were discussed during a high-level policy event organized in 2016 with attendance of national elected officials such as Parliamentarians, members of the Social, Environmental and Economic Council (https://www.Integration_cc_au_senegal)."},{"index":2,"size":61,"text":"Following the event, the recommendations have been integrated into the PRACAS. In recognition of the immense contribution of the platform to CSA promotion in Senegal, the platform received a state-funding support of about US$ 200,000 in 2016, which has allowed the downscaling of the national platform into 13 district-level platforms. Activities of the district-level platforms are not included in this paper."}]},{"head":"Discussion","index":20,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"How did the platforms' operations contributed to improved science-policy decision making?","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":266,"text":"With CSA becoming a prominent approach to tackling climate change issues in agriculture and food security sectors while at the same time countries have now committed to reduce their greenhouse gas emissions through their NDCs, the platforms were expected to be the springboards for the mainstreaming of climate change and CSA into countries agricultural development strategies, plans and policies (Robinson and Crane, 2016). However, what actually were the elements of success? First, the results provide clear indications that institutionalizing the platforms and embedding them within existing national institutions was relevant for improving their credibility, saliency and legitimacy within the countries. In the three countries, the national platforms were recognized as crucial entities regarding climate change matters for the agriculture sector because of their composition and institutional affiliation. In the literature, lack of recognition is considered a major barrier to influencing policy at the science-policy interface (Weichselgartner and Kasperson, 2010). As policymakers consider the appeals and advices of advocacy groups, they appraise the legitimacy and credibility of such groups. By embedding the NSPDP-CSA into already functional and recognized institutions, it allowed policymakers to have confidence in their mission, research methodology and results. Besides recognition by policymakers, institutionalization of the platforms was key to benefiting from funding support, as this has been for instance the case of the Senegal and Ghana platforms. This institutionalization also becomes crucial when the platforms decide to lead a project proposal that is of cross -sectoral nature. The Mali platform is an illustrative case with the development of a bankable proposal on CSA promotion, which was submitted to GCF (Andrieu et al., 2017)."},{"index":2,"size":102,"text":"Moreover, it appeared that most platforms adopted more or less a balanced chairmanship between agriculture and environment sectors, and the overall coordination and facilitation of the platform activities by a core team encompassing public and private stakeholders. The balanced leadership scheme certainly facilitated the institutionalization of the national platforms and their embeddedness within existing national climate change organizational frameworks. When institutionalized, platforms have the capacity and power to shape what kinds of questions to be asked, the kinds of knowledge to generate, the kinds of analyses to make and communicate and the kind of policy options to consider (Robinson and Crane, 2016)."},{"index":3,"size":107,"text":"Secondly, the adoption of a two-way communication approach contributed to effective interaction between the platforms and policymakers. Traditionally, the interactions between scientists and policy actors have been based on a one-way approach, involving the scientists as the producers of knowledge and the policymakers as the users (Lopez-Rodriguez et al  aligning them with country priorities was crucial for the uptake of proposed solutions. In part, the platforms' participation in national, regional and global level events on climate change and CSA as well as their own internal knowledge sharing and capacity enhancement may have contributed to their ability to produce relevant and timely knowledge products found usable by policymakers."},{"index":4,"size":68,"text":"Generally, knowledge creation seemed to have combined the strengths of the science-push, demand-pull and co-production models described by Dilling and Lemos (2011). In the event leading to the development of the CSA action plan in Ghana, the platform shared knowledge on climate change and its implications to food security in Ghana. The communication products used in the discussion were developed exclusively by the platform for use by decision-makers."},{"index":5,"size":94,"text":"This followed the science-push approach. However, the documentation of the CSA options which guided the development of the CSA action plan benefitted from the contributions of heads of agricultural departments at the Ministry of Agriculture who make critical decisions for agricultural policies in Ghana. In the case of Mali, stocktaking of CSA options was recommended by policymakers which followed the demand-pull model while the prioritization of CSA options had the involvement of policymakers. On the basis of the above lessons learnt from the 3 platforms' operations and achievements, we synthesized a general framework of  "}]},{"head":"Concluding remarks","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":37,"text":"After 5 years, it was evident that using national science-policy dialogue platforms may be an innovative approach to engaging policymakers/decision-makers for climate change an CSA mainstreaming into agricultural development policies and plans in Ghana, Mali and Senegal."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"2 . Methodology for analysis of platforms' modes of operation and achievements3. Results3.1 Mandate of the platforms for influencing policy decision-making 3.2. Knowledge generation 3.3 Engagement and communication pathways for effective science-policy interaction 3.4 Examples of the platforms' activities and achievements 3 "},{"text":" West Africa, the CGIAR Research Program on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security (CCAFS) has since 2012, supported the creation of national science-policy dialogue platforms on climate-smart agriculture (NSPDP-CSA) in Mali, Ghana and Senegal. The NSPDP-CSA, consisting of different stakeholders within the agricultural sector, were established to use scientific evidence in order to create awareness on climate change impacts on agriculture and recommend for the mainstreaming of climate change and CSA into agricultural development plans. The NSPDP-CSA were also expected to influence the environmental sectors within the respective countries. Since their establishment, there is limited information as to how the modes of operation and achievements of the NSPDP-CSA improve our understanding of the science-policy interfaces of agricultural and climate change decision making. The aim of this study is to use the evidence from the operations and achievements of the CCAFS platforms to make recommendations for effective science-policy interaction on climate change and CSA. To achieve this, we first determined the different activities implemented by the platforms under various national contexts and their contribution to national priorities on climate change, agriculture and food security. Secondly, we assessed the different forms of interaction that were at play between science and policy in the course of action of the platform by analyzing their recognition among policy actors as well as knowledge generation and communication strategies linked to decision-making processes on the mainstreaming of CSA and climate change into agricultural policies and development plans. "},{"text":"Figure 1 : Figure 1: Models of science creation. A= Science push; B = Demand pull, C = coproduction model (Dilling and Lemos, 2011). "},{"text":"Finally, we related knowledge generation strategies of the platforms to the three different models of science creation described by Dilling and Lemos (2011) and Landry et al. (2001)science push-model, demand-pull model and the co-production (Figure 1). Data and information collection on the platforms' operation strategies, communication strategy, knowledge products developed, activities and achievements, were done through semistructured questionnaire interviews structured around the above-mentioned areas (Dinesh et al., 2018; Fowler, 2013). We also followed up sometimes with additional open-ended questions to bring further insights on the targeted aspects of the platform work. Respondents included per country (i) the chair, (ii) the vice-chair (iii) and the secretary of the platforms and (iv) three decision-makers (mainly heads of departments) in the government ministries of agriculture, research and environment. Information collected with each respondent were triangulated with "},{"text":" platforms' focal organizations were: Senegal -National Agriculture Directorate (DA), Ghana -Animal Research Institute under the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR-ARI) and Mali -Environment and Sustainable Development Agency (AEDD). The general composition of the platforms are depicted as shown for in Figure 3 for Ghana case. Participatory approach "},{"text":"Figure 2 :Figure 3 : Figure 2: Process of setting up national science-policy dialogue platforms on climate-smart agriculture in Ghana, Mali and Senegal "},{"text":" credibility,van Enst et al. (2014)  referred to the trustworthiness, standard, technical adequacy and scientific plausibility of scientists and information delivered in the policy process. Indeed, the trustworthiness and credibility got also increased through organization and coordination by the platforms of major policy initiatives, which led to awareness-raising and engagement of high level policy policymakers (e.g. development of a national CSA action plan in Ghana, Organization of a high-level policy event on climate change mainstreaming into the presidential plan for an emerging Senegal by 2030, with attendance of parliamentarians, Mayors, Permanent Secretaries, etc.).From the interviews conducted in Ghana, Mali and Senegal, it was evident that the platforms registered as not-for-profit organizations and embedded themselves within existing national institutions as affiliate organizations. In Senegal, a ministerial decree was published in 2015 by the Minister of Agriculture and Rural Equipment to formally institutionalize the platform as asub-component of the National Climate Change Committee. The decree provided guidance on membership, organisational structure and operating mode of the platform. Under the overall coordination of the platform's chairperson based at the Directorate of Agriculture (DA), five work streams were constituted and assigned to specific institutions: (i) state technical services and decentralized structures are led by the DA; (ii) policy decision makers is led by the Environment Committee of parliament; (iii) research is led by the University of Dakar, the Senegalese Institute for Agricultural Research (ISRA), the National Agency of Civil Aviation and Meteorology (ANACIM); (iv) civil society is led by the national umbrella organization of producer organizations (CNCR); and (v) media is led by a monthly newspaper on agriculture (Agropasteur). Seen as a sub-component of the National Climate Change Committee, the platform is entrusted by the government to handle all aspects of agriculture and food security vis-à-vis climate change in Senegal. The above settings definitely confirmed the credibility of the platform to deliver scientific information that will guide decision making on climate change issues. In Mali, the formal creation of the platform was acted upon through an administrative decision in February 2013 by the Environmental Agency for Sustainable Development (AEDD). Formed by the government of Mali in 2010, AEDD was mandated to integrate climate change and coordinate government adaptation and mitigation actions in Mali (Andrieu et al., 2017). Given its position in the climate change institutional landscape of Mali, AEDD was designated as the focal point of the platform, therefore ensuring the secretariat while the National Directorate of Agriculture (DNA) plays the role of chair. It is to note that a Civil Society organization (AMEDD) is also providing technical support to AEDD to animate and implement the platform's activities, therefore increasing the trustworthiness and technical adequacy of the platform. Overall, the platform is considered as an impetus booster to the thematic group on \"adaptation to climate change including risks and disasters\" of the National Climate Change Committee (Sogoba et al., 214). In Ghana, the platform was officially launched in November 2012, and formally registered in March 2015 as a not-for-profit entity with certificate from the Register General of Ghana to commence business. In terms of leadership, while the chairperson is from the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR), the vice chairperson is from the Ministry of Food and Agriculture (MoFA). Since its launch and registration, the Ghana platform has gained the reputation for climate change and CSA advocacy among government institutions (e.g. MoFA, CSIR, the Environmental Protection Agency), some parliamentarians, NGOs, development organizations (such as the Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations), some research centers of the CGIAR consortium such as the International Centre for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT) whose activities in Ghana has involved the platform.Generally, respondents considered the decision to register and embed the platforms within national institutions as relevant to improve their recognition and visibility among policy decision-makers. Besides recognition by policymakers, interviewees within the platform confirmed institutionalization of the platforms was key to benefiting from funding support from donor organizations who place strong emphasis on the credibility and legitimacy of organizations before granting funding support. For instance, the platforms in Ghana and Senegal obtained funding from the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) and the West Africa Agricultural Productivity Program (WAAPP) respectively for various activities on CSA based on evidence of the affiliation to national institutions and the knowledge products on climate change and CSA they have been able to produce. Decision-makers interviewed also confirmed that by registering and embedding the NSPDP-CSA into already functional and recognized institutions, it allowed for building confidence in their mission, research methodology and results. Apart from CCAFS, the platforms' activities are funded through bilateral sources (e.g. FAO, USAID, WAAPP, collaboration with other CGIAR centers, etc.). Salience was described byCash et al. (2003)  as the relevance of scientists and information generated to policy processes. The process through which relevant knowledge products are developed commences with the inclusive identification of priorities and the planning of yearly activities. The surveys revealed that the core teams within the platforms meet to lead the development of yearly work plans which are then validated by the platform members with various activities implemented under the coordination of the secretariat within the group. "},{"text":" and contributed to global-level events such as the UNFCCC' Conference of Parties, the global CSA alliance meetings. For instance at the COP in Warsaw, a learning workshop on \"Agriculture in National Adaptation Plans (NAP)\" gathered representatives from 12 countries, including those of platforms from Ghana and Mali. They developed a NAP analytical framework and a policy brief with recommendations on solutions to successful national adaptation plans(Kissinger et al., 2014). "},{"text":" and regional stakeholders was crucial to the effective science-policy interaction. This was concretized through different mechanisms such as: (1) the platforms core teams' regular meetings to prioritize their yearly work plans and monitor progress on implementation of planned activities, but also through the overall platform members' meetings to discuss and validate work plans, terms of references and results of commissioned studies; (2) various capacity training workshops organized for knowledge sharing and learning around specific climate change topics and policy studies selected by the platform; (3) the use of the knowledge communication products for high-level policy engagements to advocate and inform policy changes and decision-makings on climate change, agriculture and food security; (4) the widespread dissemination of knowledge and information through media and websites. The Senegal platform in particular has a dedicated website where they largely share information on the platform's activities and disseminate knowledge they generated (http://ccasa-senegal.org/). "},{"text":"change and ( 2 ) to recommend policy and budgetary support for actions to adapt Ghana's agriculture and food systems to climate change. During this event, the platform used various communication products such as policy briefs, booklets and working papers capturing topics on climate change impacts on agriculture in Ghana and CSA to lead intellectual and policy discussions. Knowledge shared by the platform on evidenced-based climate change impacts and implications for food security in Ghana aroused the urgent need to give climate change full consideration in all agricultural development policies and plans. Decision-makers including parliamentarians from the Committee on the Environment agreed to support the mainstreaming //ccafs.cgiar.org/blog/). The final statement by parliamentarian also included support for research on CSA to benefit the most vulnerable populations [27]. In addition, the policy discussions led to the Ministry of Food and Agriculture asking the platform to lead the development of Ghana's first National CSA Action Plan targeted at ensuring the ground-level operationalization of the eight program areas of the agriculture and food security focus areas of Ghana's National Climate Change Policy (NCCP). The NCCP was developed by a multistakeholder group to affirm Ghana's ambition to mitigate risks posed by climate change (Essegbey et al., 2016). In collaboration with the Ministry of Food and Agriculture (MoFA), the platform developed and launched in 2015 the country CSA action plan (2016-2020). "},{"text":"( GCF) for implementation of its NDC. In addition, the intensions of the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) to improve on the deficiencies of the National Agricultural Investment Plans (NAIPs) of member-states by integrating CSA in the NAIPs has called for urgent action for the Government of Mali to review its NAIPs for CSA mainstreaming. While the aforementioned is critical for the Malian agricultural sector, policymakers have expressed the challenge of identifying, valuing (cost-benefit), and prioritizing climate-smart options and portfolios (groups of CSA options) for investment. Bringing together experts with the intellectual capacity to help integrate CSA into the NDCs and NAIPs was one viable option. "},{"text":" sharing knowledge on the climate change implications for the agricultural sector and rural sector development programs. Considering their embeddedness within the National Agricultural Directorate and recognition by the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Equipment from whose decree the platform was established, they were asked to conduct an in-depth analysis of the level of climate change mainstreaming into activities defined in the country's major Program for Accelerated Agricultural Development (PRACAS). The PRACAS is the agricultural component of the presidential plan for an emerging Senegal by 2035 (PSE). "},{"text":" Thirdly, the development of credible, relevant and salient communication products was key in the engagement of the platform with policymakers. As shown from the country examples, the platforms developed easily accessible and readable materials with evidenced-based information on climate change impacts, CSA options, etc., which were used by policymakers. With climate change becoming topical on the agenda of global concerns, the need for robust science to inform policy design has increased (Dilling and Lemos (2011). In the context of this paper, demonstrating evidence of climate change impacts and the potentials of CSA to contribute to climate change adaptation and mitigation was evident in the platforms' engagement with policymakers. In addition, packaging scientific evidence on climate change and CSA and "},{"text":" operation of the platforms to informing policy and decision makings on CSA(Figure). It suggests the different steps and relationships through which the platforms were able to operate to (1) identify countries' needs of knowledge and information, (2) generate knowledge and scientific evidence on promising CSA options, (3) Engage and communicate for effective science-policy interaction and policy advocacy. Indeed, through regular interactions and networking among members, the platforms helped identify countries' priorities and needs for successful climate change adaptation and mitigation actions. The ultimate vision was to contribute enabling millions of farmers to adapt to a changing climate while boosting food security under low-emissions development. As platforms on CSA, they were keen on providing evidence and knowledge on promising agricultural innovations that deliver on the three pillars of CSA: productivity/food security, adaptation and mitigation. All scientific evidences on climate change and CSA options are published by the platforms as easily accessible communication products such as working papers, policy briefs, Info Notes which are shared and discussed with policymakers. Also, by the way of engaging with policymakers in the co-development of solutions, the mode of operation of the platforms has also exhibited elements of both the modern model and consensus model of science-policy interaction described byUdovyk (2014). This framework sounds a relevant tool by which science can be used to influence policy through analyzing and understand the local contexts. "},{"text":"Figure 4 : Figure 4: A framework of the operation of the NSPDP-CSA in Senegal, Mali, and Ghana "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"Table 1 : Models of science-policy interactions used in the analysis Model Explanation ModelExplanation Modern model This is based on the assertion that science informs policy by Modern modelThis is based on the assertion that science informs policy by  producing objective, valid and reliable knowledge [10]. This is producing objective, valid and reliable knowledge [10]. This is  followed by sorting values and prioritization for the formulation of followed by sorting values and prioritization for the formulation of  the most applicable policy. Under conditions of uncertainties, this the most applicable policy. Under conditions of uncertainties, this  model may likely underestimate risks and lead to the politicization model may likely underestimate risks and lead to the politicization  of science (Udovyk, 2014). of science (Udovyk, 2014). Precautionary model This model is particularly relevant for the management of risks. It Precautionary modelThis model is particularly relevant for the management of risks. It  recommends taking action when the likely benefits outweigh the recommends taking action when the likely benefits outweigh the  cost of delays. Although characterized by divergent views, the cost of delays. Although characterized by divergent views, the  model has been used in the Rio Declaration on Environment and model has been used in the Rio Declaration on Environment and  Development, and the exploration of approaches to Bisphenol A Development, and the exploration of approaches to Bisphenol A  management in the EU management in the EU  "},{"text":"Table 2 : Characteristics of the national science-policy dialogue platforms from 2012-2017   Ghana Mali Senegal GhanaMaliSenegal A. KNOWLEDGE A.KNOWLEDGE SHARING SITES SHARINGSITES (Webpage or website) (Webpage or website)  "},{"text":"Table 3 : Knowledge products generated and policy processes contributed by the science- policy dialogue platforms from 2012-2017   policy dialogue platforms from 2012-2017 Ghana Mali Senegal GhanaMaliSenegal  "},{"text":" ., 2015). collaborative interaction that strengthens trust and mutual understanding(Vermeulen et al., 2012). The rationale was to facilitate interactions in order to provide knowledge and advice that may achieve many and varied eventual influences, not necessarily immediate and direct use(Young et al., 2014;Pieczka and Escobar, 2012). In the development of the CSA action plan for Ghana and the CSA prioritization framework for Mali, this two-way communication were useful for scientists and policymakers in the development of a better understanding as to why CSA must be mainstreamed into agricultural policies and development plans to meet security and development goals in the countries. Under this model, expert scientific advice is believed to make a direct contribution to the Under this model, expert scientific advice is believed to make a direct contribution to the increased effectiveness and rationalization of political action. This linear thinking fails to increased effectiveness and rationalization of political action. This linear thinking fails to support effective policy-oriented research plans as it considers science and policy support effective policy-oriented research plans as it considers science and policy advice/decision-making as separate domains, with science perceived as a uniquely neutral advice/decision-making as separate domains, with science perceived as a uniquely neutral provider of objective knowledge (Young et al., 2014). From the results obtained, it was evident provider of objective knowledge (Young et al., 2014). From the results obtained, it was evident that the platforms' activities were grounded in a more concerted process, with two-way that the platforms' activities were grounded in a more concerted process, with two-way communication approach that allows scientists and policymakers to work together towards communication approach that allows scientists and policymakers to work together towards identifying agricultural priorities and proposing consensual solutions (Wardekker et al., 2008; identifying agricultural priorities and proposing consensual solutions (Wardekker et al., 2008; Burnside-Lawry et al., 2017). Thereby, scientists gain awareness of the variety of directions in Burnside-Lawry et al., 2017). Thereby, scientists gain awareness of the variety of directions in which research can impact policy, and policymakers note the fields where more applied research which research can impact policy, and policymakers note the fields where more applied research  "}],"sieverID":"9a334c32-d640-4629-b6a9-545d37abfc68","abstract":"Science-policy interfaces are critical in shaping agricultural and environmental governance.However, connecting science with policy has always been a challenge for both scientists and policymakers. In Ghana, Mali and Senegal, the CGIAR Research Program on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security (CCAFS) supported the creation of a multi-stakeholder national science-policy dialogue platforms on climate-smart agriculture (NSPDP-CSA) to use scientific evidence to create awareness on climate change impacts on agriculture and advocate for the mainstreaming of climate change and climate-smart agriculture (CSA) into agricultural development plans. Since their establishment, there is limited information as to how the modes of operation and achievements of the NSPDP-CSA improve our understanding of the sciencepolicy interfaces of agricultural and climate change decision making. This study aimed to use the evidence from the operations and achievements of the NSPDP-CSA to make recommendations for effective science-policy interaction on climate change and CSA. We used semi-structured questionnaire interviews and review of technical reports produced by the platforms to obtaining the information aforementioned. The results showed that using NSPDP-CSA may be an innovative approach to effectively engaging policymakers/decision-makers for climate change and CSA mainstreaming into agricultural development policies and plans in Ghana, Mali and Senegal. For effective science-policy interaction, the study suggests the following recommendations: (a) Institutionalising the NSPDP-CSA through embedding them within national institutions improves their credibility, relevance and legitimacy among policymakers; (b) two-way communication may have a phenomenal advantage in the codevelopment of solutions that address climate change vulnerabilities and impacts; and (c) using relevant communication products and packaging CSA and climate change with evidence to align with country priorities will facilitate readily uptake in policy decision-makings. A framework of operation for the platforms was suggested based on lessons learnt from the 3 countries' experiences and achievements."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"003f0ea8061ae96ea47658e107e91efe","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/e538eca9-d14c-4b3e-9d8c-393524666e2c/retrieve"},"pageCount":46,"title":"Resilience as a policy narrative: potentials and limits in the context of urban planning","keywords":["Resilience","Urbanization","Climate change","Discourse","Policy narrative"],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":112,"text":"More than half the world's population now live in urban areas. In low and middle income countries (LMICs), these areas will become home to almost all of the projected 50% population growth that will occur between now and 2030, swelling urban populations by a further 1.3 billion by 2030 and 2.5 billion by 2050 (GMR, 2013). As a result, by the middle of the century, urban dwellers will account for more than 85 per cent of the population in the more developed countries and more than 65 per cent in LMICs. Overall, it is expected that 7 out of 10 people will be living in urban areas by 2050 ( UN-Habitat, 2011)."},{"index":2,"size":81,"text":"In the context of this rapid urban expansion, climate change is likely to become a magnifier of some of the current tensions and pressures around resources (UCCRN, 2011) and the impacts of climate change are expected to pose considerable challenges to cities, especially coastal cities. Changes in sea level, river discharge and weather extremes, combined with increasing potential impacts due to population growth and increasing value of capital, will enhance the need for cities to become 'climate-proof' (Wardekker et al., 2010)."},{"index":3,"size":144,"text":"In this context the concept of resilience has emerged as a particularly prominent policy narrative (ICLEI, 2011;World Bank, 2012). It started to receive increasing attention in academic and policy circles in the 1990s, and is now underpinning a growing number of frameworks for integrating climate change adaptation but also other emerging urban issues such as natural disasters, political fragility, or urban inequity, with development planning and programming (Twigg, 2007;DFID, 2011;IRWG, 2012). Resilience is now widely regarded as something that individuals, households, communities or even societies should strive for, in particular in relation to climate change and disasters, and the challenges that those bring in the urban context (Chelleri, 2012;Gasper, Blohm & Ruth, 2011;Leichenko, 2011;Romero-Lankao & Dodman, 2011). As such it increasingly diverges from its earlier usage (as a neutral, technical characteristic of a system -see below section), which did not have this normative dimension."},{"index":4,"size":171,"text":"While resilience thinking has a long history in environmental systems (Holling, 1973;Folke, 2006), social dimensions have more recently begun to be integrated, leaving scope to address issues concerning governance, politics and social justice (Leach, 2008;Adger et al., 2009). Yet a growing number of academics still argue that there is a real danger of misuse, or abuse of the term (e.g. Leach, 2008;Cannon & Müller-Mahn, 2010;Duit et al., 2010;Béné et al., 2012;Bahadur & Tanner, 2014), as it seems to be increasingly co-opted to accommodate rather than challenge economic or political status-quos that are socially and/or environmentally harmful. Some would argue for instance that through their support or reference to the concept of resilience, some institutions are in effect supporting business as usual, possibly with the objective of making communities more resilient to the shocks and inequity created by dominant economic and/or political models. In these conditions resilience fails to support the process of transformation that may be necessary in the long-run, and appears as potentially inadequate as a guiding principle for foresight."},{"index":5,"size":115,"text":"Narrative perspective, which derives from linguistics and constructivism, holds that meaning is a highly contextualised, locally constructed phenomenon that relies heavily on language…. \" [N]arrative knowing assumes that individuals perceive the same world differently depending on their values, interests, and histories\" (Bridgman & Barry, 2002, p.142). Following this line of thinking, narrative approaches to policy analysis assume that language does not simply mirror the world, but instead reflects and shapes our view of it in the first place (cf., Fischer & Forester, 1993;Roe, 1989Roe, , 1994)). Understanding narrative is therefore critical in relation to science, expertise and the ways this knowledge can be used (or silenced) to justify or legitimize particular decisions and policy orientations."},{"index":6,"size":80,"text":"In the context of urbanization and urban policies, where scientific expertise plays a major role in framing policy debates, it can be argued that any narrative which becomes dominant in policy discussions will be instrumental in shaping the way future urbanization and urban planning will be conceived and implemented. The recent emergence of resilience narratives that are used to analyse and act on urban issues, and provide a goal for individuals, communities, cities or societies , therefore warrants further attention."},{"index":7,"size":88,"text":"With this background, the aims of this paper is to analyse the emergence of the concept of 'urban resilience' in the literature and to assess the potential and limitations of this concept as an element of policy narrative in the context of rapid urbanization. For this, the research relies essentially on a narrative analysis, using secondary data on urban resilience, to identify the different narratives and discourses that exist in the literature around the concept of urban resilience and to analyse how these narratives influence policies around urbanization."}]},{"head":"Methods","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":227,"text":"A review of the literature was first completed to identify the main existing studies on urban resilience. The result of the review was then used in the narrative analysis. For the review the criteria of inclusion/exclusion were as follow: The choice of the limited period: 2003-2013 and the category 'title' for the keywords (as opposed to 'title+abstract' or even 'whole document') was deliberate as an attempt to limit the number of articles reviewed to a manageable size. From the initial search, 83 peer-reviewed articles were identified with both key-words 'urban'/'cities' and 'resilience'/'resilient' in their titles. From these 25 were further discarded as they cover either terrorism/security or socio-psychological/medical issues. The 58 remaining articles were then used in the narrative analysis, with the objective to identify the different narratives present in the literature on urban resilience. As part of this analysis, specific attention was paid to resilience definition(s) (or lack thereof) in relation to these narratives, how resilience was actually used, and the way(s) the underlying problems were defined and framed. We then looked at how these different interpretations of the same initial concept influenced the types of technical solutions and policy orientations that these discourses advocate. The final section concludes by stressing the advantages but also the dangers of adopting such a concept as a new policy narrative without specifically acknowledging the political economy dimension of urbanization."}]},{"head":"Narrative analysis","index":3,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Increasing prominence in the literature","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":134,"text":"The notion of resilience is gaining increasing prominence within the literature on cities in relation to shocks and stressors. As Evans puts it (2011, p.22) \"The attraction of resilience (…) is fairly obvious\". Frequently used terms such as 'climate resilient,' 'climate-proofing,' or 'resilient city' emphasize the idea that cities, urban systems, and urban constituencies will need to be able to absorb, adapt or transform in the face of climate related shocks and stressors in the coming future. There is in fact a growing number of studies that propose to explore more rigorously these issues in the literature on urban planning and climate change. Fig. 1 illustrates this increasing (in fact exponential) trend based on the 58 articles included in this review, recognizing however the existence of a wider range of publications discussing urban resilience."},{"index":2,"size":4,"text":"[insert Fig. 1 here]"}]},{"head":"Resilience as a dynamic, malleable concept 1","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":118,"text":"It also appears rapidly that identifying these different narratives cannot be done by simply providing a 'static' snapshot of the current literature. The different interpretations and definitions of resilience which underpin these various narratives are themselves dynamic and 'malleable'. They have evolved -and are still evolving-over time. The next series of paragraphs below aims at presenting a succinct overview of how the concept of resilience has progressively evolved, branching out from a single ordinary term into a series of different and increasingly sophisticated scientific concepts characterized by different and specific definitions (see Fig. 2). For other general or more specific review of the 'genealogy' of the concept of resilience, see, e.g., Leichenko (2011) or Martin-Breen & Anderies (2012)."},{"index":2,"size":3,"text":"[insert Fig. 2 "}]},{"head":"here]","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":256,"text":"In its original day-to-day sense, resilience, which derives from the Latin verb 'resilire' ('to jump back') was used to refer to \"the capacity to recover quickly from difficulties; toughness\" (Oxford dictionaries). Some authors trace back the first scientific use of the concept to the definition of the 'modulus of resilience' used in the context of 19th century warship design. Naval architect Robert Mallet developed this modulus of resilience as a means of assessing the ability of materials to withstand severe conditions. In the 1940s and 1950s the concept emerged in psychology in the context of the negative effects of adverse life events such as exclusion, poverty, and traumatic stressors on vulnerable individuals and groups -in particular children (Glantz & Johnson, 1996). The engineering/physic interpretation of resilience (possibly deriving from Mallet's modulus of resilience) became progressively apparent in the 1960s and 1970s, where resilience was then formally defined as \"the capacity of a material to absorb energy when it is deformed elastically and then, upon unloading to have this energy recovered\" (Callister & Rethwisch 2012, p.216). Soon after, ecologists picked up the concept and started to use it to describe some aspects of ecosystem dynamics around equilibrium. One of the most quoted definitions (often -but wrongly-presented as the original definition of resilience) is that proposed by Hollings in its seminal work on 'Resilience and Stability of Ecological Systems', where resilience was defined as \"a measure of the ability of these systems to absorb changes of state variables, driving variables, and parameters, and still persist\" (Holling, 1973, p.17)."},{"index":2,"size":99,"text":"To some extent Holling's work marks the \"renaissance\" of the concept of resilience (Bahadur et al., 2010) which started to gain increasing popularity in ecology but also in several other disciplines and sub-disciplines. Disaster Risk Reduction (IFRC, 2004;WCDR, 2005;Klein et al., 1998;Tobin 1999) and then climate change adaptation (Allison & Hobbes, 2004;Moser et al., 2010;IPCC, 2012) adopted the concept in the 1980s. The IPCC now defines resilience as the 'ability of a system and its component parts to anticipate, absorb, accommodate, or recover from the effects of a hazardous event in a timely and efficient manner' (IPCC, 2012, p.5)."},{"index":3,"size":128,"text":"In parallel some social sciences scholars working in close collaboration with the group of ecologists who embraced the concept in the late 1970s, started to apply it to social contexts. Although they did not necessarily seek to define resilience in a specific social sense, they were interested in identifying the characteristics of social systems (groups, communities, society) that would facilitate or foster the resilience of these social systems. Drawing on these two parallel strains, the concept of social-ecological resilience then emerged in the late 1990s (Berkes & Folke, 1998;Walker et al., 2002), reflecting a new paradigm and meant to overcome the separation of social from natural sciences and to create a new intellectual basis for responding to the 'environmental' challenges of the modern world (Berkes & Folke, 1998)."},{"index":4,"size":113,"text":"Under this social-ecological thinking \"resilience (…) is [no longer] simply about resistance to change and conservation of existing structures\" (that is the engineering definition) (Folke, 2006, p.7) or even about \"buffer capacity and persistence to change while maintaining the same function\" (the ecological definition) but instead an emergent property that includes also two other dimensions: the adaptive capacity, that is, \"the capacity to learn, combine experience and knowledge, adjust responses to changing external drivers and internal processes, and continue operating\" (Berkes et al., 2003); and the transformative capacity, i.e. the \"capacity to create a fundamentally new system when ecological, economic, or social structures make the existing system untenable\" (Walker et al., 2004, p.5)."},{"index":5,"size":72,"text":"These various branches constitute the epistemological lineages from which urban resilience emerged in the early 2000s. As we will see later in this analysis, urban resilience did not, however, draw equally from all these different branches. Three schools of thought have been more predominant in influencing the urban resilience narrative: (i) the disaster risk reduction community, initially closely linked to the engineering understanding of resilience, (ii) ecological resilience and (iii) social resilience."}]},{"head":"From common language to scientific concept and back","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":135,"text":"Another key finding that emerges from looking more systematically at the literature is that the precision with which the term/concept of resilience is defined in relation to urban issues varies greatly between articles, irrespective of the actual meaning proposed in the definition. More concretely three levels of 'preciseness' can be identified (Table 1). At the highest level, resilience is defined as a clear (academicallyidentified) concept whereby the author(s) rely either on a new or an existing definition, and often made reference to a specific body of literature. For instance in their analysis of urban resilience in relation to waste management, Agudelo Vera et al. (2012, p.3) chose to define resilience \"as a measure of robustness and buffering capacity of the system to changing conditions\", relying for this on specific reference to Berkes & Folke, (1998)."},{"index":2,"size":293,"text":"[insert Table 1 here] In other cases the concept of resilience or urban resilience per se is not defined as such, but the authors refer to what a 'resilient city' is expected to look like. Malalgoda et al. (2013, p.73) for instance define a resilient city as \"a city that has developed the systems and capacities to be able to absorb future shocks and stresses over time so as to still maintain essentially the same functions, structure, systems, and identity, while at the same time working to mitigate the present causes of future shocks and stresses\". In a similar way Leichenko (2011, p.164) defined urban resilience as \"the ability of a city or urban system to withstand a wide array of shocks and stresses\". In most cases the definition has been derived from ecology theory but explicitly adapted to urban context: \"By resilience we mean the ability of a city to withstand shocks and threats, to survive stresses and to adapt to social, political, economic and environmental change\" (Monteiro et al., 2012, p.113). In some other cases however resilience remains an ecological concept and the 'transferability' to the city is not totally endorsed: Colding (2007) for instance still defined resilience as \"the capacity of an ecosystem to absorb disturbance and reorganize while undergoing change so as to retain essentially the same function, structure, identity and feedbacks (Berkes et al., 2003;Carpenter & Folke, 2006;Holling, 1973)\" (p.46 in Colding, 2007). We find a similar approach in Barthel & Isendahl (2012, p.225) who refer to resilience in their discussion on food security in cities but define it as a social-ecological resilience: \"Social-ecological resilience is defined as the capacity to absorb shocks, utilize them, reorganize, and continue to develop without losing fundamental functions (Carpenter & Folke, 2006).\""},{"index":3,"size":47,"text":"In some other cases the author(s) acknowledge the existence of many different definitions of the term 'resilience' -and even provide these definitions-but do not necessarily select one of them. Instead they embrace this large variety of definition in what Pearson calls a 'pluralisitic use of the term':"},{"index":4,"size":252,"text":"\"resilience is generally conceived as the ability of a system (e.g. city system) to absorb disturbance and reorganize to retain \"essentially the same function, structure, identity and feedbacks\" (Walker et al., 2004). We are pluralistic in our use of the term, finding useful insights from; resilience in ecology (Holling, 1973), adaptive capacity in social-ecological systems (Berkes et al., 2003), transition studies in social-technological systems (Rotmans et al., 2001) and adaptation in social systems (Cote & Nightingale, 2011).\" Pearson (2013, p.222 -our emphasis) Resilience in the urban literature may also be used in a relatively looser manner, i.e. with no specific definition. In some cases a short explanation of that meaning is provided -although usually not presented as a proper definition. Boyle for instance (2012, p.352) refers to resilience in the following terms: \"this article begins by linking resilience to the broader idea of precaution and argues for an understanding of precaution that includes contingency planning and response alongside the more familiar characteristics of anticipation and preemption\". In other cases no explanation is provided but the implicit meaning usually refers to the contemporary sense of resilience \"ability to adapt and to bear hardship\". Bouzarovski et al. (2011, p.269) for instance present resilience as \"part of an expanding scholarly attempt to assess the ability of cities across the world to transform their political, economic and technical structures in line with the demands of a more challenging future environment\"). Other examples of loose use of the concept include Gleeson (2008); Antrobus (2011); or Jansson (2013)."},{"index":5,"size":62,"text":"In sum what we observe is a situation where the meaning of resilience in relation to its use in urban context varies along a gradient, from very specifically defined (usually based on a particular definition) to more loosely defined (relying more on the general meaning of the term), to cases where the term may not be defined at all (e.g. Crichton, 2007)."}]},{"head":"Different ways to use the concept of resilience","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":77,"text":"In examining the literature on urban resilience, the review highlighted not simply the growing variety of definitions and interpretations of the term 'resilience', but also the large range of uses of the concept. Irrespective of how people interpret or define resilience, the concept is not necessarily always used with the same purpose. Table 2 synthesizes the different utilisations that were identified through the 58 articles included in this review, and provides some examples extracted from that literature."},{"index":2,"size":100,"text":"The first way resilience is used is as a goal, a guiding aim for cities to achieve. The objective in that case is to identify actions, interventions, or policies that ensure that cities are -or become-'resilient'. For instance in the context of energy, to become 'energy resilient' (that is to operate reliable supplies and stable costs) is regarded as vital for cities due to the growing reliance of developed nations on imported energy and the increased likelihood of supply disruption (Coaffe, 2008). In that case energy resilience is seen as the 'target' and decisions are aimed at achieving this target."},{"index":3,"size":103,"text":"[insert Table 2 here] A second relatively frequent way the concept of resilience is utilized in the urban literature is as an analytical framework to help us think about certain issues and find adapted solutions. A good illustration of this approach is Liao (2012) who proposes two interpretations of resilience (engineering and ecological resilience) to develop a theory on \"urban resilience to floods\" as an alternative framework for urban flood hazard management. Other examples include Wardekker et al. (2010) or Ernston and his colleagues (2010) who propose to use resilience theory to help rethink urban planning in particular in the face of uncertainty:"},{"index":4,"size":78,"text":"\"the traditional paradigm of planning for a predictable future is not only insufficient, but it may, in some ways, also be destructive. This article strives to lay a foundation for transitions in urban planning and governance, which enable cities to navigate change, build capacity to withstand shocks, and locate sources of experimentation and innovation in face of uncertainty. (…) resilience theory from ecological research can contribute to our thinking on this normative goal.\" (Ernston et al., 2010, pp.531-532)."},{"index":5,"size":168,"text":"These first two ways to use resilience (as a goal and as an analytical framework) will be discussed in greater detail in the next section. The third way resilience is used in the urban literature is as a metaphor, that is, as a tool to favour and foster integrated approach in relation to urban planning. \"Metaphor is a powerful tool for creating new ideas and syntheses, which can suggest how to use an idea or approach developed in one realm in an entirely different realm. [In the present case, the concept of] resilience used as a metaphor can help link ecology and planning.\" (Pickett et al., 2004, p.369). Interestingly this role as \"mobilizing metaphor\" to integrate and mainstream sectors that are traditionally disconnected is also highlighted in other domains such as development (Béné et al., 2014) or food security (von Grebmer et al., 2013;Béné et al., 2016), where resilience is used to bring together traditionally disparate communities such as disaster risk reduction, climate change adaptation, and social protection."},{"index":6,"size":180,"text":"One more recent use of the term resilience in the context of urban planning is as an 'indicator'. Evans (2011) for instance proposes to use resilience as an indicator of sustainability: \"Based on non-equilibrium theory, complexity and non-linearity, the most recent ecological incarnation of the city is distinctive in emphasising resilience and adaptive learning as the path to urban sustainability in the face of climate change\" (Evans, 2011, p.224). Based on this, Milman & Short (2008) developed a \"Water Provision Resilience (WPR), which serves as an example of how resilience can be incorporated into indicators of sustainability\". The second case where resilience is used as an indicator of sustainability is in Monteiro et al. (2013) where these authors propose to use Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) as a \"good motivator to encourage greater acceptance of interventions that aim to improve the urban resilience to diverse risks\". In that case resilience is also seen as the goal -but understood as a way to ensure urban sustainability: \"COPD as a resilience promoter tool in urban sustainable planning\" (Monteiro et al., 2013, p.113)."},{"index":7,"size":101,"text":"Finally due to the attention that it has been receiving from donors and media (see e.g. The Economist, 2014), the concept of resilience has also been recently under the growing risk of becoming nothing more than a buzzword. As such, the last two categories listed in Table 2 ('resilience used as a buzzword', and 'no use beyond the title') may sound initially of little interest. Some argue however (correctly) that these types of (mis)use should -or could-deserve more attention, not the least because they are contributing to the \"lax applications and sloppy implementation [that] are hindering its usefulness\" (Pearson, 2013, p.222)."}]},{"head":"Mapping the different resilience narratives","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":79,"text":"Building on the results presented above we now propose a 'map' of the concept of resilience as currently used in the urban literature. Our main objective will be to identify the main narratives that are found in this part of the literature, and to 'unpack' the way they are constructed and legitimized. Eventually the analysis will reveal how these different interpretations of the same initial concept influence the types of technical solutions and policy orientations that these discourses advocate."}]},{"head":"Resilience as a goal for urban planning","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":150,"text":"The vast majority of urban resilience papers identified in the literature refer to resilience as an objective which cities should try to achieve through appropriate planning, policies and interventions. For most of these studies, resilience is therefore perceived as a positive characteristic that needs to be strengthened. This normative interpretation leads experts to present resilience as the ultimate goal to be sought in many different contexts and in response to many different issues. In the examples presented in Table 3 these issues include climate change issues, food insecurity, or the 'unsustainability' of the current urbanization. For Evans (2011, p.225) for instance: \"If climate change is the driver and resilience the goal, then adaptation is the process through which transition will occur (…) Within this context, [planning] experimentation is supposed to prompt radical social and technical transition by testing out different technologies under a range of conditions in highly visible ways\"."},{"index":2,"size":136,"text":"[insert Table 3 here] For Agudelo Vera and her colleagues, the problem is not \"the inevitability of climate change\" (Evans, 2011, p.223) but the \"un-sustainability of the cities\". \"Considering the current level and rate of urbanization and growing ecological footprints, the impact of inadequate urban resource management has become a global issue. (…) The root of the current urban un-sustainability is the massive resource consumption and waste production beyond natural supply and recycling limits\" (Agudelo Vera et al., 2012, p.3) and the process through which the resilience of the cities can be restored is technical change. In that context the technical 'solution' is the concept of urban harvestpresented \"as a management tool towards more resilient cities\" (p.4): \"By harvesting urban resources, global impacts are reduced and the resilience of cities can be improved as well (p.3)."},{"index":3,"size":84,"text":"Other examples in Table 3 include food insecurity (de Zeeuw et al., 2011), or (again) unsustainable urbanization (Colding & Barthel, 2013), or climate change (Rijke et al. 2013). In all these cases, resilience is the goal that is reached through various impact pathways: through increase in food availability made possible through peri-urban agriculture for de Zeeuw et al. (2011); through biodiversity conservation and urban green commons (UGCs) for Colding & Barthel (2013); or through social change and transformative governance for Rijke et al. (2013)."},{"index":4,"size":91,"text":"In all these examples resilience is eventually what we need to achieve. Taken individually these different uses of the concept of resilience are well constructed and robust. However, once put together into one single framework, resilience appears as the ultimate goal for many different pathways. In fact, the comparison of Agudelo Vera et al. ( 2012) and Colding & Barthel (2013)   Barthel) , yet leading to the same result ('Urban resilience'). Note also that in all those different positive portrayals of resilience, underlying structural inequalities or power asymmetries are not questioned."}]},{"head":"Resilience as an analytical framework in the context of urbanization","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":91,"text":"Resilience has been adopted by many researchers as the basis for analytical frameworks that help understand how systems respond to shocks and stress. Examples from the literature on social-ecological systems include Carpenter et al. (2001); Berkes et al. (2003); Walker et al. (2006);Chaplin et al. (2009). A current discussion is also taking place in the development literature, in two different directions: one in relation to disaster risk reduction (see e.g. Levine et al., 2012), and one in relation to food security (see, e.g., von Grebmer et al., 2013;Béné et al., 2016)."},{"index":2,"size":342,"text":"[insert Table 4 here] The growing numbers of articles which explore the way resilience can be used as an analytical framework in the context of urban studies is not necessarily surprising and we already presented some examples in the previous section. As Evans explains (2011, p.233): \"the writings of resilience ecology replacing the language of generally applicable knowledge [helps] discovering generally valid meta-principles and frameworks\". Table 4 captures some of these examples. While the table does not claim to be comprehensive, it illustrates the process and also highlights the salient points of this part of our analysis. Barthel & Isendahl (2013) is our first example. In their paper those authors choose social-ecological resilience as \"the analytical lens\" (p.225) for their analysis of urban food security system. They identify two 'meta-principles' that are closely associated with social-ecological resilience, namely (i) diversity and redundancy and (ii) memories, experiences and learning, and \"apply these principles of resilience in an inclusive manner, beyond the strict behavior of sets of species in an ecosystem\" (p.225). Relying on two case-studies from widely different historical and cultural contexts -the Classic Maya civilization of the late first millennium AD and Byzantine Constantinople -they then use these two meta-principle to 'demonstrate' that urban farming has been (at least in the past) a pertinent feature of urban support systems, and that, in that context, urban gardens, agriculture, and water management as well as the linked socialecological memories of how to uphold such practices over time have contributed to long-term food security during past eras of scarcity. Ahern (2011) in the second example in Table 4 uses resilience theory to help identify which characteristics urban planning should embrace in order to be able to address the contemporary challenges that urban zones and cities are facing, and in particular to be adaptable. Relying on lessons from social-ecological resilience literature he identifies a suite of five principles (he called these 'strategies') that are necessary to build urban resilience capacity, namely: multi-functionality, redundancy and modularization, (bio and social) diversity, multi-scale networks and connectivity\" (Ahern, 2011, p.341)."},{"index":3,"size":116,"text":"To a large extent the title of Baud & Hordijk 2009's paper -the third example in Table 4 \"Dealing with risk in urban governance: what can we learn from 'resilience thinking'\" says it all. Claiming that \"Uncertainty, unpredictability and change have become key characteristics of today's interdependent world\" (2009, p.1069) -a claim that perhaps underplays the levels of uncertainty, unpredictability and changes that were already at work in the past-the two authors propose to identify the main characteristics of resilience thinking and adaptive governance that appear relevant for urban planning. They conclude that these characteristics include flexible institutions, knowledge systems that integrate different sets of knowledge, and the capacities of learning by experiment, creativity and self-organization."},{"index":4,"size":71,"text":"None of the three papers presented here provide however clear detail of the procedure, criteria, or rational they relied on to identify the meta-principles or characteristics of resilience which they claim are key to address the issues they were focusing. Yet, they are quite illustrative of a larger pool of papers which, in the same way, draw on the resilience thinking as a source of 'analytical solutions' for different urban issues."}]},{"head":"Unfolding the main narratives on urban resilience","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":83,"text":"As illustrated above, resilience can be understood and interpreted quite differently in relation to urban literature. That heterogeneity in the usage and interpretation is partly rooted in the different intellectual origins and lineages as presented in section above (cf. Fig. 2), and there can be large disagreement on both the main issues that need to be addressed and the main characteristics that define urban resilience. In fact even within those schools of thought, a certain level of diversity of interpretation can be observed."},{"index":2,"size":159,"text":"Three generic schools can be distinguished: (1) urban hazards and disaster risk reduction; (2) urban ecological resilience; and (3) urban resilience through governance and institutions. In addition to these, at least two other major schools of thought which are not directly related to urban literature but strongly influence part of the discussion should be mentioned: (1) socio-technological transition; and (2) social-ecological resilience. Those various groups are synthesized in Table 5 and represented on Fig. 3. Note that the aim of Fig. 3 is to capture and contrast the distinctiveness of the each of the main schools of thoughts. As such it is represented as a 'static' snapshot that does not reflect the more fluid and dynamic evolution which led to these different schools of thought -something that was partially captured in Fig. 1. The next subsections present in greater details these different schools of thought, their main features and how they are linked to different degrees to each other."},{"index":3,"size":8,"text":"[insert Fig. 3 here] [insert Table 5 here] "}]},{"head":"Urban hazards and disaster risk reduction","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":220,"text":"The first (and possibly largest) school of thought that anchors its work on resiliencethinking in the urban context is that of \"urban hazard and disaster risk reduction\" (Table 5). This includes the work of researchers and practitioners working on issues revolving around natural and human-made hazards in the urban context. A large part of this work is closely related to, and claimed its origin in, the increase in frequency and intensity of climate change related disasters and extreme events. Emblematic of this work are the numerous articles that have been published following the hurricane Katrina in New Orleans (see e.g. Campanella, 2006). Other main streams of work in this thread are the articles discussing flood events (e.g. Khailani & Perera, 2013;Liao, 2012) such as the 2010 Pakistan or the 2011 Bangkok events, or more general considerations about urban planning in relation to disasters (e.g. Malalgoda et al., 2013), as well as the social components (e.g. social network, participatory planning) that are important in building urban resilience to disaster (Wardekker et al., 2010;Smith et al., 2011). Although not exclusively on Asia -presented as the \"epicenter of the current urbanization surge\" (Shaw et al., 2009, p.101) -a large part of the work in this thread does focus on this region of the world where the occurrence of climate-related extreme events is noticeable."},{"index":2,"size":92,"text":"Logically the underlying narrative of this thread is the increasing threats induced by climate-related events, and the likely vulnerability of these within cities and urban centres who are at the bottom of the social ladder: \"It is predicted that the severity and frequency of climate change induced disasters will increase and those who have the least to cope with would be the most vulnerable\" (Shaw et al., 2009, p.104). In that context, cities in LMICs are recognized to be at particular risk from climate hazards (Lavell et al., 2003;Bull-Kamanga et al., 2003)."},{"index":3,"size":126,"text":"Not surprisingly, the concept of resilience in this thread (although it remains somewhat contested -see below) is broadly interpreted as referring to the ability of the systems to persist and to adapt in the face of climate shocks and stresses. There is, in particular, a tendency to emphasize the importance of infrastructure and physical elements, and the ability to resist shocks. As explained by Malalgoda et al. (2013, p.75) attention is drawn to \"physical systems [such] as built roads, buildings, infrastructure, communications, and energy facilities as well as waterways, soils, topography, geology, and other natural systems. The physical systems act as the body of the city, and at a time of a disaster, the physical systems should be able to withstand its effects under extreme stresses\"."},{"index":4,"size":47,"text":"In that context a critical part of resilience is related to the robustness of those systems and as expected several definitions of resilience reflect this emphasis: \"Resilience is a measure of robustness and buffering capacity of the system to changing conditions\" (Agudelo Vera et al., 2012, p.3)."},{"index":5,"size":140,"text":"In flood hazard management, (…) resilience is the rate of return from a flood-impacted state to the normal one (De Bruijn, 2004). ... Recovery is often interpreted as returning to predisaster conditions, implicitly assuming an optimal reference state\" (Liao, 2012, p.3) Under this interpretation a resilient city is \"a city that has developed the systems and capacities to be able to absorb future shocks and stresses over time so as to still maintain essentially the same functions, structure, systems, and identity, while at the same time working to mitigate the present causes of future shocks and stresses\" (Resilientcity.org, 2010). Indeed the idea is that \"[m]any disasters could be avoided by way of good housing, infrastructure and services; being equipped with the necessary resources and being capable of organising itself before, during and after a hazard\" (Malalgoda et al., 2013, p.75-76)."},{"index":6,"size":101,"text":"From this urban hazard and disaster risk reduction approach, the key characteristics of resilience focus on the recovery process, where the preoccupation is the stability/equilibrium of the system: \"In many cases, resilience is taken to mean exclusively the capacity to bounce back to the predisaster state\" (Liao, 2012, p.3). This engineering vision of what resilience is about (which clearly shares some close links with the original naval modulus of resilience as proposed by Mallet) can be summed up by the following series of key-words: Infrastructure / buffering / resistance / protection / recovery / equilibrium (Table 5, see also Fig. 3 "}]},{"head":"bottom left part of the diagram).","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":98,"text":"This interpretation of urban resilience is however increasingly challenged (from inside and outside) by authors who claim that resilience involves much more than simply rebuilding and that physical infrastructures are not everything. Campanella for instance reflecting on the experience of New Orleans argues that: \"cities are more than the sum of their buildings. They are also thick concatenations of social and cultural matter, and it is often this that endows a place with its defining essence and identity. (…) To enable total recovery, familial, social, and religious networks of survivors and evacuees must be reconnected\" (Campanella, 2006, p.142)."},{"index":2,"size":114,"text":"Another line of internal criticisms emerges from scholars (e.g. Liao, 2012) who (drawing on the ecological interpretation of resilience and in particular Holling's work), argue that even from a physical/infrastructure perspective resilience is not about equilibrium and stability, but about non-equilibrium and flexibility. In the case of flood for instance resilience should not be interpreted as the ability to avoid flood, but instead as the ability to live with flood. Some argue that this ecological interpretation of resilience is more useful for urban planning and design because it is more dynamic and evolutionary. Under this non-equilibrium paradigm, resilience is the ability of a system to adapt and adjust to changing internal or external processes."}]},{"head":"Urban ecological resilience","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":40,"text":"Moving away from the static/equilibrium angle and up along the left hand side of the resilience triangle on Fig. 3, we find a second major school of thought on urban resilience, one that promotes the urban ecological dimension of resilience."},{"index":2,"size":134,"text":"The urban ecological resilience literature, which draws on and extends traditional notions of ecosystems resilience, has an almost antagonist interpretation to the urban hazard and disaster risk reduction vision, regarding (a) what the issues are, and therefore (b) what the solutions should be. For the academics belonging to this urban ecological resilience school, the main source of concern is the impact that the rate of urbanization has on ecosystems, biodiversity, and natural cycles. For them, the current pace of global change is unprecedented. Considering the current level and rate of urbanization and growing ecological footprints, some of the central issues are the rapidly declining availability of resources such as oil, freshwater, phosphorus, metals; and the disruption of natural cycles, for instance nitrogen and carbon-cycle (Boyle et al., 2010;Gordon et al., 2006;Rockström et al., 2009)."},{"index":3,"size":28,"text":"In essence, the narrative underlying this approach is that cities are unsustainable and are threatening our ecological environment (Table 5). As explained by Agudelo Vera and her colleagues:"},{"index":4,"size":53,"text":"The root of the current urban un-sustainability is the massive resource consumption and waste production beyond natural supply and recycling limits (…). Therefore, cities worldwide are facing the challenge to find and implement alternative strategies (Cola et al., 2005) towards more sustainable management of urban resources (Agudelo Vera et al., 2012, p. 3)."},{"index":5,"size":60,"text":"Several ecological footprint studies estimate for instance that cities greatly exceed, or overshoot, their bio-capacities by typically 15-150 times (Doughty & Hammond, 2004). Cities are not sustainable because they do not use resources efficiently. In general, cities have a linear usage of resources and waste production, without feedbacks of resources in terms of quantity and quality (Leduc et al., 2009)."},{"index":6,"size":112,"text":"Others are not as much concerned by the level of waste as they are by the impact of cities on biodiversity and ecosystem, and the degraded capacity of these ecosystems to deliver their different services. \"While cultural diversity is increasing in cities at a global level as a result of urbanization, biodiversity is decreasing with a subsequent loss of ecosystem services\" (Colding & Barthel, 2013, p.156). In these conditions the benefits that urban inhabitants and cities derive from ecosystem processes including, e.g., improved water and air quality, storm protection, flood mitigation, sewage treatment, micro climate regulation, and recreation and health values, are being jeopardized or even irreversibly damaged (Ernston et al., 2010)."},{"index":7,"size":441,"text":"Resilience here is therefore closely related to ecological processes and dynamics, and is defined in line with this ecological focus: Resilience \"is used here as the capacity of an ecosystem to absorb disturbance and reorganize while undergoing change so as to retain essentially the same function, structure, identity and feedbacks (Colding, 2007, p.46) -see also Jansson & Polasky (2010); or Jansson (2013); or Colding & Barthel (2013) for similar definitions. In fact some scholars even go as far as stating that resilience was at its origin an ecological concept, and that is part of the reason why urban resilience has so far been neglected: \"given its origins in ecology, it is not surprising that most resilience scholars have historically been interested in empirical analyses of non-urban areas (e.g., shallow lakes, production forests, and small-scale agriculture (...), and have devoted less attention to the specifically human and social elements of humandominated systems, such as cities\" (Ernston et al. 2010, p.533 -our emphasis). Some authors go as far as talking about \"ecological resilience of urban ecosystems\" (Alberti & Marzluff, 2004, p.241). This vision of resilience as being fundamentally an ecological concept is relatively narrow and seems to ignore a large part of the literature on resilience, but it illustrates relatively closely some elements of the narrative adopted by this school of thought: \"cities are unsustainable and have been lacking ecological resilience, we need therefore to 'inject' more resilience into these cities to make them more (ecologically) sustainable\". How do we do that? First by promoting the conservation or the restoration of urban biodiversity: \"There is increasing scientific evidence on the essential role of biodiversity for building resilience in a changing world\" (Jansson, 2013, p.286). \"Biodiversity along with social, physical, and economic diversity, are important and effective strategies to support urban resilience\" (Ahern, 2011, p.342). The argument here is that biodiversity can play the role of 'insurance' again risk and shock: \"with a greater number of species performing a similar function, the ecosystem services provided by any functional group -for example, the decomposers -are more likely to be sustained over a wider range of conditions, and the system will have a greater capacity to recover from disturbance\" (Ahern, 2011, p.342). In this part of the narrative, management of diversity is considered to be a key attribute for building resilience. Diversity spreads risks, creates buffers (Berkes et al., 2003). As such diversity is seen as key for dealing with disturbance and change in productive ways, with self-organization and the capacity for learning and adaptation constituting important resilience characteristics. In sum the key-characteristics that are emphasized in this ecological urban resilience are: (bio)-diversity; diversification; (urban) ecosystem-services."},{"index":8,"size":228,"text":"As with the disaster risk reduction literature, the interpretation of ecological urban resilience has also evolved over time. From a strong and narrow focus on urban-based ecosystems (e.g. Alberti & Marzluff, 2004;Jansson & Polasky, 2010), it has progressively moved to a more integrated analysis of urban coupled human-environment systems (Pickett et al. 2004), and examination of cities and urban networks as complex adaptive systems (Resilience Alliance, 2007). Within this literature, the promotion of Urban Green Commons (UGCs) is illustrative of this recent effort to integrate better social and ecological dynamics. Some would have seen in these UGCs the continuation of the predominance of ecology on this urban resilience narrative. Yet, the emergence of UGCs in the literature was based on their ability, as common property systems, to stimulate and promote some degree of environmental stewardship and social-ecological memory, which in itself was seen as promoting urban resilience (Colding & Barthel, 2013). Similarly Urban and Peri-urban Agriculture (UPA) which also emerges in this literature is praised not only for its ecological properties (such as maintaining green open spaces and enhancing vegetation cover in the city, or reducing energy use and greenhouse gas emissions by producing fresh food close to the city) but also for its social 'properties' including poverty alleviation and social inclusion; urban food and nutrition security; and reducing vulnerability of specific groups (de Zeeuw et al., 2011) "}]},{"head":"Urban resilience through governance and institutions","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":146,"text":"The third main thread in this urban resilience literature is the 'Urban resilience through governance and institution' (Table 5). In this thread, the analysis is focused on questions of how different types of institutional arrangements (e.g. participatory planning) and governance systems (e.g. decentralized governance) affect the resilience of cities (e.g. Tyler & Moench, 2012), and how, in turn, resilience thinking can influence the development of improved governance mechanisms for promoting effective disaster risk management and adaptation to climate change (see e.g. Wallace et al., 2007;Evans, 2011;Pelling & Manuel-Navarrete, 2011). This includes in particular studies on how resilience principles such as adaptive management can be used in exposed coastal areas (Wardekker et al., 2010) and which characteristics of urban governance can enhance climate resilience while at same time reducing vulnerability of urban citizens who are most at risk to climate-related shocks and stress (Tanner et al., 2009)."},{"index":2,"size":124,"text":"The narrative, here, is one where cities are described as facing uncertainty and increasing unsustainable conditions and challenges, and will need to 'navigate' the necessary changes and transitions: \"… we are facing an increasing uncertainty due to climate change, migration of people, and changes in the capacity of ecosystems to generate goods and services. In an urban context, this means that the traditional paradigm of planning for a predictable future is not only insufficient, but it may, in some ways, also be destructive. This article strives to lay a foundation for transitions in urban planning and governance, which enable cities to navigate change, build capacity to withstand shocks, and locate sources of experimentation and innovation in face of uncertainty\" (Ernston et al., 2010, p.531)."},{"index":3,"size":64,"text":"Underlying this is the 'inevitability' of climate change, the recognition that because of climate change we don't have choice but to learn how to adapt and to adopt an adaptive governance: \"climate change is reinvigorating a need to 'cultivate new techniques of governance' for urban sustainability (…). The inevitability of climate change is turning attention increasingly to the question of adaptation\" (Evans 2011, p.223)."},{"index":4,"size":89,"text":"In these conditions the meta-principles that are necessary to ensure the resilience of the system are flexibility, self-organization or creativity: \"Diversity is thus seen as key for dealing with disturbance and change in productive ways, with self-organization and the capacity for learning and adaptation constituting important resilience characteristics\" (Colding & Barthel, 2013, p.156-157). For Gleeson (2008Gleeson ( , p.2657) the imperative for this flexibility is \"the continuous task of adaptation that must maintain the resilience of the urban system (…) [and] the interplay of evolution and adaptation (policy) (p.2658)."},{"index":5,"size":126,"text":"Baud & Hordijk 2009's paper represents a good example of this literature. In their analysis these authors discuss the main characteristics of resilience thinking and adaptive governance, focusing on those features relevant for urban planning in the context of uncertainty, unpredictability and change. According to them, these characteristics include: flexible institutions, knowledge systems that integrate different sets of knowledge, the capacities of learning by experiment, creativity, and selforganization. In a subsequent paragraph they contrast these characteristics of adaptive governance with current situations, and conclude that a number of recent trends in urban governance -decentralization, the shift from government to governance and increased citizen participation -should in principle allow for more adaptive governance models, as they support (in theory) greater flexibility and autonomy at the local level."},{"index":6,"size":204,"text":"Yet, Tanner and his colleagues (2009) point out that in some cases, the decentralisation of decision-making and political control can create conflicts and delays between agencies, hampering the development of climate resilient programming. In certain circumstances heavily top-down decision-making structures can help to implement programmes quickly, even if they often fail to allow participation of those people they are designed to help. In that regard, the quality of government at the local level has still a potentially greater impact on climate risk. Municipal governments are responsible for decisions on quality and provision of infrastructure, disaster preparedness and disaster response, and city planning development (i.e. preventing new development in areas of high risk or by not protecting areas which allow for buffer zones). Yet, recent evidence suggests that many municipal governments do not have adequate provisions in order to deal with increased climate hazards such as flood management. In well governed cities good provision for storm and surface drainage can easily be built into the urban fabric, along with complementary measures to protect flooding. But in poorly governed cities this does not happen -and it is common for buildings and infrastructure to be constructed in ways that actually disrupt drainage channels (Tanner et al., 2009)."},{"index":7,"size":166,"text":"These latest observations lead some to conclude that urban resilience rests (more) on social and governance dimension than on technical or ecological ones. Ernston and his colleagues for instance believe that \"sustainability and resilience depend on a society's innovative capacity [and] solutions must be found by innovating in urban systems at different scales and across sectors. This firmly frames the urban system as an opportunity for sustainability and drives us to recognize that the answer to increased resilience might not lie in its ecological dimension, but rather in the social\" (Ernston et al., 2011 p.538). Reflecting on water management issues on the urban context, Rijke et al. (2013, p.63) converge to the same conclusion: \"Developing resilient water resource management systems is more a governance issue than a technological issue\". To some extent this resonates well with Adger and his co-authors when they argue that: ''adaptation to climate change is limited by the values, perceptions, processes and power structures within society'' (Adger et al., 2009, p. 349)."},{"index":8,"size":147,"text":"Finally the literature on governance in urban context also highlights the importance of multi-level (or polycentric) governance system, which is considered crucial for enhancing resilience (Huitema et al., 2009;van de Meene et al., 2011). In a multilevel governance system, decision-making is dispersed across multiple centres of authority (Hooghe & Marks, 2003). As such, it is the outcome of interaction between public sector agencies, private sector organisations and the community. Multi-level governance enables knowledge exchange and mutual adjustment of governance at different levels and sectors of governance (Agrawal, 2003) and potentially leads to synergetic effects (Ostrom & Cox, 2010) that enable more adaptive governance regimes (Armitage et al., 2007). In sum, multi-level governance relies on a mix of formal institutions and informal networks (Olsson et al., 2006;Tompkins & Adger, 2004) which are recognized to be critically important to account for, especially in the urban context in developing countries."}]},{"head":"Policy implications and concluding remarks","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":85,"text":"The salient point that emerges from the above analysis is the recognition that a large number of different urban policies seem to link almost naturally with the resilience agenda. Put differently, resilience -understood in one or the other of the main narratives presented above-appear relevant to frame a large number of different problems/issues related to urban processes. In the light of this analysis we can identify at least three reasons why adopting a resilience narrative can have positive effect in the context of urban policy."},{"index":2,"size":163,"text":"The first is the need to foster adaptation and flexibility in the planning process. Since resilience is by nature a concept which puts emphasis on the idea of adaptation and the dynamic nature of processes, we could reasonably assume that adopting a resilience narrative at the planning and implementation stages will contribute or facilitate the adoption of policies which endorse and reflect this adaptation feature. This is a clear characteristic of the ecological resilience narrative (e.g. Colding, 2007;Ahern, 2011), but also of the governance narrative (where innovation, transformation are characteristics that are presented as central elements) -see e.g., Baud & Hordijk (2009) or Evans (2011). In the case of engineering resilience the situation is more ambiguous. While 'returning to the initial state' implies some degree of dynamic response (e.g. Kreimer et al., 2003, Wang & Blackmore, 2009), some argue that this focus on persistence or stability also prevents or hinders the system from embracing a fully adaptive or even transformative approach (Liao, 2012)."},{"index":3,"size":230,"text":"Secondly, resilience is by nature a concept that emphasizes the importance of system thinking and system properties, including cross-scale dynamics and component interactions (Walkers et al., 2004;Folke, 2006). As such it has been instrumental in helping academics influencing the way urban planning is now conceptualized and applied in many cities (see e.g. Brown et al., 2012;Tyler & Moench, 2012). There is also growing evidence of the importance of system characteristics such as flexibility, redundancy and modularity, or safe failure, as generic principles that are critical in the face of extreme events. Cities that are served by complex and interconnected systems (e.g. power, water, transportation, health, etc.) appear far less vulnerable to these extreme events than cities that are wholly dependent on one single central system, with few or no back-up options in the event of a failure (Da Silva et al., 2012). Third, resilience is also a very useful concept as a way of integrating discourse, playing the role of a 'policy broker' that brings practitioners, policy-makers, organisations with different agendas, and communities of practice from different sectors together, around the same table, with the same objective: \"strengthening (urban) resilience\" (irrespective of what this term means exactly). Where piecemeal and siloed approaches are a major impediment for appropriate urban planning, resilience can appear as a powerful tool to break these silos and ensure a more integrated planning and/or implementation process."},{"index":4,"size":183,"text":"Yet, as the narrative analysis above has shown, the interpretations of what resilience is, what it is expected to achieve, what issues are at stake, and what characteristics of resilience are important, are varied and diverge widely across the spectrum. In fact, whether resilience should be used as a loose metaphor to 'inspire' and guide the policy agenda setting as part of an integrated planning process, or as a rigorous analytical framework to solve a technical problem, has not reached consensus yet, and both approaches are equally found in the literature. In other cases, some see resilience as the ultimate objective which should drive the entire urbanisation process, while others see or use it rather as a way to frame problems or even simply to stimulate discussions, either within a particular field, or across sectors and disciplines. Finally a few academics -and possibly a larger number of policy-makers-use it as a buzzword to attract attention or fundings, thus contributing to the uncomfortable feeling amongst others that resilience is sometimes nothing more than \"old wine in a new bottle\" used to perpetuate business-as-usual processes."},{"index":5,"size":57,"text":"The final point in this discussion builds on this last point and relates to another major potential limitation of the concept of resilience as revealed -or confirmed-by this review. It is the recognition that resilience may not provide the most appropriate framework to capture and reflect political economy processes -in the present case in relation to urbanization."},{"index":6,"size":169,"text":"While urbanisation is often presented as a positive outcome of development (UNHabitat, 2011), it is also becoming increasingly evident that cities are also of extreme inequality, concentrated poverty and unemployment, and high prevalence of malnutrition and associated heath issues (Ferré et al., 2011). Overall the percentage of the poor that live in urban areas is increasing (Ravallion et al., 2007;UNHabitat, 2013), raising questions about the distributional and equity dimension of urbanization. Recent global statistics reveal for instance that large sections of urban populations suffer from high levels of deprivation (Mitlin & Satterthwaite, 2013) that can sometimes be even more debilitating than those experienced by the rural poor (Harpham, 2009). Conjointly, it is estimated that the number of slum dwellers in LMICs has risen from 767 million in 2000 to more than 860 million ten years later (UN-Habitat, 2013). In Sub-Sahara Africa, the number of slum dwellers has almost doubled over the past fifteen years and over 60% of the urban population currently lives in under-served informal settlements (UN-Habitat, 2013)."},{"index":7,"size":119,"text":"In that context it is revealing that none of the 58 articles that were reviewed in this analysis discussed or even mentioned these statistics. It seems instead that with few exceptions (e.g. de Zeeuw et al., 2011) the urban resilience literature has chosen to avoid embracing any strong social justice element and to promote (or at least acknowledge) more explicitly the needs and interests of the most marginalised and disenfranchised urban groups. Even the literature on governance in urban context, which insists that urban resilience should focus on polycentricity, transparency and accountability, and inclusiveness (e.g. Ahern, 2011), does not systematically seek to reveal how uncertainty and exposure to risks is experienced differently by different social groups in urban spaces."},{"index":8,"size":128,"text":"As a consequence, none of the three narratives on urban resilience seems also able to acknowledge adequately the socially constructed aspects of resilience, i.e., the fact that the notion of resilience can be perceived, understood and experienced differently by different actors (rich, poor, men, women, old, young), or that the resilience of certain individuals or groups may be strengthened at the detriment of others (Hornborg, 2009;Davidson, 2010;Duit et al., 2010;Pelling & Manuel-Navarrete, 2011). Without asking tough questions concerning whose and what resilience are being sustained or strengthened (Béné et al. 2012), the urban resilience literature risks promoting approaches that, not only, do not challenge the status quo, but may even reinforce it when the latter generates situations that are arguably socially and/or environmentally harmful (Cannon & Muller-Mahn, 2010)."},{"index":9,"size":289,"text":"Before concluding this review, it is important to also discuss some of its potential shortcomings. By nature any literature review, be it loosely designed or more rigorously and systematically conducted, is time-bounded (at least on its upper end) and therefore unavoidably open to become out-dated at some stage. The rate of this 'out-of-date process' will depend amongst other things on how fast the literature reviewed evolves and advances. In our case, since the literature on urban resilience is expanding almost exponentially (see Fig. 1) we are expecting to see a rapidly growing number of articles being published in the coming years on this topic. We may therefore wonder whether some of the early weaknesses/gaps that have been identified through our review (and in particular in relation to the political economy of urbanization) may be progressively addressed by this new literature. In effect an examination of the literature for the 2.5 years following the period covered by our review (2014 -mid-2016) using the Web of Science and the same inclusion/exclusion criteria than those used in our initial review reveals the existence of broadly twice as many articles (174 articles) as those in the 11 years covered by our initial work. Of those 174 new articles, however, only 12 (6.8%) have indicated \"political\" as one of their topics, which is exactly the same ratio than in the group of articles that was included in our initial 2003-2013 review. Although this very rough indicator does not replace a complete and thorough analysis, it suggests that the most recent literature on urban resilience does not yet seem to have \"picked up\" and integrated this issue in their analyses; and therefore that our findings are still relevant for this more recent literature 2 ."},{"index":10,"size":52,"text":"In sum, what is missing in the present literature on urban resilience is the social justice and political dimension of the concept and a clearer understanding of the advantages but also the dangers of adopting such a concept as a new policy narrative without specifically acknowledging the political economy dimension of urbanization."},{"index":11,"size":86,"text":"While this absence of political economy does not matter much when talking about the resilience of materials, it began to matter with the resilience thinking of ecologists, especially when they insist (correctly) to include humans as part of the ecosystems. And it became absolutely critical when resilience is represented as desirable governance goal or quality that a city could have -and became in effect a quasi-political construct.   Resilience theory to develop a better approach to urban flood (Liao 2012)  a metaphor (to help break silo)"},{"index":12,"size":55,"text":"Resilience as a metaphor to help link ecology and planning (Pickett et al. 2004)  an indicator (of sustainability) Milman and Short (2008); Monteiro et al. ( 2013)  a buzz-word (as a strategy to publish or attract fund?)  no use beyond the title (part of the buzzword?) Wallace et al. (2007); Burch (2010) "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Fig. 1 . Fig.1. Number of peer-reviewed articles published on urban resilience (see details in text). "},{"text":"Fig. 2 . Fig.2. Evolutionary path of the concept of resilience and emergence of its different epistemological lineages. "},{"text":" Source: Web of Science + BIOSIS + MEDLINE  Research Domains: Science Technology + Social Science + Arts Humanities  Research Areas: Environmental Science Ecology + Urban studies + Sociology + Public Administration  Key-words in title: 'urban'/'city'/'cities' AND 'resilience'/'resilient'  Excluded: socio-psychological/medical studies of individual (child) resilience in urban context.  Excluded: terrorism/security studies  Only peer-reviewed material (books and project reports were excluded)  Published: From Jan 2003 to Dec 2013 (11-year period)  Language: English  "},{"text":" reveals how the same initial issue (unsustainable urbanization) calls for different processes ('Technical changes' according to Agudelo Vera et al. and 'Biodiversity conservation' for Colding & Barthel) and different practices ('Urban harvest' for Agudelo Vera et al. and 'UGCs' for Colding &  "},{"text":"Table 1 . The different levels of definition of the term resilience as found in the urban resilience literature 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 19401950196019701980199020002010  "},{"text":"Table 2 . The different ways the term 'resilience' is used in the urban resilience literature Use Examples UseExamples  a goal (what to aim at) Energy resilience: reliable supplies and stable  a goal (what to aim at)Energy resilience: reliable supplies and stable  costs of energy (Coaffe 2008) costs of energy (Coaffe 2008)  an analytical tool (to understand the   an analytical tool (to understand the problem and find better solution)  problem and find better solution)  "}],"sieverID":"cec40778-f18b-4cda-83e0-768753309b56","abstract":"The International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT) believes that open access contributes to its mission of reducing hunger and poverty, and improving human nutrition in the tropics through research aimed at increasing the eco-efficiency of agriculture.CIAT is committed to creating and sharing knowledge and information openly and globally. We do this through collaborative research as well as through the open sharing of our data, tools, and publications."}

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data/part_4/004cdeb871d9f20e494764930d403a0e.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"004cdeb871d9f20e494764930d403a0e","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/ae0be5f9-75b1-4ea4-b111-d60eb955a48a/retrieve"},"pageCount":2,"title":"UGANDAN FARMERS CAN BE PART OF THE SOLUTION","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"AN AFRICA-LED SOLUTION TO END FOOD AID","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":233,"text":"Relief agencies of the United Nations and other organizations are buying the resilient seeds released by the National Agricultural Research Organization (NARO). Stanley Nkalubo is a Team Leader and Breeder of the Legumes Research Program National Crops Resources Research Institute (NaCRRI), part of NARO, said: \"Since 2014, a good majority of seed companies in Uganda supply relief and government organizations with improved, drought resilient and higher yielding seed varieties. These bean varieties are developed together with our research partners -like CIAT -and released by us to deliver to partners, who work with relief agencies. The bean breeding lines used are normally obtained from the CIAT gene bank at Kawanda. It also serves as a back-up store of all these improved bean seeds -it's our refuge in case of any calamity.\" Private sector companies like Equator Seeds Ltd., are mass producing them to sell in bulk to relieve communities in refugee camps along the border with South Sudan, where hunger levels are critical. Felix Otim, Sales Manager at Equator Seeds in Gulu said: \"We don't know the future, we can't really anticipate the positives or negativity off the future. But we have to be ready. For livelihoods, there really needs to be well planned and increased production.\" In the background, seeds bound for FAO are being packed and ready for sending to vulnerable populations and refugees, increasing their capacity to sustain themselves, he added."}]},{"head":"A REFUGE FOR BETTER SEEDS TO BUILD ROBUST, RESILIENT AGRICULTURAL SYSTEMS","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":78,"text":"The Kawanda Genebank in Uganda protects and stores around 4,000 thousand types of beans, especially bred using conventional methods. Many of the beans are sourced from CIAT's genebank in Colombia -which houses the largest collection of common beans in the world. Led by a pioneering team of African breeders, this storage facility is a refuge for beans which can be sent across Africa to boost local supplies of bean seeds, with different useful traits, and alleviate food imports."},{"index":2,"size":59,"text":"In recent months, Ethiopia, Tanzania, Rwanda and Burundi have received heat and drought tolerant bean breeding lines. Four micronutrient rich varieties -high in iron and zinc to tackle malnutrition -were released in Kenya. Researchers are also ready to send climbing beans to Rwanda -they can produce more on smaller plots of land, where land availability is a big problem."},{"index":3,"size":86,"text":"Yet this refuge for seeds could be under threat, with dwindling funding and fewer resources to support vulnerable national research programs. For example those in South Sudan -mean that researchers are under more pressure than ever to beat increasing weather extremes: drought and flooding -with fewer resources and less capacity. This could critically affect the supply of nutritious beans, an affordable, major staple and source of protein and income generation for many communities across Africa, enabling them to become self-sufficient. CONTACT Robin Buruchara, PABRA Director [email protected]"}]}],"figures":[{"text":" Ugandan farmers fight famine in South Sudan Earlier this year, South Sudan fell victim to the first famine declared since 2011. Almost six million people are still at risk of starvation. Over 1 million displaced Sudanese are migrating to neighbouring northern Uganda, where they stay in camps for internally displaced people fleeing conflict. Yet, resources to feed the influx of people fleeing South Sudan are scarce. The World Food Programme has reported overwhelming demand for food aid, which has recently been cut due to funding delays. To avoid increasing unrest and migration, a long-term food security solution for the region is urgently needed. \"When we returned from the camp, we were using our traditional planting. We didn't used to get much. Then CIAT and partners came and I went to see a demonstration. We got much knowledge about farming. Now, we have seen a very big change in our lives. farming: with the local varieties it's harder and more expensiveweeding, harvesting can take you a lot of money, but this one is very simple.\" "},{"text":"Eveline Aryemo: \"I like this seed. When we plant it, from 1 seed we get 40 or more than 30 seeds. Now the benefits are if we plant, because I have responsibilities, it helps me for consumption. Others I sell and it pays school fees for the children. Beans like the older ones do not yield much compared to this one we are currently planting. Sometimes we only got around 20 seeds or sometimes rarely we got 30 seeds. I find the benefits are there because if I cultivate, it makes me money. I also feed the children in terms of something to eat. If they are sick it is these things that I have cultivated which I pick and I go and sell to pay for medicine.\" "}],"sieverID":"6edfdcda-bcb2-42fa-a9a4-fb8772b9e228","abstract":"In the Gulu region of Northern Uganda, communities have slowly returned after fleeing the Lord's Resistance Army many years ago. Despite little farming experience, technology and resources, they now have a major task on their hands: supplying food for their own families and communities, and also to those escaping war and hunger-stricken South Sudan.The International Center for Tropical Agriculture known by its Spanish acronym CIAT and Uganda's National Agricultural Research Organization (NARO) and partners are working to supply farmers with high yielding, drought and disease resilient beans to boost yields and improve nutrition among vulnerable refugees and communities in northern Uganda. Despite persistent drought, farmers are now increasing their bean yields for their own families to eat -and to sell to traders who demand particular types of beans -for example the NABE bean series -which have a wide range of benefits, from being tastier and more resilient to climate stresses, to pest and disease resilience -than local varieties."}

data/part_4/00aa7ce921e8dc87db5e90eec455b6f9.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"00aa7ce921e8dc87db5e90eec455b6f9","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://digitalarchive.worldfishcenter.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.12348/1295/WF_2767.pdf"},"pageCount":4,"title":"Baseline study: Nutritional status, food security and fish consumption among people living with HIV/AIDS in Zambia","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":95,"text":"Availability and intake of nutritious foods is essential for people living with HIV/AIDS to keep them healthy, active and to prolong their lives. A stronger, healthier body can better resist opportunistic infections, while food insecurity and poor nutritional status may hasten progression from HIV into AIDS and may undermine adherence and response to Anti Retroviral Treatment (ART). Understanding food availability and accessibility, and the nutritional quantity and quality of food intake, is imperative in resource limited settings where malnutrition and food insecurity are chronic or endemic, as is the case in many parts of Zambia."},{"index":2,"size":165,"text":"Statistics on malnutrition and stunting among children in different parts of Zambia are increasingly available. However, knowledge is limited on which and how many nutrients are required at various stages of progression of HIV/AIDS to mitigate the disease and the best ways to assess malnourishment with regard to macro-nutrients (energy, protein) and micro-nutrients (vitamins, minerals) based on people's food intake. Different foods contain varying quantities of the nutrients required for normal health, growth and body repair in sickness. All the required nutrients cannot be found in one food type, but some foods can provide a major part of the needed nutrients. Fish is such a food that contains high quantity and quality nutrients; it contains high biological availability of nutrients such as proteins, fats, vitamins and minerals. Under the regional programme Fisheries and HIV/AIDS in Africa, the University of Zambia, in collaboration with the WorldFish Center, has undertaken a baseline survey of the nutritional status and fish consumption of people living with HIV/AIDS in Zambia."}]},{"head":"Methods","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":77,"text":"The lead researcher from the University of Zambia trained a team consisting of four university graduates on interactive questionnaire administration and Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) methods. The research team developed, tested and conducted the baseline questionnaire in four target areas; two rural sites and two peri-urban sites. A total of 145 respondents were interviewed at their respective health centres. All respondents signed an informed consent declaration, participation was anonymous and the research team observed strict confidentiality practices."},{"index":2,"size":83,"text":"Data were uploaded into Excel format, after which the lead researcher and biometricians analyzed the data using SPSS software. Frequencies and cross tabulations of information from all four peri-urban and rural areas targeted were completed and the narrative results per target area were analyzed and integrated within the coded data set. The statistical analysis of the coded data using SPSS Pearson's Chi square's associations of variables showed some trends, some of which were not significant and cannot be generalized to a larger population."}]},{"head":"Study results","index":3,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"a.","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":188,"text":"Socio-economic profile of respondents The study found that 40% of the sample population were female headed households, with women being the majority of the 86% of people living on less than 5 million Zambian Kwacha (≈ USD 1000) per year. Women were also found to be more heavily dependent on their children and more likely to be trapped in the widely acknowledged vicious cycle of food insecurity in a context of HIV/AIDS and malnutrition. Education levels of respondents were generally low, with half of the respondents having attended grade 1-7 of primary school, while 38% had completed grade 8-12, and 12% had never been to school. The majority (80%) of the rural female respondents claimed they had only attended lower primary school (grade 1-4) and as a consequence they were often unemployed or working as subsistence farmers. However, yields did not last for more than three months per year. While income levels were found to be generally low, those living in rural areas had more people with lower income (86% lived on 0-5 million Kwacha per year) than those in peri-urban areas (64% in the same income category)."}]},{"head":"b.","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":164,"text":"Availability of fish Fish, meat and chicken are the most commonly found animal protein sources in all four study sites. Fish, mainly bream and kapenta (small dried fish), was found to be most preferred, most consumed and most available to fishing and retailing households. While fish is mainly destined for sale, some fish is used for home consumption when unsold or when lacking other animal protein or vegetables to accompany the staple food nshima (maize meal). Kapenta found to be most affordable and easily divisible among household members. Especially in peri-urban areas, consumption of fish (bream or kapenta) depends on purchasing power of the household and the study found that poorer households (36% in rural and 22% in peri-urban areas) rarelyprobably no more than once a month -eat large fish or meat,. In both rural and peri-urban areas, respondents indicated not having enough money to buy meat, chicken or whole large fish, as they are expensive. This is another reason why kapenta is popular."}]},{"head":"c. Fish consumption and preparation","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":91,"text":"The most common staple for lunch and supper was nshima (maize meal) with vegetables, nshima with fish, and nshima with beef. Most families (75%) were found to eat together, while in some households (15%) the children ate first; in a few households (10%) the father ate first. In both rural and peri-urban areas it was found that the prevailing practice was to give every household member their food on their own plate, which allows children to get an equitable share and be able to finish their meal at their own pace."},{"index":2,"size":127,"text":"The amount and types of fish consumed varied among the respondents in the different target areas. The majority of respondents claimed to prefer fresh and dried bream, but actual consumption depends on purchasing power of the household. Respondents had a strong preference for fresh fish, but could only afford kapenta, which is highly nutritious but not as much preferred as large bream. Dried kapenta was often cooked in groundnut sauce in order to extend the small amount of fish, or cooked for a long time and added to large amounts of vegetables such as cabbage, pumpkin leaves, onion and tomato, to make the vegetables taste of fish. This indicates respondents' preference for fish, but the nutritional losses of these types of preparation have yet to be determined."},{"index":3,"size":68,"text":"Kapenta was said to have a bitter taste, so some respondents were found to remove the stomach. As a consequence, a lot of nutrients are removed, reducing the potential nutritional benefits. A few respondents claimed to develop allergic reactions to kapenta, but for the majority of respondents it is the default animal protein source when income does not allow for more expensive fish or other animal protein sources."},{"index":4,"size":230,"text":"All respondents reported the same process for cleaning large fresh fish before cooking; fresh fish is cleaned by removing gills, intestines, scales, and washed in clean water, the fish is then boiled whole or cut in half in a saucepan with water, a little oil, tomato and onion if available. The cleaned fresh fish can also be fried in cooking oil and gravy made from fried chopped tomato and onion. Preparation of dried fish also appeared to be similar among most respondents. Some respondents stated that they rinse the dried fish with warm or cold water, while others first clean the dried fish by removing gills and excess scales. The dried fish is then washed in warm water and boiled in water as a whole or cut in pieces to fit the pot. Cooking oil, tomato and onion can be added when available. Another method of preparation includes washing the dried fish, allowing it to soak a little, then rubbing it with salt and roasting it over a charcoal fire, on a grill, or frying it in a pan. Dried fish can be boiled with different types of vegetables as extenders. Preparation of small fresh fish (kapenta) was done in the same manner by all respondents; removing scales, gills and intestines, then washing it in cold water, sun-drying it if possible, and then pan-frying or boiling and adding pounded groundnuts."},{"index":5,"size":111,"text":"Fish powder supplementation was received by some respondents in the two rural sites through an NGO at their health clinic. The fish powder is mixed with pounded groundnuts and added to porridge or used it as sauce for nshima. Some added the powder to vegetables, which made it taste like dried fish with vegetables. The respondents in the peri-urban sites had never received fish powder supplementation from external sources, including their respective clinic. Some elderly respondents recalled that many years ago, the under-five clinic advised them to pound dry kapenta and add it to children's porridge to help prevent malnutrition. The study did not find evidence that these practices still exist."},{"index":6,"size":68,"text":"The study found a trend that more respondents prefer to consume processed, mostly dried, fish (72%) compared to fresh fish (28%). Respondents from the rural site next to the river were no exception, although one would assume these people to have more access to fresh fish. Most respondents (93%) in all four target communities, when asked what fish they preferred, indicated they preferred large rather than small fish."}]},{"head":"Conclusions and recommendations","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":151,"text":"Although further research and stronger data sets are needed, the authors draw some tentative conclusions. The main point is the importance of having reliable access to food for health and survival. Households without regular income were found to be more vulnerable to food insecurity, and faced poor health and disease as a consequence, especially female headed households. Fish is the most preferred source of protein, with kapenta (small dried fish) being the most commonly consumed animal protein, although not consumed in large quantities. However, access to fish depends on availability of cash and most people living with HIV/AIDS are too poor to even afford frequent consumption of the accessible, cheaper kapenta. While kapenta is easy to share and extend with vegetables, real quantitative intake seemed to be low due to intra household sharing of food. Further research is required to confirm actual intake of protein and other foods per household member."},{"index":2,"size":149,"text":"Nshima is the major staple for all respondents, who interpreted \"being food secure\" with eating this traditional Zambian maize meal 2 to 3 times per day. The study confirmed that rural households were much poorer than peri-urban households, based on comparison of occupation, income and individual household asset ownership. For most respondents, low income combined with low asset ownership contributes to a vicious cycle of chronic hunger and food insecurity. A variety of nutrition information is provided, but a disparity in nutrition information and education between the rural and the peri-urban target areas was noted. Information provided included the importance of good nutrition and examples of what people living with HIV/AIDS should eat or avoid consuming. However, due to regular or permanent lack of food at household level, most respondents cannot practice the well intended training and information on nutrition which they have received at their respective health centres."},{"index":3,"size":40,"text":"The data gathered has provided an insight into the often desperate food insecurity and poverty faced by rural and peri-urban households where one or more household members are living with HIV/AIDS. Based on study findings and analysis, key recommendations include:"},{"index":4,"size":85,"text":"For further information on this study, please contact: Saskia M.C. Hüsken Regional Advisor Fisheries, Health and HIV/AIDS The WorldFish Center 4186 Addis Ababa Road, Longacres, Lusaka [email protected] i The full report: Banda Nyirenda, B., Sampa, M. and Hüsken, S.M.C. (2010). Baseline study: Nutritional status, food security and fish consumption of people living with HIV/AIDS in Zambia was produced under the Regional Programme Fisheries and HIV/AIDS in Africa: Investing in Sustainable Solutions and can be obtained from www.worldfishcenter.org/wfcms/SF0959SID or from the WorldFish Center office in Lusaka."},{"index":5,"size":71,"text":"Increased funding for studies on fish and food consumption among people living with HIV/AIDS in Zambia; Studies on the effects of fish on Anti Retroviral Therapy (ART); Studies on the effectiveness of sustainable income generating activities on the food and nutritional status of people living with HIV/AIDS, including small scale aquaculture; Baseline information on nutritional and food security status and fish consumption of HIV/AIDS infected and affected fishing communities in Zambia."}]}],"figures":[],"sieverID":"085ca0df-0460-44e3-a61b-93b34f799466","abstract":""}

data/part_4/01526eaa81cfff20d37885e18c81d51c.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"01526eaa81cfff20d37885e18c81d51c","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/e4fd6896-0630-4e7d-969c-7902c4ed5cf0/retrieve"},"pageCount":18,"title":"Assessment of investment priorities for Tanzania's dairy sector: Report on activities and accomplishments","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":99,"text":"Tanzania has developed a livestock master plan with the technical support of the International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI) and funding from the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation (BMGF). The aim of the Tanzania Livestock Master Plan (TLMP) is to contribute to the achievement of the national objectives of poverty reduction, food security and nutrition, economic growth, increased exports, and industrialization. The TLMP identifies the priority livestock value chains to drive the achievement of these goals. One of these value chains is dairy, which has been identified as having high potential to contribute to these national objectives with appropriate investments."},{"index":2,"size":77,"text":"Tanzania is in the process of implementing the TLMP. Given its limited prior experience in implementing, monitoring, and evaluating a comprehensive livestock development plan, it recognizes the need for support of all the Tanzania livestock stakeholders and partners, to fully realize the objectives and targets set out in the TLMP. ILRI has been engaged in this process and has secured additional funding from BMGF to support the implementation of livestock master plans in selected countries, including Tanzania."},{"index":3,"size":112,"text":"As one of the steps to implement the proposed interventions for the livestock sector, ILRI and Dalberg Implement partnered to jointly implement the 'Capacity building for the implementation and monitoring and evaluation of Tanzania livestock master plan (TLMP)' project. The overall objective of this project is to strengthen national and local capacity to conduct evidence-based policy analysis to enhance the quality of interventions, performance tracking, monitoring and evaluation, and dialogue in support of TLMP implementation. The project provides technical and capacity support to the Ministry of Livestock and Fisheries (MoLF) (Private Sector Desk, Policy and monitoring and evaluation [M&E] team) and key TLMP players to be able to implement the proposed recommendations."},{"index":4,"size":25,"text":"The objective of this report is to describe activities and accomplishments to date and to discuss the next steps for achievement of the project's objectives."}]},{"head":"Activities to date","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":49,"text":"The principal activities to date have been a review of previous analyses of Tanzania's livestock sector, a workshop to solicit stakeholder opinions about investment priorities specifically for the dairy sector, and planning for next steps, including quantitative analyses and additional engagement with stakeholders. Each of these is described below."}]},{"head":"Review of previous analyses and planning documents","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":68,"text":"In 2017, the Tanzania Ministry of Livestock and Fisheries released the 'Tanzania Livestock Sector Analysis (TLSA) (2016/17-2031/32)'. This document was developed with input from ILRI and consultants summarizing the recent performance of the livestock sector and its projected performance for the next 15 years based on the Livestock Sector Investment and Policy Toolkit (LSIPT) modeling framework. The document identified the overarching goals of livestock sector development, which include:"},{"index":2,"size":18,"text":"• reducing poverty • achieving food and nutritional security • contributing to economic growth • contributing to exports"}]},{"head":"• contributing to industrialization and employment","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":99,"text":"The analyses noted that demand for dairy products in Tanzania was likely to grow more rapidly than supply under their baseline assumptions and recommended a number of actions to accelerate the rate of milk production increases. These actions included 'artificial insemination (AI), synchronization, multiple ovulation and embryo transfer combined with improved feed and health interventions, more investment in value addition and complementary policy changes' (URT 2017). The report also recommended encouragement of private sector investment in feed production and provision of veterinary services, strengthening of dairy cooperatives, investment in milk processing plants and improvement of research and extension capacity."},{"index":2,"size":178,"text":"Shortly following the release of the Tanzania Livestock Sector Analysis, the Tanzania Ministry of Livestock and Fisheries released the 'Tanzania Livestock Master Plan' document developed in collaboration with ILRI and a team of consultants to provide a 'investment roadmap' for livestock. This document complements and builds on the TLSA to provide 'a series of five-year development implementation plans or 'roadmaps', to be used to implement the Agricultural Sector Development Programme', the ASDP II, codified in 2016. The dairy investment roadmap identifies 'improved family dairy' and 'commercial specialized dairy' as commodity value chains of interest. Similar to the TLSA, the roadmap recommends investments to improve the productivity of dairy cows: artificial insemination (with hormone synchronization) complemented by improved feed quality and quantity and veterinary services. The TLMP projected large percentage increases (+281%) in the number of crossbred cattle and the milk production per cow (+26-42%) in Tanzania by 2022, with concomitant increases in national milk production. The document indicates required investments, return on investments (ROI) and internal rate of return (IRR) as well as complementary actions required for success."},{"index":3,"size":171,"text":"The TLSA and dairy investment roadmap documents provide important documentation of previous performance and clearly state future priorities among a large number of potential investment options for Tanzania's dairy sector. However, there is scope for additional analyses of investment options, in part due to limitations of the previous analytical approaches. For example, the LSIPT modeling framework has at its core a national-level animal herd dynamics model. Capturing herd dynamics clearly is important, and the framework also allows specification of assumptions regarding reproduction and production rates and documentation of potential costs. However, the LSIPT has limitations in the sense that it does not appear to represent linkages between assumptions about productivity changes and resulting changes in costs or prices (Dutilly et al. 2019). The LSIPT has limited explicit representation of value chains other than herd dynamics, and thus may not fully represent required modifications or impacts in the post-farm marketing of dairy products. The TLMP provides information on rates of return but often not many details of how those values were calculated."},{"index":4,"size":165,"text":"In addition, the previous analyses illustrate that it can be difficult to link modeled or assumed changes in the dairy value chain to the overarching development objectives noted above. For example, poverty reduction is a stated goal of livestock development and a reduction in the prevalence of poverty would thus be a desirable outcome. Analysis of the impacts of value chain interventions on the prevalence of poverty would require assumptions about the distribution of incomes by dairy-producing households and the impacts of proposed investments on that distribution. In addition, there could be multiplier effects on the incomes of households that do not own dairy cows that would affect the poverty prevalence more broadly. Similarly, impacts on food and nutrition security (FNS) are difficult to assess with only consideration of milk production increases. FNS is a complex and multi-dimensional concept that often is best measured by changes in a household's overall access to food, not only by changes in availability of one product such as milk."}]},{"head":"Stakeholder workshop on investment priorities for Tanzania's dairy sector","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":56,"text":"Although the previous TLSA and investment roadmap documents provided priorities and road maps for future investment, given the elapsed time since the release of those documents and the potential limitations in the methods employed for analytical assessment, a process to update stakeholder assessments of investment priorities and plan additional analyses with alternative modeling approaches is appropriate."},{"index":2,"size":72,"text":"In early October 2021, ILRI and Dalberg organized a one-day workshop that brought together key stakeholders in the livestock sector to discuss and assess investment priorities for Tanzania's dairy sector. The input from the workshop will support improving the quality of analysis in the dairy investment roadmap and support the identification of fit-forpurpose technologies for investment in the dairy value chain (a detailed report for the workshop is included in annex 1)."},{"index":3,"size":41,"text":"The objective of the workshop was to solicit input from the relevant dairy industry stakeholders about investment priorities for Tanzania's dairy sector to achieve the overarching goals and priorities for quantitative analysis. The specific objectives of the workshop were as follows:"},{"index":4,"size":1,"text":"1."},{"index":5,"size":25,"text":"Discuss and assess impacts of dairy sector intervention options on dairy sector outcomes (production and consumption) and overarching goals from the Tanzania Livestock Master Plan."}]},{"head":"2.","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":22,"text":"Discuss and rank the degree of implementation challenges for dairy sector intervention options such as cost, required expertise, and degree of change."}]},{"head":"3.","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":21,"text":"Discuss and rank the priority investments that will be used as input into quantitative ex-ante assessments with System Dynamics (SD) modeling."},{"index":2,"size":158,"text":"Table 4. Summary metrics for stakeholder assessments of priority investments in the dairy value chain Note: Values above are means of values reported by stakeholder working groups. 'Benefit' refers to the assessments of how the investment contributes to production, consumption or goals of the TLMP. 'Cost' refers to the investment cost, degree of expertise and degree of required systemic change for an investment. Scale priority and priority points are calculated based on the priority rankings of the stakeholder working groups. Total priority points is the sum of the values of priorities assigned by the working groups, with first priority receiving 3 points, second priority 2 points and third priority 1 point (those not in the top three priorities received zero points.). Total priority points were multiplied by 0.4. Given that the maximum value was 11, multiplying by 0.4 scales the total priority points to be roughly comparable to the 1 to 4 scaling for benefit and cost metrics."},{"index":3,"size":31,"text":"These will be complemented by assessment of public and private investments in research, development and infrastructure and relevant policy modifications (e.g. the cess (taxes) charged on inter-regional shipments of dairy products)."},{"index":4,"size":37,"text":"These were deemed to be important potential investments aligned with the recommendations from the TLMP and stakeholder priorities expressed in the workshop, but also feasible with the analytical tools to be developed and the data required. 1."},{"index":5,"size":29,"text":"Development and application of a new quantitative SD model of the Tanzanian dairy value chain to assess the impacts of the investments identified for analysis in the previous section;"}]},{"head":"2.","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":37,"text":"A second workshop with stakeholders in the Tanzanian dairy value chain with the goals of evaluating the analyses from the SD model and using the results as an opportunity for discussion, learning and consensus for future action."}]},{"head":"Development and application of a quantitative System Dynamics (SD) model","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":19,"text":"As noted above, it is relevant to consider the dynamic effects of investments from a dairy value chain perspective."},{"index":2,"size":182,"text":"The analyses intended for this stage of the project will use a SD modeling approach (Sterman 2000) that accounts for dynamic outcomes related to stock, flow and feedback effects. The modeling will build on previous SD-based dairy value chain models from Nicholson and Stephenson (2015), Dizyee et al. (2019) for Tanzania and the model by Simões et al. (2019). The model structures from these previous works can be adapted to allow consideration of farms, post-farm marketing and processing, consumer demand and international trade for Tanzania's dairy value chain. To the extent that available data allow, we intend to represent different farm types (e.g. commercial and family dairies), two product categories (fluid milk and manufactured products) and multiple geographic regions. It is also relevant to consider impacts of investments based on whether farms (or processors) adopt the technologies supported by the investments. For example, Simões et al (2019) noted that improved feeding technologies for smallholder dairy farms in Brazil can improve profitability for adopters (with offsetting effects of lower prices due to increased milk production) but that it lowered incomes for non-adopting farms."},{"index":3,"size":227,"text":"Once the initial mathematical structure of the SD model is developed, we will assess data availability and modify the model as necessary. Consistent with SD modeling practice conventions, we intend to compare model predictions to observed outcomes as a component of model calibration and evaluation. As needed, the modeling analysis will use 'sensitivity analyses' (e.g. those in Nicholson and Monterrosa 2021) to assess the impacts of uncertainty in relevant assumptions. The impacts of investments will be evaluated relative to a Baseline scenario without the investments. An initial assessment with the model will assume low-or no-cost and immediate implementation of investment actions or impacts (e.g. improved milk per cow). This will provide information about whether a best-case investment scenario results in desired achievements of stated goals related to production, consumption and value chain incomes. These analyses will be complemented by additional analysis of the implementation costs and time delays likely to occur for the different investments. It is not uncommon for investments designed to improve outcomes to a) require considerable time for impact and/or b) result in outcomes that are initially worse and then improve (so-called 'worse before better behaviour'). To the extent possible, we will consider impacts on appropriate metrics for the overarching development goals. This model and these scenarios will be used to engage with dairy value chain stakeholders in a second 'learning and validation' workshop."}]},{"head":"Learning and validation workshop with Tanzania dairy value chain stakeholders","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":107,"text":"A second workshop with stakeholders is planned for mid-December 2021. The objectives of this workshop are to 1) present the basic characteristics of the model to stakeholders, 2) use the model to facilitate real-time analysis of investment options to facilitate discussion among stakeholders about investment priorities, and 3) re-assess investment priorities of stakeholders based on the additional information about the linkages between investments and outcomes provided by the quantitative analysis. The workshop will also discuss the required actions on the part of stakeholders to implement the priority investments. The results of this workshop will be summarized in a report similar to that from the October 2021 workshop."},{"index":2,"size":34,"text":"The ultimate goal is a clear understanding of the investment priorities in Tanzania's dairy value chain, the actions required by different stakeholders and the range of impacts on farmers, milk marketers, consumers and government."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"Table 1 . Stakeholder assessments of how alternative investments in the dairy value chain affect overarching development goals Box 30709, Nairobi 00100 Kenya Phone +254 20 422 3000 Fax +254 20 422 3001 Email [email protected] ilri.org better lives through livestock ILRI is a CGIAR research centre Box 5689, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia Phone +251 11 617 2000 Fax +251 11 667 6923 Email [email protected] Box 30709, Nairobi 00100 Kenya Phone +254 20 422 3000 Fax +254 20 422 3001 Email [email protected] better lives through livestock ILRI is a CGIAR research centreBox 5689, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia Phone +251 11 617 2000 Fax +251 11 667 6923 Email [email protected] ILRI has offices in East Africa • South Asia • Southeast and East Asia • Southern Africa • West Africa ILRI has offices in East Africa • South Asia • Southeast and East Asia • Southern Africa • West Africa  "},{"text":"Table 2 . Stakeholder assessments of the challenges and costs of alternative investments in the dairy value chain  "},{"text":"Table 3 . Overall stakeholder assessments of priority investments in the dairy value chain  "},{"text":"Table 4 . Summary metrics for stakeholder assessments of priority investments in the dairy value chain  "}],"sieverID":"e422f20c-6515-4fba-9175-0ec46bcf7dfa","abstract":"CGIAR is a global partnership that unites organizations engaged in research for a food-secure future. The CGIAR Research Program on Livestock provides research-based solutions to help smallholder farmers, pastoralists and agro-pastoralists transition to sustainable, resilient livelihoods and to productive enterprises that will help feed future generations. It aims to increase the productivity and profitability of livestock agri-food systems in sustainable ways, making meat, milk and eggs more available and affordable across the developing world. The Program brings together five core partners: the International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI) with a mandate on livestock; the International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT), which works on forages; the International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas (ICARDA), which works on small ruminants and dryland systems; the Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences (SLU) with expertise particularly in animal health and genetics and the Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ) which connects research into development and innovation and scaling processes."}

data/part_4/0169d71ed49ef5f8d1915ebd426f5608.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0169d71ed49ef5f8d1915ebd426f5608","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/ded21f88-f7ab-471e-b42d-dd9a12bd6453/retrieve"},"pageCount":2,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":163,"text":"CGIAR Research Program on Roots, Tubers and Bananas (RTB). This project aims to: (i) investigate options for silage making and supplementation; (ii) identify gender responsive models for organizing value chain actors to produce, conserve and market sweetpotato based feeds; (iii) strengthen existing linkages between pig farmers and sweetpotato traders; and (iv) build business capacity for profitable silage making and pig raising by December 2016. Our challenge is to integrate sweetpotato and pig production systems and demonstrate its benefits, in terms of increased productivity, affordable costs and savings in labour use, to smallholder and commercially oriented Ugandan livestock farmers--especially women, who play a major role in pig production. Building on experience generated with partners in Kenya, we conduct adaptive participatory research with pilot farmers and youth entrepreneurs to test and validate the technological and economic feasibility of sweetpotato silage production and marketing as well as best-bet options for the organization of the value chain in Uganda. The expected research outcomes of this initiative are:"},{"index":2,"size":41,"text":"• Decreased postharvest losses (50% average reduction in the amount of wasted vines by pilot farmers and utilization of at least 20% of non-marketable roots for silage); • Increased shelf-life of sweetpotato residues (shelf-life of vines extended to at least 1.5"}]}],"figures":[],"sieverID":"87e68ee5-cf92-43c8-8a03-5fa4040166c6","abstract":"In Uganda, researchers are developing innovative business models to promote and commercialize sweetpotato silage. This is expected to transform production and utilization of sweetpotato vines and roots to attenuate the constraint of livestock feed shortages. Fig. 1 New silage recipes being tested Nutritious and affordable sweetpotato based silage: the feed solution for small-scale pig farmers 2015 AUG What is the problem?In Uganda, quality commercial concentrate pig feeds are expensive, while other locally available feeds are seasonal in nature and often of poor quality. Feed accounts for about 62% of the total production costs in pig farming and the problem is further compounded by farmers' limited knowledge of supplementation strategies. To mitigate feeding costs, farmers often resort to using locally available feed resources, e.g., crop residues, plant leaves (Ficus natalensis), swill and kitchen leftovers to feed their animals. Sweetpotato makes up about 20% of total crop residues provided by roots and tuber crops and farmers in Uganda currently feed an estimated 1.9 -2.7 kg per day of sweetpotato residues to pigs. However, sweetpotato vines, which are the most commonly used form of fodder, are highly perishable and seasonal in nature. Silage (fermented, high moisture stored fodder) is a relatively easy and affordable technology that farmers can use to conserve roots and vines for feeding pigs in times of scarcity and helps cope with seasonal feed prices fluctuations that many smallholder pig producers experience. Cost-effective sweetpotato silage recipes were developed and tested in Kenya during Sweetpotato Action for Security and Health (SASHA) Phase 1 project. Silage provides an opportunity to reduce waste in urban markets and at the household level can open up business opportunities for youth and women. However, the technology is not known amongst smallholder producers and has not been validated under Ugandan conditions."}

data/part_4/01b9066352baeb5116cf46ce7feeed84.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"01b9066352baeb5116cf46ce7feeed84","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/19fcba7d-27e8-4e69-84c1-e1406dfb62de/retrieve"},"pageCount":29,"title":"Micro and meso-level issues affecting potato production and marketing in the tropical highlands of Sub-Saharan Africa: The known and the unknowns","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":151,"text":"Potato production is a major economic activity in the tropical highlands of sub Saharan Africa (SSA). It is considered the hidden treasure of Africa due to its contribution to: i) food and income security (Muthoni et al, 2009), ii) direct and indirect employment (Blanken et al. 1994;Kabungo 2008;de Graaff, 2011). The direct employment results from on-farm employment of both producers and non-producers who work as permanent and temporary workers in potato farmers while indirect employment arise from the opportunities created by backward and forward linkage effects (Okello et al, 2014). The backward linkages include the manufacture and supply of inputs, the production of seed potato, the transportation of inputs to production areas and the retailing of agro-inputs. The forward linkage effects include the transportation of potato from the farm to destination markets (e.g., packaging, loading and hauling), peeling, chipping and packaging fresh tubers for use in urban food industry, among others."},{"index":2,"size":67,"text":"Potato production in the tropical highlands of SSA does not, however, occur in isolation. It is part of a complex farming system that encompasses the production of other crops as well as livestock, forestry, bee-keeping and myriad other off-farm activities that are expected to influence and are, in turn, to influenced by potato production (Murage et al, 2000;Briggs et al, 2002;Nyankanga et al, 2004;Gildemacher et al, 2009)."},{"index":3,"size":148,"text":"Potato production also occurs in a complex and dynamic human and physical ecology influenced by complex intra-household decision-making processes relating to labor, financial and natural resource allocations. The labor resource allocation relates to intra-household decisions on the roles of different household members in the farm activities, while financial resource allocations are related to how household income is allocated to the farm activities and enterprises. Moreover, households have to decide how much labor should be allocated to non-agricultural activities, e.g., non-farm employment, household maintenance, and leisure (Fischer and Qaim, 2012). The non-agricultural activities create competition for labor, and affect the kinds of agricultural/farming practices that households use. For instance, the migration of labor from farm to non-farm sector in search of better opportunities (Hitayezu et al, 2014), leads to loss of household members that are more likely to adopt improved farming practices (Reardon and Vosti, 1992;White et al, 2005)."},{"index":4,"size":233,"text":"Farm households also interact with their physical ecology and this interaction affects their livelihood outcomes (Plummer and Armitage, 2007;Armitage et al, 2008;Toa and Wall, 2009). Specifically, household's choices and decisions affect its natural, physical, and financial capital endowments which, in turn, affect the physical environment and the sustainability of agricultural production. For instance, the repeated cultivation of land without sufficient fallow can result in the depletion of natural stock of fertile soil, which can be accelerated by uncontrolled soil erosion (Ulrich and Volk, 2009). The failure to practice soil fertility management by, among others, applying fertilizer and manure in one's farm can result in the same effect (Shiferaw et al, 2009;Ayuke et al, 2012). The decision to abandon crop rotation or increase length of rotation cycles can result in the build-up of pests and diseases, which can in turn, reduce yields, and hence crop incomes, and deplete the financial capital based of households that heavily depend on agriculture as a major source of income and livelihood. At the same time, pest and disease build up is likely to encourage the use of pesticide, resulting in environmental and health effects, and ultimate negative consequences on biodiversity (Okello and Okello, 2010). Thus the interactions between the households and their physical environment have mutual and reinforcing effects which are circular and dynamic in nature. So how do these interactions affect and are affected by potato farming?"},{"index":5,"size":127,"text":"This study used Urie Brofenbrenner's ecological systems' theory to examine the major microand meso-level issues that affect potato production in the tropical highlands of Sub-Sahara Africa (SSA). It specifically investigates how the decisions and activities undertaken by households interact with the micro and meso-level factors and the effects those interactions have on the physical environment. The study focuses on potato farmers in the southern highlands region of Tanzania. Tanzania is one of the major potato producing countries in the SSA and has a wide marketing network with many countries in eastern and southern Africa. It is also one of the SSA countries that have recently embarked on major efforts to improve potato industry through investment in state-of-the art quality seed multiplication technique, known as the 3G technique."},{"index":6,"size":52,"text":"The technique reduces the number of generations of seed multiplication from the tradition six years to just three years, hence expediting farmer access to higher yielding seed. Potato production is one of the leading economic activities in the Southern highlands (Mpogole and Kadigi, 2012) making potato production and interesting case to study."},{"index":7,"size":43,"text":"The rest of this paper is organized as follows. Section 2 presents the conceptual framework of the study while Section 3 discusses the empirical methods used. Section 4 presents and discusses the study findings, and lastly Section 5 concludes and presents study implications."}]},{"head":"Conceptual Framework","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":63,"text":"Brufenbrehner's ecological systems theory, as the name suggests, examines how an individual is influenced by his/her ecology factors. In the context of agriculture, the theory posits that a farmer's decisions and actions are conditioned by his or her idiosyncratic/personal, the microsystemic and macrosystematic factors. Figure 1 presents these factors. The farmer specific factors conditioning decisions and actions include age, gender and health status."},{"index":2,"size":236,"text":"Figure 1: Micro and macro systematic drivers farm production and marketing A farmer's age is often used as a proxy for experience in farming. Older farmers may be more predisposed to use farming practices that improve yields while conserving the agroecology, because they are likely to have learned the benefits of sustainable food and cash crop production over time. Yet, increasing age is often posited to reduce the probability of use of improved farming practices, because of factors inherent in aging process or the lowered likelihood of payoff from a shortened planning horizon over which expected benefits can accrue would be deterrent to adoption (Batte and Johnson 1993;Barry et al. 1995, Shiferaw et al, 2009). At the same time, male farmers and headed households are more likely to use improved and sustainable farming practices because they tend to have greater access to a wide range of resources, including working capital from off-farm employment (Matshe and Young 2004), that may be useful in adopting such practices than their female counterparts. Indeed, Quisumbing (1995) argues that female farmers or heads of households often have limited access to working capital since they are, in most cases, widowed and/or poorly educated. Gender differences may also arise from male bias in the ownership and access to productive resources (e.g., land, credit and agricultural information) in most patriarchal societies such those in Africa (Quisumbing 1995;Doss and Morris 2000;Doss 2001;Quisumbing and Pandolfelli 2010)."},{"index":3,"size":290,"text":"Other farmer-specific factors likely to influence farmer behavior and decision-making regarding sustainable farming are capacity endowments of the household. These include natural, financial and physical capital endowments that bestow the capacity, for instance, to adopt production and/or marketing technology or practice. Endowment with more land, a form of natural capital, is directly associated with the decision to adopt improved practices (Marenya and Barret 2007;Oduol et al. 2011). Studies further indicate that differences in quality of land (including topography, fertility) significantly affect household's decision to adopt farming practices (Feder and Umali 1993;Baidu-Forson, 1999;Fuglie and Kascak, 2001). Endowment with financial capital is, on the other hand, associated with ability to adopt soil fertility amendment technologies including manure and organic fertilizers (Shiferaw et al, 2009). In addition, Barrett (2008) and Burke et al (2015) argue that farmer endowment with physical assets (such as farm equipment) affects both the decision to adopt agricultural practices and the extent to which they do so. A household's behavior and decision to adopt agricultural practices can also be affected by household/farm level factors. These include religion, health, and family network. These factors affect spiritual and physical wellbeing of the farmer or an individual. Past studies, have for instance, found direct links between individual's health status and productivity (Okello and Swinton, 2007;Asfaw et al, 2010). A farmer's health, hence productivity, could be affected by the diseases one is exposed to (Chapoto, 2006;Mazhangara, 2007) or by exposure to some of the agricultural chemicals used in the farm, especially pesticides (Okello and Swinton, 2010). Lagerkvist et al (2012) and Okello et al (2014), on the other hand, find that spiritual wellbeing (i.e., goodliness) is a life goal that drives farmer decision regarding input use and crop management practices, respectively, in agriculture."},{"index":4,"size":278,"text":"Apart from individual-specific and household level factors, a farmer's behavior can also be affected by a number of meso-level factors. These include institutional factors that a farmer has to interact with, namely credit and agricultural information access, local political economy that influence provision of basic production and trade-enabling infrastructure (e.g., roads, irrigation, etc) as well (Carter and Barrett, 2006;Barrett, 2008;Naschold, 2012). The importance of institutional factors in the adoption of farm practices and agricultural technology is widely acknowledged in the development literature (Shiferaw et al, 2007;Okello andSwinton, 2007 Shiferaw et al, 2009;Shiferaw et al, 2011). The institutional factors provide an enabling environment for the uptake of improved agricultural practices by lowering transaction costs associated with the search for information on credit, input and output markets and new technologies. Transaction costs increase input prices, on the one hand, and lower output prices, on the other, thereby reducing farmers' profit margins and hence act as barriers to adoption of improved/sustainable agricultural practices (Zeller et al. 1998;Hiroyuki et al. 2010;Jack 2011;Zanello et al. 2012). A farmer's behavior and actions can also be affected by macro-level institutional factors. While not considered in this paper, macro-level issues relating to policies on land use, both at regional and national level, affect farmer's decision to adopt agricultural practices and soil and water management technologies (Shiferaw and Bantilan, 2004;Cooper et al, 2008). Regional and/or local government could for instance legislate against deforestation or cultivation of fragile margins without conservation measures, thus affecting land use practices. A good example was the \"fanya juu\" terracing policy in Kenya that required all farmers on hill slopes to construct terraces to conserve soil (Shiferaw et al, 2009;Ayuke et al, 2012)."}]},{"head":"Empirical methods","index":3,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"3.1Measurement of food security and pesticide induced illnesses","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":50,"text":"This study used the recently developed Household Food Insecurity Access Scale (HFIAS) to measure food insecurity. HFIAS was developed by Food and Nutrition Technical Assistance project of the United States International Development Agency. It focuses on the food access component of food insecurity (Swindale and Bilinsky, 2006;Kabunga et al 2014)."},{"index":2,"size":129,"text":"Following Coates et al. (2007), HFIAS score usually used as the index for measuring the impact of an intervention on food security, were computed. The HFIAS score is a continuous measure of the degree of food insecurity in a household and is usually based on the last 30 days from the date of data collection. It is a snapshot measure of a household's food insecurity status. The score is a measure of how the household food supply status has been in the last 30 days and how concerned or otherwise the respondent (usually the person who prepares meals for the family) is concerned about the food situation in the households. The score ranges from 0 to 27, and the higher the score, the more the household is food insecure."},{"index":3,"size":115,"text":"Pesticide exposure was measured following Okello and Swinton (2010). The respondents were asked whether they applied any pesticides on potato during the 2013/2014 short and longrain seasons. When the answer was positive, they asked if the experienced any of the acute illnesses associated with pesticide exposure during or immediately following the mixing or application pesticides in potato. For every illness experienced, the respondent was asked to report the frequency of its occurrence in a scale given as: 1= 0-25% of the time; 2= 26-50% of the time; 3= 51-75 of the time and 4= 76-100% of the time. The illnesses considered included: eye, skin and stomach irritation, common colds, nausea, vomiting, nose-bleeding and blurred vision."}]},{"head":"Data","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":91,"text":"The data and information used in this study were collected in May 2014 using both qualitative and quantitative methods. The quantitative data were collected through personal interviews with 165 potato growers using pre-tested questionnaire. The data collected included household demographic factors (e.g., age, gender, education and farming experience), environment factors (in particular pesticide usage and illness incidences and the use of soil fertility management practices), household experience and response to climate change effects, incidence of major chronic and acute diseases (including HIV-AIDS, cancer, diarrhea and malaria), and household food security status."},{"index":2,"size":97,"text":"The qualitative methods used were focus group discussions (FGD), key informant interviews (KII) and direct observations. These qualitative methods were used to collect information that can explain some of the findings/trends that emerge from the quantitative data. Descriptive and econometric analyses were used to examine the micro and meso-level issues affecting potato producing households interact with the physical environment and evidence from FGD and KII triangulated to help understand how and why these factors affect potato producers and the environment. The qualitative studies were conducted by the lead author assisted by two trained enumerators from the region."}]},{"head":"Sampling procedure","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":184,"text":"Data were collected from smallholder potato farmers in the southern region of Tanzania (see Map 1) and targeted five districts, namely Mbeya Rural, Njombe, Waging'ombe, Mufindi and Kilolo. Sampling was done in a number steps. First, in each district, all the villages were listed and study villages selected using probability proportionate to size sampling. This resulted in selection of four villages in Mbeya Rural, two in Kilolo and Mufindi, one in Njombe and three in Waging'ombe. Second, in each village, two sub-villages were randomly sampled from a complete list of sub-villages. Third, in each sampled sub-village, a list of all potato farmers was generated with the help of village leaders and village extension staff. Fourth, seven farmers were randomly selected from each sub-village list, resulting in a total of 14 farmers in each village and 168 farmers in the four project districts. However, three farmers did not adequately complete their questionnaires and were been dropped from the analysis, leaving a total of complete 165 responses. The data was collected in May 2014 through personal interviews by the lead author assisted by two trained enumerators."},{"index":2,"size":9,"text":"Map 1: Map of Tanzania showing the study areas"}]},{"head":"Results","index":7,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Characteristics of study respondents","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":65,"text":"Table 1 presents the characteristics of the respondents. It shows that 58.8% of the respondents were males. The average age of the respondents was 41 years, with male farmers having higher mean age than the females. Children below 15 years of age accounted for 43% of the household membership while only 1.8% of the members were above 65 years, which, indicates a high dependency burden."},{"index":2,"size":108,"text":"Almost all households engage in farming (i.e., crop and/or livestock production) as the main occupation. 93% of the respondents and 84% of their spouses are farmers. These results are in line with findings of the FGD which revealed that both men and women depend on crop and Study area livestock farming as the main source of income, and livelihood in general. The crops grown vary by district but included both cash (tea, wheat, potato, pyrethrum and forestry) and food (maize, beans, peas and potato) crops. Most households also grow a number of horticultural crops including cabbage, tomatoes and indigenous leafy vegetables (especially amaranth, cowpea, African nightshade and pumpkin)."},{"index":3,"size":88,"text":"Households also keep various types of livestock including dairy animals, poultry, rabbits and sheep. The livestock are a source food, income and also act as a stock of wealth, hence play a significant role in the wealth-ranking of the households. The size and type of flock determines whether the household is considered very wealthy, of average wealth or poor. Large animals (e.g., cattle and donkeys) are associated with wealthier households while small animals such as rabbits and poultry (e.g., chicken, ducks and pigeons) are associated with poorer households."},{"index":4,"size":220,"text":"Potato is grown primarily for cash. As Table 1 shows, majority of the survey respondents had grown potato for an average of 5 years, with little variation across the study districts. The analysis of variance (ANOVA) multi-comparison test of difference in mean years of potato growing yielded a p-value of 0.428 indicating that there are no statistically significant differences in mean years of potato growing experience among the study districts. Table 1 further shows that male farmers are, on average, older and have more years of experience in growing potato, and also received more extension visits in 2014 than their female counterparts. Results further show that only 23% of study respondents are members of farmer groups, with participation in groups being higher in Mufindi and Kilolo districts. More than 40% of the respondents belonged to farmer groups in these districts. Table 2 presents study households' access to some of the key amenities (i.e., markets, main roads, and agricultural office). The first three columns compare access to the amenities by male and female respondents. They show that both male and female respondents are located, on average, less than 32 minutes walking distance from these amenities. The results also show that, the distance to agricultural offices, there are no statistically significant differences between male and female respondents in access to the amenities."},{"index":5,"size":134,"text":"The last 5 columns of Table 2 present the distances to the same amenities by district and the ANOVA test of differences in means across the districts. There are major, and statistically significant, differences in access to the key amenities in the four districts. The respondents in Kilolo are, on average, located closer to the main roads, agricultural offices and to the health centers than their counterparts in other districts. Results also show that farmers in Mbeya Rural re located much closer to market centers than their counterparts in the other districts. These differences can affect the livelihood strategies pursued and development outcomes. For instance, easy access to markets and to the main road is expected to reduce marketing and transaction costs thus increase incomes from crop and livestock sales (Fafchamps and Hill, 2005). "}]},{"head":"Intra-and inter-gender allocation of farming roles in potato production","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":42,"text":"Table 3 shows the distribution of potato production activities among the various members of the farm household. While majority of the activities are undertaken jointly by men and women, men are almost exclusively responsible for pesticide (fungicide and insecticide) application in potato."},{"index":2,"size":15,"text":"Indeed, more than 80% of the respondents indicated that the men were responsible for spraying."},{"index":3,"size":230,"text":"However, the FGD revealed that women also participate in the preparation of the sprays by fetching the water used and, in some cases, mixing the pesticides. Results also indicate that more men than women are involved in the irrigation of potato. Approximately 40% of the respondents indicated that men were responsible for the irrigation of potato while 32% reported that irrigation was the responsibility of both the man and woman. Contrary to expectations, results do not indicate that women were exclusively responsible for planting and weeding as often believed. This is probably because of the way these activities are undertaken. The FGD revealed that men and women usually work together during most of potato production activities. For instance, land preparation and ridging are usually done the same time as the application of fertilizer and manure. The men usually dig and ridge, while the women apply fertilizer/manure. This joint performance of potato production activities extends to weeding and harvesting. During harvesting, men dig up the tubers while women shake off the soil, and gather them into a heap. In some cases, both men and women dig up the roots, and then gather and heap them together afterwards. These findings of the FGD are corroborated by the quantitative survey results above which show that more than 50% of the survey respondents work jointly with their spouses during the planting, weeding and harvesting."}]},{"head":"Environmental factors","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":42,"text":"The FGD and quantitative data reveal that significant changes with major implications on potato production and the environment are occurring in all the study districts. These include the rapidly declining land sizes, buildup of pests and diseases, and rising costs of fertilizers."}]},{"head":"Declining land size, soil fertility management and effect on environment","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":134,"text":"The FGD revealed that land sizes have significantly decreased over the last one decade in all the study areas. Most households currently own, on average, only 3 acres of land compared to more than 5 acres just 10 years ago, with the exception of households in Mufindi district where land sizes are still larger. The scarcity of land has led to continuous cultivation of farmlands or significant reduction in fallow periods, which has, in turn, resulted into rapid decrease in soil fertility. Survey results indicate that only 33% of the households still practice fallowing (see Table 4). The findings of the FGD corroborate these results, and further indicate that households that still practice fallowing have reduced fallow periods significantly, (i.e., from about six seasons about 10 years ago to just one season in 2014)."},{"index":2,"size":129,"text":"Some of the strategies farmers are using to respond to the decline in the fertility of their soils are also presented in Table 4, namely, the use of organic manure (including mulch and compost) and the use of inorganic fertilizers. The table shows that nearly 80% of the respondents use fertilizers in their potato plots. Results (Figure 2) further show that approximately 43% of the survey respondents have recently increased the use of fertilizers in their farms. These finding is in line with the results of FGD and the key informant interviews which revealed that fertilizer use in potato production has increased significantly in the last 10 years. Indeed, most FGD participants indicated that it is no longer possible to get good potato harvest without the use of fertilizers."},{"index":3,"size":58,"text":"While the use of fertilizers is important for maintaining the fertility of the soil, it can create major environmental challenges. Fertilizers emanating from farmlands are a major form of nonpoint-source pollutants, and can contribute to pollution of water bodies especially in areas where there is uncontrolled erosion of cultivated soils. This is indeed the case in study areas."},{"index":4,"size":211,"text":"Observations and key informant interviews revealed that potato farming is migrating up the hills and that plots are cultivated without any soil erosion control measures, thus posing the threat of the pollution of the very water bodies with soil sediments and fertilizers. The FGD revealed that water bodies provide water to the households and livestock. Further, some of affected water bodies and swamps serve as fishing grounds for the local communities and hence a source of fish for households living around them. Thus increased use of fertilizers, if not accompanied by measures to check the cultivation of steep hills and/or reduce soil erosion poses a serious threat to the environment and to household food and livelihood security.   from fallowing and crop rotation, which aim to break pest and disease cycles, the use of other pest and disease management practices is relatively low. For instance, only 19% of the survey respondents used field sanitation practices such as uprooting and burning infected plants. Instead, majority of the survey respondents use pesticides to control potato pests and diseases. This finding was corroborated by the evidence from the FGD. Depending on the village, between 60-90% of the FGD participants reported that they used of pesticides in the control of potato pests and diseases in 2013."},{"index":5,"size":84,"text":"Figure 5 presents the average area covered by pesticides, quantities used and the pesticide application rate among the survey respondents. The average land area (acres) covered by fungicides and pesticides are similar. This finding is not surprising. Key informant interviews revealed that majority of the farmers follow calendar spray regime in the management of pests and diseases. Hence the areas sprayed with fungicides usually are sprayed with insecticides also. The two most problematic diseases in the study districts were late blight and bacterial wilt."},{"index":6,"size":36,"text":"Approximately 55% and 41% of the survey respondents used pesticides in the control of late blight and bacterial wilt, respectively. In both cases, majority (49.5%, N=77) of the farmers who used pesticides followed calendar spray regime."},{"index":7,"size":46,"text":"The proportion of survey respondents who used fungicides in each of the study districts varied greatly (Figure 3). Njombe district had the highest proportion (80%) of fungicide users while Mbeya Rural had the lowest. On the other hand, the highest usage of insecticides was in Mbeya"},{"index":8,"size":22,"text":"Rural whiles none of the survey respondents interviewed in Mufindi, and only about 4% in Kilolo, used insecticides on potato in 2013."},{"index":9,"size":20,"text":"Figure 3: Proportion of survey respondents using fungicides and insecticides on potato in the Southern highlands region of Tanzania, 2014"}]},{"head":"Health effects of pesticide usage in potato production","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":200,"text":"Pesticides can be detrimental to the environment, and human health, in particular, if used indiscriminately (Okello & Swinton, 2010). Non-judicious use of pesticides can result in the pesticide-induced poisoning of both the applicants and/or farm household members. Table 5 presents the incidence of pesticide-induced illnesses among the survey respondents. The results presented in the table are the reported illnesses the respondents experienced following the application of pesticides on potato during the 2013/2014 cropping seasons.  The most common types of pesticide-induced illnesses were common colds (associated with blocked nose), skin irritation, chest pains and cough, nausea and dizziness. More female respondents reported that they experienced dizziness, skin irritation, blurred vision, and colds soon after applying pesticides, while more male respondents reported that they experienced incidences of eye irritation, nausea, and chest pains and cough. The finding that more women experienced skin irritation following the application of pesticides than men is surprising, but may be due to the fact that some women mix the pesticides thus exposing themselves. Results (Table 4) further show that only 13% of the survey respondents did not experience any of the symptoms of pesticide-induced illnesses, indicating that there is high incidence of pesticide-induced illnesses among the respondents."},{"index":2,"size":110,"text":"Table 5 presents the proportion respondents exposed to pesticides and the frequency with which respondents experience pesticides induced illness. It shows that more than one-half of the survey respondents in all the study districts experienced illnesses associated with pesticide poisoning quite often. The highest incidence of pesticide poisoning was in Mufindi where approximately 61% of the survey respondents experienced pesticide-induced illnesses approximately more 50% of the time. Table 5 also shows that the frequency of occurrence of pesticide-induced illnesses was significantly higher in Kilolo than the rest of the districts. Respondents in Kilolo experienced illnesses induced by exposure to pesticides approximately 75% of the time they applied pesticides on potato. "}]},{"head":"Use of protecting clothing","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":95,"text":"Pesticide poisoning can be significantly reduced by use of protective clothing/gear including rubber boots, nose mask, overcoat, gloves, and goggles (Okello and Swinton, 2010). However, results indicate that majority of the survey respondents did not use protective clothing when applying pesticides, while those who do so often use only some of the items of the protective gear. The most frequently used item of the protective gear was gumboots (52%) while the least used was the goggles (1.8%). Approximately 27% and 12% of the survey respondents used old clothes and old shoes, respectively, when applying pesticides."},{"index":2,"size":14,"text":"The usage of protective clothing among study respondents in the respective study districts is"},{"index":3,"size":96,"text":"shown in Table 6. The table also presents the ANOVA tests of differences in mean usage of protective clothing across the districts. The use of gumboots, nose masks, and gloves was highest in Njombe district while Mufindi had the lowest proportion of farmers using gumboots and nose masks. Indeed, the results of the ANOVA test indicate that use of gumboots is statistically significantly lower in Mufindi than in the rest of the districts. Results also show that there is higher and statistically significant usage of gloves in Kilolo and Njombe than in Mbeya Rural and Mufindi. "}]},{"head":"Extensification of potato production into the fragile margins","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":177,"text":"Some potato farmers, in all the study districts, are using extensive farming as a strategy to cope with the problem of declining yields and increased pest and disease pressure. Survey results indicate that more than 40% of the respondents have shifted the potato plots from where they used to be three years ago to new locations. The left panel of Figure 5 presents the reasons for shifting to new locations and indicates that the main drivers of this practice is the desire to increase potato harvest (output), which farmers are not currently able to do because of declining yields and lack of land in original potato growing farmlands. The limited supply of land has resulted in continuous cultivation of the same piece of land which results in declining fertility, and hence, yields. That is, the factors that are driving the shifting of potato plots to new areas are self-reinforcing, and are likely to increase in the future since farmers may see them as a strategy to increase household incomes and hence food security (Kaushal and Kala, 2004)."},{"index":2,"size":17,"text":"The right hand panel of Figure 5 shows the locations farmers are shifting the potato plots to."},{"index":3,"size":33,"text":"More than 40% of the respondents are hiring plots elsewhere while approximately 30% have, in the last three years shifted to the land where they used to plant trees (i.e., own forest lands)."},{"index":4,"size":166,"text":"Others have moved to government road reserves and hillsides, as earlier observed. These survey results corroborate the findings of the FGD and key informant interviews that indicated that farmers are responding to diminishing land sizes, declining yields and increased incidence of potato pests and diseases by shifting to new areas. The areas enumerated by the FGD include adjacent communities where potato was not, hitherto, traditionally grown; own forest lands; and valley bottoms that are either virgin or were used for growing horticultural crops, especially vegetables. The FGD participants further indicated that they prefer moving to these new areas to avoid pest and disease problems and to take advantage of the more fertile soils to increase output. However, the shift to forest lands and marginal hillsides is likely to have adverse effects on local climate and sustainability of agriculture in the affected areas. Cultivation of hillsides can exacerbate soil erosion and affect water bodies through pollution as discussed above, while deforestation affects climate (especially temperatures and rainfall)."}]},{"head":"Household food security","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":23,"text":"Past studies have demonstrated that there is link between household food security and environmental degradation (Frakenberger & Golsdtein, 1990;Lal, 2004;Gregory et al, 2005)."},{"index":2,"size":120,"text":"Hence this study investigated the food security status of the study households. Results of this analysis are presented in Figures 6 and 7. The analysis takes into consideration both the quantity and quality of the food available to households. Overall, more than 52% of the male survey respondents were food secure as compared to 33% of their female counterparts (Figure 5). Indeed, the test of difference in the means of food insecurity index/scale between male and female respondents yielded a p-value of 0.0294, indicating that more male respondents were food secure than for their female counterparts. Figure 5 further shows that less than 10% of male and female survey respondents were severely food insecure, while 30% were moderately food insecure."},{"index":3,"size":184,"text":"Results further show that there is greater incidence of food insecurity in some districts (e.g., Mbeya Rural and Mufindi) than in others (e.g., Njombe district) (Figure 6). The figure shows that more than 46% of the study respondents in Mbeya Rural and Mufindi districts are moderately to highly food insecure compared to less than 25% in Njombe district. Table 7 presents the three components of food insecurity access scale (HFIAS). Results show that male and female respondents differ statistically with respect to component one of HFIAS, namely, anxiety and uncertainty about food supply situation in the household. There are, however, no differences between female and male study respondents with respect to the other two components which focus on the quality (i.e., variety) and quantity of food eaten by the household. Further, the results of the analysis of the three components of HFIAS by study district reveal that more than 40% of the respondents' households consumed food of insufficient quality during the 30 days preceding the survey (Table 12) with the problem being most prevalent in Mbeya Rural (67%, N=165) and Mufindi (68%, N=165) districts."},{"index":4,"size":108,"text":"The ANOVA tests confirm that households in Mufindi, Kilolo and Njombe districts differ statistically from those in Mbeya Rural district with respect to all the HFIAS components. Specifically, the proportion of respondents who reported that their households either had less supply of food, had to miss at least one meal in a day or take less amount of food over the 30 days preceding the survey was much higher in Mbeya Rural district than in the rest of the districts. These findings are in line with the results of the FDG which generally found that most households in Njombe had sufficient quantities of food although of less diversity. "}]},{"head":"Summary, conclusions and implications","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":78,"text":"This study used the ecological systems theory to examine the major micro and meso-level ecological issues that affect and are affected by potato production in the southern highlands region of Tanzania, and how these factors are interacting with environmental factors that are likely to affect the sustainability of potato production and of the environment in general. It specifically focused on how gendered division of labor, environmental issues, and food security affect and are affected by the physical environment."},{"index":2,"size":142,"text":"The study finds that: i) contrary to beliefs, female farmers are involved in most of farm operations, including pesticide application; ii) continuous cropping and the generally diminishing land sizes is resulting in declining yields and hence increased reliance on fertilizers to maintain soil fertility; iii) there is an increasing trend of potato production shifting to fragile/marginal areas such as the forest lands, road side and hillside; iv) Disease and pest pressure resulting from continuous cropping and reductions in fallow periods, and the changes in weather is encouraging farmers to increase their dependence on pesticides; v) increased reliance in pesticides to control pest and diseases is resulting in increased incidence of pesticide poisoning; vi) majority of the households are food secure to mildly food insecure, with Njombe leading in terms of foods security while Mbeya Rural has the highest cases of food insecurity."},{"index":3,"size":162,"text":"Several conclusions emerge from this study: a) There is limited gender difference in the majority of the potato production activities, especially in own farms, as majority of the activities are mostly undertaken jointly by women and men. In addition, the increased incidence of pesticide poisoning among women may be because of the increased numbers who are participating in pesticide application through mixing; b) The decline in potato yields is being cause by a combination of many factors, including the declining soil fertility and land sizes and also pest and disease pressure; c) The diminishing land sizes and reduced fallow periods are major drivers of the migration of potato plots to the hilly slopes and the valley bottoms/wetlands, both of which can have serious environmental effects in terms of pollution and loss of biodiversity; c) farmers are largely food secure in terms of adequacy (i.e., availability) of staples, but less so in terms of the quality/variety of the foods eaten by the households."},{"index":4,"size":244,"text":"The implications of this study are: i) arresting the declining potato yields will require that greater effort is directed towards strategies that promote intensive agriculture characterized by use of quality seed and fertilizers rather than expanding production into the fragile margins. It implies the need to strengthen farmer education on the use of strategies that improve soil fertility while simultaneously limiting damage to the environment; ii) the non-judicious use of pesticides resulting in many pesticide-induced illnesses reported in this study suggests the urgent need to train farmers on safe use of pesticides. In particular, farmers need to be trained on the importance of pest scouting and the use of pesticide protective clothing; iii) The finding that farmers are shifting potato production to the hilly areas implies the need to enact and/or enforce sustainable land use regulations including mandatory soil conservation in such areas to protect the soil and water bodies from pollution/sedimentation. Such regulations should include the use of conservation measures such as terracing, contouring farming, use of stone bunds that prevent or reduce runoff and hence loss of soil nutrients; iv) It is unlikely that improvement in potato yields (and hence harvests) alone will change the quality of diets consumed by the households in the study areas without active nutritional education programs. Thus, the poor household diet diversity among the potato growers need to be tackled through independent programs that educate the households about the need to eat a diverse range of diets."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure 2 : Figure 2: Changes (%) in the use of inorganic fertilizers by potato farmers in the southern highlands, Tanzania, 2014 "},{"text":"Figure 5 : Figure 5: The usage of fungicides and insecticides among the respondents of the study of cross-cutting issues in potato production, Tanzania, 2014 "},{"text":"Figure 5 : Figure 5: Reasons for the shifting potato plots and the sites/location farmers have shifted to in the last 3 year prior to the study date "},{"text":"Figure 8 : Figure 8: Proportion of respondents falling under different food insecurity classifications, Tanzania, 2014 "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"Table 1 : Demographic and institutional characteristics of study respondents, Tanzania, 2014  Gender   District     GenderDistrict Demographic/ Institutional factor Female Male t-test Mbeya Mufindi Kilolo Njombe ANOVA Demographic/ Institutional factorFemaleMalet-testMbeyaMufindiKiloloNjombeANOVA    p-value Rural    p-value p-valueRuralp-value Age 38.54 42.36 0.0493 38.40 a 44.82 a 41.93 a (1 40.56 a 0.2516 Age38.5442.360.049338.40 a44.82 a41.93 a (140.56 a0.2516  (11.6) (12.55)  (11.50) (13.87) 0.62) (12.79)  (11.6)(12.55)(11.50)(13.87)0.62)(12.79) Education 6.32 6.36 0.9279 6.69 a 6.39 a 6.52 a 5.89 a 0.5951 Education6.326.360.92796.69 a6.39 a6.52 a5.89 a0.5951  (2.79) (2.46)  (2.20) (3.12) (2.23) (2.85)  (2.79)(2.46)(2.20)(3.12)(2.23)(2.85) Years of potato farming 4.56 5.75 0.0595 6.22 a 3.96 a 4.83 a 5.19 a 0.4282 Years of potato farming4.565.750.05956.22 a3.96 a4.83 a5.19 a0.4282  (3.96) (3.69)  (4.09) (3.52) (3.60) (3.76)  (3.96)(3.69)(4.09)(3.52)(3.60)(3.76) Occupation (farming) 0.93 0.98 0.896 0.91 a 1.00 a 1.00 a 0.98 a 0.7508 Occupation (farming)0.930.980.8960.91 a1.00 a1.00 a0.98 a0.7508 Group membership 0.21 0.24 0.164 0.13 a 0.43 b 0.44 b 0.13 a 0.0004 Group membership0.210.240.1640.13 a0.43 b0.44 b0.13 a0.0004 Extension visit 0.13 0.27 0.018 0.13 a 0.29 a 0.37 a 0.20 a 0.1224 Extension visit0.130.270.0180.13 a0.29 a0.37 a0.20 a0.1224 Researcher training 0.17 0.24 0.104 0.13 a 0.32 a 0.37 a 0.18 a 0.9542 Researcher training0.170.240.1040.13 a0.32 a0.37 a0.18 a0.9542 Phone 0.52 0.76 0.018 0.60 a 0.57 a 0.74 a 0.73 a 0.6818 Phone0.520.760.0180.60 a0.57 a0.74 a0.73 a0.6818  "},{"text":"Table 4 : Differences in access to social and economic amenities by male and female potato farmers and across districts: results of cross-cutting study, Tanzania, 2013 All the ANOVA separation-of-means tests are based on Sidak test; The letter superscripts indicate whether the differences in means are significant at 5% level of significance. Similar superscripts indicate no difference between the means; Numbers in parentheses are standard deviation  Gender   Districts     GenderDistricts  Female Male T-test Mbeya Mufindi Kilolo Njombe ANOVA FemaleMaleT-testMbeyaMufindiKiloloNjombeANOVA    p-values Rural    p-values p-valuesRuralp-values Distance to market 17.7 22.9 0.1947 14.3 a 19.5 b 16.2 a 31.5 bc 0.0000 Distance to market17.722.90.194714.3 a19.5 b16.2 a31.5 bc0.0000  (21.76) (25.21)  (13.60) (26.10) (21.82) (29.87)  (21.76)(25.21)(13.60)(26.10)(21.82)(29.87) Distance to main road 8.4 8.6 0.8905 9.2 a 8.32 b 6.89 ac 7.46 ac 0.0005 Distance to main road8.48.60.89059.2 a8.32 b6.89 ac7.46 ac0.0005  (10.17) (8.83)  (8.49) (8.84) (8.92) (8.16)  (10.17)(8.83)(8.49)(8.84)(8.92)(8.16) Distance agricultural office 23.4 17.4 0.0259 22.4 ab 23.9 a 15.0 b 18.3 ab 0.0236 Distance agricultural office23.417.40.025922.4 ab23.9 a15.0 b18.3 ab0.0236  (19.72) (13.78)  (17.02) (21.6) (13.6) (14.80)  (19.72)(13.78)(17.02)(21.6)(13.6)(14.80) Distance health facility 28.86 31.13 0.5058 30.8 a 44.6 b 19.7 a 27.5 a 0.0000 Distance health facility28.8631.130.505830.8 a44.6 b19.7 a27.5 a0.0000  (22.60) (19.27)  ( 20.44) (21.56) (9.30) (22.79)  (22.60)(19.27)( 20.44)(21.56)(9.30)(22.79)  "},{"text":"Table 3 : Gender roles and responsibilities in potato production in the study households Activity  Proportion (%) of household members that undertake the practice  ActivityProportion (%) of household members that undertake the practice  Men only Women Both men and Men and Women and All family Men onlyWomenBoth men andMen andWomen andAll family   only women children children members onlywomenchildrenchildrenmembers Activities mostly undertaken by men      Activities mostly undertaken by men Irrigation 41.9 12.9 32.3 0 0 12.9 Irrigation41.912.932.30012.9 Pesticide application 82.6 6.6 8.3 0.8 0 0.8 Pesticide application82.66.68.30.800.8 Fungicide application 82.2 7.4 8.9 0.7 0 0.7 Fungicide application82.27.48.90.700.7 Manure application 35.3 17.7 23.5 0 0 17.5 Manure application35.317.723.50017.5 Loading 35.1 5.3 33.3 0 5.3 21.1 Loading35.15.333.305.321.1  "},{"text":"Table 4 : Pest, disease and soil fertility management strategies used by potato farmers in the Southern highlands, Tanzania, 2014  "},{"text":"Table 6  50    50 45 43   4543 40    40 35  32  3532 30    30 25    25 20    20 15   11 13 151113 10    10 5    5 0    0  Increased Same Decreased Don't use IncreasedSameDecreasedDon't use  "},{"text":"Table 4 : Incidence of pesticide-induced illnesses among survey respondents, Tanzania, 2014 Nature of illness Proportion (%) of farmers (N=165)  Nature of illnessProportion (%) of farmers (N=165)  Females Males Total FemalesMalesTotal Dizziness 9.0 6.7 7.93 Dizziness9.06.77.93 Vomiting 2.3 0.0 1.22 Vomiting2.30.01.22 Nausea 6.7 13.3 9.76 Nausea6.713.39.76 Nose bleeding 0 4.0 1.83 Nose bleeding04.01.83 Blurred vision 9.0 2.7 6.10 Blurred vision9.02.76.10 Common colds 16.9 14.7 15.85 Common colds16.914.715.85 Chest pain and cough 9.0 16.0 12.2 Chest pain and cough9.016.012.2 Headache 5.6 12.0 8.5 Headache5.612.08.5 Stomach irritation 7.9 2.7 5.5 Stomach irritation7.92.75.5 Skin irritation 13.5 8.0 11.0 Skin irritation13.58.011.0 Eye irritation 6.7 10.7 8.5 Eye irritation6.710.78.5 None 13.5 9.3 11.6 None13.59.311.6  "},{"text":"Table 5 : Prevalence of the symptoms associated with pesticide poisoning among respondents, Tanzania, 2014 Proportion of farmers (%)   t-test Proportion of farmers (%)t-test Mbeya Mufindi Kilolo Njombe p-values MbeyaMufindiKiloloNjombep-values  "},{"text":"Table 6 : The use of pesticide protective clothing among study respondents, Tanzania, 2014    Proportion (%)   Proportion (%) Gear item Total sample Mbeya Mufindi District Kilolo Njombe Chi 2 p-values Gear itemTotal sampleMbeyaMufindiDistrict KiloloNjombeChi 2 p-values Gumboots 51.5 46.3 ab 25.0 b 59.2 a 66.1 a 0.003 Gumboots51.546.3 ab25.0 b59.2 a66.1 a0.003 Overcoats 17.6 24.1 a 3.6 a 14.8 a 19.6 a 0.130 Overcoats17.624.1 a3.6 a14.8 a19.6 a0.130 Goggles 1.80 1.9 a 0 a 0 a 3.6 a  Goggles1.801.9 a0 a0 a3.6 a Nose masks 27.9 29.6 a 10.7 a 29.6 a 33.9 a 0.157 Nose masks27.929.6 a10.7 a29.6 a33.9 a0.157 Gloves 20.0 9.3 a 14.3 a 29.6 b 28.6 b 0.034 Gloves20.09.3 a14.3 a29.6 b28.6 b0.034 Old clothes 26.7 29.6 a 10.7 a 29.6 a 30.4 a 0.225 Old clothes26.729.6 a10.7 a29.6 a30.4 a0.225 Old shoes 12.1 9.3 a 17.9 a 18.5 a 8.9 a 0.421 Old shoes12.19.3 a17.9 a18.5 a8.9 a0.421 ANOVA multi-comparison test of difference in means used. Same letter superscript denotes no significant difference at 5% level. ANOVA multi-comparison test of difference in means used. Same letter superscript denotes no significant difference at 5% level.  "},{"text":"Table 7 : Food security status of the study households, Tanzania, 2014 Measure of HFIAS  Proportion (%) under each measure of HFIAS   Measure of HFIASProportion (%) under each measure of HFIAS occurrence Gender   District    occurrenceGenderDistrict  Female Male p-value Mbeya Mufindi Kilolo Njombe p-value FemaleMalep-valueMbeyaMufindiKiloloNjombe p-value    (t-test) Rural    (ANOVA) (t-test)Rural(ANOVA) Anxiety and         Anxiety and uncertainty about the 21.33 8.89 0.0239 24.07 a 25.0 a 0.00 b 5.45 b 0.0003 uncertainty about the21.338.890.023924.07 a25.0 a0.00 b5.45 b0.0003 food supply         food supply Insufficient quality 53.33 58.89 0.4767 66.67 a 67.86 ab 51.85 ab 41.82 b 0.0475 Insufficient quality53.3358.890.476766.67 a67.86 ab51.85 ab41.82 b0.0475 Insufficient food         Insufficient food intake and its physical 22.67 14.44 0.1748 37.04 b 10.71 a 11.11 a 7.14 a 0.0002 intake and its physical22.6714.440.174837.04 b10.71 a11.11 a7.14 a0.0002 consequence         consequence  "}],"sieverID":"c9d5c52b-f256-4ecb-8e5d-7a2463f933fa","abstract":""}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"02ab1c39c71f49d9b27605b16f5457cc","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/b3b56040-0bdc-4f50-a853-8084308dd677/retrieve"},"pageCount":5,"title":"\"Rambo root\" to the rescue: How a simple, low-cost solution can lead to multiple sustainable development gains","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":118,"text":"mandioca or manioc, is one that can withstand and even thrive despite a temperature increase of up to 2 C in Africa by 2030 (Jarvis, Ramirez-Villegas, Herrera Campo, & Navarro-Racines, 2012). Thus, cultivating cassava could contribute to alleviating hunger, which constitutes the second Sustainable Development Goal. We elucidate below that this practice as a soil restoration tool may generate more sustainable development outcomes-a potential that warrants further examination-and that Colombia serves as a good testing ground for exploring the different possibilities that farming cassava could lead to which can form the basis for nature-based solutions that other countries with similar challenges may adopt (Barrena-González, Rodrigo-Comino, Gyasi-Agyei, Pulido Fernández, & Cerdà, 2020;Keesstra et al., 2018;Rodrigo-Comino, Keesstra, & Cerdà, 2018)."},{"index":2,"size":207,"text":"What makes cultivating cassava a noteworthy solution to addressing multiple sustainable development challenges is the ease of propagating it relative to other crops. Apart from carrying out weed control and fertilization, a farmer would only need to cut the stems from healthy cassava plants that have generated starchy roots and replant these stems in the soil. Unlike other crops, cassava can grow on poor soils (Food and Agriculture Organization, n.d.;Howeler et al., 2013;Jung, Cock, & Howeler, 1978;Kayombo & Lal, 1994;Maduakor, 1993) and, under ideal conditions, provide the highest amount of calories per hectare in most tropical countries (Fleuret & Fleuret, 1980). Poor soils characterize degraded land, such as areas deforested for agricultural and livestock use and later abandoned when productivity has declined considerably. Cassava therefore could make for an ideal crop to plant on these lands as a first step in making them productive again. Restoring degraded land, as some scholars note and we allude below, has relevance to not just SDG 15, on life on land, but also on SDGs 1, on no poverty; 2, on zero hunger; 8, on sustainable economic growth; 12, on responsible production and consumption; and 13, on climate action (Keesstra et al., 2016;Keesstra, Mol, et al., 2018;Visser, Maas, & Molenaar, 2019)."},{"index":3,"size":212,"text":"Specifically, cassava, being a bulky root crop, has the ability to break the soil, and thus prevent compaction and, by providing soil cover for nearly a year, erosion-threats that degraded land faces. This may eventually allow the land to be cultivated with other cash crops that cannot thrive under poor soil conditions, for instance, soybean and corn. Rotating or intercropping cassava with catch crops, including legumes that can fix nitrogen from the atmosphere, can further mitigate soil erosion (Cerdà, Rodrigo-Comino, Giménez-Morera, Novara, et al., 2018;Cerdà, Rodrigo-Comino, Novara, Brevik, et al., 2018;Cerdà, Rodrigo-Comino, Giménez-Morera, & Keesstra, 2018). These catch crops will produce biomass that turns into residues or mulch, which protects the soil from water erosion, helps sequester soil carbon and retain nutrients, promotes topsoil aggregation, enhances infiltration and restores soil health (Cerdà, Rodrigo-Comino, Giménez-Morera, Novara, et al., 2018;Guadie, Molla, Mekonnen, & Cerdà, 2020;Keesstra et al., 2018;Rodrigo-Comino et al., 2019). Over time, the land will become fertile and allow for planting trees, such as cacao. This creates an integrated sustainable farming system, which may even expand to include managed pasture for cattle grazing, that is, silvopasture, thus not only offering several potential sources of income for farmers but also promoting sustainability. Establishing the exact protocols and timeframes for this scenario will require research."},{"index":4,"size":83,"text":"Given the above scenario, planting cassava makes a lot of sense for places with a significant expanse of degraded land and a high degree of biodiversity but at risk of further loss. Making abandoned areas that were earlier deforested for agricultural and livestock use productive anew may deter farmers from encroaching into nearby forest regions and consequently harming biodiversity. One country that fits the description is Colombia, which ranks second in the world after Brazil when it comes to the world's megadiverse countries."},{"index":5,"size":135,"text":"The Colombian government estimates that roughly 40% of the national territory suffers some form of degradation (United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification, 2016). Much of the degraded land represents areas affected by conflict and where the government and its development partners are promoting cacao production as an alternative to illicit coca leaf farming and, in turn, as a vehicle for reducing deforestation and building peace (Castro-Nunez, Charry, Castro-Llanos, Sylvester, & Bax, 2020). Research indicates that there are links between coca leaf production, deforestation and the conflict in Colombia (Castro-Nunez, Mertz, Buritica, Sosa, & Lee, 2017). In this case, cultivating cassava as a way to prepare degraded land for the eventual propagation of cacao could also contribute to efforts in building peace, which is a core objective of SDG 16, on peace, justice and strong institutions."},{"index":6,"size":287,"text":"From sowing, it takes three years before farmers can harvest cacao beans and generate income from planting cacao. In the interim, producers can rely on farming cassava, whose roots may be harvested as early as six months after planting (Howeler et al., 2013), prior to cultivating a portion of the degraded land with cacao, as well as on rotating cassava with other cash crops and on raising livestock while waiting for the cacao plant to grow, to not only to restore the health of the soil of degraded land and provide sustenance to their households but also earn from it. Globally, data suggest a continuously growing market for cassava starch: One estimate projects a growth rate of 3.2% from 2019 to 2024 (Market Research Future, 2020). In the case of Colombia, where cassava mainly ends up in the local market (Balcázar & Mansilla, 2004), a farmer would have received USD 272 for every ton sold in 2016 based on the latest FAOSTAT figure on the annual value of producer prices for the crop in the Latin American country. Table 1 presents the annual producer prices and production quantity of cassava in Colombia from 2001 and 2016. The strong local demand has prompted Colombia to import the commodity at times (5dias, 2016). Despite this high demand for starch, though, it is a concern whether or not cassava can compete with other starch sources, namely potato, maize and wheat, due to high labor costs in Colombia and the need to build starch extraction plants. Addressing such a concern necessitates evaluating the cost-effectiveness of these different sources of starch, taking into account their nutritional values, the values of the ecosystem services they provide and the costs to grow per hectare."},{"index":7,"size":185,"text":"The potential of cassava to remediate soils that have high levels of heavy metal also merits additional research (Flores, Berbert, Victório, Direito, & Cardoso, 2019). One such heavy metal is cadmium. Cacao trees have a high capacity to take up cadmium from soils and accumulate this element in the cacao beans. Some cacao growing areas in Colombia, as in other parts of Latin America, are facing challenges exporting their cacao due to high cadmium levels (European Commission, 2014). Cassava appears to have the potential to absorb cadmium from the soil (Hilda et al., 2015;Magna, MacHado, Portella, & Carvalho, 2013). Additional research would validate this potential, and if it is indeed the case, cassava would help mitigate cadmium content in cacao and allow Colombian cocoa products to access foreign markets, such as the European Union. Starch from cassava that has taken up cadmium and other heavy metals (Ajiwe, Chukwujindu, & Chukwujindu, 2018;Harrison, Osu, & Ekanem, 2018) can be a source of dextrin, a type of adhesive used in manufacturing paper, textile, wallpaper paste, carton boxes and remoistening gum for stamps, among other industrial products (Grace, 1977)."},{"index":8,"size":112,"text":"Beyond its promise to recover degraded land, improve farmer incomes and contribute to peacebuilding, cultivating cassava can curb the dependency on some agricultural commodities linked to forest loss. Cassava starch may replace starch from crops like maize and soybeans (Atthasampunna, Somchai, Eur-aree, & Artjariyasripong, 1987;Food and Agriculture Organization, n.d.), two oftenlinked commodities that have caused deforestation in the Brazilian Amazon (Laurance, 2007;Trase, 2018). Scientists have attributed the fires that spread through the Amazon basin in 2019 on deforestation (Escobar, 2019), partly due to an increase in the demand from Chinese importers for South American soybean as a result of the Asian economy's trade war with the United States (Fuchs et al., 2019)."},{"index":9,"size":177,"text":"We recognize that scaling up production of cassava brings risks similar to those linked with other agricultural commodities, including exacerbating deforestation and biodiversity loss through clearing forest areas to accommodate the increased production. Farmers sometimes clear forests because they need more land for raising their crops. In this case, it is not necessary because cassava can be cultivated in land affected by degradation, and this resource is abundant. Although estimates vary as to the breadth of land degradation, it is clear that it is in the tens of millions of hectares in tropical countries alone (Gibbs & Salmon, 2015). Worldwide, land degradation \"occurs over a quarter of the Earth's ice-free land area,\" according to the Intergovernmental Panel for Climate Change's special report on climate change, desertification, land degradation, sustainable land management, food security, and greenhouse gas fluxes in terrestrial ecosystems (IPCC, 2019). Policies and various initiatives also exist to mitigate those risks. More importantly, the goal is not about increasing cassava production but scaling up a land use system that allows for the achievement of multiple SDGs."},{"index":10,"size":10,"text":"Degraded grazing land in Huila, Colombia. Photo by: Neil Palmer/CIAT"},{"index":11,"size":70,"text":"Realizing the potential of cassava as a key component of a soil restoration approach that delivers multiple sustainable outcomes will, as noted above, require more research. It will also need collaboration among and support from various sectors, including the government, academia, civil society, the private sector, and the conservation and international development communities. Through evidence-based, multidisciplinary and collaborative interventions, we could create more benefits for the local communities and beyond. "}]}],"figures":[{"text":" Production and producer price of cassava in Colombia from 2001 to 2016  Production, Producer price, Production,Producer price, Year in million tons in USD/ion Yearin million tonsin USD/ion 2001 1.98 123.8 20011.98123.8 2002 1.65 90.7 20021.6590.7 2003 1.67 146.9 20031.67146.9 2004 1.66 119 20041.66119 2005 1.61 136.9 20051.61136.9 2006 1.70 179.9 20061.70179.9 2007 1.79 212.6 20071.79212.6 2008 1.80 205.9 20081.80205.9 2009 2.25 264.5 20092.25264.5 2010 2.08 241.3 20102.08241.3 2011 1.87 248.1 20111.87248.1 2012 2.22 351 20122.22351 2013 2.49 181 20132.49181 2014 2.19 272.2 20142.19272.2 2015 2.09 313.4 20152.09313.4 2016 2.11 272 20162.11272  "}],"sieverID":"71e51912-6422-424f-a065-1fd51575e7f1","abstract":"Rugged and resilient, cassava is a bulky root crop that can thrive on poor soils. Cultivating it offers the potential to restore degraded land, which in turn may reduce hunger, generate livelihoods, fight climate change and even promote peace. As such, farming cassava offers a nature-based solution that can contribute to achieving numerous sustainable development targets. The authors acknowledge that scaling up production of any commodity may bring risks of deforestation and biodiversity loss through clearing forest areas. In the case of increasing cassava production, though, this may not be the case because cassava can be cultivated on land affected by degradation, and this resource is abundant; policies and initiatives exist to mitigate those risks; and the principal goal is to scale up a sustainable land use system.Biofortied cassava chips. Photo by: Neil Palmer/CIAT Cassava has earned the moniker \"Rambo root\" because it shares similar qualities with the eponymous movie character. It has a rugged appearance and embodies resilience. Evidence exists that the crop, otherwise known as yuca,"}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"02fd294bae532908c5835253e70a347e","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/99ae1860-c37a-4a57-90b2-9a1250e55d2f/retrieve"},"pageCount":24,"title":"For the answer, see inside! Why do we need so many different kinds? How many kinds of maize can you count in this picture?","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":20,"text":"Try to find on a map the country or region where each of these plants grew for the first time."},{"index":2,"size":15,"text":"Tomatoes grew first in South America. Explorers brought them back to Europe in the 1500s."},{"index":3,"size":65,"text":"Bananas originally came from Southeast Asia. They were probably the first fruit to be farmed by humans.  The coconut probably got its name from Portuguese explorers in the 15th century. When they found the fruit growing on Indian Ocean islands, the three holes in the coconut reminded them of two eyes and a little round mouth, so they called it coco, which means 'grinning face'."}]},{"head":"Carrots","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"PLANT COLLECTORS IN HISTORY","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":37,"text":"In the Middle Ages, coconuts were so rare and valued in the West that their shells were polished and mounted in gold. By the 19th century, new trade routes and steamships made them common in European markets."},{"index":2,"size":21,"text":"The coconut is part of magic and myth in many tropical countries where it is a very important source of food."},{"index":3,"size":39,"text":"Today, coconuts grow on about 12 million hectares in 90 countries-an area larger than Denmark, Switzerland and the Netherlands combined! About 50 million people make their living from growing coconuts, and about 30 million of them live in Asia."},{"index":4,"size":15,"text":"96% of the world's coconut crop grows on small plots of less than 4 hectares.  "}]},{"head":"THE TREE","index":4,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"WHAT IS HAPPENING TO DIVERSITY?","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":3,"text":"European fruit market."},{"index":2,"size":2,"text":"Jennifer Northway."}]},{"head":"Did you know?","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":20,"text":"In the past 100 years, as much as 75% of the genetic diversity of agricultural crops may have been lost. "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"5 grew in the area of Afghanistan around 3000 years ago and slowly spread to the Mediterranean. The ancient Greeks and Romans knew them well. They used carrot juice to cure stomach problems. The first carrots were white, purple and yellow. Potatoes originally came from the Andean Mountains of South America, where they were important to the diet of the Inca people. Wheat got its start in Syria. It is believed to have been cultivated for over 10 000 years. Many types of beans are originally from Mexico. Because they are high in protein, people in some parts of the world often eat beans instead of meat. Peppers first grew in Central and South America. They were introduced into Europe by the famous explorer Christopher Columbus. Onions probably originated in Central Asia. In Ancient Egypt, onions symbolized the universe and their images appear on pyramids dating back to 2500 BC. Pumpkins come from tropical America. Seeds from plants related to the pumpkin have been found in Mexico dating from 7000 to 5500 BC. Scientists think that maize grew first in South America over 10 000 years ago. Plants that you see growing in the fields where you live or in your local markets may have had their start in a far away country. Queen Hatshepsut, who ruled Egypt 3500 years ago, sent a fleet of ships to the Land of Punt near presentday Somalia to collect the resin of the myrrh plant and frankincense trees "},{"text":"❋ If all the bananas grown in the world each year were placed end to end, they would circle There are three different kinds of biodiversity: Diversity of ecosystems. An ecosystem-shorthand for ecological system-consists of all the plants and animals and other living things in a particular area that interact with each other and with their environment (weather, soil, air, water, sunlight, minerals and nutrients). Forests, mountains, deserts, oceans and polar regions are examples of different kinds of ecosystems. Diversity of species. A species is the basic unit that people use to classify living things. All the organisms that belong to the same species share common characteristics and are able to breed with one another. Panda bears, coconuts and people are examples of different species. So far, about 1.4 million species have been identified and scientists think there may be anywhere from 1 million to 100 million more species to be found. Diversity of genes. The next time you are with a group of your friends, have a good look at them. You are all people-but you are all different. It is mostly your genes that determine how you will turn out: genes contain the instructions for the traits, such as hair and eye colour, that you have inherited from your parents. All living things contain genes. Dogs have genes for their tails. Bananas have genes for the peel around the fruit. If the genes are even a little bit different, a dog might have a straight or a curly tail and a banana might have a thick or thin peel. Look at the picture on the cover of Geneflow Junior. "},{"text":" farmers grow many different crops, there is a better chance that they will have enough of the right kinds of foods to meet their needs and those of their families. Diversity of genes (or genetic diversity) is important too. Different varieties of a single crop may have different tastes, may ripen at different times or have different cooking qualities. Some varieties grow well in sandy soils while others need plenty of water. When farmers grow many crop varieties, it is more likely that at least some varieties will survive if the weather is bad or if there is an outbreak of pests and diseases started to gather seeds from wild plants. Farming communities in the Andes in South America may use up to 3000 different varieties of potatoes! In Java, Indonesia, farmers may plant more than 600 crop species in a single home garden About 30 000 of the world's estimated 300 000 to 500 000 plant species can be eaten and about 7000 of these have been used by humans for food at one time or another. The bad news is that both species and varieties of plants are disappearing…fast! There are lots of reasons why this is happening. Many farmers have stopped growing their traditional crop varieties and are replacing them with just a few modern types. With no one to grow them, the old varieties disappear forever. More and more people are leaving their farms to find jobs in the cities. "},{"text":"❋ come from just 3 foods: rice, wheat and maize. Children used to learn a lot about plants from their parents and grandparents. Now, that knowledge is being lost as more and more young people move to the cities. For 40 years, Carlos Ochoa, a Peruvian scientist, has travelled through the Andes looking for new varieties of potatoes. Once, while collecting in the mountains, he ran into a gang of thieves. Ochoa overheard one of them telling the others, 'Take him alive', and realized that he was in danger. He pulled his revolver (necessary equipment for collectors in those days) and fired shots over the gang's head while running toward his truck. The gang rolled boulders down the mountain toward him, but he managed to escape. Another time, in Colombia, he managed to collect a wild potato species and escape down a mountain just before a volcano erupted and destroyed the rest of the plants. Despite frequently difficult working conditions, Scientists are working hard to save what remains of plant diversity. They have set up 'genebanks' all over the world. In a way, these genebanks are like the banks you may know from your town or village because they are used to store and protect something of great value. But you won't find money or jewels in a genebank. Genebanks store seeds and plants, all of them alive! Conservation in genebanks is called ex situ (a Latin term meaning off-site) conservation. Normally, genebanks store seeds, which are dried and kept in big refrigerators to help them last as long as possible. Sometimes plant parts are stored in test tubes or collections of whole plants are grown in special fields. Scientists and farmers can ask the genebanks for samples of the stored plant material to use in their research and breeding programmes. Genebanks also keep information about all of the traits and characteristics of the plants, which makes the material much easier to study and use. Another way to conserve plants is through in situ (a Latin term meaning on-site) conservation. This protects plant resources in the places where they originally grow, whether in farmers' fields, in the wild, or in nature reserves. It allows scientists to study the plants in their natural environments. In situ, Go on a collecting mission in your neighbourhood. Collect as many different kinds of seeds as you can. Collect seeds from the fruits and vegetables that you eat at home. Ask neighbours for permission to collect their seeds. ❁ Write down everything that you can about the seeds and about the plants they came from. Where did you collect the seeds? What do they look like? Do they have a smell? ❋ Clean the seeds and spread them on paper in a cool dry room. After several days they should be dry enough to store. ❁ Place the seeds in airtight jars or plastic containers (like pill bottles). Put each different type of seed in its own jar. Label the jars with the date, where you collected the seeds, and any other important information. ❋ Put the containers on a shelf in a cool, dry place and arrange them by size or by colour. Check them every few months and throw away any of the seeds that appear to be mouldy. Be sure to keep the lid screwed on tight. If the seeds remain cool and dry, they can live for many years. ❁ Test the seeds from time to time to see how they are doing. Put them on some blotting paper or newspaper in a dish with a loose fitting lid. Keep the dish in a warm (not hot) place for a week or two then have a look at them. The seeds that have started to sprout and grow are still alive. When the sprouts get a little bit larger, you can plant them in a pot or in the ground and watch them grow. these words hidden in the word search puzzle. You can find the words by looking backwards, forwards, "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"The coconut is called 'The Tree of Life' in many countries because it provides more than 100 separate products, including food, drink, fuel, feed for livestock, fibre and building materials.   Genefl ow Junior Genefl ow Junior Thomas Jefferson, the In 1492, Italian-born Nicolai Vavilov, a Thomas Jefferson, theIn 1492, Italian-born Nicolai Vavilov, a third president of the explorer Christopher plant scientist, was third president of theexplorer Christopher plant scientist, was United States, wrote, 'The Columbus stumbled upon born in Russia at United States, wrote, 'TheColumbus stumbled upon born in Russia at greatest service which North and South America the end of the 19th greatest service whichNorth and South America the end of the 19th can be rendered any and the Caribbean Islands century. He was can be rendered anyand the Caribbean Islands century. He was country is to add a useful while trying to find a new one of the first country is to add a usefulwhile trying to find a new one of the first plant to its culture'. trade route to Asia. The people to plant to its culture'.trade route to Asia. The people to While serving as Minister voyages of Columbus had understand how While serving as Ministervoyages of Columbus had understand how to France in the 1780s, huge consequences for the the diversity of to France in the 1780s,huge consequences for the the diversity of Jefferson frequently asked rest of the world. They plants and related Jefferson frequently askedrest of the world. They plants and related for plants from home to inspired many explorers to wild species could for plants from home toinspired many explorers to wild species could be sent to him so that he seek their fortune in the be used to improve be sent to him so that heseek their fortune in the be used to improve could impress his European 'New World.' Plants, agriculture. Vavilov probably could impress his European'New World.' Plants, agriculture. Vavilov probably friends with the wealth of animals and people began travelled to more places friends with the wealth ofanimals and people began travelled to more places the New World species. to move between Europe than any other plant the New World species.to move between Europe than any other plant While he was Secretary of and the Americas, an collector in history. He While he was Secretary ofand the Americas, an collector in history. He State, in the early 1790s, exchange that is still going crossed five continents State, in the early 1790s,exchange that is still going crossed five continents Jefferson introduced vanilla, tea, tomato and many other plants Coconut is thought to have grown first in Southeast Asia. It probably on. Potatoes and sweet potatoes, maize, tomatoes, peanuts, cassava, cacao, peppers, tobacco, beans between 1916 and 1940 in search of new plant species. In the process, he identified geographic areas-called Jefferson introduced vanilla, tea, tomato and many other plants Coconut is thought to have grown first in Southeast Asia. It probablyon. Potatoes and sweet potatoes, maize, tomatoes, peanuts, cassava, cacao, peppers, tobacco, beans between 1916 and 1940 in search of new plant species. In the process, he identified geographic areas-called to the United arrived in Egypt in the 6th and squashes were centres of diversity-where to the Unitedarrived in Egypt in the 6thand squashes were centres of diversity-where States. He brought century AD. completely unknown outside of the Americas he found the greatest number of different types of States. He broughtcentury AD.completely unknown outside of the Americas he found the greatest number of different types of olives from  before the time of plants important for food olives frombefore the time of plants important for food Europe and  Columbus. Sugar, rice, and agriculture. Vavilov's Europe andColumbus. Sugar, rice, and agriculture. Vavilov's tried to  wheat, bananas, cattle, work helped to improve tried towheat, bananas, cattle, work helped to improve persuade  horses and pigs were Soviet agriculture. Later, persuadehorses and pigs were Soviet agriculture. Later, people in the  brought to the New World however, his views people in thebrought to the New World however, his views US to grow  from Europe and, from conflicted with official Soviet US to growfrom Europe and, from conflicted with official Soviet them.  Europe, they spread to ideas about plant breeding them.Europe, they spread to ideas about plant breeding   other parts of the world. So and agriculture and he was other parts of the world. So and agriculture and he was   was disease, against which arrested in 1940. He died in was disease, against which arrested in 1940. He died in   the native people had no a labour camp in 1943. the native people had no a labour camp in 1943.   natural immunity. Smallpox Many years later, Vavilov's natural immunity. Smallpox Many years later, Vavilov's   alone wiped out millions! reputation was restored and alone wiped out millions! reputation was restored and   today he is recognized as today he is recognized as   one of the most important of one of the most important of   all Russian scientists. all Russian scientists.  "}],"sieverID":"2cc54735-cbf9-45e7-b708-786c0f161045","abstract":""}

data/part_4/03529de83d8c56ec046b1489c987c1f6.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"03529de83d8c56ec046b1489c987c1f6","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://publications.iwmi.org/pdf/H_3019.pdf"},"pageCount":23,"title":"'The rrwrch was c o n d u d from 1981 ID 1983 under the auspicer of the Research DivtslMl and the R a u r c h Crnm fm ApplKd Same m d Twhndogy, Tribhuvnn Univemity. Kalhmmdu. Ne@. Finsncul suppon w o prundcd by the Ford Foundrum. Appopmlc Technology Ircmatmrl. and Cornell Umvemty's Pmgnm in Inumstional Agnculturr","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"INSTITUTIONS FOR IRRIGATION MANAGEMENT IN FARMER-MANAGED SYSTEMS:","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":6,"text":"Exampks from the Hills of Nepal"}]},{"head":"Edward D. Martin and Robert Yoder'","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"INTRODUDION IRRIGATION INSTITUTIONS","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":79,"text":"There is a growing literature which examines farmer-managed irrigation systems 2 in a number otcountries and a variety of ecological environments. Studies from the Philippines (Lewis, 1971;Siy, 1982), Indonesia (Geertz, 1980). Thailand (Tan-kim-yong, 19831, Sri Lanka (Leach, l%I), and Peru (Mitchell, 1976) have described a variety of irrigation systems which are managed by farmer groups. This article describes and analyzes the institutions employed by farmers for the management of gravity irrigation systems in the hill region of western Nepal."},{"index":2,"size":138,"text":"Water, as one of the essential resources in agricultural production, has several unique characteristics, especially in hill environments.) Individual farmers, acting alone, can seldom acquire water for irrigation. Construction and maintenance of the structures to divert, convey, and distribute water usually require investments beyond the capacity of a single farmer. Surface water rannot be easily stored, certainly not by the individual farmer, in the way that fertilizer can be. It must be used when it is available or it is lost. Fanners generally cannot transport water economically over great distances, and the locations to which it can be conveyed are limited by the topography. One implication of these characteristia is that institutions are needed for the development and operation of irrigation systems. The form and function of these institutions vary depending on the physical, social, and economic environments."},{"index":3,"size":71,"text":"Institutions have been defined as \"complexes of norms and behaviors that persist over time by serving collectively valued p u r p e s (Uphoff, 1984).\" Institutions regulate individuals' actions and consist of significant practices and relationships within a society. In some cases, institutions may be formalized in organizations like cooperative., local governments, or banks. Examples of institutions which are not organizations are land tenure systems and customary labor exchange relationships."},{"index":4,"size":62,"text":"Institutions of both kinds contribute to production and development processes in several ways. They facilitate the aggregation of resou~ces beyond an individual's capacity and the application of resources to the solution of problems for the benefit of many. They reduce uncertainty by the predictability of behavior that they encourage and enforce in various spheres induding the distribution of benefits from collecfive investments."},{"index":5,"size":48,"text":"In this paper we examine institutions that have evolved to enable the collective management of water for agricultural production. One institution is the farmer organization itxlt, an organization which has been vested with legitimacy by the local community? Another important institution is the convention of propetty'tights in water."},{"index":6,"size":43,"text":"Property rights include both the principle by which water is allocated among farmers and the responsibilities that individuals have for maintenance of the system. Both institutions, the organization and the convention of property righb, are crucial to the effective management of irrigation systems."}]},{"head":"Irrigation Management Activities","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":133,"text":"Farmer-managed irrigation systems are found in diverse environments and employ a wide range of technologies to exploit different types of water sources for production of a variety of crops. All these irrigation systems, however, require that certain essential tasks be accomplished if the system is to function productively. One set of management activities focuses directly on the wafer. Water must be acquired allocafed. dislribufed, and, if there is excess. drained5 A second set of management activities deals with the physical slruc/ures for controlling the water. These structures must be operated and maintained6 A final set of activities focuses on the organizafion which manages the water and structures and includes decision making, resource mobilizafion, communicafionp and conflicf managemenl (Uphoff, 1986). Figure 1 depicls these three sels of irrigation management activities as a three-dimensional matrix. "}]},{"head":"Communication Resource Mobilizati","index":5,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"MANAGEMENT ACTIVITIES","index":6,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"WATER USE ACTIVITIES","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":87,"text":"'Watcr \"allocation\" and \"distribution\" are olten wcd inlerchangeably in the irrigation literature to describe the delivery of water. However, they sometimes refer to different activities Water allocation is the assignment oi entitlement to walcr from a system, both idenlilying thc fields and farmen with m s s 10 water from the system and the amount and timing 01 the water to bc delivered to each. Wntcr distribution refen to the physical delivery of water to the fields and may or may not conform to the water alloution."},{"index":2,"size":75,"text":"6The stmuures must slso k designed and constructed. but thmc arc not usually amsidcred LO k managemnt aclivilim. % k i g n ad construction of the phFicl struciurs certainly have implications lor the management of a system, however. Not all types 01 managemenl pmcticzs arc p i b l e with cvcry h i g n , and both the design and quality of thc construetion may limit the elleclive mdnagcment of a system."},{"index":3,"size":51,"text":"There is interaction among the activities of the three sets; for example, the organization must decide how to operule the structures to dirm'bute Ihe water. Not all activities are equally important in each environment, and the farmers' irrigation management institutions will reflect the relative importance of activities in a particular location."},{"index":4,"size":65,"text":"In the context of the hills of Nepal, resource mobilizu:ion to muinrairr the syaiem for water ucqyrci.riiion is the primary activity which influences the structure of many of the farmer irrigation organizations. In addition, the institutions of property rights in water and the principle by which water is alloculrd have important implications for the efficiency and equity of the fanner-managed irrigation systems studied in Nepal."},{"index":5,"size":62,"text":"In the following discussion, we will describe and analyze two farmcr-rnanaged irrigation systems located in the western hills of Nepal which were studied for 20 months in 1982-83. The discussion will focus on the managemctlt institutions for operating the systems, i.e., 1 ) the organization and the way it accomplishes irrigation activities, particularly resource mobilization, and 2) the principle of water allocation."}]},{"head":"HILL IRRIGATION IN NEPAL","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":117,"text":"Irrigation to grow flooded rice in the valleys of the hill region of Nepal has h e n practiced for many centuries. Groups of farmers with adjacent landholdings have worked together to construct brush and stone diversions. They have dug canals to convey water to fields that they have leveled and bundcd for growing irrigated rice. The canals frequently must pass along steep slopes and through rock outcrops. Tunnels a few meters undeqround are used to pass vertical cliffs and rocks. Landslides along the canal and floods which destroy the diversions demand high maintenance inputs to keep the systems operating. In some systems each Farmer receiving water must contribute 20-30 days of labor each year for maintenance."},{"index":2,"size":114,"text":"In order for a group of farmers to accomplish the various irrigation management activit.ies, their behavior must be organized. All but one of the 25 systems investigated had explicit organizations with designated rules and roles for carrying out these activities. The degree of formality of the organizations varied considerably among the systems.? The focus of an organization and its structure are determined, in part, by the activities which arc most important. rhe hill environment requires long canals traversing steep, landslide-prone hillsides to bring water from streams subject to flooding during the monsoon season. As a result organization,T are structured to mobilize the resources needed to maintain the intake and canal for acquiring the water."},{"index":3,"size":137,"text":"In organizations that must mobilize a large amount of resources, written attendance records, sanctions for missing work, and audited accounts were found. The rules and minutes of meetings tended to focus on iwues surrounding the mobilization of resources, e.g., how much labor and cash members must contribute. the fines for missing work, and circumstances under which one is excused from work. The main functions of the elected officers of the organizations were to organize and supervise the maintenance work on the system, keep accurate records of members' contributions, and enforce sanctions for failure to contribute as required. The formality of organizational structure was found to be, to a large degree, a.€unction of how much labor must be mobilized to maintain the system. If little labor is required, the organization tends to be less formal and vice versa8"}]},{"head":"ARGALI AND CHHERLUNG IRRIGATION SYSTEMS","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":146,"text":"The two systems to be discussed are both on river terraces (lars) 100-200 meters above the Kali Gandaki River at an elevation of about 650 meters. Argali is in Argali Village Panchayat and Chherlung is in Baugha Gumha Village Panchayat? both located in Palpa District between Ridi Bazaar and Ranighat (see Map in 'This conclusion is examined and supponed by statistical analysis in Manin (1986).  In Argali there are four irrigation systems, each consisting of an intake on the Kurung Kliola (stream) and a canal which conveys water to a Command area on the Argali river terrace. The four systems range in area irrigated during the monsoon season from about I 1 to 47 hectares and in membership from 28 to 159 households. Since there is little difference in the four organizations, we will limit the discussion to the largest system, the Raj Kulo (Royal Canal)."},{"index":2,"size":41,"text":"Three systems irrigate the land in Chherlung. The smallest system serves less than 10 hectares and is supplied with water by a spring near the command area. Little labor is requ'ired to operate this system, and it has an informal organization."},{"index":3,"size":93,"text":"The other two systems have intakes on the Brangdhi Khola. They are called the Thnlo Kulo (large canal) and Tallo Kulo (lower canal) systems and irrigate 35 and 17 hectares of rice, respectively, in Chherlung. The Thulo Kulo has 105 members and the Tallo Kuio, 60 members. They employ a principle of water allocation which is distinctively different from that used in Argali. Because the Thulo and Tallo Kulo organizations and their historical development are similar, we will focus on the Thulo Kulo system and compare it with the Kaj Kulo of Argali."},{"index":4,"size":174,"text":"In both sites the soils are well-drained with high percolation rates. Measurement of the rate of water subsidenke in selected rice paddies yielded estimates of the seepage and percolation (S&P) rate which increased over the season from about 10 to 80 millimeters/day in fields which were continuously saturated and from 10 to 160 millimeters/ day in fields which cracked due to drying during rotational water distribution (Yoder, 1986).'O Consequently, water application rates for rice cultivation are extremely high. The average over the monsoon season when rice was cultivated ranged from 4 to 7 liters/second/hectare depending upon the water supply available and the water distribution method.]' While the top soil layer has a relatively high clay content, it is not deep. The depth of the puddled layer is controlled by the depth of plowing which averages only 75 millimeters. The sub-soil layer is porous, and the water table on the river terrdcs is far helow the surface. The shallow puddled layer, nature of the subsoil, and deep water table contribute to the high percolation rate."},{"index":5,"size":182,"text":"Farm sizes are small in both villages. The average size of irrigated landholding (kher)I2 per household in both systems is about 0.3 hectares. Agriculture is extremely intensive in both locations, which is made possible by effective irrigation systems. Farmers in both systems have developed the same cropping p a k m on their irrigated fields. Most farmers grow three crops: monsoon rice, winter wheat, and premonsoon maize. Several farmers in Argali planted rice on some of their land in the'pre-monmn season. In Chherlung, however, the water supply is so limited in the pre-monsoon season that if rice were grown, only one-third of the area could be cultivated, leaving the remainder fallow. In order to provide equitable irrigation benefits among the members in Chherlung, water is allocated on a priority basis for maize. Since maize is a less water-intensive crop than rice, all of the hydraulic command area can grow irrigated maize. Total grain production per year from a hectare of land in each system averaged approximately 6 tons. Table 1 presentsthe results of crop cuts that were taken in the two systems."},{"index":6,"size":59,"text":"Figure 3 shows the crop calendar that was observed in Argali in 1982/83. The calendar for Chherlung was virtnally identical to that of Argali. Whereas during the monsoon season all of the khet is used for growing rice, in the winter season some fanners grow potatoes, cabbage, or other vegetables in place of wheat on some of the area."},{"index":7,"size":97,"text":"In the pre-monsoon season maize is grown on most of the khet with a lentil crop, usually cowpeas, intercropped with the maize as a vegetable, fodder, or green manure.13 A few farmers with larger holdings leave part of their khet fallow in the winter and plant a longer-season, higher-yielding maize variety before the time of wheat harvest.   In both villages traditional varieties of rice are grown in the monsoon season. However, management-responsive varieties of wheat and maize have been adopted by most of the farmers. The farmers in Argali who cultivated pre-monsoon rice planted H managetnent-responsive variety."},{"index":8,"size":125,"text":"Many of the farmers also have some upland fields (bari). These may or may not he irrigated during the wheat and maize seasons depending on their location relative to the canal. If the bari is irrigated, farmers usually plant winter wheat followed by a long-season maize variety which is not harvested until near the end of the monsoon in September. Most households plant potatoes and vegetables for household consumption on part of their irrigated ban during the winter wheat season. A legume is intercropped with the maize and harvested for household consumption and animal fdder. After the maize is harvested, mustard may be planted, but this is not irrigated. A long-season variety of maize is the common crop planted on unirrigated bari in both villages."}]},{"head":"Historical Development","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":94,"text":"Oral tradition in Argali states that the Raj Kulo was initialed by Mani Makunda Sen, the tint Sen rajah of Palpa. This would make it over 300 years old. It was originally constructed to irrigate land to support a temple which he had built on the bank of the Kali Gandaki River at Rid!. Part of the production from a small section of the present command area is still given to the temple. Since the original construction took place so long ago, nothing is known of how resources were mobilized and work wried out."},{"index":2,"size":18,"text":"Much more is known about the history of the Thulo Kulo in Chherlung because construction began in 1928."},{"index":3,"size":102,"text":"Men who worked on it in their youth are still farming land which it irrigates and remember some of the details of the original construction. Two individuals, a Brahmin and a Chhetd4, are credited with initiating and organizing the construction and contributing the bu!k of the initial resources needed to dig the canal. An additional 25 households provided some support, but other families in the community doubted the feasibility of delivering water from an intake more than six kilometers away by means of a canal which had to be cut through dense jungle, hard rock, and along the face of sheer cliffs."},{"index":4,"size":234,"text":"To build the canal a contract of Rs. 5,000 and ten mmlo muri (about 0.12 hectares) of potential khet land was given to four Agris from the village of Damuk Khanee in Gulmi Districtl5. These four skilled canal builders hired laborers, including people from Chherlung, and each supervised 25-30 workers. Construction was begun in 1928 and continued for 10 months each year. The work was interrupted when people from Tansen, the District Center, arrested several workers on the charge that they were taking wood from the jungle without authorization and burning it to heat and break rocks. Tansen resideat? were also concerned that the canal would leak and ruin &e road to Ranighat, the place where they traditionally cremated their dead. A settlement was reached when tbe Chherlung farmers agreed to repair any damage to the road, received perniission to cut firewood, and were granted the right-of-way for the canal. Water first flowed through the Thulo Kulo to the Chberluug wmmand area in 1932. 16Magaagars are a Tibeta-Burman elhnic woup native to the hills of wmterri Nepal convention regarding water rights required this second canal's intake to be below that of the Thulo Kulo even though its command area was higher. Thus the two canals cross just before they reach the command area. The Same four skilled canal builders who had constructed the Thulo Kulo were given a contract to build the Tallo Kulo."}]},{"head":"Farmers in Argali and in","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":129,"text":"In Chherlung the contractors were retained for an additional four years L o maintain and improve the Thulo Kulo. They did this during the monsoon months and worked to consfruct the Tallo Kulo the rest of the year. The members paid for all of the contract work and in addition contributed labor. Since that time the members have continued to mobilize labor and.cash to make improvements. Gradually the canal has been enlarged to deliver a higher discharge, and the intake structure has been improved. In 1967, cement was used in the system for the first time, and since then short sections of the canal have been lined. The district panchayat made small grants to the organization in 1967, 1975, 1981, and 1983. These were used primarily to purchase cement."},{"index":2,"size":21,"text":"It was reported that in the first years only a trickle of irrigation water could be delivered through the Thulo Kulo."},{"index":3,"size":52,"text":"Increase in water discharge over the years has allowed the area irrigated to gradually expand, and in parts of the s).tem, farmers can now irrigate their rice by continuous flow. In the early years of the system, it was necessary to distnhte water by rotation to all fields throughout the entire system."},{"index":4,"size":113,"text":"Much of the improvement in the Argali Raj Kulo h@s taken place in the past 25 years. I$or to that, most of the land had been hrmed by tenants who were reluctant to invest in improvements to the system because of the insecurity of their enancy Those who farmed irrigated rice land, whether owners or tenants, were members of the irrigation organizqtion and were responsible for operating the system. The organization fined persons who were absent flom wor nd who were caught stealing water. At the end of the year, the money collected in fines was k ' spent for a feast fo v the members rather than used to improve the system."},{"index":5,"size":75,"text":"The tenant operators became land owners after passage of the Land Reform Acts in 1957 and 1964, and the practice of spending the fine money on a feast was discontinued. Since then, this money has been invested in improvements in the systcm. The canal has been widened, areas with high seepage have been lined, and skilled labor has been h i r a to cut tunnels through some areas where landslides often damaged the canal."},{"index":6,"size":108,"text":"Evidence of the increased water discharge of the canal lies in the report by many of the farmers in Argali that until 10-15 years ago they needed to guard the water to their fields carefully both day and night. This required that one family member sleep by the canal turnout to their field at night. Observation of the water distribution in 1982 clearly showed that in an average rainfall year the water sopply was now adequate for continuous-flow water distribution to all of the fields in the Raj Kulo system for the entire season. It was no longer necessary for Raj Kulo members to guard their water carefully."}]},{"head":"Water Allocation","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":125,"text":"Rice is the preferred staple food in Argali and Chherlung and is the crop for which irrigation has k e n developed. The technology and organization, i.e., the techniques. rules and conventions, developed by the fanners are primarily for rice cultivation. Membership in the irrigation organization is limi:cd LO those who have the right to water for growing rice in the monsoon season, even though other farmers have access to water from the system in other seasons for other crops. According to local tradition and Nepali law, the first farmer or group of fanners to develop a water source can claim the right, at the point of the diversion from the stream, to all of the water that they need for cultivation (Muluki Ain, 1964)."},{"index":2,"size":245,"text":"Members of both the Raj Kulo and the Thulo Kulo have a strong feeling of ownership of their irrigation systems. This is a result of their personal investment and the physical danger they faced in developing and operating the many irrigation oreanizations in western Nepal. systems. Accounts i f acadend claiming lives while constructing or maintaining system form a part of the history of Farmers carefully proted their right to a limited resource. Although drainage water from the Raj Kulo is used for cultivating several additional hectares of rice, the owners of these fields are not considered members of the system. They do not needlto contribute to the maintenance of the system nor can they exercise authority by demanding * -8 -water or influencing the timing of water delivery. When the members in systems like the Raj Kulo were questioned about allowing those using drainage water to become members, the answer was universal that since they had not invested in the system they could not become members. Even acquiring access to the canal water for a nonconsuniptive use, such as a water-powered mill, was sometitnes not possible (Scheuer et al., 1980). A frequently expressed fear was that if irrigation access or other uses were allowed, rights would be established to thc water. If rights were established, then in the event of a drought the crops of the original members would be stressed and they would not be able to deny water to the new users."},{"index":3,"size":169,"text":"Additional irrigation development from the same stream can usually only take place by other farmer groups constructing their own diversion and canal downstream of the existing intake. The only exception is if the new canal does not diminish the discharge in an existing canal with an intake below it. Many communities have three or from the same stream into a command area. the canals can be Seen running parallel along a hillside, separated by only a few meters of elevation but serving distinct a r w within the command. The construction of multiple intakes and canals is often a result of the allocation of rights of access to water by prior appropriation. This principle w a enunciated in the Law on Reclamation of Wasteland in the traditional legal ccdc of Nepal, the Muluki Ain, as follows, \"Water shall not be available for others until the requirements of the person who constructed the irrigation channel at his own cxpense or with his own physical labor are first met\" (Regmi, 1978:244)."},{"index":4,"size":82,"text":"Water allocation, i.e., the distribution of entitlements to water from an irrigation system, consists of two dimensions. The first dimension, discussed above, distinguishes the farmers or fields which have access to the system's water from those which do not. The second dimension is a quantitative allocation of the water in the system among the farmers or fields which have been granted access to it, i.c., the designation of the quantity and timing of water to which each farmer or field is enritled."},{"index":5,"size":141,"text":"The Arxdli Raj Kulo and Chherlung Thulo Kulo organizations have clearly defined both aspects of water allocation. In Argali during the monsoon rice season, only certain designated fields are allocated water. Fields which have no water allocation, but on which irrigation is hydraulically feasible, have no claim on the water resource from the time seedbeds are established for the monsoon rice.crop until the rice is harvested. The amount of water to which each field with an allocation is entitled is defined in terms of its area relative to the total irrigated area. Formerly the unit of area measurement was a manlo muri (about 1/80 of a hectare), and each field's allocation is still referred to as \"SO many muri of water.\" Only those households farming land that has a water allocation for monsoon rice are members of the Raj Kulo organization."},{"index":6,"size":75,"text":"The allocation during the winter wheat season and for maize planting is much less strictly defined and limited. Any farmer whose fields are located where they can receive water from the Raj Kulo is entitled to water in exchange for working on the system one day for each water application. The area that is irrigated during the dry season for wheat and maize is nearly double that which is irrigated during the monsoon rice season."},{"index":7,"size":81,"text":"Access to water for growing rice in the Chherlung Thulo Kulo system and membership in the organization is limited to households that own at least a fraction of a share in the system. At the completion of the Thulo Kulo construction, the Rs. 5,000 construction contract was divided into 50 shares of Rs. 100 each. Shares in the system were distributed among the 27 contributing households according to the investment each had made and became the basis of the water allocation."},{"index":8,"size":206,"text":"Ownership of one sharc entitled a member to 1/50 of the discharge in the system. Several households had contributed enough to receive more shares than they needed to irrigate their fields, while othcr households received less than needed. In addition, many people who had been unwilling to risk investing in the initial construction now wanted access to irrigation. This led to the initiation of buying and selling shares. The ownership of transferable shares was thus established and continues as the method of water allocation in the Chherlung Thulo Kulo. Now there are 105 member households, and the range of share holdings is from one-eighth to four shares. On the average in 1983, a share of water irrigated one-half hectare of rice. The price of a share has increased over the years with transactions taking place in 1985 at the rate of Rs. 10,000 (US$575) per share.17 In the same year the price of I7This is thc COSI of a one-lime purchhase of 8 share, not an annwal or seasonal r e n d charge prime irrigated land was Rs. 40-45,000 (US$2,300-2,600) per ropani.ls In 1985 the cost of water for irrigating rice was about 2 percent of the cost of the best rice land in Chherlung."},{"index":9,"size":229,"text":"The price of shares is set by the organization's managing committee and is said to somewhat reflect the total investment in the system. Even though the price of a share has increased tremendously, shares are still denominated according to the original price like the par value of stock, i.e., one share is referred to as Rs. 100 of water even though its current price is Rs. 10,000 Over the years, improvements have been made to the main canal, significantly increasing the total flow in the system.i9 Since a share is a fixed proportion OF the flow and not a specific volume, increasing the discharge in the canal increases the amount of water in a share. A member who initially needed two shares to adequately irrigate his land may at a later time require only one share. The member is therefore allowed lo sell all or part of a share to another farmer who has no water or less than he wan6 for irrigating his land. When a sale takes place, the transaction is recorded by water distribution changed to meet the new allocation pattern. This involves changing the size of a notch in a saacho20 if the water is transferred between secondary canals and recalculating the time intervals for rotational distribution. The Thulo Kulo farmers are adept at readjusting the water distribution to match a new allocation of shares."},{"index":10,"size":96,"text":"On one occasion (in 1978) a group of farmers in Chherlung with land in an unirrigat.ed area wanted to purchase shares, but no individual was prepared to sell the number of shares they wanted. The Thulo Kulo organization decided that improvements to the diversion weir and canal were necessary before enough water could he delivered to serve an expanded command area. A decision was made by the organization to sell ten additional shares at the rate of Rs. 2,800 (US$233) per share. thereby increasiiig the total number of sharcs in the system from 50 to 60."},{"index":11,"size":32,"text":"TheRs. 28,000 received by the organization from the saie was then invested in improvements in thediversion andmain canal to successfully expand the irrigated area by more than 25 percent in one year."}]},{"head":"Organization for Irrigation Management","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":93,"text":"Membership in the irrigation organizations in both Argali and Chherlung is hydraulically determined. Even though in both locations there is more than one canal from the same source serving a contiguous command area, each canal has a separate organi7,alioii for its operation. In Argali, the membership of the Raj Kulo irrigation organization consists only of those farmers operating land that receives a water allocation from the Raj Kulo for monsoon rice. All farmers in Chherlung owning shares or a fraction of a share in the Thulo Kulo system are members of the organization."},{"index":2,"size":122,"text":"Both organizations have a mukhiyu (leader) and a secretary ivho are elected by the members. The current officers have served for a number of years but could he replaced if members were dissatisfied with their performance. The mukhiya is responsible for organbing and supervising work rlone on the sy5tem. and thc secretary keeps the accounts, ii record of members' water allocation and attendance at work, and minutes of the organization's meetings. As remuneration the number of workers these officers mu! suppi :II-ivaiotenance work, based on their water allocation, is reduced. lfthe number of workers that they would haw to provide is less than the remuneration they are due, the balance is paid to the in cash at the local daily wage rate."},{"index":3,"size":89,"text":"Both organizations have a meeting of the members in mid-May. At this meeting plans are made for the major annual maintenance which begins shortly thereafter, new officers are elected if necessary, and the operating rules for the coming monsoon season are reviewed and amended as needed. In Argali the accounts are presented for review at this meeting, whereas in Chherlung this is done at a meeting after rice harvest in the fall. Other meetings may be held throughout the year if decisions about system operation need to he made."},{"index":4,"size":130,"text":"Water Distribution Unless an irrigation system has an abundant supply of water allowing all fields to be adequately irrigated without concern for insuring that distribution of water is consistent with the allocation, some method of rationing the water according to each farmer's allocation is required. In Argali and Chherlung this is through the use of saachos and rotational distribution. Farmers in Argali and Chherlung irrigate rice by continuous-flow distribution whenever the supply is sufficient. Water flows continuously in all channels of the system, and farmers apply water to their fields at any time they want. With the exception of the days when they weed the field and apply fertilizer, farmers prefer standing water in their fields until near the end of the season when they dry the fields for harvest."},{"index":5,"size":146,"text":"Saachos are used to distribute water by continuous flow in accordance with the pattern of water allocation. A saacho is a weir that the farmers install in the canal with two or more rectangular openings for the water to flow through. By having the bottom of each opening at the same elevation, the flow in the canal can be divided into parts that equal the ratio of the width of each opening to the total width of all the openings. Because of its notched shape, the proportioning weir is called a saacho (key) in the Argali and Chherlung systems. Figure 4 shows a saacho dividing the flow of one of the main canals in Argali into four secondary canals?' Figure 4. A S M C ~O installed to distribute the flow from a main canal into four secondary canals according to the water allocation of each."},{"index":6,"size":77,"text":"?)This sam: type of dence for proportioning water distribution is found In many of the irrigation syrlems studied in western Nepal In romp comnlunitiei the! were called pani dlioro j u i l c i ipoul) or khar himdo (uonden closure). Similar devices arc also found I\" other cnunlrles 111 Indaoesia the! are referred 10 ili penaro (Coward. 1985). in Sri Lanka. kvruhnnkora (Leach. 1961). and in Thailand. Iae ~1 1 1 or moi iliil (Tm-kim-yong. 1983)."},{"index":7,"size":71,"text":"In Chherlung, saachos are used only to distribute water from the main canal into secondary canals. The group of farmers below the saacho is then responsible to apportion thc water among their fields. When the discharge is adequate, the flow into each field is controlled by adjusting the size of the opening in the earth bund and by placing stones and mud in the canal to divert part of the water."},{"index":8,"size":74,"text":"In much of Argali, saachos are used for distributing water from the main canal into secondary canals, from the secondaries into tertiary canals, and from tertiaries to the farmers' level when farmers are not able to satisfactorily distribute water among themselves less formally. Installation of a saacho eliminates the conflicts that arise under informal distribution as farmers try to take more, or are thought by their neighbors to be taking more, than their share."},{"index":9,"size":113,"text":"In both systems, when the supply is insufficient to provide continuous flow to the entire area at once, a timed rotation system of distribution is initiated. In the 1982 rice season, rotational distribution was not required in the Raj Kulo system in Argali. Halfway through the wme season in Chherlung, however, the water supply had diminished to the extent that continuous-flow distribution to all of the fields was no longer possible. It was possible to retain continuous flow through the saachos into all of the secondary canals, but farmers within each secondary formed rotational units and decided independently when they wanted to initiate rotational water distribution among the fields served by their secondary."},{"index":10,"size":118,"text":"For water distribution within the secondary, the number of minutes per share was computed by dividing the total number of shares served by the secondary into the number of minutes in the rotation cycle. Each farmer would then receive water for the time period represented by the number of shares he had allocated to his field served by that secondary. A typical rotation cycle was 36 hours. By setting the length of the rotation cycle at 36 hours, the irrigation turn for each farmer alfernated from day to night. Although irrigating at night has always been an accepted practice in Chherlung, it is both more difficult (disrupting sleep) and expensive (requiring the purchase of batteries for a torchlight)."},{"index":11,"size":142,"text":"Water distribution in Argali during the wheat and maize seasons is less precise and formal because the water supply is sufficient to irrigate more than the command area. Water is applied several days before land preparation to make it suitable for plowing and planting. Wheat is then irrigated two or three more timcs during the season. Maize may be irrigated only at planting for quick germination. At the most it is given only one or two additional irrigations, depending on the rainfall. Wheat and maize. irrigation is done turn-by-turn with the farmers informally deciding upon the order. From long tradition, farmers wanting water on a particular day will mect at the main saacho at the head of the system at 1O:OO a.m. to decide the order of irrigation and to do any minor repairs necessary to deliver the desired amount of water."},{"index":12,"size":118,"text":"In Chherlung, the most demanding irrigation period each year is at mdize planting time in mid-April. Most farmers are ready to plant maize at the same time, and they must irrigate to initiate germination. Discharge in the Rrangdhi Khola in April is very low, requiring that the total flow of the canal be rotated lrom one farmer's field to the next at the system rather than secondary canal level. Therefore, full authority for the allocation of watcr for maize plantine-hoth in quantity and timing-+ given to the mukhiya. All requests for water must be made to him, and as nearly as possible he assigns water delivery to each farmu's iield in the order in which requests are received."},{"index":13,"size":252,"text":"A field usually consists of sevcral terraw depending on the slope and size of the field. In order to allow equity in timely planting of every farmer's maize, the mukhiya decides, on the basis of requests for water each day, what portion of each farmer's field, i.e., how many terraces, will he irrigated in his turn. In this way water is allocated by turn to farmers, and a portion of their land, depending on the terrx: .kc, is irrigated. The farmer must then wait for another one or more turns to complete his maize planting. For an irrigation system to function well, the distribution of water must be done according to the allocation scheme. The precise definition of farmers' water allocation is only useful if thz system can actually deliver to each farmer the share of the supply to which he is entitled. Measurement and comparison between the amount of water actually distributed and the amount allocated to diftcrcnt parts of an irrigation system provides an evaluation of the system's performance. The portion of the supply delivered to parts of the Thulo Kulo system was measured and comparcd with the amount allocated to those parts of the systems. Thc same measurements were made for the Kanchi Kulo system in Argali which distributes water in the same manner as the Raj Kulo. As Table 2 shows, the actual distribution closely matched the allomtion, an indication of good system performance, ' Since nut all wndaries were measured, percentages do not sum to 1W percent."},{"index":14,"size":21,"text":"bDischsrge in h e main canai and selectedsecondaries was measured twice daily for 97 days during the 1982 monmon rice +n."},{"index":15,"size":24,"text":"The tigores refe.r to the &reenme of the volume of water supplied to the respective m d a r i s over the sepym."}]},{"head":"I j Maintenance","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":89,"text":"A critical period for maintenance of most hill irrigation systems, including Aqali and Chherlung, i prior to and during the monsoon. Major routine maintenance is done in late May and June to prepare the system for the monsoon Season when efficient water delivery for rice cultivation is most important. At this time, the &version and canal walls are repaired to reduce leakage, silt and weeds are cleaned from themtire length of canal, and sections of the canal are lined with clay to reduce seepage. This usually twoand three weeks."},{"index":2,"size":83,"text":"In Chherlung, because of the low discharge in the stream in April, similar maintenance is also carried out prior to land preparation for maize. After the 1983 maintenance for maize, it was observed that the irrigators had used clay to seal the diversion in the stream. All of the surface water in the stream was captured, and measurements showed that for the short period during maize planting, over 80 percent of the water entering the canal reached the command area 6.5 kilometers away."},{"index":3,"size":275,"text":"A large amount of maintenance is required throughout the monsoon season. The streams fluctuate tremendously with the monsoon rains, often damaging the diversion structures made of brush, stones, and mud. The heavy rainfall causes landslides on the steep, unstable hillsides along which the canals run, interrupting the flow of water until the canal is repaired. The intake and main canal are patrolled daily so that there is early detection of damage. The Chherlung organization pays two men to do this every day during the monsoon, while in Argali the members take turns patrolling in pairs. The men patrolling the canal will do minor maintenance work such as repairing small leaks. In Argali if there is a need for more laborers, one of them will inform the mukhiya who then organizes members to do the repairs. In Chherlung the members are divided into seven groups, and each group is responsible for maintenance An a different day of the week, If laborers are needed, they will first be drawn from that day's group. Sometime due to the man to work. Work will sometimes continue at night by the light of lanterns until the water is flowing again. magnitude of the disaster, an emergency will he declared, and then each member household is requir d to send one Dur:ttg the winter wheat and maize seasons, much less maintenance is required because there.,is verybittle rainfall. The farmers who want to irrigate on a given day may have to repair the intake to divert more water or plug small Ipks in the canal to increase the flow. relatively minor efforts compared to the m o n m n seasan maintenance."}]},{"head":"Resource Mobilizaliun","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":103,"text":"Resource mobilization is critical to the effectiveness of an irrigation system, and horh the Raj Kulo and Thulo Kulo organizations successfully mobilize significant amounts of resources every year. Most of the labor and cash resources are contributed by the members, although small grants and some technical assistance have been given recently by the district panchayat and Department of Irrigation, Hydrology, and Meteorology (DIHM). Both organizations mobilize between ISDO and 2500 man-days of labor annually, depending on the severity of the moltsoon rains and the attendant flooding and landslides. Both organizations have assessed cash contributions from members for the purchase of cement to canals."},{"index":2,"size":88,"text":"In both systems resources are generally mobilized in proportion to the benefits that members receive from the system, i.e., according lo the water allocation. In Argali, where water is allocated in proportion to area irrigated, labor and cash are also contributed according lo area served. Members must contribute labor for ordinary maintenance work at the rate of one man for each 40 m u l o muriZ2 of khet each work day. A household with only 20 maato muri is required to provide one worker every other day."},{"index":3,"size":65,"text":"Members in Chherlung contribute labor and cash according to the number of shares they own in the system. A household with one share is required to supply one man each day of ordinary maintenance, while one with two organizatio two workers each day. Table 3 presents the number of man-dsys of labor mobilized by the two Table 3. La% mobilized for system maintenance (person-days). ."}]},{"head":"Raj Kulo, Argali","index":16,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"--_","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":18,"text":"In 1982, members of the Thulo Kulo organization were assessed cash contributions at the rate of Rs. 250"},{"index":2,"size":64,"text":"(US$19) per share, raking a total of Rs. 15,000 (lJS$1,140) from 105 member households owning a total of 60 ~hares.2~ Rs. 34,800 (US$2,636) was raised by assessing the members at the rate of Rs. 580 (US$44) per share in 1983. Most of this was spent to build a masonry wall several meters high to support a section of lined canal following a severe landslide."},{"index":3,"size":97,"text":"The one exception to the rule of proportionality in resource mobilization is when an emergency is declared. Each one man, irrespective of its water At the annual meeting in May 1983 in Argali, some members with mall water allocatious strongly protested that it was unfair for them to have to provide the same number of workers in an emergency as households with a much larger water allocation. After much discussion the decision was made to leave the rule unchanged but to be careful about when an emergency is called, i.e., only when there is a real emergency."},{"index":4,"size":137,"text":"In order to mobilize the resources needed to maint+in the system in effective working order, the organization must have sanctions which can be applied and enforccd when members fail to contribute their share of labor and cash. Both systems levy a h fines against members who are absent from work. The fine for missing a day of ordinary maintenance is set near the local daily wage fate in Chherlung, Rs. 10 (US$.75) in 1982 and somewhat lower in Argali, Rs. 6 (US$.45). In Chherlung when i major emergency is declared, the fine rate is increased to encourage a higher rate of attendance. If a person is absent from the community when the emergency is docland or has another acceptable excuse such as illness, the fine is reduced to Rs. 6 per day, even for a major emergency."},{"index":5,"size":219,"text":"Fines, when levied, are paid because as one farmer in Argali said, \"If the fine is not paid, the organization can deny the offender water.\" Also, the community of members can exert social, as well as physical, pressure on members to pay fines. in Chherlung it was reported that in an early year of operation of the system, one man did not report for emergency maintenance for several days. When his fine was levied and he refused to pay, a group of members confiscated his cooking pots and threatened to sell them to pay his fine. Within a day or two, he paid the fine and recovered his cooking pots. Other members witnessed how serious the organization was about enforcing i k NIB and collecting fines, and payment has heen 100 percent of all fines levied. At a December 1982 meeting of the Raj Kulo organization, two members were appointed to collect the fines from the previous monsoon season and any that were outstanding from previous years. As remuneration for thic work, they were entitled to keep 6 percent of the amount collected. In both organizations, the cash that is raised through fines is invested in maintenance and improvement of the system. Until it is spent, the money may be loaned to members who pay interest to the organization."}]},{"head":"IMPLICATIONS OF THE PRINCIPLE OI: WATER ALLOCATION","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":72,"text":"The principle of allocation has important implications for the efficiency of water use and the expansion of the irrigated area. Allocation of water in proportion to area irrigated provides no incentives for efficient water use nor a mechanism for expanding the area irrigated.24 In Argali there have been significant improvements made in the canal, and the amount of water supplied to the command area has increased considerably in the past 25 years."},{"index":2,"size":163,"text":"However, there has been little increase in the area' irrigated. DIHM invested approximately Rs. 400,000 (US$30,300) in the system in 1982 with no change in the irrigated area or cropping intensity. The main impact of the improvements made over the past 25 years, including (hose by DIHM, has been to reduce the water distribution .. . r r ( ~~~~u io manage the system. Whereah h e farmcrs once had to us,: a roution system of distribution and go out to irrigate at night, sometimes sleeping in thc lield to guard their water, now the water flows continuously to all fields. It is recognized that there is plenty of water to irrigate additional Iand,X but the members have no incentive L o allocate water to fields owned by nonmembers. T o maintain their yields, they would have to work harder to manage a smaller amount of water more efficiently. i.e., change to a rotation system of distribution, and would receive nothing in return."},{"index":3,"size":150,"text":"On the other hand, allocation by purchased shares in Chherlung provides both the individual incentives for efficient water management and a mechanism for expanding the irrigated area. As the system improved, the amount of water delivered and, consequently, the amount of water per share increased considerably. Shareholders a n decide whether to keep all their shares and reduce their management input or to sell part of the individual can sell part of his water, he aware opportunity cost of his use of water, and there is a financial incentive to manage his water efficiently. In addition, if an individual sells part of his allmiion, the amount of labor that he must contribute to maintaining the system is reduced. Since the Thulo Kulo requires a large amount of labor each year for maintenance, this provides another'incentive to reduce the number of shares one owns and to use the water more efficiently."},{"index":4,"size":175,"text":"A comparison of the seasonal relative water supply for the two systems gives an indication of the efficiency of water use. The relative water supply is estimated by dividing the total water supply by the total demand for water over the season.z7 Seepage and percolation in both systems was measured to be approximately the same, with the daily average over the rice season being approximately 35 millimeters. Computation using data collected twice daily over the rice season gives a seasonal relative water supply of approximately 1.0 in the Chherlung Thulo Kulo system and 1.3 in the Argali Raj Kulo system. In neither system was there any indication of moisture stress, but the Thulo Kulo farmers had to practice rotational distribution while Raj Kulo farmers were able to distrihute water continuously. The relative water supply calculation suggests that water was managed more efficiently in Chherlung than in Argali, lending support to the hypothesis that allocation of water by the sale of shares results in more efficient management of water than allocation in proportion to area irrigated."},{"index":5,"size":127,"text":"The sale of shares, either by individuals or from the system at large, provides a mechanism for expanding the area irrigated, Water is not tied to a specific land area but is distributed to wherever, within the area commanded, those owning shares want it. In Chherlung the system has expanded through the sale of water shares to the point where it now irrigates 85 percent of the potentially irrigable area. The chairman of the Thulo Kulo organization estimated that the area that is irrigated during the monsoon season doubled between 1967 and 1982 as a result of continual improvements to the system and subsequent sales of shares. In comparison, only 45 percent of the Raj Kulo's potentially irrigable area receives irkgation for the monswn season rice crop."},{"index":6,"size":270,"text":"Interestingly, the Raj Kulo organization has recognized that the sale of water shares would be an effective means of expanding the area served. Most members accept that there is surplus water in the system, and that the work the Department of Irrigation, Hydrology and Meteorology did in 1982 has made the supply more reliable, i.e., less subject to major interruptions by landslides. In 1983, it appeared that the government was going to reduce by half its contribution to the local school's budget, precipitating a financial crisis for the school. A decision was made, after much debate within the Raj Kulo organization, that the Raj Kulo organizntion woitld sell 200 muri of water (about 10 percent of the supply) and give the money to the school as a permanent endowment. Requests fw the water 25Thc cost 01 maintenance was also rducrd, hut the data in Table 3 do  were solicited, and 40 households applied to purchase nearly three times the amount offered for sale. The price was set at Rs. 2,000 (US$ 138) per murk only two households were able to raise the necessary cash, indicating that the rate was probably set too high. Based on the flows in the Raj and Thulo Kulos in the monsoon of 1982, the price per unit of flow, i.e., liter per second, set in Argali was ten times higher than the rate in Chherlung at that time. Before the price or conditions of payment could be renegotiated, the government restored its contributioq to the schools budget to the original amount, and members of the Raj Kulo organization lost interest in the sale of water."},{"index":7,"size":59,"text":"The allocation principle also has equity implications. In Argali the only way that a person can irrigate rice is for the household to have inherited khet land with a water allocation or to buy some irrigated land. It is, thus, nearly impossible for the poor and low caste people to acquire access to irrigation for the important monsoon rice.&on."},{"index":8,"size":60,"text":"In the past, no low caste households had land with an allocation of water. Damai2* has work in India. He is the only low caste person in all of Argali with land has a water allocation for monsoon rice. Irrigated land is extremely expensive (Rs. 400,000 (US$27,500) per hectare in 1983), and the poor have little possibility of buying any."},{"index":9,"size":105,"text":"In Chherlung 20 percent of the members of the Thulo Kulo organization are low caste households, and gaining ~c c e a to irrigation is much more feasible. A person with unirrigated land in the hydraulic command area has only to purchase a fraction of a share of water in the system and through hard work gradually and realize more production on it. He does nol need to buy expensive, already irrigated benefits of irrigation as he would in Argali. Mast of the low caste members' fields are was firs( supplied after the number of shares in the system was increased by the sale of"}]},{"head":"CONCLUSlON","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":89,"text":"In this paper we have described and a n a l p 4 the institutions utilized for irrigation management in a number of farmermanaged irrigation systems in the hills of Nepal. Farmer control of the entire irrigation system and the need for farmers to rely on themselves for the operation and maintenance has resulted in the development of sophiStica&d inslitutions for management of the water resource. These institutions have enabled effective use of irrigation, making extremely intensive agricultural production possible with three crops cultivated per year in many systems."},{"index":2,"size":129,"text":"The institutions examined included both the organization which manages the irrigation systems and the traditional convention of property rights in water. Both types of institutions are essential for the effective operation of irrigation systems. Irrigation institutions are designed to enable the accomplishment of certain activities related to 1) Be water, 2) the physical structures for control of the water, and 3) the organization of farmers which manage the irrigation system. In the hill environment of Nepal, the activity of resource rnobiliraiofi for mninIenance of the system for ucquhition of water was found to be the mast critical activity which influences the structure of an irrigation organization. The principle of water allocation w e found to have extremely significant implications for the eftiiiency and equity of utilization of irrigation resources."},{"index":3,"size":307,"text":"Two specific systems, the Raj Kulo of Argali and the Thulo Kulo of Chherlung, were described in detail. These two systems exhibit many of the institutional characteristia common to a number of irrigation systems which were observed in West Nepal during the 20-month period of field research in 1982-83. The structure of the fanner organization in both systems is similar. Membership is limited to those households with a right to use water during the monsoon rice season, oficers are elected by the members, regular and special meetings of the members are convened, resources are mobilized according to members' water allocation, sanctions are appl' for failing to provide the required amount of labor for maintenance, and written records of attendance at ork Bccounls, members' water alloation, and minutes of meetings are maintained by the secretary. Both syste require a large steep, landslide-prone hillsides. Between 1,500 and 2,500 man-days of labor are mobilized annually in each system for routine and emergency maintenance. The water allocation of each member is precisely detined in both systems. The Raj Kulo organization allocates water to each member for monsoon rice in proportion to the area of irrigated land owned. To acquire water rights for the monsoon season, households must buy land which already has water allocated to it. In Chherlung, the Thulo Knlo organization allocates water by the sale of shares, and property rights in water are, thus, separate from ownership of land. Most transactions of water shares take place between individuals, but on one occasion, the organization sold shares, increasing A measure of the performance of an irrigation system is a comparison of how closely the actual distribution of water matches the water allocation. Measurement of water distribution to different parts of the command area showed that in both Chherlung and Argali water distribution very closely matched the pattern of water allocation."},{"index":4,"size":28,"text":"Thus by this measure both systems can be said to have performed and timed rotation are the two methods used to the water in accordance with the allocation."},{"index":5,"size":162,"text":"The comparison of the Raj Kulo and Thulo Kulo systems demonstrates the importance of the principle of water allocation for efficient and equitable development of irrigation resources. If water is to be u t i l i efficiently and irrigated area increased, there must be incentives for efficient water management and mechanisms for expanding access to the water. Water allocation by purchased shares, as practiced in Chherlung, provides the individual incentive and an organizational mechanism which enable the eficient development of resources, while allocation in proportion to area irrigated does not. In contrast to the Raj Kulo system, the Thulo Kulo system bas I) expanded the area irrigat during the monsoon season to a greater extent, 2) achieved more efficient water utilization through more intensive anagement of the distribution, and 3) realized greater equity in access to the irrigation resource. Your answers to the following questions will help IlMl prepare better reports and disseminate them more effectively. Your help is greatly appreciated. "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure 1 . Figure 1. Irrigation systems activities matrix (adapted from UphoNef aL, 1985). "},{"text":" Figure 2.) Argah and Chherlung are about two hours' walking distance from each other. 71ndicaton ul the degree of formalization of organizational slructwe rn the number of desipated ~oles. ?eguIai mcctinKs, established sanctions and the extent of written rmords such &s minutes of meetings, work attendance records, accounts, rules, and listing of m e m b n i water allocation. "},{"text":" 9NepaI is divided into sever81 levels of poiitical and administrative unis. The village Panchayai which consisls of nine warda, I!: the loaesi lcvcl. There are more than 3,wO villsge panehayats in Nepal. Thesc aggregated intu 75 distrid panchayals. The national panchayat is Ihc equivalent of a national Parliament. Members OT the Panchayats are elected by the adult constituency which they repment. "},{"text":"Figure 2 . Figure 2. Lmcion o f Atpli a d ChMun#. "},{"text":" measured increases in S&P over the &ason me thought to be a result of the shallow depth of plawinq which allows euy mot penetration and cracking of the puddled layer. l'ln contmt, systems in the lowlan& of India, the Philippines. Indonesia, and ?hiland usually require 1 to 1.5 liten/sec/ha. 12Khtr is the Nepali term far fields which have hcen leveled and bunded into tenace? for the cultivation Of fiwded rice. Bnri is Ihe term for upland 6el& which have not been leveled and bunded for f l d irrigation. "},{"text":"Figure 3 .- Figure 3. The Agdi 1982/83 crop calendar. "},{"text":" Chherlung have continued developing the irrigation potential of their respective water and land resources. In Argali they have built three more canals parallel to and below the Raj Kulo. These three, known as Maili (second daughter), Suili (third daughter), and Khunchi (youngest daughter) irrigate an additional 42 hectares of khet. After construction of the Thulo Kulo in Chherlung had demonstrated the feasibility of irrigation from the Brangdhi Khola, two Magan16 organized the construction of the Tall0 Kulo parallel to the Thulo Kulo. The local 0 14Erahmios and Chhetzis are high caste Hindus. '5Persans who spent time working in Ule once flouhhing mining idusuy of wetern Nepal k c m e known as a@ Numerous ethnic group and mtes were involved in this work. Man Bahadur Kami, one of rhe four who took the Chherlung contract, is credited with wnsvucting L number of irrigation canals in Palpa and Fulmi DistncfS. "},{"text":" bConstruction8a road above the anal began in 1979, c d G y in mole than usual damaae to the canal for several yean. LRuutinr and cinrrgency maintenance not scprrated in recork of the organmtion. dl)rmsgr caused hy a major landslioc required much more than the average amount of labor. Source: Raj Kulo and Thulo Kulo organizations' attendance records. "},{"text":"22A nwoto muri is a traditional measure of area. Forty mmlo muri equal approximately half a hectare 23The exchange rdte at the time was Rs. 13.2 *Us$ 1 . "},{"text":" nu( show this. Cunisuclion 01 a road above and parallel 10 the Raj Kula is largely the cause of the higher maintenance labor between 1979 and 19R3. Rocks and mud excavated by the contractor durim construction were dumped down the hillside into the Canal. Sincc the cut for ths road w i l ~ mrdc. the hillside is less swhlc resulting in more landslides. The Rs. 400,000 (US$ .30,3W) investal by DIHM w.6 used mainly 10 install humr pipe thnmgh this vulnerable a m . "},{"text":" amount of labor to maintain intakes, which are often damaged by floods, and the main canal wh f ch must traverse 28The Damai are an untouchable caste who lradilionally work as tailors. "},{"text":" MAILING LIST ACCESS FORM -RESEARCH REPORT NO. 5 "},{"text":" all of this report [ 1 read or skim only parts of it.[ 1 not read it at all? If you did not read or skim this report. was it because L 1 the subject matter does not interest you.[ 1 not enough time, I 1 repeats other material you have read, [ 1 other? ____ If you read or skimmed this report. was it useful? [ ]yes. I 1 no If \"yes.\" in what way? ____ After reading or skmming the report, did you: [ 1 throw It away. [ 1 put it in your own private files, [ 1 pass it to someone -. else, [ ]put it in a library. [ 1 other? $ How could we improve the report? -J In what condition did the report arrive? [ -_ _ _ -~ 2 1 acceptable, [ 1 unacceptable. If \"unacceptable,\" please explain: ~. _ _ _to be added to IIMl's mailing list for'publications. please complete the above survey and the following form. Be sure your address is legible and the information is complete -PRINT or TYPE -Thank you. -__ fold here I _ "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"Table 1 . Grain yields estimated from sample crop cuts in 1982-83 (tons/hectare). Argali Chherlung Kbet (leveled & bunded) Rice  3.3 (89y 3.5 (121) 3.3 (89y3.5 (121)  "},{"text":"Total Irrigated bari (sloping upland) wheat Maize - 7.5 -    8.4 8.4  2.9 (14) 8 2.9 (14)8  3.9 (14) i 3.9 (14)i Total 6.8 Total6.8  "},{"text":"Numba of crop cut ssmpls uscd to mmpute the mean yield. *No aop cuts taka.   "},{"text":"Table 2 . Comparison of water distribution to water allocation in selected mndaries.  Location of Water Water Location ofWaterWater System Secondary Allocation Dstributionb SystemSecondaryAllocationDstributionb   (percent of total water (percent of total water (percent of total water(percent of total water   in systemy in system)* in systemyin system)* Thulo Kulo, Chherlung Head 9.5 10.2 Thulo Kulo, ChherlungHead9.510.2  Middle 11.4 10.5 Middle11.410.5  Tail 21.8 20.6 Tail21.820.6 Kanchi Kulo, Argali Tail 16.6 16.9 Kanchi Kulo, ArgaliTail16.616.9  "}],"sieverID":"e9d4df14-6572-4aae-adfa-071526900874","abstract":"This paper examines farmer organizations and property rights which have evolved as institutions in Nepal that enable collective management of water for agricultural production."}

data/part_4/03ee8b4f8585b11617977f4c715803f1.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"03ee8b4f8585b11617977f4c715803f1","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/3681ffe4-df25-477c-9927-2ba39e12e142/retrieve"},"pageCount":11,"title":"Climate Change in the Subtropics: The Impacts of Projected Averages and Variability on Banana Productivity","keywords":["Musa spp.","temperature","rainfall","global climate models","EcoCrop model","homoclimes","climate scenarios"],"chapters":[{"head":"INTRODUCTION","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":156,"text":"The potential for bananas to produce year round is best expressed when water is abundant and daily temperatures are in the range of 20-30C (Simmonds, 1962). Numerous zones with these conditions produce fruit for the global market. However, banana production, mainly for national markets, has developed in many subtropical areas under less than optimum conditions. Bananas are an important cash crop in southern Brazil, Paraguay and Argentina, in countries of North Africa, the Middle East and southern Africa, and in China and northern India where growing conditions are far from uniform throughout the year. In these subtropical regions, bananas are subject to sub-optimum temperatures and short days as well as occasional cold snaps and killing frosts in the winter. Highly favorable temperatures and long days in the summer may also include short periods of extreme temperatures above 35C. Rainfall is also highly variable, not always synchronized with periods of optimum temperatures, and irrigation is often required."},{"index":2,"size":112,"text":"Temperature and rainfall are expected to change at an unprecedented rate in the coming decades (IPCC, 2007). These changes are very likely to impact Musa productivity both directly through changes in the growing environment and the prevalence of pests and diseases and indirectly through relocation of production areas (Ramirez et al., in press). A review of the impacts of climate change on Musa crops (Ramirez et al., in press) suggests that future climates (2020s) are expected to be less suitable in more than 70% of the global land areas (mainly tropical areas), but that there could be gains towards the subtropics that could both increase yields and expand areas suitable for Musa."},{"index":3,"size":152,"text":"A closer look at the subtropics is of merit for three reasons: (1) this is the region with the most potential gain; (2) the growing conditions of subtropical banana production are highly diverse; and (3) modified parameters for banana growth may apply. To date, only a limited set of studies have dealt with subtropical bananas and climate change. Our objective was to validate the procedure for the estimation of the effect of expected climate changes on banana production in the subtropics using the EcoCrop model to estimate the magnitude of expected changes and the changes in the suitability of selected subtropical regions for banana production given the predicted changes in temperature and rainfall projected by climate change models. We conclude with observations for improving the procedure to estimate the effects of climate change and extrapolate across production zones and homoclimes (areas of similar climate) and the implications for zones with different characteristics."}]},{"head":"MATERIALS AND METHODS","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":68,"text":"The analysis had five stages: (i) identification of current banana areas by means of expert consultation, (ii) calibration of a model and modeling of the suitability of current banana production areas, (iii) modeling of expected suitability (i.e. 2020, 2050) and changes in suitability of subtropical banana production areas, (iv) analysis of changes in yearly seasonality, and (v) identification of homoclimes and discussion of options for transfer of technology."}]},{"head":"Cultivated Areas and Identification of Key Sites","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":89,"text":"Regional banana experts were consulted through face-to-face meetings, telephone or email, to select sites via Google Earth or by manually drawing polygons over a map. These areas and sites were digitized and transformed to polygon and point-type GIS-compatible formats and used in all the analyses. We then selected nine sites that are important for subtropical production of bananas: southern coastal China (SCC), southern non-coastal China (SNC), Northernmost India (NIN), northern Morocco (NMO), Canary Islands (CIS), Mozambique-South Africa border (MSB), Formosa province, Argentina (FOR), Paraguay (PRY) and southern Brazil (SBR)."}]},{"head":"Current and Future Climate Data","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":42,"text":"Current climate data were derived from WorldClim (Hijmans et al., 2005, http://www.worldclim.org). Monthly maximum, minimum and mean temperatures and total monthly precipitation data were gathered at 30 arc-seconds spatial resolution and aggregated to 5 arc-minute using bilinear interpolation to reduce computational time."},{"index":2,"size":154,"text":"We downloaded monthly time series of temperature and precipitation data for the baseline period (20 th century) and projections of future climate for the 21 st century for the SRES-A2 (business as usual) emission scenario, at original GCM resolutions for 19 different coupled GCMs used in the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report (PCMDI, 2007;IPCC, 2007;Jarvis et al., 2010). Using the complete GCM time series, for each of the GCMs, months and variables, we calculated the 30-year running average over the baseline period , and over two future periods: 2020s (2010-2039) and 2050s . Deltas (i.e. future -baseline climatology) were calculated for each GCM and then applied to the climates represented in WorldClim (at 5 arc-minutes) in a process called disaggregation (Ramirez and Jarvis, 2010). We finally obtained a set of 38 disaggregated future climate scenarios for use in the modeling, each of which represent a different period predicted by each of the 19 available GCMs."}]},{"head":"Model Calibration and Parameterization","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":97,"text":"We adopted the EcoCrop model as described in Beebe et al. (in press). The model uses mean and minimum monthly temperature and monthly precipitation data to evaluate the climatic suitability of a location for a crop. To calibrate the model parameters, we extracted the annual mean temperature and total annual rainfall for all the identified banana production sites. Based on the frequency distribution of these data, supported by a literature review, and using an iterative process for refining the thresholds of suitability by means of visual inspection of results, we tuned the ecological parameters of the crop."},{"index":2,"size":100,"text":"Subtropical bananas are generally adapted to seasonal climates and low temperatures at certain times of the year (Fig. 1). We found that bananas cannot grow with monthly minimum temperatures below 0°C (Tkill), they stop growing below 12°C (Tmin) or above 33°C (Tmax), and they have optimum growth between 17.5 and 26.3°C (Topmin and Topmax, respectively). Rainfed subtropical banana crops fail due to drought if they receive less than 200 mm/year (Rmin) or due to waterlogging if they receive more than 4,000 mm/year (Rmax), yet they grow optimally if rainfall is between 900 and 1,760 mm/year and soil drainage is good."}]},{"head":"Model Implementation and Seasonal Changes in Selected Sites","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":73,"text":"The model was applied over the baseline climate data and over each of the 38 future disaggregated climate scenarios. The changes in suitability of the 19 models were averaged and the coefficient of variation (n = 19) was computed. We identified the areas currently limited by temperature and/or by precipitation. We then analyzed the changes in suitability in the nine selected subtropical production sites and the uncertainty based on changes in individual GCMs."},{"index":2,"size":40,"text":"For each of the selected key sites, we extracted current and predicted monthly maximum, minimum and mean temperatures and total monthly rainfall and examined the changes in seasonality throughout the year to identify issues and opportunities for production of bananas."}]},{"head":"Homoclimes of Banana Production: Potential for Targeting Crop Technology","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":107,"text":"Changes in crop technology need to be taken into account to capture adaptation potential with changing climates. We used Homologue TM (Jones et al., 2005) to identify areas that are climatically similar to each of our nine selected sites through a probability surface ranging from 0 to 1 for each pixel. Based on an average probability map, we then calculated the percentage of the total area in the aggregated map that was identified as a homoclime of the specific site. We calculated areas above 0.25, 0.50, 0.75 and 0.90 probabilities for each of the site probability surfaces as an index of each site's potential for technology transfer."}]},{"head":"RESULTS","index":8,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Current and Predicted Future Climatic Suitability of Areas for Banana Production","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":74,"text":"Based on current temperature and rainfall data, overall suitability for banana production in the subtropics is much lower than in the tropics (Fig. 2a). Within the subtropics, suitability varies greatly. Among the nine subtropical sites selected for detailed analysis, several had reasonably high suitability (PRY, FOR, MSB and SCC), while others have very low suitability (NIN, SNC, SBR, NMO, CIS). Rainfall is the most limiting factor (Fig. 2b), except in PRY, FOR and SBR."},{"index":2,"size":98,"text":"Changes in expected suitability in 2020s vary by site with three sites largely unaffected by expected changes (MSB, CIS and NMO), four disadvantaged (NIN, PRY, FOR and SCC) and two more favorable for banana production (SBR and SNC) (Fig. 3), and these trends are shown to continue in the projection for 2050s (Fig. 2c,d and Fig. 3). This suggests that the subtropics are characterized not by one but a number of climate types for banana with differing outcomes due to climate change. The level of uncertainty in the predictions increases from the tropics to the subtropics (Fig. 2e)."}]},{"head":"Seasonal Variations in Current and Predicted Future Climate in Selected Sites","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":62,"text":"Seasonality of temperature and rainfall is found in all the subtropical sites and will continue for both 2020s and 2050s (Fig. 4). Temperature is expected to rise throughout the year at all sites. Rainfall is expected to decrease in some seasons at some sites and to increase in other seasons or sites, although a significant variation is attributed to the different GCMs."},{"index":2,"size":61,"text":"In China, SCC is currently reasonably well suited to banana production; SNC is less suited due to winter temperatures below 12ºC during 2-3 months per year. Winter rainfall is low, especially in SCC. In both sites, temperature will increase throughout the year, which will reduce banana injury due to winter chilling, but in SCC, summer temperatures above 33°C will become limiting."},{"index":3,"size":27,"text":"Banana production in SBR is currently limited by winter temperatures below the minimum threshold. Climate change will bring an increase in temperature, as well as in rainfall."},{"index":4,"size":39,"text":"For MSB, both winter temperatures and summer temperatures remain within a suitable range, though rainfall is inadequate in the winter season. Expected changes in rainfall are minimal, and the slight increase in temperature will not greatly affect banana production."},{"index":5,"size":87,"text":"NMO and CIS are currently dry sites, especially in the period of high temperatures. Summer temperatures do not exceed Topmax in the Canary Islands and Tmax in northern Morocco. Winter temperatures remain above the lower limit 12ºC in the Canary Islands, but can go down to about 5ºC in northern Morocco. Because of their dry climate and low winter temperature, both sites depend on irrigation and increasingly on protected environments (Table 1). Temperature will increase in the future in NMO and stay fairly constant in the CIS."},{"index":6,"size":66,"text":"For FOR and PRY (represented by PRY in Fig. 4), current temperature ranges are maintained more or less between Tmin and Tmax. Rainfall is low in the winter months when temperatures are also low; however, both sites could experience a slight increase in rainfall mainly during the winter months. More significantly is the expected increase in temperature that could push summer temperature over the suitable maximum."},{"index":7,"size":63,"text":"In NIN, a dry period from November to April and high temperatures well above Tmax during the last months of the dry season limit suitability. Rainfall is projected to go up in the rainy season but stay more or less the same in the dry season, whilst temperature is expected to increase throughout the year. Suitability for banana production is expected to decrease."}]},{"head":"Homoclimes of Banana Production: Potential for Future Crop Technology Targeting","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":119,"text":"The analysis showed the similarity between the aggregate map of tropics and subtropics and the nine study sites. NIN is the site with the highest potential for transferability of technologies to other sites, with 49% of the total aggregated area being a homoclime with a probability threshold above 0.1 (Table 2), followed by FOR (41%), PRY (38%) and MSB (14%). CIS and NMO appear as areas with a very low proportion of homoclimes. Most sites already use irrigation, but more efficient systems may be shifted from one homocline to another. Irrigation is also used to cool plants during periods of excessively high temperatures. Technology of protective structures is likely to be transferred to new areas not currently growing bananas."}]},{"head":"DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":40,"text":"Our analysis of the impacts of climate change on selected subtropical production areas needs to be discussed in terms of the strengths and weaknesses of the modeling procedure itself and the implications for adaptation to climate change in subtropical regions."},{"index":2,"size":37,"text":"The 5-steps procedure followed leverages site-specific information with widely available tools to provide an initial understanding of climate change in the subtropics. A step-by-step review indicates where future work is needed to reduce uncertainties in the results:"},{"index":3,"size":59,"text":"(1) Expert mapping to identify banana production areas is a rapid and reliable means of obtaining knowledge that is not available in the literature. It requires minimal resources and takes advantage of local experience and knowledge. When production areas are compact, mapping is quite straightforward; however, when spread over a large area, expert knowledge may introduce imprecision in results;"},{"index":4,"size":242,"text":"(2) Available climate data can be readily accessed and manipulated, but the density of stations is variable and extrapolation difficult for identifying climatic conditions for specific localities; (3) Parameterization of certain atmospheric processes is still highly inaccurate and predictions of e.g. rainfall are highly uncertain, particularly in the tropics and subtropics, weakening the reliability of climate change models and crop suitability projections; (4) The EcoCrop model which is at the heart of the analysis introduces a number of uncertainties: (a) The calibration of the model and inspection of suitability surfaces rely on both the knowledge of the modeler(s) and crop expert(s) and the quality of the data that are being gathered and used. Here, we have checked the suitability surfaces against our own knowledge and against known distributions of the crop; (b) The model is for rainfed production, while many subtropical production areas are only possible with irrigation. Areas of low suitability without irrigation may be quite suitable with irrigation, especially due to dry air conditions which reduce foliar diseases; (c) For perennial crops such as bananas, rainfall and temperatures during the growing season are equal to the annual rainfall and temperature, which results in neglecting the seasonality of annual climates, a serious limiting factor for subtropical bananas. Modifications to take into account seasonality are needed to make EcoCrop more useful for banana and to improve the relationship between our climatic suitability rating and the resulting gross yield obtained in banana fields."},{"index":5,"size":177,"text":"Subtropical banana production faces low temperatures, drought and occasionally excessive high temperatures. Our analysis showed that overall suitability in the subtropics is projected to increase, particularly in more northern or southern areas, with increase in suitable areas. Banana growers in the nine study sites already use diverse technologies to overcome temperature and water limitations, including annual planting, protective structures and most commonly irrigation. The most serious challenge for future production in these sites is short periods of excessively high temperatures which deform bunches and damage leaves, a factor in 6 out of the 9 sites studied. Increasing overall temperatures will bring benefits during the winter period. However, weather volatility, not covered in current models, but mentioned among climate change trends, may also increase, indicating that cold snaps and frosts may continue to be a risk. The projected trends in rainfall patterns vary. Even in places where rainfall does not decrease, if temperature rises, water demand will also increase. In areas with limited rainfall and a high demand for irrigation, technologies for greater water efficiency will be needed."},{"index":6,"size":140,"text":"The substitution of cultivars with greater tolerance to drought and temperature extremes is a promising measure. Although subtropical banana production depends primarily on Cavendish cultivars with local selection for more adapted lines, genetic improvement can be expected to make a contribution to adaptation. Wild species diversity is currently underutilized in breeding programs (INIBAP, 2006;Vuylsteke et al., 1993;Wong et al., 2002;Oselebe et al., 2006), even though some of them hold useful traits, including tolerance to cold (Musa sikkimensis, Musa basjoo, Musa thomsonii) and drought (Musa balbisiana, Musa nagensium) (Bakry, 2010). Genetic screening and genome mapping of wild species and landraces by means of novel and less resource-consuming methods (Lam et al., 2010) are needed both for drought tolerance and low/high temperatures. This can be expected to result in germplasm with tolerances to drought and other abiotic factors and adequate market conditions."},{"index":7,"size":97,"text":"The homoclime analysis showed that large areas of the subtropics have characteristics similar to the nine areas studied. This suggests considerable scope for production to expand in subtropical areas, to higher altitudes, regions with a more favorable rainfall distribution (either wetter or drier) or regions with increasing minimum temperatures provided summer temperatures do not surpass the maximum temperature for the crop. Refining the homoclime procedures demonstrated here has potential to contribute to national strategy building and to more efficient technology generation targeted to different types of climatic conditions. Table 1. Characteristics of eight subtropical banana production areas.  "}]},{"head":"Tables","index":13,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Zone","index":14,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Figures","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":44,"text":"Fig. 1. Ecological parameters required for a single Ecocrop run and the way they interact: White area is deemed as unsuitable, dark gray area ranges from very marginally suitable to very suitable, and light gray area is the main ecological niche of the crop. "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Fig. 2 .Fig. 4 . Fig. 2. (a) Current suitability for banana production; (b) Limiting factor (blue for precipitation and red for temperature); (c) Future suitability by 2050s as average of 19 GCMs; (d) Change in suitability by 2050s as average of 19 GCMs; (e) Suitability change coefficient of variation by 2050s. "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"Table 2 . Proportion of areas that are homoclimes of each selected site and proportion of homoclimes to which technology can be transferred above different probability thresholds. Location Area Area above Area above Area above Area above LocationAreaArea aboveArea aboveArea aboveArea above  "}],"sieverID":"254e5874-4bcc-47bd-921c-ddcb10079b14","abstract":"The potential for bananas to produce year round is best expressed when water is abundant and daily temperatures are in the range of 20-30C. Zones with these conditions produce fruit for the global market. However, banana production, mainly for national markets, has developed in many subtropical areas under less than optimum conditions. Bananas are an important cash crop in southern Brazil, Paraguay and Argentina, in countries of North Africa, the Middle East and southern Africa, and in China and northern India. In these regions, bananas are subject to sub-optimum temperatures and short days. Highly favorable temperatures and long days in the summer may also include short periods of extreme temperatures above 35C, while rainfall is also highly variable. The effects of climate change on selected subtropical production areas were modeled in a two-step procedure using the EcoCrop model, under current growing conditions and for 2020 and 2050 using a set of 19 IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change) Global Climate Models (GCMs) under the SRES-A2 (business as usual) emission scenario. The modeling showed that current suitability for banana production in the subtropics is much lower than in the tropics with great variation in suitability within the subtropics. Of nine subtropical regions considered, two have improved conditions by 2020s, four are largely unaffected and three have a lower suitability. Our analysis also showed that, in terms of environmental conditions, certain sites are widely represented globally, offering options for technology transfer between sites. Other sites have few similar sites, which means that sites need to be carefully selected for approaches to technology development and transfer. The study leveraged site-specific information with widely available tools to understand potential effects of climate change in the subtropics. However, in order to fully understand the impacts of climate change on banana, the modeling tools used here need to be fully suited for semi-perennial crops to capture the effects of seasonal temperature and rainfall variability on crop cycle length and potential yields."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"04107aa34a05c96a27281e6b0ff5aa2f","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/00ac9bb7-4679-42ae-adf2-cb93cbc342e9/retrieve"},"pageCount":24,"title":"Climate Risk Profile Makueni County 2 Kenya County Climate Risks Profiles Series","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":336,"text":"Climate change is becoming one of the most serious challenges to Kenya's achievement of its development goals as described under Vision 2030. Kenya is already extremely susceptible to climate related events, and projections indicate that the impacts are likely to affect the country even more in the future. In many areas, extreme events and variability of weather are now the norm: rainfall is irregular and unpredictable; some regions experience frequent droughts during the long rainy season, others severe floods during the short rains. The arid and semi-arid areas are particularly hard hit by these climate hazards thereby putting the lives of millions of households and their social and economic activities at risk. Presented here is the County Climate Risk Profile for Makueni County, where climate variability has been accompanied by a significant increase in attendant risks, as repeatedly reported in national news coverage. In 2015, Makueni experienced particularly heavy rainfall that resulted in floods and mudslides that destroyed hundreds of homes and left much of the agricultural County dependent on food aid 1 . Cycles of drought and extreme heat likewise threaten natural habitats and farmers livelihoods: in 2016, Makueni was identified as a hot spot for human-wildlife conflict resulting from the scramble for scarce water and pasture resources 2 . The County government and national research organizations have taken steps to help farmers prepare for, and respond to, the threat of flood and drought, for example, through the dissemination of inputs like certified seeds and information on topics like the construction of Zai pits 3 . The County has also attempted to better distribute findings from weather forecasts to help farmers operationalize contingency plans in the face of La Niña and El Niño conditions. The disastrous nature of severe drought makes the identification of impending climate risks an urgent matter. Likewise, considering how practices that help citizens become more resilient in the face of imminent threats to their health, safety, and livelihoods becomes an exercise with the potential to affect hundreds of thousands of lives."},{"index":2,"size":173,"text":"This profile is organized into six main sections, each reflecting an essential analytical step in studying current and potential adaptation options in key local agricultural value chain commodities. The text first offers an overview of the County's main value chain commodities key to food security and livelihoods, as well as major challenges to agricultural sector development in Makueni. In the next section, the main climate hazards are identified based on the analysis of historical climate data and climate projections, including scientific assessments of climate indicators for dry spells, flooding, and heat stress among other key hazards for agriculture. Then it continues with an analysis of the vulnerabilities and risks posed by the hazards deemed to be potentially most harmful to the respective value chains. Based on these vulnerabilities, current and potential on-farm adaptation options and off-farm services are discussed. The text also provides snapshots of the policy, institutional and governance context that can enable adoption of resilience-building strategies. Finally, it presents potential pathways for strengthening institutional capacity to address potential future climate risks."}]},{"head":"Foreword","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":22,"text":"1 As reported by online newspapers Star and Monitor (Star, 2015;Monitor, 2015) 2 As reported by the online newspaper Star (Star, 2016)."},{"index":2,"size":11,"text":"3 As reported by online newspaper Daily Nation (Daily Nation, 2015)."}]},{"head":"Economic relevance of farming","index":3,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Agricultural context","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":100,"text":"The County of Makueni is located in the eastern part of Kenya. It borders Taita Taveta County to the South, Machakos County to the North, Kajiado County to the West and Kitui County to the East. It covers approximately 8,034.7 km2, most of which is arid and semi-arid (GoK, 2014). The County is characterized by a low-lying terrain except for the hilly areas such as Kilungu Hills, Mbooni Hills and Chyulu Hills. The natural resources in the County include forests, mainly found in the hilly regions, the Chyulu National Park, and perennial rivers such as Athi, Thwake, Kiboko, and Kambu."},{"index":2,"size":78,"text":"The County receives long rains in March and April, and short rains in November and December. The rains are not evenly distributed across the County. The hilly regions of Kilungu and Mbooni receive about 800-1200 mm of rainfall (above normal) whereas the lower areas such as Kibwezi receive below normal rainfall of about 300 mm. The temperatures range between 20.2 and 35.80 degrees centigrade, with the hilly areas being relatively colder compared to the low-lying regions (GoK, 2013)."},{"index":3,"size":107,"text":"Agriculture is the main income-earning activity. The sector employs about 78% of the population and contributes a comparable percentage to the household incomes (GoK, 2013). Agricultural activities practised in the County include crop farming (cash crops and food crops), livestock keeping (mainly dairy and beef cattle, goats, and poultry), bee keeping, and fish farming. In 2013, the County received about 2 billion and 10.3 million Kenya shillings (KES) respectively from the major crop and livestock enterprises 4 (GoK,  2014). In the livestock sector, the highest contribution came from milk (89%) whereas in the crops sector, mango, maize and cowpea contributed 26%, 23% and 20% respectively 5 ."}]},{"head":"People and livelihoods","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":43,"text":"The population of Makueni was estimated at 884,527, with nearly equal numbers of male and female populations according to the 2009 National Census (KNBS, 2013). It was anticipated to be growing with 4 1 USD is an equivalent of 90 Kenyan Shillings (KES)."},{"index":2,"size":45,"text":"5 The figures were obtained from aggregations as presented in the ASDSP (GoK, 2014). 6 The relatively low growth rate is attributable to the high awareness and use of birth control methods as one strategy of reducing pressure on the fragile land and food insecurity."},{"index":3,"size":21,"text":"7 Food poverty refers to the population that does not have access to enough food to meet the daily dietary requirements."},{"index":4,"size":24,"text":"8 Youth refers to persons between the ages of 18-35 years whereas female and male adults refer to persons above the age of 36."},{"index":5,"size":57,"text":"2.3% 6 by 2017 (GoK, 2013). The urban population is estimated at 4%, mainly concentrated in the two major towns, Wote and Mtito Andei. The urban population is anticipated to increase rapidly owing to devolution, the current construction of the Standard Gauge Railway passing through Mtito Andei, and youth migration to urban centres in search of employment."},{"index":6,"size":113,"text":"Makueni County has one of the highest poverty levels in the country (64%) compared to the national absolute poverty level (47%). The high poverty level is attributed to several factors, the main one being low agricultural productivity (mainly due to water scarcity, poor soils) and high unemployment rates. The County also has a rather low Human Development Index (HDI) of 0.48, mainly given the poor access to basic social services (GoK, 2013b). For instance, the distance to a source of water and health facility is about 8 and 6 km respectively. Only about 1% of the population uses electricity for cooking; approximately 6% use electricity for lighting. Around 85% use firewood (GoK, 2013)."},{"index":7,"size":63,"text":"Food poverty rates are also high in the County (57%) 7 , given low agricultural productivity brought about unfavourable climate. This has resulted in over-reliance on aid and household members skipping meals, which leads to malnutrition. Female-headed households being worse off compared to male-and youth-headed households due to lack of ownership of assets and production inputs such as land (GoK, 2013) 8 ."},{"index":8,"size":73,"text":"The major economic activities include livestock rearing, crop farming, agroforestry, sand harvesting, charcoal burning, and brick making. The major livestock types found in the County include cattle, pig, sheep, goat, poultry and donkey. The major crops produced include green gram, sorghum, maize, mango, cowpea, bean, pigeon pea and citrus. Sand is a major resource in the County, but since sand harvesting is illegal, its contribution to the County income has not been established."}]},{"head":"Agricultural activities","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":14,"text":"The County is categorized into several agro-ecological zones (AEZs) (Karanja, 2006;Jaetzold et al., 2010):"},{"index":2,"size":25,"text":"LH 2, also known as the Wheat/Maize-Pyrethrum Zone, is at an altitude of 1400 -1770 m and receives about 1000-1300 mm of average annual rainfall."},{"index":3,"size":24,"text":"UM 2, also known as the main Coffee Zone, is at an altitude of 1400 -1770m and receives about 980-1200mm of average annual rainfall."},{"index":4,"size":25,"text":"UM 3, also known as the Marginal Coffee Zone, is at an altitude of 1400 -1830m and receives about 950-1050 mm of average annual rainfall."},{"index":5,"size":24,"text":"UM 4, also known as the Sunflower Maize Zone, is at an altitude of 1520 -1770 and receives about 800-950mm of average annual rainfall."},{"index":6,"size":25,"text":"UM 5, also known as the Livestock Sorghum Zone, is at an altitude of 1460 -1710m and receives about 600-750 mm of average annual rainfall."},{"index":7,"size":22,"text":"LM 3, also known as the cotton zone, is at an altitude of 1160-1350m and receives about 800-900mm of average annual rainfall."},{"index":8,"size":24,"text":"LM 4, also known as the Margina Cotton Zone, is at an altitude of 1160-1280m and receives about 700-850 mm of average annual rainfall."},{"index":9,"size":24,"text":"LM 5, also known as the Lower Midland Livestock-Millet Zone, is at an altitude of 790-1220m and receives about 650-750mm of average annual rainfall."},{"index":10,"size":53,"text":"Generally, the AEZs are broadly understood as the upper zone (mainly Kilungu and Mbooni) popular for production of milk, maize, avocado, and vegetables; the middle zone (Wote area) suitable for production of maize, mango, oranges, and beans; and the lower zone (Kibwezi areas) that is suitable for production of pastures and beef cattle."},{"index":11,"size":39,"text":"Land in Makueni is categorized into arable land, nonarable land, and forest land measuring 504,269, 176,271, and 15100 ha respectively. This translates to 63%, 23% and 2% of County land and 9%, 3.2% and 0.4% of country land respectively."},{"index":12,"size":81,"text":"Only about 20% of land owners have title deeds (GoK, 2013). Secure land tenure has been associated with strengthening security of investments in land improvement so that farmers can undertake long-term soil conservation interventions (Evenson and Pingali, 2007). Farming is mainly for subsistence purposes under mixed production (Mwangangi et al., 2012); farm sizes range from 3.44 to 30.4 ha (GoK, 2013) for small-and large-scale farms respectively. Agriculture is rainfed as only 9% of the households practise irrigation (Mwangangi et al., 2012)."},{"index":13,"size":122,"text":"Utilization of agricultural inputs such as fertiliser, manure and herbicides is very low. For instance, Mwangangi et al. (2012) observed that more than 94% of the farmers never used fertiliser. The ASDSP survey of 2014 showed that farmers use more inputs during the long rains compared to the short rains. Utilization of improved seeds was highest in maize. Herbicides were mainly used in pigeon pea, basal fertiliser in common bean, and manure mainly in mango (GoK, 2014). The low utilization of inputs is attributed mainly to prohibitively high prices and scarcity of water, coupled with unfavourable cultural practices. It was reported that the farmers believe that fertilisers make the soils poorer, and that crops are more drought resistant in fields without fertilisers."}]},{"head":"Agricultural value chain commodities","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":131,"text":"Despite the County being semi-arid, a rich diversity of crops is grown here. Some agricultural value chains have been promoted by different government organizations and programmes such as the Agricultural Sector Development Support Programme (ASDSP), the Kenya Agricultural and Livestock Research Organization (KALRO) and University of Nairobi survey, and the Kenya Agricultural Productivity Program (KAPP). For the development of this County Climate Risk Profile, four major value chain commodities (VCCs) were selected for in-depth analysis, based on their contribution to food security, productivity characteristics and importance to the economy. These agricultural VCCs have been selected from a list compiled from the above-mentioned programmes/documents as well as the Economic Review of Agriculture (GoK, 2015) using the following prioritization indicators: harvested area (hectares), production (90 kg bags for crops and litres for milk),"}]},{"head":"Agricultural value chain commodities in Makueni","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":97,"text":"Green gram is produced mainly in AEZs LM4, LM5 and LM6 mostly during the short rains -(November and December). The crop is grown for food and income and is preferred due to its tolerance to the harsh climatic conditions in Makueni. The common varieties in the County are Nylon 26 and uncle. Nylon 26 is preferred for its tolerance to diseases, high dry matter and yields and good taste. Uncle is popular due to its early maturation and bigger size. The variety also attracts a higher price relative to nylon 26, though it requires much more pesticide."},{"index":2,"size":28,"text":"The green gram value chain engages about 41 -60% of the population, women and men alike. There is no clear information on which duties are done by men"}]},{"head":"Green gram","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":52,"text":"variation in production(in the past five years, value of production (KES), dietary energy consumption (Kcal/ capita/day), protein content (g of protein/ 100 g of product), iron content (mg of iron /100 g of product), zinc content (mg of zinc/100 g of product), and Vitamin A content (IU Vitamin A/100 g of product)."},{"index":2,"size":31,"text":"The selected agricultural value chain commodities for further analysis in the study are green gram, mango, local poultry, and dairy cow. Annex 1 summarizes the indicators used for the systems selection."},{"index":3,"size":38,"text":"and women, though it was reported that sometimes men are the decision-makers in selling the green grams. Production is mainly at small-and mediumscale levels. The area under green gram ranges from 2 to 5 acres (within the farms)."},{"index":4,"size":37,"text":"Input suppliers are small-scale agrovets and a few companies such as Dryland Seed Companies. Various private organisations, NGOs, and government institutions such as KALRO supply farmers with inputs. The same organizations also link the farmers to markets."},{"index":5,"size":136,"text":"Green gram yields 3 to 4 90 kg bags/ha, which represents half of the potential of 6 to 8 -90 kg bags/ ha. Productivity is highest (408 kg/acre) on farms belonging to youth-headed households during the first season (short rains) and lowest (91 kg/acre) on farms belonging to female-headed households. In the second season (long rains), it is highest on farms belonging to female-headed households (168 kg/ acre) and lowest on farms belonging to youth-headed households (65 kg/acre) (Annex 2) (GoK, 2014). Low production in the second season is associated with minimal utilization of organic manure. Use of purchased inputs such as inorganic fertilisers and pesticides was found to be more common among male-than among youth-and female-headed households. High prices and unavailability of commercial inputs are the major reasons for the low utilisation of purchased inputs."}]},{"head":"Mango Local Poultry","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":35,"text":"9 The production figures do not specify meat from broilers as well as eggs from layers, though the population of broiler and layers was relatively low (27,433 and 46151 respectively). A tray contains 30 eggs."},{"index":2,"size":53,"text":"Mango is mostly produced in the middle zone (LM4 and LM5) mainly for commercial purposes. The most preferred variety is apple since it fetches a higher price compared to kent and ngoe. About 61 -80% of the population are involved in the value chain. Production, input supply, and processing are at small-scale level."},{"index":3,"size":22,"text":"Although mango production engages all members of the household, production decisions are mainly made by men. Also, men and youth dominate transportation."},{"index":4,"size":121,"text":"The current productivity for mango is 180-200 pieces/ tree against the potential of 500 pieces/tree. Productivity is highest (5,259 kg/ha) among the male-headed households compared to youth-and female-headed households (247 and 3,670 kg/ha) (GoK, 2014). This difference in productivity may be attributed to the fact that the mango trees owned by the youth have been recently established and may not have attained the stage for peak production. Low productivity on farms belonging to female-headed households may be due to low utilization of inputs such as fertilisers and use of grafted mangoes. Better access to credit, research, input and output markets and land by the male-and female-headed households may be additional factors contributing to the high mango productivity among men and youth."},{"index":5,"size":102,"text":"The major challenges in mango production include pests -mainly fruit fly, disease such as rust and anthracnose, scarcity of water which leads to high abortion rates, and small fruit sizes. These challenges, coupled with disorganized markets, force farmers to sell to middlemen at very low prices. The price is normally KES 2-3 a mango for the small sizes and KES 8-12 shillings for the big sizes mangoes, though the prices largely depend on the buyer.  , 2015). The low number of eggs sold by women may be due to utilization of the eggs for other purposes such as household consumption and brooding."},{"index":6,"size":39,"text":"impaired by scarcity of water. As a result, fruit fly has become more resistant to the available pesticides, thus becoming a menace in the County. The alternative of using fly traps is too costly for most of the farmers."},{"index":7,"size":76,"text":"Value addition activities for the value chain include bulking, drying, and processing. It was reported that activities such as drying help in increasing the mango shelf-life but also fetching higher prices. This activity is mainly carried out by women in groups who use solar energy. Political intrigues were reported to impair largescale value addition. For instance, it was mentioned that construction of the Kalamba Mango processing plant has been derailed, as some politicians lobby for exporters."},{"index":8,"size":68,"text":"Individuals and groups market the harvest. A large portion of green gram produced in Makueni is sold outside the County. Green gram is in high demand especially in the dry season. Farmers in the County hardly store the produce; storage facilities are scarce and value addition is limited to sorting/grading. Hermetic bags that prevent attacks by pesticides and contamination by aflatoxin are prohibitively expensive for the common farmer."}]},{"head":"Dairy cow","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":72,"text":"Dairy cows are mostly reared in the upper (LH2, LH3 and LH4) and middle (LM4 and LM5) zones. The value chain includes both exotic and local breeds; the exotic breeds commonly reared are friesian, ayrshire, and guernsey. The dairy cow population in the County in 2014 was approximately 22,353 with a total milk production of about 26,089,070 litres. Milk production is 6 litres/cow/day which is half of the potential of 12 liters/cow/day."},{"index":2,"size":42,"text":"The sector employs about 21-40% of the population, adult male and female as well as youth. Production is dominated by small-scale input suppliers (since demand for the inputs is low due to high poverty levels among the farmers), processors, retailers and farmers."},{"index":3,"size":15,"text":"The average number of animals owned by a farmer ranges between one and four animals."},{"index":4,"size":86,"text":"Productivity is highest among male-headed households during both seasons (see Annex 2) (GoK, 2014), given men's better access to extension services, veterinary services, artificial insemination, dipping, data on climate, and credit. In as much as the female-headed households had better access to some of the services such as research, input and output markets compared to youth-headed households, their productivity is the lowest. Policies relevant to the sector should therefore seek to unlock productivity constraints among the women and promote access to dairy services by the youth."},{"index":5,"size":23,"text":"The major value addition activities include fermenting, making yoghurt and ghee, cooling, and boiling. All these activities except boiling are dominated by women."},{"index":6,"size":54,"text":"Value addition is still low as it is mostly done during the wet season when production is high. Factors that contribute to the low level of value addition include lack of know-how and high cost of electricity. The use of solar energy should be explored as a means of reducing the cost of electricity."}]},{"head":"Agricultural sector challenges","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":192,"text":"The agricultural sector in Makueni is faced with several challenges. Adding to the fact that the County is largely semi-arid, the sector is adversely affected by climatic variation. Unfavourable climatic conditions such as drought, high temperatures, and poorly distributed rainfall in space and time result in low productivity and frequent crop failures. This has made production of some crops such as maize, coffee, sweet potato, and arrow roots less viable. Young mango and citrus trees, which are less tolerant to drought relative to other crops, have been severely affected. Extreme effects were witnessed in 2016 when several mango and citrus trees dried up throughout the County. Recurrent dry spells and poor yields are disincentives for farmers to adopt new technologies such as use of improved seeds. This reduces the farmers' adaptive capacity to adverse climate. Moreover, farmers lack the capacity to multiply seeds, which explains the scarcity of seeds. This situation is exacerbated by delays in subsidising the purchase of inputs by government. The aridity, low productivity, and difference in planting seasons from the humid regions in the country are some of the reasons mentioned as contributors to delays in providing inputs."},{"index":2,"size":110,"text":"Low production and poor quality of produce arising from harsh climatic conditions pose a challenge to marketing. It was reported that buyers such as hotels in urban areas prefer to buy from middlemen rather than farmers. As such, a large proportion of the farm produce (crops, livestock and livestock products) is sold to middlemen at very low prices. In cases where farmers have production contracts, chances of the farmers dishonouring the contracts by selling to alternative channels offering higher prices are common, due to the disorganised nature of markets. Consequently, some exporting organizations in the green gram value chain have terminated contracts with farmers, exposing them to more market-related risks."},{"index":3,"size":53,"text":"Remoteness of many areas in the County impairs marketing as well, since farmers incur very high costs in transporting the produce to the urban areas where prices are better. Lack of appropriate storage facilities worsens the marketing problem for instance in horticultural crops, making middlemen the only option to whom farmers can sell."},{"index":4,"size":37,"text":"Male-headed households are more likely to own improved indigenous chicken breeds, due to their increased capacity to buy them. However, this advantage did not translate into differences in meat productivity among the three household categories (GoK, 2014)."}]},{"head":"Past and future impacts of climate hazards in Makueni","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":107,"text":"Some cultural beliefs in the County are detrimental to the agricultural sector. The norm of planting maize throughout the year despite very low productivity increases farmers' vulnerability. The practice persists since households with maize are perceived to be food secure. This belief prevents farmers from venturing into production of crops that are more adaptable to the County's weather conditions. In addition, the belief that use of fertiliser is harmful to the soil has resulted in minimal utilization of fertiliser. Over-utilization of the land with minimal soil amendment and soil erosion by wind and/or water also contribute to the declining fertility, resulting in characteristically low productivity in Makueni."},{"index":2,"size":107,"text":"Poor access to off-farm services such as extension and credit is also an important challenge to the agricultural sector in Makueni. Remoteness of most parts of the County has limited distribution of financial intermediaries, a contributing factor to poor access to credit. Nevertheless, pre-eminence of production risks imposed by harsh weather conditions makes financial institutions shy away from financing farmers in Makueni. On the other hand, farmers never seek financial services due to low awareness and the perceived high interest rates levied by the institutions. Extension services are hard to access due to the low number of government extension workers and high cost of private extension services."},{"index":3,"size":48,"text":"High labour costs impose a serious challenge to the agricultural sector. Rural-urban youth migration is a contributing factor to labour scarcity in the County. Low productivity in the agriculture sector among the youth is a major reason causing them to shun the sector and pursue alternative livelihood activities."},{"index":4,"size":110,"text":"The elderly in the rural areas cannot operate modern equipment such as the jab planter, important for soil and water conservation. Consequently, the farmers are continuously using the old farming techniques which lead to more soil degradation since they cannot afford mechanization services. This therefore calls for implementation of measures and policies that can facilitate youth engagement in the sector. Possible pathways include agribusiness training in schools so as to unlock innovativeness in the sector, provision of farm services, inputs and assured output markets. More research should be done to establish the extent to which agriculture benefits from incomes from alternative sources in order to adjust or promote the linkages."},{"index":5,"size":154,"text":"Agricultural production has been negatively affected by climate change/variation. For instance, frequencies of pest attacks and disease prevalence have increased for both crops and livestock. This has made the use of purchased inputs such as pesticides necessary despite the fact that many farmers find them expensive. In the poultry value chain for instance, farmers use traditional treatment methods due to unavailability and high costs of the commercial treatment services, a strategy that may or may not work as was reported. High postharvest losses due to poor storage methods which come as a result of lack of good storage facilities pose a serious challenge to the agricultural sector. Cases of aflatoxin contamination have been reported in the County. This problem has also been experienced in the government warehouses, where due to lack of a policy governing the management of the storage facilities in the County, not only results to storage problems but also market distortions."}]},{"head":"Climate change-related risks and vulnerabilities","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":120,"text":"Climate change and variability: historic and future trends Makueni ranks among the counties most vulnerable to climate change, with a vulnerability index of 0.437 (GoK, 2013). Seventy-five percent of farmers have reported experiencing climate change in form of reduced yields and 95% in form of frequent and prolonged droughts (Richard et al., 2012). Drought affects the agricultural sector greatly throughout the County especially in AEZs LM4, LM5 and IL6, whereas floods affect the hilly areas such as Kilungu, Mbooni and Kivani (AEZ UM2, LH2 and UM3). Potential future hazards relevant to the four major VCCs were identified as moisture stress, drought, increased temperature, and heat stress 10 . These hazards are already evident and impact the major value chains differently."},{"index":2,"size":90,"text":"The green gram value chain is adversely affected by mainly drought and moisture stress. These hazards affect all the stages in the value chain, from production to output markets. The key activities in the green gram value chain that get impaired by these hazards were identified as: seed, fertiliser and pesticide acquisition in the input supply stage; land acquisition, land preparation and weeding and harvesting in the onfarm production stage; threshing/winnowing, sorting/ grading, and storage in the post-harvest stage; and pricing, selling and market linkage in the output markets stage."},{"index":3,"size":115,"text":"Drought and moisture stress not only result in a reduction in cultivated area but also yields and quality of the produce. Production costs also go up during drought and heat stress periods since more labour is required to carry out activities such as sorting, owing to the poor quality, and hired labour arising from inadequate draft power supply. During this period, the animals used for land preparation and weeding are too weak to work. The remarkably increased youth migration to urban areas in search of employment worsens the situation, as older farmers left behind are not able to adopt the existing adaptation strategies such as conservation agriculture due to high costs and lack of labour."},{"index":4,"size":57,"text":"Production of small volumes challenges marketing, as demand is not achieved. In addition, lack of proper storage facilities exacerbates the problem as it impairs collective marketing. For instance it was reported that in 2016 5,000 bags of green gram were rejected by a buyer due to contamination during storage, resulting in huge losses to farmers in Kilili."},{"index":5,"size":59,"text":"Local poultry are mainly affected by drought and increased precipitation. The key activities along the value chain were identified as acquisition of breeding stock, feeds, drugs, and housing material for the input supply stage, feeding, vaccination and breeding for the on-farm production stage, collection and transporting in the post-harvest stage, and selling and promotion in the output marketing stage."}]},{"head":"Green gram","index":15,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Local poultry","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":157,"text":"High precipitation leads to increased demand for veterinary services as it causes an upsurge of diseases, destroys chicken housing leading to high chicken mortality rates and increased demand for housing construction material. The hazard also impairs transportation of the products due to destruction of roads. On the other hand, drought results in scarcity of feeds and as such farmers are required to depend on purchased feeds which are expensive. Due to feed scarcity, conventionally farmers reduce stocks and sometimes leave the birds to scavenge. The two hazards are associated with a reduction in egg production, a factor that is problematic to marketing since more time and money are spent in collection of eggs and breeding. Reduced egg production and increased chick mortality impair breeding and require farmers to source for breeding material from the Kenya Agriculture and Livestock Research Organization (KALRO) at Naivasha. Establishment of breeders within the County is a possible way of solving the problem."},{"index":2,"size":94,"text":"In addition to the on-going adaptation strategies to combat the impacts of the hazards such as use of manure instead of fertiliser, conservation agriculture (though not all farmers are able to afford it), use of traditional pest control methods, kitchen gardening, irrigation and selling at farm gate, several potential strategies that can be sought in the future were identified. Among these were upscaling of conservation agriculture to reach all farmers, cooperate purchasing of inputs such as fertilisers and pesticides, promotion of irrigation and mechanization, and construction and proper management of collection and storage facilities."},{"index":3,"size":64,"text":"Low incomes, lack of skills in poultry production, low technology adoption, and expensive inputs such as feeds are some of the factors that are making farmers adapt poorly to these hazards. Therefore, measures that can improve the adaptive capacity of the farmers like facilitation of access to credit, training on feed formulation, and promoting availability of improved chicken at affordable prices should be implemented."},{"index":4,"size":47,"text":"In addition, the feed problem in future can be handled by construction of a feed processing plant in the County, the marketing problem through venturing into development of online marketing platforms and lack of breeding material through establishment of a research station on breeding in the County."}]},{"head":"Dairy (cow)","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":74,"text":"The most problematic hazards for the dairy sector were identified as high temperature and heat stress. These hazards affect important activities in dairy production, which include acquisition of feeds, veterinary services, and extension at the input stage and feeding, breeding and cleaning of structures at the on-farm production stage. The key activities at the post-harvest stage are storing, transporting, and bulking, whereas at the output markets pricing, selling and promotion are the most important."},{"index":2,"size":70,"text":"High temperatures and heat stress result in reduction in feed quantity and quality, hence farmers opt to use concentrates. It was reported that due to lack of information the farmers end up using the wrong ratios. Demand for commercial inputs goes up during times of high temperatures and heat stress hence increasing production costs. Unavailability of feeds also makes the animals more susceptible to disease hence requiring more veterinary attention."},{"index":3,"size":78,"text":"Milk production is negatively affected by the hazards since the animal spends more energy in temperature regulation rather than milk production, more so during heat stress. The hazards were also reported to cause disruptions in the oestrous cycle resulting in silent heat, a factor that impairs breeding. In addition, the quality of the milk is negatively affected. These factors pose a challenge in marketing and collection (bulking) due to production of small quantities and reduction in the shelf-life."},{"index":4,"size":96,"text":"Adaptation to these hazards is very low. The on-going strategies such as rearing improved breeds, feed conservation, use of Artificial Insemination in breeding, collective marketing and value addition (mainly boiling and cooling) are limited to the farmers with know-how on for instance feed conservation and those that have financial resources. As such, future efforts in improving adaptability should aim at training the farmers on feed conservation, providing cheap extension and exposing them to new production methods. This should be contemporaneous with improving credit access for the farmers so as to enable them to adopt the interventions."},{"index":5,"size":40,"text":"Other technologies such as the use of sexed semen could be pursued in the County. Cooperatives should be provided with tankers for transporting milk, and farmers with aluminum containers so as to reduce contamination as well as increasing the shelf-life."}]},{"head":"Mango","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":79,"text":"In the mango value chain, heat stress and high temperatures are reportedly the most problematic. These hazards impair key activities in the value chain such as acquisition of pesticides, seedlings, and land at the input stage, and land preparation, planting and spraying at the on-farm production stage. Key activities at the post-harvest stage are collection, transporting and processing, whereas at the output market stage, selling, promoting as well as linking farmers to markets were identified as the most important."},{"index":2,"size":135,"text":"High temperatures and heat stress have minor effects on fertilisers, as they cause minor deterioration in quality. Conversely, the impact is major on seedlings, leading to poor quality and hence low establishment when it comes to on-farm production. Farmers are adapting to these hazards at this stage by stocking fertilisers through cooperatives, establishing mango nurseries, and utilizing water-efficient seedling varieties. Potential adaptation options include utilization of manure to counter deterioration of fertiliser quality as well as burning effect on the crop, and establishment of community commercial nurseries for mango seedlings. The hazards do not have a significant effect on land acquisition, since farmers never seek to lease land during drought. Practices such as agroforestry and soil and water conservation can help rehabilitate land and enable farming even when there are high temperatures and heat stress."},{"index":3,"size":124,"text":"Less pesticides are utilized when hazards hit (mainly due to water scarcity), hence increasing the chances of attack by pests and diseases. Farmers restrain from spraying during dry spells to avoid contamination especially for exported mango. In addition, the pesticides are less effective during this period as they only remain on the surface for lack of water. As a result, alternative measures include use of Integrated Pest Control (IPM) though this is still a new measure that has not been taken up by many farmers. The impact on planting is major, as most of the seedlings dry up and hence increase establishment costs. This has led to farmers using approaches such as irrigation and more manure to increase the survival rate of the seedlings."},{"index":4,"size":50,"text":"It was reported that the quality as well as quantity of the mango harvest decrease due to these hazards, therefore posing a challenge on post-harvest activities such as collection, transporting, and even processing. Due to the poor quality the shelf-life is drastically reduced hence high costs are incurred during transportation."},{"index":5,"size":32,"text":"The high temperatures require farmers to transport the mangoes at night as an adaptation mechanism. This requires County and other stakeholders to invest in transport through for instance purchasing trucks with coolers."}]},{"head":"Adaptation to climate change and variability","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":117,"text":"Climate hazards in Makueni have led to adoption of a number of on-farm adaptation strategies and off-farm services intended to increase the adaptive capacity of the farmers. About 92% of households use at least one of the adaptation strategies, with about 84% of the farmers responding to late onset of rains (Mwangangi et al., 2012). Adoption of the adaptation strategies is highest among youth-headed households and lowest among female-headed households 11 . This is notwithstanding the fact that more female-headed households had received climate change training compared to both male-and youth-headed households (46%, 36% and 30% respectively) (GoK, 2014). The likelihood of the youth being more open to new ideas and technologies explains the high adaptation rates."},{"index":2,"size":42,"text":"High literacy levels and resource availability for men are some of the factors that explain the high adoption rates among men compared to women (Bernier et al., 2015). In addition, women were reported to be more risk-averse compared to men and youth."},{"index":3,"size":84,"text":"In addition to the high poverty levels which deprive farmers of required capital to adopt some of the adaptation strategies, lack of knowledge and capacity in value addition, fodder and feed conservation, poor farmer organization, cultural practices such as minimum utilization of inputs such as fertiliser and poor road network reduce the adaptive capacity of farmers. Institutional factors for instance insecure land tenure given that only 20% of all land owners have title deeds (GoK, 2014) hinder long-term adaptations like water harvesting and agroforestry."},{"index":4,"size":38,"text":"Adaptation strategies in the livestock sector include fodder production and feed conservation to ensure feed availability, use of simple treatment methods such as deworming, dehorning and hoof trimming, use of drought-tolerant grass varieties and use of water baths"}]},{"head":"On-farm adaptation practices","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":89,"text":"for cooling, use of charcoal and firewood as energy sources for boiling milk, and use of cheap transport means like donkeys. On the other hand, adaptation strategies for crop farmers include change of planting calendar, use of drought-tolerant crops, seed recycling, use of manure instead of fertiliser (crops under manure are allegedly more resilient to drought than those under inorganic fertiliser), conservation agriculture, irrigation and home nurseries for example for the mango value chain. Common strategies to both livestock and crop farmers include water harvesting, tree planting and agroforestry."},{"index":2,"size":130,"text":"Tree planting ranked first in terms of proportions of households practicing on-farm adaptation options (Richard et al., 2012;GoK, 2014). This option is common in AEZs, LM4, and LM5 which constitute about 75% of the arable land in Makueni (Maluki et al., 2016). The high adaptation can be associated with the County efforts to promote the activity through the greening programmes in urban areas and schools, where drought-tolerant tree species such as Mellia, Thevetia Peruniana and Euphobia Triculi are being promoted. This adaptation strategy does not only promote soil and water conservation but it's also a potential adaptation strategy for dairy cow farmers in providing raw for construction of various structures. Limited access to land by the youth and women poses a challenge in adopting the strategy for the two groups."},{"index":3,"size":142,"text":"Approximately 65% of the youth-and female-headed and about 57% of the male-headed households practice crop changing (GoK, 2014). Mwangangi et al. (2012) observed that crop changing was mainly in response to market (97% of the households) and land (91% of the households) issues. Farmers are slowly shifting from production of crops such as maize and sweet potato to production of drought-tolerant crops such as green grams, citrus and pigeon peas. This is attributed in part to promotion of the droughttolerant crops through provision of improved seeds as well as linkage to markets by organizations such as the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), the Farm Input Promotions Africa (FIPS) and the MoALF. Nevertheless, the culture of minimal input utilization, poor response to off-farm services such early warning information by farmers and high poverty levels are some of the contributing factors to low adoption."},{"index":4,"size":99,"text":"Soil and water conservation measures such as conservation agriculture, water harvesting (construction of sand dams, zai pits, road run-off harvesting, and farm ponds among others), cover crops, and terracing are popular in AEZs LM4, LM5 and LM6. Here approximately 53% of the households are using at least one of the strategies. Adoption of these strategies was found to be highest in the youthheaded households compared to both the femaleand male-headed households (71%, 56% and 50% respectively) (GoK, 2014). Some of these strategies are labour intensive, hence the high number of youth practising them relative to the other age groups."},{"index":5,"size":137,"text":"Thirty-five percent of the households practising value addition as a strategy are headed by youth and 21% are headed by female farmers (GoK, 2014). Value addition, which is done in all the AEZs include activities such as collection, transportation, bulking, and cooling and boiling for milk. The strategy helps in solving problems such as lack of proper storage facilities, poor prices and reduction in the shelf life of commodities like milk when temperatures are high. Value addition in the County is generally minimal across the four major value chains. This might be due to the production of small volumes (which never leads to over-supply in the markets) as a result of harsh climate, consumption of produce while in the field due to food insecurity, lack of capacity in terms of knowhow and capital, and poor electricity infrastructure."},{"index":6,"size":67,"text":"Transport becomes scarce especially during periods of increased precipitation; however, farmers circumvent this problem by using cheaper transport such as donkeys. Lack of storage facilities for products like milk has prompted farmers to use methods like boiling using charcoal and firewood as sources of energy to increase the shelf life. During periods of high temperatures, they cool the milk using water baths, shed nets, and charcoal coolers."},{"index":7,"size":89,"text":"In the livestock sector, on-going strategies such as rearing improved breeds, feed conservation, artificial insemination in breeding, collective marketing and value addition (mainly boiling and cooling) are limited to the farmers with know-how and those that have financial resources. Youth-headed households have a 23% likelihood of adopting feed conservation than the male-and female headed households (20% and 17% respectively) (GoK, 2014). In the poultry value chain, farmers in the hilly areas respond to scarcity of feeds by purchasing commercial feeds whereas those in the low areas practise free range."},{"index":8,"size":91,"text":"In response to unavailability of planting and breeding materials, farmers engage in establishment of home nurseries for crops such as mango, and seed recycling in the other crops such as green gram. For cattle, the conventional use of bulls for breeding is the commonly used method. These methods are not adequate due for instance to transmission of diseases through the use of bulls for breeding. Seed unavailability is never adequately addressed through seed recycling due to utilization of all harvested seeds for consumption given the high likelihood of failure of maize."},{"index":9,"size":61,"text":"Utilization of manure was also identified as a common practice in all the AEZs for crop production. Farmers use manure in lieu of fertiliser due to high prices, unavailability of the fertiliser and the preference for manure to fertiliser. Preference for manure is due to the fact that crops under manure are more resilient to drought compared to those under fertiliser."},{"index":10,"size":108,"text":"Low incomes, lack of skills in poultry production, low technology adoption, and expensive inputs such as feeds are some of the factors that are making farmers adapt poorly to climate hazards. Therefore, measures that can improve the adaptive capacity of the farmers, such as facilitation of access to credit and extension, training on feed formulation and conservation, and promoting availability of improved breeds and seeds at affordable prices should be implemented. In addition, the feed problem in future can be handled by construction of a feed processing plant in the County, while breeding challenges could potentially be addressed by establishing a research station on breeding in the County."}]},{"head":"Off-farm adaptation practices","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":154,"text":"To enhance farmers' capacity to adapt to climate change risks, various organizations offer off-farm services in the County. Some of the services offered include extension, Early-Warning Information System (EWIS), market linkages, finance services, provision of inputs such as seeds for both crops and pastures, and disease surveillance. The County Government of Makueni, through the Environment office, implements and facilitates a number of climate-related interventions. This has been enabled by the CCCF. Some of the interventions include sand dam construction (such as the Mtito Andei Sand dam), water harvesting and greening programme through tree planting that targets urban areas and schools. The County Environment office also creates environmental awareness through educating people at ward levels. Participants are also called upon to prioritize intervention points which are then approved by the CEC. In addition, celebration of the World Environment Day acts as an avenue for public sensitization on the environment and practices such as conservation agriculture."}]},{"head":"Synthesis and Outlook","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":81,"text":"Climatic hazards such as drought, high temperatures and moisture stress are not new in Makueni given that the County is located in the Arid and Semi-Arid Lands (ASAL) region. As these hazards are foreseen to occur more frequently in the future due to climate variability, enhanced capacities of farmers to cope with these new conditions are pertinent. This involves critical short-term and long-term adaptation measures that holistically target production systems and value chains key to the population's food security and livelihoods."},{"index":2,"size":25,"text":"Remarkable efforts to build resilience of the crop and livestock producers have been evident in Makueni. These include on-farm practices that promote soil and water"},{"index":3,"size":64,"text":"For the case of the devolved government departments, funding is mainly from the national government, channelled through the County government. As such objectives are mainly set from the national offices with consultation from the County offices, which take part in customizing the plans for the County. Nonetheless, some government organizations such as NDMA reported having autonomous control on the nature of interventions they undertake. "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"  "},{"text":" Some areas such as Kibwezi can go for as long as 5 -7 years without rain, unlike in the past. The wetter areas such as the Mbooni and Kilungu hills have been highly populated. Forest cover has drastically reduced in the County as people have encroached on forests in Iuani hills, Makuli, and Makongo for settlement and charcoal burning. Flash floods have also increased in frequency in Emali, Mukuyuni, and Barazani areas where extreme cases have led to landslides and destruction of roads in Kivani.Change in climatic conditions has resulted in dominance of new plant species in the County. For instance, the grass species like the African fox tail and the African horse tail that are very palatable and good for beef have been replaced by the less palatable ones such as Sporobolus. Other herbaceous plant species Climate from the farmers' perspective consecutive days of moisture stress, but ranging from 35 to 80 days in any given year. The first wet season experienced about 35 consecutive days of moisture stress, ranging from about 25 to 60 days in any given year. Extreme precipitation and flood risks are moderate in both seasons, with most years receiving between 20 and 30 mm of precipitation on the wettest day. are disappearing include the Maximum Suave, Oxalis, Leuceana, Glycin Whight (suitable for goat) and some wild fruits (not identified at time of interview). Temperatures have generally increased and reached extremes in the recent years, with very low temperatures in the morning and evening, and very high temperatures during daytime. The extreme temperatures and dry spells have been reported to contribute to more pests (like white ants) and disease prevalence for both livestock and crops. Diseases such as Newcastle, Coccidiosis, Fowl pox, Chicken flue and Gumboro for chicken, Rift Valley Fever (RVF) and pneumonia for cattle, goat and sheep have become more pronounced. Mango fruit fly has become more stubborn to pesticides and was reported to be a menace in 2016 in many parts of the County.Climate change/variation has been associated with negative impacts to society. The high food insecurity, low farm incomes and high poverty levels characteristic of the County have been associated with low agricultural production largely caused by the harsh climate. The rate of children dropping out of school and youth engaging in illegal income-earning activities have significantly increased due to food scarcity. Dependency on food aid and school feeding programmes has become common in the County as well.  Awareness about climate change/variation is relatively Awareness about climate change/variation is relatively  low among farmers, and for the few who are aware, low among farmers, and for the few who are aware,  the knowledge is basic, limited to only daily weather the knowledge is basic, limited to only daily weather  forecasts from radio and TV stations. Most farmers forecasts from radio and TV stations. Most farmers  reported to have not received any formal training on reported to have not received any formal training on  climate change, with a negligible number reporting climate change, with a negligible number reporting  to have obtained climate change related information to have obtained climate change related information Makueni County is fairly hot and dry moderate in temperature throughout, with the exception of a warm and wetter area in the north around Mbooni and the border with Machakos County. This wetter area receives between 750 to 1,250 mm of precipitation from magazines such as the \"smart farmer\". Most of them are therefore oblivious to climatic elements other than drought, which they identified as the major climatic hazard. In spite of the low awareness, farmers ascertained remarkable changes since the 1960s. Farmers reported that drought spells have increased in frequency since the 1960s, with heat becoming more intense and extreme. This has resulted in several water sources in the County drying up (the Makindu and Umanyi springs). Rivers such as Kaiti, Twake, and Kyusini Kitandi that were once permanent in the 1990s have now become seasonal. In addition, water volumes in the Athi River which flows through the County have significantly reduced. Due to contamination from factories, water has become less suitable for crop and livestock. Similarly, rainfall amounts have remarkably reduced and are poorly distributed in time and space where areas of Emali, Mbooni, Kilungu, and Kilome receive above normal rainfall (600 mm); mid-Makueni receives below-normal rainfall of 300mm within a very short period. Climate has already been observed to change in the county. Since 1981, the first wet season with Predominant high temperature and drought risk has experienced an approximately 10ºC increase in mean temperature bringing an associated reduction in crop cycle time and an additional 3-5 days with extreme heat stress (>35ºC). Although there was no significant change in precipitation in this season, there was an increase in drought risk due to hotter temperatures. The second wet season experienced a small (< 0.5ºC) change in temperature, no increase in heat stress days, and no significant change in precipitation, but continued to be affected by uncertain and highly variable rains. Looking to the future in the years of 2021-2065, prolonged moisture stress is projected to occur across both seasons of the year analyzed especially for first wettest season, whereas intense precipitation looks to change little. Within 30 years (by the early 2040's) to increase by 2% in the first wet season, and 17% in temperature is projected to increase by 0.2ºC, with the Climate vulnerabilities across agriculture first wet season projected to experience even greater changes. And by this time, precipitation is projected value chain commodities Makueni County is fairly hot and dry moderate in temperature throughout, with the exception of a warm and wetter area in the north around Mbooni and the border with Machakos County. This wetter area receives between 750 to 1,250 mm of precipitation from magazines such as the \"smart farmer\". Most of them are therefore oblivious to climatic elements other than drought, which they identified as the major climatic hazard. In spite of the low awareness, farmers ascertained remarkable changes since the 1960s. Farmers reported that drought spells have increased in frequency since the 1960s, with heat becoming more intense and extreme. This has resulted in several water sources in the County drying up (the Makindu and Umanyi springs). Rivers such as Kaiti, Twake, and Kyusini Kitandi that were once permanent in the 1990s have now become seasonal. In addition, water volumes in the Athi River which flows through the County have significantly reduced. Due to contamination from factories, water has become less suitable for crop and livestock. Similarly, rainfall amounts have remarkably reduced and are poorly distributed in time and space where areas of Emali, Mbooni, Kilungu, and Kilome receive above normal rainfall (600 mm); mid-Makueni receives below-normal rainfall of 300mm within a very short period. Climate has already been observed to change in the county. Since 1981, the first wet season with Predominant high temperature and drought risk has experienced an approximately 10ºC increase in mean temperature bringing an associated reduction in crop cycle time and an additional 3-5 days with extreme heat stress (>35ºC). Although there was no significant change in precipitation in this season, there was an increase in drought risk due to hotter temperatures. The second wet season experienced a small (< 0.5ºC) change in temperature, no increase in heat stress days, and no significant change in precipitation, but continued to be affected by uncertain and highly variable rains. Looking to the future in the years of 2021-2065, prolonged moisture stress is projected to occur across both seasons of the year analyzed especially for first wettest season, whereas intense precipitation looks to change little. Within 30 years (by the early 2040's) to increase by 2% in the first wet season, and 17% in temperature is projected to increase by 0.2ºC, with the Climate vulnerabilities across agriculture first wet season projected to experience even greater changes. And by this time, precipitation is projected value chain commodities the second wet season. Consecutive days of moisture and is generally less than 17-21°C on average the second wet season. Consecutive days of moistureand is generally less than 17-21°C on average stress is projected to more than double in the first temperature annually, whereas the vast majority of stress is projected to more than double in the firsttemperature annually, whereas the vast majority of wet season from approximately 60 days to over 80- the county receives 500-750 mm of precipitation wet season from approximately 60 days to over 80-the county receives 500-750 mm of precipitation 85 days depending on the amount of greenhouse gas annually and is between 21-25°C annually. The first 85 days depending on the amount of greenhouse gasannually and is between 21-25°C annually. The first emissions. In contrast, moisture stress in the second wet season of the year (January-June) tends to be emissions. In contrast, moisture stress in the secondwet season of the year (January-June) tends to be wet season is projected to reduce little on average about 1.5 °C warmer. Precipitation falls approximately wet season is projected to reduce little on averageabout 1.5 °C warmer. Precipitation falls approximately (8 % approximately). However, the second season is equal between the first and second wet seasons, but (8 % approximately). However, the second season isequal between the first and second wet seasons, but projected to receive get more precipitation, and greater historically the second wet season was more variable projected to receive get more precipitation, and greaterhistorically the second wet season was more variable extremes in precipitation with climate change. For this from year to year, making it more prone to very high extremes in precipitation with climate change. For thisfrom year to year, making it more prone to very high season, the single day extreme rainfall is projected to and very low precipitation years. Due to this gradient season, the single day extreme rainfall is projected toand very low precipitation years. Due to this gradient increase by almost 50%. These projections of future in climate throughout the county, dry spells, intense increase by almost 50%. These projections of futurein climate throughout the county, dry spells, intense climate change under the two climate scenarios -RCP precipitation, and heat stress, are all hazards that climate change under the two climate scenarios -RCPprecipitation, and heat stress, are all hazards that 2.6 and RCP 8.5 -show some small differences, but contribute to agricultural risk in the county. 2.6 and RCP 8.5 -show some small differences, butcontribute to agricultural risk in the county. generally show the same future projections, suggesting  generally show the same future projections, suggesting climate change impacts will be fairly similar during this Historic analysis of weather in Makueni county shows climate change impacts will be fairly similar during thisHistoric analysis of weather in Makueni county shows time frame no matter the greenhouse gas emissions that both dry spells and extreme precipitation are time frame no matter the greenhouse gas emissionsthat both dry spells and extreme precipitation are that occur. hazards in the county. Dry spells are on average longer that occur.hazards in the county. Dry spells are on average longer  during the second wet season averaging close to 50 during the second wet season averaging close to 50  "},{"text":" Similarly, the Land use Policy does not fully address land matters at the County level considering that surveying and mapping of the County was done several years ago, and only about 20% of land owners have title deeds. This is despite the efforts by the County government to digitize and demarcate pasture, farming and wildlife lands(GoK, 2016). Insecure land tenure has been reported to impair climate-related interventions such as construction of sand dams(Evenson and Pingali, 2007,  p2926).Enforcement of the Wildlife Conservation and ManagementAct is impaired by lack of clear land demarcation. Cases of human-wildlife conflict are common especially during dry periods as wild animals from Tsavo National Park stray into farms. Compensation for the damage caused by the wild animals is a challenge in spite of an elaborate outline of the process in the Wildlife Conservation and Management Act. Fraud due to political influence was reported as one of the contributing factors to inefficient enforcement.Other NGOs working in the County include the Business Initiative for Survival and Eradication of Poverty (BISEP) and Pathways to Resilience in Semi-Arid Economies (PRISE). BISEP enhances capacity building among farmers by identifying gaps in various value chains and addressing them such as linking farmers to markets, promoting value addition, collaborating with research organizations and technology dissemination. For the case of value addition, mango and indigenous vegetable (cowpea) farmers have been capacitated to do sun-drying. BISEP reported to involve all stakeholders in all their undertakings, beginning from project inception to implementation. Nevertheless, sometimes donors dictate on the objectives and scope of interventions. PRISE on the other hand is a research organization undertaking research on subjects such as climate change. Policies and Programmes by contributing to construction of the Kalamba Mango cropping) are normally offered by the Agricultural currently working with about 40,000 farmers under the Policies and Programmes by contributing to construction of the Kalamba Mangocropping) are normally offered by the Agricultural currently working with about 40,000 farmers under the processing plant and water harvesting. Mechanization Services (AMS), a wing of the MoALF, KAVES programme, and promoting value addition for milk processing plant and water harvesting.Mechanization Services (AMS), a wing of the MoALF, KAVES programme, and promoting value addition for milk A number of policies and acts have been enacted in the and FAO (under the Conservation Agriculture through production of yoghurt in Kathonzweni and Kikima. A number of policies and acts have been enacted in theand FAO (under the Conservation Agriculture through production of yoghurt in Kathonzweni and Kikima. County in response to climate challenges. Makueni is Some of these programmes have registered success. Program). The services offered include provision ADS is also promoting tree planting and improved varieties County in response to climate challenges. Makueni is Some of these programmes have registered success.Program). The services offered include provision ADS is also promoting tree planting and improved varieties the only County in Kenya with a Climate Change law The success is partly attributed to the fact that most of of CA equipment as well as leasing at very low cost for sorghum, finger millet and cowpea. For instance, through the only County in Kenya with a Climate Change law The success is partly attributed to the fact that most ofof CA equipment as well as leasing at very low cost for sorghum, finger millet and cowpea. For instance, through incorporated in the County Integrated Development Plan the programmes are targeting group members in order (KES 1,500, compared to the conventional KES 4,500 tree planting promotion activities, 1,500 households incorporated in the County Integrated Development Plan the programmes are targeting group members in order(KES 1,500, compared to the conventional KES 4,500 tree planting promotion activities, 1,500 households (CIDP). The County Climate Change Fund (CCCF) of 2015 to facilitate coverage. For instance, the Adult Literacy per acre), training on CA and promoting utilization have managed to plant trees in their homesteads. The (CIDP). The County Climate Change Fund (CCCF) of 2015 to facilitate coverage. For instance, the Adult Literacyper acre), training on CA and promoting utilization have managed to plant trees in their homesteads. The stipulates 1% of the County budget to be devoted to climate programme that is implemented by the World Bank targets of biogas and energy-saving jikos. So far, farmers organization has collaborated with USAID, the Alliance stipulates 1% of the County budget to be devoted to climate programme that is implemented by the World Bank targetsof biogas and energy-saving jikos. So far, farmers organization has collaborated with USAID, the Alliance change interventions. Under the law, the County has also women in groups. Through this approach it has been able practising CA have reported remarkable increases in for a Green Revolution in Africa (AGRA), the Anglican change interventions. Under the law, the County has also women in groups. Through this approach it has been ablepractising CA have reported remarkable increases in for a Green Revolution in Africa (AGRA), the Anglican established a County Climate Change Fund Management to increase literacy levels among old people in the County. productivity, from 2.5 to 12-15 bags/ha for green gram. Board of Mission (ABM), Bread for the World, Christian established a County Climate Change Fund Management to increase literacy levels among old people in the County.productivity, from 2.5 to 12-15 bags/ha for green gram. Board of Mission (ABM), Bread for the World, Christian Board (CCCFMB) to manage the Fund (GoKb, 2015). Similarly, the Conservation Agriculture programme that is Challenges facing access to the services include high Aid, NDMA, Transform Aid International, Land O'Lakes Board (CCCFMB) to manage the Fund (GoKb, 2015). Similarly, the Conservation Agriculture programme that isChallenges facing access to the services include high Aid, NDMA, Transform Aid International, Land O'Lakes The initiative has enabled stakeholder engagement in being implemented by FAO has so far reached 480 farmer cost implications for most farmers and inadequacy of International, and government institutions such as NEMA The initiative has enabled stakeholder engagement in being implemented by FAO has so far reached 480 farmercost implications for most farmers and inadequacy of International, and government institutions such as NEMA identifying crucial climate-related interventions and public groups 13 . The Cash for Assets (initially Food for Assets) machinery due to high duty on importation. and NDMA and the County Government. Interventions identifying crucial climate-related interventions and public groups 13 . The Cash for Assets (initially Food for Assets)machinery due to high duty on importation. and NDMA and the County Government. Interventions sensitization on climate change. Considering this milestone implemented by the Red Cross, World Food Program by the organization are guided by donor requirements, sensitization on climate change. Considering this milestone implemented by the Red Cross, World Food Programby the organization are guided by donor requirements, in addressing climate change, a climate change policy that (WFP), World Vision and the National Drought Management Another important off-farm service that farmers access though selection of intervention approach, location and in addressing climate change, a climate change policy that (WFP), World Vision and the National Drought ManagementAnother important off-farm service that farmers access though selection of intervention approach, location and can comprehensively guide the intervention and promote Authority (NDMA) has been able to not only link farmers in the County is the EWIS, offered by the County, the beneficiaries are informed by desk reviews, baseline surveys can comprehensively guide the intervention and promote Authority (NDMA) has been able to not only link farmersin the County is the EWIS, offered by the County, the beneficiaries are informed by desk reviews, baseline surveys coordination and collaboration among various actors is to markets but also enlightening them on climate-smart Kenyan Meteorological Department (KMD) and the and recommendations from stakeholders. Implementation coordination and collaboration among various actors is to markets but also enlightening them on climate-smartKenyan Meteorological Department (KMD) and the and recommendations from stakeholders. Implementation lacking. This has resulted in an overlap in interventions, a agricultural practices in areas such as Kalowe and Kibwezi, NDMA in collaboration with the MoALF. This system of interventions is mainly done by the staff and sometimes lacking. This has resulted in an overlap in interventions, a agricultural practices in areas such as Kalowe and Kibwezi,NDMA in collaboration with the MoALF. This system of interventions is mainly done by the staff and sometimes Institutions such as MoALF, United States Agency for International Development (USAID), and the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) offer farmer trainings on crop selection, encouraging the planting of drought-resistant and early-maturing crops such as green gram, use of improved seeds, value addition, and development of groups to facilitate market access, information, and credit. However, the main limitation to extension services is understaffing (few extension agents from both government departments and Non-Governmental Organizations [NGOs). factor that is worsened by the fact that not every stakeholder in the County is a member of the County Environment Committee (CEC) 12 . The Sand Conservation and Utilization Act of 2015, enforced by the County Sand Authority (CSA) seeks to regulate and ensure sustainable and equitable utilization of sand (GoK, 2015). The Act borrows from the Environmental Management Coordination Act (EMCA) of 1999, a policy that addresses environmental matters at national level. Sand is an important natural resource since it is not only a source of income but also determines the success of interventions such as sand dams. On this account, uncontrolled harvesting can impose serious ramifications, for instance reduction of the water holding capacity of water reservoirs. The CSA collaborates with the National Environment Management Authority (NEMA) in issuing licenses for sand harvesting. The CSA has succeeded to a small extent in regulating sand harvesting and hence benefited the local people. Nonetheless, political interference and lack of an environmental policy in the County are some of the impediments to effective enforcement. Other relevant acts and policies that were identified include the Water Act of 2002, the Forest Act of 2005, Wildlife Conservation and Management Act of 2013, Forest Policy of 2014 and the National Land use Policy of 2009. The above-mentioned policies are at national level, making enforcement a challenge. For instance, despite devolution of the water department, the national Act does not clearly outline the responsibilities to be undertaken by the different County offices. This gap challenges management of Governance, institutional resources, and capacity A number of government, non-government, and community-based, private and faith-based organizations have a direct or indirect involvement in abating and/or mitigating climate risks in the County. Anglican Development Service Eastern (ADS) is a NGO undertaking interventions in linking farmers to input suppliers, capacity building where the organization is Despite success, several factors were reported to challenge full realization of programme objectives. Such challenges include insufficient funds to enable wider coverage, poor road network and insufficient staff. Some cultural practices such as continued maize production, low fertiliser use, high dependency syndrome compounded with high poverty levels impair success and ownership of most of the programmes. In addition, it was reported that these programmes are not well coordinated, and hence a lot of duplication can be observed. For instance, it was observed that the County government as well as the NDMA engage in providing weather forecast brochures independently. Coordination in construction of water harvesting and conservation structures, an intervention undertaken by several organizations in the County, is low. Factors such as minimal involvement of all stakeholders at all programme/ project phases and lacking policies were the reasons identified as contributing to poor coordination. shared watersheds. In addition to the policies, several programmes are involves publication of a brochure that informs farmers on upcoming weather changes in the three agro-ecological zones in the County. In addition there is a daily weather update, where about 3,800 farmers receive messages via Short Messaging Service (SMS) a programme that is supported by the United Kingdom Department for International Development (DFID). Major challenges reported in offering these services include financial limitations, language barrier (the brochures are in English only), and network problems which impair operation of the SMS services. Translation of the brochures to the Kamba language would facilitate information dissemination. Financial services in the County are offered by various financial institutions such as banks (KCB and Equity among others), insurance companies and cooperatives (Universal Traders Limited [UTL]). Some of the packages offered by the UTL in collaboration with the Netherlands Government, FAO and the USAID include Mkulima Bora, which mainly deals with horticultural crops and Mkulima Halisi that deals mainly with green gram. The institution also offers loans to farmers to enable them purchase fertilisers and pesticides from identified agricultural input dealers like Bayer Chemicals, Osho Chemicals and Syngenta as well as undertake irrigation projects. Challenges in delivering the financial services include high default rates due to frequent crop failures, a factor that impairs sustainability of the credit programmes. In addition, many farmers never seek for credit partly due to a negative attitude from the perception that the financial institutions take advantage of farmers. This is despite being implemented (either by a single organization or in collaboration) to directly respond to climate change threats as well as improve farmers' adaptive capacity. Most of the programmes identified revolve around drought management, and they include: the Soil and Water Conservation for Crop and Pasture Production, Njaa Marufuku, Food for Asset program, Environment awareness Program, Early Child Development Feeding programs, Conservation Agriculture, the Greening Program, Miti Mingi Maisha Bora, Kenya Agricultural Value Chain Enterprises, and the Natural Resource Management Programme. The Agricultural Sector Development Support Program (ASDSP), supported by the Kenyan and Swedish Governments in 2010 was established with the goal of transforming Kenyan agriculture to a commercially-oriented sector as a pathway to reducing poverty and food insecurity. In Makueni County, the programme promotes capacity building and acts as an avenue that brings together various stakeholders in the agricultural sector such as farmers and government departments. It has also managed to link farmers to markets. For instance, mango farmers have been linked to exporters such as KEIT, Antennae, Green World, Waquash, Fronco and Jacal, and processors like Makiyika Mango processors and Huruma Asili. The Kenya Agricultural Productivity and Agribusiness Program (KAPAP), which is the second phase of the Kenya Agricultural Productivity Program (KAPP) that was started in 2004 by the Kenyan Government and the World Bank, has facilitated several farmer trainings on issues such as soil conservation and fertiliser and pesticide use. It has where about 61,000 farmers have been reached. with the collaborators. Institutions such as MoALF, United States Agency for International Development (USAID), and the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) offer farmer trainings on crop selection, encouraging the planting of drought-resistant and early-maturing crops such as green gram, use of improved seeds, value addition, and development of groups to facilitate market access, information, and credit. However, the main limitation to extension services is understaffing (few extension agents from both government departments and Non-Governmental Organizations [NGOs). factor that is worsened by the fact that not every stakeholder in the County is a member of the County Environment Committee (CEC) 12 . The Sand Conservation and Utilization Act of 2015, enforced by the County Sand Authority (CSA) seeks to regulate and ensure sustainable and equitable utilization of sand (GoK, 2015). The Act borrows from the Environmental Management Coordination Act (EMCA) of 1999, a policy that addresses environmental matters at national level. Sand is an important natural resource since it is not only a source of income but also determines the success of interventions such as sand dams. On this account, uncontrolled harvesting can impose serious ramifications, for instance reduction of the water holding capacity of water reservoirs. The CSA collaborates with the National Environment Management Authority (NEMA) in issuing licenses for sand harvesting. The CSA has succeeded to a small extent in regulating sand harvesting and hence benefited the local people. Nonetheless, political interference and lack of an environmental policy in the County are some of the impediments to effective enforcement. Other relevant acts and policies that were identified include the Water Act of 2002, the Forest Act of 2005, Wildlife Conservation and Management Act of 2013, Forest Policy of 2014 and the National Land use Policy of 2009. The above-mentioned policies are at national level, making enforcement a challenge. For instance, despite devolution of the water department, the national Act does not clearly outline the responsibilities to be undertaken by the different County offices. This gap challenges management of Governance, institutional resources, and capacity A number of government, non-government, and community-based, private and faith-based organizations have a direct or indirect involvement in abating and/or mitigating climate risks in the County. Anglican Development Service Eastern (ADS) is a NGO undertaking interventions in linking farmers to input suppliers, capacity building where the organization is Despite success, several factors were reported to challenge full realization of programme objectives. Such challenges include insufficient funds to enable wider coverage, poor road network and insufficient staff. Some cultural practices such as continued maize production, low fertiliser use, high dependency syndrome compounded with high poverty levels impair success and ownership of most of the programmes. In addition, it was reported that these programmes are not well coordinated, and hence a lot of duplication can be observed. For instance, it was observed that the County government as well as the NDMA engage in providing weather forecast brochures independently. Coordination in construction of water harvesting and conservation structures, an intervention undertaken by several organizations in the County, is low. Factors such as minimal involvement of all stakeholders at all programme/ project phases and lacking policies were the reasons identified as contributing to poor coordination. shared watersheds. In addition to the policies, several programmes are involves publication of a brochure that informs farmers on upcoming weather changes in the three agro-ecological zones in the County. In addition there is a daily weather update, where about 3,800 farmers receive messages via Short Messaging Service (SMS) a programme that is supported by the United Kingdom Department for International Development (DFID). Major challenges reported in offering these services include financial limitations, language barrier (the brochures are in English only), and network problems which impair operation of the SMS services. Translation of the brochures to the Kamba language would facilitate information dissemination. Financial services in the County are offered by various financial institutions such as banks (KCB and Equity among others), insurance companies and cooperatives (Universal Traders Limited [UTL]). Some of the packages offered by the UTL in collaboration with the Netherlands Government, FAO and the USAID include Mkulima Bora, which mainly deals with horticultural crops and Mkulima Halisi that deals mainly with green gram. The institution also offers loans to farmers to enable them purchase fertilisers and pesticides from identified agricultural input dealers like Bayer Chemicals, Osho Chemicals and Syngenta as well as undertake irrigation projects. Challenges in delivering the financial services include high default rates due to frequent crop failures, a factor that impairs sustainability of the credit programmes. In addition, many farmers never seek for credit partly due to a negative attitude from the perception that the financial institutions take advantage of farmers. This is despite being implemented (either by a single organization or in collaboration) to directly respond to climate change threats as well as improve farmers' adaptive capacity. Most of the programmes identified revolve around drought management, and they include: the Soil and Water Conservation for Crop and Pasture Production, Njaa Marufuku, Food for Asset program, Environment awareness Program, Early Child Development Feeding programs, Conservation Agriculture, the Greening Program, Miti Mingi Maisha Bora, Kenya Agricultural Value Chain Enterprises, and the Natural Resource Management Programme. The Agricultural Sector Development Support Program (ASDSP), supported by the Kenyan and Swedish Governments in 2010 was established with the goal of transforming Kenyan agriculture to a commercially-oriented sector as a pathway to reducing poverty and food insecurity. In Makueni County, the programme promotes capacity building and acts as an avenue that brings together various stakeholders in the agricultural sector such as farmers and government departments. It has also managed to link farmers to markets. For instance, mango farmers have been linked to exporters such as KEIT, Antennae, Green World, Waquash, Fronco and Jacal, and processors like Makiyika Mango processors and Huruma Asili. The Kenya Agricultural Productivity and Agribusiness Program (KAPAP), which is the second phase of the Kenya Agricultural Productivity Program (KAPP) that was started in 2004 by the Kenyan Government and the World Bank, has facilitated several farmer trainings on issues such as soil conservation and fertiliser and pesticide use. It has where about 61,000 farmers have been reached. with the collaborators.  the fact that the interest rates for the capital borrowed also enabled farmers to adopt climate risk adaptation the fact that the interest rates for the capital borrowed also enabled farmers to adopt climate risk adaptation Extension services on conservation agriculture, which is only 9%. strategies such as value addition in the mango value chain Extension services on conservation agriculture, whichis only 9%. strategies such as value addition in the mango value chain includes methods for soil and water conservation  includes methods for soil and water conservation (mulching, crop rotation, minimum tillage, and strip-  (mulching, crop rotation, minimum tillage, and strip-  "},{"text":" It was reported that lack of a policy regulating climate change interventions is the number one reason for poor coordination and collaboration. This factor creates loopholes for political interference in implementing the interventions. Lack of trust among the various actors leads to withdrawal from disclosing full intervention information to collaborators. Other factors hindering coordination and collaboration include inadequate staff, lack of technical know-how and insufficient funding which comes as a result of donor fatigue. In addition, recent international events such as the Brexit are foreseen to impact negatively on funding for many of the organizations operating in the County such as FAO. Some of the suggested ways of addressing low coordination include enactment of a policy governing coordination, increasing stakeholder consultations as well as creating a body with the sole mandate of overseeing climate change-related interventions.conservation such as conservation agriculture, water harvesting through construction of sand dams, agroforestry, crop rotations, drought resistant and early maturing crop varieties, drought-tolerant animal breeds and irrigation, offfarm services such as extension, EWS and credit as well as policy legislation, where initiatives such as the Sand Act and the County Climate Change Fund have been developed. Notwithstanding these efforts, farmers still struggle accessing inputs such as seeds and fertilisers and fundamental services such as extension. They rely on traditional strategies such as seed recycling and utilization of indigenous knowledge on disease control. Low technology adoption, driven mainly by high poverty levels and little access to productive inputs, has affected productivity. Storage of highly perishable commodities such as milk is still a problem in the County, given the high temperatures and low capacity to add value. Consequently, strategies that will seek to eliminate the underlying vulnerabilities such as poverty levels, poor access to water, education, and good roads. Additionally, ensuring timely provision of inputs, promoting collective action among farmers and upscale of community-level strategies (such as home and/ or community nurseries), irrigation and feed conservation will go a long way in increasing the adaptive capacity of the people.Also critical in addressing climate vulnerabilities is a harmonized institutional, policy and governance environment. The formulation and implementation of County-level climate change action plans that are grounded in assessment of local needs and resources could be an important step towards the operationalization of the country's climate strategy. This will include formulation of a climate change policy in addition to the existing Climate Change Fund and formation of a body responsible for coordinating climate change interventions to reduce duplication. Also, a policy on land use that will ensure secure tenure will reduce cases of interventions stalling due to land conflicts should be considered.For further information and access to the annexes, visit https://cgspace.cgiar.org/handle/10568/80452 Annex 1: Administrative units and agroecological zones Annex 1: Administrative units and agroecological zones Annex 2: Crop and livestock productivity in Makueni County Annex 2: Crop and livestock productivity in Makueni County Annex 3: Climate analysisº Annex 3: Climate analysisº  "}],"sieverID":"bba312da-e3b2-4a99-9d36-2a4589de2b1c","abstract":""}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"042b82f29688b9780eecf974a76a4ecc","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/2438bad9-2c5b-4565-91b0-681930060e7e/retrieve"},"pageCount":28,"title":"Methodological Note for the Climate and Security Index","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Table of Contents","index":1,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Introduction","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":107,"text":"There exists a large body of evidence showing how climate variability is widely impacting natural and human systems. One of these many impacts is the potential threat to human security. The role of climate variability as a possible cause of violent conflict has come to the forefront of public and scientific debates. In this so-called Climate Security Nexus (CSN), climate variability acts as a multidirectional threat multiplier, aggravating existing vulnerabilities of people of communities suffering from high levels of poverty, political inequality, and dependence on renewable resources (e.g., agricultural production); especially in regions that lack resilience and coping mechanisms to absorb, adapt, and recover from climate-related shocks."},{"index":2,"size":91,"text":"Despite increasing attention towards the CSN, systematic and timely evidence about which geographies might be at risk for climate-related insecurity is scarce. This is partly due to a lack of data, but also to methodological challenges. Yet, data and analytical tools considering the complex interplay of climate, socioeconomic vulnerabilities, and conflict are crucial in understanding the CSN (Madurga Lopez et al., 2021). Composite indicators often used for ranking and benchmarking, while highly popular in several domains (Greco et al., 2019), do not allow for modelling the underlying relationships among the indicators."},{"index":3,"size":120,"text":"Hence, they are unable to fully account for complex interlinkages (Sharpe, 2004), as in the case of the CSN. Similarly, indicators built using regression-based approaches (e.g., the Global Conflict Risk Index of Halkia et al. (2020)) share the same limitations, mostly focusing on linear relationships and imposing severe constraints on data structures. On the other hand, fashionable AI methods demand large-scale data that do not exist in vulnerable countries and regions. Moreover, the most appealing feature of machine learning approaches, their predictive power, has been severely questioned in the context of conflict studies (Bazzi et al., 2022;Cederman and Weidmann, 2017;Muggah and Whitlock, 2022), with implications for the design of early warning systems and decision-making support (O'Brien, 2010;Muggah and Whitlock, 2022)."},{"index":4,"size":75,"text":"The systematic quantification of climate security demands a novel approach that carefully considers the complexity of socioeconomic systems and the empirical limitations of coarse-grained datasets. analyse key structural features of a socioeconomic system (e.g., its connectivity and synchronicity) and assess the propagation of diverse climate shocks across several development dimensions. Our framework produces intuitive graphical representations of a \"vulnerability space\", facilitating the identification and comparison of geographies that may be at risk of climate-driven instability."}]},{"head":"CSI concept","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":155,"text":"When thinking about the connection between climate-related events and human security, two fundamental dimensions come into mind: (1) how extreme are climate events and (2) how well-prepared is a society to deal with them. These are the first two modules of the CSI, and they are in line with the relevant literature (Meierding, 2013;Vivekananda et al., 2014). On the one hand, extreme events are shocks that test the resilience of a system. On the other, institutional frameworks to mitigate the impact of such shocks (e.g., evacuation plans, reallocation policies, support income programmes, reconstruction strategies, etc.) act as the resilience buffers of societies. While both of these components are important to understanding climate security, their interaction is much more nuanced than what one could disentangle from reduced analysis such as regressions. The CSI tries to account for such nuances by borrowing concepts stemming from the literature on complex adaptive systems (Simon, 1962;Gell-Mann, 1994;Miller and Page, 2009)."},{"index":2,"size":5,"text":"More specifically: connectivity and synchronicity."}]},{"head":"Connectivity","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":152,"text":"To understand the nuanced relationship between climate events and the resilience provided by institutional buffers, it is important to understand certain structural features of a country or socioeconomic system. Often, structure relates to the way different components of a system interconnect. Such interconnections capture how a change in part of the system may reach another part. In the context of the CSI, we can think of a system as a country or region, and of its components as the different development dimensions that society pays attention to. One prominent example of such a multidimensional view is the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), which divide socioeconomic systems into 17 broad dimensions, covering topics such as poverty, food security, public health, clean aquatic environments, the economy, and public governance to mention a few. In the CSI, one could consider any set of dimensions that may be relevant to a particular country or region."},{"index":2,"size":148,"text":"The relevance of connectivity comes into play when thinking about the potential reach of shocks produced by extreme environmental events. For example, suppose that most of the food supply of a country is domestically produced. Assuming such a country lacks instruments to diversify its food sources (e.g., international trade agreements), one would expect a more direct impact of climate events such as extended droughts on food scarcity and prices. If much of this society allocates a significant portion of its income to food consumption, one would expect poverty-related indicators to be affected by the droughts through the aliment channel. This type of indirect dependencies between different development dimensions such as food security and poverty are key to understanding the breadth and depth of climate-event impacts. They create additional pressures on the institutional buffers, so it is crucial to quantify such structures of conditional dependencies between different development dimensions."},{"index":3,"size":177,"text":"A natural language to formalise the idea of connectivity is networks. Network analysis is a well-established field that overlaps across different scientific communities (e.g., sociology, applied mathematics, economics, physics, etc.). In fact, network studies have recently become popular to analyse the structure connecting the SDGs (Ospina-Forero et al., 2022). Thus, one could exploit some of these methods to quantify the structure that characterises a particular country or region. Here, the idea is to infer the network structure of conditional dependencies between development indicators and to obtain an index of how interconnected are the different development dimensions of a system. In a country like the one described in our previous example, such a measure would indicate a strong connection between the dimension of food security and poverty. Thus, the aim of the connectivity module is to quantify the ease with which a shock in a specific development dimension may reach other ones. Arguably, a highly connected structure imposes an additional burden on the institutional buffers as the government would need to implement coordinated responses across various policy domains."}]},{"head":"Synchronicity","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":166,"text":"Synchronicity or synchronisation is a phenomenon that has been documented in physical systems since the 17th century when Dutch physicist Christiaan Huygens observed that two pendulum clocks hanging from a common support would, after some time, exhibit a certain degree of coordination (Pikovsky et al., 2001). Since then, the phenomenon of synchronisation has been documented across numerous physical and biological systems (e.g., birds flocking, circadian rhythms, menstrual cycles, groups of running mammals, predator-prey cycles, neurological activity, etc.). According to Pikovsky et al. (2001, p.8), we can understand synchronisation as 'an adjustment of rhythms of oscillating objects due to their weak interaction'. In the context of the CSI, the different development dimensions can be understood as oscillating objects (with ups and downs) as it is possible to track their dynamic levels through indicators. Furthermore, if such data are processed through signal-processing techniques (such as the ones discussed in subsection 3.4), it is possible to transform development indicators into wave data that can be used to measure synchronicity."},{"index":2,"size":136,"text":"Why is synchronisation important in the CSI? With the development of complexity sciences, many studies on physical and biological systems have shown that synchronicity often facilitates what is known as phase transitions. In a nutshell, a phase transition is a qualitative change in the (often aggregate) properties of a system; and such changes happens in a non-smooth nor gradual fashion. 1 For example, certain types of neural synchronisation relate to brain seizures (see Pikovsky et al. (2001) for various examples across different domains). While the early findings about synchronisation were made in the physical and biological domains, the recent availability of large-scale data and computer simulations has enabled the discovery of various situations in social systems in which synchronicity enables major shifts in collective behaviour. A case that is particularly relevant to the CSI is conflict."},{"index":3,"size":127,"text":"In a study on worldwide protests and the \"Arab spring\", Akaev et al. (2017) show that major historical upraises have followed a high degree of synchronisation between changes in communications technology and media openness. In a landmark model on the emergence of civil violence, Epstein (2002) shows that the coordinated perception of hardships (from a repressive authority) in an agent population gives rise to local or even global outbursts of violence. Ormazábal et al. (2022) show, more formally, that this type of civil violence models exhibit clear phase transitions under which the entire system may switch from a peaceful state to one overtaken by violence. Furthermore, Fonoberova et al. (2019) analyse how these dynamics may be influenced by network connectivity, finding that small-world networks facilitate synchronised behaviours."},{"index":4,"size":63,"text":"Synchronicity, thus, captures how coordinated would be the responses of different societal sectors should there be a climate event. Societies that exhibit high levels of synchronicity are expected to experience faster and stronger responses, potentially increasing the risk of security threats such as civil violence. Under a synchronised reaction, the institutional buffers are subjected to further pressures in terms of generating timely responses."},{"index":5,"size":125,"text":"Note that synchronicity is different from connectivity. In fact, in its original conception, synchronisation was a way to measure rhythmic similarities between weakly coupled objects. Connectivity, in contrast, is about strongly coupled components. Thus, two development dimensions that are not structurally connected (in a network sense), may still exhibit high levels of synchronicity. This also implies that synchronisation is different from correlation and that the former does not imply the latter, and the other way around. While correlation focuses on co-movements that preserve certain change-magnitudes or order, synchronisation does not consider the magnitude or amplitude of wave signals, but rather their coordination in terms of completing their cycles (their phase). Thus, a system that may exhibit high synchronicity will not necessarily experience high correlation levels."}]},{"head":"Conceptual illustration","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":241,"text":"Together, connectivity and synchronicity provide information on the nuanced interaction between the different dimensions of the CSN. All the components of the CSI constitute four modules that diagnose climate security vulnerability in a given country or region. In Figure 1, we provide an illustration of the CSI diagnostic tool. Given that the types of climate events are conditional on geography, the CSI allows to introduce any type of events that may be relevant to the geographical unit under study. In this example, we denote three types of climate events as I, II, and III. In the lower part of the plot, we have the remaining three modules of the CSI. In this chart, higher values (outer rings) in any module represent a worse outcome. For example, higher levels in extreme events type I mean that it is more likely to observe an extreme event of such type in the near future; in terms of connectivity, it means that shocks to a development dimension are more likely to propagate to other dimensions; for synchronicity, it means that the different parts of this hypothetical society tend to respond with fewer delays from each other's responses. Consequently, the area described by the polygon can be considered a first measure of climate security vulnerability, so an index can be constructed using this information. Nevertheless, the disaggregate version of the CSI provides a richer diagnostic tool to understand where are the main weaknesses, strengths, and threats."},{"index":2,"size":36,"text":"In the rest of this methodological note, we explain the type of data that needs to be collected to construct the CSI diagnostic tool and the specific methods used to quantify each of its four modules. "}]},{"head":"Data","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":117,"text":"The modular structure of the CSI implies a variety of data sources and structures that need to match the requirements of its methodological components. However, such diversity reflects the ability of the framework to incorporate the multidimensional nature of the CSN, while allowing users to flexibly adapt the CSI to the specific context under analysis. To measure extreme climate events likelihood, the framework relies on time-series data of climate variables, measured on a monthly basis and aggregated at the national level. 2 Users can define the type of weather events that they are interested in (e.g., droughts, heavy rainfall, heat waves) and multiple climate variables can be considered at the same time (as shown by Figure 1)."},{"index":2,"size":110,"text":"The estimation of both the connectivity and synchronicity of the system requires time-series data on development indicators. Critically, these indicators should be grouped into the dimensions of the CSN that users have identified as relevant for their application. While some dimensions of the CSN are common across different institutional settings (e.g., environment, conflict, institutional buffers), others might be more context-specific (e.g., food systems, natural resources). As such, the choice of the dimensions (and the corresponding indicators) is a crucial component of the CSI. It allows shaping the framework to the context under analysis by incorporating the expertise of relevant knowledge holders within a co-production process, which reflects the users' needs."},{"index":3,"size":183,"text":"The CSN dimensions (or policy domains) can then be tracked through multiple development indicators, that capture the performance of the natural, social, and economic system. While in the case study presented in section 4 we rely on development indicators measured for the whole country, the methods themselves do not impose limitations on the geographical units considered, and more disaggregate analysis can be conducted if information on the relevant CSN dimensions is available at the sub-national level. Development indicators used for cross-country comparisons are usually measured on a yearly basis (e.g., see the World Development Indicators database of the World Bank), 3 which often results in short time-series. The methods proposed in subsection 3.3 and subsection 3.4 are well-suited to deal with coarse-grained data, however, a minimum number of observations is still necessary (i.e., n > 10). In addition, as a standard pre-processing procedure in the development literature, indicators should be normalised to lie in the [0, 1] interval. 4 They should also be inverted whenever lower values represent better outcomes (e.g., the prevalence of stunting among children). 5 As an example, Figure 2     "}]},{"head":"Methods","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":147,"text":"In this section, we provide technical details on the methods used in each of the CSI modules. Something important to keep in mind is that, within each module, there exist numerous quantitative methods coming from various disciplines that try to capture conceptually similar phenomena. However, when working with development data, the reality is that most of such methods cannot be used. The reason has to do with the fact that development indicators tend to be coarse-grained, so they do not fulfil the data-demanding requirements of frameworks such as machine learning. In fact, the development of the CSI is the result of carefully considered analytic tools that (1) are conceptually meaningful to each module and (2) can be used with small data. Thus, while the reader may be aware of alternative methods for one or more modules, they should consider whether they are empirically viable in this context."},{"index":2,"size":47,"text":"Let us explain the different methods module by module. In each case, we provide the general intuition of the approach and refer to the original publications that developed the respective framework. Once these details have been explained, we proceed to demonstrate the CSI with a real-world application."}]},{"head":"Extreme events likelihood","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":95,"text":"A ubiquitous feature of complex adaptive systems is the prevalence of extreme events. Statistically speaking, this characteristic is often described through a probability distribution with a heavy tail. That is, a distribution where the likelihood of extremely large events is higher than under the assumption of exponentiallydecaying tails such as those from a normal distribution. If one assumes that the size of a climate event of a certain type can be modelled as a random variable, then the presence of heavy tails in its distribution would be a warning of potential shocks to the system."},{"index":2,"size":273,"text":"When studying empirical data on event sizes, one would like to establish whether this information is generated from a heavy-tailed distribution. In the literature of extreme value theory, various tail indices have been created for this purpose, for example, the Hill (Hill, 1975) and the Pickands (Pickands, 1975) indices. In essence, these metrics measure the excess of probability mass for observations that lie beyond the starting point of the tail. 7 More excess means that there is more mass accumulated in extreme events, making them more likely to occur. Figure 3 shows an example comparing a heavy-tailed distribution against one with an exponentially decaying tail. The stripped region contains much more mass than the grey one, suggesting that extreme events are more likely to occur under the dashed distribution. Tail indices such as Hill's and Pickand's quantify this heavy-tailness. Resnick (1997) points out that, while both the Hill and the Pickands (and other similar) indices are useful to compare datasets coming from heavy-tailed distributions, one needs to have ex-ante knowledge or other types of evidence suggesting heavy-tails. Thus, if the data come from a distribution with exponential tails, these diagnostic tools are not expected to perform well. Thus, when one has different types of event-size data, Resnick (1997) suggests employing the moment estimator developed by Dekkers et al. (1989). This metric is sensitive to both thin and heavy tails and, while it is not bounded, negative values suggest exponential-like tails, while positive ones indicate heavy tails. Thus, in terms of assessing climate security vulnerability, one could say that a higher moment estimator denotes higher vulnerability as extreme events are more likely to occur."},{"index":3,"size":18,"text":"Next, let us provide the formal definition of the moment estimator as introduced by Dekkers et al. (1989)."},{"index":4,"size":14,"text":"Let X denote a random variable on climate event sizes with order statistics X"},{"index":5,"size":25,"text":"where n denotes the sample size. For the kth order statistic defining the beginning of the upper tail, and for r = 1, 2, define"},{"index":6,"size":10,"text":"Then, the moment statistic is defined as γn = H"},{"index":7,"size":1,"text":"(1)"},{"index":8,"size":1,"text":"."},{"index":9,"size":1,"text":"(2)"},{"index":10,"size":3,"text":"Note that H"},{"index":11,"size":86,"text":"(1) (k,n) corresponds to the Hill index. Effectively, the moment estimator estimates the parameter γ of the extreme value distribution Pr(x) = exp{−(1 + γx) −γ −1 }. Parameter γ determines the heavy-tailness of the distribution. Dekkers et al. (1989) show that γn converges in probability to γ as n → ∞. As we have mentioned previously, a non-negative γn indicates heavy tails, while negative values suggest thin ones. 8 Thus, the CSI uses this index to assess the extreme-event component in each type of event."},{"index":12,"size":155,"text":"Note that an empirical challenge of estimating heavy-tail indices tends to be the scarce availability of large-scale data, as extreme events usually 'show up' in large datasets. Hence, to address this, we produce a bootstrap sample of size n b >> n of the event-size dataset and compute γn b . We repeat this procedure several times and report the average value of γn b obtained from the ensemble of bootstrapped samples. While the moment estimator is not bounded below or above, in empirical studies it typically tends to hover in the range of -1 to 1 (see Brooks et al. (2005) for applications using financial data). Therefore, one can use this range as the reference space to assess the likelihood of experiencing extreme events. Furthermore, from a qualitative point of view, the zero value provides an intuitive threshold to know if a particular type of event is governed by a heavy or light-tailed distribution."}]},{"head":"Institutional fragility","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":160,"text":"The quality of institutions plays a prominent role in the literature of conflict studies, especially in relation to the recurrence of civil wars (e.g., see Walter (2004Walter ( , 2015))). For the CSI, we are interested in the ability of a government to adapt and respond to climate shocks and their consequences within the wider ecological, social, and economic systems. To capture that, we rely on the Governance dimension of The Bertelsmann Stiftung's Transformation Index (BTI), an index based on expert assessment that has been widely used by both international organizations (e.g., Fabra and Ziaja (2009)) and scholars (e.g., Hanson and Sigman (2021); Knox (2021)). More specifically, we employ the indicator Steering Capacity, which measures three critical features of governments' institutional capacity 1) prioritisation, 2) implementation, and 3) learning. The first aspect represents the capability of keeping strategic priorities during crises or stalemates, maintaining a 8 In fact, γ = 0 yields a Gumbel distribution, which is another heavy-tailed one."},{"index":2,"size":50,"text":"long-term perspective that goes beyond immediate electoral concerns and an effective organisation of policy measures. The second is the ability to achieve its strategic priorities and declared objectives. Finally, the third aspect captures innovation and flexibility in policymaking, both in terms of policy outputs and guiding principles for policy formulation."}]},{"head":"Connectivity","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":182,"text":"Let us recall that the aim of measuring the connectivity of a system in the context of the CSI is to assess the \"easiness\" with which a shock in a particular policy domain or development dimension may reach one or more different ones. As explained in subsection 2.4, by dimension or policy domain we mean broad categories that encompass multiple development indicators as their target populations or policy instruments can be considered somehow close or related. In network parlance, these dimensions are known as labels that define communities of nodes. Here, nodes represent indicators, and the links between them capture the potential that a shock starting in one indicator reaches another one. Thus, the end goal of this module is to measure how much node connectivity takes place between communities (development dimensions) in relation to how much happens within them. To achieve this, we need to break down our methodology into three steps: (1) estimating conditional dependencies, (2) constructing a compounded conditional dependency (CCD) network, and (3) estimating the modularity of the CCD network. Let us explain one step at a time."}]},{"head":"Conditional dependencies","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":99,"text":"First, we measure the interdependencies between indicators using the information contained in their timeseries. While there exists a large number of methods to estimate networks from sets of time-series, the vast majority rely on long series, at least of the order of hundreds of observations. Ospina-Forero et al. (2022) provide a comprehensive overview of different classes of methods and assess the most adequate ones when dealing with short time-series such as those from development indicators. From these potential methods, the most suitable one for our application is one of sparse Bayesian networks (sparsebn) developed by Aragam et al. (2019)."},{"index":2,"size":382,"text":"The method sparsebn is part of a larger family of so-called graphical models that construct a directed acyclic graph of conditional dependencies between indicators. 9 Usually, these methods start with a proposed directed graph and, then, perform conditional independence tests across all the indicators to discard edges. This process is repeated until one achieves the acyclical property. What makes sparsebn particularly wellsuited for development indicators is that it was designed to work with short time-series and a large number 9 In network analysis, directedness means that the network edges point in one direction. Acyclicality means that, if one starts a walk on a network, it is impossible to return to the initial node of the walk (there are no cycles). of variables. It achieves this by sacrificing network density in the underlying graphical model, hence the sparsity term in its name. 10   It is important to mention that, while these models estimate links in terms of conditional dependencies that are often interpreted as causal, in the context of the CSI, these relationships cannot be considered causal; only conditional dependencies. Generally speaking, this is because development indicators are the result of vertical causal chains. In other words, causal inference methods such as graphical models are designed to study systems that operate roughly at the same level of aggregation (e.g., clinical studies), but complex adaptive systems, such as an economy, differ from such configurations as interventions take place at the micro-level while their outcomes are measured at the macro one. This is extensively discussed by Guerrero andCastañeda (2020, 2021); Guerrero et al. (2023) in the context of the SDGs. To provide a brief explanation of why one should not make causal claims from these estimates, consider an arrow i → j that represents a change in indicator j conditioned by a change in indicator i, not a causal link. That is, the existence of i → j means that, if we observe a change in j, a change in i was likely to have taken place. However, a change in i does not necessarily trigger a change in j; otherwise it would be a causal link. 11 In terms of the model, a positive edge i → j indicates a higher likelihood of j growing, while a negative one translates into a lower likelihood."},{"index":3,"size":72,"text":"The resulting object from this step is an adjacency matrix A representing the acyclical network structure of conditional dependencies between indicators. This network, however, does not allow us yet to measure connectivity. The reason for this is that we are interested in indirect dependencies, as these are informative about structural relations within the system. Thus, in the next step, we explain how to construct a denser network that captures these indirect connections."}]},{"head":"Compounded conditional dependency network","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":69,"text":"To motivate this step, let us use a theoretical example of a network where each node belongs to a community or development dimension. Recall that the aim of the connectivity module is to quantify how different communities facilitate the reach of shocks. Thus, for this example, let us assume that we are trying to count the links between and within communities using the directed acyclic graph obtained from sparsebn."},{"index":2,"size":107,"text":"Figure 4 shows a hypothetical example of a network of conditional dependencies. Here, we can see that community A has direct links to communities B and C, but not to D. Nevertheless, it is clear that, should 10 A virtue of Bayesian approaches such as sparsebn is that they allow the use of ex-ante knowledge through priors. Hence, the user can provide a \"white list\" of edges that should be part of the estimated network, as well as a \"black list\" of edges that should not, as they would mean false positives. This capability facilitates co-production with relevant stakeholders by incorporating their expert knowledge in these estimates."},{"index":3,"size":36,"text":"11 Conditional dependencies are not plain correlations either. A correlation is just a co-movement of two variables, which could be produced by a third variable, so that no conditioning between i and j would be necessary."},{"index":4,"size":264,"text":"there be a shock in any node in A, it is possible that its effects could reach community D through indirect channels. For example, one potential path for a shock in A2 is A2 → B3 → B5 → C1 → D1. Like this, there are many potential paths through which a shock in community A could impact D. It is precisely the implied structure of these indirect impacts that we aim to quantify to capture the connectivity of the system across development dimensions. If one were to directly assess connectivity using the network presented in Figure 4, the community-level connectivity structure would be the one shown in Figure 5. Clearly, this network leaves out several indirect channels, as community D is only connected to C; not to A nor B. Thus, it is necessary to construct a dense network that captures the implied structure of indirect paths. Such a network is denser than the one of conditional dependencies, and provides the information needed to assess how \"contained\" would a shock to a particular community be. We construct a second network by compounding the conditional dependencies across the paths connecting two given nodes i and j. Given the adjacency matrix A it is possible to find all the possible paths from i to j through algorithms such as breadth-first search or depth-first search. 12 Let the n-tuple P = (i, . . . , j) denote a path from i to j, and P (i,j) the set of all paths from i to j. Then, the compounded conditional dependency from i to j is"},{"index":5,"size":36,"text":"Essentially, what Equation 3 does is to multiply all the weights along a path from i to j-the compounded conditional dependency (CCD)-and, then, obtain the average CCD across all the possible paths from i to j."},{"index":6,"size":87,"text":"Finally, to construct the CCD network, we need to filter only those values C ij > 0. The reason is that, given the normalisation of the development indicators-where higher values denote better outcomes-a negative shock (the relevant one for the CSI) comes in the form of a reduction in the value of an indicator, so the CCD needs to be positive to reflect an indirect negative impact. Thus, by collecting all positive CCDs, we construct an adjacency matrix C that encodes the network of compounded conditional dependencies."}]},{"head":"Modularity","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":87,"text":"Once we have constructed the CCD network, we can compute a popular metric known in network science as modularity. In a nutshell, modularity measures the structural balance between links within and between communities in a network. In the context of the CSI, recall that communities are given by the development dimensions. Hence, a high modularity would indicate a tendency to exhibit more within-community edges than between them. Thus, in highly modular systems, a shock to a particular community is more likely to be contained in that community."},{"index":2,"size":69,"text":"The specific modularity measure that we employ is designed for directed weighted networks, and was developed by Leicht and Newman (2008). First, let m = i,j C i,j denote the total weights in the CCD network. Then, s out i = j C i,j is the total 'outgoing strength' of node i, while s in i = j C j,i is the 'incoming' one. Finally, modularity is defined as"},{"index":3,"size":21,"text":"where δ cicj is an indicator function returning 1 if i and j belong to the same community, and 0 otherwise."},{"index":4,"size":46,"text":"In its original form, the modularity score ranges from -1 to 1, with negative values indicating a low modular structure and positive ones a high one. To be consistent with the direction of the extreme-events module, let us define the connectivity index as C = −Q."},{"index":5,"size":1,"text":"(5)"},{"index":6,"size":68,"text":"Higher levels of connectivity indicate less modular structure and, hence, a higher risk of shock propagation outside the community that originally experienced it. A value of C = 0 indicates that the structure is as modular as a random network would be. Thus, one could interpret that negative values of connectivity would tend to contain shocks to specific development dimensions and generate less pressure on the institutional buffers."}]},{"head":"Synchronicity","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":107,"text":"There exist various methods to quantify the synchronisation of two time-series. In the CSI, we use an approach that has become a standard in the study of neuroscience, pioneered by Lachaux et al. (1999), and that is well suited to work with short time-series. This method takes a signal and extracts information on its instantaneous phase (the position of a waveform within its cycle at any given moment in time) of two timeseries and calculates its angular difference, i.e., the phase locking value (PLV). By computing the PLV over all pairs of signals, we obtain the average PLV of the system that describes its degree of synchronisation."},{"index":2,"size":85,"text":"The original PLV goes from 0 to 1, where 1 is full synchronisation and 0 is none. To make this module consistent with the rest of the CSI, we re-normalise the PLV to be between -1 and 1, such that 1 means full synchronisation and -1 none. Thus, the interpretation of the PLV is that larger values mean a higher vulnerability as the various responses to extreme events across a country or region may happen at a similar rhythm, imposing additional pressures on institutional buffers."},{"index":3,"size":95,"text":"Next, let us provide further details on how to transform development indicators into waveform signals and, then, compute the PLV. Let X = x 1 , x 2 , . . . , x T denote a time-series with T observations. To detrend this series, we take its first differences and obtain X d = (x 2 − x 1 ), (x 3 − x 2 ), . . . , (x T − x T −1 ). Next, take differences with respect to the mean and normalise by the standard deviation, so we obtain"},{"index":4,"size":18,"text":"where μX d and ρX d are the sample mean and standard deviation of the detrended time-series respectively."},{"index":5,"size":66,"text":"Once the time-series has been pre-processed to focus on its wave features, we need to transform the normalised series into an analytical signal by applying the Hilbert transform. 13 From this transformation, we obtain the phase ϕ x (t) (which is the imaginary part resulting from the Hilbert transformation), so the PLV between two time-series X and Y as defined by Lachaux et al. (1999) is"},{"index":6,"size":10,"text":"where j reverts the angular difference to an imaginary number."},{"index":7,"size":18,"text":"Finally, averaging over a dataset with N time-series and re-normalising the PLV, we obtain our synchronicity module index"}]},{"head":"Computing the CSI","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":174,"text":"In summary, we have discussed the different methods used to quantify the four modules of the CSI: (1) extreme events likelihood, (2) institutional fragility, (3) connectivity, and (4) synchronicity. Each of these modules yields an index that hovers in the -1 to 1 space, where larger values can be interpreted as a higher vulnerability in the corresponding module. Thus, if one considers these values as coordinates in the space of climate security vulnerability, then the area within these points provides a reduced quantification of the degree of such vulnerability. In Figure 6 we show the same polygon from Figure 1 overlaid on the maximum area that could be produced by setting each module to its worst value. The CSI is the area of the inner polygon as a fraction of the area defined by the outer one. Thus, higher values for the CSI denote more climate security vulnerability. Since the extreme events modules are not bound by 1, the CSI goes from 0 to infinity, but it is unlikely to expect values beyond 1."},{"index":2,"size":44,"text":"The Python package accessible in https://github.com/oguerrer/CSI provides all the necessary functions to compute the CSI, as well as a tutorial to walk the reader through the data preparation. In the next section, we show an application of the CSI to the case of Kenya. "}]},{"head":"An application to Kenya","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":204,"text":"The institutional setting that we choose as the first implementation of the CSI is Kenya. This country represents an interesting case study to analyse the effectiveness of the CSI in assessing the CSN. In fact, according to Germanwatch, the country is at high risk of extreme weather events, scoring 19.67 in the 2018 Climate Risk Index, which places Kenya in the top ten countries most threatened by natural disasters (Eckstein et al., 2019). At the same time, conflict severity is only limited in the country, as shown by the 2022 Conflict Severity Index provided by ACLED. This multifaceted index incorporates the complex nature of conflicts by assessing their deadliness, danger, diffusion, and fragmentation. 14   Our exercise starts by selecting five policy domains relevant to the CSN in this specific context: Conflict, Environment and Climate, Natural Resources, Resilience/Buffer, and Socio-economy. This choice is informed by domain experts from CGIAR, who helped identify the CSN dimensions and the corresponding indicators (proxies), showing how the CSI can incorporate knowledge co-production processes in its framing. Table 2 reports the number of indicators, their average, and standard deviation by CSN dimension. In Table 3 of Appendix A we list all 65 indicators, with their source and corresponding CSN dimension."},{"index":2,"size":86,"text":"Since many indicators present time-series with a significant number of missing values, we impute them using Gaussian Processes (GPs) (Rasmussen and Williams, 2005). GPs are a family of highly flexible machine learning algorithms that have proven to be effective in modelling complex non-linear dynamics. GPs have already been employed in the context of development indicators to study composite indices (Becker et al., 2017) and to impute missing data in SDG indicator time-series (e.g., see Guerrero and Castañeda (2022); Guerrero et al. (2021); Guariso et al. (2023))."},{"index":3,"size":74,"text":"Once the missing values are imputed and the series normalised, 15 we apply the methods presented in subsection 3.3 and subsection 3.4 to measure connectivity and synchronicity in the case of Kenya. For institutional fragility, we take the maximum value of the BTI's indicator Steering Capacity over the period considered. 16 For the likelihood of extreme events, we compute the metrics discussed in subsection 3.1 using simulated data drawn from two arbitrary distributions. 17"},{"index":4,"size":83,"text":"Figure 7 shows the results of this exercise. The value of the CSI for Kenya is just slightly above the 0 threshold (0.21), meaning that the country exhibits only limited climate security vulnerability, a result that is in line with Kenya's score on the ACLED Conflict Severity Index. Arguably, the relatively low value of the CSI is driven by the negative scores in connectivity, synchronicity, and institutional fragility, which counterbalance and mitigate the adverse effect of the high likelihood of extreme weather events."},{"index":5,"size":42,"text":"15 After the imputation procedures, all time-series cover the period 2000-2022. 16 The value was normalised using the theoretical boundaries of the score (i.e., [1,10]), and inverted to be in the range [−1, 1], as the other metrics included in the CSI."},{"index":6,"size":1,"text":"17  "}]},{"head":"Conclusions","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":221,"text":"In this methodological note, we propose the Climate and Security Index (CSI), an innovative and scalable framework to understand the impact of climate shocks on the wider ecological, social, and economic environment. Our approach incorporates multiple drivers of the Climate Security Nexus (CSN) from climatic, conflict, socio-economic, agricultural, and institutional dimensions. The structural features of the system described by these dimensions are assessed through a combination of different analytical tools and metrics from diverse disciplines. Such methods are suitable to deal with the coarse-grained nature of development indicators, which are often used to measure these policy domains. While the framework results in a single metric that can be intuitively depicted through a graphical representation of a \"vulnerability space\", its modular design allows users to narrow down the analysis to individual structural features of the system, which is key for further investigation with complementary methods and the design of long-term resilience interventions. The methodology is applied for a specific case-study using national-level data for Kenya, finding results that are consistent with other measures of conflict severity, while allowing for a deeper understanding of the underlying structural features characterising the CSN in the country. Further research will extend the analysis by identifying a set of common CSN dimensions and development indicators, to conduct cross-country comparisons and assess climate security at the regional level."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"1 Introduction ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 2 CSI concept .......................................................................................................................................................................................2.1 Connectivity ......................................................................................................................................................................... 2.2 Synchronicity ....................................................................................................................................................................... 2.3 Conceptual illustration .................................................................................................................................................... 2.4 Data .......................................................................................................................................................................................... 3 Methods .......................................................................................................................................................................................... 3.1 Extreme events likelihood .......................................................................................................................................... 3.2 Institutional fragility ..................................................................................................................................................... 3.3 Connectivity ......................................................................................................................................................................3.3.1 Conditional dependencies ..................................................................................................................................... 3.3.2 Compounded conditional dependency network ......................................................................................... 3.3.3 Modularity .................................................................................................................................................................... 3.4 Synchronicity .................................................................................................................................................................... 3.5 Computing the CSI ........................................................................................................................................................... "},{"text":"Figure 1 : Figure 1: Conceptual illustration of the CSI "},{"text":" shows the average time trend of the development indicators used for the application presented in section 4, grouped by the CSN dimensions considered. Interestingly, while both socioeconomic and buffer indicators appear to exhibit a positive trend over time, conflict variables clearly show (on average) erratic behaviour. "},{"text":"Figure 2 : Figure 2: Average trend of indicators by CSN dimension for Kenya "},{"text":" Finally, institutional quality is proxied by a relevant index (measured at the national level), sourced fromThe Bertelsmann Stiftung's Transformation Index (BTI) project (more details in subsection 3.2) 6 Users may use the average of the indicator over the time period considered, its minimum or maximum values (to get lower/upper bounds estimates of institutional quality), or the latest available data point (according to their needs). "},{"text":"Figure 3 : Figure 3: An illustration of the likelihood of extreme events under heavy tails "},{"text":"Figure 4 : Figure 4: Example of a network of conditional dependencies "},{"text":"Figure 5 : Figure 5: Connectivity between development dimensions implied by the network of conditional dependencies "},{"text":"Figure Figure 6: Quantification of the CSI "},{"text":" More specifically, we randomly drew 1000 observations from a generalised normal distribution (with shape parameter β = 0.95) and a Pareto distribution (with shape parameter b = 2). "},{"text":"Figure Figure 7: An application to Kenya "},{"text":"  "},{"text":" The proposed Climate and Security Index (CSI) diagnoses climate security vulnerability by including a broad range of drivers of the Climate Security Nexus from climatic, conflict, socioeconomic, agricultural, and institutional dimensions. The CSI incorporates analytical tools and metrics from diverse disciplines, hardly combined by researchers from the same field (e.g., signal processing, complex network analysis, Bayesian inference, extreme value theory, stakeholder validation, etc.), supporting policymakers by informing contextualised and climate-security-sensitive decisions for policies, programs, or finance. Its modular design allows users to  "},{"text":" Table 1 summarises the data requirements for the different components of the CSI.  Table 1: CSI data structure  Table 1: CSI data structure CSI component Data type Data points Geographical unit CSN dimensions CSI componentData type Data pointsGeographical unitCSN dimensions Extreme events likelihood Time-series n > 100 National No Extreme events likelihood Time-seriesn > 100NationalNo Institutional fragility Time-series n = 1 National No Institutional fragilityTime-seriesn = 1NationalNo Connectivity Time-series n > 10 National/sub-national Yes ConnectivityTime-seriesn > 10National/sub-nationalYes Synchronicity Time-series n > 10 National/sub-national Yes SynchronicityTime-seriesn > 10National/sub-nationalYes  "},{"text":"Table 2 : Descriptive statistics of development indicators by CSN dimensionAll indicators have been normalised between 0 and 1, and higher values represent better outcomes. The table reports (at the level of each CSN dimension) the number of indicators, together with their mean values and standard deviations over the time period considered. CSN dimension N Mean Std Dev CSN dimensionN Mean Std Dev Conflict 4 0.657 0.294 Conflict40.6570.294 Environment and Climate 14 0.481 0.258 Environment and Climate 14 0.4810.258 Natural Resources 6 0.501 0.307 Natural Resources60.5010.307 Resilience/Buffer 9 0.522 0.304 Resilience/Buffer90.5220.304 Socio-economy 32 0.532 0.359 Socio-economy32 0.5320.359  "}],"sieverID":"9dab24b0-bb58-400f-95a5-38bb46d571d3","abstract":"The views expressed in this document cannot be taken to reflect the official position of the CGIAR or its donor agencies. The designations employed and the presentation of material in this report do not imply the expression of any opinion on the part of CGIAR concerning the legal status of any country, territory, area, city or area or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"042f8d823460609c523cfb60e2e0b5f3","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/4bad2732-ce5a-4c2f-ab22-a34d37886400/retrieve"},"pageCount":7,"title":"Accelerating the Impacts of CGIAR Climate Research for Africa (AICCRA) Improved uptake of climate smart rice varieties with high potential for marketability in Mali","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":106,"text":"Mitigating the potential adverse effects of changing climate is a major challenge for sustaining rice production and achieving food security. Developing climate-smart rice varieties that are more tolerant to the impacts of a volatile climate emerges as a crucial strategy. In the context of the World Bank-funded AICCRA project in Mali, climate-smart rice varieties were disseminated to farmers to address these challenges. However, there is limited knowledge about the dissemination mechanisms and the impacts of these varieties on farmers' livelihoods. This study aims to analyze the dissemination mechanisms and assess the impacts of climate-smart rice varieties on farmers' yields, income, and food consumption scores in Mali."}]},{"head":"Material and methods","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Study area","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":155,"text":"The study was conducted in the Sikasso region of Mali, situated in the transitional zone between Sudano-Sahelian and Sudanian climate regions, characterized as tropical savannah according to the Köppen-Geiger climate classification. The landscape in Sikasso is predominantly marked by a mosaic of savannah and agricultural parkland within a traditional agroforestry system. Common tree species include Shea (Vitellaria paradoxa), Néré (Parkia biglobosa), and Baobab (Adansonia digitata), with lesser occurrences of other woody species from the genera Combretum, Detarium, and others. Primary crops cultivated in the region include cotton (as a cash crop), maize, sorghum, peanuts, and millet. Sikasso is renowned for its expansive inland valleys, temporarily flooded during the rainy season for rice cultivation and utilized for potato planting during the dry season. The average annual rainfall in Sikasso ranges between 800 and 1000 mm. The predominant ethnic groups in the region are Senoufo (constituting around 80% of the population), along with Fulani and Bambara communities."}]},{"head":"Experimental design, treatments and data collection","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":218,"text":"The experiments were executed at six locations: Siramana, Finkolo-Ganadougou, Loutana, Lobougoula, Mpedougou and Mpegnesso. The evaluation included three varieties: ARICA 3, KAFACI 1 and the local variety (DKAM7). After land preparation, rice seedlings were transplanted at 21 days, spaced 20 cm apart with two plants per hill. The experimental layout followed a randomized complete block design with three replicates, and each specific plot measured 5 m x 5 m. At maturity, two elementary plots of 1 m 2 each were harvested from the center of every plot by cutting tillers and the main stem directly from the soil surface. Measurements were taken for straw biomass and grain yields. The dry weight of straw was determined after 72 hours in an oven at 70 °C. Grain yield was calculated by weighing the winnowed paddy, cleaned of impurities and empty grains. A portion of the paddy was used for moisture content determination with a grain moisture meter, and rice yield was reported at 14% moisture content. Farmers income was calculated as the difference between gross revenue (yield multiplied by price) and the total production cost. Food consumption score was calculated using a mathematical method inspired by the World Food Programme (WFP), involving the frequency of consumption of food groups in the last seven days by households among eight food groups."}]},{"head":"Results","index":5,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Dissemination of climate smart rice varieties","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":231,"text":"In total, 35,280 farmers adopted the climate smart rice varieties promoted by the AICCRA project on a total area of 19,404 ha. KAFACI1 was adopted by 6,000 farmers, ARICA3 by 20,390 farmers and Sutura by 8,890 farmers. 40% of the adopters were women. KAFACI 1 is a drought and flooding tolerant rice variety. Sutura is heat tolerant rice variety, and ARICA 3 is pest and disease tolerant rice variety. The adoption of the climate smart rice varieties was enabled by field demonstrations, farmers' field days and capacity building to seed producers. On-farm demonstrations were conducted at 24 sites to evaluate the performance of the climate smart rice varieties compared to the local varieties used by farmers. At the physiological maturity of rice, field days were organized to expose neighboring farmers to the performance of the climate smart rice varieties. Witnessing the outstanding performance of the climate smart rice varieties, participating farmers in the field days requested seeds of the varieties, while seed producing companies requested support from the AICCRA project in the production of the seeds of the climate smart rice varieties using sustainable cultivation practices. Training was provided to the seed producing companies followed by technical backstopping, which enabled the production of seeds of the three climate smart rice varieties in sufficient quantity. Subsequently, farmers bought the seeds of the preferred climate smart rice varieties from the seed producing companies."},{"index":2,"size":14,"text":"Photo 1. Farmers' fields days in Selingue (left) and seed purchase of women (right)"}]},{"head":"Effects of climate smart rice varieties on farmers yield, income and food consumption score","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":58,"text":"Rice yield exhibited significant variations based on site and varieties, as detailed in Table 2. The highest rice yield, reaching 3.9 t/ha was observed at Siramana, contrasting with the lowest yield of 1.0 t/ha at Mpegnesso, as illustrated in Table 3. Among the varieties, KAFACI1 and ARICA3 demonstrated superior yields compared to DKAM7, as indicated in Table 3."},{"index":2,"size":56,"text":"Similarly, farmers' income was significantly influenced by site and varieties, as detailed in Table 2. The highest recorded farmers' income, amounting to 828 USD/ha, was noted at Siramana, while the lowest income of 107 USD/ha was recorded at Mpegnesso (Table 3). Among the varieties, KAFACI1 and ARICA3 exhibited higher farmers' income compared to DKAM7 (Table 3)."},{"index":3,"size":55,"text":"The food consumption score was significantly influenced by site and varieties, as detailed in Table 2. The highest food consumption score, reaching 65, was recorded at Siramana, while the lowest score of 58 was noted at Mpegnesso (Table 3). Among the varieties, KAFACI1 and ARICA3 demonstrated higher food consumption scores compared to DKAM7 (Table 3). "}]},{"head":"Benefits of climate smart rice varieties adoption for farmers","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":149,"text":"In total, the adoption of climate smart rice varieties increased the production of rice by 28,446 ton and farmers' income by 7.6 million USD. When farmers were queried about the advantages of climate smart rice varieties, they highlighted an increase in their climate resilience due to the ability of the rice varieties to withstand the challenges posed by climate change, such as extreme temperatures, erratic precipitation, and increased frequency of droughts and floods. They also mentioned higher resource use efficiency due to the more efficient use of water and nutrients. Farmers further reported that the climate smart rice varieties had a shorter growth duration, and mentioned their community resilience to climate-induced shocks has increased. Therefore, farmers mentioned that climate-smart rice varieties play a critical role in ensuring food security by offering a reliable and resilient source of sustenance in the face of climatic uncertainties and challenges in rice production."}]},{"head":"Conclusions","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":221,"text":"In total, 35,280 farmers adopted the climate smart rice varieties promoted by the AICCRA project on a total area of 19,404 ha. The primary dissemination methods included on-farm demonstrations, farmers field days and capacity building of seed producing companies. The adoption of climate smart rice varieties increased farmers' yield by 1.3 -1.5 t/ha and income by 365 -511 USD/ha. The food consumption of farmers adopting climate smart rice varieties was significantly increased. In total, the adoption of climate smart rice varieties increased the production of rice by 28,446 ton and farmers' income by 7.6 million USD. When farmers were queried about the advantages of climate smart rice varieties, they highlighted an increase in their climate resilience due to the ability of the rice varieties to withstand the challenges posed by climate change, such as extreme temperatures, erratic precipitation, and increased frequency of droughts and floods. They also mentioned higher resource use efficiency due to the more efficient use of water and nutrients. Farmers further reported that the climate smart rice varieties had a shorter growth duration, and mentioned their community resilience to climate-induced shocks has increased. Therefore, farmers mentioned that climate-smart rice varieties play a critical role in ensuring food security by offering a reliable and resilient source of sustenance in the face of climatic uncertainties and challenges in rice production."}]}],"figures":[{"text":" 1. Introduction ..........................................................................................................................3 2. Material and methods ............................................................................................................4 2.1. Study area .........................................................................................................................4 2.2. Experimental design, treatments and data collection .............................................................4 3. Results..................................................................................................................................4 3.1. Dissemination of climate smart rice varieties.........................................................................4 "},{"text":" 3.2. Effects of climate smart rice varieties on farmers yield, income and food consumption score ......5 3.3. Benefits of climate smart rice varieties adoption for farmers ...................................................6 4. Conclusions ...........................................................................................................................6 5. References ............................................................................................................................7 1. Introduction 1. Introduction cultivation cultivation areas in the region. The average farmer's yield in SSA is 2.2 t/ha, considerably lower than the global areas in the region. The average farmer's yield in SSA is 2.2 t/ha, considerably lower than the global average of 4.6 t/ha, due to factors such as limited adoption of high-yielding varieties, inadequate crop average of 4.6 t/ha, due to factors such as limited adoption of high-yielding varieties, inadequate crop management, poor water management, biotic and abiotic stresses, soil constraints, and climatic stresses. management, poor water management, biotic and abiotic stresses, soil constraints, and climatic stresses. Global climate change poses additional threats to sustainable rice production growth. Predicted changes, Global climate change poses additional threats to sustainable rice production growth. Predicted changes, including a rise in Earth's mean surface temperature and altered precipitation patterns, can exacerbate including a rise in Earth's mean surface temperature and altered precipitation patterns, can exacerbate the impacts of existing stresses on rice productivity and sustainability. These changes may the impacts of existing stresses on rice productivity and sustainability. These changes may disproportionately affect poor rice producers in rainfed environments, where over 30% of the population disproportionately affect poor rice producers in rainfed environments, where over 30% of the population already lives in extreme poverty. already lives in extreme poverty.  "},{"text":"Table 2 . p-value from the analysis of variance for rice yield (t/ha), farmers income (USD/ha) and food consumption score (FCS) of variety evaluated at six sites in the Sikasso region of Mali Variable Df Yield Income FCS VariableDfYieldIncome FCS Site (S) 5 0.013 0.017 0.0127 Site (S)50.0130.0170.0127 Variety (V) 2 0.014 0.0303 0.0143 Variety (V)20.0140.03030.0143 S x V 6 0.638 0.6593 0.6384 S x V60.6380.65930.6384 Table 3. Rice yield, farmers' income and food consumption score (FCS) of varieties evaluated at six sites Table 3. Rice yield, farmers' income and food consumption score (FCS) of varieties evaluated at six sites Variables Yield (t/ha) Income (USD/ha) FCS VariablesYield (t/ha) Income (USD/ha) FCS Site     Site Siramana 3.9 a 828 a  65 a Siramana3.9 a828 a65 a Finkolo-Ganadougou 2.4 ab 441 ab  62 ab Finkolo-Ganadougou 2.4 ab441 ab62 ab Loutana 2.3 b 414 b  61 b Loutana2.3 b414 b61 b Lobougoula 2.2 b 380 b  61 b Lobougoula2.2 b380 b61 b Mpedougou 2.0 b 329 b  61 b Mpedougou2.0 b329 b61 b Mpegnesso 1.0 b 107 b  58 b Mpegnesso1.0 b107 b58 b Variety     Variety KAFACI1 4.1 a 751 a  67 a KAFACI14.1 a751 a67 a Arica3 4.3 a 605 a  65 a Arica34.3 a605 a65 a DKAM7 2.8 b 240 b  62 b DKAM72.8 b240 b62 b  "}],"sieverID":"28792044-db09-46ea-b8ad-9fa222e94993","abstract":"This research examined the dissemination mechanisms of climate smart rice varieties, its impact on rice yield, farmers' income, and food consumption score, as well as the farmers' perception of their advantages in Mali. In total, 35,280 farmers adopted the climate smart rice varieties promoted by the AICCRA project on a total area of 19,404 ha. The primary dissemination methods included on-farm demonstrations, farmers field days and capacity building of seed producing companies. The adoption of climate smart rice varieties increased farmers' yield by 1.3 -1.5 t/ha and income by 365 -511 USD/ha. The food consumption of farmers adopting climate smart rice varieties was significantly increased. In total, the adoption of climate smart rice varieties increased the production of rice by 28,446 ton and farmers' income by 7.6 million USD. When farmers were queried about the advantages of climate smart rice varieties, they highlighted an increase in their climate resilience due to the ability of the rice varieties to withstand the challenges posed by climate change, such as extreme temperatures, erratic precipitation, and increased frequency of droughts and floods. They also mentioned higher resource use efficiency due to the more efficient use of water and nutrients. Farmers further reported that the climate smart rice varieties had a shorter growth duration, and mentioned their community resilience to climate-induced shocks has increased. Therefore, farmers mentioned that climate-smart rice varieties play a critical role in ensuring food security by offering a reliable and resilient source of sustenance in the face of climatic uncertainties and challenges in rice production."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"04ab64e7b043cb32fe686756ce1fb776","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/b80bfbaf-a958-4b04-8cad-0bf1f3d3c8b5/retrieve"},"pageCount":34,"title":"TAMIZADO PARA IDENTIFICAR FRIJOLES ADAPTADOS A SUELOS ACIDOS Objetivos","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":93,"text":"La toxicidad de aluminio o aluminio y manganeso casi siempre ocurre al misroo tiempo en sue l os \"ácidos con baja saturac ión de base. Mull er et al. {1968) mostr6 que el 20% de 110 muestras analizadas de suelos provenTentes de América Central, tenían el pH menor de 6. 0, mientras que el f rijol crece mejor en suelos con pH entre 6. 0-7. 5 (Jacob et al. 1963). Mi randa et al {1968), y Freitas et al. {1960), indicaronenCerrado, Brasi l la necesidad de encalamiento para reducir la toxicidad de Al."},{"index":2,"size":1,"text":"---"},{"index":3,"size":55,"text":"Los su e 1 os ácidos se encuentran frecuentemente en zonas tropi ca 1 es con alta precipitaci6n anual. Estos suelos se vuelven ácidos por muchas causas, entre ellas l as más importantes son: l. El materi al parental es acido y por lo tanto l os suel os derivados de éste también son acidos."},{"index":4,"size":22,"text":"2. Los suelos son lixiviados por las lluvias fuertes, removiendo del perfil solamente los cationes básicos (principalmente Ca, Mg y K) ."}]},{"head":"3.","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":40,"text":"El prob l ema de los ácidos del suel o es incrementado por el uso excesivo de fertilizantes formadores de ácidos , por ejemplo, todos los fertilizantes nitrogenados son tormas ácidas a excepción de cianamida de calcio (Ca CN2 )."},{"index":2,"size":24,"text":"Los suelos ácidos presentan un ambiente no favorable para el crecimiento del frijol por muchos factores, los cuales son: l. Bajo contenido de fósforo."},{"index":3,"size":14,"text":"2. Alta capacidad de fijación de fósforo que resulta con deficiencia de fósforo disponible."}]},{"head":"3.","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":17,"text":"Altos niveles de Al solo, o Al + Mn que llega a nivel tóxico para el frijol."}]},{"head":"4.","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":10,"text":"Deficiencia de elementos esenciales como Ca, Mg, Mo y S."}]},{"head":"5.","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":12,"text":"Efecto directo de alta concentración de H +Al (Bollard y Buttler, 1966)."},{"index":2,"size":33,"text":"Además de los factores anteriores, existe la influencia de materia orgánica del suelo y ld irregularidad de lluvia, que también limita la producción alta de fríjol Phaseolus vulgarís L. (Wolf, 1975 ) ."},{"index":3,"size":98,"text":"Generalmente sólo los suelos ácidos y además arenosos y bastante lixivados presentan deficiencia total de Ca, Mg y Zn para el crecimiento de la planta. Por otro lado, un exceso de Al y Mn puede interferir la absorción de Ca, Mg y P y el uso por parte de la planta. Sin embargo, es difícil estudi ar estos factores por separado debido a que estos elementos reaccionan entre sí y con otros elementos. El Al reacciona con Ca, P y Mg en el suelo y en la planta, y el Mn reacciona con el P, Fe y Si."},{"index":4,"size":108,"text":"Desafortunadamente los suelos de la mayoría de las áreas productoras de frijol en América Latina tienen un pH inferior a 6.0 (Muller et al. 1968) y la deficiencia de P es común. El único método de mejorar los suelos con pH inferiores a 5. 0, es por encalamiento. La aplicación de Ca C03 se hace principalmente para mantener los Al+++ intercambiables por debajo de los niveles tóxicos, en vez de aumentar el pH del suelo. El frijol, como miembro de la familia de las leguminosas, es mds sensible a la toxicidad por Al y Mn; por tanto, necesita niveles más altos de Ca que otros cultivos ó gramíneas."},{"index":5,"size":92,"text":"Para identificar el frijol con eficiencia a bajos niveles de fósforo, el problema del complejo Al y Mn debe ser controlado por encalamiento. Pero un enca l amiento exagerado podría inducir a una deficiencia de Zn y B. La aplicación adecuada de fertilizantes fosforados para suplir la necesidad de la planta y así tener un rendimiento máximo, está fuera del alcance del agricultor y no está de acuerdo con la polHica de CIAT de insumas mínimos . Además, los fertilizantes fosforados son costosos y no es probable que bajen de prec io."},{"index":6,"size":186,"text":"ｅ ｾ ＠ más: se sabe que el P aplicado al suelo tiene un a baja eficiencta. Se estima que la planta de frijol utiliza entre el 10 y el 30% del fertil i zante apl i cado. (Kick et ｾ Ｍ 1972). En 1967 Cobra calculó que solamente 9.1 kg P/ha es absorbido por l a planta y que se expo r ta solamente 3.6 kg P/ha a través de 1000 kg de semil la. Este dato no es muy elevado comparado con los datos de Haag (1967), que ca l cu l ó 3.2 kg P/ha a través de 1000 kg de semi llas. Pcr regla general , entre más deficiencia de P tenga el suelo, menos eficiente es la planta en este tipo de suelo para absorber el P añadido (como fertilizante). Por las razones aducidas es mejor buscar una planta eficiente en el uso de fósforo y tolerante a tox i cidad de Al en cond i ciones normales de sue los ácidos, que mejorar los suelos . Pero no se trata de buscar pla ntas que pueden crecer si n fósforo."},{"index":7,"size":12,"text":"Esta es la nueva ten dencia de l a i nvestigación ."},{"index":8,"size":42,"text":"Ant es de entrar en la metodolog ta del \"Tam i zado\" se neces i ta aprender m ás sobre la na turaleza de l fósforo , aluminio, ma nganeso y su i nterrel ac i ón en la plan t a."},{"index":9,"size":43,"text":"Fósforo en el suelo y su def ici encia en frijol El fósforo en el suelo está sujeto a cambios constantes, y el proceso es muy compl icado. Este fósforo puede dividirse en tres formas de ocurrencia en el suelo , que son:"},{"index":10,"size":19,"text":"El fósforo es disponible di rectamente a través de la solución del sue l o para l as plantas."}]},{"head":"2.","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":31,"text":"El fósforo es inestable . Este t i po de fósforo se fija ligeramente y con el tiempo puede ser transformado en una fo rma disponi ble para la pla nta."},{"index":2,"size":14,"text":"3. El fósforo que l a planta no puede aprovechar porque se fija pronto."},{"index":3,"size":31,"text":"La rel ac ión entre es t as tres fo rmas se puede expl i car con más clar idad en l a ilustración de la pág ina s i guiente."},{"index":4,"size":16,"text":"En general, l a di sponib ilidad del fósforo disminuye con la acidez del suelo ."},{"index":5,"size":65,"text":"La deficiencia de fósfo ro en la pl anta de f r ijol se manifi esta en el cambio del color de las hojas a verde oscuro , po rque el crecimiento de la pl anta es ini cialmente más afectada que la producción de clorofila, (Hecht Buchholz, 1968). Después, las hojas inferi ores se vuelven amarillas con bordes necróticos y defo liación temprana ."},{"index":6,"size":102,"text":"La p 1 anta en genera 1 es erecta , pequeña , con ta 11 os muy de 1 gados y sus entrenudos son cortos. La plant a no ramifica tanto como en condic i ones normales . La época de f l oración tarda , pero la madurac i ón fisio lógica es más corta. La extens i ón de la raíz en el suelo es l imitada por poco crecimi ento . La ra1z principa l es muy corta y de vez en cuando se nota como ra 1z princi pal otras veces pa rece ra t z de gram1nea."},{"index":7,"size":74,"text":"Al umin io en el sue lo y su tox i cidad en f r ijol Dent ro de los el ementos mayo res que fo rman l a cos t ra de tierra , el aluminio ocupa el seg un do luga r (Scheffer et al , 1970). Pero esta gran cantidad no es dañina, s i este al umini o no está-en forma asimi l ab l e por l a planta."}]},{"head":"Fosfato en solución","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":10,"text":"Fosfato inestable del suelo aprovechable parcialmente aprovechable por la planta."},{"index":2,"size":3,"text":"por la planta."},{"index":3,"size":7,"text":"Fosfato fijado no aprovechable por la planta."},{"index":4,"size":24,"text":"o En los suelos ácidos el catión Al+++ y (Al OH)++ so n tóxicos para el frijol como planta muy susceptible a este elemento."},{"index":5,"size":157,"text":"La toxicidad de aluminio afecta más a l as raíces que a la parte aérea en la primera época de crecimiento. El aluminio afecta las raíces inhibiendo la división celular y el desarrollo del si stema radicular (Macleod and Jackson, 1967, Fleming et al . 1968, Foy, 1974). La planta susceptible absorbe más alumini o ｹ ｾ ｡ ＠ acumulando superficialmente o dentro de sus raíces. Por eso detiene el desarrollo de l as raíces, como efecto directo, y disminuye el crecimiento de la planta en general , como efecto secundari o. También el aluminio reduce la absorción de fósforo por l a planta debido a que el fósforo en sol ución del suelo reacciona con al uminio y forma fo sfato de alumin io, el cual no es disponible para l a pl anta . Dentro de la planta también ocurre esta reacción, aebido a la defi cienci a más severa de P en la planta."},{"index":6,"size":22,"text":"Lo anteriormente mencionado explica por qué el síntoma de toxicidad de al uminio aparece de vez en cuando con deficiencia de fósforo."},{"index":7,"size":84,"text":"El sí nt oma de toxicidad de aluminio en frijol, generalmente se presenta en una planta pequeña . Las hojas jóvenes se vuelven amarillas . Si la toxicidad es muy grave, aparecen necrozamientos en las hojas, empezando por l os márgenes. Las raí ces son l as partes más afectadas por Al; por esta razón se uti 1 iza como parámetro de tolerancia en m uchas investigaciones (Armiger et al. 1968, Reíd et al . 1971, y Kerri dge et al. 1971 ) ."},{"index":8,"size":88,"text":"----Manganeso en el suelo y su toxicidad en frijol En el suelo, el manganeso se encuentra en tres formas: Mn++, Mn+++, y Mn++++; so l amente Mn++ es asimilable por la planta, y está en complejo de absorción o libre en la solución del suelo. Suelos ácidos de ceniza volcánica como andosoles, tienen un alto contenido de este elemento y causa mucho dano al frijol. Mn+++ y Mn++++ pueden ser fáci lmente reducidos a Mn++, si el terreno está sujeto a inundación temporal durante la época de lluvia."},{"index":9,"size":89,"text":"La absorción de manganeso y su transporte en l a planta ocurre en la forma iónica de Mn++, este elemento es poco móvil porque el no puede pasar el floema (Van Goor et al. 1974). Por eso Mn se acumula y queda en las hojas de la ｰ ｬ ｡ ｮ ｴ ｡ ｾ ＠ La planta de fri jol puede absorber bastante Mn antes de producir síntoma tóxico y ba j o rendimiento . El contenido ha st a 1000 ppm no es raro en l as hojas."},{"index":10,"size":77,"text":"La toxicidad de manganeso en frijol se manifi es ta por el amarill amiento entre nervaduras, deformación y encocamiento de las hoj as del cogollo, y necrosis en las hojas viej as si la toxic idad es grave. Las ratees no se afectan directamente sino en forma secundaria después de deteriorarse el follaje. Hay dos teortas para explicar estos s'intomas de toxicidad del manganeso, que son: l. Efecto directo del elemento de manganeso a la pl anta."},{"index":11,"size":9,"text":"2. Efecto indirecto que induce a deficiencia de hierro."},{"index":12,"size":35,"text":"En las hojas, Mn reemplaza a Fe en forma directa o Mn oxida Fe++ a Fe+++; este Fe+++ forma quelato de hierro y Fe++, que queda escaso y produce s1ntomas de deficienci a de hierro."},{"index":13,"size":28,"text":"Existe gran evidencia de la variación genética del frijol en cuanto a su eficiencia en el uso de fósforo y tolerancia a la toxicidad de aluminio y manganeso."},{"index":14,"size":329,"text":"Algunas variedades comerciales de Brasil como Carioca, Mulatinho 349 (G5059) no solamente son eficientes en el uso del fós foro, sino también tolerantes a un nivel moderadamente alto de aluminio y manganeso, mientras que las variedades comerciales de América Central y Colombia son susceptibles a estas condiciones adversas de suel os. El frijol de color negro no es más tolerante o eficiente que otros colores. Nuestros datos recientes mue stran que el color de los granos negros es igual a otros colores en su eficienci a a bajos nivel es de fósforo y su tolerancia a toxicidad de aluminio y manganeso (Cuadro 1). Lindgren (1976), CIAT (1976) y Gerloft (1963) han evidenciado la vari ac i ón de ef iciencia en el uso del fósforo. Mientra s Gabelman (1976) y Whiteaker (1972) confirmaron la heredabilidad de este factor en l a hab1chuela {poroto ve rde de Phaseolus vulgaris L.) Metodologta de \"Tamizado\" Mu chos investig adores tratan de producir un método a través de ensayos en casa de mall a, inv ernadero o campo, con el fin de que se facilite ma nejar grandes cantidades de materiales en un tiempo ｲ ･ ｬ ｡ ｴ ｩ ｶ ｡ ｮ ｾ ｮ ｴ ･ ＠ corto, barato y confiable o con una buena co rrelaci ón en el rendimiento final . En el caso del frijol son los granos. En el caso de eficiencia de la pl anta en condiciones de bajo fósforo, se usan diferent es parámetros derivados de diferent es órgano s de la planta. Whiteaker (1972)  En ambos casos, tanto para el estudio del aluminio como del fósforo , se usan parámetros de una parte de la planta que la dañan durante el proceso de evaluación, lo que hace imposible usar la misma planta para producir semil l a, except o en el método de Pulle et al. (1978) , quienes sostienen que la planta se puede recuperar después con un tratamiento de hematoci li na ."},{"index":15,"size":44,"text":"Por esta razón, es difíc il hacer la evaluación en generac i one s tempranas y a l mi smo tiempo garantizar la identidad genética del material seleccionado, salvo que se pudi eran detectar planta s genéticamente iguales en una poblaci ón segregante ."},{"index":16,"size":22,"text":"Otro factor que se debe tener en c ue nta, es que en l as semillas (granos) hay alto contenido de fósforo."},{"index":17,"size":54,"text":"Si la selección ocurre en la época vegetati va de la planta, se supone que durante el resto del ciclo de vegetaci ón , la planta tiene la misma capacidad de absorción e ignora la alta actividad de mov ilización de fosfato durante la época de llenado de las vainas . Haag et al."},{"index":18,"size":99,"text":"(1976) mostró que la absorción máxima de P culmina en la época de formaci ón de vainas y mantiene este nivel de absorción hasta la maduración fisiol ógi ca , mientras que de la germinación hasta prefloración , la absor c ión es muy baja. Debido a lo anterior, es preferib le hacer e l \"tamizado\" en el campo ; además, todavía hay i ncons i stencias en l os resultadGs de la evaluaci ón bajo co ndi ciones artificiales, comparado con los resultados de campo en maíz (Brown et -ª.}_. (1974)), y con habichuelas (Foy , 1976 )."},{"index":19,"size":148,"text":"Para facilitar la separación de los materiales en categorías : efi c iente o ineficiente, se utilizan rendimientos (granos) como parámetro . No se usa otro parámetro indirecto antes de saber e l mecanismo de efi c i encia o tolerancia en el cultivo ｾ ･ ｬ ＠ frijol. También se observó que el vigor de crecimiento del cul tivo en cual qu ier e ta pa, no tiene co rrelac ión c l ara co n el rendimiento final. Las pl antas pueden crecer perfectamente bien con bajos niveles de P ha sta e l pe r íodo de formación de va i nas. Si n embargo en la etapa de llenado de vainas, en las parcel as \"con stress de P\", no se llenan todas las va i nas formadas , l o que sí sucede en las parcelas ba jo condiciones \"sin stress de P\"."},{"index":20,"size":28,"text":"Por estas razones la evaluación de materiales del programa Agronomía de Frijol -Pruebas Preliminares, se ll eva a cabo en el campo. (Ver Figura 1, esquema del \"tamizado\"). "},{"index":21,"size":4,"text":",, \"' ........ ,"}]},{"head":"Eficientes","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":4,"text":"Técnicas en el campo"}]},{"head":"Sitio","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":102,"text":"Hay mucha s zonas que tienen solamente el problema de bajo fósforo sin alta toxicidad de aluminio; por ejemplo , Cerrado y \"Terra Roxa\" Goias, Brasil. Pero también hay sitios que poseen todos los problemas (alta toxicidad de Al + Mn y bajo nivel de P). la fertilidad de una zona a otra ｶ ｡ ｲ ｾ ｡ ＠ lo mismo que su nivel de toxicidad de aluminio y manganeso o sólo aluminio. Esto implica que la evaluación en el campo necesita un ensayo preliminar para determinar los niveles de stress, ya sea por aluminio y mangane so o también por fósforo."},{"index":2,"size":158,"text":"Determinación del nivel de stre ss por aluminio y manganeso El determinar el nivel de stress por aluminio y manganeso puede hacerse por el sencillo método de encalamiento en el campo. Se hace un ensayo de encalamiento con diferentes niveles de ca l ｡ ｧ ｲ ｾ ｣ ｯ ｬ ｡ ＠ o cal ､ ｯ ｬ ｯ ｭ ｾ ｴ ｩ ｣ ｡ ＠ aplicada al voleo y se siembran en él varios materiales de fr1jol, incluyendo materiales tolerantes como Carioca (G 4017), Río Tibaji (G4830), Mulatinho (G 5059 ) y también materiales susceptibles como Puebla 152 negro (G3352), San ilac (G4498), Zamorano 2 (G4482). Afortunadamente, con encalamiento mínimo y alta materia orgAnica en el suelo de CIAT-Quilichao, se elimina \"efecto de toxicidad\" de manganeso antes de eliminar \"efecto de toxicidad\" de aluminio. Con este co nocimiento se puede ll evar a cabo una evaluación de stress por alumini o s in preocuparse del efecto de manganeso."},{"index":3,"size":63,"text":"La toxicidad de aluminio se calcula a través de la saturación del mismo en el suelo, de acuerdo con sugerencia de Pearson 1974, y se obtiene con la siguiente fórmula: Saturación de Al( %) 100 X Al Al + Ca + Mg + K donde las ca ntidades de catione s se toman en unidades de miligramo equivalentes en 100 gramos de suelo."},{"index":4,"size":144,"text":"Los resultados de este tipo de ensayo se pueden ver en la f igura 2, como ejemplo. De esta figura se puede tomar el nivel de stress por Al, donde su valor de saturación está más o meno s estable de spués del encalamiento. En este caso 800 kg CaC03 equivalente , o 65% de saturación de aluminio, es sufi ciente bajo co ndiciones en CIAT-Q uilichao. M enos de esta dosis, la sa turaci ón de aluminio fluctúa erráticamente por la dificultad en 1 a aplicación de cal homogénea en el campo . El nivel de saturación de aluminio parece bastante alto, pero si se mira el aná li sis de suelo de CIAT Quilichao, se puede exp l icar por razón del alto contenido de materia orgánica que ayuda a amortiguar la toxicidad de aluminio a través de su complejo de absorción."},{"index":5,"size":29,"text":"Si se aplica una do sis má s alta que este nivel de stress, tan to las plantas susceptibl es como las plantas tol erantes crecen y producen bien."},{"index":6,"size":140,"text":"También en est e ensayo se puede determinar l a dosis si n s tress por aluminio, es decir, que el contenido de aluminio no afecta más el crecimiento del frijol. Según la figura 2, se puede estimar que la dosis de más de 4.000 kg CaC03 equivalente, es suficiente para reducir (no o eliminar) el efecto de toxicidad de aluminio, porque dentro de esta dosis la saturación de aluminio está alrededor de 10 que se supone suficiente para el crecimiento del frijol. La aplicación de más de 6.000 kg CaC03 equivalente, puede causar otros problemas como por ejemplo la movilización o fijación de muchos elementos Zn y B, as' como fijación de fósforo . Tarrbién el exceso en la ap l icación de cal puede causar algunas enfermedades en l as ra1ces del frijol, y económicamente no es aceptable."},{"index":7,"size":7,"text":"Determinación del nivel de stress por fósforo"},{"index":8,"size":25,"text":"Con el mismo sistema como se dete•rmina el stress por aluminio, se hacen ensayos para niveles de fósforo, usando también diferentes materiales de fri jol."},{"index":9,"size":114,"text":"Los nive l es de fósforo se deben ensayar cuidadosamente, porque la do sis es muy pequeña y se aplica en banda. Los datos de aná 1 i si s de su e 1 o no se pueden usar para determinar e 1 requerimiento de fósforo ni tampoco para determinar nivel crítico de fósforo. Bajo condiciones de CIAT-Quilichao, el frijol puede crecer perfectamente con nivel de fósforo alrededor de 4 ppm con extracción Bray II y 2.000 kg CaC03 equivalente, mientras que en otros pa1se s con 4 ppm, no crece ni una planta de frijol. Esta diferencia se puede deducir por el contenido de materia orgánica, al cual se fija el fósforo temporalmente."},{"index":10,"size":58,"text":"Para determinar el nivel de stress por fósforo, se neces ita hacer una gráfica como en la figura 3, donde los puntos representan un dato de cada repetición y la dispersión de los puntos es máxima, es decir, que la diferenciación de los materiales es la más marcada. Este punto es usado como nivel de stress por fósforo."},{"index":11,"size":18,"text":"También se puede usar la estad1stica. Aqu1 se determina la mayor desviación, como niveles de stress por fósforo."},{"index":12,"size":45,"text":"El nivel sin stress se determina al contrario del nivel de stress. Aquí se buscan los puntos que estén más cerca entre ｳ ｾ Ｎ ＠ La diferencia que existe de los puntos, se supone como la diferencia del nivel de rendimiento máximo de materiales."},{"index":13,"size":30,"text":"El nivel sin stress de fósforo tiene un l1mite; si se aplica en exceso, puede dañar la relación entre elemento y también económicamente no se puede, dado su alto costo."},{"index":14,"size":62,"text":"Tratamientos del \"tamizado\" simultáneo Después de saber los niveles de stress de aluminio y fósforo, y tambié n los niveles si n stress u óptimo de cal y fósforo, se pueden combinar estos niveles para hacer un \"tamizado\" simultáneo, como se ve en la figura l. Cada parcela representa un tratamiento llevado a cabo, por lo menos con tres repeticiones. Tratamiento III:"},{"index":15,"size":12,"text":"Tratamiento I= efecto de aluminio Tratamiento III. Tratamiento II= efecto de fósforo."}]},{"head":"*(Con suficiente aplicación de cal)","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":10,"text":"Preparación de tierra para siembra y selección a grande escala."},{"index":2,"size":115,"text":"Después de conocer los niveles de stress por Al, por P y niveles sin stress, se prepara el campo para encalamiento. Si se necesitan 800 kg o 4.000 kg CaC03 equivalente, la mitad se aplica al voleo y se incorpora tan profundamente como sea posible (con arado de reja o vertedera); la otra mitad se aplica al voleo antes de sembrar mientras la úrea se aplica separadamente por ser higroscópica (ver apéndice 1 para tratamiento correctivo en CIAT-Quilichao). Se siembra en exceso (20% más) una hilera de tres metros, con una distancia de 0.6 m entre hileras. Se debe lograr una población de 25 plantas/m2 después del raleo; dos sema nas después de la germinación."},{"index":3,"size":72,"text":"Se usan tres aplicaciones. Los materiales deben separarse de acuerdo con el hábito de crecimiento. Los hábitos de crecimiento I y II pueden sembrarse lado a lado, mientras que los del hábito de crecimiento III deben sembrarse juntos para lograr un cierto grado de competencia dentro del hábito de crecimiento y no de un hábito a otro. Sólo se cosechan los dos metros internos dejando bordes de medio metro en cada punta."}]},{"head":"Modificaciones a la metodolog1a de \"tamizado\"","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":231,"text":"En base a los resultados obtenidos con la metodolog1a de \"tamizado\", en condiciones de campo, en los suelos de la subestación de \"Quilichao\", se procedió con algunas modificaciones. La evaluación se separó en tres etapas (I, JI y III), que incluyen los siguientes aspectos: Etapa I: Integrada por 11neas de fr\"i jo 1 entre 200 y 300, que conforn.an los EP (Ensayos Uniformes, Preliminares de Rendimiento); además de siete testigos: Carioca , Pueb la 152, Mulatinho G 5059, Mulatinho G 5054, Río Tibaji G 4830, Iguacu G 4821, ICA Pijao; evaluados como tolerantes a condiciones de suelo ácidos. Al tiempo se pueden eva luar también ltneas avanzadas de lo s mejoradores y/o de lo s viveros de adaptación y los Pre-VEF. Cada material se siembra en parcelas de 4 surco s por 3 metros de largo, distanciados a 60 cm y agrupados por hábi to y color de grano . Los tratamientos que incluye esta etapa son: stress por fósforo y stress por aluminio. En stress por fósforo se aplica 1 ton/ha de Ca C03 equivalente por semestre, al voleo e incorporada, 75 kg/ha de P2 05 como superfosfato triple 46%, en banda en el fondo del surco, 60 kg/ha de nitrógeno como Urea 46%, 60 kg/ha de K20 como KCl 60%, aplica dos en banda; micronutrimentos , B y Zn, foliarmente al 0.52, de acuerdo con manifestación de sintomas deficitarios."},{"index":2,"size":123,"text":"En stress por aluminio, se aplica 500 kg/ha de Ca C03 equivalente, 220 kg /ha de P2 05 como SFT 46%, 60 kg/ha de N como urea 46%, 60 kg/ha de K20 como KCl 60% y mi cronutrimentos; ap 1 i ca dos en i gua 1 forma que para e 1 tratamiento de stress por fósforo. No incluye replicaciones, se toman datos sobre adaptación (escala 1: bueno -5: mal o) y se cosechan los dos surcos centrales para evaluac ión de rendimiento y sus componentes, al 14% de humedad. El cultivo se protege contra plagas y/o enfermedades, y antes de siembra y después de cosecha se ha ce un análisis comp leto de su elos a 0-20 y 20-40 cm de profundidad."}]},{"head":"Etapa II:","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":152,"text":"Fonnada por aquellos materiales de frijol, (50-80), que muestran en Etapa I buena adaptación y rendimientos, y los mismos testigos de Etapa l. Consta de tres tratamientos: sin stress, stress por fósforo, stress por alumini o, que se distribuyen en forma bloqueada con un diseño de bl oques al azar y con tres replicaciones. El tamaño de parcela por material es de 4 surcos por 3 metros de largo a 60 cm de distancia. Se cosechan los dos surcos centrales. Se registran datos fenológicos Ｈ ､ ｾ ｡ ｳ ＠ a germinación, ､ ｾ ｡ ｳ ＠ a floración, ､ ｾ ｡ ｳ ＠ a madurez fisiológica) y componentes de rendimiento, (número de plantas por parcela, número de vainas de cinco pl antas, número de granos de cinco plantas, peso de granos de cinco plantas, peso total en gr/ parcela al 14% de humedad ) , para el correspondiente anAlisis de varianza."},{"index":2,"size":61,"text":"El tratamiento sin stress consta de: 2.5 ton/ha de CaC03 equivalente por semestre, 300 kg/ha de P2 05 como SFT 46%, fertilización basal, al suelo, de: N:100 kg/ha como urea 46%, K20: 100 kg/ha como KCl 60%, S elemental: 20 kg/ha, 1 kg/ha de Mg (20 kg/ha de MgS04), Molibdeno: 1 kg/ha (1 kg/ha de Molibdato de Sodio y/ o Amonio)."},{"index":3,"size":38,"text":"El tratamiento de stress por fósforo consta de: 1 ton/ ha de CaC03 equivalente, por semestre, 50 kg/ha de P2 05 como SFT 46%; y los demás nutrimentos al igual que en stress por fósforo de Etapa l."},{"index":4,"size":38,"text":"En stress por aluminio se aplica por semestre 500 kg /ha de Ca C03 equivalente, 200 kg/ha de P2 05 como SFT 46%; y los otros nutrimentos al igual que para el stress por fósforo de Etapa l."},{"index":5,"size":98,"text":"Etapa III: Incluye los materiales de frijol, alrededor de 15 más los siete testigos de Etapa I, que han sobresalido en Etapa II por sus buenos rendimientos de grano seco. Consta de los tratamientos descritos en Etapa II, distribuí dos en bloques al azar con cuatro replicaciones. El tamaño de parcela por material es de 5 surcos por 4 metros de largo y a 60 cm de distancia. El manejo agronómico es igual para Etapas I y II; se cosechan los tres surcos centrales y se registran los datos que se tienen en cuenta en la Etapa II."},{"index":6,"size":48,"text":"El tratamiento sin stress es igual al comentado para la Etapa II. El de stress por fósforo recibe 1 ton/ ha de Ca C03 equivalente por semestre, 30 kg/ha de P2 05 como SFT 46% y los otros nutrimentos al igual que en Etapas I y I l."},{"index":7,"size":33,"text":"El de stress por aluminio consta de 400 kg/ha de Ca C03 equivalente por semestre, 180 kg/ha de P2 05 como SFT 46% y el resto de nutrimentos igual que en etapas anteriores."},{"index":8,"size":79,"text":"Es importante destacar que los niveles de stress para fósforo y aluminio, se han establecido para las condiciones de los ultisoles de Quilichao, los cuales deben irse manejando teniendo en cuenta el efecto residual, para ello se recomi.enda el análisis completo de suelos antes y después de cada cosecha. Además , los nivel es propuestos, no necesariamente pueden ser vAlidos para otros suelos y/o ambientes y es necesario establecerlos en cada lugar y/o país. Recolección de la información l."}]},{"head":"Fenológica a.","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":14,"text":"D1as a la germinación (cuando haya germinado el 50%) b. Tasa de germinación. c."},{"index":2,"size":4,"text":"D1as a floración. d."},{"index":3,"size":6,"text":"D1as a la madu rez fisiológica."},{"index":4,"size":19,"text":"2. AnAlisis de rendimiento a. Número de plantas cosechadas. b. Número de vainas llenas/planta (muestra de 5 plantas/hilera). c."},{"index":5,"size":4,"text":"Número de vainas/planta. d."},{"index":6,"size":7,"text":"Rendimiento g/m2 con una humedad del 14%."}]},{"head":"Evaluación de los datos","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":61,"text":"Una evaluación estad1stica no daría resultados satisfactorios puesto que las diferencias en rendimiento de materiales son demasiado grandes . El principal objetivo es observar la estabilidad del rendimiento de las tres o cuatro replicaciones dentro de un hábi to de crecimiento. De ser necesario ｾ ｳ ｴ ｯ ＠ puede reducirse aún más a grupos de color de la semilla ."},{"index":2,"size":40,"text":"Se s iembran siempre en cada ensayo a tamizar l os mismos estándar. Estos materiales pueden usarse siempre para importancia relativa de las diferencias entre semillas, rendimiento estA sujeto a condiciones climatológicas, y los estándar se usan como factor correctivo."}]},{"head":"materiales medir la porque el materiales","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":26,"text":"Antes de seleccionar los materiales para separarlos según su característica, se necesitan dos parámetros adicionales derivados del rendimiento y su tratamiento para medir sus respuestas. l."}]},{"head":"A =","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":41,"text":"sin stress-Rend. en parcela con stress stress y en paree as No se usan ppm de P en el suelo porque los datos de análisis qu1mico del suelo para P dependen mucho de condiciones h1dricas y del tiempo después de aplicarse."}]},{"head":"2.","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":13,"text":"Rendimiento en parcela sin stress-Rend. en parcela con stress B = or Al."},{"index":2,"size":9,"text":"Diferencia de saturac1ón e a sin stress por Al."},{"index":3,"size":59,"text":"Los materiales de un grupo (según el color de granos o su hAbito de crecimiento) pueden clasificarse con la ayuda ､ ｾ ｬ ＠ parámetro y promedio del rendimiento de parcelas con \"stress\" de este ｧ ｲ ｾ ｰ ｯ Ｎ ＠ La Figura 4, muestra la clasificación de eficiencia y su respuesta a la aplicación de fertilizante fosfórico."},{"index":4,"size":26,"text":"En el eje X se coloca el rendi miento de materiales baj o stress por P; y en el eje Y se coloca su valor A."},{"index":5,"size":77,"text":"La 1 ínea promedia del rendimiento (en este caso 99 gm/m2), divide los materiales en dos grupos. En la izquierda son materiales ineficientes, mientras que en la derecha son materiales eficientes. Mientras que la línea promedia de A (en este caso 2.2 kg/kg P2 05) separa los materiales con respuesta, arriba en la línea, y los materiales sin respuesta abajo de la línea promedia de A. De esta manera podemos definir los materiales en cuatro categorías: l."},{"index":6,"size":55,"text":"Planta eficiente de buena respuesta (ECR) -Una planta de buen rendimiento tanto en condiciones de stress de P, como en suministro adecuado de P. 2. Planta eficiente si n respuesta (ESR) -Esta producirá bien bajo un stress de P, pero no rinde igua l que otras plantas bajo condiciones óptimas de disponibil idad de P."}]},{"head":"3.","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":23,"text":"Planta ineficiente sin respuesta (ISR) Esta es una planta genéticamente pobre que no produce bien bajo condiciones adecuadas o inadecuadas de fósforo. 4."},{"index":2,"size":33,"text":"Planta ineficiente con respuesta (ICR) -Una planta que produce menos bajo un stress de P, pero que produce la misma cantidad o más que la planta eficiente con una disponibilidad adecuada de P."},{"index":3,"size":11,"text":"Esta clasificación se puede ver más clara en la Fig. 5."},{"index":4,"size":100,"text":"Las plantas de categoría 3 las descartamos inmediatamente, y las plantas de categoría 2 las podemos usa r directamente para los pequeños agricultores que no tienen la costumbre o no son capaces de fertilizar. Las plantas de categoría 4 se pueden entregar a los agri cultores que usan fertilizantes, si el valor económico de los materiales (color, tamaño de grano) es aceptable. La categoría 1 se puede usar directamente para pequeños agricultores. Estos materiales se usan como fuente de tolerancia o eficiencia en el programa, con el fin de mejorar los materiales e incorporar la resistencia de algunas enfermedades importantes."},{"index":5,"size":33,"text":"Es interesante que los resultados confirman el postulado de Lynes (1938), según el cual: \"los materiales más eficientes bajo condiciones adversas, no necesari amente son los mejores en óptima s condiciones\" (Fig. 6)."},{"index":6,"size":70,"text":"El efecto de nitró geno en el \"tamizado\" es también muy importante. Si se efectúa un \"tamizado\" con suministro de nitrógeno inadecuado, la respuesta de variedades al fertilizante fosfóri co se confunde con el efecto negativo por nitrógeno (Fig. 7). Por eso es necesario apl i car suficiente nitrógeno al ensayo como en el caso de CIAT -Quil ichao, se aplica 100 kg N / ha en forma de urea."},{"index":7,"size":77,"text":"La eficiencia en el uso de fós foro, adicional, varía entre los semestres por influencia del sistema agroclimático. En la figura 8 se vé que varían entre 2.41 y 1.11 para 1978A y 19786, respectivamente. Pero la clasificación de los materiales eficientes queda constante, aunque el promedio de rendimiento bajo condiciones de \"stress\" por P está reducido en e 1 segundo semestre (19786). So 1 amente a 1 gunos materia 1 es no queda n constantes. .;,¿."},{"index":8,"size":1,"text":"-.."},{"index":9,"size":1,"text":"\"\""},{"index":10,"size":3,"text":"\"' t: .,"},{"index":11,"size":2,"text":"., a:"},{"index":12,"size":1,"text":"6.0"}]},{"head":"20]","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":2,"text":"1.0  -¡;;"},{"index":2,"size":1,"text":".S::"},{"index":3,"size":14,"text":"--\"'     o-----<> Rango de rendimiento de los materiales o-----<> con suministro adecuado de nitrógeno"},{"index":4,"size":7,"text":"x----x Rango de rendimiento de los materiales"},{"index":5,"size":37,"text":"x----x con bajo suministro de nitrógeno 150 Niveles de fósforo Rango de respuesta de frijol a diferentes niveles de P, afectado por diferentes niveles de N . A través de este resultado de evaluación, se escogieron solamente"}]},{"head":"Rendimiento promedio","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":52,"text":"que tienen características de eficiencia en condiciones de \"stress\" por P con buena respuesta a fertilización de fósforo, o poseen ca ra cterísticas para tolerar desde la moderada, hasta la alta toxicidad po r Al y Mn; así se puede afirmar que estos materiales se comportan bien en cond ici ones normales."},{"index":2,"size":91,"text":"Las Figuras 9 y 10 muestran alta correlación entre materiales condicionados al \"stress\" de fósforo y materiales tolerantes a la moderada toxicidad por Al y Mn, con su rendimiento potencial. adversas de suc os Evaluación ｣ ｯ ｮ ｾ ｵ ｮ ｴ ｡ ＠ para obtener materiales tolerantes a condiciones Estos materiales deben tener todas las características en sí; eficientes en el uso del fó sforo en el suelo, con respuesta a fert ilizantes fosfóricos, y al mi smo tiempo tolerantes a moderada toxicidad de aluminio y con respuesta a encalamiento."},{"index":3,"size":72,"text":"A través de una gráfica (Figura 11), se pueden eva1uar e identificar materia1es con las características deseables. Los únicos materiales que quedan en e1 cuadrante I se identifican como tolerantes a condiciones de suelos ácidos. La mayoría de estos material es identificados hasta este momento como to 1eran tes, son de origen brasilero donde deben adaptarse a condiciones adversas; pero algunos materiales no comercia les también poseen esta ca racterística, como G4000."},{"index":4,"size":28,"text":"Este resultado muestra la efectividad del sistema de \"tamizado\" en Santander de Quil ichao, donde también el Al y el Mn están afectando l a producc i ón."},{"index":5,"size":29,"text":"Para ilustrar más ampliamente el manejo de la información obtenida a través de la metodología de \"tamizado\", se incluyen los Cuadros 2 y 3 y las Figuras     1.0-  ..  "}]}],"figures":[{"text":" usó parámetro de eficiencia en el uso del fósforo: en parte aérea dP l a planta M c lachlan (1976) usó la actividad de l a enz ima fosfatasa en las raíces, mientras Sa linas et a l. ( 1975) usó la tasa relati va de extensión en las ra1ces. Todos informaron buena correl ación e ntre s us parámetros y el rendimiento final. En el caso de tolerancia de l a planta a nivel alto de aluminio en el suelo , la mayo ría de investigadores están de acuerdo en usar las raíces ( partes de l a planta más afectadas por toxicidad de alumini o) como índices de tolerancia;Foy (1974) usó índice de crecimiento de raíces ; Re í d et al . (1978) intensidad de color de raí ces ; Hanson et al. (1979) la actiVTctad de enzima ATP en las raíces. Tambi én al finaT todos aseguraron qu e usando su parámetro tiene buena correlaci ón con el rendimiento. "},{"text":" Figura 2. Efecto de la saturación de Al durante la época de floración, en rendimiento de 12 variedades de frijol en CIAT-Ouilichao, 1979A. (CV = 22%; DMS 0.05 = 40). "},{"text":"Figura 3 . Figura 3.Efecto de fósforo en la producción de frijol (CIAT-Quilichao 1979). "},{"text":"Figura 4 . Figura 4. "},{"text":"2 200 Evaluación de materiales para su eficiencia y respuesta a ferti lizante fos• fórico en CIAT•Ouilichao. "},{"text":" Figura 5 . "},{"text":" (kg P 2 0 5 / ha) Diferentes curvas de respuesta de Phaseolus vulgaris L. a niveles de P. "},{"text":" Figura 6. "},{"text":" Figura 7. "},{"text":" Figura 12. "},{"text":"Figura 13 . Figura 13.Evaluación de materiales para su eficiencia y respuesta a la aplica• ción de Cal. "},{"text":"70 Figura 14 . Figura 14. Evaluación para obtener materiales tolerantes a condi• ciones adversas de suelos. "},{"text":" 12, 13 y 14, como otro ejemplo.        o o oo        ｾ ＠ = 92 g/m 2 ｾ ＠ = 92 g/m 2 E :::J .r; -;,11!. ..,. ci .r; ...... O> ｾ ＠ ¡; \"ü e Ql .... o c. o .... e Ql : § \"C e Ql a: e ::1 ｾ ＠ ;;¡¿ ..: ... -¿ C> .:.! ñi •¡:¡ e Ql .. o Q. o e Ql \"O e Q> a: •e .. .. .t: e: '-' o e :::1 \"' Gi \"#. ｾ ＠ v \"' a. ., N \"O E --o ｾ ＠ ... e: 0.. ., : § o a. 2100 2500 2400 2300 2200 o o o o o o o o o o IV o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o • BAT 26 o o o o o o o o o o o o o • Brasil1074 o • BAT 28 o • l guazu o r = 0 .605** Y = 1205 + 0.75 X o o o Y :: 1803 + 0.71 X r = 0.414* • Brasi l 349 • Carioca E :::J .r; -;,11!. ..,. ci .r; ...... O> ｾ ＠ ¡; \"ü e Ql .... o c. o .... e Ql : § \"C e Ql a:e ::1 ｾ ＠ ;;¡¿ ..: ... -¿ C> .:.! ñi •¡:¡ e Ql .. o Q. o e Ql \"O e Q> a: •e .. .. .t: e: '-' o e :::1 \"' Gi \"#. ｾ ＠ v \"' a. ., N \"O E --o ｾ ＠ ... e: 0.. ., : § o a.2100 2500 2400 2300 2200o o o oo o oo o o IVo o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o • BAT 26 o o o o o o o o o o o o o • Brasil1074 o • BAT 28o • l guazu o r = 0 .605** Y = 1205 + 0.75 X o o o Y :: 1803 + 0.71 X r = 0.414* • Brasi l 349 • Carioca   2000 50     200050   ｾ ＠ 1400 1500 ｾ ＠ 600 Figura 11 . 1600 1700 1800 700 800 900 1900 1000 2000 1100 1200 2100 2200 1300 ｾ ＠1400 1500 ｾ ＠ 600 Figura 11 .1600 1700 1800 700 800 9001900 10002000 1100 1200 2100 2200 1300    Rendimiento bajo stress por P (kg/ha, 14% hum.) Rendimiento bajo stress de Al (kg/ ha, 14% hum.) Rendimiento bajo stress por P (kg/ha, 14% hum.) Rendimiento bajo stress de Al (kg/ ha, 14% hum.)   Figura 9. Figura 10. Correlación entre rendimiento potencial y rendimiento bajo Correlación entre rendimiento potencial y rendimien- Figura 9. Figura 10.Correlación entre rendimiento potencial y rendimiento bajo Correlación entre rendimiento potencial y rendimien-     stress por P. CIAT•Ouilichao 1979 A. to bajo stress por Al. CIAT-Quilichao 1979 A. stress por P. CIAT•Ouilichao 1979 A. to bajo stress por Al. CIAT-Quilichao 1979 A.  "},{"text":" Materiales eficientes a bajo fósforo co n menos del 10% de saturación de Alumin io en CIAT-Quili chao, 19798. Materiales tolerantes a ni ve les moderadamente altos de aluminio y manganeso en suelos con 65% de saturación de aluminio en CIAT-Qu il ichao 1979 B.   Cuadro 3.       Cuadro 3.        Rendimien to kg/ha Factor de Rendimien to kg/haFactor de   Identificación Identificaci6n 217.3 gr/ m 2 Color semilla Hábito Colo r semi lla ｈ ｾ ｢ ｩ ｴ ｯ ＠ Rendimiento kg/ha • 50 kg P2 05/ha 300 kg P2 05/ha (22 kg P/ha) ( 133 kg P/ha) 10% 65% Saturaci6n Al Saturación Al Factor de respuesta respue sta B a Identificación Identificaci6n 217.3 gr/ m 2Color semilla Hábito Colo r semi lla ｈ ｾ ｢ ｩ ｴ ｯ ＠Rendimiento kg/ha • 50 kg P2 05/ha 300 kg P2 05/ha (22 kg P/ha) ( 133 kg P/ha) 10% 65% Saturaci6n Al Saturación AlFactor de respuesta respue sta B a \"' o r¿_N \"' -'= --tll ..:.: w w <J:) 3.0 - l. Carioca 2. BAT 449 3. EMP 28 4. 81iTIT5 5. A 22 6. BAT 458 7. BAT 450 8. BAT 263 9. BAT 317 10. BAT 76 l. BAT 450 2. EMP 28 3. BAT 458 4. Carioca 5. BAT 449 6. BAT 76 7. BAT 115 8. A 22 9. BAT 317 10. MT 263 BAT 458 BAT 450 C0 BAT Ｑ ｾ ＠ 0sAT 263 0A22  crema negro bayo negro Café negro negro negro crema negro negro bayo negro crema negro negro negro café crema negro II I I I I I I I I I I I II III I I lll 111 II 1 1 II III I I II I I I I I I I 2558 2543 2216 2155 2107 2061 2057 2049 2011 1977 472 555 555 616 466 457 456 452 450 450 0CARIOCA 3129 3045 2739 2800 2724 2717 2715 2660 2598 2436 2394 2297 2580 27 17 2354 2500 2584 2446 2650 2406 2.3 2.0 2.1 2.6 2.4 2.6 2.6 2. 5 1.7 1. 8 34 32 37 38 34 37 39 36 40 36 \"' o r¿_N \"' -'= --tll ..:.:w w <J:) 3.0 -l. Carioca 2. BAT 449 3. EMP 28 4. 81iTIT5 5. A 22 6. BAT 458 7. BAT 450 8. BAT 263 9. BAT 317 10. BAT 76 l. BAT 450 2. EMP 28 3. BAT 458 4. Carioca 5. BAT 449 6. BAT 76 7. BAT 115 8. A 22 9. BAT 317 10. MT 263 BAT 458 BAT 450 C0 BAT Ｑ ｾ ＠ 0sAT 263 0A22crema negro bayo negro Café negro negro negro crema negro negro bayo negro crema negro negro negro café crema negroII I I I I I I I I I I I II III I I lll111 II 1 1 II III I I II I I I I I I I2558 2543 2216 2155 2107 2061 2057 2049 2011 1977 472 555 555 616 466 457 456 452 450 450 0CARIOCA3129 3045 2739 2800 2724 2717 2715 2660 2598 2436 2394 2297 2580 27 17 2354 2500 2584 2446 2650 24062.3 2.0 2.1 2.6 2.4 2.6 2.6 2. 5 1.7 1. 8 34 32 37 38 34 37 39 36 40 36 o .!:! ｾ ＠ .. 2.0 -  0EMP28   R R OBAT 449 2173 493 .1:: = 2.2 a B 36 . 3 2.2 o .!:! ｾ ＠ ..2.0 -0EMP28R R OBAT 449 2173 493 .1:: = 2.2a B 36 . 3 2.2 Q) Q) Q) a: ｾ ＠ :> ｾ ＠ .. -\"'  • • • Factor de respuesta • B= rendimiento sin stress -rendimiento con stress x Al + Hn 11 rendimiento alto P -rendimiento bajo P kg/ha P2 05 sin stress -kg/ha P2 05 stress x P factor de respuesta. OBAT 317 111 OBAT 76 Q) Q) Q) a: ｾ ＠ :> ｾ ＠ .. -\"'• • • Factor de respuesta • B= rendimiento sin stress -rendimiento con stress x Al + Hn 11 rendimiento alto P -rendimiento bajo P kg/ha P2 05 sin stress -kg/ha P2 05 stress x P factor de respuesta. OBAT 317 111 OBAT 76   70 90 110   130  7090110130   Rendimiento de parcelas     Rendimiento de parcelas   con stress por Al (g / m 2 , 14% hum.)    con stress por Al (g / m 2 , 14% hum.)   Evaluación para obtener materiales tolerantes  Evaluación para obtener materiales tolerantes   a condiciones adversas de suelos.     a condiciones adversas de suelos.  "}],"sieverID":"7f8a25f0-09ad-4cc4-9d94-7ff0b28e4b31","abstract":"Evaluar la eficiencia del frijol en el uso de ba jos niveles de f6sforo en el suelo, y también la buena respuesta a f6sforo adicional."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"04b730fe34265405d786c51145bc26cd","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/f94eaa7b-fff3-4dae-987c-872e70a3c0a7/retrieve"},"pageCount":2,"title":"Guide for storage of ware potato Storing quality potatoes begins in the field during the growing season","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[]}],"figures":[{"text":"• Only store good quality potatoes. If any potatoes are rotting, damaged or coming from diseased fields, these potatoes must be eaten or sold at harvest • Storing only a few rotten potatoes can result in great losses in storage • During the growing season, mark areas infected with bacterial wilt to avoid storing potatoes harvested from these infected areas • Do not store potatoes from plants infected with bacterial wilt, these potatoes should be sold right after harvest • Do not store potatoes that have been damaged during harvest or are starting to rot, these potatoes should be sold right after harvest Harvest practices for better storability • Only store potatoes harvested from mature plants • De-haulm plants 10 -15 days before harvesting • De-haulming is killing the plant above the soil -usually by cutting the stem at the soil line • De-haulming is essential if potatoes are to be stored as this allows the skin to thicken to protect from handling and transport injury, as well as postharvest diseases • De-haulm during dry conditions • Harvest potatoes gently, most injury to potatoes occurs during harvest In case of late blight infection • If a crop shows symptoms of late blight it is important to avoid storage of the potatoes becoming infected with late blight • De-haluming will assist to stop potatoes from becoming infected with late blight • If a crop is infected with late blight, de-haulm when 20 -25% of foliage is killed by late blight • Potatoes infected with late blight can rot in storage "}],"sieverID":"eddf6884-a4ae-4ff8-9b83-893925947f1c","abstract":"Potato infected with late blight Potato infected with bacterial wilt avcdkenya.net FEED THE FUTURE KENYA Accelerated value chain development (AVCD) program Root crops component Extention brief 04 Only store the best potatoes Potato plants after de-haulming CIP thanks all donors and organizations which globally support its work through their contributions to the CGIAR Trust Fund. https://www.cgiar.org/funders/"}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"04c70053208322e341d59ec002d8ed3c","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/70bedda2-08be-401d-8f8e-d6ffc4002249/retrieve"},"pageCount":1,"title":"Maziwa Zaidi (More Milk) in Tanzania Determinants of technical efficiency among smallholder dairy farmers in Tanzania","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":46,"text":"• Identifying the determinants of technical efficiency helps to determine policy options to enhance dairy production efficiency and inform investments in Tanzanian dairy value chains. • Considerable scope is identified to improve dairy production in Tanzania, and targeting is enabled by the differential results across districts. "}]},{"head":"Opportunities to invest and scale","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":22,"text":" Make dairy production inputs accessible by smallholder farmers  Improve access to credit and strengthening Savings and Credit Cooperative Society (SACCOs)."},{"index":2,"size":8,"text":" Provide dairy production specific training to farmers."},{"index":3,"size":7,"text":" Help establish and grow producer organizations."},{"index":4,"size":10,"text":" Provide incentives to encourage women participation in dairy production."},{"index":5,"size":1,"text":"Pictures"}]},{"head":"Key results","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":48,"text":"Farm level investments that increase the number of cattle, cows and cross breeds and increase veterinary and feed input use, raise productivity until the stage of diminishing marginal returns where marginal output starts to decrease with every additional unit of the inputs and subsequent decrease in total output."},{"index":2,"size":16,"text":"This document is licensed for use under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International Licence. April 2017"},{"index":3,"size":2,"text":"March 2017"}]},{"head":"Objectives and approach","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":20,"text":" Current investments in commercial dairy production are mostly restricted to high density population areas in highland and peri-urban locations."},{"index":2,"size":25,"text":" It is not clear the extent to which pre-commercial dairy farmers living in less intensive marginal areas can be targeted to become more commercial."},{"index":3,"size":24,"text":" The main objective of this study is to identify the determinant factors that affect the technical efficiency of smallholder dairy farms in Tanzania."},{"index":4,"size":45,"text":" This study uses household data collected from randomly selected households (from mostly pre-commercial to more commercial production systems in four districts in Morogoro and Tanga regions) and employs stochastic frontier analysis (SFA) approach to derive a statistical measure of technical efficiency and efficiency drivers."},{"index":5,"size":24,"text":"Maziwa Zaidi thanks all donors and organizations which globally support the work of ILRI and its partners through their contributions to the CGIAR system  "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure 2 : Figure 2: Kernel density of technical efficiency, overall average TE= 80% "},{"text":"Figure 3 . Figure 3. Proportion of dairy producers by district and technical efficiency class "},{"text":" • The proportion of dairy farmers scoring more than 90% technical efficiency is higher in Kilosa (27%) and Lushoto (24%). The modal technical efficiency score is in the range of 80 to 90% in Handeni district and 70 to 80% in the districts of Kilosa, Mvomero and Lushoto. The overall average technical efficiency is about 80%. • Credit access, training, group membership and female household • Credit access, training, group membership and female household labor would improve technical efficiency (reduce inefficiency). labor would improve technical efficiency (reduce inefficiency). • Recommended policy actions are: improve access to credit and • Recommended policy actions are: improve access to credit and relevant training, promote establishment and growth of farmer relevant training, promote establishment and growth of farmer organizations; and encourage women farmers to engage in dairy organizations; and encourage women farmers to engage in dairy production production  "}],"sieverID":"32731bd0-ea09-49f6-9ac8-0d9e8e1419f1","abstract":""}

data/part_4/04f4a9b467dd5d33facd0cc8f6808094.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"04f4a9b467dd5d33facd0cc8f6808094","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/2ed4df8d-52ac-4880-94d3-c15bf26ed134/retrieve"},"pageCount":13,"title":"Linking ecosystem services provisioning with demand for animal-sourced food: an integrated modeling study for Tanzania","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":212,"text":"Land use change is essential for the provision of food, fiber, energy, and habitation for humans. However, land use change is a major driver of biodiversity loss (Díaz Communicated by Anna Cord. et al. 2019), compromising food systems resilience, food security, sustainable development, and the supply of many vital ecosystem services (FAO 2019). Approximately 38 percent (%) of the Earth's total, ice-free land surface is used for agriculture with the majority supporting pasture used in livestock production (Foley et al. 2011). Major socioeconomic changes over several decades, including population growth, increased incomes, and urbanization, have resulted in higher global demand for animal-source foods (ASF) (Delgado et al. 2001;Gouel & Guimbard 2019;Popkin 2004). The higher demand for ASF has in turn accelerated land use change, with consequent higher demand for agricultural production potentially impacting negatively on underlying environmental systems (Delgado et al. 2012. The consumption of ASF products (fish, meat, milk, and eggs) however remains a major source of high-quality nutrients, playing a significant role in boosting the diets of nutritionally disadvantaged groups, including children, in low-and middle-income countries (Thilsted et al. 2016;Alonso et al. 2019). Coupling minimal consequences to ecosystems with increasing demand for ASF in low-and middle-income countries will be one of the major challenges for food systems in the future."},{"index":2,"size":182,"text":"The nature of ongoing dietary transitions globally, i.e., where and in what ways demand for key food groups such as ASF will change, will have an important bearing on the evolution of environmental systems in the future (Willett et al. 2019). It becomes critical to better understand and anticipate emerging demand for food and its effects on capacities of production systems to continue supporting food production, including through the provision of ecosystem services over the long term. This will be useful for identifying practical solutions that can reduce potential negative externalities of more intensive use of natural resources, and move increasingly towards more sustainable, responsible, and efficient production of ASF (ILRI 2019). Until recently, little attention has been given to biodiversity-enhancing solutions (van Soesbergen et al. 2017). These are however of particular interest, as biodiversity plays a key role as regulator of underpinning ecosystem processes (Mace et al. 2012) from which ecosystem services are derived. Hence, biodiversityenhancing solutions could potentially address the emerging trade-offs and offer multiple other benefits (Kremen et al. 2012;Kremen & Miles 2012;Rosa-Schleich et al. 2019;Kozicka et al. 2020)."},{"index":3,"size":191,"text":"Previous studies have tried to understand how higher demand for ASF will affect food security and human nutrition, as well as their socioeconomic and environmental impacts (Enahoro et al. 2018;Chan et al. 2019;Delgado et al. 2012). There however remain critical knowledge gaps in the understanding of the longer-term effects on the environment linked to rapid socioeconomic change occurring in some developing countries. Using an interdisciplinary analytical framework, van Soesbergen et al. (2017) assessed potential impacts of increased agricultural production on biodiversity in Uganda, Rwanda, and Burundi. Their integrated analysis framework, which linked scenarios from the global economic model (IMPACT) to a spatially explicit integrated land use model, provided a useful tool for exploring the role of conservation policies in maintaining biodiversity while meeting increased demands for food production. This study builds on van Soesbergen et al. (2017) by further associating ongoing dietary changes and their land use implications on local agricultural production, to the future provision of key ecosystem services. The provision of ecosystem services is considered an important measure of how much a change in the environment affects people, social benefits, or its value to society (Johnson et al. 2019)."},{"index":4,"size":242,"text":"This study presents a quantitative analysis of landscape-level environmental impacts related to the anticipated growth in the demand for ASF in Tanzania. The impacts of higher demand for ASF are traced first through their effects on international trade and local food production, then to their secondary effects on land use, agricultural land expansion, and the provision of ecosystem services. An associated study has analyzed the trade-offs between future higher demand for ASF in Tanzania and the contributions that ecosystem services make to various sustainable development goals (Kozicka et al. 2022). This study assesses if, and to what extent, increasing the diversity in agricultural production systems could mitigate losses to ecosystem services resulting from livestock-mediated agricultural land expansion. The analysis focuses on Tanzania as an example of a country facing the dual pressure to mitigate environmental stresses while expanding agricultural and livestock production to meet higher local demand for food (Wang et al. 2021). Many other developing countries find themselves in this category. The study has thus been designed to provide lessons in analytical tool building and evidence to support the design and implementation of multi-objective livestock policies in such countries. Emphasis is placed on demand and production related to terrestrial animals/livestock, i.e., aquatic animals/fish have not been included in the analysis. This is for analytical convenience and follows from livestock being the main focus of current debate on the associations of consumer-led food demand to environmental unsustainability (Willett et al. 2019;ILRI 2019)."}]},{"head":"Methodology","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":273,"text":"A three-level integrated modeling framework was developed consisting of the IMPACT, CLEANED-R, and MESH analytical tools (Fig. 1). IMPACT is a global economic simulation model used to assess international demand, supply, and trade of agricultural commodities (Robinson et al. 2015). CLEANED-R is an environmental impact assessment model that uses a regional biomass balance approach to compute land use and other environmental impacts of agricultural activity (Pfeifer et al. 2019). The Mapping Ecosystem Services to Human wellbeing (MESH) tool is a platform for simulation of expected changes in ecosystem services such as water provision and quality, resulting from alternative land management scenarios (Johnson et al. 2019). Three scenarios of plausible socioeconomic change affecting livestock demand and production were simulated using IMPACT. These scenarios set the overall context of the assessments. At the second level of the integrated assessment, three types of scenarios, i.e., an agricultural expansion scenario (minimal expansion versus maximal expansion), a crop productivity scenario (no change in productivity versus productivity gains), and a diversification of farming practices scenario (simplified agricultural expansion with crops planted in monocultures versus diversified expansion with crops planted in agroforestry systems) were introduced using CLEANED-R. These scenarios linked the socioeconomic scenarios from IMPACT to their land use change implications. No new scenarios were introduced at the third level of the integrated assessment, where MESH was used to calculate changes in ecosystem service provision associated with the land use change scenarios emerging from CLEANED-R. We report ecosystem service changes associated with six of these land use change scenarios, selected to capture the extremes of the combined socioeconomic, agricultural expansion, crop productivity, and diversification scenarios emerging from IMPACT and CLEANED-R."},{"index":2,"size":188,"text":"This study employed an economic sectoral model approach to generate projections of potential futures under different combinations of economic and climate drivers (Robinson et al. 2015;Islam et al. 2016). The modeling approach (Wiebe et al. 2015;Nelson et al. 2014;Springmann et al. 2018) and specific drivers adopted (Nelson et al. 2010, van Zeist 2020) have previously been validated. The timeframe for this study focuses on a 20-year time horizon to allow for the evolution of underlying driver dynamics to generate a useful outlook for policy planning purposes. Data limitations that arise from a change in the methodology used to compile the FAO's Food Balance Sheet dataset (FAO 2020) restrict the latest available data for use in our modeling framework to the starting year of 2010. The projections generated from 2010 to 2030 are used to inform a 20-year scenario outlook for a \"what if\" policy analysis that addresses the broader scale magnitude and direction of changes in the future instead of generating precise predictions. Econometric modeling frameworks, for example, could provide more precise predictions but those are more limited in their application to the analysis of alternative future scenarios."},{"index":3,"size":214,"text":"The integration of the models and scenarios was tested in a simulation of the effects of increased ASF demand and production in Tanzania. Given that the country has only a small share of the global market in agricultural and food commodities, the analytical framework adopted the assumption that demand, production, and trade of livestock in Tanzania, as well as policies guiding these outcomes, do not lead to significant impacts on the global market. As such, the analytical framework accounted for impacts in Tanzania of changes occurring at the global level, but not for feedbacks to the global economy from the dynamics of ASF demand and livestock production within Tanzania. In this sense, the model interlinkages went in one direction only. Global scenarios and outputs from the IMPACT model provided input data and scenarios for simulation of land use changes in CLEANED-R, results of which were passed on to MESH to calculate ecosystem services (ESS) provision associated with the land use changes and land management options. Full descriptions of the assumptions, structures, and input and output data of IMPACT, CLEANED-R, and MESH have been published previously (Robinson et al. 2015;Pfeifer et al. 2019;Johnson et al. 2019). Details relevant to this study are presented online in the Supplementary Information (SI) and summarized in the following sections."}]},{"head":"IMPACT: simulating demand and production of livestock-derived food","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":200,"text":"The demand, supply, and international trade of ASF (excluding fish) were simulated for Tanzania using IMPACT, a multi-market model that can generate projections of the global trade of several agricultural commodities, including crops and livestock (Robinson et al. 2015). Demand for agricultural commodities in IMPACT derives from, mostly, assumptions about human population growth, changes in incomes, and consumer preferences (represented by income and price-responsive demand elasticities), while agricultural output responds to prices, technological change, and biophysical factors such as water and climate. IMPACT links information from climate, crop simulation, and hydrology models to a core economic model with a detailed representation of the agricultural sector. For each (crop or livestock) commodity, IMPACT assumes free markets, where prices are determined by relatively unrestricted competition between parties. As such, the model's outputs, including its crop land allocation between food, livestock feed, and other uses, reflect economic or market-based decisions and thus respect the competitiveness of different countries' agricultural production globally. In practice, countries could pursue food security strategies that are inconsistent with the equilibrium solutions that economic models will yield. For example, a country could impose import restrictions to spur its domestic ASF production, regardless of the competitiveness of its livestock sector."},{"index":2,"size":192,"text":"Livestock production is simulated in IMPACT as the product of the numbers of producing (e.g., dairy) or slaughtered (e.g., beef) animals, and average production (e.g., of meat, milk) per animal. Four (4) main types of farm animals are included in the analysis, i.e., cattle, sheep and goats combined, pigs, and chickens. Livestock feed demand is influenced by the levels of livestock production and competes with other uses for harvested crops, such as human food, agro-processing input, and biofuel feedstock. Crop production is specified in the model by land areas allocated to crops, and crop productivity. Supply of cropbased livestock feeds was modeled as comprising of both domestically grown and imported components. Owing to a lack of data, feed sources such as crop residues and grasses are omitted from the IMPACT modeling, although these have been identified as important to include in the livestock sector specification of lower-income countries (Msangi et al. 2014). Demand and production of feed types that are traditionally not traded on international markets were thus simulated in a subsequent step of the integrated model framework (using CLEANED-R) but based on estimates of livestock numbers and production generated from IMPACT."}]},{"head":"Scenario simulation using IMPACT","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":185,"text":"Country-specific and national-level projections of production, demand, and trade of agricultural commodities, including ASF, were generated for three alternative scenarios of global socioeconomic change in 2030. The three scenarios of socioeconomic change represented optimistic, moderate, and pessimistic global economic growth. Our analytical framework relied on scenarios of global economic change previously quantified for the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, IPCC (Riahi et al. 2017). We utilized IPCC scenarios for 2030 that provide a plausible range of conditions for livestock sector transitions. As the primary focus is on changing food demand, this study took into consideration the key factors primarily driving demand for ASF in lowand middle-income countries, i.e., income and population growth (Gouel & Guimbard 2019). Of five narratives on future global trends, commonly referred to as shared socioeconomic pathways (Riahi et al. 2017), we assessed transitions in the demand for ASF in Tanzania under the high income and low population growth (also called optimistic), low income and high population growth (pessimistic), and moderate income and moderate population growth (moderate) scenarios This range of scenarios provides for a balanced view of possible futures for Tanzania."},{"index":2,"size":104,"text":"Estimates of the key parameters of our study's socioeconomic scenarios are presented in SI Table A.1 Within IMPACT, global socioeconomic pathways can be intersected with climate change trajectories called Representative Concentration Pathways or RCPs (Robinson et al. 2015). In this study, the three socioeconomic scenarios, i.e., pessimistic, optimistic, and moderate economic growth, were simulated against the assumption of RCP 6.0 climate. This choice of climate trajectory was based on conditional climate probabilities presented in Engström et al. (2016), while the combinations of socioeconomic and climate change scenarios we used have been prior applied to livestock sector assessments (Enahoro et al. 2018;Springmann et al. 2018)."},{"index":3,"size":38,"text":"Outputs from the IMPACT scenarios provided input to the second stage of the integrated analysis, i.e., CLEANED-R, investigating livestock-related land use changes and their environmental impacts. Food security indicators simultaneously derived from IMPACT are described in the SI."}]},{"head":"CLEANED-R: simulating livestock production-induced land use","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":182,"text":"The CLEANED-R tool was originally developed as a framework for assessing the environmental impacts of rapidly evolving livestock value chains in developing regions (Pfeifer et al. 2019). It is a spatially explicit tool for calculating impacts at landscape scale, such as districts or watersheds with userdefined livestock categories, i.e., context-specific animal species and breeds. It has previously been applied to a landscape in Tanzania (Notenbaert et al. 2020). The Tanzania landscape model was adjusted in this study to run at country scale, using livestock production and productivity parameters derived directly from IMPACT model simulation. For this, livestock categories in CLEANED-R (which are user-defined) were matched to the specification of the IMPACT model, namely, dairy cattle, beef cattle, sheep, and goats (combined), pigs, and chickens (for meat and eggs). Furthermore, the input parameters of CLEANED-R were defined to reflect animal numbers, productivity (e.g., kilograms of milk produced per dairy cow), livestock feed ratio (e.g., % planted fodder or agro-industrial by-product typically fed to livestock), and crop productivity (e.g., maize production in metric tons per hectare per year, MT/ ha/year) associated with IMPACT's results."},{"index":2,"size":118,"text":"Year 2015 land cover data for Tanzania, from the database of the European Space Agency (ESA) Climate Change Initiative (ESA CCI Land Cover project), was used as the baseline (ESA 2017). This was the most detailed land cover map available at the time of the analysis. The spatial allocation model assigns livestock impact associated to the land from which feed originates. It distinguishes between three feed categories: (1) feed and fodder from arable land (cereals, crop residue, planted fodder), (2) natural feed from grazing land and shrublands, and (3) agro-industrial by-products such as bran or oilseed cakes (concentrates). Whereas agroindustrial by-product is not assigned to any land use, the other two categories are assigned directly to land cover."},{"index":3,"size":238,"text":"Not all of 48 land use classes available, among which are mosaic classes, i.e., classes with mixed crop, grassland, and forests, contribute to feed and fodder production. In addition, each one of the land classes assumed to produce livestock feeds was assumed to make a different level of contribution. As no historical data are available, estimates are typically used that derive from expert best guesses. In this study, all mosaic classes of the land use classes were assumed to contribute only half (of simulated) feed and fodder production. Also, shrubland was assumed to contribute less to grass production than grassland, because as its name will indicate, natural grass in this land class type is woody biomass that is not fully suitable as feed (Estell et al. 2012). Assumed productivity (in MT/ha/year) of biomass is spatially explicit and was taken from the Global Agro-Ecological Zones (GAEZ) data portal (Fischer et al. 2012). The agro-ecological potential productivity of grass for grassland and a weighted average on the feed ratio of actual productivity of cereal and planted fodder were used. The baseline land assigned to livestock and biomass productivity were initially set in the spatial allocation tool to reflect IMPACT's land use and production under the moderate growth scenario in 2010. This created a compatible and consistent land use map to link IMPACT with CLEANED-R and minimized datarelated discrepancies in how the different components of the integrated assessment framework are specified."},{"index":4,"size":176,"text":"CLEANED-R computes the livestock carrying capacity of an area by calculating the amount of grass, crop residue, and planted fodder that is grown for feed and fodder. This area level feed and fodder supply can be compared to the total biomass that will be required (e.g., to meet projected demand) from livestock production projected for that area. A negative biomass balance would suggest that feed demand surpasses the biomass-carrying capacity of the area. This is referred to as the biomass gap. The additional biomass that will be required to fill the gap, e.g., compared to a base run, can be computed in CLEANED-R. This is a measure indicating how much additional biomass needs to be allocated to livestock production in the area. Furthermore, land use dynamics are driven in CLEANED-R by livestock feed and fodder demand and are computed in a land use change module to generate future land use maps. Parameters of the land use change module can thus be adjusted to assess the environmental impacts of different scenarios of feed demand, production, and management."}]},{"head":"Scenario simulation using CLEANED-R","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":222,"text":"Land use scenarios simulated in CLEANED-R allowed for the analysis to expand beyond the market solutions resulting from IMPACT (Fig. 1). This was made possible by simulating two extremes of land use change, i.e., minimum and maximum, in response to the need to grow additional biomass for livestock production. The maximum land use change scenario incorporates a restriction on imports of livestock products so that expanding domestic production is the only option for meeting national demand for ASF. This flexibility of the framework essentially enforces an objective of ASF self-reliance on the future projections of ASF and associated feed demand. Next, crop productivity scenarios introduced in CLEANED-R allowed for crop production per unit of land to either increase or remain constant relative to the trends underlying IMPACT's socioeconomic scenarios. This scenario accounts partly for the important role that improved feed production technology can play in the supply of feed biomass. It allowed us to explore what happens if crop productivity gains assumed in IMPACT (SI Eqn. A.9) cannot be achieved following, for example, non-adoption of seed or other technologies. Finally, a land management scenario relates to the level of diversity in the agricultural system, with a baseline assumption that new cropland comprises livestock feed (fodder) crops grown in monocropping systems tested against the assumption that these crops are grown in agroforestry systems."},{"index":2,"size":323,"text":"In CLEANED-R, feed biomass demand was calculated for the optimistic economic growth scenario in IMPACT (and its associated implications for domestic production) of ASF, compared to the moderate growth scenario which was assumed the baseline or business-as-usual trend. An initial land use scenario was simulated to assess whether livestock feed biomass gaps generated from a substantially increased demand for ASF (under optimistic conditions) could be met using the current land allocation (i.e., using more of existing cropland to produce feed and fodder, hence at the cost of staple food production). The alternative to this was growing the needed feed biomass on converted land (i.e., converting other land uses to cropland for increased feed and fodder production) so that staple food production could be kept at current levels. These two options represent, respectively, the minimum and maximum rates of simulated livestock-driven land cover change. When restricting the conversion of new land to close the feed biomass gap, there is an implicit assumption that production on land currently under agriculture is adjusted to the need of livestock, and that land used for cereals and other food production can be converted to planted fodder. On the other hand, when all the additional biomass needed for livestock production comes from newly converted land (i.e., land not previously under agriculture), then the current mix of agricultural (crop) production can remain the same. This will lead to a calculation of the maximum amount of land that needs to be newly converted to cropping to support additional livestock production. To calculate these numbers, a greedy problem-solving algorithm (Vince 2002) was developed as an add-on to the CLEANED-R tool to solve mathematically for a local optimum. This algorithm defined how much additional land will be needed to meet livestock feed demand, accounting for spatially explicit yields, and for the fact that newly converted land generally has lower biomass productivity than existing croplands (i.e., the more productive lands are used up first)."},{"index":3,"size":196,"text":"For the productivity gain simulation, crop yield estimates could either be maintained as is into the future (i.e., no change in crop productivity over time), or they followed growth trends already simulated using IMPACT. As described in the SI (appendix B), technological growth affects agricultural yield in IMPACT and generally corresponds to the socioeconomic change scenarios, i.e., crop yields would increase under optimistic economic growth and are depressed under poor economic outcomes. The farming system scenario centered around the conversion of land for increased feed and fodder production. Selected land types were converted into two distinct types of production, i.e., under monocropping or agroforestry-based management. To do this, different land covers were classified into nonconvertible land covers (this included urban area, bare areas, consolidated bare areas, unconsolidated area areas, water bodies, protected areas including in Tanzania forests), and convertible ones (the rest). Each convertible land cover cell on the map was then ranked in order of priority of conversion. Under this rule, areas near already existing cropland are considered more suitable and converted first. This ranking is based on GAEZ suitability layers for crops (Fischer et al. 2012). More details can be found in the SI."},{"index":4,"size":163,"text":"The key difference between monocropping and agroforestry-based conversion was assumed to be in biomass yield for livestock. Although some studies point to positive yield gains of + 12 to + 62% from agroforestry relative to monocropped systems (Beillouin et al. 2021), others indicate yield disadvantages as varied as − 73 to − 3% for agroforestry systems, e.g., depending on shade cover (Blaser et al. 2018). While studies such as Beillouin et al. (2021) that have shown yield advantages of agroforestry systems considered production from all crops in agroforestry systems (i.e., annual crops and harvestable products from trees and shrubs), our own study focuses primarily on fodder crops and the change in yield when producing these in agroforestry versus monocropped systems. Fodder crop yields (primarily maize) under such conditions are likely lower (Sileshi et al. 2008;Musokwa et al. 2019). Given the prevailing uncertainty, our study has taken a precautionary approach, assuming the conservative estimate of a 50% decline in feed crop yields under agroforestry."}]},{"head":"MESH: calculating changes in the provision of ecosystem services","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":124,"text":"In the three-model integration trialed in this study, maps of baseline and alternative scenarios of land use change generated using CLEANED-R were passed on to the integrative ecosystem service modeling tool. MESH is a modeling platform that calculates how ecosystem service supplies are expected to change under alternative land management scenarios (Johnson et al. 2019). The platform integrates Natural Capital Project Integrated Valuation of Ecosystem Services and Tradeoffs (InVEST) ecosystem service models (Ruckelshaus et al. 2013;Tallis & Polasky 2009) and includes several functions that facilitate analysis of multiple scenarios across these models. MESH is an interface through which individual InVEST models can be easily accessed and the same land use scenarios tested across multiple models, but the models do not interact with each other."},{"index":2,"size":123,"text":"Five InVEST ecosystem service models were utilized from MESH (version 0.9), i.e., carbon storage and sequestration, erosion control, water provision, nitrogen export, and phosphorus export (Fig. 1). InVEST models are spatially explicit, using mapped land use, topography, climatic data, erosivity, and other mapped environmental variables as information sources, and producing maps of ecosystem service provision as outputs. The spatial scale of the output maps is dependent on the resolution of the user-provided input maps, though use of pixel-level results is discouraged in favor of aggregation to watershed level to match model assumptions. The models are based on production functions that define how changes in an ecosystem's structure are likely to affect the flows and values of ecosystem services across a landscape or seascape."},{"index":3,"size":123,"text":"MESH users must set parameters relevant to each land use class (and some independent of land use class) to calibrate the models to local conditions. MESH comes with a set of literature-based suggested parameter values for many land-use classes (SI section C). In ecosystem service modeling to date, the effects of cropland on ecosystem functions are commonly treated as uniform, while, in reality, environmental outcomes can vary significantly with farm management including level of farm diversity (Beillouin et al. 2019;Kremen et al. 2012;Kremen & Miles 2012). For this MESH application, we sought to distinguish between crops grown in monocropping systems and crops grown in agroforestry/silvopastoral systems. Details of InVEST and the parameter values of our study are presented in SI (appendix Table C.2)."}]},{"head":"Results","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":72,"text":"Throughout, results of the optimistic demand scenario, which leads to higher ASF demand and to substantial livestock-induced land use change, are discussed. These are compared to the moderate scenario. Results emerging from the pessimistic scenario in IMPACT have not been discussed, as this scenario proved redundant for the rest of our study. It does not lead to land use expansions that require land management practices to mitigate productionrelated losses to ecosystem services."}]},{"head":"Animal-source food demand and food security","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":148,"text":"For the moderate economic growth scenario, human population in Tanzania was projected to increase by 63% in 2030, over 2010 figures, while per capita income increased by 133% over the same period. Projected annual income in 2030 was $2928 under the moderate scenario and 15% higher for the optimistic growth scenario (SI Table A.2). The resulting impacts of the socioeconomic changes on ASF demand (and production) were significant. The results on projected ASF demand are not discussed in detail here; the key points to note being that (1) projected estimates of milk and meat demand are close to 100% (or higher) under all three socioeconomic scenarios in 2030 compared to 2010, (2) the optimistic scenario leads to higher growth in ASF demand (than the moderate scenario) and, (3) compared to the baseline, the optimistic scenario has the highest positive impacts on the country's food security outlook to 2030."},{"index":2,"size":204,"text":"Changes in ASF demand drive livestock-specific changes in production and have consequences for land use and environmental impacts. Under moderate growth, national production of milk and beef (as well as poultry) is projected to increase in 2030 compared to 2010, by 50% to more than 100%. This significant expansion in livestock production is accompanied by increases in animal numbers. The model's projections of technology-induced crop productivity gains as well as its market-driven specification led to the higher demand for ASF being met mainly through increased ASF imports. According to IMPACT's market equilibrium solution, the additional biomass quantities needed to support increased demand for ASF will not vary by much domestically, since most of the additional demand for ASF is satisfied through imports. This result holds under all scenarios such that 29% more milk and meat animals are projected for 2030 compared to 2010. Between them, projected estimates of animal numbers in 2030 differed by less than 2% under the alternative socioeconomic scenarios. Feed demand quantities thus increase substantially (for all three socioeconomic scenarios) between 2010 and 2030, but only minimally across the scenarios in 2030. We used the IMPACT estimates from the optimistic scenario in the subsequent assessments of biomass changes and land management."}]},{"head":"Livestock-induced biomass balances","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":196,"text":"CLEANED-R simulation demonstrated that significantly higher production of biomass will be required for an alternative situation on imports, i.e., if increased demand for ASF is satisfied only through domestic production (Table 1). This scenario reflects an ASF self-reliance objective and corresponds to a maximum land expansion situation. In combination with a \"no crop productivity gain\" assumption, the optimistic scenario leads to a 21.4% increase in biomass production (compared to 20.3% under moderate growth). The amount of land that needs to be converted to produce this additional feed biomass was shown to depend on the level of diversification of new agricultural land, i.e., whether converted land was under monocropping or agroforestry. For example, with the assumption of maximum land expansion for ASF production, and no gains assumed in crop productivity, the land area needed will almost double under agroforestry (i.e., bringing an additional 15,178 km 2 of cropland into feed production) compared to an additional cropland of 7614 km 2 under monocropping. The results thus indicated a non-linear relationship in that effective land use expansion required to meet biomass needs under agroforestry was less than double for an assumption of 50% feed yield loss for agroforestry systems."},{"index":2,"size":72,"text":"Simulations using CLEANED-R showed that, depending on the scenario (i.e., moderate, or optimistic) and the land management rule (i.e., monocropping or agroforestry), between 1254 and 2885 km 2 of additional land will need to be converted into cropland. This holds if there are no gains in crop productivity to 2030, and under the scenario of minimum land expansion that allows free inflow of ASF imports into Tanzania to meet increased ASF demand."}]},{"head":"Provision of ecosystem services","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":240,"text":"With zero land expansion, highly productive, monocropped land will present the best option for preventing ecosystem service losses. This holds since no new cropland enters production, and ecosystem services are highest in natural ecosystems. With even minimal agricultural land expansion, however, future supplies of ecosystem services are shown to decrease, i.e., except for small increases in water provision nationally (Fig. 2). The severity of negative consequences of agricultural land expansion depends mainly on the role of ASF imports in meeting the domestic demand for ASF (i.e., minimum, or maximum land expansion), but also on whether there are gains in the unit production of biomass (i.e., crop productivity increases or is constant). The scenario denoting crop productivity gain and diversified farming is seen to represent the best scenario for reducing ecosystem service losses under agricultural land expansion. The scenario of maximum land expansion (to accommodate an ASF self-reliance objective), constant/no crop productivity gain, and monoculture, appears to be the worst. Across all scenarios, the greatest estimated losses to ecosystem services are with respect to phosphorus retention and erosion control, with 0.2-3.9% more phosphorus expected to be exported and 0.3-3.8% more sediment eroded into streamways across Tanzania. Compared to the baseline, an estimated 0.1-1.9% more nitrogen will be exported under the scenarios emanating from optimistic economic growth. The associated increase in phosphorus, nitrogen, and sediment in runoff would have a negative impact on water quality in areas downstream of the agricultural expansion."},{"index":2,"size":141,"text":"Compared to the baseline, carbon storage is expected to decline, by 0.2 to 1.9%. This equates to 43.6 Mt less carbon storage under the maximum land expansion, and monocropping scenarios compared to the baseline, or 389.3 Mt less under maximum land expansion, and agroforestry. The anticipated loss in carbon storage, which will translate into higher net national carbon emissions in the absence of substantial mitigation actions, conflicts with Tanzania's pledge to be carbon neutral by 2050 (carbo n-neutr al-goals-by-count ry). An increase in water yield of less than 0.3% is expected across all scenarios. This reflects that most of the agricultural expansion occurs in mosaic cropland-natural vegetation class which is assumed to have levels of consumptive water use on par with agroforestry and a little lower than monocropping, effectively cancelling out the effects of land use change on consumptive water use."},{"index":3,"size":134,"text":"Widescale adoption of agroforestry instead of monocropping drives a doubling of the agricultural expansion area with, relative to monocropping under each scenario pair, an increase of up to 0.5% in water provision, 2% in soil erosion control, and 0.4% nitrogen export avoided, but a decrease of up to 0.7% in carbon storage and 1% in phosphorus export avoided. The small differences between ecosystem service changes mean that adding trees to maize production in agroforestry systems effectively halves the impact of agricultural land on carbon storage, erosion control, water provision, and nutrient balances, compared to monocropping systems (the impacts on ecosystem services are similar under monocropping and agroforestry, despite the latter covering double the land area), with no losses to food provision (the same amount of food is provided in both systems under each scenario). "}]},{"head":"Discussion","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":203,"text":"Application of the integrated assessment to Tanzania indicated that population and income-based increases in the demand and supply of meat and milk will contribute to improved food security in the country in 2030, but with possible substantial losses in carbon storage, phosphorus and nutrient retention, soil erosion control, and water provision services. Increased livestock and crop productivity as well as higher imports to meet growth in demand dampen the localized effects of ASF demand expansion on land use and ecosystem services provision. Without reasonable gains in crop productivity, however, and in view of expected higher demand for cereals in the future, there will be competing claims on arable land and new land conversion into agriculture. Alternatively, depending on which one of cereals or ASF are more profitable to produce locally, increased importation of one or the other could take place. Increasing the imports of cereals could allow local farmers, the majority of whom currently are smallholders, to produce more ASF that are often more profitable. Importing livestock food products, on the other hand, will allow for a reduced environmental footprint of livestock production in Tanzania. Both cases raise the need for regulatory mechanisms that support the sustainable management of food production more globally."},{"index":2,"size":332,"text":"Given that natural ecosystems have the highest supply of ecosystem services, a case of zero agricultural land expansion will lead to monocropping (contrary to expected) faring better than agroforestry for the supply of ecosystem services, i.e., if the monocropped land is highly productive for biomass production. In our study that assumes minimal to maximum land expansion will occur, this result is largely driven by the assumption that double the land area is needed to produce the same amount of fodder, when expanded feed production is undertaken in agroforestry compared to monoculture systems. In essence, the loss of ecosystem services provision per unit land area can be halved by incorporation of trees into maize and fodder production systems (agroforestry) but would require double the agricultural land expansion to meet future ASF demands. Traditional agroforestry systems have a long history in Tanzania where they imitate natural ecosystems with a mixture of annual and perennial plants (Kitalyi et al. 2010). The benefits of such systems over monocropping could be substantial if yields on agroforestry can be brought to levels comparable with monocropping systems, which the latest evidence suggests is feasible in many contexts (Beillouin et al. 2021). While arable crop yields are reported to decrease in African agroforestry systems (between − 100 and − 11%) (Félix et al. 2018;Staton et al. 2022), there is an expanding body of evidence showing that yields in agroforestry can be comparable or only slightly lower than those in monocropping and are generally higher when harvestable produce from tree products is included in the calculation (Niether et al. 2020;Castle et al. 2021). Future work could thus include fodder trees in the feed biomass and land management options. Policy interventions will likely be needed to incentivize and support farmers to adopt such diversified farming practices, as there may be institutional, social, and technical constraints to adoption (Schroth & Ruf 2014). Fodder trees are important feed sources but are currently not widely adopted by farmers (Franzel et al. 2014;Balehegn et al. 2020)."},{"index":3,"size":204,"text":"Under all agricultural expansion scenarios modeled, the largest expected losses in future ecosystem services related to increased ASF demand are to nutrient retention and soil erosion control services, but losses to carbon storage may also be substantial while there may be negligible gains in water provision. The differences between changes in phosphorus and nitrogen exports under each scenario are likely driven by the assumption that, while the retention efficiency of vegetation is the same across the two nutrients, 25% (under monocropping) or 50% (under agroforestry) nitrogen in runoff does not reach the streamway and is instead dissolved into groundwater. All phosphorus in runoff is assumed to reach the streamway (since phosphorus particles are less likely to dissolve and infiltrate subsurface flows). While agroforestry lessens the negative impact of agricultural expansion on ecosystem services, the results demonstrate that the most effective measure is to minimize expansion consistent with global studies (Zabel et al. 2019). Even under a low expansion scenario, without a shift in demand for ASF, the consequences of expansion are simply offset to another country, suggesting that dietary changes will need to be considered to minimize expansion while ensuring that all people everywhere have adequate nutrition (Tilman & Clark 2014;Willett et al. 2019)."},{"index":4,"size":205,"text":"Our assessment of ecosystem services was conducted using the MESH modeling interface which incorporates relatively simple biophysical models (InVEST models). While InVEST models are useful to gain insights on the direction of change and relative performance of different scenarios, they have some limitations. In particular, InVEST models are parameterized at the land cover level, and regional differences in ecological or agronomic factors are not considered. For example, fertilization rates have been assumed constant for each specific agricultural land cover class across the country, yet these can vary quite broadly across landscapes (Ricker-Gilbert 2020). It is more likely that inputs are not very accessible in areas recently converted to arable land. Also, potential benefits from rotational grazing of livestock in arid or semi-arid grassland in maintaining the C, N, and P cycles (Li et al. 2020;Teague & Kreuter 2020) are omitted. Some of these challenges could be overcome through local expert consultations in future research to develop robust actionable recommendations for policymakers, for example, to improve the agricultural expansion scenarios, productivity estimates, and model parametrization. It would also be beneficial to apply more complex hydrological and land systems models to improve the estimations for ecosystem services that are of most interest to decision makers in Tanzania."},{"index":5,"size":134,"text":"In addition, quantitative models that account for the synergies between agriculture and biodiversity are still largely underdeveloped. This hampers the potential to understand how livestock can be a catalyst to closing ecological cycles (Dumont et al. 2013) and to enhancing ecosystem service provision. What the approach presented in this paper has allowed for is the exploring of the potential effects of livestock production systems on future provisioning of ecosystem services, within the context of narratives of intensification and efficiency. To support the development of livestock production systems that are more sustainable and resilient, there is also the need to simulate, explore, and assess the linkages of related industrial and agro-ecology practices to ecosystem services provision. This would require model suites that are ecological process-based rather than reliant on expert-generated parameters (Wolff et al. 2015)."}]},{"head":"Conclusions","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":324,"text":"This study presents a novel approach to integrating quantitative foresight and ex-ante impact modeling tools to assess the implications for food security, land use, and ecosystem services provision of an expanding demand for ASF. Its application to Tanzania that linked scenarios of global socioeconomic change to ASF demand, livestock production and their impacts on land use, has quantified important trade-offs between human nutrition and food security gains, and future losses in the provisioning of ecosystem services. Our results indicate there is high potential for strong trade-offs between objectives of food security, climate mitigation, land degradation, and freshwater conservation, from anticipated transitions in food and land use systems in Tanzania driven by increased demand for ASF. These trade-offs need to be better analyzed, anticipated, and managed to keep countries such as Tanzania on track to achieve Sustainable Development Goals and Paris Agreement targets. A key result emerging from this study is that additional interventions will be needed to incentivize or support farmers to adopt agroforestry practices, which have benefits over monoculture crop production for maintaining the sustainability of food production. Furthermore, increased productivity of crop and livestock can benefit ecosystem services provisions universally while higher imports of animalsource foods or livestock feed provide only localized benefits in the current context. While the insights and further research questions that emerge are interesting from both academic and policy perspectives, further methodological improvement will be required. There is in addition a dearth of observational data to inform more precise estimates of key parameters that drive outcomes in the models used, such as the contributions of different land use classes to feed and fodder production, and the yield gains/losses associated with monocropped compared with agroforestry systems. Future assessments could in addition seek to account for several other farm management factors such as tillage, agrochemical applications, irrigation management, and a diversity of livestock feed technologies, which can have significant effects on the provision of soil and water related ecosystem services."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Fig. 1 Fig. 1 Overview of the models, scenarios, and key outputs of the integrated assessment framework "},{"text":"Fig. 2 Fig. 2 Percentage changes in supply of five ecosystem services for six scenarios of combinations of crop productivity increase, land expansion, and crop production system in 2030 "},{"text":"Table 1 Land use change in 2030 (compared to the base year) computed for three IMPACT scenarios Source: Authors' derivations from the integrated model simulations *The productivity gain, minimum land expansion & monoculture/agroforestry scenarios represent the baseline against which other land use or management scenarios are compared and are not included in the table IMPACT Crop productivity, Productivity Productivity No productivity No productivity No productivity No productivity IMPACTCrop productivity,ProductivityProductivityNo productivityNo productivityNo productivityNo productivity Scenarios of land expansion gain, maximum gain, maximum gain, Minimum gain, Minimum gain, Maximum gain, Maximum Scenarios ofland expansiongain, maximumgain, maximumgain, Minimumgain, Minimumgain, Maximumgain, Maximum socio-economic and production land expansion land expansion land expansion land expansion land expansion land expansion socio-economicand productionland expansionland expansionland expansionland expansionland expansionland expansion change system scenarios* & mono culture & agro forestry & monoculture & agro forestry & monoculture & agro forestry changesystem scenarios*& mono culture& agro forestry& monoculture& agro forestry& monoculture& agro forestry Moderate % biomass 20.3% 20.3% 3.1% 3.1% 20.3% 20.3% Moderate% biomass20.3%20.3%3.1%3.1%20.3%20.3%  change       change  new cropland (km 2 ) 6,362 12,708 1,254 2,380 7,614 15,178 new cropland (km 2 )6,36212,7081,2542,3807,61415,178 Optimistic % biomass 21.4% 21.4% 3.7% 3.7% 21.4% 21.4% Optimistic% biomass21.4%21.4%3.7%3.7%21.4%21.4%  change       change  new cropland (km 2 ) 6,810 13,588 1,508 2,885 8,123 16,186 new cropland (km 2 )6,81013,5881,5082,8858,12316,186 Pessimistic % biomass 19.2% 19.2% 2.2% 2.2% 19.2% 19.2% Pessimistic% biomass19.2%19.2%2.2%2.2%19.2%19.2%  change       change  new cropland (km 2 ) 5,990 11,970 933 1,765 7,153 14,268 new cropland (km 2 )5,99011,9709331,7657,15314,268  "}],"sieverID":"3bfa29ca-e214-4233-b717-3e863fcf0ddb","abstract":"Standard tools that can quantitatively track the impacts of higher global demand for animal-sourced food to their local environmental effects in developing countries are largely missing. This paper presents a novel integrated assessment framework that links a model of the global agricultural and food system, a landscape-level environmental impact assessment model, and an ecosystem services simulation model. For Tanzania, this integrated assessment showed that a projected increase in the demand and production of foods of livestock origin with optimistic economic growth between 2010 and 2030 leads to an improvement in food security. However, resulting transitions in land use impact negatively on the future provisioning of ecosystem services, increasing phosphorus, nitrogen, and sediment in runoff and reducing water quality in areas downstream of the agricultural expansion. Losses in ecosystem services are lowest when diversified farming practices are adopted in areas of agricultural land expansion. The role of land management in the environmental impacts of expanded livestock production is highlighted, as is the need for a new generation of analytical tools to inform policy recommendations."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"051ae0d2ddf9a13bf2acb9d1f7e7f3eb","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/984bd304-f8a3-41ca-b094-acf45efb2d43/retrieve"},"pageCount":36,"title":"Market Level Assessment Report Fruits and Vegetables intake Vietnam and Nigeria -Vietnam report","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Table of Contents","index":1,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"List of Tables","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"INTRODUCTION","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":85,"text":"The research described in this document is part of the FVN project: \"Fruits and Vegetables intake in Vietnam and Nigeria'. This project addresses the problem of the triple burden of malnutrition among lowincome urban populations in Nigeria and Vietnam by increasing intake of fruits and vegetables through food system innovations that improve access through the diversification of retail outlets, enhance affordability through a client-specific coupon system, and boost acceptability of fruits and vegetables through promotional campaigns involving public and private stakeholders and civil society organizations."},{"index":2,"size":67,"text":"The project is implemented in one central and one peripheral urban area in Hanoi, Vietnam and Ibadan, Nigeria offering insights into different contexts related to the level of urbanization, percentage of urban poor, stunting of under-fives, minimum dietary diversity, and availability of fruits and vegetables per day per person. The project intervention consists of three interrelated demand-side interventions addressing accessibility, affordability and acceptability of fruits and vegetables."},{"index":3,"size":38,"text":"The research described in this document is the market level assessment (MLA) of Work package 1 that was conducted as part of the information gathering exercise within the baseline of the FVN research project in March, April 2019."},{"index":4,"size":45,"text":"The research focuses on direct actors (formal and informal vendors who buy and sell the targeted foodstuffs), using structured market surveys to map the physical location of markets within the selected communities, define the market actor (retailer) typology, including four main characteristics of the retailer:"},{"index":5,"size":27,"text":"-General characteristics of the retailer, -How do retailers buy/source ingredients to be processed/traded? -How do retailers add value to their products? -How do retailers sell/market their products?"},{"index":6,"size":67,"text":"This component will inform the project on the behavior of the retail market sector where our study population source their fruits and vegetables and therefore allow for understanding marketing practices on fruit and vegetable distribution that affects the target households. Data was gathered by RIKOLTO (formerly known as VECO) in Vietnam. The analysis contained in this document is instrumental in informing Work package 2 retailer level interventions."},{"index":7,"size":10,"text":"Hanoi, July 2020, Ricardo Hernandez My Lan Hoang Hieu Tran"}]},{"head":"METHODOLOGY Study area","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":116,"text":"This study is based in the same urban and peri-urban areas where the household study was conducted, the main difference is that instead of targeting consumers, this study focuses on different types of retailers within the same areas. This study was conducted in the city of Hanoi, Vietnam. Within Hanoi, the districts of Ha Dong and Dong Da were selected (figure 1,2). These districts were selected to represent an urban (Dong Da) and peri-urban (Han Dong) setting with a high density of people living in lower socio-economic status. The selected wards were Biên Giang and Đồng Mai in Ha Dong district (figure 3, 4) and Hàng Bột and Văn Chương in Dong Da (figure 5, 6). "}]},{"head":"Study population","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":152,"text":"A rapid enumeration (census) of different types of retailers was done in the four selected wards, the objective of this census was to identify the \"universe\" of retailers that traded 32 pre-selected fruits and vegetables 1 within the study area. Once, the census was completed, two products were dropped from the study (Kumquat and Gac Fruit), because we did not find enough retailers selling these products in the four selected wards.  1 shows the main characteristics and distribution of retailers in the study area. We found 255 retailers, and the main results from the census is that the vast majority (76%) of retailers present in the study area are informal wet/street market retailers, selling on average 12 target products per retailer, very few act as both retailer-wholesaler, and around 60% of retailers have \"own production\", as part of their selling inventory, implying that they do not only rely on buying from suppliers."}]},{"head":"Randomization and sampling","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":54,"text":"The randomization process was performed in a two-stage approach. First, a random selection of 100 retailers per district, and second, once retailers were selected, each retailer would be asked about five target products in the questionnaire, hence there was a need to randomize the target products that retailers were going to be interviewed for."},{"index":2,"size":256,"text":"The second stage procedure was challenging due to a limited number of observations (retailers) for a small number of target products. Hence, we could not do a complete random sampling of products per 1 We collected information about fruits and vegetables that are consumed by Hanoi residents from different sources of information, starting with our project's 24-hour recall, and other recent 24-hour recall and consumption studies. Once we collected a long list of fruits of vegetables, we identified products that are nutritious, are widely available through the year, that do not have adverse perceptions (for example, no excess use of pesticide in farm production), and that are relatively affordable. After applying this selection criteria, we ended up with 32 pre-selected target products. A more detailed record of product selection is included in APPENDIX 1 retailer because we did not want to run the risk of not being able to collect enough (30 or 35) observations per product in the final sample. In order to overcome this challenge, we randomly sampled retailers starting from the product that has the fewest number of retailers, in this case passion fruit. Then, we moved to randomly select products for the second product that has the fewest number of retailers (Chinese Leek), and so on. Once a given retailer has been randomly assigned five products, the retailer is excluded from the sampling procedure for the subsequent products. Table 2 shows the number of products available by the random selection of retailers (first stage), and the random selection of products (second stage)"},{"index":3,"size":25,"text":"The random sample procedure yielded 200 retailers and 1,000 target product observations. After fielding the questionnaire, we ended up with 192 retailers, and 956 products."}]},{"head":"Questionnaire and data collection","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":65,"text":"The retailer questionnaire included modules to inquire about four main aspects and characteristics of the retailer: 1) the general characteristics and assets of the retailer, including socio-demographic, location data, and perceptions about food safety, 2) information about how retailers source/buy their raw ingredients, 3) information about how retailers add value to their raw or semi-processed ingredients, and 4) information about how retailers sell/market their products."},{"index":2,"size":42,"text":"The questionnaire was originally created in English, translated to Vietnamese by RIKOLTO and CIAT, and then programmed into Android-based tablets using CS Pro. Data collection was performed by one team of ten local enumerators selected by RIKOLTO and trained for data collection."}]},{"head":"Statistics","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":88,"text":"The collected data were downloaded from CS Pro and imported to Stata 14.0 software. The cleaning was performed jointly by CIAT and RIKOLTO and the final dataset was shared into the project OneDrive space. Collected data was analyzed by CIAT, and Stata 14.0 software was used to perform the descriptive analysis of this report. Table 4 shows the distribution of the sample by product type. Following the product distribution (Table 2) of the sample, the original plan was to segregate the statistical analysis in three categories of products;"},{"index":2,"size":97,"text":"DGLV, other vegetables, and fruits. However, this was not possible as the data collected showed significant challenges. First, there is no group of retailers who only trade \"other vegetables\", as the vast majority also trade DGLV (97%), and a small share also trade fruits (3%). Second, fruits were the only category where a defined group of retailers trading only fruits (90%) existed, and third, the vast majority of retailers trading DGLV also market other vegetables. Taking into consideration this situation, we opted to carry out the statistical analysis segregated by type of product considering only two categories;"},{"index":3,"size":54,"text":"\"vegetables\" that include traders who only market DGLV and retailers who trade DGLV and other vegetables (20 + 101 = 121), and the category of \"fruits\" which include traders who only market fruits (64 observations), and retailers who market fruits and DGLV (4 observations), and retailers trading fruits, DGLV and other vegetables (3 observations)."}]},{"head":"CHARACTERISTICS OF RETAILERS.","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":50,"text":"This section discusses the asset characteristics of the retailers sampled. The results are presented segregating retailers by retailer type (mom & pop's, formal wet market, and informal wet market) as well as segregating by the type of target product that they sell (fruits, and vegetables). The following points stand out."},{"index":2,"size":118,"text":"First, retailers are nearly all middle-aged women, around 27% have completed high school or above high school, and have roughly 15 years of experience since they started their trading business (Tables 5 and   6). There is no major difference on these retailer characteristics segregated by retailer or product type. First, as expected, virtually all retailers, regardless of retailer or product type take possession of the products that they sell. However, roughly 1/6 th of wet market retailers (formal and informal) also take commission for some of their transactions, yet this is not a widespread practice among retailers. The analysis yields similar results when segregating retailers by target product, hence confirming that taking commission is not common among retailers."},{"index":3,"size":74,"text":"Second, around 30% of informal wet market and \"mom and pop\" retailers sell their own production of target products within the array of produce that they sell, this again is a less common practice among formal wet market retailers, perhaps showing their dedication to \"ONLY\" trading activities. Furthermore, the analysis by product type shows similar results, as 30% of retailers sell their own farm production. Waste volume (Kgs) in LS 6.9 9.8 3.6 4.5"},{"index":4,"size":71,"text":"Third, the vast majority of retailers trade lower weekly volume now than five years ago. Only mom and pop retailers have modestly increased their sales (13%) over the past five years, formal (-40%) and informal (-16%) wet market retailers have decreased weekly volumes, which signals the increased competition that is occurring given a growing number of markets (both formal and informal), traditional retailers, and other retail formats (supermarkets and online shopping)."},{"index":5,"size":176,"text":"Fourth, all retailers tend to sell three times more volume in high season compared to low season now and also five years ago. Formal wet market retailers have a higher difference between high and low season as they sell 3.5 to 4.2 times higher volumes now and five years ago respectively. Furthermore, formal wet market retailers trade higher volumes compared to mom and pop and informal wet market retailers, they tend to have 1.8 to 2.5 times higher weekly volumes compared to informal wet market and mom and pop retailers respectively. Similar trends are evident when analyzing weekly volumes by product type, as all retailers trade lower weekly volumes than five years ago, they tend to trade roughly three times more volume in high compared to low season, and the only high difference between retailers with different product types is that retailers trading fruits sell roughly two to three times more volume than retailers trading vegetables. This is expected as many of the target vegetables in this study are DGLV, which have lower density than fruits."},{"index":6,"size":86,"text":"Fifth, waste is not a major concern for all retailers, it represents roughly 2.5 to 4.4 percent of weekly volumes in high and low seasons respectively, with only mom and pop retailers having a slightly higher percentage of waste (around 6%). Retailers selling fruits tend to have higher waste (4.9% in high season, 2.8% in low season) compared to retailers selling vegetables (3.5% in high season, 2.4% in low season), however, waste is still a minor concern among all retailers regardless of retailer and/or product type."},{"index":7,"size":95,"text":"Tables 9 and 10 show the physical assets of retailers segregated by retailer and product type. Several points stand out. First, all retailers regardless of type of product that they sell have a stall/shop. The main difference found is that roughly one of every five formal wet market retailers also have stalls in a different location, while this is not as common for informal wet market retailers (one of every twenty retailers) and mom and pop shops. There is no difference about owning a stall in a different location when segregating this by product type."},{"index":8,"size":67,"text":"Second, all retailers regardless of product and retailer types have similar asset profiles, with a few exceptions. One third of mom-and-pop shops have a computer, which is not common among formal and informal wet market retailers, three times more formal wet market retailers own trucks compared to other types of retailers, and 22% more informal wet market retailers have motorbikes compared to the other types of retailers."},{"index":9,"size":77,"text":"Third, mom-and-pop and formal wet market retailers have 25% more business assets (assessed by the total value of business assets), this difference is exacerbated when analyzing this by product type, as retailers who sell vegetables have twice as much assets compared to retailers who sell fruits, implying that vegetable vendors are wealthier (asset-wise) than fruit vendors, this is a surprising result, as fruits are generally more expensive products than vegetables, and have higher volumes than vegetable sellers."},{"index":10,"size":63,"text":"It is important to emphasize that these results reflect the status of retailers that trade the target products and are located in low-income areas of Hanoi, hence the \"fruits\" that are considered as part of this study are not particularly more expensive than the target vegetables. Tables 11 and 12 show employment and labor cost of retailers segregated by retailer and product type."},{"index":11,"size":3,"text":"Several points emerge."},{"index":12,"size":154,"text":"First, overall, retailers do not generate much employment beyond their own labor, and a bit of family labor working in their stall/shop, this is the same result for all types of retailers, as well as for retailers selling fruits or vegetables. This is expected, as previous results on functional status and retailer assets imply that overall, most retailers have small operations. Second, surprisingly informal wet market retailers have significantly higher monthly business costs than mom-and-pop, and formal wet market retailers. A deeper analysis into the cost structure revealed that informal wet market retailers have higher rent (as they are not part of a government subsidized market facility), and lacking public services, they incur extra costs (such as electricity generation via electric generator fuel). Retailers who sell vegetables have higher monthly business costs, but this is rather anecdotal as a higher share of vegetable retailers are informal wet market retailers, hence the higher operating costs."},{"index":13,"size":90,"text":"Third, we asked retailers about the perceived \"profit\" they are earning per kg, as well as the amount of money they would need to receive to be willing to abandon their stall/shop for a week, and the results are interesting. The profit does not change much across retailer type, roughly four thousand VND per kg of traded product, yet retailers who sell fruits expect a slightly higher profit (5.1 thousand VND) over retailers who sell vegetables. This is expected as fruits are usually more expensive than the vegetables in Vietnam."},{"index":14,"size":33,"text":"Moreover, on the willingness to abandon the stall/shop, formal wet market retailers expect a 20% higher amount of money compared to the other two types of retailers. This is expected, as previous results"},{"index":15,"size":16,"text":"show that formal wet market retailers have a higher weekly volume traded, hence higher gross earnings."},{"index":16,"size":117,"text":"Retailers who sell fruits expect twice as much money to be willing to abandon the stall for a week compared with retailers who sell vegetables. This is also expected, as discussed before, fruits are a more expensive food item than vegetables. Fourth, regardless of type of retailer or type of product that is traded, there are not many retailers trading organic (2% of retailers) or safe/clean (3% of traders) fruits and vegetables, and for the few who sell, the markups compared to the traditional price are minimal (4 to 5% markup), hence signaling that these products are not purchased in low-income districts of Hanoi, and a general lack of trust by consumers about organic/safe claims by retailers."}]},{"head":"CONDUCT OF RETAILERS.","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":56,"text":"This section discusses the conduct of retailers, including general transaction characteristics, a description of their suppliers and clients, origin of supply, services provided and received, and complaints. Similar to the previous section, results are presented by segregating retailers into retailer type as well as by the type of target product that they sell (fruits, and vegetables)."},{"index":2,"size":18,"text":"In the analysis of the conduct of retailers and suppliers (Tables 13 and 14), several points stand out."},{"index":3,"size":65,"text":"First, formal wet market retailers source roughly 2.5 times more products from suppliers than the other two categories of retailers, while retailers selling fruits source three times more product than retailers selling vegetables. Both results are expected, as formal wet market retailers tend to have more stalls than the other two types of retailers, and as discussed before, fruits have a higher density than vegetables."},{"index":4,"size":129,"text":"Second, retailers source ¾ of their products from wholesalers and directly from farmers as their main two sources of supply. Roughly half of the sourced product comes from wholesalers and then product is sourced via direct purchase from farmers (31%). The main difference regarding supply sources is that 1/5 th and 1/7 th of the weekly volume sourced by informal retailers and mom-and-pop retailers respectively comes from their own production. Furthermore, the segregation by product shows that retailers who produce vegetables have a slightly higher share of selling their own produce compared to retailers who sell fruits. The latter result is expected, as especially DGLV are mainly consumed fresh, and therefore are produced in small areas near Hanoi, while the production of tropical fruits is distributed across the country."},{"index":5,"size":180,"text":"Third, roughly 2/3 of retailers buy products that have been sorted, this share is slightly higher for momand-pop (74%) and fruit retailers (72%). This is expected as retailers buy mainly from wholesalers, and this is one of the main services that wholesalers usually provide. Furthermore, there is little evidence of retailers keeping written records of supplied produce. Only formal wet market retailers have a slightly higher share of record-keeping (31%), signaling that this is not a widespread practice in the target districts. In addition, retailers virtually do not have written agreements with their suppliers regardless of retailer or product type. Roughly 70% of retailers have verbal agreements only and this is the only common practice among retailers. Fourth, the main service provided by retailers to suppliers is transportation, whether the retailers provide their own transportation, or hire a third-party provider for delivery. This is a common practice among all retailers, and it is expected as it guarantees product delivery. Retailers receive many different types of services from suppliers, with sorting, cleaning, packaging, and sales on credit constituting the main services."},{"index":6,"size":127,"text":"Fifth, even if retailers receive different types of services from suppliers which are meant to assure product quality, it is not uncommon for retailers to issue complaints about the produce that they sourced. 2/3 of retailers have issued complaints within the last 12 months. This is higher among formal wet market retailers, where the vast majority (91%) have complained about the supplied produce. This is also expected, as formal wet market retailers trade higher volumes, which leads to higher probability of receiving lower-quality produce at some point in time over the past 12 months. The reasons for complaints are varied, but mainly related to physical attributes of the sourced products. In the analysis of the conduct of retailers and clients (Tables 15 and 16), several points emerge."},{"index":7,"size":106,"text":"First, formal wet market retailers sell roughly two to three times more products to clients than informal wet market and mom-and-pop retailers respectively. Similarly, retailers trading fruits sell roughly three times more in weekly volumes than retailers selling vegetables. Both results are expected, as discussed before, formal wet market retailers tend to have more stalls in several locations, and source more product than the other two types of retailers, and fruits have a higher density than vegetables. It is interesting to note that the average selling price of target fruits is roughly twice as expensive as target vegetables, hence signaling the affordability differences among target products."},{"index":8,"size":56,"text":"Second, as expected most retailers sell directly to consumers as their main clients. Only formal wet market retailers have a more diverse clientele, as roughly 40% of their clients are not direct consumers but rather traditional retailers, restaurants, street/sidewalk eateries, and other types of clients. The analysis by product shows no difference in the client portfolio."},{"index":9,"size":186,"text":"Third, interestingly there is a wide variation about selling \"sorted\" products to clients. The vast majority of mom-and-pop retailers (78%) sell sorted products, while a bit over half of informal wet market retailers and less than 40% of formal wet market retailers follow this practice. This can be attributed to the fact that formal wet market retailers sell produce to non-direct consumers (traditional retailers, sidewalk/street eateries, restaurants, and others), that might do the sorting themselves or the nature of their business do not require to have sorted product (for example, the products are processed to be delivered to the final consumer). There is a slightly higher share of fruit sellers sorting their products compared to vegetable sellers, yet roughly 40% of retailers still sell unsorted products. Fourth, there is little evidence of retailers keeping written records of sales regardless of retailer or product type. Furthermore, the vast majority of retailers do not have any type of agreements (verbal or written) with their clients implying that both practices (keeping written records of sales, and implicit or explicit agreements) are not widespread practices in urban and peri-urban Hanoi."},{"index":10,"size":66,"text":"Fifth, formal wet market retailers have more clients than the other types of retailers, they have between 25 to 40 percent more weekly clients than mom-and-pop and informal wet market retailers respectively. This is expected, as through this study we have seen that formal market retailers tend to have more stalls, are located in several markets, and trade higher volumes than the other categories of vendors."},{"index":11,"size":20,"text":"The analysis by product type yields no difference in term of number of weekly clients between fruit and vegetable sellers."},{"index":12,"size":95,"text":"Sixth, all types of retailers provide a wide variety of services to their clients (discounts over prices/volumes, credits, packing, special sorting, etc.), but the results show that a lower share of momand-pop retailers provide services to clients compared to formal and informal wet market retailers. Only on the service of \"special sorting\" a slightly lower share of formal wet market retailers offer this service, this is expected given the nature of the clientele of this type of retailer. Once again, there are no significant differences regarding services provided to clients by fruits and vegetable retailers."},{"index":13,"size":50,"text":"Seventh, it is highly common for all retailers to receive complaints from clients regardless of category of retailer or the product that they sell. There is a wide variety of reasons why clients complain, but the main reasons are related to: size, firmness of product, color, and variety of product. "}]},{"head":"FVN FRESH FRUIT & VEGETABLE RETAILER SURVEY Informed consent and confidentiality of interviews","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":186,"text":"Good morning/afternoon, Mr/Mrs _______. My name is ______ and I am here to administer a survey on behalf of______. Your business is one of the few selected. The purpose of this survey is to gather information about fruit and vegetable consumption. The interview will take about ____. All the information we obtain will remain strictly confidential and your answers and name will never be revealed. Also you are not obliged to answer question you do not want to, and you may stop the interview at any time. The objective of this study is to assess the dynamics related to fruit and vegetable markets and its consumption. This is not to evaluate or criticize you, so please do not feel pressured to give a specific response and do not feel shy if you do not know the answer to a question. I am not expecting you give a specific answer; I would like you to answer questions honestly, telling me about what you know, how you feel, the way you live and how you eat and prepare food. Feel free to answer questions at your own pace. "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"FigureFigure 5 . Figure 1. Map of Ha Dong district Figure 2. Map of Dong Da district "},{"text":"TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES ACRONYMS INTRODUCTION METHODOLOGY  STUDY AREA STUDY AREA STUDY POPULATION STUDY POPULATION RANDOMIZATION AND SAMPLING RANDOMIZATION AND SAMPLING QUESTIONNAIRE AND DATA COLLECTION QUESTIONNAIRE AND DATA COLLECTION STATISTICS STATISTICS CHARACTERISTICS OF RETAILERS. CHARACTERISTICS OF RETAILERS.  "},{"text":"CONDUCT OF RETAILERS. OVERVIEW APPENDIX 1: PROTOCOL FOR SELECTION OF 32 TARGET FRUIT AND VEGETABLES APPENDIX 2: MARKET LEVEL ASSESSMENT RETAILER QUESTIONNAIRE.   "},{"text":"TABLE 1 . DISTRIBUTION AND CHARACTERISTICS OF RETAILERS IN TWO DISTRICTS OF HANOI. TABLE 2. SAMPLE DISTRIBUTION OF FOUR CATEGORIES OF PRODUCTS (FRUITS, DGL VEGETABLES, VITAMIN A RICH VEGETABLES, OTHER VEGETABLES). TABLE 3. DISTRIBUTION OF THE SAMPLE BY DISTRICT AND RETAILER TYPE.   "},{"text":"TABLE 4 . DISTRIBUTION OF THE SAMPLE BY PRODUCT TYPE.   "},{"text":"TABLE 5 . HUMAN CAPITAL BY RETAILER TYPE TABLE 6. HUMAN CAPITAL BY PRODUCT TYPE   "},{"text":"TABLE 7 . FUNCTIONAL STATUS OF TRADERS BY RETAILER TYPE   "},{"text":"TABLE 8 . FUNCTIONAL STATUS OF TRADERS BY PRODUCT TYPE   "},{"text":"TABLE 9 . PHYSICAL ASSETS BY RETAILER TYPE   "},{"text":"TABLE 10 . PHYSICAL ASSETS BY PRODUCT TYPE   "},{"text":"TABLE 11 . LABOR AND BUSINESS COSTS BY RETAILER TYPE   "},{"text":"TABLE 12 . LABOR AND BUSINESS COSTS BY PRODUCT TYPE   "},{"text":"TABLE 13 . CONDUCT OF RETAILERS AND SUPPLIERS BY RETAILER TYPE   "},{"text":"TABLE 14 . CONDUCT OF RETAILERS AND SUPPLIERS BY PRODUCT TYPE   "},{"text":"TABLE 15 . CONDUCT OF RETAILERS AND CLIENTS BY RETAILER TYPE   "},{"text":"TABLE 16 . CONDUCT OF RETAILERS AND CLIENTS BY PRODUCT TYPE   "},{"text":"Table 1 . Distribution and characteristics of retailers in two districts of Hanoi.     Share Share Share Share Number Averag ShareShareShareShareNumberAverag    of of of of of e ofofofofofe    traders traders traders traders actors number traderstraderstraderstradersactorsnumber District Ward Retailer Type who are who are buying with  of DistrictWardRetailer Typewho arewho arebuyingwithof    wholesa retailer F&Vs own  product wholesaretailerF&Vsownproduct    lers s  product  s lerssproducts       ion   ion Dong Da Hang Bot Van Chuong Informal wet/street market specialized shops market Informal wet/street 7 100 16 100 100 99 93 100 86 57 0 72 72 1 70 12.6 5.0 11.9 Dong DaHang Bot Van ChuongInformal wet/street market specialized shops market Informal wet/street7 100 16100 100 9993 100 8657 0 7272 1 7012.6 5.0 11.9   convenient store 23 100 92 38 13 15.1 convenient store2310092381315.1  Bien Giang (traditional) formal wet market Informal wet/street 100 60 50 98 0 58 100 60 2 40 5.5 12.2 Bien Giang(traditional) formal wet market Informal wet/street100 6050 980 58100 602 405.5 12.2 Ha  market       Hamarket Dong  convenient store 0 100 100 60 10 16.6 Dongconvenient store0100100601016.6   (traditional)       (traditional)  Dong Mai formal wet market 56 100 67 47 36 8.8 Dong Maiformal wet market561006747368.8   Informal wet/street 18 100 36 73 11 8.9 Informal wet/street181003673118.9   market       market      TOTAL  255 11.9 TOTAL25511.9     Informal wet/street market 193 12.1 Informal wet/street market19312.1     convenient store (traditional) 23 15.7 convenient store (traditional)2315.7     formal wet market  38 8.7 formal wet market388.7     specialized shops  1 5.0 specialized shops15.0 Table         Table  "},{"text":"Table 2 . Sample distribution of four categories of products (Fruits, DGL Vegetables, Vitamin A Rich Vegetables, Other Vegetables).  Product Number of traders selling this product (1 st stage) Sample (2 nd Stage) ProductNumber of traders selling this product (1 st stage)Sample (2 nd Stage) Passion fruit 35  Passion fruit35 Chinese leek 39  Chinese leek39 Persimmon 47  Persimmon47 Mushroom 48  Mushroom48 Papaya 53  Papaya53 Lettuce leaves 58  Lettuce leaves58 Amaranth, spineless 60  Amaranth, spineless60 Tangerine 62  Tangerine62 Pomelo 63  Pomelo63 Watercress 63  Watercress63 Orange 69  Orange69 Guava 69  Guava69 Ripe mango 69  Ripe mango69 Mungbean sprouts 75  Mungbean sprouts75 Napa cabbage 76  Napa cabbage76 Piper lolot 77  Piper lolot77 Sweet potato, leaves 91  Sweet potato, leaves91 Onion, common, garden 93  Onion, common, garden93 Carrot 94  Carrot94 Lettuce, romaine, leaves 97  Lettuce, romaine, leaves97 Broccoli, leaves and stem 104  Broccoli, leaves and stem104 Amaranth, white 107  Amaranth, white107 Pumpkin 108  Pumpkin108 Cabbage 113  Cabbage113 Katuk 116  Katuk116 Choy-sum 118  Choy-sum118 Amaranth, red 120  Amaranth, red120 Mustard greens 124  Mustard greens124 Morning glory 124  Morning glory124 Ceylon spinach 130  Ceylon spinach130 Total Sample  1000 Total Sample1000  "},{"text":"Table 3 . Distribution of the sample by district and retailer type.   Mom & Pop Formal Wet Market Informal Wet Market Convenience Store Total Mom & PopFormal Wet MarketInformal Wet MarketConvenience StoreTotal Observations 27 16 148 1 192 Observations27161481192 District      District Dong Da 2 0 108 1 111 Dong Da201081111 Ha Dong 25 11 40 0 81 Ha Dong251140081 Table 3 shows the distribution of the sample of retailers by district and retailer type. As expected, given Table 3 shows the distribution of the sample of retailers by district and retailer type. As expected, given the distribution of retailers obtained in the census of the four selected wards (Table 1), the vast majority the distribution of retailers obtained in the census of the four selected wards (Table 1), the vast majority of the observations in the random sample are retailers located in informal wet markets (77% of total of the observations in the random sample are retailers located in informal wet markets (77% of total sample), followed by Mom & Pop retailers, and formal wet market actors. The sample produced only one sample), followed by Mom & Pop retailers, and formal wet market actors. The sample produced only one observation for retailers with a convenience store format, hence we decided to drop this observation for observation for retailers with a convenience store format, hence we decided to drop this observation for the descriptive analysis segregated by type of retailer.    the descriptive analysis segregated by type of retailer.  "},{"text":"Table 4 . Distribution of the sample by product type.  Product Type Product Type  "},{"text":"Table 5 . Human capital by retailer type  Mom Formal Informal All MomFormalInformalAll & Wet Wet  &WetWet Pop Market Market  PopMarketMarket  "},{"text":"Table 6 . Human capital by product type Table 7 and 8 show the functional status of retailers. Several points emerge. Fruits Vegetables All FruitsVegetablesAll  (DGLV, Vit A  (DGLV, Vit A  rich, Other)  rich, Other)  "},{"text":"Table 7 . Functional status of traders by retailer type  Mom & Formal Informal All Mom &FormalInformalAll Pop Wet Wet  PopWetWet  Market Market  MarketMarket  "},{"text":"Table 8 . Functional status of traders by product type  Fruits Vegetables All FruitsVegetablesAll  "},{"text":"Table 9 . Physical assets by retailer type  Mom & Pop Formal Market Wet Informal Market Wet All Mom & PopFormal Market WetInformal Market WetAll  "},{"text":"Table 10 . Physical assets by product type  Fruits Vegetables All FruitsVegetablesAll  "},{"text":"Table 11 . Labor and business costs by retailer type  Mom & Pop Formal Market Wet Informal Market Wet All Mom & PopFormal Market WetInformal Market WetAll  "},{"text":"Table 12 . Labor and business costs by product type  Fruits Vegetables All FruitsVegetablesAll  "},{"text":"Table 13 . Conduct of retailers and suppliers by retailer type  Mom & Pop Formal Market Wet Informal Market Wet All Mom & PopFormal Market WetInformal Market WetAll  "},{"text":"Table 14 . Conduct of retailers and suppliers by product type  Fruits Vegetables All FruitsVegetablesAll  "},{"text":"Table 15 . Conduct of retailers and clients by retailer type  Mom & Pop Formal Market Wet Informal Market Wet All Mom & PopFormal Market WetInformal Market WetAll  "},{"text":"Table 16 . Conduct of retailers and clients by product type  Fruits Vegetables All FruitsVegetablesAll  "},{"text":"of retailers who received complaints from buyers over the past 12 months (%)  Hanh tay Allium cepa L. Onion, common, X X (malabar) X X (also X (dry, also X (41) X as acceptable in price, perceived Year round Commonly consumed, year round Year round Perceived as commonly Year round NCDs prevention, commonly high level of pesticides Hanh tayAllium cepa L.Onion, common,X X (malabar) X X (also X (dry, also X (41)Xas acceptable in price, perceived Year round Commonly consumed, year round Year round Perceived as commonly Year round NCDs prevention, commonly high level of pesticides Oi Cai ngong Rau mong toi Rau tam bop Xoai chin Sup lo xanh Cai soong Rau muong He la Psidium guajava L. Brassica rapa L. Basella alba Linnaeus Physalis angulata Linnaeus Brassica oleracea var. Mangifera indica L. Nasturtium microphyllum Boenn. ex Rchb. Ipomoea aquatica Forssk. Allium odorum L. =Ipomea aquatica? garden Chinese flowering Ceylon spinach cabbage/ choysum Groundcherry, leaves Guava RAE) Broccoli, leaves Mango, ripe (32 Watercress Water spinach (Morning glory) Onion, Chinese leek Morning glory x (fermented) western) X X X X (just X x X (fermented) X X X as acceptable in terms of safety Year round Commonly consumed, year round available, rich in Vit C, perceived available (although some indicate consumed, year round available, consumed, year round available, (Pesticide ++) that there is seasonality), although perceived seasonal perceived as acceptable in price Nov-Jan (40%) X (33%) Is not known and not perceived as acceptable in price and in terms of safety available, perceived as acceptable in price and in terms of safety and safe Year round NCDs prevention, commonly frequently consumed, although very nutrient dense as acceptable in price, perceived as acceptable in terms of safety acceptable in price, perceived as Year round Perceived as commonly Year round Perceived as commonly July to NCDs prevention, commonly jun X (50%) Year round Commonly consumed, year round available, Vit A rich, perceived as Aug-April Perceived as commonly consumed, although seasonal available, perceived as acceptable in price and in terms of safety Year round, peak may-jun Commonly consumed, perceived as acceptable in price and in terms of safety consumed, year round available, (vit A and vit C) although perceived seasonal Year Is the same as water spinach, available, perceived as acceptable in price and in terms of safety peak may-(67%) common, X (malabar) Cai bap) X X X X X round, which is already included Oi Cai ngong Rau mong toi Rau tam bop Xoai chin Sup lo xanh Cai soong Rau muong He laPsidium guajava L. Brassica rapa L. Basella alba Linnaeus Physalis angulata Linnaeus Brassica oleracea var. Mangifera indica L. Nasturtium microphyllum Boenn. ex Rchb. Ipomoea aquatica Forssk. Allium odorum L. =Ipomea aquatica?garden Chinese flowering Ceylon spinach cabbage/ choysum Groundcherry, leaves Guava RAE) Broccoli, leaves Mango, ripe (32 Watercress Water spinach (Morning glory) Onion, Chinese leek Morning gloryx (fermented) western) X X X X (just X x X (fermented) X X Xas acceptable in terms of safety Year round Commonly consumed, year round available, rich in Vit C, perceived available (although some indicate consumed, year round available, consumed, year round available, (Pesticide ++) that there is seasonality), although perceived seasonal perceived as acceptable in price Nov-Jan (40%) X (33%) Is not known and not perceived as acceptable in price and in terms of safety available, perceived as acceptable in price and in terms of safety and safe Year round NCDs prevention, commonly frequently consumed, although very nutrient dense as acceptable in price, perceived as acceptable in terms of safety acceptable in price, perceived as Year round Perceived as commonly Year round Perceived as commonly July to NCDs prevention, commonly jun X (50%) Year round Commonly consumed, year round available, Vit A rich, perceived as Aug-April Perceived as commonly consumed, although seasonal available, perceived as acceptable in price and in terms of safety Year round, peak may-jun Commonly consumed, perceived as acceptable in price and in terms of safety consumed, year round available, (vit A and vit C) although perceived seasonal Year Is the same as water spinach, available, perceived as acceptable in price and in terms of safety peak may-(67%) common, X (malabar) Cai bap) X X X X X round, which is already included Cai thao Rau xa lach Brassica rapa subsp. pekinensis (Lour.) Hanelt Lactuca sativa L. italica Plenck Pomelo Napa cabbage Lettuce, romaine, and stem Excluded VITAMIN A RICH VEGETABLES X (fermented) lettuce) leaves Mungobean X (51) Excluded OTHER VEGETABLES  Year Round April Year safe Perceived as commonly consumed, Vit C rich, perceived as acceptable in price and in terms of consumed, year round available, although perceived seasonal available, perceived as acceptable in price and in terms of safety consumed, year round available, although perceived seasonal consumed, although seasonal available, perceived as acceptable available, perceived as acceptable in price and in terms of safety in price and in terms of safety Commonly consumed, year round Cai thao Rau xa lachBrassica rapa subsp. pekinensis (Lour.) Hanelt Lactuca sativa L. italica PlenckPomelo Napa cabbage Lettuce, romaine, and stem Excluded VITAMIN A RICH VEGETABLES X (fermented) lettuce) leaves Mungobean X (51) Excluded OTHER VEGETABLESYear Round April Yearsafe Perceived as commonly consumed, Vit C rich, perceived as acceptable in price and in terms of consumed, year round available, although perceived seasonal available, perceived as acceptable in price and in terms of safety consumed, year round available, although perceived seasonal consumed, although seasonal available, perceived as acceptable available, perceived as acceptable in price and in terms of safety in price and in terms of safety Commonly consumed, year round   sprouts Yellow pepper X (also X X X X safety Year round Highly consumed, year round Year Frequently consumed, highly Round available, nutrient rich (folate), It is expensive and normally sprouts Yellow pepperX (also XXX Xsafety Year round Highly consumed, year round Year Frequently consumed, highly Round available, nutrient rich (folate), It is expensive and normally   (Bell pepper) fermented) X (65%) (29%) Year round, Perceived as commonly available, although perceived nutritious, and perceived to be adds to diversity people stir fry with beef, beef (Bell pepper)fermented)X(65%) (29%)Year round,Perceived as commonly available, although perceived nutritious, and perceived to be adds to diversity people stir fry with beef, beef Cai xanh Rau ngót Brassica juncea (L.) Czern. Sauropus androgynus Tangerine Mushroom, Mustard greens Katuk common    Round peak may-june consumed, Vit C rich, perceived as acceptable in price and in terms of seasonal available, perceived very good food especially for Although not commonly is also expensive, therefore acceptable in price, perceived children and mother after birth, consumed, high in nutrients; not often used Cai xanh Rau ngótBrassica juncea (L.) Czern. Sauropus androgynusTangerine Mushroom, Mustard greens Katuk commonRound peak may-juneconsumed, Vit C rich, perceived as acceptable in price and in terms of seasonal available, perceived very good food especially for Although not commonly is also expensive, therefore acceptable in price, perceived children and mother after birth, consumed, high in nutrients; not often used   Tomato    safety safety risk (persticides++), high vit not expensive and no perception Nutrient rich (Mushroom Chinese, Very frequently consumed by Tomatosafety safety risk (persticides++), high vit not expensive and no perception Nutrient rich (Mushroom Chinese, Very frequently consumed by     X  Perceived as commonly A and C. of food safety issues. dried (raw is less nutrient rich): all households, it is not XPerceived as commonly A and C. of food safety issues. dried (raw is less nutrient rich): all households, it is not La lot Piper sarmentosum Roxb. Papaya Piper lolot VITAMIN A RICH VEGETABLES X   consumed, Vit A rich, perceived as acceptable in price and in terms of Year round perceived as acceptable in price high in 4 nutrients (Ca, iron, adding to diversity, a lot of and in terms of safety riboflavin, Niacin) and in 3 research already done on La lotPiper sarmentosum Roxb.Papaya Piper lolot VITAMIN A RICH VEGETABLES Xconsumed, Vit A rich, perceived as acceptable in price and in terms of Year round perceived as acceptable in price high in 4 nutrients (Ca, iron, adding to diversity, a lot of and in terms of safety riboflavin, Niacin) and in 3 research already done on Quat Rau den com Rau den do Rau den trang Rau diep Rau khoai lang Ca rot Bi ngo Cai bap Citrus Japonica Amaranthus viridis Linnaeus Amaranthus viridis Linnaeus Amaranthus viridis Linnaeus Lactuca sativa L. Ipomoea batatas (L.) Lam. capitata L. Daucus carota L. Cucurbita maxima Duchesne Brassica oleraceae var. Qumquat DARK GREEN LEAFY VEGETABLES X (RD4DD) Amaranth, spineless X Amaranth, red X X Amaranth, white X Lettuce, cos, leaves X (just lettuce) Sweet potato, leaves X X also purple) fermented, Carrot X X Banana (dwarf) Pumpkin X X OTHER VEGETABLES Cabbage X (also X safety Year round Perceived as commonly consumed, availability year round, perceived to have many health benefits, due to its contents: Vitamin C, vitamin A, beta-cryptoxanthin, lutein, alpha-carotene, polyphenol (skin). Its beta-cryptoxanthin have potential function to anti-cancer (lung cancer) and weight loss. Jan-Oct perceived as acceptable in price and in terms of safety Feb-Nov perceived as acceptable in price and in terms of safety Jan-Aug perceived as acceptable in price and in terms of safety Year round Perceived as commonly consumed, year round available, although perceived seasonal available, perceived as acceptable in price and in terms of safety of safety available, perceived as acceptable as acceptable in price and in terms although perceived seasonal Year round Commonly consumed, perceived consumed, year round available, in price and in terms of safety nutrient densities (iron, riboflavin, tomatoes, if household have Year round Vit A content relatively high, niacin); Mushroom, common: high increased income, will not Commonly consumed, year round in 3 nutrients (thiamine, spend more on tomatoes available, perceived as acceptable riboflavin, niacin) and in 5 Very frequently consumed by in price and safe nutrient densities (zinc, thiamine, all households, it is not Year round Vit A content relatively high, riboflavin, niacin, B6)) adding to diversity, a lot of Commonly consumed, year round research already done on available, perceived as acceptable bananas, if household have in price and safe increased income, will not X(67%) Year round NCDs prevention, commonly X (20%) X (20%) X (20%) X (20%) X (16%) spend more on tomatoes Quat Rau den com Rau den do Rau den trang Rau diep Rau khoai lang Ca rot Bi ngo Cai bapCitrus Japonica Amaranthus viridis Linnaeus Amaranthus viridis Linnaeus Amaranthus viridis Linnaeus Lactuca sativa L. Ipomoea batatas (L.) Lam. capitata L. Daucus carota L. Cucurbita maxima Duchesne Brassica oleraceae var.Qumquat DARK GREEN LEAFY VEGETABLES X (RD4DD) Amaranth, spineless X Amaranth, red X X Amaranth, white X Lettuce, cos, leaves X (just lettuce) Sweet potato, leaves X X also purple) fermented, Carrot X X Banana (dwarf) Pumpkin X X OTHER VEGETABLES Cabbage X (also Xsafety Year round Perceived as commonly consumed, availability year round, perceived to have many health benefits, due to its contents: Vitamin C, vitamin A, beta-cryptoxanthin, lutein, alpha-carotene, polyphenol (skin). Its beta-cryptoxanthin have potential function to anti-cancer (lung cancer) and weight loss. Jan-Oct perceived as acceptable in price and in terms of safety Feb-Nov perceived as acceptable in price and in terms of safety Jan-Aug perceived as acceptable in price and in terms of safety Year round Perceived as commonly consumed, year round available, although perceived seasonal available, perceived as acceptable in price and in terms of safety of safety available, perceived as acceptable as acceptable in price and in terms although perceived seasonal Year round Commonly consumed, perceived consumed, year round available, in price and in terms of safety nutrient densities (iron, riboflavin, tomatoes, if household have Year round Vit A content relatively high, niacin); Mushroom, common: high increased income, will not Commonly consumed, year round in 3 nutrients (thiamine, spend more on tomatoes available, perceived as acceptable riboflavin, niacin) and in 5 Very frequently consumed by in price and safe nutrient densities (zinc, thiamine, all households, it is not Year round Vit A content relatively high, riboflavin, niacin, B6)) adding to diversity, a lot of Commonly consumed, year round research already done on available, perceived as acceptable bananas, if household have in price and safe increased income, will not X(67%) Year round NCDs prevention, commonly X (20%) X (20%) X (20%) X (20%) X (16%) spend more on tomatoes Yes  89 86 87  Yes898687 No  11 14 13  No111413 Reason of complaint (%)     Reason of complaint (%) Dirty product  3 0 1  Dirty product301 Variety  44 33 37  Variety443337 Color  46 34 38  Color463438 Size  63 45 52  Size634552 Firmness  48 41 44  Firmness484144 Lack of volume in the box 0 0 0  Lack of volume in the box000 Other  30 41 37  Other304137  "},{"text":"self, 2 spouse, 3 son/daughter, 4 other] 5 . N. of partners: _____________ 6. What is the last educational year approved by the owner? ____ 7. Gender: 1.M 2.F 8. Age: ________ Same district, 2. Different district same province, 3. Different province, same region 4. Different region 5. Imported from China, 5 Imported from other SEA countries 6. Imported from other countries Perishability  Would you like to participate in this survey? 1.Yes 2.No Would you like to participate in this survey?1.Yes2.No Signatures    Signatures I. GENERAL INFORMATION   I. GENERAL INFORMATION Enumerator: ___________________ Date ____________ Survey No ________ Ward: ___________ Enumerator: ___________________ Date ____________ Survey No ________ Ward: ___________ Street Name: __________________ GPS coordinates: _____________________  Street Name: __________________ GPS coordinates: _____________________ 1. Type of retailer: ________________   1. Type of retailer: ________________ 1. Ambulant Street vendor   1. Ambulant Street vendor 2. Mom-&-Pop / small traditional family-owned grocery store   2. Mom-&-Pop / small traditional family-owned grocery store 3. Formal wet-market    3. Formal wet-market 4. Informal (wet) market   4. Informal (wet) market 5. Chain-based micro/minimarket   5. Chain-based micro/minimarket 6. Larger supermarket    6. Larger supermarket 7. Convenience store    7. Convenience store 2. Retailer characteristics   2. Retailer characteristics 9. Product 10. Do you buy this product to sell 11. Where are these  12. Where are these 9. Product10. Do you buy this product to sell11. Where are these12. Where are these  or just charge a commission for products coming from? products coming from? or just charge a commission forproducts coming from?products coming from?  brokering? LOCATION CODE  LOCATION NAME brokering?LOCATION CODELOCATION NAME 1. 1.buy 2. commission 3. own prod.   1.1.buy 2. commission 3. own prod. 2. 1.buy 2. commission 3. own prod.   2.1.buy 2. commission 3. own prod. 3. 1.buy 2. commission 3. own prod.   3.1.buy 2. commission 3. own prod. 4. 1.buy 2. commission 3. own prod.   4.1.buy 2. commission 3. own prod. 5. 1.buy 2. commission 3. own prod.   5.1.buy 2. commission 3. own prod. LOCATION CODE: 1.    LOCATION CODE: 1.  "},{"text":"of the products and other information 13. Daily, 2. Every other day 3. Weekly CODE 2: 1. Room temperature 2. Chilled/refrigerated Location of the retailer 21. How much product can be stored on your stall/shop(s)? ______ (capacity in Kgs or mt 2 ): How much of each product can be stored in your stall/shop? Product 1: _____(kg) Product 2: ____(kg) Product 3: _____(kg) Product 4: _____(kg)Product 5: _____(kg) 22. In this ward, how many stalls/shops do you have?_____________ 23. For how long? ______________ 24. Do you have stalls/shops in other places? 1.Yes 2.No (if no, then go to question 24) 25. In which other places do you have stalls/shops? Prior to your current business (your current stalls/shop), Did you work in selling any of these products? 1.Yes___ 2.No____ (If no go to question 26) 31. For how long ?_____ years. 32. Prior to your current business (stalls/shops), did you have another stall/shop in other market in which you are no longer present? 1.Yes____ 2.No____ (if not go to question 36) 33. Where ______________________ 34. When ____________ 35. Why did you change? _________________________________________________ 36. In what other businesses are you involved (indicate type of business)? ___________________________ Product 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 1.Stall in a formal retail market 14. How often is [product] supplied? CODE 1 15. How long is the [product] stored normally? days CODE 2 2.Stall in an informal retail market 3.Stall next to a road 4.Stall in your home 5.Other 30. II. COMERCIALISATION CODE 1: 1. 26. Where is 16. What is the maximum storage time in winter? (days) this located? Purchasing 17 What is the maximum storage time in summer? (days) 27. Property 1. owned 2. rented 18. Did you crop [product] in the last 12 months? 1.Yes 2.No 3. borrowed 4. market fee 5. none 28 How many 19. What was the cropping area? (mt 2 ) stalls/shops do you have in this place? 20. When did you began cropping? (year) 29 since when? (year) Product 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 1.Stall in a formal retail market 14. How often is [product] supplied? CODE 1 15. How long is the [product] stored normally? days CODE 2 2.Stall in an informal retail market 3.Stall next to a road 4.Stall in your home 5.Other 30. II. COMERCIALISATION CODE 1: 1. 26. Where is 16. What is the maximum storage time in winter? (days) this located? Purchasing17 What is the maximum storage time in summer? (days) 27. Property 1. owned 2. rented 18. Did you crop [product] in the last 12 months? 1.Yes 2.No 3. borrowed 4. market fee 5. none 28 How many 19. What was the cropping area? (mt 2 ) stalls/shops do you have in this place?20. When did you began cropping? (year) 29 since when? (year)  "},{"text":"volume per season (for your current stall/shop in this ward     ) ) 37. Product NOW 5 YEARS AGO 37. ProductNOW5 YEARS AGO 38. Average weekly 39. Average weekly 40. Average weekly 41. Average 38. Average weekly39. Average weekly40. Average weekly41. Average volume in high  volume in low volume in high weekly volume in volume in highvolume in lowvolume in highweekly volume in season  season season low season seasonseasonseasonlow season 1.    1. 2.    2. 3.    3. 4.    4. 5.    5.  "},{"text":"Maximum and minimum volumes (for your current stall/shop) in this ward 42. Own and rented infrastructure and equipment for operation of your stall/shop in THIS location: Do you regularly check the prices in other markets? 1.Yes__ 2.No __ (If no, go to question 63) 91. Where? ____________________ Number of employees that you have in THIS shop/stall Permanent ___________ per day _______ Other_____ 97. How many family members do you have working with you selling these products?___________________ III. INFRASTRUCTURE      III.INFRASTRUCTURE 82. Equipment 83. Do 84. 85. Property 86. 87. 88. 89. 82. Equipment83. Do84.85. Property86.87.88.89.   you have Quantit 1. owned  Capacity/ If owned How If rented, you haveQuantit1. ownedCapacity/If ownedHowIf rented,   it? y 2. rented  Unit equipment, much did what is the it?y2. rentedUnitequipment,much didwhat is the   1 Yes 2  3.borrowed   since it cost? monthly 1 Yes 23.borrowedsinceit cost?monthly   No     when? rent? Nowhen?rent? 1. Boxes (plastic)       1. Boxes (plastic) x. Boxes (wood)       x. Boxes (wood) x. Boxes (other)       x. Boxes (other) 2.Scales        2.Scales 3.Truck (small)       3.Truck (small) 4.Truck (large)       4.Truck (large) 5.Warehouses       5.Warehouses 6.Telephone       6.Telephone 7.Electric        7.Electric Generator        Generator 8.Computer       8.Computer 9. Refrigerator       9. Refrigerator 10.Bicycle        10.Bicycle 10. Other        10. Other 10. Other        10. Other 10.Other________       10.Other________ __        __ 90. IV. BUSINESS COSTS (FIXED AND VARIABLE)   90. IV.BUSINESS COSTS (FIXED AND VARIABLE) 92.Cost category 93. Did you pay for this service? 94. Amount 95. Time frame 92.Cost category93. Did you pay for this service?94. Amount95. Time frame     1 Yes 2 No  (thousand VND) CODE 1 1 Yes2 No(thousand VND)CODE 1 1.Electricity       1.Electricity 2.Rent of stall       2.Rent of stall 3.Market/commune fee      3.Market/commune fee 4.        4. 43. What is the maximum weekly volume (Kgs) that you 5.Electric generator fuel 6.Labor expenses 7.Transportation maintenance 44. What is the minimum weekly volume (Kgs) that you 45. Considering your weekly volume, What 46. Considering your weekly volume, What 43. What is the maximum weekly volume (Kgs) that you 5.Electric generator fuel 6.Labor expenses 7.Transportation maintenance44. What is the minimum weekly volume (Kgs) that you45. Considering your weekly volume, What46. Considering your weekly volume, What have sold in the last 12 8.Car insurance have sold in the last 12 is the waste in high is the waste in low have sold in the last 12 8.Car insurancehave sold in the last 12is the waste in highis the waste in low Product 9.Piped water months?  months?  season (Kgs)? season (Kgs)? Product 9.Piped watermonths?months?season (Kgs)?season (Kgs)? 1. 10.Telephone       1. 10.Telephone 2. 11.Internet 3. 12.Pest control 4. 13. Other taxes 5. 14.Other expenditures      2. 11.Internet 3. 12.Pest control 4. 13. Other taxes 5. 14.Other expenditures CODE 1: 1. Daily, 2. Weekly, 3. Bi-weekly, 4. Monthly, 5. Every six months, 6. Yearly. 7. Other_____ CODE 1: 1. Daily, 2. Weekly, 3. Bi-weekly, 4. Monthly, 5. Every six months, 6. Yearly. 7. Other_____ Employees and infrastructure for commercialization    Employees and infrastructure for commercialization 96.        96.  "}],"sieverID":"969fb771-ba62-465a-9eee-426f35aec96b","abstract":""}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0592a4cef2153ca8bd13831eee7f50a3","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/801e9ad0-f15a-4db5-8a22-23cba8d85a0a/retrieve"},"pageCount":1,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":19,"text":"Se avanzó en la validación del modelo Ruminant para emisiones de metano de sistemas ganaderos localizados en trópico bajo."},{"index":2,"size":15,"text":"Se obtuvo una alta correlación entre los datos observados y los simulados (R 2 =0.7)."},{"index":3,"size":18,"text":"Los parámetros más importantes (Peso vivo, NDF, proteína, ACHO, BCHO, cenizas y grasas) determinan las emisiones de metano."},{"index":4,"size":46,"text":"Ruminant, método \"Tier 3\", puede servir de apoyo a la implementación del NDC de Colombia y mejorar los cálculos de los inventarios nacionales de GEI, además de identificar acciones apropiadas de mitigación para la NAMA ganadera a través de la evaluación de GEI de diferentes dietas."},{"index":5,"size":94,"text":"Validación del modelo Ruminant a través de mediciones de campo y laboratorio para obtener estimaciones precisas de emisiones de metano entérico bajo condiciones tropicales como soporte a las NDC Colombianas El modelo Ruminant simula el proceso digestivo y metabólico a partir de la cantidad y la calidad de los alimentos consumidos por los bovinos. La validación contribuirá a mejorar la precisión del modelo para predecir emisiones en las futuras comunicaciones y como metodología MRV, que los estándares de mitigación de cambio climático demandan y así cumplir con los estrictos procesos que plantea el IPCC."},{"index":6,"size":36,"text":"El modelo Ruminant describió una estimación precisa en las dietas incluidas en el estudio (R 2 =0.7) como lo describen los Gráficos 1 y 2, y una alta precisión sobre todo en dietas combinadas (T3, T5)."},{"index":7,"size":26,"text":"En su relación con las cantidades de metano obtenidas en ensayo in vitro (Gráfico 3), el modelo demostró tener una mas alta correlación (R 2 =0.92)."}]},{"head":"Metodología","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":46,"text":"El ensayo se realizó en la sede del CIAT en Palmira, Valle del Cauca, Colombia, bajo coordenadas 3° 30'7 \"N y 76° 21'22\" W (altitud: 990 msnm, precipitación anual: 1,800 mm, temperatura media: 24°C). En cuanto al tipo de suelos se caracterizan y clasifican como Mollisoles.  "}]}],"figures":[{"text":" (B. brizantha cv. Toledo CIAT 26110) 2. Cayman (Brachiaria híbrido cv. Cayman CIAT BR 02/1752) 3. Estrella (Cynodon plectostachius) + Kudzú (Pueraria phaseoloides) 4. Cayman + Leucaena diversifolia 5. Toledo + Leucaena diversifolia, + Canavalia (Canavalia brasiliensis) 6. Cayman + L. leucocephala 7. Heno Angleton (Dichanthium aristatum).25 novillos Brahman con un peso aproximado de 205 kg, disponibilidad de sal mineral a voluntad y plan sanitario vigente. Las emisiones de metano fueron cuantificadas por medio de las metodologías del politúnel (in vivo) y producción de gas in vitro.La información de los forrajes y de los animales fue introducida al modeloRuminant, el cual estima la cantidad de metano individual diario.Gráfico 1. Relación de los valores observados in vivo y los simulados por el modelo Ruminant (L CH 4 /animal/dia) Gráfico 2. Relación de los valores de metano observados in vivo y los simulados por el modelo Ruminant (L CH 4 /animal/dia) Gráfico 3. Relación de los valores de metano observados in vitro y los simulados por el modelo Ruminat (L CH 4 /animal/dia) Este póster está licenciado para utilizarse bajo la licencia Creative Commons Atribución 4.0 (CC BY 4.0) 2017-09. Diseño: José Luis Urrea (CIAT)Este estudio se realizó con el apoyo de USAID con el animo de apoyar los NDCs en Colombia y se llevo a cabo con la infraestructura y el personal de proyecto LivestockPlus financiado por el Programa de Investigación (CRP) del CGIAR sobre Cambio Climático, Agricultura y Seguridad Alimentaria (CCAFS), que es una alianza estratégica entre el CGIAR y Future Earth. Además, este trabajo también se realizó como parte del CRP Livestock. Agradecemos a todos los donantes que apoyan globalmente el trabajo del programa a través de sus contribuciones al sistema CGIAR. "},{"text":"Agradecimientos MADS. iNDC (ContribuciónPrevista y Nacionalmente Determinada de Colombia). 2015. Ministerio de Ambiente y Desarrollo Sostenible (MADS). Colombia hacia la COP 21. Gobierno de Colombia. Herrero, M., Havlík, P., Valin, H., Notenbaert, A., Rufino, M., Thornton, P., Blümmel, M., Weiss, F., Grace, D., Obersteiner M., 2013. Biomass use, production, feed efficiencies, and greenhouse gas emissions from global livestock systems. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 110(52): 20888-20893. Illius, A. Gordon, I., 1991. Prediction of intake and digestion in Ruminants by a model of rumen kinetics integrating animal size and plant characteristics. The Journal of Agricultural Science 116: 145-157.ReferenciasPóster presentado en Izquierda: de raza Brahman incluido dentro estudio y disposición de alimento a voluntad. Derecha: Politúnel dividido en cuatro secciones individuales. Fotos: CIAT. "}],"sieverID":"11579c8c-83bc-448a-ae84-b32fdd22a844","abstract":""}

data/part_4/0592c97791b6f50dbe694d4305ac4808.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0592c97791b6f50dbe694d4305ac4808","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/db3beb70-97af-4ea6-9e98-1f207ad3db5b/retrieve"},"pageCount":1,"title":"Latin America: Multi -Country capacity building for compliance with the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety Brazil -Colombia -Perú -Costa Rica","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"LINEA BASE PARA LA TOMA DE DESICIONES EN BIOSEGURIDAD: DESARROLLO DE UN MODELO PARA LA EVALUACION DE FLUJO DE GENES EN YUCA UTILIZANDO UNA LINEA ANDROESTERIL (Manihot esculenta Crantz).","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":35,"text":"Fory L.F, Pérez J.G., Duque S., Calle F., Morante N., Bolaños E, P. Herrera, Duque M., Ceballos H., Roca W., Gallego G y Tohme J. -Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical, CIAT. AA 6713, Cali. Colombia."},{"index":2,"size":360,"text":"Con el convenio de diversidad biológica se pone de manifiesto la creación del protocolo de Cartagena, el cual se centra principalmente en la regulación, transferencia y manipulación de los OGM, estableciéndose de este modo pautas para la evaluación de riesgo de los organismos genéticamente modificados. La yuca (Manihot esculenta Crantz) es un cultivo muy importante para América, Asia y África, varios laboratorios están trabajando con diferentes eventos de transformación a nivel experimental y versión del 70 % del genoma de yuca ha sido establecida recientemente (Prochnik et al., 2012). Ante una prominente liberación de yuca transgénica es necesario establecer los delineamientos básicos para evitar o minimizar el flujo de genes. El flujo de genes es un fenómeno natural en el cual ocurre un movimiento de la información de padres a hijos, en el caso de yuca la polinización es ayudada por la presencia de insectos y las características pueden transferirse a través del polen y la semilla, considerándose la semilla vegetativa como medio de propagación (Kawano, 1978;Álvarez y Daza, 1985 ). Altas tasa de cruzamiento han sido reportadas utilizando el color y forma del tallo (Kawano, 1978). Treinta metros son suficientes para evitar el flujo de polen y un perfecto aislamiento es obtenido a los 500 mts (Kawano, 1978;Álvarez y Daza, 1985). En la actualidad el programa de mejoramiento de yuca utiliza una distancia de 16 metros para evitar contaminación y se postulan la remoción de flores, eliminación de plantas antes de la floración y el cubrimiento de flores como métodos para evitar el flujo de polen (Halsey et al., 2008). El objetivo general de este proyecto es el fortalecimiento de la capacidad técnica mediante la generación de conocimiento para el desarrollo de guías o lineamientos en bioseguridad encaminados a la evaluación de riesgo de tipo ambiental. La información obtenida en esta investigación es necesaria para estudiar la dinámica de flujo e introgresión de genes entre la yuca y las especies compatibles del género Manihot, para construir estándares de aislamiento reproductivo. Esta información podrá contribuir en la toma de decisiones por autoridades competentes, poniendo a disposición información y herramientas clave para ayudar a implementar el Protocolo de Cartagena sobre Bioseguridad."},{"index":3,"size":25,"text":"3. Se registró la floración de plantas, vigor, número de ramificaciones (Embrapa, 1998), viabilidad de polen siguiendo la tinción de Alexander (Peterson et al. 2010)."},{"index":4,"size":38,"text":"4. Se siguió el desarrollo floral de las inflorescencias en veinte plantas del donador HMC1 y el clon androestéril (MCOL 1522). Adicionalmente se observó los visitantes florales y la apertura floral entre las 09:00 y las 16:00 horas."},{"index":5,"size":16,"text":"5. Se realizó la cosecha individual de capa planta y se realizó el conteo de frutos."},{"index":6,"size":94,"text":"6. Las semillas fueron sometidas a una prueba de viabilidad y las semillas fueron 1. Establecimiento de plantas in vitro y/o invernadero y trasplante a campo La viabilidad del polen donador fue mayor del 80% mientra que el clon androestéril no se registró polen viable, permitiendo la formación de fruto por polen externo (Figura 1). El solapamiento temporal en la floración y apertura floral fue de 11:00 a 15:00 horas y el principal visitante floral fue Apis mellifera (Figura 2). Bajas tasas de cruzamiento (15 %) fueron registradas al contabilizar más de 20.000 frutos.."},{"index":7,"size":120,"text":"Mediante modelación espacial de la viabilidad de polen y el número de frutos utilizando curvas de nivel (SAS ver 9.3) se observo que el número de fruto disminuyó a medida que se incrementó la distancia (Figuras 3 y 4). Sin embargo, otros factores como el vigor de la planta, la presencia de espacios libres (10, 20 y 30 m, Figura 2) pueden favorecer la presencia de polinizador y el incremento en tasa de cruzamiento. Estas tasas son menores que las registradas utilizando marcadores morfológicos como la forma del lóbulo y color de la vena (Kawano et al., 1978;Silva et al. 2003). La baja incidencia de flujo puede ser explicada por las altas precipitaciones que interrumpieron el solapamiento en la floración."},{"index":8,"size":19,"text":"Los marcadores moleculares tipo SSR confirmaron la naturaleza híbrida en la primera descendencia de la línea androestéril (Figura 5)."}]},{"head":"METODOLOGIA RESULTADOS Y DISCUSION","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":26,"text":"Figura 5. PCR del SSR y su visualización en agarosa al 2.8% en donde se muestra hibrido (H), donador de polen (D) y receptor de polen."},{"index":2,"size":117,"text":"2. Diseño bajo condiciones controladas (CIAT). utilizando el clon HMC1 como donador de polen y la línea androestéril como receptor.  Los clones cultivados en campo presentaron características de floración, vigor y viabilidad de polen adecuadas para permitir un solapamiento en la apertura floral, encontrándose frutos a más de 40 m en clon androestéril. Este resultado está en el rango de distancia de separación reportado por Kawano et al. (1978) y Álvarez y Daza (1985) pero implica que se debe incrementar la distancia desde la fuente de polen para garantizar aislamiento reproductivo. Para generar procedimientos adecuados de evaluación de riesgo ambiental, es necesario tener en cuenta: la característica a evaluar, la capacidad reproductiva y los parámetros de floración."}]},{"head":"CONCLUSIONES Y PERSPECTIVAS","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":23,"text":"El flujo no es homogénea dentro del campo, diferencias en las características en el suelo Pueden influir en el desarrollo de la planta."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figura 1 . Figura 1. Polen viable del donador (rojo ) y polen no viable ( azul) "},{"text":"Figura 2 . Figura 2. Flor femenina y el polinizador "}],"sieverID":"3fbc7e8b-8c03-4670-beb4-cd61d46d42ef","abstract":""}

data/part_4/05e435d0cc06f8b8e9befcb4669ef138.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"05e435d0cc06f8b8e9befcb4669ef138","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/e7d378c6-5e32-42e5-9924-de9607f69fc8/retrieve"},"pageCount":1,"title":"Towards Sustainable Coffee and Black Pepper Production in Vietnam","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":9,"text":"•Vietnam is a leading coffee and black pepper producer"},{"index":2,"size":8,"text":"•Central Highlands (CH) region is a key contributor"},{"index":3,"size":31,"text":"•Unsustainable farming practices lead to decline in production 1,2 •V-SCOPE project 3 seeks to improve coffee and black pepper farming systems and value-chain for improved smallholder livelihoods in the CH, Vietnam."},{"index":4,"size":14,"text":"•GAP promoted include; soil fertility management, liming, intercropping, soil rejuvenation and water saving practices. "}]},{"head":"Results","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":20,"text":"•Across the 3 districts, majority of the farmers planted 2 -4 crops on the same field (Figs. 2 & 3)."},{"index":2,"size":15,"text":"•Majority planted coffee with other crops (maize, rice, macadamia, vegetables and fruits) than mono coffee."},{"index":3,"size":12,"text":"•Also, black pepper was planted with other crops than mono black pepper."},{"index":4,"size":18,"text":"•Irrespective of the district, majority practiced only one (1) GAP with few practicing 2 -4 GAP (Fig. 4).  "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure 2 : Figure 2: Number of crops on the field of respondents "},{"text":"Figure 3 : Figure 3: Coffee and black pepper intercrop and livestock integration "},{"text":"Figure 4 :Figure 1 : Figure 4: Number of good agricultural practices (GAP) "}],"sieverID":"ec3900c9-89ac-4df9-8c22-b9dcc72a44c2","abstract":""}

data/part_4/0666a66161185fe0abc2862d37a0bcc8.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0666a66161185fe0abc2862d37a0bcc8","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/dc96d3db-cda7-4aac-9c90-4fa18ee03dbd/retrieve"},"pageCount":11,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Growing of crops with Agrochemicals","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":26,"text":"The crop development programmes will be accompanied by the modest use of agrochemicals and will consider the existence of apiculture as an important commodity among others."}]},{"head":"Expansion of Livestock Production","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":16,"text":"The improved dairy programme will be accompanied by the modest utilisation of veterinary drugs and chemicals."}]},{"head":"Soil erosion","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":89,"text":"A number of improved crop varieties are being introduced. These crop varieties require fine seedbed preparations. On the other hand it is expected that the support the project is giving might also encourage many farmers to expand cropland areas. The impacts of these activities may hence enhance soil erosion and hence land degradation. However, the project is introducing use of minimum tillage practices to counter the effects. Similarly, farmers and development agents are are also continuously being trained and demonstrated with appropriate crop husbandry practices considering also land degradation."}]},{"head":"Description of Project Surroundings","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":100,"text":"Bure has a population of 169,609 people of which about 85% is living in rural (Bure woreda, OoARD 2006). It is one of the consistently surplus producer woredas of the Amhara Region. The wereda is connected by the Bahir Dar-Addis Ababa and Nekemt-Bure roads. Therefore, Bure has good opportunity to sell its agricultural products in different regional states. The number of agricultural households, 21,793, is about eight times higher than the households in the urban areas. The total area of the woreda is 72,739 ha of which 46.6% is cultivated and average household cultivated land holding is about 1.6 ha."},{"index":2,"size":48,"text":"Bure is a high rainfall with mean annual values ranging from 1386 to 1757 mm (Fig. 2). The western and northern parts of the woreda receive relatively higher annual rainfall compared to other parts of the woreda. It has mono-modal rainfall distribution and extends from May to September."},{"index":3,"size":62,"text":"The agro-ecology of the PLW is suitable for diverse agricultural production. The PLW is relatively close to the regional capital, Bahir Dar, and has a relatively well developed infrastructure, covering telecommunications, electrical power, elementary and high schools as well as a number of institutions contributing to the development of the rural areas. Bure and Kuch are two major towns in the wereda."},{"index":4,"size":48,"text":"Fauna are found principally on mountain slopes around Abay gorge. The vegetation of the wereda varies with altitude. The altitude of the woreda ranges from 713 to 2604 metres above sea level (masl). These ecological differences gave opportunities to grow diverse crop types and rear different livestock types."},{"index":5,"size":63,"text":"The PLW lies within the Nile catchment. The Abay is the southeastern boundary separating Oromia with the Amhara region. Bure is home for the Bure Spring which is a source of blessed water in the area.There are six modern river diversions constructed and used to irrigate 614 ha of land. These river diversions are currently serving for about 3,665 households in rural areas."},{"index":6,"size":116,"text":"Bure is an intensively cultivated area as a result of which cow dung and crop residues are the major source of energy both in the rural and urban areas. Crop residue is also the major livestock feed resource. Both practices of using cow dung and crop residues for fuel accelerate the process of soil nutrient depletion on croplands. Most of the bush and forestland were the major sources of fuel wood. Currently these resources are depleted and some remnants are found in the low altitude areas which are inaccessible. There are old and modern churches, mosques and burial grounds in the wereda. However, none of the planned project activities will impact on any of these sites."},{"index":7,"size":58,"text":"The project will focus its activities in all the agroecological areas in the wereda. All these areas have been identified as having the greatest agricultural and market potential. In these areas, farms are around 1.6 ha per household, with mixed crop and livestock production system. Apiculture is also an important commodity which is being developed by the project."}]},{"head":"Existing Environmental Issues","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":20,"text":"The principal environmental issues in the PLW are interrelated, being associated largely with poor catchments management. They are as follows:"},{"index":2,"size":49,"text":" Despite that most croplands seem flat there is a tremendous amount of land degradation by soil erosion (sheet and gulley erosion) and hence soil and nutrient loss are growing problems, arising from availability of less vegetation on the farmlands and the absence of companion soil erosion control measures."},{"index":3,"size":53,"text":" The focus of farmers on continuously growing cereal crops has also aggravated soil erosion in the area. On the other hand mono-cropping of cereals has increased weed infestation in the area. This resulted to application of herbicides like 2-4D. The application of this chemical has affected the bee population in the area."},{"index":4,"size":38,"text":" Bure is a major cereal growing area where crops like wheat and maize are widely grown. These crops are sensitive to weevil attack and hence farmers apply pesticides which also affect the bee population in the area."},{"index":5,"size":59,"text":" There are few PAs which are located in the low altitude areas of the wereda. These PAs are close to the Abay River. These areas are with relatively better vegetation, mainly bushes. However as a result of the expansion of farmlands and also cutting of trees for house construction, fuelwood and farm tools, the area is being deforested."},{"index":6,"size":31,"text":" There is a growing ground-water use in the area but if this is not supported by appropriate watershed management and abstraction rates, this effort might have long term environmental consequences."}]},{"head":"Environmental Effects and Public Concerns associated with Planned Initiatives","index":6,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Table (i) sets out:","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":25,"text":" Possible negative environmental impacts before the introduction of mitigating measures;  Planned mitigating measures;  Expected negative environmental impacts after implementation of mitigating measures."}]},{"head":"Notes","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":59,"text":" It should be noted that new crop varieties will be limited to those produced and approved by government public bodies, notably the Ethiopian Seed Enterprise (ESE), the Ethiopian Agricultural Research Organisation (EARO) and the Amhara Region Agricultural Research Institute (ARARI). No varieties involving any form of genetic engineering, or likely to introduce new environmental impacts, will be introduced."},{"index":2,"size":22,"text":" Expanded cultivation of fruit and vegetables will be accompanied by organic fertilizer and composting programmes, thus producing a positive environmental impact."},{"index":3,"size":34,"text":" The promotion of apiculture will in turn promote bee forage, which will result in a growth in vegetation and pollination, leading to the flourishing of springs and a general improvement in the environment."}]},{"head":"Public Concerns","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":87,"text":"Soil erosion and sometimes excessive rainfall have been some of the environmental problems raised by many farmers and experts. This excessive rainfall has been causing runoff on farmlands, resulting in serious soil erosion. On the other hand this excessive rainfall has also been reported to cause the sprouting of crops like wheat. These problems have been considered as some of the environmental issues of concern. Herbicide application is also killing bee forages and the bees themselves. No public concerns have been raised regarding the planned IPMS programme."}]},{"head":"Project Phases","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":31,"text":"Table (i) relates to the operations phase of the project. There is no pre-construction phase, construction or closure phase. Accidents and malfunctions are covered within the Integrated Pesticide Management (IPM) Plan."},{"index":2,"size":8,"text":"Table (i) incorporates both direct and indirect impacts."}]},{"head":"Significance of Adverse Environmental Effects (after implementation of Mitigating Measures)","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":13,"text":"After implementation of the recommended mitigating measures, no significant adverse effects are likely."}]},{"head":"Mitigation Measures","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":10,"text":"Technically and economically feasible mitigation measures are set out in "}]},{"head":"Mitigating Measures","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":58,"text":"(i) An Integrated Pesticide Management (IPM) plan covering use of a combination of cultural practices and agrochemicals will be drawn up and implemented, to ensure good environmental management. The IPM will cover acquisition, application, accidents, storage and disposal of agrochemicals. In addition, the location of use will take into account proximity to any adjoining areas dependent on apiculture."},{"index":2,"size":61,"text":"(i) Regional or Wereda Agricultural Office should monitor the production rates of new crop varieties (diversify varieties under production), and should liaise with the Biodiversity Institute to ensure that the gene banks contain alternative varieties (i) A Drugs and Chemicals Management plan will be drawn up and implemented, covering acquisition, application, accidents, storage and disposal of livestock veterinary drugs and chemicals;"},{"index":3,"size":13,"text":"(ii) Promote backyard forage development practices and Improve the productivity of natural pasture."},{"index":4,"size":14,"text":"(i) Use of minimum tillage will reduce vulnerability of cropland areas to soil erosion."},{"index":5,"size":20,"text":"(ii) Continued training on improved crop management practices of both the farmers and DAs is expected to reduce soil erosion."}]},{"head":"Likely Impacts (after mitigating measures)","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":11,"text":"After implementation of mitigating measures, no adverse environmental impacts are expected."},{"index":2,"size":12,"text":"After implementation of mitigating measures, adverse environmental impacts are expected to minimal."},{"index":3,"size":11,"text":"After implementation of mitigating measures, no adverse environmental impacts are expected."},{"index":4,"size":11,"text":"After implementation of mitigating measures, no adverse environmental impacts are expected"}]},{"head":"IPMS Environmental Screening Report","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":2,"text":"Bure Wereda"},{"index":2,"size":8,"text":"CIDA 1519-2E Environmental Assessment and Screening Report 8"}]},{"head":"Cumulative or Interactive Environmental Effects","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":9,"text":"The following potential long-term cumulative effects could be postulated:"}]},{"head":"Ratio of Food: Cash Crops","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":61,"text":"If the cultivation of cash crops becomes so popular that cash crops come to displace food crops to a significant extent, this could produce an imbalance that might lead to food shortages within, or outside, the PLW. However, the Wereda Agriculture Office and the Regional Food Security Bureau have planning systems to address such a trend before it becomes a problem."}]},{"head":"Loss of Species Diversity","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":131,"text":"Uncontrolled adoption throughout the PLW and beyond of a newly introduced crop species could lead to a situation whereby the genetic base of the crop concerned is unduly narrowed. This could mean, for example, that in the event of an outbreak of disease, there is no alternative strain available. On the other hand, with increased promotion and expansion of improved wheat and pepper varieties for example, croplands that were previously under teff, finger millet and others will be planted to these newly introduced market demanded varieties. This will therefore narrow the crop diversity in the area. It is thus recommended that the regional or wereda agricultural office should monitor production rates of new crop varieties, and should liaise with the Biodiversity Institute to ensure that the gene banks contain alternative varieties."},{"index":2,"size":54,"text":"Similarly, the project is promoting modern poultry production using exotic breeds in the wereda. This is may endanger the local poultry population because farmers may prefer to grow these exotic breeds for their productivity. However, the project is also promoting local chicken production because of their suitability to smallholder management system and disease resistance."}]},{"head":"Reduced traction animals and small ruminants","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":78,"text":"The project is encouraging large and small ruminant fattening. This is expected to increase livestock takeoffs from the wereda. Livestock are the major source of traction in Bure, hence if the number of traction animals is reduced crop production will also be affected. However, the need for animal traction power (ploughing, threshing) could be reduced by using machinery. For the fact that majority of the wereda is flat it should be possible to introduce combiner harvesters and threshers."},{"index":2,"size":63,"text":"Similarly, promotion of other alternatives, like the use of minimum tillage practices may also help reduce the use of animal traction power in the area so that increased takeoffs are also possible. In addition to all these efforts, the project is also working in the restoration of livestock population by supporting farmers to increase breeder animals aimed at offsetting the market takeoff effects."}]},{"head":"Urban Zero-Grazing","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":87,"text":"Although the Project is not promoting zero-grazing in high-density urban areas, the zerograzing being promoted (which by reducing grazing and often livestock numbers is generally environmentally beneficial) may eventually lead to uncontrolled adoption of zero-grazing in high-density urban areas, with resultant health hazards, noise and smell pollution. To avoid this happening, the project will liaise with the urban Public Health authority and will include their representative in training workshops, in order that any regulations controlling the keeping of cattle in the urban areas are recognized and enforced."}]},{"head":"Effects of the Environment on the Project","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":37,"text":"The PLW is a high rainfall area and hence is not a drought-prone wereda, and no significant impacts of the environment on the project are anticipated. However, possible environmental problems related to high rainfall are listed below."}]},{"head":"Run-off/Flooding and Gullying","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":60,"text":"Many Peasant Associations are sometimes experiencing run-off after torrential rainfall. Some farmers' plots are affected as a result. Similarly, gulleys are also eating some farmlands despite that the area is relatively flat. Some farmlands close to foothills suffer due to this problem. Different studies in other areas recommend that integrated watershed management systems will significantly contribute to minimize these effects."}]},{"head":"Prevalence of livestock diseases, mainly trypanosomiasis","index":23,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":166,"text":"One of the peasant associations (PAs) in Bure is found in the lowland areas of the wereda bordering East Welega zone and in the Abay gorge. There have been reports of trypanosomiasis outbreaks because it is a lowland area. On the other hand, other disease outbreaks could also exist mainly associated to transhumance effects. People living in this PA have relatives across the border in East Welega zone. As a result there is a strong trade link. It is therefore common for people in this PA to buy cattle and cross the border to Bure without checking for livestock diseases. The effects of the diseases in this part of the wereda could expand because of the transhumance practices to other parts of the wereda. On the other hand, this PA is endowed with extensive grazing lands and hence many farmers could bring their cattle and infest them and then move to the other parts of the wereda. Hence the efforts of the project could be affected."}]},{"head":"Soil acidity","index":24,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":69,"text":"Bure is a high rainfall area with predominantly Nitosols which are acidic. This could also affect the productivity of the crops that the project is working on. The government's MoARD has plans to mitigate this problem. To this effect, the project has provided 5 lime crushers of which 1 was for the Amhara BoARD so that lime is applied to neutralise the acidic soils like the ones in Bure."}]},{"head":"Nature of Public Participation","index":25,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":28,"text":"There has been extensive public participation in the design of the IPMS interventions in this PLW, including a well-attended two-day workshop in the PLW on 16-17 July, 2007."},{"index":2,"size":44,"text":"In addition, a number of training sessions for farmers and Development Agents (DAs) and visits to various areas have been conducted since the launching of the project. Many farmers are benefiting from the project's intervention in the area and hence participation is very high."}]},{"head":"Follow-up Program","index":26,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":41,"text":"A follow-up program to ensure that the recommended mitigating measures are implemented as required will be conducted by the staff of the Environment and Natural Resources Unit in the wereda agricultural office, with support from IPMS RDO and RDA as required."}]},{"head":"Relevant Matters","index":27,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":40,"text":"In the project design workshops, it was agreed by the community and the wereda agricultural office that there are no viable alternative means for conducting the project, other than by supporting the Wereda Agricultural Office and the Development Agents (DAs)."}]},{"head":"Transboundary Effects","index":28,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":10,"text":"The following transboundary effects might be postulated in the long-term:"},{"index":2,"size":35,"text":" Food shortages in areas traditionally consuming food grown in the PLW, arising from a high ratio of cash:food crops in the PLW. This effect and its mitigating measures are addressed in para 5.1 above."},{"index":3,"size":29,"text":" Uncontrolled use of agrochemicals could lead to pollution of rivers and streams flowing into adjoining weredas. The mitigating measures set out in Table (i) will address this issue."}]},{"head":"Sources for the Screening Report","index":29,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":12,"text":"The sources of information used for this Screening Report are as follows: "}]},{"head":"Comments/Recommendations","index":30,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":14,"text":"Comments and recommendations to the extent appropriate have been included in Section 9 above."}]},{"head":"Additional Supporting Documents","index":31,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":1,"text":"None."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Table ( i) Matrix of Mitigating Measures and Likely Impacts after taking Mitigating Measures into account Table (i). Activities: 1. Crop Cultivation under 2. Loss of species diversity 3. Expansion of Livestock 4. Soil erosion Activities:1. Crop Cultivation under2. Loss of species diversity3. Expansion of Livestock4. Soil erosion  Agrochemicals  Production  AgrochemicalsProduction Likely Impacts (i) Uncontrolled or careless use of (i)Extensive use of new improved (i) Uncontrolled or careless use of (i) Extensive use of improved varieties Likely Impacts(i) Uncontrolled or careless use of(i)Extensive use of new improved(i) Uncontrolled or careless use of(i) Extensive use of improved varieties before Mitigating Measures agrochemicals may pollute the groundwater, resulting in health the long term. hazards for human and animal life in varieties may narrow the biodiversity and affect disease resistance in the likely event of disease outbreaks. livestock veterinary drugs or chemicals may pollute the hazards for human and animal groundwater, resulting in health and continued support by the project is expected to encourage crop expansion and hence lead to soil erosion. before Mitigating Measuresagrochemicals may pollute the groundwater, resulting in health the long term. hazards for human and animal life invarieties may narrow the biodiversity and affect disease resistance in the likely event of disease outbreaks.livestock veterinary drugs or chemicals may pollute the hazards for human and animal groundwater, resulting in healthand continued support by the project is expected to encourage crop expansion and hence lead to soil erosion.  (ii) Use of these agrochemicals could also  life.  (ii) Use of these agrochemicals could alsolife.  reduce bees and bee forages in the  (ii) Soil fertility depletion due to  reduce bees and bee forages in the(ii) Soil fertility depletion due to  area  excessive removal of crop  areaexcessive removal of crop    residues for livestock feed  residues for livestock feed  "},{"text":" The environmental overviews in the IPMS Project Implementation Report, March, 2005,  The IPMS Environmental Framework,  Bure Pilot Learning Wereda Diagnosis and Program Design, July, 2007,  Consultation with  Dr Yigzaw Desalegn (IPMS Bure RDO)  Ato Yohannes Mehari (IPMS Bure, RDA),  "}],"sieverID":"1489e863-3dc1-4f93-aaa2-9c2779421a6d","abstract":""}

data/part_4/06737e986c48599c0a94b7fa43cec4d4.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"06737e986c48599c0a94b7fa43cec4d4","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/1ea9f3cc-6850-4cac-9904-8dcac3cfff50/retrieve"},"pageCount":3,"title":"KAKAMEGA COUNTY POLICY BRIEF ON LAND DEGRADATION","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":102,"text":"The methods conducted in this land degradation assessment were hierarchical (covering three different scales: national, province and watershed) and involved stakeholder consultations for field validation evidences (See Figure 1). The figure depicts an overall degradation risk map. The areas most affected by degradation (brown patches) are in the southern, central and north western parts of Kakamega County specifically around Koyonzo, Mumias, Lugari and Likuyani. In comparison, Kakamega seems to be at much higher degradation risk than both Bungoma and Siaya counties. The participatory investigations indicated that Kakamega is more degraded (an aspect that is consistent with the biophysical land degradation assessment findings)."}]},{"head":"Degradation levels","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":15,"text":"No degradation risk Moderate degradation risk High degradation risk Very high degradation risk Unclassified data "}]},{"head":"Ikolomani, Shinyalu, Khwisero (tea)","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":14,"text":"Procuring loans for survival due to poverty and food insecurity, creating a vicious cycle."}]},{"head":"FOOD INSECURITY REASONS ZONE","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":3,"text":"Lugari, Likuyani (maize)"}]},{"head":"Mumias zone (sugarcane)","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":33,"text":"Payment delays hence people do not have working capital to purchase improved maize varieties in a timely manner in order to optimize agricultural productivity which in turn leads to poverty and food insecurity."},{"index":2,"size":44,"text":"Short term food insecurity due to market challenges and low soil pH. Generally, this zone doesn't seem to have a poverty problem but rather marketing constraints where farmers sell the majority of their produce at once and face challenges during the main (lean) season. "}]},{"head":"THE FOOD INSECURITY ZONES IN KAKAMEGA","index":6,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"SIAYA BUNGOMA","index":7,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"N","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":136,"text":"Local knowledge (experts from Kakamega County and at national level) contributed in a participatory manner to identify hotspot areas of food insecurity and vulnerability. To accomplish the task, consensus was reached with the stakeholders during the workshop on indicators of food security and vulnerability so that evaluation by each county team would be consistent across the board where the stakeholders discussed and mapped their ideas. To facilitate this exercise, Google earth images complemented formation of detailed maps for each county by the stakeholders. Complementary land degradation risk maps based on modeling approaches were also provided to each team. Based on Figure 4, three distinct areas were identified as major food insecurity and vulnerability hotspots. This was through a participatory manner with County experts and national experts from a workshop that was organized in Kisumu, August 2017:"}]},{"head":"INSIGHTS","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":219,"text":"-A southern section that surrounds Kakamega including areas around the towns of Butere, Butsotso and Mukumu (termed as the tea zone), -A northwestern section including areas around the towns of Mumias and Koyonzo (termed as the sugarcane zone) and -A northeastern section including areas around Lugari town (termed as the maize zone).  This study further analyzed both sediment and runoff load reductions obtained from simulated scenarios for current (business as usual) and proposed best management practices within a selected watershed of Kakamega. This served as a means to explore possible intervention options that can be promoted by decision makers for implementation by local communities. We describe the identification of dominant sediment and runoff delivery mechanisms in the watershed with readily available tools consisting of SWAT and Agricultural Policy and Environmental Extender (SWAT-APEX) models for conducting the \"What-if\" scenarios. These tools also developed multiple regression equations to estimate the sediment and runoff ratios for the subwatershed areas of interest. The models used 35 years of weather data from 1981 to 2016. The \"What if\" scenarios that were conducted in the SWAT-APEX interface were selected based on Kisumu workshop participants inputs and from quantitative data on the current status quo or business as usual in case no interventions were done. The applicable interventions are presented in the \"What if scenarios\" section. "}]},{"head":"Maintaining","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":103,"text":"strong national connections to the Central government could help the county and can be realized through promotion of market integration, strategic partnerships with the private sector, labor friendly innovations with mechanization in agriculture, etc. This will permit information sharing between the county and the central government while sharing information on hotspot areas that deserve attention for land restoration and food security. Based on Figure 6, the use of terraces with forage grass strips and agro-forestry provided the highest benefits in water yields while the use of the fanya juu fanya chini and terrace resulted in the greatest reduction in erosion and surface runoff."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure 1 : Figure 1: Land degradation assessment approaches "},{"text":"Fred Kizito, Lulseged Tamene, Nicholas Koech, Brian Pondi and Kennedy Nganga (2018) in collaboration with TMG Think Tank for Sustainability: Land Degradation Assessments Using Multiscale Hierarchical Approaches for Agroecosystem Restoration and Improved Food Security: The Case for Kenya and Burkina Faso. CIAT publication, pp56 erosion and land degradation risks are eminent in the southern, central and north western parts of Kakamega and the areas affected deserve targeted interventions to prevent a downward spiral Kakamega is characterized by high poverty levels and food insecurity. In relation to the areas that are highly degraded, specifically in the southern, central and north western parts of Kakamega County around Koyonzo, Mumias, Lugari and Likuyani, the following assessments are pertinent: DEGRADATION RISK LEVELS IN KAKAMEGA DEGRADATION LEVLES FOR KAKAMEGA of the land area is under very high risk and is classified as degraded of the land area is under high risk of land degradation of the land area is under medium risk of land degradation of the land area is under none to low risk of land degradation50% The percentages in the light green rectangles (on the right) imply that this is the percentage distribution of both human and livestock populations in the degraded portion that is highlighted in the dark green circles to the left. "},{"text":"Figure 3 : Figure 3: Degradation levels for Kakamega Figure 2: Degradation risk levels in Kakamega "},{"text":"Figure Figure 4: Food insecurity zones in Kakamega "},{"text":"Figure 5 : Figure 5: Changes in agriculture in Kakamega "},{"text":"A clear driver of land degradation is the population pressure which calls for sustainable intensification of the ever increasing scarcity of land resources. While this may be applicable to several areas in the County, it is more pertinent to the urban and peri-urban areas of Kakamega town and Mukumu. Market information through 'linking farmers to markets' may be a critical intervention in the maize zone, specifically around Lugari and Likuyani.   "},{"text":" To account for the role of differences in land use/cover on land degradation, we used land use/cover data generated from Landsat satellite image analysis. This figure exemplifies the land use and land cover changes in Kakamega County. Since agriculture is most predominant, the figure portrays values above zero which are areas in square kilometers converting into agriculture in relation to other classes. Values below zero are areas in square kilometers for agriculture converting into another land use class.  "},{"text":"28. 639992 -28.663343 28. 663344 -45.601559 45. 601560 -60.900070 60. 900071 -87.920882 87. 920883 -118.664692 Streams SWAT SWAT-APEX WHAT-IF SCENARIOS UPSTREAM HOTSPOT  converted to agriculture 600 500 400 300 200  CHANGES IN AGRICULTURE IN KAKAMEGA converted to agriculture600 500 400 300 200CHANGES IN AGRICULTURE IN KAKAMEGA Area in km 2 100 0 -100 Settlement Forest Shrubland Grassland Wetland Water Bareland Area in km 2100 0 -100Settlement Forest Shrubland Grassland WetlandWater Bareland   Land cover class (1995-2017)  Land cover class (1995-2017)   Sediment yield:  Sediment yield:   0.1-5.8 T/ha/yr  0.1-5.8 T/ha/yr   Runoff yield:  Runoff yield:   28-118 mm/year  28-118 mm/year   RESTORATION  RESTORATION   DOWNSTREAM  DOWNSTREAM   GREEN-SPOTS  GREEN-SPOTS   Sediment yield:  Sediment yield:   0.1 T/ha/yr  0.1 T/ha/yr   Runoff yield:  Runoff yield:   25 mm/yr  25 mm/yr   PREVENTION  PREVENTION  "},{"text":"SWAT sub-watershed 10: SWAT-APEX derived 15 smaller sub areas with a total of 56 hectares simulated with What-if scenarios % Increase in water yield % Decrease in sediment yield  SURFACE RUNOFF     SURFACE RUNOFF (mm H 2 O)     (mm H 2 O)     % Decrease in surface runoff % Decrease in surface runoff   Fanya Juu-Fanya Chini 31% 36% 33% Fanya Juu-Fanya Chini31% 36%33% SEDIMENT YIELD (t/ha/yr) WATER YIELD 1.180000 -1.420000 1.420001 -1.820000 1.820001 -2.330000 Contours 26% 19% 21% SEDIMENT YIELD (t/ha/yr)WATER YIELD 1.180000 -1.420000 1.420001 -1.820000 1.820001 -2.330000Contours26% 19%21% 0. 005471 -0. 0 10644 0. 010645 -0. 8 25519 2.330001 -3.680000    0. 005471 -0. 0 10644 0. 010645 -0. 8 255192.330001 -3.680000 0. 825520 -1. 391103 1. 391104 -2 .2 54263 3.680001 -4.220000    0. 825520 -1. 391103 1. 391104 -2 .2 542633.680001 -4.220000 2. 254264 -5. 8183 09  with forage grass strips Terraces 44% 32% 41% 2. 254264 -5. 8183 09with forage grass strips Terraces44% 32%41%  SEDIMENT YIELD 0.010000 0.010000 -0.900000 Agroforestry 42% 27% 22% SEDIMENT YIELD 0.010000 0.010000 -0.900000Agroforestry42% 27%22%  0.900001 -1.590000    0.900001 -1.590000  1.590001 -2.400000    1.590001 -2.400000  2.400001 -3.600000    2.400001 -3.600000  "},{"text":"agricultural methods at the county level need extensive capacity building for farmers to allow for committed production without compromising local ecosystem integrity; and county officials to allow for interpretation of existing land use and land cover maps for regional planning to counter degradation vulnerability while addressing the key drivers. Sustainable land management techniques for interventions should include but are not limited to physical structures and should be tailored for specific zones around Lugari and in the northwestern areas.   "}],"sieverID":"f961384f-82f9-42b0-a808-ded50b6e2ed2","abstract":"This policy brief aims to give an overview of land degradation hotspots in Kakamega County and the policy options for land restoration. In this assessment, land degradation is referred to as the persistent loss of ecosystem function and productivity caused by disturbances from which the land cannot recover without human intervention (unaided). Hotspots are defined as places that experience high land degradation and if left unattended, will negatively affect both human wellbeing and the environment. The spatial location of hotspots was identified through a methodology combining modeling, participatory stakeholder consultations and field validation. Understanding the spatial locations helps identify hotspot areas and target them as priority intervention sites with relevant management options."}

data/part_4/06bf5ceeb208d555138bb7b7cf2aa470.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"06bf5ceeb208d555138bb7b7cf2aa470","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/7836a3a1-6f87-479e-b1f3-43c8e300abb7/retrieve"},"pageCount":11,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":36,"text":"• It was easter to achteve success m mcreasmg crop producttvtty and tmprovmg food secunty m an upland commumty than m mtroducmg mstttuttonal arrangements such asco managment of resources to ensure long term sustamabthty of hvehhoods"},{"index":2,"size":22,"text":"• A commumty based approach to resource management should mvolve pohcy and dectston makers from the mceptton rather than when problems anse"},{"index":3,"size":40,"text":"• Ltkewtse tssues such as tmprovmg the hvehhood ofthe poorest m the commumty and dtssemmatton of mformatton and successful technologtes to all Wtthm a commumty and to other commumttes needs to be addressed dunng the mceptton stage of a project"}]},{"head":"Output 2 Genenc technolog1es for sustamable productJon developed through farmer par1Ic1patory research","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":5,"text":"Integrated Cassava based Croppmg Systems"},{"index":2,"size":99,"text":"• In Thatland where farmers are conductmg eroston control tnals most have adopted the plantmg ofvettver grass contour hedgerows to control eroston A total of622 farmers have so far planted 123 km ofvettver grass hedgerows covenng an area of about 600 ha of cassava fields In Vtetnam where sorne 30 farmer eroston control tnals are bemg conducted m 13 sttes many farmers have adopted the plantmg of Tephrosza candzda vettver grass pmeapple or Paspalum atratum as contour hedgerows to control eroston others have adopted mtercroppmg and better fertthzatton practtces to mercase mcome and reduce eroston m thetr cassava fields"},{"index":3,"size":58,"text":"• In Thatland farmers are testmg the use of an1mal manures and green manures to mamtam sml fertthty and tmprove the phystcal condtttons ofthetr sml m addttton to chemtcal fertthzers In Vtetnam more farmers are applymg chemtcal fertthzers htgh m N and K m addttton to ptg manure to thetr cassava crops markedly mcreasmg Yields and net mcome  "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"A ViSlt was orgaruzed by Directors of Agnculture from four countnes m Asia to CIAT HQ for discuss10ns on the future CIA T Strategy m Asia In addition they made suggest10ns for reg10nal actlVltles by CIAT Integrated Cassava based Croppmg Systems • A 15 mmute video on the Farrner Participatory Research with cassava was produced m Thai and Enghsh • In Vietnam 60 local extens10msts and key farrners from the vanous pilot sites received trammg m participatory technology development with maJor emphasis on sml eros10n control and fertihty mamtenance m cassava based croppmg systems • In Thailand 15 officials of Land Development Department were tramed m FPR methodolog:¡es and ViSited an FPR pilot site to become familiar with the use ofthe farrner participatory approach m technology development and dissemmat!On • The 6 1 h Reg1onal Cassava Workshop btled Cassava s Poten tia) m As1a m the 21\" Century Present S1tuat10n and Future Research and Development Needs was held m Ho Clu Mmh c1ty Vietnam from Feb 21 to 25 2000 The 44 papers presented at the workshop rev1ewed the present s1tuatwn of cassava m each country and m the reg¡on the research on cassava breedmg and agronomy conducted m each country dunng the past 20 30 years The Proceedmgs have been pubhshed Forage and Lzvestock Systems • A book on prom1smg forage spec1es for Southeast As1a was pubhshed m s1x 1anguages Another book on forage agronomy was completed and 1s m translatwn A tlurd book on part!c!patory approaches to developmg agncultural technolog¡es was wntten • 32 N abona) staff m Laos ha ve been tramed m carrymg out PartlC!patory D1agnos1s Part!c!patory Technology Development how to mcorporate a Gender and Eqmty strategy mto the1r actlv!tles and m carrymg out Momtonng and Evaluat10n Forages for Sma/lholders • The Forages for Smallholders ProJect has estabhshed a network of 49 mstltutwns and organ1sabons through wh1ch partlc!patory approaches and forage technolog¡es are spreadmg m s1x countnes m SE Asia Problems encountered and the1r solutlon Forest Marg¡ns. Pucallpa Dunng the past two years Peruv1an government mstabihty has made coordmatlon with natwnal partners diflicult CIA T has contmued the analysis and wntmg phases ofthe project Asia Regzonal Coordmatzon Though the reg¡onal office has now been successfully estabhshed m Lao PDR, there are log¡stlcal and personnel reasons why It remams necessary to locate sorne staff m other locatwns There IS a need to further strengthen mteractwn With CIAT HQ staffthroughJomt project development and cross VISits Research actlvitles m LAC Afuca and Asia might be mtegrated more closely through global challenge and systemwide programs Integrated Cassava based Croppmg Systems No problems m Implementatwn ofthe Special ProJect except for hmited researchers m Chma which has been solved by hmng young scientists A more general problem m cassava research m Asia IS the Iack of a coordmated reg¡onal effort mto cassava Improvement similar to that which has occurred over the Iast 15 years There IS opportunity to comrnence a new round of strategic genetic Improvement usmg molecular markers and gene transfer However we have been unsuccessful m attractmg funds for a reg¡onal proJect m cassava 1mprovment Foragesfor Smallholders Poht1cal mstab1hty m the Ph1hppmes and Indonesia has not affected work and IS bemg managed by obtammg regular mformat10n from the field s1tes Lack of research expenence of local partners wh1ch 1s managed by havmg them carry out targeted research w1th CIA T staff and formal trammg Plans for 2002 Forest Margms Pucal/pa Work w1th nat10nal partners (researcher and extens10msts) m model development and refinement CIA T 1s currently coordmatmg presentat10ns w1th donors to conduct extens1ve Amazon research Regwnal Coordmatwn Strengthen CIA T research m As1a through tappmg Reg¡onal funds Develop collaboratlve actlV!tles between Spec1al Projects Ahgn research w1th that ofthe NARS Develop closer collaborat10n w1th othere CGIAR Centers Integrated Cassava based Croppmg Systems Expand d1ssemmat1on act!Vllles further m Thaliand and V1etnam accompan1ed by trammg and productlon oftrammg matenals Partlclpate w1th partners m the 17'h World Congress of Sml Sc1ence to be held m Bangkok m Aug 2002 and the 7th Reg¡onal Cassava Workshop to be held m Thaliand m Nov 2002 Forages and Llvestock Systems Expand the number oftechnolog¡es bemg evaluated by farmers to mclude other feed resources apart from forages and to mclude an1mal health optlons Fully 1mplement the project s M&E strategy and database to momtor both outputs and 1mpacts resultmg from proJect acllvlhes Strengthen the field teams through a senes of workshops on extens10n forage technolog¡es other hvestock technolog1es and gender & eqlllty 1ssues Pubhsh and d1stnbute the second and th1rd books m the development senes for smallholder farmers "},{"text":" Integrated Cassava based Croppmg Systems Watana Watananonta, Project Coordmator for Thruland DOA Bangkok Thailand Anuchit Tongglum Rayong Field Crops Research Center DOA Thruland Danai Suparhan Rayong Field Crops Research Center DOA Thaiiand Sornphong Katong Rayong Field Crops Research Center DOA Thruland Ratanaa Sewatasai Rice and Field Crops Prom Div DOAE Bangkok Thruland Kruval Klakhaeng Rice and Field Crops Prom Div DOAE Bangkok Thruland Wilawan Vongkasem Rice and Field Crops Prom Div DOAE Bangkok Thruland Tran Ngoc Ngoan ProJect Coordmator for VIetnam Thru Nguyen Umv VIetnam Nguyen The Dang Thai Nguyen UmveTSity Thru Nguyen VIetnam Thru Phien Nahonal Institute ofSmls and Fert Han01 VIetnam Tnnh Thi Phuong Loan Root Crops Research Center VASI Han01 VIetnam Hoang Van Tat Root Crops Research Center VASI Hanm VIetnam Nguyen Tlu Cach Hue Umversity of Agnculture and Forestry Hue VIetnam Nguyen Thi Hoa Ly Hue UmveTSity of Agnculture and Forestry Hue VIetnam Hoang Klm Hung Loe Agnc Research Center lAS Dong Nai VIetnam Nguyen Huu Hy Hung Loe Agnc Research Center lAS Dong Nai VIetnam LI Kaimian Chmese Academy Tropical Agnc Sciences Haman Chma Lm X10ng Chmese Academy Tropical Agnc Sciences Hrunan Chma Tian Ymong Guangxi Subtrop Crops Res lnst Nanmng Guangxi Chma LI Jun Guangxi Subtrop Crops Res Inst Nannmg Guangxi Chma J Warg10no Central lnshtute for Food Crops Bogor Indonesia Dai Peters CIP Han01 VIetnam Tito Fannas (IDR) Budget   Tito Fannas (IDR) Budget  Diomsio Soto (MAGFOR)   Diomsio Soto (MAGFOR) Source Conrado Burgos (DICTA) Amount (US$) ProportJon (%) SourceConrado Burgos (DICTA)Amount (US$)ProportJon (%) Ernesto Ehrler (DICTA) Unrestncted core  423811 22 Ernesto Ehrler (DICTA) Unrestncted core42381122 Fredi Maradiaga (DICTA) Core substltutlon  136540 7 Fredi Maradiaga (DICTA) Core substltutlon1365407 Juan Carulla (UN) Carry over from 1999  54265 3 Juan Carulla (UN) Carry over from 1999542653 Lms A Giraldo (UN) Sub total  614616 32 Lms A Giraldo (UN) Sub total61461632 Manuel Martmez (Umllanos) Spec1al proJects 1320991 68 Manuel Martmez (Umllanos) Spec1al proJects132099168 Totals Bernardo Rivera (U Caldas) SiiviO Guzman (F San Martm) 1935607 100 TotalsBernardo Rivera (U Caldas) SiiviO Guzman (F San Martm)1935607100  Deisy Lara (FUNDAAM)   Deisy Lara (FUNDAAM) Asia Research H1ghhghts m 2000 AsiaResearch H1ghhghts m 2000 Output 1 System components assessed to prov1de alternative land use options Output 1 System components assessed to prov1de alternative land use options Forest Margms. Pucallpa   Forest Margms. Pucallpa The Feas•blllty of Agr•cultural Technology Adopbon by Smallholder Frontler Farmers and The Feas•blllty of Agr•cultural Technology Adopbon by Smallholder Frontler Farmers and the Role of Seasonal Labor   the Role of Seasonal Labor • A seasonally adjusted value of labor calculated w1th the monthly opportumty costs of • A seasonally adjusted value of labor calculated w1th the monthly opportumty costs of  labor estlmates quantlfies the effect of varymg labor restnctJons for a typ1cal farm labor estlmates quantlfies the effect of varymg labor restnctJons for a typ1cal farm • Altenng tradit10nal technologies (nce ma1ze cassava) m order to reduce seasonallabor • Altenng tradit10nal technologies (nce ma1ze cassava) m order to reduce seasonallabor  shortages perm1ts both Jarger and more d1verse harvests and thus should become a shortages perm1ts both Jarger and more d1verse harvests and thus should become a  research pnonty   research pnonty Amazon Rlverme Agnculture Productlve but Unprofitable? Amazon Rlverme Agnculture Productlve but Unprofitable? • Although alluvial s01ls produce greater harvests of many agncultural crops rugh transport • Although alluvial s01ls produce greater harvests of many agncultural crops rugh transport  costs and potentlal floodmg problems hm1t the1r profitab1hty costs and potentlal floodmg problems hm1t the1r profitab1hty Forest Cover and Household EconoiDic Secunty on the Amazon Frontler An Forest Cover and Household EconoiDic Secunty on the Amazon Frontler An Env1ronmental EconoiDic Tradeoffw1th the Adoption of Agncultural Technolog•es? Env1ronmental EconoiDic Tradeoffw1th the Adoption of Agncultural Technolog•es? • Deta1led analys1s offarm management strateg~es v1a agro econom1c modehng reveals how • Deta1led analys1s offarm management strateg~es v1a agro econom1c modehng reveals how agncultural technolog~es are hkely to 1mpact on farm forest cover and household Forages and Lzvestock Systems Vanthong PhengviChith Duector Livestock Research Center NAFRI econom1c secunty agncultural technolog~es are hkely to 1mpact on farm forest cover and household Forages and Lzvestock Systems Vanthong PhengviChith Duector Livestock Research Center NAFRI econom1c secunty VIengsavanh Phimphachanhvongsod Livestock Research Center NAFRI VIengsavanh Phimphachanhvongsod Livestock Research Center NAFRI VIengxay Photakoun Nahonal Extens10n Center VIengxay Photakoun Nahonal Extens10n Center Sukanya Chanhdeng   Sukanya Chanhdeng Phonepaseuth Phengsavanh Livestock Research Center NAFRI Phonepaseuth Phengsavanh Livestock Research Center NAFRI Chanhphone Keoboualapeth P AFO Luang Prabang Chanhphone Keoboualapeth P AFO Luang Prabang Sengpasith Thongsavath P AFO Luang Prabang Sengpasith Thongsavath P AFO Luang Prabang Pheng Thammavong P AFO Luang Prabang Pheng Thammavong P AFO Luang Prabang Souhvanh Novaba, P AFO XIeng Xhouang Souhvanh Novaba, P AFO XIeng Xhouang  "},{"text":" • In Tran Phu commune Ha Tay provmce Vtetnam a women s group representmg 66 households have all planted cassava mtercropped wtth peanut They have also planted 2 ha of peanut for seed mercase so that next year all farmers wtll be able to mtercrop cassava wtth peanut• At five ptlot sttes m north Vtetnam the adoptton of tmproved technologtes mcludmg new vanettes resulted m gross mcomes that were 4 5 ttmes htgher than those reported m Bauhmza varzegata Trema orzentalzs Broussonetza papyrifera and Fzcus hzspzda are among the most preferred local fodder tree spec1es that are used by Hmong and Kasah upland farmers m Lao PDR Farmers rated these spec1es lugh usmg entena such as palatab1hty for cattle ava!labihty accessibihty nutntiVe value and regrowth Forages and Llvestock Sytems Forages and Llvestock Sytems Output 4 Increased effectJveness of CIAT and partners to conduct appropnate research • F1eld evaluat10ns often forage technolog1es have commenced m Lao PDR usmg part1c1patory approaches Sorne 250 farmers m 18 vlllages m 4 d1stncts fac1htated by 9 for developmg productJve and sustamable land use practJces Output 4 Increased effectJveness of CIAT and partners to conduct appropnate research • F1eld evaluat10ns often forage technolog1es have commenced m Lao PDR usmg part1c1patory approaches Sorne 250 farmers m 18 vlllages m 4 d1stncts fac1htated by 9 for developmg productJve and sustamable land use practJces field teams 2 provmc1al teams and 4 nabo na) partner staff are mvolved Forest Margms, Pucallpa field teams 2 provmc1al teams and 4 nabo na) partner staff are mvolved Forest Margms, Pucallpa Forages for Smallholders AlternatJves to Slash and Burn (ASB) m Peru Challenges Research and lmpact Forages for Smallholders AlternatJves to Slash and Burn (ASB) m Peru Challenges Research and lmpact • By conductmg research m a collaborative manner scientists Withm the ASB consortmm are exposed to new research methods and ideas Researchers also gam important local msights from other diSCiplines to better adapt and pnontize research thereby maximizmg development impact • Output 3 Models/frameworks developed to target research, mtegrate results, assess Impact Tropileche • By conductmg research m a collaborative manner scientists Withm the ASB consortmm are exposed to new research methods and ideas Researchers also gam important local msights from other diSCiplines to better adapt and pnontize research thereby maximizmg development impact • Output 3 Models/frameworks developed to target research, mtegrate results, assess Impact Tropileche and extrapolate results and extrapolate results • Develop partnerslups with NARS NGO s IARC s ARIS and pnvate sector m LAC Asia • Develop partnerslups with NARS NGO s IARC s ARIS and pnvate sector m LAC Asia F orest Margms. Pucallpa and Afhca to undertake evaluation and diffusion of a range of grasses and legumes for F orest Margms. Pucallpa and Afhca to undertake evaluation and diffusion of a range of grasses and legumes for multipurpose use multipurpose use Assessmg the Impact of Integrated Natural Resource Management (INRM) Challenges and Assessmg the Impact of Integrated Natural Resource Management (INRM) Challenges and Expenences Expenences • CIA T 1mpact assessment research for INRM IS m1xed reflectmg the mulb faceted • CIA T 1mpact assessment research for INRM IS m1xed reflectmg the mulb faceted demands ofiNRM research Advances w¡ll enable cross s1te companson ofthe reference demands ofiNRM research Advances w¡ll enable cross s1te companson ofthe reference s1tes and could ra1se new mterestmg research hypotheses s1tes and could ra1se new mterestmg research hypotheses Forage and Lzvesock Systems Forage and Lzvesock Systems • Strateg¡es developed from field expenence are bemg apphed m Extens10n & Trammg • Strateg¡es developed from field expenence are bemg apphed m Extens10n & Trammg acttv1ttes Incorporabon ofGender & Eqmty mto the Project Cycle and Morutonng & acttv1ttes Incorporabon ofGender & Eqmty mto the Project Cycle and Morutonng & Evaluabon of proJect activibes Evaluabon of proJect activibes Forages for Sma/lholders Forages for Sma/lholders • A cumculurn was developed for a trammg course on momtonng and evaluabon of • A cumculurn was developed for a trammg course on momtonng and evaluabon of part!clpatory forage research projects The modules are Levehng off concepts and part!clpatory forage research projects The modules are Levehng off concepts and expenences F1eld work Data analys1s and reportmg Development ofworkplan In many expenences F1eld work Data analys1s and reportmg Development ofworkplan In many countnes m SE As1a slmultaneous translatton throughout the course 1s essenbal countnes m SE As1a slmultaneous translatton throughout the course 1s essenbal 1994/95 at the begmnmg of the project 1994/95 at the begmnmg of the project • 87% (more than 1 mtlhon ha) ofthe total cassava area m Thatland ts now planted wtth • 87% (more than 1 mtlhon ha) ofthe total cassava area m Thatland ts now planted wtth new htgh }'leldmg vanettes of cassava new htgh }'leldmg vanettes of cassava  "}],"sieverID":"7c32c421-17a7-4779-8593-c97d693e08ff","abstract":""}

data/part_4/06e4eda107dace25985fa811211bf612.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"06e4eda107dace25985fa811211bf612","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/05b4cff0-4159-4924-934b-efe2f87e308a/retrieve"},"pageCount":1,"title":"Convergence and Self-Help Groups","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":51,"text":"▪ The Self-Help Group platform is a powerful platform and channel for improved and inclusive agriculture extension. ▪ A silent revolutionary platform for highlighting and improving women farmers' identity, awareness, and empowerment in agriculture. ▪ Knowledge is power for women. Identity, knowledge, leadership, and economic empowerment are the four important cornerstones."}]},{"head":"Introduction Self Help Groups : A Silent Revolution","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":21,"text":"Convergence -A Catalyst research to impact ▪ Convergence is the key to institutionalizing the change initiated for advancing inclusion in agriculture."},{"index":2,"size":12,"text":"▪ Playing a decisive role in inclusive advisory outreach in eastern India."},{"index":3,"size":33,"text":"▪ Convergence acts as a catalyst for accelerating the pace of agriinnovations aligned with state universities, public institutions/organizations, private players, and livelihood missions. ❑ Social capital platform-SHG is a game changer for inclusion."},{"index":4,"size":26,"text":"❑ Convergence is the key to institutionalizing the change initiated for advancing gender equality. ❑ Leveraging the local ecosystem and converging with Agristakeholders leads to sustainability."}]},{"head":"Conclusion and Recommendation","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":16,"text":"International Rice Research Institute Pili Drive, Los Baños, Laguna 4031 Philippines irri.org s.munshi @irri.org, [email protected] [email protected]"}]}],"figures":[{"text":"•••••••• SHGs as Conduit Identification of potential women's groups/individual farmers, National /State Rural Livelihood Missions, DMS + WBOs 2 Discussion for a pilot with Stakeholders ( Cocreation is the KEY ) 3 Scoping exercise and need assessment 4 Pilot with few numbers, robust on field evidence 5 Field demonstrations to generate interest 6 Areas selected for demonstrations with women farmers 7 Season-long support, technical know how, trainings -tools-timing 8 Wide-scale acceptance in the pilot area: Evidence Generation -CBA "},{"text":"▪ Increases the scope of impact beyond research empowering women in agriculture. The Process Sugandha Munshi, Ashok Kumar and Virender Kumar . The important role of social innovations primarily including collective actions through SHGs and institutionalizing changes through convergence platform( CP) facilitated by \"Cereal Systems Initiative for South Asia\" (CSISA), and \"Precision direct-seeded ricebased diversified systems for transforming labor requirement, yields, and profitability of smallholder farmers in Odisha\" (DSR-Odisha), have played a critical role in creating a pathway for gender-responsive agri-food systems Progressive Impacts: Synthesis and Applications ❑37 % active women's participation in exposure visits, travel seminars, and training in Bihar, EUP, and 22 % in Odisha ❑Agro -Advisories to 1 Million farmers 0.2m exclusively women through CP in Bihar and 36,800 including 8000 women farmers in EUP. ❑106 Women-led Demo plots in Bihar and Odisha ❑ Capacity building developing Master trainer in Jeevika 132 Regional TOTs 13 districts -32 trainings, 338 block level training ripple effect 1000 + cadres ❑Sustainable Intensification (SI) Technologies improving the rice-wheat cropping system, institutionalized with Jeevika in Bihar ❑11083 Women farmers opted for Early Wheat Sowing covering 5628 Acres in Bihar (Source: Jeevika ) ❑ Incentivization of WSHGs and individual marginal & and smallholder women farmers in Govt. subsidy to procure quality multi-crop planters in Odisha to the extent of 75 and 50 %, respectively. "}],"sieverID":"0e2e371b-0533-4cd9-95d3-7ebc3062d638","abstract":""}

data/part_4/06fe3db7b36c884a6a8c5c3ac7981b80.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"06fe3db7b36c884a6a8c5c3ac7981b80","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/d3f947c7-d88d-442d-9088-a7ef43ce9393/retrieve"},"pageCount":22,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":61,"text":"Tomato (Solanum lycopersicum) is a high-value crop widely grown in the Philippines. It has been reported to be second in rank after eggplant in terms of production area (Department of Agriculture, 2023). As of the second quarter of 2023, the estimated production was recorded at 70.33 thousand metric tons (PSA, 2023). The market for tomatoes comprises both fresh and processed markets."},{"index":2,"size":58,"text":"Tomatoes are well-known for their nutritional benefits, containing high levels of Vitamins A and C, and are also famous for their antioxidant properties (Srinivasan, 2010). The evaluation of tomato fruit revolves around its quality and color during harvest time. The quality of tomatoes is determined by various factors such as maturity stages, ripening, physical characteristics, and chemical properties."},{"index":3,"size":116,"text":"However, tomatoes are highly perishable. As little as 50% of annual production may reach the market, the remaining half being lost between production and consumption (Kader, 1992). Postharvest losses in the Philippines during the supply chain from Nueva Ecija to markets in Manila (such as Divisoria and Bulacan) were reported to be between 10-18% upon arrival at the market and 41% after 7 days in storage (Antolin et al., 2022). Another study showed that freshly harvested tomatoes from Bukidnon in Northern Mindanao to Manila resulted in postharvest losses of 41,125 tons, which is roughly equivalent to PHP 180 million. These losses could be minimized through the use of proper storage and packing facilities (SEAMEO SEARCA, 2022)."},{"index":4,"size":48,"text":"Postharvest losses in fresh produce pose a significant challenge for the agricultural and food sectors. These losses are primarily attributed to factors such ethylene-accelerated ripening, deterioration, senescence, and biological aging (Sisler et al., 2006). Additionally, mechanical damages during transportation, such as abrasion and bruising, contribute to these losses."},{"index":5,"size":54,"text":"Addressing these challenges in postharvest handling and transportation is important to minimize losses and improve the efficiency of supply chain management. In this study, the effect of improved packing and handling methods on tomato quality compared to traditional postharvest practices was evaluated along the supply chain from Maragusan, Davao de Oro to Baybay, Leyte."}]},{"head":"Materials and Methods","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":34,"text":"The study assessed the quality of tomatoes during postharvest handling using improved and traditional packaging methods. The study followed the supply chain of tomatoes from Maragusan, Davao de Oro to Baybay City in Leyte."},{"index":2,"size":19,"text":"Uniform quality, green mature and medium-sized 'Jewel' tomatoes were harvested and subjected to different packaging treatments. Packaging treatments included:"},{"index":3,"size":26,"text":"(1) Traditional packing in unlined wooden crates (28 kg per crate), tomatoes tipped into the crates with less care, overpacked, crate stepped upon to close it"},{"index":4,"size":30,"text":"(2) Wooden crates with newspaper lining on two sides, packing the tomatoes (26 kg per crate) with newspaper lining on just two sides of the crate in Maragusan, Davao de"}]},{"head":"Oro","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":31,"text":"(3) Wooden crates with newspaper lining on all sides, which involved packing 26 kg of tomatoes with two sheets of newspaper on each side, lining the four sides of the crate."},{"index":2,"size":47,"text":"There were four wooden crates per treatment, with each crate serving as a replication. In all treatments, packing was done by the regular packers. The only difference would be the slightly reduced weight per crate for Treatments 2 and 3, as well as the use of newspapers."},{"index":3,"size":63,"text":"Data loggers (three out of four crates per treatment) were inserted in the wooden crates with the tomatoes to monitor temperature and relative humidity during transportation. The same data loggers were also used during storage. Fruit was held in ambient room conditions upon arrival in the Postharvest Laboratory, Dept. of Horticulture, Visayas State University in Baybay City, Leyte for quality assessment and evaluation."},{"index":4,"size":61,"text":"Crates remained unopened for the first two days upon arrival to simulate sale and transfer to retail, after which a quality assessment was done. Fruit samples were stored in ambient room conditions for up to 30 days. Quality was assessed 12, 22, 32 days after arrival of the crates. Fruit samples were returned carefully to the same crate after each assessment."},{"index":5,"size":112,"text":"Upon opening of crates (two days after receipt, in ambient storage), tomatoes in each crate were divided according to their location in the crate as top, middle, base or bottom, sides (four sides). This was done by estimating the height of the crate and the number of fruit layers for top, middle and base/bottom. The top layers of each crate were included in the top location while tomatoes at the bottom layers were assigned for the base/bottom location with the rest of the fruit samples divided according to their location per layer as seen in Figure 1. Only the first layer directly located on each side was used for the side location."},{"index":6,"size":49,"text":"Except for fruit that was tagged and labelled for each location (six pieces per location), all tomatoes were returned to the crate for further storage. After 12, 22 and 32 days of storage, destructive and non-destructive analysis (four pieces of tomato per crate were used for firmness and TSS)."},{"index":7,"size":170,"text":"Respective quality grading and peel color rating scales were used. The quality grading used the 5-1 scale (5 = excellent, smooth, firm and unblemished; 4 = good, slight defects or blemish, acceptable with no price change; 3 = fair, significant damage or very slight rot, acceptable but reduced price; 2= damage or defects up to 50%, not normally saleable, only partly edible 1= poor, severe rot or bruising affecting more than 50% of the surface area, not edible. The color index was from 1 to 6: (1= green, 2= breaker, 3= turning, more green than yellow, 4= more yellow or red than green, 5= yellow, orange with traces of green, 6= full yellow or red). The percentage marketability was evaluated by dividing the weight of marketable tomatoes (fruit with Quality rating of 4 and 5) over the total weight of tomatoes in each crate and expressed as percentage by weight. On the other hand, fruit with quality rating from 3-1 will be considered as reject and will be further evaluated."},{"index":8,"size":57,"text":"Rejects were further evaluated as still marketable or non-marketable. Marketable rejects are fruit that still have market value but at a lower price due to minor defects (quality grade of 3) while non-marketable rejects (quality grade 2-1) are fruit with physical and physiological defects, and diseased (fruit that were removed during sorting and deemed no longer saleable)."},{"index":9,"size":13,"text":"• Marketable fruit (VQR 4-5) = weight of marketable fruit/total weight x 100"},{"index":10,"size":16,"text":"• Reduced marketability of fruit (VQR 3) = weight of marketable reject fruit/total weight x 100"},{"index":11,"size":126,"text":"• Non-marketable reject fruit (VQR 1-2) =weight of reject/initial weight of tomatoes /crate x 100 Fruit with quality grade 3 to 1 were further assessed. The types of rejects/damage were identified whether mechanical (i.e., mechanical injuries, cuts, and compressive injuries); insect damage (i.e., insect borings); microbial (i.e., bacterial rot and anthracnose); or physical (i.e., misshapen, catface, zipper mark, etc. These were counted only if they materially and distinctly detracted from the visual appearance of the fruit) and were expressed as percentage by weight and count. In every assessment, reject tomatoes, especially diseased fruit with symptoms of microbial infection, were separated and discarded to prevent further contamination to other fruit. The percentage of rejects was reported in the results section as the cumulative percentage per assessment period."},{"index":12,"size":87,"text":"There were six samples per location for weight loss and were used for the documentation upon opening of each crate. At 12, 22, 32 days, six samples were designated regardless of their location in the crate. For destructive analysis, three fruit per location were used at two days after arrival while four fruit per crate were used for the assessments at 12, 22 and 32 days of storage. Firmness was measured using a hand penetrometer and TSS using a handheld refractometer (PAL-1, Atago Co., Ltd., Tokyo, Japan)."}]},{"head":"Statistical analysis","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":32,"text":"The experiment followed a completely randomized design (CRD) with four replications. Data were analyzed using One Way ANOVA at 5% level of significance. Data analysis was performed using the R statistical package."}]},{"head":"Results","index":5,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Postharvest handling and supply chain","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":97,"text":"Tomatoes grown in Maragusan, Davao de Oro, are harvested between 90-115 days after transplanting. They are handpicked and placed in plastic containers or wooden crates without liners before being brought to a packing area. Sorting for size, color and quality is done on a sorting table. Good quality, blemish-free tomatoes are delivered to Tacloban City; those with blemishes are for neighboring markets (e.g., Mati, Davao Oriental; Agusan; Butuan; Cagayan de Oro City). Tomatoes destined for Tacloban are usually harvested at the mature green stage, occasionally with traces of orange or at breaker stage, depending on buyer requirements.   "}]},{"head":"Temperature and Relative Humidity (RH)","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":58,"text":"Average temperature was 27 to 28 o C. The relative humidity increased by 4.75% as the number of newspaper linings increased relative to the packaging without newspaper treatment. Improved packaging resulted in a slightly higher average temperature and RH due to the utilization of two layers of newspaper, which were placed on all four sides of the crate. "}]},{"head":"Evaluation of tomato quality at different locations in the crate after two days arrival in Leyte","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":122,"text":"Visual quality and fruit marketability Two days after arrival in Leyte, tomatoes that were handled using newspaper linings on two sides of the crates tended to show better quality compared to those packed and handled traditionally by farmers. In addition, the tomatoes that were handled using newspaper linings on all sides of the crates exhibited excellent quality with no reject fruit, making all tomatoes marketable. While most of the tomatoes packed in the traditional method had better quality, a portion of the fruit showed significant damage or slight rot, which were still acceptable but had reduced marketability. Additionally, certain tomatoes were of poor quality due to severe rot or bruising, resulting in a percentage of non-marketable tomatoes, albeit at a lower rate."},{"index":2,"size":47,"text":"Tomatoes located in the middle of the crates showed the highest percentage of tomatoes with excellent quality due to the lesser impact during transportation. This was further demonstrated by the absence of mechanical damage and the low percentage of rejects, as indicated in Tables 3 and 4. "}]},{"head":"Types of rejects","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":105,"text":"Upon opening, traditionally packed tomatoes exhibited a higher percentage of microbial and mechanical damage, while those that were packed with newspaper lining on two sides of the crates exhibited physical and mechanical damage. On the other hand, wooden crates with newspaper linings on all sides were able to maintain good-quality tomatoes without rejects due to the careful handling and added padding to all sides of the crates, which lessened the impact on the tomatoes. This is further supported by the absence of mechanical damage to the tomatoes found in the middle of the crate. Across all treatments, there were no rejects due to insect damage."},{"index":2,"size":55,"text":"A high percentage of microbial damage to tomatoes located in the bottom and middle sides of the crates was found for traditionally packed tomatoes. This may be attributed to the high moisture content accumulated due to the compactness of the crates. Furthermore, the lack of newspaper linings increases the exposure of the tomatoes to microorganisms. "}]},{"head":"Color","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":37,"text":"Change in peel color from green to red indicates tomato ripening. In this study, traditionally packed tomatoes were more likely to stay green, while tomatoes packed with newspaper linings exhibited higher percentages of normal red color development.  "}]},{"head":"Firmness and total soluble solids","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":99,"text":"Upon opening, traditional packaging led to tomatoes with bruises, particularly those located in the middle of the crate. Moreover, total soluble solids were higher in tomatoes that were packed with newspaper lining on two sides of the crates, suggesting advanced ripening of the fruit. Different positions of tomatoes in the wooden crate did not affect the total soluble solids of the fruit. However, fruits from this method were firmer compared to the other two packaging methods. Tomatoes located at the top and bottom of the crate were firmer, but this only varied from tomatoes located on the middle side."},{"index":2,"size":9,"text":"Firmness was affected by the packaging method and location. "}]},{"head":"Evaluation of tomato quality during storage","index":12,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Visual quality and fruit marketability","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":85,"text":"Over time, the percentage of tomatoes with better quality, as indicated by visual quality rates of 5 and 4, decreased. The visual quality of tomatoes was only affected by different packing methods after 22 days of storage in Leyte. Improved packaging tended to show a higher percentage of fruit with better quality and significantly reduced the number of fruit with damage or decay. Traditional packaging resulted in a higher percentage of tomatoes with a visual quality score of 3, indicating significant damage or slight rot."},{"index":2,"size":82,"text":"The marketability of a product is affected by its visual quality. After 22 days of storage in Leyte, improved handling exhibited a high percentage of marketable fruits and significantly lowered the percentage of marketable rejects as compared to the traditionally packed tomatoes. By the end of storage, improved handling managed to maintain the high percentage of marketable fruits with a low percentage of rejects as compared to the other packaging methods. Wooden crates with newspaper lining on two sides 80.36a 12.90a 6.74a"},{"index":3,"size":11,"text":"Wooden crates with newspaper lining on all sides 89.26a 8.42a 2.32b"},{"index":4,"size":22,"text":"1 Per days of storage and in a column, means with the same letter indicate no significant difference at P≤0.05 using LSD."}]},{"head":"Types of rejects","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":54,"text":"There was no difference among packaging treatments observed from days 10 to 30 for rejects caused by physical, mechanical, and insect damage. However, mechanical damage was the leading cause of tomato rejects, which by the end of storage reached 12.73% and 12.86% for the traditional packaging methods without newspaper and with newspaper lining, respectively."},{"index":2,"size":50,"text":"At day 22 of storage at Leyte, improved handling significantly yielded a lower percentage of rejects caused by microbial damage (0.22%) compared to the traditional packaging method (1.31%). Although not significantly different, improved handling consistently recorded lower values of the percentage of rejects caused by physical, mechanical, and insect damage. "}]},{"head":"Color","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":96,"text":"Color change from green to red in tomatoes is an indicator of maturity and ripening. During storage, the percentage of peel color of tomatoes with quality 5 increased. Peel color was affected by the packaging methods on days 12 and 22, where improved handling methods exhibited a higher percentage of yellow-colored tomatoes. As previously mentioned upon opening the crates on day 2, it was noted that improved handling has shown significant color development. Therefore, it was anticipated that these tomatoes would continue to acquire more color throughout the storage duration compared to the other packaging methods. "}]},{"head":"Percent weight loss","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":109,"text":"Tomatoes packed with newspaper lining on two sides showed higher weight loss after 12 days of arrival in Leyte. Although traditional packaging showed similar weight loss with tomatoes packed with newspaper linings on all sides of the crates, the latter showed a 2-3% reduction in weight loss compared to the traditional packaging at the end of the storage duration. The position of the tomatoes in the crates also affected the weight loss on days 22 and 32, wherein those located at the top showed significantly higher weight loss. Meanwhile, tomatoes at the bottom and middle of the crates exhibited lower weight loss compared to those located at the top. "}]},{"head":"Firmness","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":37,"text":"Firmness of tomatoes decreased over the course of storage, indicating that the fruit was softening and ripening. The packaging method had no impact on tomato firmness. Wooden crates with newspaper lining on two sides 5.7a 5.2a 5.0a"},{"index":2,"size":11,"text":"Wooden crates with newspaper lining on all sides 5.4a 5.0a 4.7a"},{"index":3,"size":16,"text":"1 Means with common letter(s) in a column indicate no significant difference at P≤0.05 using LSD."}]},{"head":"Total soluble solids (TSS)","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":81,"text":"As tomatoes ripen, their total soluble solids content increases. In this study, TSS increased and then decreased with storage. On day 22 of storage in ambient conditions, tomatoes that were traditionally packed and packed with newspaper lining on all sides of the crates had lower TSS than those with newspaper lining on two sides of the crates. By the end of storage, treatment with newspaper lining on all sides of the crates and the control did not vary in the TSS. "}]},{"head":"Conclusions","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":39,"text":"This study was conducted to assess the postharvest losses in tomatoes transported from Maragusan, Davao de Oro to Baybay City in Leyte trialing an improved method of handling using additional newspaper linings and reduced fruit load per wooden crate."},{"index":2,"size":41,"text":"Upon opening, Lining four sides of the wooden crate with newspaper tended to exhibit no reject fruit while the traditional packaging without newspaper showed more rejects due to mechanical and microbial causes. Overall marketability though was similar in the three treatments."},{"index":3,"size":124,"text":"During storage in ambient conditions, lining all sides of the crate retained better visual quality with a low number of rejects, resulting in a higher percent marketability as compared to the other packaging methods. In addition, weight loss was reduced in crates lined with newspapers. This method, also had faster color development and slightly lower total soluble solids compared to the control treatment. The two sheets of newspaper linings on all sides of the crates provided added padding and reduced mechanical damage during transport compared to those that were traditionally packed without newspaper lining. Fruit in the bottom and middle layers of the wooden crate resulted in non-marketable rejects mostly due to microbial infection while the bottom fruit layer was prone to mechanical damage."},{"index":4,"size":26,"text":"Thus, even the provision of just two newspapers on two sides of the crate is deemed a better practice in tomatoes compared to fruit without it. "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure 1 . Figure 1. Different locations of tomatoes in wooden crates for evaluation. "},{"text":"Figure 2 . Figure 2. Supply chain and handling of tomatoes harvested from Maragusan to Leyte. Tomatoes are packed into wooden crates with a single layer of newspaper lining the two longer sides of each crate. Each crate holds approximately 27-28 kg of tomatoes, with the crate itself weighing around 5 kg. Crates are sealed by the packer by stepping on it and "},{"text":"Figure 3 . Figure 3. Manual harvesting (A), sorting using a sorting table (B), and packing of tomatoes (C) in Maragusan, Davao de Oro. "},{"text":"Figure 4 . Figure 4. Tomato crates in the consolidation area for loading (A), loading of tomato crates onto the truck (B), arrival and storage of tomatoes in the laboratory at the Visayas State University, Baybay City in Leyte (C). "},{"text":"Figure 5 . Figure 5. Quality and color of tomatoes with different packaging at two days after arrival in Baybay City in Leyte. "},{"text":" This research is being implemented by CGIAR researchers from IFPRI, CIMMYT, The Alliance of Bioversity International and CIAT, IWMI, and CIP in close partnership with World Vegetable Center, Applied Horticultural Research, the University of Sydney, the Institute of Development Studies, Wageningen University & Research, and the University of California, Davis. We would like to thank all funders who support this research through their contributions to the CGIAR Trust Fund: www.cgiar.org/funders The views and opinions expressed in this publication are those of the author(s) and are not necessarily representative of or endorsed by CGIAR.The CGIAR Research Initiative on Fruit and Vegetables for Sustainable Healthy Diets (FRESH) aims to use an end-to-end approach to increase fruit and vegetable intake and in turn improve diet quality, nutrition and health outcomes while also improving livelihoods, empowering women and youth and mitigating negative environmental impacts. "},{"text":"Table 1 . Temperature and relative humidity during the experiment. Factor Packaging Method Replicate 1 Replicate 2 Average* FactorPackaging MethodReplicate 1Replicate 2Average*  T1 27.4 27.7 27.55±0.21 T127.427.727.55±0.21 Temperature ( o C) T2 27.4 27.5 27.45±0.07 Temperature ( o C)T227.427.527.45±0.07  T3 27.9 27.6 27.75±0.21 T327.927.627.75±0.21  T1 85.2 80.2 82.70±3.54 T185.280.282.70±3.54 Relative Humidity (%) T2 85 84.5 84.75±0.35 Relative Humidity (%)T28584.584.75±0.35  T3 86.3 88.6 87.45±1.63 T386.388.687.45±1.63 1 T1-Treatment 1; Traditional packaging without newspaper   1 T1-Treatment 1; Traditional packaging without newspaper 2 T2-Treatment 2; Traditional packaging with newspaper lining on just two sides of the crate 2 T2-Treatment 2; Traditional packaging with newspaper lining on just two sides of the crate  "},{"text":"Table 2 . Visual quality upon opening of crates on Day 2. Means with the same letter(s) in a column indicate no significant difference at P≤0.05 using LSD. *significant at P≤0.05; ns-not significant. Visual quality rate: 5 = excellent, smooth, firm and unblemished; 4 = good, slight defects or blemish, acceptable with no price change; 3 = fair, significant damage or very slight rot, acceptable but reduced price; 2= damage or defects up to 50%, not normally saleable, only partly edible 1= poor, severe rot or bruising affecting more than 50% of the surface area, not edible.    Visual Quality Rate   Visual Quality Rate Treatment      Treatment  5 4 3 2 1 54321 Packaging Method      Packaging Method Traditional handling 92.83a 6.11a 0.57a 0.08a 0.40a Traditional handling92.83a6.11a0.57a0.08a0.40a Wooden crates with      Wooden crates with newspaper lining on two 96.04a 3.58a 0.08a 0.15a 0.15a newspaper lining on two96.04a3.58a0.08a0.15a0.15a sides      sides Wooden crates with      Wooden crates with newspaper lining on all 91.82a 8.18a 0.00a 0.00a 0.00a newspaper lining on all91.82a8.18a0.00a0.00a0.00a sides      sides Location      Location Top 94.26a 4.88a 0.09a 0.25a 0.53a Top94.26a4.88a0.09a0.25a0.53a Middle 93.37a 6.61a 0.00a 0.00a 0.01a Middle93.37a6.61a0.00a0.00a0.01a Bottom 93.54a 5.77a 0.63a 0.00a 0.06a Bottom93.54a5.77a0.63a0.00a0.06a  "},{"text":"Table 3 . Fruit marketability upon opening of crates on Day 2.   Fruit Marketability  Fruit Marketability Treatment % Marketable % Reject but Still Marketable % Non-marketable Reject Treatment% Marketable% Reject but Still Marketable% Non-marketable Reject Packaging Method    Packaging Method Traditional handling 98.95a 0.57a 0.48a Traditional handling98.95a0.57a0.48a Wooden crates with newspaper lining 99.61a 0.08a 0.30a Wooden crates with newspaper lining99.61a0.08a0.30a on two sides    on two sides Wooden crates with newspaper lining 100.00a 0.00a 0.00a Wooden crates with newspaper lining100.00a0.00a0.00a on all sides    on all sides Location    Location Top 99.13a 0.09a 0.78a Top99.13a0.09a0.78a Middle 99.99a 0.00a 0.01a Middle99.99a0.00a0.01a Bottom 99.31a 0.63a 0.06a Bottom99.31a0.63a0.06a Interaction ns ns ns Interactionnsnsns  "},{"text":"Table 4 . Types of rejects upon opening of crates on Day 2.   Type of Rejects (%)  Type of Rejects (%) Treatment    Treatment  Physical Mechanical Microbial PhysicalMechanicalMicrobial Packaging Method    Packaging Method Traditional handling 0.00a 8.33a 12.92a Traditional handling0.00a8.33a12.92a Wooden crates with newspaper lining on 1.65a 0.89a 0.00b Wooden crates with newspaper lining on1.65a0.89a0.00b two sides    two sides Wooden crates with newspaper lining on all 0.00a 0.00a 0.00b Wooden crates with newspaper lining on all0.00a0.00a0.00b sides    sides Location    Location Top 1.80a 5.52a 0.45a Top1.80a5.52a0.45a Middle 0.00a 0.00a 4.55a Middle0.00a0.00a4.55a Bottom 0.00a 4.55a 9.09a Bottom0.00a4.55a9.09a Interaction ns ns ns Interactionnsnsns 1 Means with the same letter(s) in a column indicate no significant difference at P≤0.05 using LSD. *- 1 Means with the same letter(s) in a column indicate no significant difference at P≤0.05 using LSD. *- significant at P≤0.05; ns-not significant.    significant at P≤0.05; ns-not significant.  "},{"text":"Table 5 . Color of tomatoes upon opening of crates on Day 2.      Color Index   Color Index Treatment        Treatment    1 2 3 4 5 6 123456 Packaging Method        Packaging Method Traditional handling  80.60a 4.42a 5.19b 5.47a 4.32b 0.00a Traditional handling80.60a4.42a5.19b5.47a4.32b0.00a Wooden crates with 72.11b 5.87a 8.24a 6.28a 7.19a 0.31a Woodencrateswith72.11b5.87a8.24a6.28a7.19a0.31a newspaper lining on two       newspaper lining on two sides         sides Wooden crates with 77.30ab 4.82a 6.54ab 6.41a 4.87ab 0.05a Woodencrateswith77.30ab4.82a6.54ab6.41a4.87ab0.05a newspaper lining on all       newspaper lining on all sides         sides Location         Location Top   79.60a 5.29a 4.87b 5.93a 4.22a 0.09a Top79.60a5.29a4.87b5.93a4.22a0.09a Middle   74.15a 5.38a 7.00ab 6.55a 6.72a 0.22a Middle74.15a5.38a7.00ab6.55a6.72a0.22a Bottom   76.08a 4.50a 8.14a 5.59a 5.62a 0.07a Bottom76.08a4.50a8.14a5.59a5.62a0.07a Interaction   ns ns ns ns ns ns Interactionnsnsnsnsnsns 1 Means with the same letter indicate no significant difference at P≤0.05 using LSD. *-significant at 1 Means with the same letter indicate no significant difference at P≤0.05 using LSD. *-significant at P≤0.05; ns-not significant. Color index: 1= green, 2= breaker, 3= turning, more green than yellow, 4= P≤0.05; ns-not significant. Color index: 1= green, 2= breaker, 3= turning, more green than yellow, 4= more yellow or red than green, 5= yellow, orange with traces of green, 6= full yellow or red  more yellow or red than green, 5= yellow, orange with traces of green, 6= full yellow or red  "},{"text":"Table 6 . Firmness and TSS of tomatoes upon opening of crates on Day 2.  Quality Characteristic Quality Characteristic Treatment   Treatment  Firmness (kgF) TSS (°Brix) Firmness (kgF)TSS (°Brix) Packaging Method   Packaging Method Traditional handling 7.16a 3.53ab Traditional handling7.16a3.53ab Wooden crates with newspaper lining on two sides 6.88b 3.62a Wooden crates with newspaper lining on two sides6.88b3.62a  "},{"text":"Table 7 . Visual quality per crate of tomatoes during storage. Per days of storage, means with the same letter in a column indicate no significant difference at P≤0.05 using LSD. Visual quality rate: 5 = excellent, smooth, firm and unblemished; 4 = good, slight defects or blemish, acceptable with no price change; 3 = fair, significant damage or very slight rot, acceptable but reduced price; 2= damage or defects up to 50%, not normally saleable, only partly edible 1= poor, severe rot or bruising affecting more than 50% of the surface area, not edible. Days after Treatment Treatment 5 4 Visual Quality Score 3 2 1 Days after TreatmentTreatment54Visual Quality Score 3 21  Traditional handling 93.00a 5.20a 1.64a 0.11a 0.06a Traditional handling93.00a5.20a1.64a0.11a0.06a Day 12 lining on two sides Wooden crates with newspaper 88.68a 10.79a 0.18a 0.11a 0.25a Day 12lining on two sides Wooden crates with newspaper88.68a10.79a0.18a0.11a0.25a  Wooden crates with newspaper 92.12a 6.81a 0.41a 0a 0.66a Wooden crates with newspaper92.12a6.81a0.41a0a0.66a  lining on all sides      lining on all sides  "},{"text":"Table 8 . Marketability of tomatoes during storage in ambient conditions.    Fruit Marketability  Fruit Marketability Days after opening Treatment % Marketable % Rejects but Still Marketable % Non-marketable Reject Days after openingTreatment% Marketable% Rejects but Still Marketable% Non-marketable Reject  Traditional handling 98.20a 1.64a 0.16a Traditional handling98.20a1.64a0.16a Day 12 Wooden crates with newspaper lining on two sides 99.47a 0.18a 0.35a Day 12Wooden crates with newspaper lining on two sides99.47a0.18a0.35a  Wooden crates with newspaper lining on all sides 98.93a 0.41a 0.66a Wooden crates with newspaper lining on all sides98.93a0.41a0.66a  Traditional handling 94.72a 3.52a 1.76a Traditional handling94.72a3.52a1.76a Day 22     Day 22  Wooden crates with newspaper lining on two sides 97.03a 2.03ab 0.94a Wooden crates with newspaper lining on two sides97.03a2.03ab0.94a  "},{"text":"Table 9 . Types of rejects of tomatoes during storage. Per days of storage and in a column, means with the same letter indicate no significant difference at P≤0.05 using LSD.    Type of Rejects (%)  Type of Rejects (%) Days after opening Treatment Physical Mechanical Microbial Insect Damage Days after openingTreatmentPhysicalMechanicalMicrobialInsect Damage  Traditional handling 0.35a 3.26a 0.31a 0.22a Traditional handling0.35a3.26a0.31a0.22a  Wooden crates with     Wooden crates with Day 12 newspaper lining on two 0.73a 3.12a 0.31a 0.35a Day 12newspaper lining on two0.73a3.12a0.31a0.35a  sides     sides  Wooden crates with newspaper lining on all sides 0.00a 0.00a 0.00a 0.00a Wooden crates with newspaper lining on all sides0.00a0.00a0.00a0.00a Day 22 Traditional handling 1.08a 1.40a 1.31a 0.04a Day 22Traditional handling1.08a1.40a1.31a0.04a  "},{"text":"Table 10 . Color of tomatoes per crate during ambient storage. Per column and days of storage, means with the same letter indicate no significant difference at P≤0.05 using LSD. Color index: 1= green, 2= breaker, 3= turning, more green than yellow, 4= more yellow or red than green, 5= yellow, orange with traces of green, 6= full yellow or red Days after opening Treatment 1 2 Color Index 3 4 5 6 Days after openingTreatment12Color Index 3 456  Traditional handling 6.73a 6.23a 9.99a 15.17a 51.93b 9.96a Traditional handling6.73a 6.23a 9.99a 15.17a51.93b9.96a Day 12 Wooden crates with newspaper lining on two sides 6.44a 5.64a 8.26a 12.97a 56.96ab 9.74a Day 12Wooden crates with newspaper lining on two sides6.44a 5.64a 8.26a 12.97a 56.96ab 9.74a  Wooden crates with newspaper lining on all sides 3.06b 1.69b 4.35b 10.51a 70.76a 9.63a Wooden crates with newspaper lining on all sides3.06b 1.69b 4.35b 10.51a70.76a9.63a  "},{"text":"Table 11 . Percent weight loss of tomatoes.   Weight Loss (%)  Weight Loss (%) Treatment Days after Arrival in Leyte TreatmentDays after Arrival in Leyte  12 22 32 122232 Packaging Method    Packaging Method Traditional handling 2.32b 7.6b 12.71ab Traditional handling2.32b7.6b12.71ab Wooden crates with newspaper lining on two sides 4.31a 9.56a 13.32a Wooden crates with newspaper lining on two sides4.31a9.56a13.32a  "},{"text":"Table 12 . Firmness of tomato during storage   Firmness (kgF)  Firmness (kgF) Treatment  Days after opening  TreatmentDays after opening  12 22 32 122232 Traditional handling 5.5a 5.1a 5.0a Traditional handling5.5a5.1a5.0a  "},{"text":"Table 13 . TSS of tomatoes during storage. Means with common letter(s) in a column indicate no significant difference at P≤0.05 using LSD.   TSS (°Brix)  TSS (°Brix) Treatment  Days after opening  TreatmentDays after opening  0 12 22 32 0122232 Traditional handling 3.46a 3.6a 3.8a 3.6ab Traditional handling3.46a3.6a3.8a3.6ab Wooden crates with newspaper lining on two sides 3.47a 3.5a 3.6b 3.7a Wooden crates with newspaper lining on two sides3.47a3.5a3.6b3.7a Wooden crates with newspaper lining on all sides 3.42a 3.5a 3.7ab 3.4b Wooden crates with newspaper lining on all sides3.42a3.5a3.7ab3.4b 1     1  "}],"sieverID":"1188f803-b5a4-45ec-bbc6-4abb0e3bbf7e","abstract":""}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"073f9b672bfdd3c11c956ef9c75de9b8","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/47566f8b-0f6b-4f49-afc1-8bf69574fd79/retrieve"},"pageCount":40,"title":"","keywords":["Adaptation","Smallholder Agriculture","Food Security","Global Dataset","Instrumental Variables"],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":170,"text":"Changing market and climatic conditions can be a threat to food security (Lobel et al. 2008, IPCC 2007, Peri 2017, Usman and Haile 2017), which are likely to be disproportionately felt among smallholder farming households in areas that already suffer high levels of hunger (Muller et al. 2011, Wheeler andvon Braun 2013). The adaptive activities 1 that households undertake are thought to be an important means of coping with changing circumstances (e.g. Biggs et al. 2013). Accordingly, several studies have analyzed the determinants of these adaptation decisions in order for policymakers to facilitate adaptation and mitigate the losses arising, for instance, from climate impacts (e.g. Deressa et al. 2009, Bryan et al. 2009, Di Falco 2014, Chen et al. 2018). Typically, these papers attempt to identify elements of adaptive capacity, and find that household characteristics such as level of education, farm and non-farm income, wealth, access to information and credit, farming experience, as well as participation in government programs, are significant factors that influence farmers' ability to undertake adaptive activities."},{"index":2,"size":64,"text":"As smallholder farmers are already undertaking adaptive farm-level changes, it is important to understand how these types of adaptive behavior affect their welfare. Policymakers and development practitioners can use this information to target interventions to given contexts, and to assess whether policies aimed at incentivizing farmers to undertake adaptive activities are able to mitigate the anticipated losses arising from changing climatic and economic conditions."},{"index":3,"size":175,"text":"Despite the importance of understanding the welfare impacts of adaptation, due to a number of difficulties, empirical evidence of how smallholder adaptation impacts welfare is scarce. 2 The objective 1 Smallholder farming adaptation is typically defined along the lines of actions undertaken by households in order to better cope with or adjust to some changing condition, stress, hazard, risk or opportunity (e.g. Smit and Wandel 2006). Note that this concept of adaptation is similar to technology adoption, but different in at least two ways. First, while adaptation refers to a suite of potential actions that household can undertake, technology adoption is focussed on a particular activity. Second, while technology adoption focuses on a new activity that a household may try, adaptation can include ceasing activities, or reverting to old approaches that were temporarily abandoned 2 We describe these difficulties briefly below, with a literature review supporting this statement in the next section. of this paper is to investigate impacts of agricultural adaptation at the household level on food security, while addressing three types of difficulties."},{"index":4,"size":97,"text":"First, estimates of how adaptation affects household welfare are plagued by empirical identification issues. In a typical (yet naïve) approach, the researcher would estimate a regression model using a welfare measure as a dependent variable, with an adaptation measure and a set of covariates as independent variables. The challenge of such a regression is that adaptation is likely an endogenous variable. For instance, estimates could suffer from reverse causality because adaptation may influence welfare, but welfare may also influence adaptation. Therefore, there is a need to identify ways to consistently estimate the impacts of adaptation on welfare."},{"index":5,"size":183,"text":"Our empirical strategy is to use an instrumental variable (IV) approach to address endogeneity of adaptation in welfare regressions. While numerous technology adoption papers have used IVs (e.g., Adekambi et al. 2009, Arellanes, and Lee 2003, Dibba et al. 2017Ogada et al. 2010), we are not aware of any IVs that have been developed for studying welfare effects of adaptation. Our method relies on the concept that information relevant to agricultural adaptation flows within a neighbor network. In order to identify an IV approach, we turn to a group of papers that find that neighbors in developing countries learn from each other and these interactions influence household behavior (Keil et al. 2017, Foster and Rosenzweig 1995, Ward and Pede 2014, Krishnan and Patnam 2014). The neighbor networks effects on farmers' decisions suggest a set of instruments to address the endogeneity of adaptation in welfare regressions. Specifically, our instrumental variables are weighted averages of adaptation and human capital characteristics of neighbors, with weights inversely proportional to the physical distance between farms. Under-identification and over-identification statistical tests provide support for the validity of these instruments."},{"index":6,"size":153,"text":"Second, most studies attempting to link adaptation to welfare are limited by data collected from local case studies, which provide little information regarding the generalizability of results. Our dataset contains socio-economic and agricultural practices information collected by Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security (CCAFS) from more than five thousand households located in 15 developing countries in Africa, Asia, and Central America. We use as our welfare measure the number of food secure days that households experience in a year, and we use the number of adaptive activities that households undertake as our measure of agricultural adaptation. 3 Moreover, the CCAFS dataset contains farm-level Global Positioning System coordinates that allow us to build the neighbor networks required in our IV approach. The dataset also allows us to estimate adaptation effects controlling for various co-variates, including levels of education, farm characteristics, financial factors, productive and non-productive assets, demographics, farming experience, and participation in government programs."},{"index":7,"size":11,"text":"Our estimations also control for varying crop mix and site-specific effects."},{"index":8,"size":98,"text":"Third, though adaptation to climate change is currently a widespread concern, there are numerous types of changes that could be spurring adaptation. Within this context, there is the potential that the impact of adaptation on food security could vary depending on the type of change to which smallholders are responding. In our study, we employ data that indicate whether adaptive activities are undertaken in response to climate change, changes in market conditions, or both. This data allow us to investigate whether smallholders are able to use adaptation to better cope with some types of changes, rather than others."},{"index":9,"size":14,"text":"Overall, we find that smallholder adaptation is welfare improving with respect to food security."},{"index":10,"size":138,"text":"Our estimates indicate that, on average, undertaking one additional adaptive activity leads to approximately 5 additional days of food security in a year, or put differently, adaptive activities are responsible for 16% of the food security of smallholders. The effect is robust to the specification of crop mix, varying models of network effects (i.e. varying approaches to calculate the spatial weights of our instrumental variables), and using weighted measurements of adaptation. We also show that spatially weighted network transformations of adaptation and human capital are well suited to estimate IV food security regressions, and that not correcting for the endogeneity of adaptation significantly underestimates impacts on food security benefits. Finally, we report empirical evidence suggesting that the food security impacts of adaptation are generally more effective in responding to changing market conditions than in responding to climate change."},{"index":11,"size":61,"text":"This paper is organized as follows. Section 2 discusses the literature related to approaches for using observational data to estimate the impact of adaptation on welfare measures. Section 3 describes the sampling framework, the data, and the empirical model. Section 4 presents diagnostics tests for our IV approach, along with the model estimates. We offer some concluding remarks in section 5."}]},{"head":"Related Literature","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":43,"text":"A number of studies have examined the link between smallholder farmers' adaptation activities and their welfare (e.g. Di Falco et al. 2011, Di Falco andVeronesi 2013). This section presents a discussion of this literature with a focus on the three challenges discussed above."},{"index":2,"size":14,"text":"The first challenge is the endogeneity of adaptation in the estimation of welfare benefits."},{"index":3,"size":137,"text":"Scholars have adopted a number of approaches to address this difficulty. One group of papers employ switching regression approaches. For example, Di Falco and Veronesi (2013) use a multinomial endogenous switching regression model to estimate the effect of adaptation strategies on crop net revenues of farmers. These authors argue that both the decision to adapt and what strategy to use are endogenous as these factors may be influenced by unobservable characteristics and might, for example, lead to self-selection bias. Their approach consists of two stages. First, they use a multinomial selection to model farmers' strategy choices from a (relatively small) set of possible strategies. Second, they estimate a net revenue model for each strategy in the choice set. They find that a combination of adaptation strategies is more effective than a single strategy in increasing crop revenues."},{"index":4,"size":123,"text":"Several papers assume that farmers face a binary strategy set: to adapt or not to adapt. Di Falco et al. (2011) estimate a two-stage endogenous switching model and find that adaptation leads to significant increases in food productivity. In particular, they find that households who adapted would have produced 20% less if they did not adapt. Moreover, households who did not adapt would have produced 35% more if they had adapted. Huang et al. (2015) use a similar approach and show that households that implement farm-level changes in response to extreme weather events experience significant increases in yield. Using the same approach, Asfaw et al. (2012) find that adaptation in terms of adopting improved varieties generates a significant positive impact on consumption expenditures."},{"index":5,"size":38,"text":"Other papers complement endogenous switching models with propensity score approaches. Khonje et al. (2015) examine welfare impacts of smallholder farmer adaptation using both a regression and propensity score matching (PSM). First they estimate a binary endogenous switching model."},{"index":6,"size":145,"text":"Second, they implement a PSM strategy as a robustness check. Their methods suggest that the adoption of improved maize varieties increases crop income, consumption expenditures, and food security. Shiferaw et al. (2014) use a similar approach, and in addition to endogenous switching regressions and PSM, they also use a two-step generalized propensity score (GPS) approach. The GPS approach differs from PSM in that it allows for varying intensities of treatment (e.g. varying adaptation levels as opposed to binary adaptation). Their GPS approach consists of two steps. They first estimate a GPS model to balance covariates, and follow this step with a regression model of the outcome (i.e. food consumption expenditures and a food security binary indicator) where treatment (adaptation) level is a right hand side variable. They find a positive relationship between intensity of adaptation (area devoted to improved wheat) and food security and consumption."},{"index":7,"size":445,"text":"Most studies focus on a small set of farming changes. Di Falco and Veronesi (2013) focus on three types of changes (water strategies, changing crop varieties, and soil conservation) and their combinations, while Di Falco et al. (2011), Asfaw et al. (2012), andHuang et al. (2015) examine binary adaptation choice. In contrast, our approach allows us to explore the rich nature of our data to use information on 46 possible changes in farming practices (refer to section 3). Such a variety of adaptation strategies rules out the possibility of estimating multinomial choice models like in Di Falco and Veronesi (2013). In addition, as most households adopted at least one of the 46 possible strategies, the binary (to adapt or not) identification strategy used by Di Falco et al. (2011), Asfaw et al. (2012), andHuang et al. (2015) would be problematic with our data. For example, in our sample, all households from Ghana, Kenya, Niger, and Senegal adopted at least one new farming practice. Also, note that the validity of PSM depends on the assumption that, controlling for the probability of adaptation, the outcome of interest (e.g. food security) and the adaptation status (adapted or not) are independent. The probability of adaptation is estimated using observable determinants, and therefore the matching approach controls for endogenous adaptation using observable heterogeneity, and is sensitive to selection based on unobservables. The literature refers to this assumption as the conditional independence assumption (CIA). As Angrist and Pischke (2009) explain, assuming consistency of matching estimators under the CIA is equivalent to assuming consistency of estimates from a regression of food security on adaptation and controls. Nevertheless, above we refer to this approach as the naïve regression because it is very likely that there are unobservable factors that are correlated to adaptation decisions, even after controlling for available co-variates. In fact, the attractiveness of the IV approach lies on offering a solution when the CIA is not reasonable. When a valid instrument is available, the IV approach is able to address multiple sources of endogeneity of adaptation. 4   While PSM uses binary adaptation status, the GPS method (Shiferaw et al., 2014) allows for varying adaptation levels. Nevertheless, the method relies on the same independency assumptions as the standard PSM methods. Moreover, Hirano and Imbens (2004) argue that the estimated coefficients from the second stage regression do not have a causal interpretation. This weakness would be problematic for us, as estimating the effect of adaptation intensity on food security is the primary goal of our paper. As a result, we develop an instrumental variable approach to address the endogeneity of adaptation and establish a causal relationship between farming practices changed and food security."},{"index":8,"size":182,"text":"The second challenge is the limited spatial context of most studies. The findings reported by the papers above are based on case studies with localized data, and as a result, they often reflect a focus on a specific crop. Huang et al. (2015) focus on rice production of 1,653 households in five rice producing provinces of China. The analysis of Khonje et al. (2015) is based on a sample of 810 households located in major maize growing areas of eastern Zambia. Shiferaw et al. (2014)   2017) offer a wider investigation by focusing on East Africa; however, the work is limited to a sample of 500 households from the CCAFS dataset (a subset of the data that we employ here). In contrast, our large dataset with more than five thousand households allows us to investigate a broader link between smallholder farmer adaptation and food security in developing countries, while controlling for crop and site effects. To this end, our estimates use data on more than five thousand households located in 15 countries (see Table 1), which increases the external validity of our results."},{"index":9,"size":44,"text":"The third challenge in the empirical estimation of impacts of adaptation is the possible dependence of welfare results to the reasons for adaptation. For example, welfare effects could depend on whether adaptation is spurred by changes in market conditions, or motivated by climate change."},{"index":10,"size":139,"text":"These differential effects could imply alternative policy approaches; say for example, if adaptation were effective in responding to changing market conditions, but not climate change. But, to our knowledge, there has been very little work on adaptation and welfare impacts in the context of market changes and climate change stimuli. Eakin et al. (2014) and Gandure et al. (2013) look at relative risk perceptions of market vs. climate change, and find that market changes were generally perceived as higher risks than climate change. But the focus of both of these studies was on risk perceptions, with little, if any, information on resulting adaptive behaviour. To our knowledge, only one study has considered both market and climate changes as reasons for change (Chen et al. 2018), and such information was used to explain adaptation rather than welfare impacts on households."},{"index":11,"size":150,"text":"In summary, the literature review above discloses three primary contributions of our paper regarding estimating impacts of adaptation on household welfare. First, though a number of alternative approaches have been employed to address the potential endogeneity of adaptation, we are unaware of any studies that have used an IV approach. Our identification of an effective IV strategy provides an alternative approach for future studies. Second, our review discloses that studies that have addressed endogeneity concerns have been limited to localized sites or regions. To our knowledge, ours is the first study to investigate whether impacts of adaptation on welfare are generalizable over multiple countries, while addressing the endogeneity issue. Finally, we are unaware of any studies that have investigated whether the reason for changing farming practices has variable effects on household welfare. We investigate this by using a split sample approach to estimate reason dependent food security gains from adaptation."}]},{"head":"Methods","index":3,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Data","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":97,"text":"We use a rich dataset from the CCAFS research program collected in West Africa, East Africa, South Asia, and Central America. 5 Data were collected from late 2010 to late 2013 for the Africa and Asia sites, and in 2014 for the Central America sites 6 . Households were sampled from randomly located 10x10 km sampling blocks; 30x30km sites were selected in West Africa and Ethiopia due to low population densities. Within each block, 20 households in each of seven villages were randomly selected. The dataset contains information from 5,314 households from 39 sites in 15 countries."},{"index":2,"size":41,"text":"Incomplete data for some of these households leave us with 5,159 observations. Table 1 contains a more detailed description of our sample and its distribution across regions, countries, and sites. Kristjanson et al. (2010) contains more details on the sampling framework."},{"index":3,"size":15,"text":" Table 1. Distribution of the CCAFS data set sample across Regions, Country and Sites."}]},{"head":"Empirical Approach","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":20,"text":"We hypothesize that adaptation positively contributes to food security. To empirically investigate this relationship, we estimate the following regression model:"},{"index":2,"size":80,"text":"where FSis is the number of food secure days (in a year) of household i in site s, A represents adaptation (number of farming practices changed), X are control variables, Z are crop dummies (used to control for variation in food security as a function of the household's crop mix), λ is a site fixed effect, and ε is an idiosyncratic error term. 7 Our statistical tests allow for within site correlations by clustering standard errors at the site level."},{"index":3,"size":240,"text":"The potential endogeneity of adaptation is a challenge for econometric identification. To address this challenge, we exploit the spatial information of households in our data. Literature shows that the spatial position of neighbors may influence the formation of networks, which in turn could affect adaptation decisions (e.g. Foster and Rosenzweig 1995). This observation suggests an IV approach for the identification of model (1). Our proposed set of instruments to identify welfare impacts are adaptation and human capital measures of a farmer's neighbor, weighted by their spatial proximity. Let W represent a spatial weighting matrix. An element (i,j) of W captures the strength of the spatial correlation between households i and j. As a result, W can be thought of as a neighbor network where the strength of the link between two households is inversely proportional to their spatial distance. Specifically, W is a row normalized inverse distance matrix, with truncation at 10km such that the influence of households beyond the truncation point is set to zero. This truncation allows for a simple specification of spatial effects, and the threshold of 10km matches the dimensions of the sites for the vast majority of our sample. 8 Let X * denote the portion of X that captures education levels. Our set of instruments is WA and WX * , where WA is the spatially weighted average adaptation of farmers' neighbors, and WX * is the spatially weighted average education of farmers' neighbors."},{"index":4,"size":156,"text":"Our instrumental variable identification strategy is inspired by the spatial econometrics literature where instruments are spatial lags of the right-hand side variables based on normalized weighting matrices (Kelejian andPrucha 1998, Lee 2003). The strength of these instruments depends on the strength of their correlation with adaptation. There are several reasons for a strong correlation between our spatial and human capital spillover instruments and adaptation. First, as mentioned above, empirical research suggests that adaptation of new technologies (e.g., high-yielding seed varieties) is influenced by the adaptation behavior of neighbors (Foster and Rosenzweig 1995). This result suggests that neighbor adaptation WA is correlated with own adaptation A. Change program in Uganda) 9 focus on developing tools and enabling farmers to adapt, as opposed to other strategies with less spillover effects such as direct cash or food transfers. In addition to the economic arguments above, we use an F-test to statistically examine the correlation between our instruments and adaptation."},{"index":5,"size":43,"text":"The validity of our instruments also relies on the assumption that neighbors' adaptation and adaptive capacity (WA and WX*) are not correlated with the unobservable determinants of food security, and does not affect food security directly but only indirectly through adaptation levels A."},{"index":6,"size":58,"text":"Therefore, this assumption may not hold if, for example, adaptation generated higher wealth, enhanced welfare, and allowed individuals to systematically share this higher wealth with neighbors. This would create a link between own adaptation and neighbors food security, weakening our instruments. Note, however, that this triangulation is unlikely to be effective in poor rural regions of developing countries."},{"index":7,"size":75,"text":"The significant negative effect of household size on food security and other important adaptive constraints faced by poor households (e.g., Babatundea and Qaimb, 2010) make it unlikely that direct transfers between neighbors are an effective means of providing food security, especially in the most vulnerable and food insecure regions of the world, represented in our sample. In addition to F-tests, we also use under-identification and over-identification tests to check the validity of our instruments. 10"},{"index":8,"size":67,"text":"Note that our approach is based on a linear model as opposed to a nonlinear count model. Our choice is motivated by difficulties in implementing instrumental variable strategies to nonlinear models. Instrumental variable approaches when directly applied to nonlinear models typically deliver inconsistent estimates. Wooldridge (2010) refers to this method as the 'forbidden regression'. One estimation approach for nonlinear endogenous variable models is the control function approach."},{"index":9,"size":33,"text":"However, this approach is less reliable when the endogenous variable is not continuous, which is the case with our measure of adaptation. Deeper discussions of these issues are available in Lewbel et al."},{"index":10,"size":1,"text":"( "}]},{"head":"Variables","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":69,"text":"We measure welfare in terms of food security (i.e. FS from equation 1). Households were asked to identify, for a typical year, periods when they tend to struggle to find sufficient food, or experience shortages to feed their families. We measure the number of days in a year the household does not experience shortage to feed the family and use this number to capture the food security of households."},{"index":2,"size":31,"text":"This measure has been used in the literature (e.g. Kristjanson et al. 2012) and follows the definition of 10 The findings of all statistical tests are discussed in the results section."},{"index":3,"size":64,"text":"Pinstrup-Andersen ( 2009) in which a household is food secure \"if it has the ability to acquire the food needed by its members to be food secure\" (p.6). 11 A summary of our variables, and their descriptive statistics, in Table 2 shows that on average, households in our sample experience 293 food secure days per year, with a standard deviation of approximately 84 days."}]},{"head":" Table 2. Variable Descriptions and Descriptive statistics (n=5159)","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":29,"text":"Our measure of adaptation (i.e. A from equation 1) is based on responses of households regarding changes that were made in households' farming activities within the past 10 years."},{"index":2,"size":59,"text":"Households were instructed to select all alternatives that would apply from a list of 46 farming practices (Table 3). To measure adaptation, we count the total number of changes to farming practices made by each household. Households responses for the questions about changes in farming practices were captured with binary indicators (e.g. response =1 for yes, \"stopped using manure/compost\")."},{"index":3,"size":20,"text":"Therefore, the mean values in the Table represent the proportion of the households in the sample that implemented the change."}]},{"head":" Table 3. Activities and descriptive statistics associated with changes in farming practices (n=5159)","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":44,"text":"In order to identify effects of adaptation on household welfare, it is also necessary to control for elements of adaptive capacity. Poor households in rural areas of developing countries face numerous economic constraints that help identify the adaptive capacity of households (e.g. Mendelsohn 2012)."},{"index":2,"size":151,"text":"These determinants include variables that capture various socio-economic characteristics of households (see for example, Smit 2001, Yohe and Tol 2002, Feder et al. 1985). Our model includes controls for 11 Our measure for food security primarily captures food access and is expected to be correlated with caloric availability. However, the concept of food security is thought to have a number of dimensions that are difficult to capture with any one measure (FAO et al. 2018). Nevertheless, for our study, we are limited to the data collected as described above. . these socio-economic factors, as they may influence smallholder farmers' welfare (i.e. X from equation 1). The CCAFS survey provides us with a number of variables that capture human capital, access to information, financial and physical assets, farm and household characteristics, and farming and climate crises experience. The variables that we employ for each of these categories are described in Table 2."},{"index":3,"size":16,"text":"We also include in our model controls for the types of crops that each household grows."},{"index":4,"size":71,"text":"Dummy variables for 10 crops (see Table 4) are included to control for possible differential effects of crop mix on food security (i.e. Z from equation 1). These crops represent the most important crops of our sample as they are grown by at least 5% of our households. Our estimation also controls for local characteristics (e.g. weather) of each of the 39 sites shown in Table 1 (i.e. site fixed effects)."}]},{"head":" Table 4. Crop Summary Statistics (n=5159)","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":169,"text":"Finally, we investigate differential effects of alternative stimuli for adaptation by segmenting our sample. In addition to asking households about their changing farming practices, farmers were also asked whether the changes were caused by climate variability and/or market conditions. We split our sample into four groups to estimate models targeting different motivators for changing farming practices. The first group contains 1,036 households (20% of the sample) that did not adapt in response to climate or market; this is our baseline group whose adaptation was not in response to either of these two factors. The second group contains 483 households (9% of the sample) that adapted due to climate variability only. The third group has 1,286 households (25% of the sample) that adapted due to market conditions only. Finally, the fourth group contains 2,354 households (46% of the sample) whose agricultural adaptation was in response to both climate variability and market conditions. For each of these segments, we run separate models and compare the impacts of adaptation on food security."}]},{"head":"Results","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":78,"text":"Table 5 shows the results of four estimated models, which explore potential differences in results of using instrumental variables and fixed effects. OLS1 is an ordinary least squares model that does not include instrumental variables or crop fixed effects. The OLS2 model adds crop fixed effects. The next two models employ the widely utilized two step generalized method of moments instrumental variable approach. IV/GMM1 includes instrumental variables, but not crop fixed effects, while IV/GMM2 adds crop fixed effects."},{"index":2,"size":221,"text":"We begin with results of statistical tests regarding the validity of the instruments we employ in our IV/GMM models, presented in the bottom of Table 5. First, we test whether the instruments are correlated with the endogenous variable. The F statistic of the auxiliary regression of A on WA and WX * is equal to 979.18 (p<0.001), which indicates that the correlation between the instruments and adaptation is statistically significant. Next, we use the Kleibergen-Paap test of under-identification to examine whether the excluded instruments (neighbors' adaptation and education) are correlated with the endogenous variable (own adaptation) under the assumption of site-level clustering (Kleibergen and Paap 2006). Table 5 shows that we reject the null, that the equation is under-identified, with p<0.05 in both instrumental variable models. Finally, we perform a test of over-identifying restrictions. The test uses Hansen's J test statistic (Hansen 1982). It is based on the joint null hypothesis that the excluded instruments are uncorrelated with the error term of the food security regression, and that they are correctly excluded from the food security equation. If the test statistic is significant, the instruments may not be valid. We fail to reject the null hypothesis with p-values of 0.16 and 0.17 for, respectively, the IV/GMM1 and IVGMM2 models. These results provide support that our proposed set of instruments is valid."},{"index":3,"size":128,"text":"We now turn to the estimates of equation 1. Our central concern is to quantify the impact of agricultural adaptation on food security, which is captured by our estimate of α in equation 1. Our preferred (IV/GMM) estimates indicate a positive and statistically significant relationship between adaptation and food security. We find that one additional farming practice changed increases food security of smallholder farmers by 4.8 days. Interestingly, this effect does not depend on crop effects (i.e. the estimates of α in IV/GMM1 and IV/GMM2 are very similar). The IV/GMM estimates that account for the endogeneity of adaptation are approximately 4 times larger than estimates obtained through a standard OLS regression. This result underscores the importance of correcting for endogeneity when estimating the impacts of adaptation on welfare."},{"index":4,"size":109,"text":"The magnitudes and significance of the control coefficients in Table 5 indicate that the results are generally robust across the four models. In particular, variables that increase food secure days, which are consistent across all specifications of the model, include having a bank account (approx. 11 more food secure days), having rental income (approx. 10 more food secure days), and having more non-productive assets (approx. 5 more food secure days for each asset). Conversely, variables that decrease food secure days include having more people in a household (approx. 1 less food secure day per additional person) and having faced a climate related crisis (approx. 14 less food secure days)."},{"index":5,"size":84,"text":"There are, however, two control variables whose coefficients are substantially different when the model is estimated with instrumental variables. First, whether a family has been farming in the same locality for 10 years is highly significant and large in the OLS models, while it is insignificant and much smaller in the IV/GMM models. Second, whether the farm has access to running water is also highly significant and large in the OLS models, but smaller and marginally significant when crop effects and instruments are used."}]},{"head":" Table 5: Model Results","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":177,"text":"We further investigate the robustness of our IV/GMM models by running additional IV specifications. We are interesting in the sensitivity of results to two key aspects of the weighting matrix W; distance truncation and normalization. In Table 5, we defined neighbor networks as having potential impacts to a distance of 10 km. In addition to the 10 km truncation, the spatial weights of our IVs were based on row normalization of inverse distances. Both row and spectral normalizations are common in spatial analysis. While row normalization makes the row sum of the weights in W equal to 1, with spectral normalization the weighting matrix is normalized so that the largest eigenvalue of W is equal to 1. Table 6 shows results where we modify our instruments. Estimates reported in the first two columns keep row normalization but vary the spatial designations of neighbor networks (i.e. a 5 km truncation for IV/GMM3 and a 50 km truncation for IV/GMM4). Estimates of the last column use our standard 10 km truncation but the IVs are based on spectral weights."},{"index":2,"size":57,"text":"Estimates of models IV/GMM3 and IV/GMM4 are similar to those IV/GMM estimates in Table 5. Moreover, across all of the distance truncations, the instrumental variables tests again provide evidence in favor of our spatial identification strategy. This suggests that our instrumental variable approach based on row normalized weights is not sensitive to the specification of spatial truncation."},{"index":3,"size":71,"text":"The final model, IV/GMM5, investigates whether spectral normalization of the weighting matrix influences the results. The IV/GMM5 model is estimated with 10km truncation, so is comparable to the models IV/GMM1 and IV/GMM2. The estimate of the effect of adaptation on food security is larger in model IV/GMM5. In this model, the instrumental variables statistical tests offer mixed empirical support for the identification strategy (contrary to the case of row normalized instruments)."},{"index":4,"size":77,"text":"Specifically, while we are not able to reject the null in the Hansen over-identification test (which is evidence in favor of the strategy as a rejection generates uncertainty on the validity of the instrumental variables), the Kleibergen-Paap under-identification test indicates that we cannot reject the null of no correlation between the instruments and the endogenous variable. We conclude that spatial effects based on row normalized spatial weights generate better instrumental variables for use in estimating welfare regressions."},{"index":5,"size":68,"text":"(n=2354), iii) climate reason only (n=483), or iv) market reason only (n=1286). Households in the baseline group (i.e. neither reason) changed approximately 2 farming practices while households that respond to climate and market conditions changed 13.5 practices. Interestingly, households that respond to climate (but not to market conditions) only adapt with approximately half as many activities as those that respond to the market (but not to climate variability)."}]},{"head":" Table 7: Average number of farming practices changed, by reason for adaptation","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":94,"text":"For each subsample, we estimate equation 1 using instrumental variables based on row-normalized weighting matrices with 10km truncation, and with site and crop fixed effects (i.e. the specification followed in model IV/GMM2). Table 8 shows, for each group, the estimate of the marginal effect of adaptation of food security (\uD835\uDEFC ̂) and its 95% confidence interval. 12 We estimate that an increase in one adaptive activity from the baseline group increases food security by 5.6 days; however this estimate is not statistically significant. The marginal effect estimate for the climate variability group is 4.4;"},{"index":2,"size":107,"text":"however, again we cannot reject the null of no effect. Households that adapt due to market conditions increase their food security, on average, by 7.5 days per farming practice changed (p<0.01). Similarly, those who adapt to both market conditions and climate variability increase their food security by 7.1 days per practice changed. 13 For the households that adapt with double motivation, the average contribution of adaptation to food security is an impressive 95.6 days (i.e., 7.09 per practice changed times 13.48 changes, on average). These households have, on average, 295.6 days of food security in a year; hence, agricultural adaptation provides 32% of their yearly food security."},{"index":3,"size":18,"text":" Table 8: Marginal effect of adaptation on the number of food secure days, by reason for adaptation"}]},{"head":"Summary of Contributions, Limitations, and Concluding","index":13,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Remarks","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":172,"text":"This paper offers several contributions to the literature on the welfare impacts of adaptation. Overall, we find that adaptation, in terms of an additional farming practice changed, increases food security by approximately 5 days. For an average household that makes almost 10 adaptive changes, adaptation is responsible for approximately 47 more days of food security. Put differently, our results indicate that approximately 16% of the food security of smallholder farmers in our sample comes from their adaptive activities. Other factors that increase food security include having: a bank account, income from renting land or machinery, larger numbers of non-productive assets, running water, and 10 or more years of farming experience. Factors that decrease food security include larger household sizes, and having experienced a climate-related crisis in the last 5 years. Our finding, that adaptation is welfare improving, is in line with a number of empirical studies that address the endogeneity issue in analyzing the welfare impacts of adaptation at the household level (e.g. Di Falco et al. 2011;Di Falco and Veronesi 2013)."},{"index":2,"size":138,"text":"These results also reflect a number of more specific contributions of this study. First, our study employs spatial or neighbour network effects to construct instrumental variables to address endogeneity of adaptation in food security models. Our proposed set of instruments (that are validated by underidentification and over-identification tests) offers researchers an additional identification strategy to analyze the welfare impacts of adaptation. We also show the importance of correcting for endogeneity in adaptation, in that our IV/GMM estimates of impacts of adaptation on food security are up to 4 times larger than estimates derived from models that do not correct for endogenous adaptation. The larger impact of adaptation on number of food secure days, after instrumenting for adaptation, demonstrates the importance of addressing endogeneity. Our results show that ignoring this identification challenge can underestimate the welfare contribution of adaptation."},{"index":3,"size":85,"text":"Second, while earlier work has focused on case studies or farmers living in localized geographical regions, this paper uses a dataset that contains information on more than five thousand households located across 3 continents (Africa, Asia, and Central America) and 15 countries (Bangladesh, Burkina Faso, Costa Rica, Ethiopia, Ghana, India, Kenya, Mali, Mozambique, Nepal, Nicaragua, Niger, Senegal, Tanzania, and Uganda). This dataset substantially enhances the external validity of our findings and allows us to provide robust and generalizable estimates of welfare impacts of household-level adaptation."},{"index":4,"size":165,"text":"Third, we investigate whether the impact of adaptation on household welfare differs depending on whether adaptation is motivated by changes in market conditions or climate change. Results indicate that adaptation motivated by climate change alone does not significantly impact food security, while adaptation done in response to market conditions is welfare enhancing. When adaptation is done in response to both climate variability and market conditions, our results indicate that an additional farming practice changed increases food security by approximately 7 days, which, when extrapolated over an average of approximately 13 activities, leads to an average effect of 96 food secure days (or 32% of their food security). These results suggest that households have been more successful at adapting to changing market conditions than in responding to climate change. Therefore, as impacts of climate change increase, in addition to policy approaches designed to increase adaptive capacity, it may be necessary to design targeted interventions (e.g. irrigation schemes, information dissemination) that complement the adaptive capacities of households."},{"index":5,"size":62,"text":"Despite the robustness of our results, some cautionary notes are in order. First and foremost, our study (like most adaptation studies) relies on data derived from recall regarding behavioral changes over long periods. An alternative approach could be to design a randomized control trial, or a natural (quasi) experiment, that would measure more immediate changes in behavior (e.g. Duflo et al. 2011)."},{"index":6,"size":87,"text":"However, the implementation of such methods in 15 countries would be challenging, and a smaller sample would limit the external validity of these approaches. Though we believe that the breadth of our sample is a strength, this contribution comes at a cost of lower resolution. For example, understanding heterogeneity in results across geographic regions and types of farming systems would provide useful information for policy development. Though initial inquiries into regional differences in adaptive behaviour have been investigated (Chen et al. 2018) much more work is needed."},{"index":7,"size":149,"text":"In assessing food security effects on adaptation, it is challenging to develop econometric approaches for identifying causal impacts, such as finding valid instrumental variables to control for endogeneity. Several studies have used detailed data on social networks, and used social learning variables as instruments in identifying causal impacts of agricultural innovations. Unfortunately, our dataset has no social networks information. Instead, our approach is to construct instruments based on neighbor networks as defined by GPS coordinates. The outcome of such an approach is a general network variable -one that includes social learning and other types of networks. In our developing country settings, networks can play several roles, from information exchange to borrowing and risk sharing. Our use of this general network variable as an IV is only valid to the extent that memberships in such networks do not directly influence food security. Otherwise, our results represent correlations rather than causations."},{"index":8,"size":194,"text":"Our approach requires spatial information. We use Global Positioning System coordinates to calculate distances between households, which is needed to build the weighting matrices and hence the instrumental variables. This requirement limits the application of this approach to existing datasets that contain spatial markers. Given Global Positioning System technology, which makes it increasingly cheaper and easier to collect such information, we suggest that collecting these coordinates could become standard practice when applying survey instruments, not only for network analysis, but for other uses such as maintaining options of relocating households to collect panel data. We also have little information about how changing market conditions and adaptation affect food security. Changing market conditions could include new market opportunities for smallholders that may require adaptation. But changing market conditions could also imply more volatility and price risks that could cause smallholders to adapt by moving away from activities involved with volatile prices. Both of these circumstances might encourage adaptive activities, but could result in different impacts on the food security of households. Future research could unpack more specific scenarios regarding changing market conditions, and investigate how different types of responses lead to differences in food security."},{"index":9,"size":21,"text":"Understanding these behaviours in the context of climate change risks would provide valuable information for understanding local behaviour and policy design."},{"index":10,"size":114,"text":"Overall, our findings support economic concepts of rational households, who can be effective in adapting to changing circumstances in ways that attempt to ameliorate negative changes, thereby improving welfare. But for some types of newly emerging threats, such as climate change, these abilities to adapt may need to be complemented with carefully designed interventions, as data indicate that historic adaptation has not been clearly welfare improving. With further research in this area, we are hopeful that governments will be in a better position to design policies that not only promote better adaptive capacity, but also complement such capacity with developments that better enable the effectiveness of adaptation.      [-9.63 , 20.91] 4.43 [-7.70 , 16.56 "}]}],"figures":[{"text":" examine 2,017 smallholder wheat producers in the eight main wheat-growing agro-ecological zones of Ethiopia. Di Falco and Veronesi (2013) and Di Falco et al. (2011) study adaptation of 941 smallholder farmers in the Nile Basin of Ethiopia. The sampling of Asfaw et al. (2012) focus on chickpea and pigeonpea production among 700 households in the Shewa region in the central highlands of Ethiopia, and 613 households in four districts of Northern Tanzania. Finally, Shikuku et al. ( "},{"text":" ),Lloyd-Smith et al. (2018), andLloyd-Smith et al. (2019). In addition, maximum likelihood estimation of count models is inconsistent under heteroskedasticity of unknown form. These issues are mitigated by the specification of a linear regression model. Our GMM estimator is consistent and inference is based on robust standard errors clustered at the site level. "},{"text":" For the IV/GMM models, the instrumental variables are the spatial lags of adaptation and education levels. The weighting matrix uses a 10km spatial truncation and is row normalized. * p<0.1; ** p<0.05; *** p<0.01 "},{"text":" Second, adaptation-related learning happens primarily in local networks because neighbors and close farmers experience similar economic and climactic conditions and are likely to have relevant information about adaptation. Indeed, farmers'  "},{"text":"Table 2 . Distribution of the CCAFS data set sample across Regions, Country and Sites.  Variable Description VariableDescription  "},{"text":"Table 3 . Activities and descriptive statistics associated with changes in farming practices (n=5159)  819   819 Changes in Activities undertaken within the past 10 years Mean Standard Deviation Changes in Activities undertaken within the past 10 yearsMeanStandard Deviation Crop management Activities   Crop management Activities 1. Introduced any new crop 0.338 0.473 1. Introduced any new crop0.3380.473 2. Are you testing any new crop 0.093 0.290 2. Are you testing any new crop0.0930.290 3. Stopped growing a crop (totally) 0.457 0.498 3. Stopped growing a crop (totally)0.4570.498 4. Stopped growing a crop (in one season) 0.231 0.421 4. Stopped growing a crop (in one season)0.2310.421 5. Introduced intercropping 0.439 0.496 5. Introduced intercropping0.4390.496 6. Introduced rotations 0.228 0.420 6. Introduced rotations0.2280.420 7. Earlier planting 0.271 0.445 7. Earlier planting0.2710.445 8. Later planting 0.172 0.378 8. Later planting0.1720.378 9. Started using or using more pesticides/herbicides 0.384 0.486 9. Started using or using more pesticides/herbicides0.3840.486 10. Stared using integrated pest management 0.043 0.202 10. Stared using integrated pest management0.0430.202 11. Started using integrated crop management 0.036 0.185 11. Started using integrated crop management0.0360.185 Changing Crop Variety Activities   Changing Crop Variety Activities 12. Introduced new variety of crops 0.714 0.452 12. Introduced new variety of crops0.7140.452 13. Planting higher yielding variety 0.619 0.486 13. Planting higher yielding variety0.6190.486 14. Planting better quality variety 0.449 0.497 14. Planting better quality variety0.4490.497 15. Planting pre-treated/improved seed 0.346 0.476 15. Planting pre-treated/improved seed0.3460.476 16. Planting shorter cycle variety 0.388 0.487 16. Planting shorter cycle variety0.3880.487 17. Planting longer cycle variety 0.159 0.366 17. Planting longer cycle variety0.1590.366 18. Planting drought tolerant variety 0.193 0.395 18. Planting drought tolerant variety0.1930.395 19. Planting flood tolerant variety 0.059 0.235 19. Planting flood tolerant variety0.0590.235 20. Planting salinity-tolerant variety 0.016 0.127 20. Planting salinity-tolerant variety0.0160.127 21. Planting toxicity-tolerant variety 0.004 0.065 21. Planting toxicity-tolerant variety0.0040.065 22. Planting disease-resistant variety 0.206 0.405 22. Planting disease-resistant variety0.2060.405 23. Planting pest-resistant variety 0.162 0.369 23. Planting pest-resistant variety0.1620.369 24. Testing a new variety 0.123 0.329 24. Testing a new variety0.1230.329 25. Stopped using a variety 0.475 0.499 25. Stopped using a variety0.4750.499 Soil, Water and Land Management Activities   Soil, Water and Land Management Activities 26. Expanded area 0.474 0.499 26. Expanded area0.4740.499 27. Reduced area 0.404 0.491 27. Reduced area0.4040.491 28. Started irrigating 0.109 0.312 28. Started irrigating0.1090.312 29. Stopped irrigating 0.010 0.098 29. Stopped irrigating0.0100.098 30. Stopped burning 0.090 0.286 30. Stopped burning0.0900.286 31. Introduced crop cover 0.051 0.220 31. Introduced crop cover0.0510.220 32. Introduced micro-catchments 0.034 0.182 32. Introduced micro-catchments0.0340.182 33. Introduced/built ridges or bunds 0.082 0.274 33. Introduced/built ridges or bunds0.0820.274 34. Introduced mulching 0.065 0.246 34. Introduced mulching0.0650.246 35. Introduced terraces 0.050 0.217 35. Introduced terraces0.0500.217 36. Introduced stone lines 0.020 0.140 36. Introduced stone lines0.0200.140 37. Introduced hedges 0.045 0.207 37. Introduced hedges0.0450.207 38. Introduced contour ploughing 0.049 0.217 38. Introduced contour ploughing0.0490.217 39. Introduced improved irrigation (water efficiency) 0.104 0.305 39. Introduced improved irrigation (water efficiency)0.1040.305 40. Introduced improved drainage 0.023 0.150 40. Introduced improved drainage0.0230.150 41. Introduced tidal water control management 0.014 0.116 41. Introduced tidal water control management0.0140.116 42. Introduced mechanized farming 0.258 0.437 42. Introduced mechanized farming0.2580.437  "},{"text":"Table 5 : Model Results Cluster-robust standard errors are reported in parentheses. Standard errors are clustered at the site level. 846     846  OLS1 OLS2 IV/GMM1 IV/GMM2 OLS1OLS2IV/GMM1IV/GMM2 Count of adaptive 1.709*** 1.243*** 4.766*** 4.759*** Count of adaptive1.709***1.243***4.766***4.759*** activities (0.400) (0.410) (1.369) (1.343) activities(0.400)(0.410)(1.369)(1.343) Education - 4.052 3.162 -0.689 -0.668 Education -4.0523.162-0.689-0.668 primary (4.360) (4.218) (4.135) (3.980) primary(4.360)(4.218)(4.135)(3.980) Education - 5.048 3.576 -3.565 -3.190 Education -5.0483.576-3.565-3.190 secondary (5.276) (5.008) (5.831) (5.394) secondary(5.276)(5.008)(5.831)(5.394) Education - 8.417 6.584 -2.214 -1.752 Education -8.4176.584-2.214-1.752 post-secondary (5.262) (5.032) (6.246) (5.487) post-secondary(5.262)(5.032)(6.246)(5.487) Access to weather -1.995 -2.489 -3.139 -2.963 Access to weather-1.995-2.489-3.139-2.963 information (4.292) (4.304) (4.447) (4.158) information(4.292)(4.304)(4.447)(4.158) Bank account 12.691*** 12.222*** 10.678*** 10.980*** Bank account12.691***12.222***10.678***10.980***  (3.015) (2.867) (2.752) (2.649) (3.015)(2.867)(2.752)(2.649) Cash from the 4.874 5.592 4.575 4.205 Cash from the4.8745.5924.5754.205 government (3.447) (3.370) (2.951) (2.895) government(3.447)(3.370)(2.951)(2.895) Income from renting out 10.333*** 9.877*** 9.739** 9.642** Income from renting out10.333***9.877***9.739**9.642** land or machinery (3.428) (3.305) (3.707) (3.607) land or machinery(3.428)(3.305)(3.707)(3.607) Count of production- 2.184 2.181 0.502 0.608 Count of production-2.1842.1810.5020.608 related assets (1.735) (1.816) (1.840) (1.867) related assets(1.735)(1.816)(1.840)(1.867) Count of nonproduction- 5.616*** 5.701*** 5.289*** 5.397*** Count of nonproduction-5.616***5.701***5.289***5.397*** related assets (1.292) (1.313) (1.205) (1.220) related assets(1.292)(1.313)(1.205)(1.220) Livestock 5.464 4.844 1.552 1.572 Livestock5.4644.8441.5521.572  (4.369) (4.285) (4.033) (3.939) (4.369)(4.285)(4.033)(3.939) Motorcycle -0.600 -0.653 0.005 -0.142 Motorcycle-0.600-0.6530.005-0.142  (2.873) (2.851) (2.736) (2.608) (2.873)(2.851)(2.736)(2.608) Boat 1.636 0.247 1.152 1.869 Boat1.6360.2471.1521.869  (9.394) (9.408) (7.597) (7.517) (9.394)(9.408)(7.597)(7.517) Running water 10.924** 11.181** 7.131 7.534* Running water10.924**11.181**7.1317.534*  (4.630) (4.316) (4.350) (4.056) (4.630)(4.316)(4.350)(4.056) Storage facility -0.862 -1.746 -6.235 -6.543 Storage facility-0.862-1.746-6.235-6.543 for crops (3.467) (3.540) (4.490) (4.236) for crops(3.467)(3.540)(4.490)(4.236) Planted trees 0.458 0.903 -2.810 -2.455 Planted trees0.4580.903-2.810-2.455  (2.604) (2.641) (3.062) (3.117) (2.604)(2.641)(3.062)(3.117) Household size -0.788* -0.897* -1.186*** -1.163*** Household size-0.788*-0.897*-1.186***-1.163***  (0.453) (0.444) (0.426) (0.428) (0.453)(0.444)(0.426)(0.428) Household is female- -2.916 -3.199 -1.004 -1.061 Household is female--2.916-3.199-1.004-1.061 headed (3.715) (3.625) (3.955) (3.997) headed(3.715)(3.625)(3.955)(3.997) Farming experience is at 14.269*** 9.983** 3.483 4.151 Farming experience is at14.269***9.983**3.4834.151 least 10 years (4.689) (4.503) (5.538) (4.571) least 10 years(4.689)(4.503)(5.538)(4.571) Experienced climate crisis -14.040*** -13.905** -14.533*** -14.244*** Experienced climate crisis -14.040***-13.905**-14.533***-14.244*** in the last 5 years (5.155) (5.299) (4.669) (4.738) in the last 5 years(5.155)(5.299)(4.669)(4.738) Site Effects Yes Yes Yes Yes Site EffectsYesYesYesYes Crop Effects No Yes No Yes Crop EffectsNoYesNoYes Kleibergen-Paap Under     Kleibergen-Paap Under identification test (p- - - 0.0342 0.0295 identification test (p---0.03420.0295 value)     value)  - - 0.1559 0.1674 --0.15590.1674  "},{"text":"Table 6 : Robustness Checks Regarding Distance and Spatial Matrix Properties  882    882  IV/GMM3 IV/GMM4 IV/GMM5 IV/GMM3IV/GMM4IV/GMM5 Spatial Matrix Specification:    Spatial Matrix Specification: Truncation 5 km 50 km 10 km Truncation5 km50 km10 km Normalization Row Row Spectral NormalizationRowRowSpectral Count of Adaptive Activities 4.655*** 4.991*** 6.364* Count of Adaptive Activities4.655***4.991***6.364*  (1.309) (1.390) (3.448) (1.309)(1.390)(3.448) Access to weather information -3.236 -3.083 -9.609 Access to weather information-3.236-3.083-9.609  (4.126) (4.278) (6.750) (4.126)(4.278)(6.750) Education -primary -0.509 -1.211 0.855 Education -primary-0.509-1.2110.855  (3.999) (3.963) (4.585) (3.999)(3.963)(4.585) Education -secondary -2.742 -4.215 0.793 Education -secondary-2.742-4.2150.793  (5.411) (5.314) (6.463) (5.411)(5.314)(6.463) Education -post-secondary -1.279 -2.790 1.840 Education -post-secondary-1.279-2.7901.840  (5.504) (5.402) (6.953) (5.504)(5.402)(6.953) Bank account 11.015*** 10.839*** 13.255*** Bank account11.015***10.839***13.255***  (2.650) (2.636) (3.167) (2.650)(2.636)(3.167) Cash from the government 4.279 4.146 0.181 Cash from the government4.2794.1460.181  (2.922) (2.895) (3.542) (2.922)(2.895)(3.542) Income from renting out land 9.675** 9.235** 8.518* Income from renting out land9.675**9.235**8.518* or machinery (3.589) (3.651) (4.255) or machinery(3.589)(3.651)(4.255) Count of production-related 0.672 0.405 1.336 Count of production-related0.6720.4051.336 assets (1.855) (1.866) (2.104) assets(1.855)(1.866)(2.104) Count of nonproduction- 5.436*** 5.443*** 5.121*** Count of nonproduction-5.436***5.443***5.121*** related assets (1.196) (1.227) (1.337) related assets(1.196)(1.227)(1.337) Livestock 1.997 1.633 -1.266 Livestock1.9971.633-1.266  (3.970) (3.931) (4.377) (3.970)(3.931)(4.377) Motorcycle -0.184 0.033 -2.236 Motorcycle-0.1840.033-2.236  (2.614) (2.599) (2.593) (2.614)(2.599)(2.593) Boat 1.539 2.739 -4.289 Boat1.5392.739-4.289  (7.625) (7.451) (8.402) (7.625)(7.451)(8.402) Running water 7.789* 7.197* 6.755 Running water7.789*7.197*6.755  (4.069) (4.040) (4.177) (4.069)(4.040)(4.177) Storage facility for crops -6.363 -6.968 -8.754 Storage facility for crops-6.363-6.968-8.754  (4.143) (4.316) (7.162) (4.143)(4.316)(7.162) Planted trees -2.321 -2.524 -3.256 Planted trees-2.321-2.524-3.256  (3.094) (3.134) (3.989) (3.094)(3.134)(3.989) Household size -1.158** -1.192*** -0.907* Household size-1.158**-1.192***-0.907*  (0.429) (0.425) (0.459) (0.429)(0.425)(0.459) Household is female-headed -1.365 -0.870 -2.115 Household is female-headed-1.365-0.870-2.115  (3.982) (4.004) (4.818) (3.982)(4.004)(4.818) Farming experience is at least 4.262 4.027 6.090 Farming experience is at least4.2624.0276.090 10 years (4.537) (4.587) (5.949) 10 years(4.537)(4.587)(5.949) Experienced climate crisis in -14.206*** -14.365*** -15.904*** Experienced climate crisis in-14.206***-14.365***-15.904*** the last 5 years (4.730) (4.738) (4.943) the last 5 years(4.730)(4.738)(4.943) Site Effects Yes Yes Yes Site EffectsYesYesYes Crop Effects Yes Yes Yes Crop EffectsYesYesYes Kleibergen-Paap Under 0.0174 0.0331 0.4007 Kleibergen-Paap Under0.01740.03310.4007  "},{"text":"Table 7 : Average number of farming practices changed, by reason for adaptation   Climate Variability Climate Variability Climate VariabilityClimate Variability  (No) (Yes) (No)(Yes) Market Conditions 2.28 5.93 Market Conditions2.285.93 (No) (3.59) (4.32) (No)(3.59)(4.32) Market Conditions 10.47 13.48 Market Conditions10.4713.48 (Yes) (4.07) (5.61) (Yes)(4.07)(5.61) Note: Standard deviations are in parenthesis.  Note: Standard deviations are in parenthesis.  "},{"text":"Table 8 : Marginal effect of adaptation on the number of food secure days, by reason for adaptation   Climate Variability Climate Variability Climate VariabilityClimate Variability  (No) (Yes) (No)(Yes) Market Conditions 5.64 Market Conditions5.64 (No)  (No)  "},{"text":" Squared brackets show 95 % confidence interval. ** p<0.05, *** p<0.01.   ] ] Market Conditions 7.51*** 7.09*** Market Conditions7.51***7.09*** (Yes) [1.91 , 13.12] [2.12 , 12.06] (Yes)[1.91 , 13.12][2.12 , 12.06] Note:   Note:  "}],"sieverID":"5a37fcd2-2d91-4f09-bf70-5b277a58be0f","abstract":"believes that open access contributes to its mission of reducing hunger and poverty, and improving human nutrition in the tropics through research aimed at increasing the eco-efficiency of agriculture.CIAT is committed to creating and sharing knowledge and information openly and globally. We do this through collaborative research as well as through the open sharing of our data, tools, and publications."}

data/part_4/077dce07eff780005ef5fe10bf21047f.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"077dce07eff780005ef5fe10bf21047f","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/00732b0a-568c-4973-9a1e-f796a9551649/retrieve"},"pageCount":2,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"\"Agroclimatic similarity\" variable developed to improve the measurement of the spatial spillover potential of agricultural R&D investments","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":83,"text":"Project Title: P665 -2.1.2 Mechanization and Policies for Labor Saving Technology Description of the innovation: A novel variable, the agroclimatic similarity between the locations of plant breeding institutes and the locations of the farms that adopt the improved technologies developed in these institutes, is introduced. This variable provides a useful indicator of spatial variations in spillover potentials of agricultural technologies developed through public investments. In 2020, this methodology was further applied and improved to capture a more complex, multi-faceted concept of \"agroclimatic similarity\". "}]},{"head":"New Innovation: No","index":2,"paragraphs":[]}],"figures":[{"text":" Innovation type: Biophysical Research Stage of innovation: Stage 2: successful piloting (PIL -end of piloting phase) In 2019-2020, this methodology was further applied in Ghana and Nepal and improved to capture multidimensional \"agroclimatic similarity\". Name of lead organization/entity to take innovation to this stage: IFPRI -International Food Policy Research Institute Names of top five contributing organizations/entities to this stage: • ARCN -Agricultural Research Council of Nigeria • NARC -Nepal Agricultural Research Council • FMARD -Federal Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development (Nigeria) • MOLCPA -Ministry of Land Management, Cooperatives and Poverty AlleviationMilestones:• Public sector agencies in 1 country adapt their institutional and organizational mechanisms to improve public resource allocation for service deliverySub-IDOs:• 11 -Adoption of CGIAR materials with enhanced genetic gains • 10 -Closed yield gaps through improved agronomic and animal husbandry practices 1 This report was generated on 2022-08-19 at 08:34 (GMT+0) "}],"sieverID":"2378105d-b057-4bc1-901e-b17ce1b28875","abstract":""}

data/part_4/07cfe5c6d03603619732530e4ffdf5cf.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"07cfe5c6d03603619732530e4ffdf5cf","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/a6489894-f3d9-4363-a95f-67f6b6f39815/retrieve"},"pageCount":1,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":89,"text":"§ PRM improves rangeland and livestock productivity, strengthening the governance and management of rangelands. § PRM improves relationships between pastoralists, other land users and local government by providing greater visibility to their land use, reducing land use conflicts and creating incentives for investments to improve land productivity. § The PRM process ensures women are included in community decision-making and granted greater access to and control over rangeland resources. § Participatory rangeland management plans incentivize communities to undertake activities such as removal of invasive species, rangeland restoration and planned grazing."}]},{"head":"Better managed rangelands and more resilient pastoral systems through participatory rangeland management (PRM) in Tanzania","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":20,"text":"• Pastoral areas suffer from poor tenure security, weakened governance and institutions, lost/ fragmented grazing areas and blocked migration routes."},{"index":2,"size":43,"text":"• Climate change is worsening the situation, impacting livelihoods and rangeland productivity, reducing the resilience of pastoral systems and their ecosystems. • Communities and governments lack the capacity to deal with these challenges, reducing their ability to cope with drought and other crises."}]}],"figures":[],"sieverID":"7a873ad4-d76d-4150-9b88-1b4dd0b0a6a7","abstract":"We thank all funders who support this research through their contributions to the CGIAR Trust Fund: www.cgiar.org/funders."}

data/part_4/08083b43b09e5ca204ae577be29863a8.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"08083b43b09e5ca204ae577be29863a8","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/71308cfe-acf8-48ee-ac79-467c199a5ac0/retrieve"},"pageCount":1,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"ISPC Commentary on the pre-proposal for the Genebank programme","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":101,"text":"The Fund Office (on behalf of the Fund Council) first submitted the CGIAR Genebanks Options Paper for FC13 to the ISPC for comments in early March 2015 as an interim draft, and as a final draft on 17th March 2015. In its subsequent commentary of 3 April 2015, the ISPC expressed support for Option 2 and a much needed renewal of the CGIAR's engagement in genetic resources policy and representation in relevant international fora. The ISPC also recommended that the minimum germplasm health unit costs associated with the conservation and safe movement of germplasm be budgeted additionally within Option 2. 1.1."},{"index":2,"size":17,"text":"The Options paper was presented at FC 13 and the Fund Council concluded and decided as follows:"},{"index":3,"size":55,"text":"\"The Fund Council noted the vital importance of the genebanks and recommittedin both the short and long termto make it a priority to secure funding for them in line with existing agreements on the partnership nature of support to the genebanks. Recognizing the Council's continuing short-term financial responsibilities for 2017-2021, the following decisions were taken."},{"index":4,"size":163,"text":" The Fund Council agreed to commit $93.1 million for the period 2017 -2021, per recommendation #1 of the PRT Report.  The Fund Council agreed to a blended approach to funding to reduce the pressure on Window 1 funds, while recognizing that W1 funds will remain a safety net.  The Fund Council requested the Global Crop Diversity Trust (GCDT) to provide as soon as possible clear and transparent financials to support building the endowment, and requested the GCDT to complete a detailed costing exercise for FC14 to provide more accurate information on cost.  Beginning in 2017, genebank support should be applied to the relevant CRP research as a line item in Windows 2 and 3, where appropriate, taking care to design this to ensure no disincentives to use of the collections. No fees should be applied for material transfer agreements with third parties.  The Fund Council will apply an across-the-board levy in the event of a funding short fall."},{"index":5,"size":57,"text":"The mechanism and exact amount of the levy will be determined by the Fund Council upon the recommendation of the PRT at its next meeting.  A table which further clarifies the breakdown of expenditure items and sources of financing will be appended to the minutes to describe possible solutions. The PRT agreed to prepare the table.\""},{"index":6,"size":33,"text":"The ISPC recognize that more detail needs to be provided to justify the USD 93.1 million but do not consider that the pre-proposal submitted met the basic criteria for consideration as a CRP."},{"index":7,"size":38,"text":"The ISPC reiterates its support for funding for the Genebanks but could not support this preproposal. It recommends that the Consortium identify an alternative mechanism to call for a detailed proposal justifying expenditure on the Genebanks from 2017-2022."}]}],"figures":[],"sieverID":"4d6b003a-43e7-4ff2-8ef8-7cb312beb8d6","abstract":""}

data/part_4/082b309961a7ea56d8a26b36dcc3542f.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"082b309961a7ea56d8a26b36dcc3542f","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://www.iwmi.cgiar.org/Publications/IWMI_Research_Reports/PDF/pub028/REPORT28.PDF"},"pageCount":31,"title":"PerformanceEvaluationof theBhakraIrrigationSystem, India,UsingRemoteSensing andGISTechniques","keywords":["R. Sakthivadivel","Upali Amerasinghe","W. G. M. Bastiaanssen","and David Molden are","respectively","senior irrigation specialist","research associate","remote sensing specialist","and research leader","performance program","IWMI","Colombo","Sri Lanka. S"],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":103,"text":"quality, distributary-level discharge, rainfall, and evapotranspiration in a GIS environment using IDRISI software. The agricultural and hydrologic setting of the command area as well as the longterm trends in agricultural productivity and groundwater regime was assessed. Diagnostic analysis of problem areas and the development of possible action plans at the regional level are made feasible with information from the GIS on crop yield, canal water supply, and soil salinity. The study thus demonstrates the synergy possible from applying satellite remote sensing and GIS to evaluate trends in rising water tables and salinity, which are two important threats to the sustainability of irrigation systems."}]},{"head":"Performance Evaluation of the Bhakra Irrigation System, India, Using Remote Sensing and GIS Techniques","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":72,"text":"R. Sakthivadivel, S. Thiruvengadachari, Upali Amerasinghe, W. G. M. Bastiaanssen, and David Molden Irrigated agriculture will play a major role in determining the future food security of most Asian countries, and it will also be the major contributor to the additional food production required as world population expands (Svendsen and Rosegrant 1994). Therefore, it is important to raise the agricultural performance of lowproductivity irrigation systems, while sustaining the performance of more-productive systems."},{"index":2,"size":115,"text":"In many countries, and particularly in India, accurate evaluation of irrigation system performance and sustainability is hampered by lack of adequate, reliable, and timely irrigation statistics. Usually, performance indicators such as yield, cropping intensity, and irrigation intensity are measured at an aggregated level, often at the state or national levels. Data at project level are rarely collected. If collected, they frequently are unreliable or not easily accessible (Murray-Rust and Merrey 1994). It is in this context that IWMI, as part of its ongoing research program on the use of emerging technologies in irrigation management, applied remote sensing and geographic information system (GIS) techniques to study the Bhakra Irrigation System and to analyze agricultural performance issues."},{"index":3,"size":134,"text":"The diagnostic analysis of the operation of the Bhakra canal command area in northwest India reported here was the result of collaborative research by the National Remote Sensing Agency, Hyderabad, India, the Haryana State Irrigation and Water Resources Department, Chandigarh, India, and the International Water Management Institute, using data from the DLO-Winand Staring Centre, Wageningen, The Netherlands. Satellite remote sensing was utilized to obtain data on basic agronomic characteristics and crop yield. Hydrologic analysis based on ground data was carried out, aided by GIS and supplemented with output data from a distributed computer model that simulates the spatiotemporal behavior of canal water, soil water, and groundwater. The salient findings from this research are reported here and in Remote Sensing and Hydrologic Models for Performance Assessment in Sirsa Irrigation Circle, India (Bastiaanssen et al. 1998)."},{"index":4,"size":41,"text":"The Bhakra Irrigation System is above average in agricultural performance compared with other irrigation systems in Haryana (Economic and Statistical Organization 1995). Currently, Bhakra contributes about 40 percent of Haryana's wheat production and 6 percent of national production. Through its warabandi"}]},{"head":"Introduction","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":91,"text":"The Bhakra project, like other surface irrigation schemes in Haryana, was designed to distribute a limited supply of water to the greatest number of farmers possible over a large area. The distribution of water is governed by the warabandi principle, a rigid rotational cycle of fixed duration, frequency, and priority level (Malhotra 1982). The attraction of warabandi system is that it allocates water in proportion to the size of the farmer's land holding, and it is simple to plan and operate. The key features of the warabandi system are as follows:"},{"index":2,"size":18,"text":"• Individual farms are aggregated into hydrologic units (chaks) of 100 to 400 hectares (50 to 200 farms)."},{"index":3,"size":63,"text":"• Each chak is served by a watercourse whose capacity is proportional to the size of the chak. Design duty at the chak level in the Bhakra system is 0.17 l s -1 ha -1 (1.5 mm/ day, one-fifth to one-third of peak evapotranspiration in the irrigation season), so that watercourses range in capacity from 17 to 70 l/s (Berkoff and Huppert 1987)."},{"index":4,"size":70,"text":"• Each farm holding in the chak is entitled to take the full supply in the watercourse during a specified period proportional to its size. By having the entitlement period proportional to the size of holding and having watercourse flow proportional to the size of the chak, all farmers in the command under distributaries that receive water in that week are ensured a uniform volumetric allocation per hectare per week."},{"index":5,"size":31,"text":"• Watercourses are ungated and are served by parent channels (minor canals) that have a capacity exactly equal to the sum of the capacity of the off-taking watercourses (allowing for losses)."},{"index":6,"size":35,"text":"• Minor canals in turn are usually gated and are served by a distributary whose capacity is exactly equal to the combined capacity of offtaking minors and direct outlets to watercourses (again allowing for losses)."},{"index":7,"size":166,"text":"Since the water allowance per hectare is very low, water scarcity is a built-in feature of the system. Originally, the operating principle was conceived to ensure equitable distribution of runof-river flows. Since the pattern of availability of water was unpredictable, a further procedure was required to deal with uncertainty. This procedure, known as \"rostering,\" consists of assigning the distributaries into groups and establishing rotating performance orders (priority orders) for the groups. Typically, a large command has three groups, say, A, B, and C. In the first week, group A has first priority, B the second, and C the last priority. In the second week, group C moves to first priority, A to the second, and B to third. In the third week, the priority order changes again, and in the fourth week the cycle begins all over. Fluctuations in flow during a week are absorbed in the lower priority groups. Reidinger (1971), Malhotra (1982), and Berkoff and Huppert (1987) provide further details about the warabandi principle."},{"index":8,"size":55,"text":"Construction of reservoirs added a substantial degree of control to irrigation systems, and it became possible to schedule water deliveries to coincide with critical periods of the agricultural year. Yet, despite these infrastructure improvements, the procedure of allocating water through the turn system at the chak level and through canal rostering has remained essentially unchanged."}]},{"head":"The Warabandi Principle","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":84,"text":"The research program involved both methodological developments and operational application to generate required agricultural performance data at the pixel level of satellite data, which could then be aggregated to any desired level, including the entire project area. This study complements an earlier IWMI study on the Bhadra project, a rice-based irrigation system in Karnataka, India (Thiruvengadachari and Sakthivadivel 1997). These two studies demonstrate the potential of remote sensing and GIS for evaluating the performance of irrigation systems under two of India's major food crops."},{"index":2,"size":97,"text":"Multispectral satellite data can be used to derive information on cropped area, cropping pattern and calendar, and crop productivity in irrigation systems (Thiruvengadachari and Sakthivadivel 1997). Waterlogged and saltaffected soils have been mapped (Dwivedi 1992). The unique capabilities of satellite remote sensing techniques for generating spatial data and for monitoring change during a season and across years allow the performance of irrigation systems to be assessed effectively (Thiruvengadachari 1996). Conventional surveys typically provide only overall estimates for the total command area; they are rarely adequate to provide spatially distributed estimates of crop yield within a command area."},{"index":3,"size":169,"text":"Earlier studies have shown the usefulness of some specific applications of satellite remote sensing technology, such as inventory of irrigated land (Huston and Titus 1975;Draeger 1976) or estimates of the size of the wheat and barley area (Pestemalci et al. 1995). The Bhakra system study, however, was initiated specifically to demonstrate the application of satellite remote sensing and GIS techniques for evaluating the current performance and sustainability of a large wheat-based irrigation system and to show the utility and cost-effectiveness of those techniques as diagnostic tools for irrigation system improvement. The raster format of satellitederived data is ideal for importing into a GIS environment. The information can then be combined with other spatial and nonspatial data, such as water-table depth, groundwater quality, long-term groundwater trend, problem soil area, canal discharge, and well discharges, for correlation analysis. Effective water resources management increasingly calls for integration of these technologies with hydrologic modeling (Tim 1996). Bastiaanssen et al. (1998) provides an example of integrating satellite remote sensing and GIS with hydrologic models."},{"index":4,"size":78,"text":"Specific objectives of the Bhakra system study were, first, to generate disaggregated data on total irrigated area, area under major crops, and wheat productivity and, second, to integrate satellite-derived data with ground-measured data to identify factors that constrain agricultural performance and threaten the sustainability of the agricultural production system. A critical issue that this research addresses is whether present practices for allocating and distributing canal water supplies can continue without detriment to agricultural production and the groundwater regime."}]},{"head":"The Bhakra Irrigation System","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":57,"text":"The Bhakra canal system in Haryana State has a cultivable command area of 1.3 million hectares. This system and the Western Yamuna canal systems supply water to 88 percent of the 2.8 million hectares of surface-irrigated land in the state of Haryana. The Bhakra command area in Haryana is divided into five water service circles (fig. 1)."}]},{"head":"Climate","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":118,"text":"The area has a semiarid to arid climate, and hot weather prevails in the command between March and October. Most rainfall occurs from July to September. According to the World Water and Climate Atlas, 1 the weighted annual average rainfall over the command area is roughly 600 millimeters. It varies from 750 millimeters in the northeastern part of the command to less than 400 millimeters in the southwestern part. Rainfall in the dry season (rabi) ranges from 100 millimeters in the east to less than 50 millimeters in the west. Irrigation requirements also vary from east to west. Annual evapotranspiration over the command ranges from 1,250 millimeters in the northeastern part to 1,650 millimeters in the southwestern part."}]},{"head":"Cropping Patterns","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":125,"text":"Kharif (June-October) and rabi (November-April) are the principal agricultural seasons. When the Bhakra canal command was being planned, the cropping pattern assumed in kharif was fodder, cotton, gram (chickpeas), barley, orchards, and vegetables. The pattern assumed in rabi was wheat, fodder, gram, barley, and vegetables. Now the cropping pattern and the cropping intensity are quite different. Most of the irrigated area is occupied by high yielding varieties of rice, wheat, and cotton. Also, the irrigated area has expanded over the years. Irrigated wheat occupied 69 percent of the total irrigated area during rabi 1992/93 and 71 percent during rabi 1993/94, about double the percentage of wheat area planned for the project. Water service circles and their divisions in the Bhakra Irrigation System, Haryana State, India."}]},{"head":"Canal Water Supplies","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":102,"text":"The Bhakra canal network has three operational systems: the tail of Bhakra Main Line (BML Tail), the BML-Barwala link, and the Narwana-Sirsa system. The three operational systems receive their water supplies from the Gobind Sagar Reservoir and from the diversion barrage at Tajewala on the Yamuna River. The Gobind Sagar Reservoir is impounded by the Bhakra dam. It provides Haryana with its share of the flows of the Ravi, Beas, and Sutlej rivers of the Indus River system. The diversion barrage at Tajewala on the Yamuna River provides Haryana with its share of the uncontrolled Yamuna flows from the Ganges River system."},{"index":2,"size":77,"text":"The Narwana-Sirsa system and the BML-Barwala link are supplied partly from the Yamuna and partly from waters of the Indus rivers stored by the Bhakra dam. Water from Gobind Sagar Reservoir is used to supplement the run-of-river availability from the Yamuna through two linksthe Narwana branch and the BML-Barwala link. The BML Tail system, however, is entirely supplied from the Gobind Sagar Reservoir, giving it the most stable and predictable water supplies among the three operational systems."}]},{"head":"Groundwater","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":43,"text":"In addition to canal water, groundwater plays a major role in the irrigated agriculture of the Bhakra canal command. Shallow and deep tube wells irrigate an area equal to or greater than the area irrigated by canal water (Economic and Statistical Organization 1995)."},{"index":2,"size":88,"text":"Twenty-four percent of the command area is underlain by marginally saline to saline water, and in the last two decades the water table has risen substantially (5 to 10 m) in a large portion (64%) of the command. The continuing rise in water tables in these areas is one of the major problems in the command. But in Kaithal, Kurukshetra, and Ambala districts, due to extensive development of good quality groundwater, the water table dropped by 2 meters, 8 meters, and 4.7 meters, respectively, between 1979 and 1994."}]},{"head":"Infrastructure Improvement","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":47,"text":"To reduce seepage and to improve the conveyance efficiency of canal networks, as well as to control the groundwater rise, lining of canals and watercourses was begun two decades ago and is continuing. Seventy percent of the 17,500 kilometers of watercourses in the command are now lined."}]},{"head":"Canal Terminology","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":66,"text":"Main canal. The main canal is the principal artery of the distribution system. It takes off from the reservoir. In the Bhakra system, the main canal carries a discharge ranging from 250 to 400 m 3 /s. Secondary canals. Secondary canals take off from the main canal. Large secondary canalsbranch canals-carry 30 to 150 m 3 /s. Small secondary canals-distributaries-carry 10 to 30 m 3 /s."},{"index":2,"size":27,"text":"Tertiary canals. Tertiary canals take off from secondary canals. Large tertiary canals-distributaries-carry 10 to 30 m 3 /s. Small tertiary canals-minors-carry 5 to 10 m 3 /s."},{"index":3,"size":56,"text":"Other canals and channels. Fourth-order canals take off from tertiary canals. Minors carry 5 to 10 m 3 /s. Watercourses carry less than 5 m 3 /s. Field channels take off from watercourses. Other terms, such as sub-branch, subdistributary, and subminor are used to subclassify larger units, but no well-defined discharge ranges are associated with them."}]},{"head":"Rabi Season Canal Rotations","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":110,"text":"During rabi 1995/96, the Bhakra system was operated from 3 October 1995 to 14 April 1996, following a set pattern of rotations among the three operational systems (table 1). As a result of the allocation schedule and the fixed water allowance per unit area, the command area serviced by the BML Tail channels received the largest quantity of water per unit area because water was supplied on more days during the season than it was in the other two operational systems. Compared with the supply per unit area of BML Tail, the BML-Barwala link received only 75 percent as much and the Narwana-Sirsa system received only 50 percent as much."},{"index":2,"size":38,"text":"2 It is noteworthy that zones that have fresh groundwater (Narwana-Sirsa system) received the smallest amount of canal water per unit area, and the zones that have saline or marginally saline groundwater 3 (BML Tail) received the most. "}]},{"head":"Materials and Methods","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":30,"text":"The present study relies on data from remote sensing combined with ground observations and data collected in the field. All sources of information were integrated through GIS for correlation analysis. "}]},{"head":"Satellite Inventory of the Bhakra Command","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":275,"text":"Earlier studies have demonstrated the usefulness of satellite remote sensing data in generating information on total irrigated area and area under various crops within a project area (Estes, Jensen, and Tinney 1978;Kolm and Lee 1984;Nageswara Rao, Mohan Kumar, and Chandrasekhar 1990). To monitor irrigated orchards and nine crops in South Australia, 2 In the Narwana-Sirsa system, groups receive water 8 days out of 24, or one-third of the time. In BML-Barwala Link, groups receive water half the time. In BML Tail, because two of the three groups, in rotation, receive water simultaneously, each individual group receives 16 days of water every 24 days, or twothirds of the time. Thus, for example, over a 96-day period, groups in Narwana-Sirsa receive 32 days of water, groups in BML-Barwala Link receive 48 days of water, and groups in BML Tail receive 64 days of water. Williamson (1989) analyzed multispectral SPOT data and airborne data. Because chlorophyll absorbs most incoming spectral radiance in the red range between 0.6 and 0.7 µm and reflects it in the 0.75 to 0.90 µm near-infrared range, composites of red and infrared spectral radiances can be used to distinguish vegetated from nonvegetated surfaces. Kennedy (1989) showed that one such composite, the normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI), is a sensitive indicator of variations in biomass. NDVI correlates with spatial and temporal changes in growing conditions. Many attempts to estimate crop yields from satellite data have been made (Pinter et al. 1981;Quarmbay et al. 1993). Hatfield (1983) recommended the use of NDVI at crop heading stage for estimating potential harvestable yield. Figure 2 shows the method followed in the current study for analyzing satellite data ."},{"index":2,"size":68,"text":"To identify the agricultural conditions in the Bhakra canal command area during rabi 1995/96, we used multi-temporal measurements by the LISS-II radiometer aboard IRS-1B. The command area is covered by nine LISS scenes, each encompassing 74 km x 74 km. On five of the six overpass dates during rabi 1995/96, fully or Flowchart of analysis methodology. predominantly cloud-free satellite images of seasonal agricultural progress were obtained (table 2)."},{"index":3,"size":64,"text":"The satellite scenes, in which digital counts were first transformed into radiance values, were geometrically corrected from accurate topographic maps in 1:50,000 scale and assembled in mosaic form to provide complete coverage of command area. The corrected data set had a location accuracy within 15 meters and a pixel size of 30 m x 30 m; it was oriented North-South in a polyconic projection."},{"index":4,"size":81,"text":"The canal network, major roads and railroads, rivers, and settlements as well as the command boundaries of 364 distributaries and minors were digitized, geometrically corrected, and co-registered with the satellite data set so that they could be overlaid on hard copies or used in generating statistics for specified areas such as distributary command areas. The base map showing the area commanded by distributaries and minors had to be specially prepared in consultation with field officers, as this was not previously available."},{"index":5,"size":101,"text":"The analysis was supported and the results were validated by ground-truth campaigns from 10 January to 5 February and from 14 to 28 June 1996. During the field visits, sample sites representing target crops to be classified were selected along with crop-cutting plots where wheat was harvested and yields estimated. The location of sample sites and crop-cutting plots was obtained within 100 meters accuracy with a hand-held global positioning system (GPS) receiver. The satellite-related analysis was completed in 8 months for about US$0.03/ha. This amount includes the Indian Remote Sensing Data Center's charges for satellite data and the cost of processing."}]},{"head":"Crop Classification","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":68,"text":"The classification of satellite remote sensing images is an information extraction process that involves pattern recognition of spectral properties of various surface features and then categorizing the similar features. The goal of classification in the current study was to delineate wheat, oilseed crops, and other crops. Crop classification work was carried out by the scientists of the National Remote Sensing Agency, India, under the direction of S. Thiruvengadachari."},{"index":2,"size":72,"text":"A review of spectral signatures of wheat, oilseeds, and other crops obtained by conventional supervised classification indicated a wide range and possible mix-up among classes. Conventional supervised classification is not highly accurate. Pestemalci et al. (1995) applied a supervised classification of wheat and achieved only 85 percent accuracy. Furthermore, our data lacked fully cloud-free coverage in March 1996 (table 2), which would have been essential for using simple or sequential maximum-likelihood classifiers."},{"index":3,"size":68,"text":"Consequently, we developed an innovative iterative methodology (fig. 3) that combines maximum likelihood classification (supervised classification) with iso-clustering (unsupervised classification) to analyze the satellite data acquired in November, January, and February. These three periods were selected as optimal based on analysis of the spectral signatures on all five dates for which data was available and after evaluating a separability index developed from the Bhattacharya distance measure (Jensen 1986)."},{"index":4,"size":56,"text":"From images on the three selected dates, we chose only the green (0.52-0.59 µm), red (0.62-0.68 µm), and near-infrared (0.77-0.86 µm) spectral band data and combined them in a ninedimensional data set for analysis. Lee and Richards (1985) showed that in the maximumlikelihood classifier, accuracy and computational speed decrease as the number of spectral channels increases."},{"index":5,"size":178,"text":"A supervised classification was applied first. The multidimensional nature of the data set provided pure spectral signatures of classes, allowing 47 percent of the image pixels to be labeled as wheat, oilseed, or other. Areas that had even marginally different signatures were left unlabled. Those unclassified portions of the Flowchart of classification methodology. images were then subjected to unsupervised classification that yielded 50 homogeneous spectral clusters. The signature of each cluster was compared with earlier training sets to create additional training sets. The earlier and additional training sets were combined and spectrally clustered to provide revised training sets, which were used for further supervised classification. Dobbertin and Biging (1996) found that this approach of random selection of pixels in training sets improves classification accuracy in simulated satellite images that have high spatial autocorrelation. We repeated the process until all pixels were classified as wheat, oilseed, or other. Once the classification was completed, the results were confirmed by reference to data from 01/02 April, the date when NDVI values indicated most of the crops were in the senescence phase."},{"index":6,"size":82,"text":"The crop classification was validated against sample areas identified during the first field visit but not used in classification and against an area randomly selected during the second field visit. The classification error matrix presented in table 3 has an overall kappa accuracy (Congalton 1991) of 95 percent. Satellite inventory provided data on the total area irrigated in the command (both by canal water and groundwater) in contrast with the irrigation department reports, which cover only the area irrigated by canal water. "}]},{"head":"Wheat Yield Estimation","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":49,"text":"Information on vegetation density is of paramount importance for estimating biomass accumulation. Grain yield is related to the photosynthetically active radiation-the solar radiation in the visible part of the spectrum (0.4 to 0.7 µm)-that is absorbed by the crop. Absorbed photosynthetically active radiation (APAR) (J m -2 time -1"},{"index":2,"size":9,"text":") is related to photosynthetically active radiation as follows:"},{"index":3,"size":8,"text":"where PAR (t) (J m -2 time -1"},{"index":4,"size":36,"text":") is the accumulated photosynthetically active radiation that reaches the crop during the growing season, and ƒPAR (t) is a proportionality factor describing the chlorophyll, which varies with time, t. ƒPAR is zero for bare soil."},{"index":5,"size":24,"text":"APAR is the principal parameter that controls the total biomass accumulated by the crop through photosynthesis and assimilation. Thus yield can be given as:"},{"index":6,"size":69,"text":"where Y act (kg/m 2 ) is the actual grain yield, z is the ratio between grain yield and total aboveground biomass, and ∈ (kg/J) is the photosynthetic efficiency depending on crop's carbon fixation pathway (C 3 , C 4 , or CAM 4 ) (Prince 1991). The validity of equation (1) has been demonstrated both theoretically (Monteith 1972) and experimentally (Daughtry et al. 1992;Field, Randerson, and Malmstorm 1995)."},{"index":7,"size":1,"text":"Because"},{"index":8,"size":21,"text":"where a and b are constants, NDVI is an indirect linear expression of crop yield with offset \"a\" and slope \"b.\""},{"index":9,"size":64,"text":"Many studies have attempted to use satellitederived NDVI at the crop heading stage to estimate end-of-season yield because the crop condition at this stage is a major determinant of were organized in a GIS environment using IDRISI software. Table 4 characterizes the spatial and nonspatial data used in GIS analysis. Information integration and analysis for specific objectives were attempted through union and intersection techniques."},{"index":10,"size":131,"text":"The GIS applications allowed characterization of the command area's agricultural productivity, canal water supply, groundwater regime, and their interrelationships. These parameters were used to clarify policy issues related to long-term sustainability. In addition, the GIS applications were a means for uncovering the need for location-specific corrective management, such as identifying areas that have potential waterlogging problems, that require reclamation, or that have soil limitations to wheat productivity. The regional scale of information on some parameters, such as water-table depth and groundwater quality, prevented microlevel analysis, however. Wheat yield in relation to NDVI. yield. For example, Pestemalci et al. (1995) used a single-date regression model similar to equation (2) for a limited number of wheat parcels in Turkey and obtained a correlation coefficient of 0.84 between NDVI at heading and crop yield."},{"index":11,"size":62,"text":"In the present study, yields of wheat harvested in 270 crop-cutting experiment plots were obtained from the Haryana Agriculture Department. The latitudes and longitudes of the plots were determined with a hand-held GPS receiver. Each plot was represented by a window of five pixels by five pixels (150 m x 150 m) to account for the residual location inaccuracy in GPS readings."},{"index":12,"size":129,"text":"The yield for every wheat pixel was estimated with a linear regression model. In the regression analysis, the NDVI of 17/18 February 1996 was used as independent variable. On this date, the NDVI was at the maximum value corresponding to heading phase of wheat. Data from crop-cutting experiment plots where farm size was less than 0.4 hectare and where withinwindow NDVI variability was high were excluded. The outliers in the scatter plot of yield versus NDVI were also removed from further analysis. The wheat yield model based on the remaining 151 plots was computed as yield (t/ha) = -3.75 + 10.99 NDVI, with coefficient of determination of 0.86 and a standard error of estimate of 0.217 t/ha (fig. 4). The regression coefficient was significant at the 1 percent level."},{"index":13,"size":25,"text":"The yield estimates can be aggregated over any desired area such as distributary or minor command (fig. 5), canal subdivision, division, or water service circle."}]},{"head":"Integration of Geographic Information System","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":33,"text":"To permit more comprehensive spatial analysis and to integrate relevant ground data, which are different in scale and information level, all data Spatial variability of wheat yield, Bhakra canal command area, rabi 1995/96."}]},{"head":"Results of Analysis","index":18,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Agricultural Characterization of the Bhakra Command","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":106,"text":"The spatial variability of irrigation intensity (irrigated cropped area relative to cultivable command area) and of wheat, oilseeds, and other crop areas as a percentage of total cropped area was determined and mapped. Table 5, which is derived from this analysis, gives an irrigation statistics for the command area in rabi 1995/96. The command's overall irrigation intensity (from groundwater as well as canal water) was 83 percent compared with a designed surface-water irrigation intensity of 32 percent. Wheat predominates, occupying more than 70 percent of irrigated crop area. These results are comparable to the data published by the government of Haryana (Economic and Statistical Organization 1995)."},{"index":2,"size":47,"text":"The average wheat yield over the whole command area is estimated to be 4.09 t/ha. Kaithal circle, which has mostly fresh groundwater, has the highest wheat yield; Hissar-1 and Sirsa circles, which are underlain by marginally saline and saline groundwater, have the lowest wheat yields (table 5)."},{"index":3,"size":55,"text":"Wheat yields were computed for the command areas of 364 distributaries and minors to identify ones that suffer constraints to productivity. In 53 of the commands, wheat yields were less than 90 percent of the divisional mean (table 6). These poorly performing command areas covered 8 percent of the irrigated area during 1995/96 rabi season. "}]},{"head":"Spatial Variation in Wheat Area and Yield","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":85,"text":"An analysis of irrigation statistics, including wheat yield, by irrigation circle (table 5) indicates that wherever irrigation intensity was higher, both wheat intensity and wheat yield were high, and all parameters seem to reflect total water availability. The relationship between the percentage of wheat in a distributary command area and mean wheat yield is statistically significant (R 2 = 0.73) (fig. 6). Similarly, wheat yield and the coefficient of variation in yield in a distributary command are well correlated (R 2 = 0.54) (fig. 7)."},{"index":2,"size":64,"text":"Groundwater quality also was related to yield. In distributary commands that had low wheat yield, only 6 percent of the area had good groundwater quality. In distributary commands that had high wheat yield, 18 percent of the area had good groundwater quality. These observations suggest that good quality water has a critical role to play especially in increasing wheat irrigated area and wheat yield."},{"index":3,"size":172,"text":"To study the spatial variation of irrigated wheat area and yield as function of distance from the supply channels, two typical water circles-Kaithal and Sirsa-were selected. Kaithal has a high percentage of fresh groundwater and the Sirsa has marginally saline groundwater. Due to differences in the depth and quality of groundwater, the mean wheat yield in the two circles differed by 0.6 t/ha. Using the GIS, the shortest distance from the supply channel network (main canal, branch canal, distributary, or minor) to each pixel was calculated, and the average wheat yield and irrigated wheat area were computed at 100 meter intervals from the supply channel. In the Sirsa circle, which has poor groundwater quality, about 45 percent of the irrigated wheat area was concentrated within 500 meters of the canal network. In contrast in Kaithal circle, which had good groundwater quality, only 28 percent of wheat area was concentrated within 500 meters. However, in both circles, the greater the distance from the canal network, the lower was the percentage of wheat area."},{"index":4,"size":55,"text":"These results indicate that the irrigated wheat area is concentrated near canal networks because of the availability of seepage water and nearness to the freshwater source. To increase their irrigated wheat area, farmers appear to capture seepage water from canals through dugcavity wells. However, within a circle, spatial wheat yield variation was not statistically significant."}]},{"head":"Canal Water Supply","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":101,"text":"The spatial variability in canal water supplies (fig. 8) is related to groundwater quality. Areas supplied with relatively small amounts of canal water are mostly in zones of fresh groundwater, and areas of high canal water supply are in zones of marginally saline to saline groundwater (table 7). Under the warabandi principle, all areas should receive a roughly equal supply of water per unit command area. However, the canal water supplies vary. Thirty-five percent of the command area received less than 150 millimeters and 41 percent received over 300 millimeters. The rest of the command area received 150 to 300 millimeters."},{"index":2,"size":146,"text":"IDRISI GIS helped in defining and analyzing the interrelationships of agriculture, groundwater, and canal water supply. Table 7 reveals that in zones of marginally saline to saline groundwater, both the percentage of rabi irrigated area and the percentage of wheat area are low. On the other hand, only 9 percent of command area in  Coefficient of variation of wheat yield in relation to yield. marginally saline to saline groundwater zones gets low canal water supply compared with 70 percent of the command area in the freshwater zones. The irrigation agency seems to have consciously implemented this unequal spatial distribution of water based on the assumption that farmers who have fresh groundwater can pump it to supplement their canal water supplies, while those in saline groundwater areas need more canal water to support their crop. However, this assumption has implications for sustainability of the system, discussed later."},{"index":3,"size":33,"text":"Under the warabandi principle, the equal distribution of water should occur in a rather  automatic manner through rostering of distributary and minor canals. The present water distribution practices vitiate the warabandi principle, however."},{"index":4,"size":89,"text":"Table 8 shows key irrigation management indicators as a function of distance along five major canals. Two principal observations can be made. First, in Narwana, the canal command that has fresh groundwater, the mean wheat yield and wheat intensity are high and the canal water supply per unit area is low. Along the channel length, wheat yield, wheat intensity, and canal water supply vary little. In 15 percent of the command area, the water table is more than 10 meters deep and has been falling moderately over the years."},{"index":5,"size":60,"text":"Second, in canal commands underlain by marginally saline to saline water, mean wheat yields are low and canal water supply is high. Wheat yield and wheat intensity decrease along the canal length, while canal water supply remains constant or increases (except in Barwala). The groundwater level is rising, and in many places the water-table depth is 3 meters or less."},{"index":6,"size":39,"text":"These observations led us to carry out a multiple regression of wheat yield as a dependent variable against several parameters including canal distance for the five canals. We found (table 9) a statistically significant decline in wheat yield with"},{"index":7,"size":16,"text":"• increasing distance along the canal length (as indicated by cumulative percentage of cultivable command area)"},{"index":8,"size":14,"text":"• increase in the share of cultivated area that has a shallow water table"},{"index":9,"size":15,"text":"• increase in the share of cultivated area that has a rapidly rising water table"},{"index":10,"size":148,"text":"Variations in groundwater quality and canal water supply were not significantly related to wheat yield. We made field visits to answer several questions about the present canal operation practices: Why does the canal water supply in the Barwala and BML Tail branch canals increase along their lengths, and how does this additional water affect wheat area and yield in downstream reaches? Canal managers suggested that the increasing discharge along the canal length probably is related to the lining of major reaches of the canals. The water supply allowances originally stipulated when the canals were unlined were not adjusted after lining. Consequently, water that previously would have been lost to seepage moves downstream without being redistributed among the distributaries and minors. In addition, canal managers were supplying more canal water per hectare to the command areas served by these two branch canals to offset pumping from saline underground water."},{"index":11,"size":211,"text":"Ordinarily, increasing the amount of water delivered to an area of the Bhakra system should result in higher wheat yields and more wheat growing, but for the tail reach areas of Barwala, Fatehabad, and BML Tail canals, wheat yield and wheat intensity are low (table 8). Table 9 shows that the wheat yield decrease is significant with cumulative percentage of cultivable command. The water supply, based on the warabandi principle, follows a rigid rotational cycle of fixed  duration, frequency, and priority level. Our hypothesis is that when water is supplied to the tail reach, an area of highly permeable sandy loam, at fairly long intervals (once in 8 to 16 days), most of the water is not retained and available in the root zone for crop growth. Instead the water percolates to the underlying saline groundwater. Inadequate root-zone soil moisture probably is a major factor in the low wheat yield. Figure 9 shows that the NDVI values of lower yielding distributary commands are consistently lower than those of higher yielding commands, suggesting that irrigation support is inadequate throughout the season. Farmers who face low prospective wheat yields switch to oilseed crops, which consume less water. As a result more canal water reaches the saline groundwater, and the water table rises rapidly."},{"index":12,"size":116,"text":"Thus, although the irrigation agency provides more water to areas that have saline groundwater in an attempt to meet the wheat crop's water requirement, the additional water has not had the desired impact. Instead it has aggravated the build-up of the water table and the potential for waterlogging and soil salinization. When this finding was discussed at a workshop with officials of the Haryana Water Resources Department, they did not dispute it. They have agreed to monitor these parameters more carefully in the future seasons to test the hypothesis and to develop possible remedial measures such as supplying less water to tail reach distributaries of Barwala, Fatehabad, and BML Tail canals or shortening the water-supply interval."}]},{"head":"Sustainability of the Bhakra System","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":79,"text":"In terms of agricultural production, the Bhakra Irrigation System is performing well, especially in comparison with other wheat-growing irrigation systems in India. Performance parameters (Molden et al. 1998) calculated for rabi 1995/96, based on wheat as the sole crop in the command area, indicate that the gross value of output per unit of irrigation supply is US$0.20/m 3 , which is roughly three times better than that of Mahi-Kadana system, one of India's outstanding irrigation systems 5 (Sakthivadivel 1996)."},{"index":2,"size":231,"text":"But how sustainable is this high level of performance? In zones with poor quality (submarginally saline to saline) groundwater, the water table is rising in 78 percent of the area (table 7), leading to potential waterlogging and secondary salinization. The water tables in areas that already have poor groundwater within 3 meters of the surface have generally continued to rise in recent years. 6 In zones that have fresh groundwater, the water-table depth in about half the area already exceeds 10 meters and is falling (table 7), which will raise pumping costs and impact farm income. Thus the high irrigation intensity, the high percentage of wheat area, and the low canal water supplies and consequent groundwater extraction in the Bhakra system place its long-term sustainability in doubt. Analysis of canal water supplies in the Sirsa irrigation circle for rabi 1995/96 found that the wheat productivity per unit of water consumed was high, 0.8 to 1.1 kg/m 3 (Bastiaanssen et al. 1998). However, in areas of submarginally or marginally saline groundwater, the combined effect of water distribution practices, canal seepage, water-holding capacity of soils, and irrigation methods used by farmers causes considerable percolation losses to the aquifer. In a large portion of the Bhakra command, as a result of those percolation losses, the water tables have risen more than 10 meters in 15 years in the saline and marginally saline groundwater zones."},{"index":3,"size":225,"text":"The effective porosity in the aquifer system of the Sirsa irrigation circle varies from 0.08 to 0.16 m 3 /m 3 (Boonstra 1996). Consequently a recharge of 80 to 160 millimeters raises the water table by 1 meter. This suggests that, on average, 60 to 100 millimeters of water is being added annually to the saline groundwater zones where soils are porous. The impact of recharge by fresh canal water on the salt balance of the deep aquifer, which is generally saline, needs to be studied. Sulaimi et al. (1996) showed that because of high evapotranspiration in arid areas, salt concentration increases in already-saline groundwater, which could have serious consequences in areas where water tables are rising. Future water management strategies for the Bhakra command should address the problem of rising water tables in the zones that have saline groundwater and the problem of declining water tables in the zones that have fresh groundwater. Although a lasting solution to salinity problems cannot be achieved without a drainage outlet to remove the salts imported with irrigation water (because of poor natural drainage condition in this saucer-shaped basin), better management strategies could delay the rise or fall of the water table in the endangered zones. One such strategy should focus on reducing aquifer recharge and increasing groundwater use in the areas where the water table is rising."},{"index":4,"size":144,"text":"Decreased groundwater use in areas that have rising water tables and poor groundwater quality is an issue that should be solved through on-farm water management. One option for diminishing the recharge to the aquifer is to curtail canal seepage losses. But substantially lowering conveyance losses in this already heavily lined system will be difficult to achieve. Another option would be to reduce the irrigation application per unit area by changing the frequency of water application. At present, under the warabandi principle, distributaries and minors have a turn of 8 to 16 days. The rotational period could be shortened by about half, and more frequent turns could be introduced, with a smaller depth of water application for each turn. In the coarse-textured soils found in the tail end of channels, this would be sufficient to replenish the root-zone soil moisture without leading to deep percolation."}]},{"head":"Conclusions","index":23,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":56,"text":"The issues raised in this report urgently need to be thoroughly investigated by combining satellite remote sensing and GIS techniques with hydrologic modeling, supported by selective and intensive data collection campaigns. Hydrologic modeling is an important tool for understanding the transfer process of salt and water from surface to groundwater and the causes of rising groundwater."},{"index":2,"size":69,"text":"Combining information obtained through satellite remote sensing with ground data in a GIS format has proved to be efficient in identifying major crops and their condition and determining area and yield of wheat, the major crop in the Bhakra command in the rabi season. In addition, for diagnosing problems associated with performance of a wheat-based irrigation system, these techniques are cost-effective. The satellite inventory was completed for about US$0.03/ha."},{"index":3,"size":60,"text":"In the Bhakra Irrigation System, the practice of allocating and distributing the canal water supplies under the warabandi principle leads to the current high productivity of water. The longterm sustainability of agricultural productivity seems threatened, however. In some areas, saline water tables are rising, and soils are becoming sodic, while in areas that have fresh groundwater, water tables are falling."},{"index":4,"size":57,"text":"There is an urgent need for the irrigation agency to thoroughly examine water management problems on the farm, regionally, and systemwide. By combining satellite remote sensing and GIS techniques with hydrologic modeling, appropriate ways can be found to modify the present water allocation and distribution practices to sustain productivity and maintain the health of the Bhakra system."}]}],"figures":[{"text":" FIGURE 1. "},{"text":" FIGURE 2. "},{"text":" FIGURE 3. "},{"text":" FIGURE 4. "},{"text":" FIGURE 5. "},{"text":"FIGURE 6 . FIGURE 6.Wheat yield in relation to wheat area. "},{"text":" FIGURE 7. "},{"text":"FIGURE 8 . FIGURE 8. Amount of canal water supply (in millimeters) reaching distributary command areas, Bhakra Irrigation System, rabi 1995/96. "},{"text":"FIGURE 9 . FIGURE 9.Seasonal NDVI profile of three higher yielding and three lower yielding distributary commands of the Sirsa branch canal in Rori division,22 November 1995 to 2 April 1996.   0.71     "},{"text":"TABLE 1 . Canal rotational schedule for rabi season. Operational Groups of Groups Rotation (days) OperationalGroups ofGroupsRotation (days) system distri-butaries getting water simulta-neously   systemdistri-butariesgetting water simulta-neously  (no.) (no.) \"On\" \"Off\" (no.)(no.)\"On\"\"Off\" Narwana-Sirsa 3 1 8 16 Narwana-Sirsa31816 BML-Barwala Link 2 1 16 16 BML-Barwala Link211616 BML Tail 3 2 8 8 BML Tail3288  "},{"text":"TABLE 2 . Dates of satellite coverage of the Bhakra command area during the rabi season, 21/22 November 1995 to 01/02 April 1996. Satellite Status of crops SatelliteStatus of crops overpass  overpass 21/22 Nov Beginning of rabi season. Oilseed crops 21/22 NovBeginning of rabi season. Oilseed crops  already sown; some early sown wheat. already sown; some early sown wheat. 4 Jan a Oilseeds and early sown wheat in growing 4 Jan aOilseeds and early sown wheat in growing  stage. stage. 26/27 Jan Oilseeds and other crops in peak greenness 26/27 JanOilseeds and other crops in peak greenness  stage. Wheat in active vegetative phase. stage. Wheat in active vegetative phase. 17/18 Feb b Wheat in maximum greenness stage; other 17/18 Feb bWheat in maximum greenness stage; other  crops flowering or in senescence. crops flowering or in senescence. 10/11 Mar c Wheat in maximum greenness stage; other 10/11 Mar cWheat in maximum greenness stage; other  crops in senescence or harvested. crops in senescence or harvested. 01/02 Apr Wheat in senescence; other crops har- 01/02 AprWheat in senescence; other crops har-  vested. vested.  "},{"text":"TABLE 3 . Error matrix of pre-selected sites occupied with rabi crops in the Bhakra Irrigation System classified with a new dual-crop classification procedure. Accuracy is shown in parentheses.  Satellite-derived classification  Satellite-derived classification Verified Wheat Oilseeds Other crops Total VerifiedWheatOilseedsOther cropsTotal Wheat 298 (98%) 5 2 305 Wheat298 (98%)52305 Oilseeds 9 93 (89%) 2 104 Oilseeds993 (89%)2104 Other crops 2 2 76 (95%) 80 Other crops2276 (95%)80 Total 309 100 80 489 Total30910080489  "},{"text":"TABLE 4 . Summary of data types used in GIS analysis. National Remote Sensing Agency. HSMITC/GWD: Haryana State Minor Irrigation and Tubewell Corporation/Groundwater Directorate. Data Type Scale Source a and notes DataTypeScaleSource a and notes Crop type Raster 30 x 30 m b NRSA. Every pixel within the command classified into wheat, oilseeds, Crop typeRaster30 x 30 m bNRSA. Every pixel within the command classified into wheat, oilseeds,    other crop, or no crop. other crop, or no crop. Wheat yield Raster 30 x 30 m b NRSA. In tonnes per hectare. Wheat yieldRaster30 x 30 m bNRSA. In tonnes per hectare. Soil Vector 1:250,000 NRSA. Saline, saline-sodic, and sodic classes, in three severity levels, SoilVector1:250,000NRSA. Saline, saline-sodic, and sodic classes, in three severity levels,    based on extent of area covered in mapping unit derived from satel- based on extent of area covered in mapping unit derived from satel-    lite data of 1986. lite data of 1986. Groundwater quality Vector 1:500,000 HSMITC/GWD. Four quality classes (fresh, <2 dS/m; submarginally sa- Groundwater qualityVector1:500,000HSMITC/GWD. Four quality classes (fresh, <2 dS/m; submarginally sa-    line, 2 to 4 dS/m; marginally saline, 4 to 6 dS/m; saline, >6 dS/m), line, 2 to 4 dS/m; marginally saline, 4 to 6 dS/m; saline, >6 dS/m),    extracted from state map. extracted from state map. Water-table depth Vector 1:500,000 HSMITC/GWD. Contours of depth to groundwater in June 1995, Octo- Water-table depthVector1:500,000HSMITC/GWD. Contours of depth to groundwater in June 1995, Octo-    ber 1995, and June 1996 extracted from state map. ber 1995, and June 1996 extracted from state map. Long-term Vector 1:500,000 HSMITC/GWD. Positive and negative changes in water-table depth 1974- Long-termVector1:500,000HSMITC/GWD. Positive and negative changes in water-table depth 1974- groundwater trend   95 extracted from state map. groundwater trend95 extracted from state map. Annual potential Vector 1:2,500,000 IMD. Annual potential evapotranspiration contours in millimeters extracted Annual potentialVector1:2,500,000IMD. Annual potential evapotranspiration contours in millimeters extracted evapotranspiration   from the state map. evapotranspirationfrom the state map. Rainfall Vector 1:2,500,000 IMD. Contours of rainfall during year, July-Sept., April-June, and Octo- RainfallVector1:2,500,000IMD. Contours of rainfall during year, July-Sept., April-June, and Octo-    ber extracted for command area from state map. ber extracted for command area from state map. Canal network Vector 1:50,000 Haryana Irrigation Dept. Showing branch canals, distributaries, and mi- Canal networkVector1:50,000Haryana Irrigation Dept. Showing branch canals, distributaries, and mi-    nor canals. nor canals. Distributary or Vector 1:50,000 Haryana Irrigation Dept. Area commanded by distributaries or minor Distributary orVector1:50,000Haryana Irrigation Dept. Area commanded by distributaries or minor minor command   canals. minor commandcanals. Canal discharge Direct-input data  Haryana Irrigation Dept. Rabi-season discharge measured selectively Canal dischargeDirect-input dataHaryana Irrigation Dept. Rabi-season discharge measured selectively    at distributary off-takes. at distributary off-takes. Crop-related Direct-input data  NRSA. Crop area; area under wheat, oilseeds, and other; wheat yield. Crop-relatedDirect-input dataNRSA. Crop area; area under wheat, oilseeds, and other; wheat yield. statistics    statistics  "},{"text":"TABLE 5 . Land use in the Bhakra command area, rabi 1995/96.   Command area      Irrigation  Wheat  Command areaIrrigationWheat  Total Cultivable b  Irrigated crop area (000 ha) intensity a Intensity b Yield Production TotalCultivable bIrrigated crop area (000 ha)intensity a Intensity bYield Production Circle (000 ha) (000 ha) (%) Wheat Oilseed Other Total (%) (%) (t/ha) (000 t) Circle(000 ha) (000 ha)(%)WheatOilseedOtherTotal(%)(%)(t/ha)(000 t) Ambala 94 86 91 62 10 5 77 90 80 4.10 254 Ambala948691621057790804.10254 Kaithal 381 343 90 271 37 8 316 92 86 4.36 1,181 Kaithal3813439027137831692864.361,181 Hissar-1 295 244 83 59 21 174 71 54 3.73 352  Hissar-129524483592117471543.73352 Hissar-2 255 206 81 156 34 17 207 100 75 4.20 654 Hissar-2255206811563417207100754.20654 Sirsa 483 386 80 163 86 32 281 73 58 3.76 614 Sirsa48338680163863228173583.76614 Total 1,508 1,265 84 747 227 82 1,056 83 71 4.09 3,055 Total1,5081,26584747227821,05683714.093,055  "},{"text":"TABLE 6 . Distributaries and minor command areas that had low wheat productivity, rabi 1995/96. Circle and division Low productivity command area a Irrigated area (ha) Circle and divisionLow productivity command area aIrrigated area (ha) Ambala   Ambala Ambala Minors: Panjokra; sub-minors: Dangheri, Garnala, Tandla 4,500 AmbalaMinors: Panjokra; sub-minors: Dangheri, Garnala, Tandla4,500 Kurukshetra - - Kurukshetra-- Kaithal   Kaithal Kaithal - - Kaithal-- Pundri Minors: Badhana, 2R Badhana 3,643 PundriMinors: Badhana, 2R Badhana3,643 Narwana Tail branch: Sudhkan 1L, 2L, 3L, and 4L; distributary: Surban; minors:  NarwanaTail branch: Sudhkan 1L, 2L, 3L, and 4L; distributary: Surban; minors:  1R Badhana, Songri, Bithmara, Barsola, 1-R Barsola 13,404 1R Badhana, Songri, Bithmara, Barsola, 1-R Barsola13,404 Hissar-1   Hissar-1 Adampur Minors: Dabra, Dhansu, Gaushala; sub-minors:  AdampurMinors: Dabra, Dhansu, Gaushala; sub-minors:  Jagan, Gorchi, New Sarsana, Basra, Dhansu 4,969 Jagan, Gorchi, New Sarsana, Basra, Dhansu4,969 Hissar Feeder: Deosar; minors: Chirod, Chandarywas, Gawar, Garanpura, Haritha,  HissarFeeder: Deosar; minors: Chirod, Chandarywas, Gawar, Garanpura, Haritha,  Nalauli, Shikarpur, Talwandi, Siwani; sub-minors: Daha, Nalauli 11,895 Nalauli, Shikarpur, Talwandi, Siwani; sub-minors: Daha, Nalauli11,895 Hissar-2   Hissar-2 Tohana - - Tohana-- Fatehabad Distributary: Kheri; minors: Manawali, Old Mochiwala, Ding, Bhattu,  FatehabadDistributary: Kheri; minors: Manawali, Old Mochiwala, Ding, Bhattu,  Khabra, Dhabi, Chuli, Jogiwala 23,145 Khabra, Dhabi, Chuli, Jogiwala23,145 Sirsa   Sirsa Sirsa Minors: Kishangarh, Nathour 6,871 SirsaMinors: Kishangarh, Nathour6,871 Rori Distributary: Phaggu 1,178 RoriDistributary: Phaggu1,178 Neharana Sub-minor: Jandwala 4,512 NeharanaSub-minor: Jandwala4,512 Ghaggar Distributary: Kutiyana; minors: Jamal, Kishanpura; sub-minors: Baruwali, Salapur 76,906 GhaggarDistributary: Kutiyana; minors: Jamal, Kishanpura; sub-minors: Baruwali, Salapur76,906  "},{"text":"TABLE 7 . Groundwater quality in relation to canal water supply, rabi 1995/96. Groundwater Irrigated Wheat Low yield Command area with  GroundwaterIrrigatedWheatLow yieldCommand area with quality area area a area ab Low canal Falling water Deep water qualityareaarea aarea abLow canalFalling waterDeep water     water supply a c table a table a d water supply a ctable atable a d  (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%)(%)(%)(%)(%)(%) Fresh 37 32 12 70 49 51 Fresh373212704951 Submarginally Saline 42 27 20 19 12 45 Submarginally Saline422720191245 Marginally saline to saline 21 12 9 9 10 47 Marginally saline to saline2112991047 Total command area 100 71 41 35 25 48 Total command area1007141352548 a Relative to the irrigated area in each category of groundwater quality. b Wheat yield below 4 t/ha. c Less than 150 mm canal water supply. d Groundwater more than 10 m from surface.     a Relative to the irrigated area in each category of groundwater quality. b Wheat yield below 4 t/ha. c Less than 150 mm canal water supply. d Groundwater more than 10 m from surface.  "},{"text":"TABLE 8 . Variations in wheat yield, wheat intensity, cropping intensity, and canal water supply along the length of five canals. a  Wheat yield Wheat intensity Cropping intensity Canal water supply Groundwater  Wheat yieldWheat intensityCropping intensityCanal water supplyGroundwater Branch Mean Variation Mean Variation Mean Variation Mean Variation Depth Quality Level BranchMean VariationMean VariationMean VariationMean VariationDepth QualityLevel  (t/ha) along canal (%) along canal (%) along canal (mm) along canal (m) fluctuation (t/ha) along canal(%) along canal(%) along canal(mm) along canal(m)fluctuation Narwana 4.13 Constant 75 Constant 93 Increase 69 Constant 3-20 Fresh Moderately Narwana4.13 Constant75Constant93Increase69Constant3-20 FreshModerately          falling falling Sirsa 4.19 Decrease 71 Constant 88 Constant 150 Increase 3-10 Fresh or Moderately Sirsa4.19 Decrease71Constant88Constant150 Increase3-10 Fresh orModerately         submarginally  submarginally         saline rising salinerising Barwala 3.78 Slight 43 Steep 65 Decrease 157 Decrease 3-10 Marginally Moderately Barwala3.78 Slight43Steep65Decrease157 Decrease3-10 MarginallyModerately  decrease  decrease     saline to saline rising decreasedecreasesaline to saline rising Fatehabad 3.87 Steep 54 Steep 90 Decrease 207 Constant 3-10 Marginally Fast rising Fatehabad 3.87 Steep54Steep90Decrease207 Constant3-10 MarginallyFast rising  decrease  decrease     saline to saline  decreasedecreasesaline to saline BML Tail 3.93 Steep 62 Steep 87 Decrease 193 Increase 3-20 Marginally Fast rising BML Tail3.93 Steep62Steep87Decrease193 Increase3-20 MarginallyFast rising  decrease  decrease     saline to saline  decreasedecreasesaline to saline  "},{"text":"TABLE 9 . Multiple regression of wheat yield and irrigation analysis. Explanatory Dependent variable (wheat yield a ) ExplanatoryDependent variable (wheat yield a ) Variables Coefficient T-value VariablesCoefficientT-value Constant 4.29105 4,397* Constant4.291054,397* CPCCA b -0.00853 -8.63* CPCCA b-0.00853-8.63* GWDL3 c -0.00419 -3.28* GWDL3 c-0.00419-3.28* WTCG10 d -0.00308 -4.24* WTCG10 d-0.00308-4.24* GWQS e -0.00129 -0.83 GWQS e-0.00129-0.83 SWMM f 0.00005 0.94 SWMM f0.000050.94 R 2  0.69 R 20.69 *Significant at 5% confidence level.  *Significant at 5% confidence level.  "}],"sieverID":"aa32fc90-5568-46a1-8a98-3e84a6a1ec27","abstract":"IWMI's mission is to contribute to food security and poverty eradication by fostering sustainable increases in the productivity of water through better management of irrigation and other water uses in river basins. In serving this mission, IWMI concentrates on the integration of policies, technologies and management systems to achieve workable solutions to real problems-practical, relevant results in the field of irrigation and water resources.The publications in this series cover a wide range of subjects-from computer modeling to experience with water users' associations-and vary in content from directly applicable research to more basic studies, on which applied work ultimately depends. Some research reports are narrowly focused, analytical, and detailed empirical studies; others are wide-ranging and synthetic overviews of generic problems.Although most of the reports are published by IWMI staff and their collaborators, we welcome contributions from others. Each report is reviewed internally by IWMI's own staff and Fellows, and by external reviewers. The reports are published and distributed both in hard copy and electronically (http://www. cgiar.org/iimi) and where possible all data and analyses will be available as separate downloadable files. Reports may be copied freely and cited with due acknowledgment."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"087f83fd4390e548c3fe77c250638dfd","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/4c0ff010-5353-4bca-917c-019fb9dd3757/retrieve"},"pageCount":6,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":5,"text":"better lives through livestock ilri.org"}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Current Status at CIAT • Brachiaria breeding pipeline • Evaluation of testcross progenies (3000 hybrids) • 'Best bets' screened for: • Reproductive mode, biotic/abiotic stress & quality (150-200 hybrids) • Forage biomass, seed yield and persistence (accuracy without adding years to the recurrent selection cycle • Selection of sexual mothers for the next cycle of RS currently made after first year spaced plant evaluation • Flowering time selection • Genotypes with inappropriate flowering in advanced trials as not possible to select for in Colombia (0°lat) • Selection of 'best bet' hybrids for Africa • Phenotyping the TP across regions 210 accessions (grasses, legumes & fodder trees) • E.g. Napier grass (the most widely grown cut & carry forage) • Extensively phenotyped over a number of years • Morphology, forage biomass, drought tolerance, nutritive value, smut and stunt resistance (KALRO) • Clonally propagated crop • Gene discovery proposal (RNAseq, GBS and AM) • E.g. Lablab (fast growing, high yielding dual purpose crop with wide adaptability and a large amount of variation) • Phentotyped for crop residue (yield and quality) and tradeoff with grain yield New Tools and Challenges • Tools: • First saturated genetic maps of Brachiaria spp. by GBS • Markers for apomixis and aluminum resistance • Diploid B.ruziziensis reference genome (with TGAC) • 2015/2016 funding for MatePairs, PacBio reads & annotation • Pearl millet reference genome for Napier grass • Challenges: • Investment in high quality plant phenotyping • Rapid standardized GBS protocols or a SNP platform • Statistical models for heterozygous polyploids • links to RTB crops The presentation has a Creative Commons licence. You are free to re-use or distribute this work, provided credit is given to ILRI. "},{"text":"  "}],"sieverID":"2963ba0a-dc98-426a-99fa-223ebd5e6d66","abstract":""}

data/part_4/092403572e74c7853f279920b18fc9b8.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"092403572e74c7853f279920b18fc9b8","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/0d7bd565-517b-4379-8cc0-0c322d11d5fc/retrieve"},"pageCount":36,"title":"Linking Forests and Food Production in the REDD+ Context Working Paper No. 1 CGIAR Research Program on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security (CCAFS)","keywords":["REDD+","agriculture","drivers","deforestation","governance","forest policy"],"chapters":[{"head":"About the authors","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":12,"text":"Gabrielle Kissinger: Lexeme Consulting, 3552 West 8 th Avenue, Vancouver, B.C. Canada."},{"index":2,"size":80,"text":"Phone: +1 604 346 6474, E-mail: [email protected] Gabrielle Kissinger is principal of Lexeme Consulting in Vancouver, Canada. Consulting services focus primarily on international forest carbon, REDD+, government affairs and corporate social responsibility. She has almost 20 years of experience working at the interface between government policy and land use pressures. She has produced results working in partnership with various levels of government, companies ranging from start-ups to large timber companies, investors, major donors and a full range of environmental NGOs."},{"index":3,"size":77,"text":"Her research applies an interdisciplinary approach to find tenable solutions by drawing from ecological economics, ecology and conservation science, and public policy. Her work has served multiple geographic regions, from the Great Bear Rainforest in coastal British Columbia, Canada, to northern New England in the US and Lesotho, Southern Africa. She holds a M.A. in natural resources management and environmental policy from Tufts University and B.A.'s in philosophy and political science from University of California, Santa Barbara. "}]},{"head":"Acronyms","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Introduction","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":86,"text":"REDD+ is a set of policy approaches and positive incentives to reduce emissions from deforestation and forest degradation, and promote conservation, sustainable management of forests and enhancement of forest carbon stocks in developing countries. Adopted in Cancún, Mexico at the 16th meeting of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) Conference of Parties, the REDD+ agreement enables the first global mechanism under the UNFCCC to address the large contribution of forest carbon emissions-currently 12-15% annually (van der Werf 2009)-to global greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions."},{"index":2,"size":174,"text":"Recent remote sensing, combined with population and economic trends, illustrates that agricultural production for domestic urban growth and agricultural exports to other countries are the primary drivers of tropical deforestation, with the impact of smallholders decreasing (DeFries et al. 2010). The Food and Agriculture Organization predicts that the world's population will increase 34%, to approximately 9.1 billion people, by 2050. Additionally, consumption patterns will change, resulting in a 70% increase in the demand for food by 2050, with a 49% increase in the volume of cereals produced and an 85% increase in the volume of meat produced (FAO 2009). While yield increases can satisfy some of this demand, the expansion of agriculture into forest areas is inevitable. Rainforests were the primary source for new agricultural land throughout the 1980s and 1990s, with over 80% of new agricultural land coming from intact and disturbed forests, rather than previously cleared land, and this trend is expected to continue (Gibbs et al. 2010). Simply closing off areas to agricultural production will not deliver long-term food supply needs."},{"index":3,"size":190,"text":"Agricultural productivity is expected to decrease in non-temperate regions of the world, while productivity will increase in the temperate zones of North America, Europe and Asia. The anticipated result for developing, non-temperate countries is that they will need to import more food-a projected 45-50% increase in total net cereal import volume by 2050 relative to the year 2000. Additionally some predict price increases of 20% in the short to medium term (Hoffman 2011). Agriculture has become the most important and controversial issue in the Doha Round, with pressure from the European Union and the developing countries, led by Brazil and India, applied to the US to reduce its domestic support for agriculture, thus increasing developing country export opportunities (European Parliament 2010). While a settlement of the Doha Round may boost developing country exports to the temperate north in the short term, the resulting increase in demand for agricultural products will challenge tropical countries facing increasing climate change impacts to agricultural systems. Thus, tropical countries face considerable challenges ahead, and will need to balance climate change impacts to agricultural systems with both the growing demand for food, and rising food prices."},{"index":4,"size":122,"text":"Within the UNFCCC, there is debate as to how to include the agricultural sector in the emissions reduction strategies that are currently being negotiated. Land use emissions account for 30% of global GHG emissions (IPCC 2007). This paper focuses on how REDD+ readiness strategies must respond to and incorporate agricultural drivers of forest clearing, and argues that countries must not wait for the UNFCCC to agree whether and how to include agriculture in international climate change agreements. Countries pursuing the REDD+ pathway will increase their success in meeting their REDD+ mitigation targets and goals by directly addressing agricultural drivers of forest clearing and developing the policy, governance, MRV mechanisms, and benefit-sharing necessary to impact agriculture's role in unsustainable forest conversion and emissions."},{"index":5,"size":68,"text":"This paper evaluates the extent to which countries participating in the World Bank Forest Carbon Partnership Facility (FCPF) readiness activities are actively linking REDD+ and agriculture policies, programmes, and institutional arrangements based on 20 current country readiness proposals (R-PPs) submitted to the FCPF. Brazil and Acre State, Brazil are highlighted as a case study, as considerable hurdles identified in the country investigation of FCPF R-PP's have been overcome:"},{"index":6,"size":64,"text":"• While a recent drop in soybean commodity prices may have affected agricultural expansion in the Amazon, there is clear evidence of a national deforestation target and national agricultural policy being linked. Recent deforestation rates have decreased, while agricultural production increased (see section 3.5). It should be noted that this activity commenced in advance of more formalized REDD+ arrangements, which are still under development."},{"index":7,"size":27,"text":"• The goal is to link all scales (national, state, local) in Brazil's emergent REDD+ strategy, with state targets and strategies being nested in national economy-wide targets."},{"index":8,"size":70,"text":"• Acre State's REDD+ programme encompasses all lands and use types, including the fullrange of agricultural uses that impact Acre's forests; it offers a mix of incentives and payments, bundled under an umbrella REDD+ programme tied directly into the Acre Sustainable Development Plan; its emissions reduction targets are nested within federal targets; it is based on multi-sectoral land use plans; and governance of the programme appears strong, with enforcement ability."}]},{"head":"Methodology","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":72,"text":"The most current country REDD+ Readiness Proposals (R-PP) submitted to the World Bank Forest Carbon Partnership Facility, available on the FCPF website, were reviewed. Countries participating in the FCPF were chosen rather than countries participating in UN-REDD Programme, as there are more of them receiving assistance (24 as compared to 13), and five countries currently participate in both-DRC, Indonesia, Panama, Tanzania, and Viet Nam. Country submissions were evaluated against the following criteria:"},{"index":2,"size":23,"text":"1) Are the scope and scale of current and future agricultural sector or related land use D&D drivers accounted for in the R-PP?"},{"index":3,"size":19,"text":"2) Are the proposed REDD+ policy and programmatic interventions adequate to affect the scope and scale of agricultural drivers?"},{"index":4,"size":56,"text":"3) Are the government ministries or agencies that can directly affect agricultural or related drivers either planning to or actively engaged in altering their plans and/or mandates to accommodate REDD+ strategies and objectives? Does the government (via the lead REDD+ agency, multi-sector committees, etc.) have the means to reconcile conflicting policies with the REDD+ country objectives?"},{"index":5,"size":63,"text":"Analysis of the R-PP's was based entirely on the content of the country submissions. The FCPF R-PP template encourages countries to assess direct and indirect drivers of D&D and factors both within and outside the forest sector, major land use trends and forest policy and governance issues. Further, the FCPF requests countries to assemble multi-sectoral approaches to the countries' REDD+ readiness government response."},{"index":6,"size":110,"text":"The purpose of the FCPF Readiness Phase is to support countries transitioning into REDD+ program and institutional development, and implementation. Thus, R-PP documents identify potential REDD+ strategies, based on stakeholder engagement and inter-ministerial consultations, which will lead countries toward adoption of a final REDD+ plan. The FCPF template requests country submissions to identify structure of REDD-decision-making and institutions established or planned, existing policy and governance affecting REDD+, feedback and input from stakeholder consultations, and candidate REDD+ strategy options, based on that input (among other information requests). As such, this assessment is meant to be preliminary and coarse in nature, based on information available, not final country REDD+ strategies and plans."},{"index":7,"size":79,"text":"While not participating in the FCPF process, Brazil is participating in the Forest Investment Programme as a pilot country, and has signed a bilateral partnership agreement with the Government of Norway. What makes Brazil stand out as a case study is not only its extensive, carbon-rich tropical forests, but its remarkable track-record of overcoming many obstacles identified in the country investigation of FCPF R-PP's, such as multi-sectoral engagement and agreement and decreased national deforestation rates, with increased agricultural production."},{"index":8,"size":23,"text":"Recent updates to the California Governor's Climate and Forests Task Force on Brazil and Acre were reviewed, along with federal and state legislation."}]},{"head":"Results and Discussion","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":6,"text":"Agriculture: the largest contributor to deforestation"},{"index":2,"size":167,"text":"The first criterion R-PPs were evaluated against was: Are the scope and scale of current and future agricultural sector or related land use D&D drivers accounted for in the R-PP? A country with a checkmark in the second column of Table 1 indicates agricultural production and expansion is reported as the primary driver of deforestation and degradation. Of 20 countries reviewed, 16 report agriculture as the primary driver of D&D. Agricultural drivers of D&D include a full range of clearing activities related to plant and animal-based food products, ranging from smallholder impacts to large-scale commercial and industrial agriculture production, primarily soybean, oil palm and cattle for meat production. Ethiopia reports population expansion into forest areas and the related resource needs, such as agriculture and livestock management combined with use of fire as the primary driver. Many countries cite shifting cultivation as the primary driver; however the extent of the impact in Liberia is particularly acute, with 5.1 million hectares, or half of the country's land area, affected."},{"index":3,"size":101,"text":"Of the 4 countries that did not cite agricultural production as the primary driver, either forestry or mining are cited as primary drivers, while agricultural impacts are still measurable. For instance, Suriname cites mining as the primary driver (though offers no specific estimates) followed by population growth, agricultural plantations and biofuel production as other key drivers, and the numbers support agriculture's importance: 100,000 hectares were recently cleared in the northern interior region for oil palm plantations and the 2004 Agricultural Sector Plan seeks to promote cultivation in the l.5 million hectares along the coastal area, which will compromise valuable mangrove forests."},{"index":4,"size":233,"text":"Insufficient information was provided in some country submissions to attribute 'primary D&D driver' status to any one particular land use. Agricultural drivers vary between regions, especially in large and geographically diverse countries. Indonesia reports that smallholder agriculture is the key driver in Sulawesi, whereas in Kalimantan and Sumatra, it is primarily due to the mechanized logging of lowland forest with a second stage of clearance for oil palm and pulpwood plantations. Indonesia unfortunately does not provide enough detail in its FCPF and UN-REDD submissions to ascertain the amount of deforestation attributed to each D&D driver, thus Table 1  Based on the information provided in the R-PP's, it is very difficult to identify the impacts of food-production versus non-food related agriculture (largely rubber, palm oil for non-food uses; and corn, sugarcane vegetable oils and animal fats for biofuels; and sugar cane, corn, sorghum for bioethanol) on forestland clearing, in terms of hectares cleared per year and projections into the future. Countries experiencing commercial/industrial scale agriculture-related forest clearing largely cite food production as the primary driver (meat exports, rice, coffee, sugarcane). While Indonesia's R-PP includes very little information about this well-documented driver of Indonesian forest-and peat-land clearing, Liberia's current palm oil investment proposals amount to $2.95 billion, covering 494,500 hectares. Argentina and Cambodia cite biofuels as a future factor, but do not offer specific figures on existing and projected areas to be used in plantations."},{"index":5,"size":13,"text":"Vietnam and Cambodia cite rubber production as a primary cause of land conversion."},{"index":6,"size":139,"text":"The impacts of smallholder agricultural clearing are largely tied to poverty, lack of tenure and access rights (or communal rights, with inadequate incentives for stewardship), and poor agricultural practices resulting in soil degradation (particularly cited by Uganda and Madagascar). In Cambodia, 60% of the population is dependent on agriculture, with 41% rural households deriving between 20 to 50% of their total livelihood value from forest use. Poverty is a particular driver of smallholder incursions into forests in DR Congo, Ghana, Kenya, Nepal, and Madagascar. The lack of tenure or need to clarify tenure rights affects smallholders in Ethiopia, Ghana, Nepal, Madagascar, Mexico, Suriname, Uganda, Tanzania and Vietnam. In the Democratic Republic of the Congo, the communal property/customary use tradition, with no license/permitting requirements for smallholders, results in an absence of formal institutions and processes to guide land use decisions. "}]},{"head":"Adequacy of the policy and programmatic response","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":28,"text":"Full evaluation results of whether proposed REDD+ strategies and policy frameworks are adequate to affect the scope and scale of agricultural drivers are presented in column 2 of "}]},{"head":"Inefficiencies of agricultural production systems","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":53,"text":"Many countries report this as problematic, particularly Vietnam, Madagascar, and Uganda. However, all countries that specify inefficiencies of agricultural production systems as directly affecting D&D offer unclear causal pathways in their REDD+ readiness strategies. Furthermore, none of the R-PP budgets reviewed allocate funds for this purpose, beyond commissioning studies and gathering more information."}]},{"head":"Lack of operational clarity in draft readiness concepts","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":144,"text":"Many countries emphasize the need for incentives for small producers and the agricultural sector, aligning sectoral goals and objectives, or redirecting agricultural development to degraded areas with low carbon and co-benefit values. Yet very few countries offered specific examples on how these strategies would be implemented, and whether key Ministries are devoting resources to those strategies. Other countries identify the need to scale up pilots or regional-and site-level models, but offer little detail on how success can be achieved in doing so. The Lao PDR cites an existing forest policy seeking to stabilize shifting cultivation, but this policy has had limited success. Thus, a challenge for the Lao PDR will be how to scale up the success of the model that combines agroforestry, farming and non-timber forest products introduced on the sloped northern lands. More detail is needed on how this can be achieved."}]},{"head":"Countries identified clear conflicts between REDD+ and national agriculture (or related) policies","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":166,"text":"Argentina will be challenged to align its REDD+ strategy with a 2006 law promoting biofuel production, which promotes vegetable oils and animal fats for biofuels, and sugar cane, corn, sorghum for bioethanol. The R-PP does not indicate how Argentina will reconcile this policy conflict. Furthermore, Argentina stands out for taking decisive action by mandating a moratorium on deforestation until each province implements land use planning for national forests. However, only 4 of 25 provinces have aligned their provincial plans with the national land use plan for forests, and greater capacity and enforcement at provincial and municipal levels is cited as a major need to move this forward. Guyana's Lands & Surveys Commission is in the process of creating regional zoning maps for appropriate uses, however mining (the largest D&D driver) and forestry concessions are notably excluded, so any ability to link cross-sectoral strategies spatially is severely diminished. Tanzania's REDD+ objectives will have to be reconciled with Kilimo Kwanza, a national policy seeking to increase agricultural production."}]},{"head":"Linkage of REDD+ to low carbon development plans and other higher-level policy platforms","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":129,"text":"It is noteworthy that some countries have high-level government commitments to low-carbon development paths. Ghana is one example, however more information will be required to assess how that commitment will affect national and sectoral development related to REDD+ strategy development. Kenya's Agriculture Act and recent constitution offer a strong basis for their REDD+ strategy, and a recent reversal of a previous government decision to convert a large area of the Mau forest catchment to agriculture is offered as proof that the new forest governance and policy will serve REDD+ goals. Panama exhibits strong enabling policy and governance frameworks for REDD+ via its national environmental objective (addressing both mitigation and adaptation) and constitution, which established collective ownership rights for indigenous communities and seeks to balance sustainable development and biodiversity conservation. "}]},{"head":"Overcoming institutional and economic hurdles","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":63,"text":"Full evaluation results of whether there are adequate cross-sectoral linkages between key government ministries (and mandates) to affect agricultural drivers are presented in column 3 of Table 2, found below. Overall, the analysis revealed that there are serious obstacles, but there also exist opportunities, to create meaningful cross-sectoral linkages that can alter strong economic forces and existing government targets and mandates. Obstacles include:"}]},{"head":"Some countries simply need an adequate forestry ministry, while others clearly recognize the limits of their forest authority to address agricultural pressures","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":105,"text":"Management of Ethiopia's forests is currently under the jurisdiction of the agriculture ministry (MoARD), however forests have been neglected in this context and the regional and business-oriented Regional Forest Enterprises are inadequate to serve REDD+ needs, resulting in a new emphasis on creating a dedicated federal body to manage forests. The Lao PDR acknowledges the limited jurisdiction of the forest authority, as half of national LULUCF emissions are on lands outside of their control. Tanzania notes that most D&D occurs on 17 million hectares of 'general forest' that currently has no management regime. It should be a priority for the Tanzanian government to address this."}]},{"head":"Consultation does not infer a change in mandates","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":78,"text":"Countries have responded to FCPF's encouragement to create cross-sectoral working groups, involve stakeholders including industry representatives from non-forestry sectors in committees, and consult with non-forestry Ministries (often via National REDD+ Steering Committees). R-PP's are generally unclear how agreement and accommodation will be made on conflicting programmatic strategies and how and when tough decisions will be handled. Very few R-PP's mention the role of legislative decisions, which are often critical for changing national priorities and ministry targets and mandates."},{"index":2,"size":133,"text":"Cross-level government commitment: How REDD+ policies will affect sub-regional and district government decisions Kenya notes the importance of local authorities in determining land use decisions. Tanzania notes that poor governance and corruption at local, district, regional and national levels has so far restricted success of centralized forest management, participatory forest management and sustainable forest management, which are key aspects of their REDD+ strategy. While Indonesia has demonstrated strong leadership on REDD+ at the highest levels (most notably the President of Indonesia), the R-PP and UN-REDD Programme submission does not indicate that Ministry of Agriculture, Agriculture and National Development Planning Agency (BAPPENAS) provincial and more importantly district governments are ready to take action, amend existing mandates, and make significant changes to existing decision-making on permitted uses, which are key aspects of their jurisdictional power."},{"index":3,"size":9,"text":"The opportunities for reconciling conflicting mandates or goals include:"},{"index":4,"size":9,"text":"The importance of tools and mechanisms to reconcile conflicts"},{"index":5,"size":108,"text":"If countries lack higher-level policies such as national low-carbon development commitments to harmonize sectoral strategies, emphasis should be placed on tools and mechanisms that inform trade-offs and reconcile conflicts. Argentina's deforestation risk index could be a powerful tool to inform future evaluation of siting of new agricultural or biofuel enterprises. Kenya shows great promise in their spatially explicit future trajectories of emissions/removals under different economic and development scenarios, which will hopefully feed into multi-sector policy and strategy development. Aligning sector plans by recalibrating targets, accounting for adaptation strategies, and creating spatially explicit and transparent multi-sector land use plans will be critical to link to newly created MRV systems."}]},{"head":"Linking mitigation to adaptation","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":85,"text":"Argentina, Ghana, Liberia, Nepal and Panama already have or will create Adaptation Working Groups under National Climate Change Committees and hope to link their REDD+ strategies to those. Countries that can identify REDD+ priority strategies and institutions, with direct and iterative links to agriculture adaptation-such as precipitation altering agricultural production and differentiated responses of specific crops (for instance wheat being more susceptible to climate change impacts in Africa than other crops, such as millet (Müllera 2011))-will increase the ability to calibrate their policies over time."}]},{"head":"Countries that stand out as models, demonstrating strong recent interventions affecting agricultural land use patterns","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":28,"text":"Argentina placed a 35% export tax on soybean exportation, and its National Forest law (2007) deforestation programme is funded via a 2% tax imposed on export agriculture commodities."},{"index":2,"size":54,"text":"The budget for Argentina's deforestation programme was $100 million in 2010. The result is that Argentina has curbed deforestation by 60% in one hotspot. Panama's community environmental business and investment programmes (as an alternative to slash-and-burn agricultural practices), and Costa Rica and Mexico's experiences with payments for environmental services stand out as success stories.  "}]},{"head":"Acre State","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":51,"text":"Seven of the nine Amazon states have already developed and approved their own action plans to fight deforestation at the local level. Acre State is an impressive example of how a subregional REDD+ programme seeks to fulfil emissions reductions from D&D while bringing small-, medium-and large-scale producers into its programmatic objectives."},{"index":2,"size":18,"text":"The programme encompasses all lands and use types, including the full-range of agricultural uses that impact Acre's forests"},{"index":3,"size":25,"text":"The programme is not limited to state lands or forest resources, but rather encompasses private and public lands, protected areas agricultural land, and indigenous lands."},{"index":4,"size":11,"text":"Implementation across the landscape is to occur through a phased approach."},{"index":5,"size":12,"text":"The programme offers a mix of incentives and payments, bundled under an "}]},{"head":"Roadmap for how to address agricultural drivers in","index":17,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"REDD+ strategies","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":40,"text":"What follows is a skeletal roadmap for how countries can more adequately address agricultural drivers of D&D in their REDD+ strategies. Individual countries should consider these, but must ultimately tailor strategies to suit the specific agricultural drivers and national/regional contexts."}]},{"head":"Identify clear strategies to address demand-side and market pressures, and how government action can influence those","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":49,"text":"For countries facing commercial/industrial-scale agriculture pressures, this is of great urgency. Countries should start by addressing the appropriate siting of small-and large-scale agricultural expansion vis-à-vis their REDD+ strategies. However, countries will need to more directly engage mechanisms that can influence marketplace demand, such as certification and influencing lending policies."},{"index":2,"size":97,"text":"• Countries can encourage agricultural product certification systems that will steer investment and demand to agricultural producers and products that meet certification standards-such as endorsement and promotion of the Roundtable for Sustainable Palm Oil, principles and certification standards of the Roundtable on Sustainable Biofuels, and the Sustainable Agriculture Network (operating in Central and South America). As mentioned above, Acre State, Brazil also offers a model for how to promote best practices and property certification (including payments) for small and large agricultural producers via their Programme for Valuing Environmental Assets, an integral part of their statewide REDD+ strategy."},{"index":3,"size":65,"text":"• There is a growing trend towards application of procurement policies and supply chain transparency, particularly for controversial products. In recent years, scrutiny of illegally harvested timber has increased, with France, Germany and the United Kingdom adopting green public procurement policies affecting illegally harvested wood, and increasingly considering similar commitments related to agricultural 29 products. The World Bank Group recently adopted a framework and International"},{"index":4,"size":67,"text":"Finance Corporation strategy to guide future engagement in the global palm oil sector. Countries will increasingly need to consider those external commitments, but can also shape domestic lending guidelines applied to loans and investment decisions by banks, such as the Bank of Brazil December 2010 announcement that it will veto agricultural credit for soy farmers who want to plant in newly cleared areas of the Amazon forest."}]},{"head":"Strengthen cross-sectoral policy and implementation alignment","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":11,"text":"Countries with clear conflicts between REDD+ and national/regional agriculture (or related)"},{"index":2,"size":25,"text":"policies must put this first on the agenda for multi-Ministerial decisions and identify clearly the pathways to bring resolution (legislative decisions, further stakeholder input, etc.)."},{"index":3,"size":68,"text":"• Further, place emphasis on development of tools and mechanisms, linked to policy formulation, that help reconcile sectoral conflicts, such as Argentina's deforestation risk index and Kenya's spatially-explicit future trajectories of emissions/removals under different economic and development scenarios. Effective land use planning is also a critical basis for aligning sectoral interests, and demarcating how to overcome differences in jurisdictional power between national, regional and district levels of government."},{"index":4,"size":22,"text":"• Link REDD+ to low carbon development plans and other higher-level policy platforms in order to create strong enabling legal institutional frameworks."}]},{"head":"Sort out tenure and land access rights","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":44,"text":"Reconciling tenure and access rights is crosscutting and fundamental in many R-PP's that cite smallholder agriculture impacts. Those governments should focus energies immediately on increasing forest-dependent and indigenous people's access to forests and bringing certainty to their ability to gain tenure and access benefit-sharing."}]},{"head":"Link mitigation to adaptation","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":43,"text":"Countries must link forest and agriculture strategies addressing both mitigation and adaption approaches to identify how to meet domestic food supply needs in the future (given population growth, increasing urbanization, regional changes in precipitation and other climate change impacts), while safeguarding carbon stocks."}]},{"head":"Boost efficiency and production of agricultural systems","index":23,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":139,"text":"REDD+ strategies can promote more efficient use of land by steering agricultural expansion to already degraded lands (that hold low potential for recruiting carbon-rich regeneration of forests) and can help to steer agricultural extension services to priority landscapes and/or those with greatest potential conflicts with the REDD+ strategy. In countries where shifting agriculture (smallholder impacts) is problematic, a mixture of settling access and tenure rights plus extension programmes (such as Liberia's conservation agriculture), depending on the circumstances, will be critical. Emphasis should also be placed on promoting agricultural intensification activities that also increase carbon storage (such as agroforestry), combine animal husbandry and food production (Mexico's PROGAN ecológico) and are geared towards increasing soil fertility (Brazil's success with techniques for fixing nitrogen that decreased use of fertilizers is a model). Countries should apply REDD+ readiness funding to furthering this goal."}]},{"head":"National MRV systems incorporate agricultural carbon measurement","index":24,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":85,"text":"Increasingly, countries are recognizing the benefits of greenhouse gas inventories that include all land-uses to track changes in all terrestrial carbon pools. While the financing and capacity may not exist now in many countries to achieve this, building data inventories and tracking agricultural uses/carbon emissions in the design of MRV systems for REDD+ will help address an informational shortcoming many countries identified related to the role of agriculture in forest clearing. Such information is critical in fine-tuning national and regional REDD+ and agriculture policy development."}]},{"head":"Conclusion","index":25,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":40,"text":"REDD+ offers an unprecedented opportunity to establish policies, institutions and capacity to address agricultural drivers of land conversion. The review of FCPF R-PP's illustrates that many countries have a long way to go before fundamentally addressing agricultural drivers of D&D."},{"index":2,"size":67,"text":"While there is a need to focus REDD+ investment in bolstering national-level forest governance, particularly in countries facing illegal logging and inadequate forest-sector institutions, focusing only on the forest sector is not enough to confront and reconcile agricultural drivers of forest clearing. This paper argues that in order for REDD+ carbon emission mitigation goals to be reached, 1) the primary driver of forest clearing globally-agriculture-must be fundamentally "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Finally, it is worthwhile noting that some countries have placed moratoriums on land clearing, in the hopes of stopping D&D or arresting it until adequate planning and implementation of REDD+ (and related) strategies are carried out. As mentioned above, Argentina established a moratorium on deforestation until each province implements land use planning for national forests. The land concession moratorium announced by the Lao PDR Prime Minister in 2007 and subsequent legislation has slowed large-scale concessions, however a loophole has enabled inappropriate selection and allocation of land. And despite Cambodia's moratorium(in 2002)   and cancellation of logging concessions, illegal logging for domestic use among smallholders is still a problem. 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Suriname !T)8,-(%&(%77%$#C&1#9(*%8#()77$%)*F;(?1==(MPQQY(*%07,#,(?1#F('%=-(01&1&'s(( X$%:):=9(&%#;(F%?,/,$(MPQQY(*%C=-('$,)#=9()..,*#(8F1.#1&'()'$1*C=#C$,D((( !<,,-(#%(8,,(0%$,(,07F)818(%&()77$%7$1)#,(81#1&'(%.()'$1*C=#C$)=(,67)&81%&;( 8C*F()8(%&(-,'$)-,-(=)&-8(?1#F(=%?(*)$:%&(8,bC,8#$)#1%&V8#%$)',(7%#,&#1)= !k,9(18(0%#1/)#1&'(-,*181%&8(/1)(LC=#1(\\&&C)=(Q,/,=%70,&#( X=)&()&-($,/181%&(%.(\\'$1*C=#C$)=(\",*#%$(X=)&;(!\"#$(*)7)*1#9( )&-($,8%C$*,8(#%(0)+,(#F,(8F1.#D Tanzania \"#1==(1&(-,/,=%70,&#)=(7F)8,D((L%8#(QfQ(%&(IB(01==1%&(F)(%.(t',&,$)=(.%$,8#i( ?1#F(&%(0'0#D($,'10,D((X)$#1*17)#%$9(>%$,8#(L)&)',0,&#!1&#,'$)#,( *%00C&1#1,8(1&#%(.%$,8#(0'0#D;(8,$/,()8(:)818(.%$($)71-(MPQQ($,)-1&,88D(( `%?,/,$;(1#(18(&%#,-(#F)#(7%%$('%/,$&)&*,(G*%$$C7#1%&J()#(=%*)=;(-18#$1*#;( $,'1%&)=()&-(&)#1%&)=(=,/,=8(F)8(8%(.)$($,8#$1*#,-(8C**,88(%.(*,&#$)=1O,-(.%$,8#( 0'0#D;(X>L()&-(\">LD !_&*=,)$()#(#F18(#10,D(<,,-(#%()=1'&(MPQQY(?1#F(k1=10%( k?)&O);(&)#1%&)=(7%=1*9(8,,+1&'(1&*$,)8,-()'$1*C=#C$)=( 7$%-C*#1%&D((\\=8%(&,,-(&)#1%&)=(=)&-(C8,(81/)#1%&;(,&*%C$)'1&'(7$%-C*#1%&(%.(F1'F,$!/)=C,(*$%78()&-(/%*)#1%&)=( unique example of increased agricultural production, while simultaneously decreasing national rates of deforestation, and has achieved results even prior to finalization of national and state REDD+ strategies. While not participating in the FCPF process, Brazil has signed a bilateral partnership agreement with the Government of Norway and participates in the Forest Investment Programme as a pilot country. Brazil's agricultural gains over the past decade are astonishing: Brazil's grain production increased 99% between 1996 and 2010 (Government of Brazil IPEADATA). Brazil ranks number one in world production and exports of coffee, sugar, and frozen concentrate orange juice; number two in soybeans, tobacco, beef, and poultry (USDA 2011). Between 1990 and 2008, soybean production increased 196% (Zanon and Saes 2010). The revolutionary increase in national agricultural production is largely attributed to the Brazilian Agricultural Research Corporations' (Embrapa) \"system approach\"-improving soil in the cerrado grasslands (by adding lime and techniques for fixing nitrogen that decreased use of fertilizers); adapting the African brachiaria grass to Brazil's cerrado, opening up formerly unsuitable areas to livestock production; and finally, with cross-breeding, adapted soybeans (typically a temperate crop) to a tropical climate with acidic soil. Brazil's National Institute for Space Research (INPE) announced deforestation in the Amazon over 2009-2010 decreased 13.6% from the previous year, and is the lowest rate measured by INPE since 1988, when INPE's annual surveys began (National Institute for Space Research 2010). Brazil has launched the second phase of the National Plan for the Prevention andControl of Deforestation in the Legal Amazonia. However, recent scrutiny over Cargill's soya production practices in Santarém, Pará state, raises questions about accuracy of satellitemonitoring systems that until two years ago were incapable of detecting deforestation on individual farms (Nature 2011). Furthermore, there are dramatic regional differences in deforestation rates, and not all forest biomes are consistently included in deforestation estimates, such that clearing of the cerrado in Mato Grosso was omitted from deforestation estimates provided to the California Governor's Climate and Forests Task Force(Filho 2010), while it is considered an important forest class in that state. Brazil is preparing the National Plan for Prevention and Control of Deforestation for the second most relevant biome in Brazil, the cerrado (Brazil Ministry of Finance No date).In 2009, Brazil established an economy-wide target to reduce carbon emissions between 36.1 and 38.9% by 2020 compared to a reference scenario of business as usual. The target was incorporated in the National Policy on Climate Change, ratified by Congress. Plans to reduce emissions in different economic sectors are being developed in consultation with the civil society in the sectors of energy, agriculture and in the steel industry. In total, twelve sectoral plans will be implemented by the end of 2011(Teixeira 2010). In July 2010, Brazil's ban on the commercialization of soy grown in the Amazon was extended for the fourth consecutive year (reinforced by the Bank of Brazil's December 2010 announcement that it will veto agricultural credit for soy farmers who want to plant in newly cleared forest), a critical output of cross-sectoral pacts.One of Brazil's largest export products is ethanol. The Brazilian National Agroenergy Plan seems to reinforce the objectives of its 2004 Action Plan for Deforestation Control and Prevention in the Amazon, as the Agroenergy Plan guides future siting to \"Optimizing the use of areas affected by human action on natural vegetation (anthropic impact), maximizing the sustainability of the production systems, discouraging unjustifiable expansions of the agricultural frontier and encroachment upon sensitive or protected systems, such as the Amazon Forest and the Pantanal region, inter alia, should be discouraged. Bioenergy projects could also contribute to the reclamation of degraded areas.\"(Brazil Ministry of Agriculture,   Livestock and Food Supply 2006, p. 11)  It will be important to monitor whether future biofuel expansion and siting upholds the intent of this section. "},{"text":" addressed by aligning REDD+ targets with transformational change in agricultural systems that intensify production, satisfy domestic needs before serving export markets, are geared towards stabilizing food-security in the face of increasing climate change impacts, and solidify forest-dependent community and smallholder tenure and access rights, and 2) national governments engaging in REDD+ must focus their REDD+ readiness activities and development of national strategies on establishing and enabling adequate legal institutional frameworks (such as low-carbon development commitments); governance; and measurement, monitoring and reporting (MRV) systems that account for and are responsive to the role of agriculture in forest clearing, stretch beyond the forest sector, and align long-term objectives of safeguarding terrestrial carbon stocks while providing food for a growing population. "},{"text":"  "},{"text":" Although 37 countries are participating in the FCPF, only those at the REDD+ Programme readiness proposal or readiness plan stage were reviewed. Furthermore, only those with enough documentation in English were reviewed (thus Central African Republic (R-PP in French), Nicaragua and Peru (R-PP's in Spanish) were omitted). Indonesia's UN-REDD National Joint Programme Document submission (dated October 2009) contained more detail than its May 2009 FCPF submission, so the UN-REDD submission was relied upon. The following countries were included in the REDD+ readiness plan review:  "},{"text":" Costa Rica, DR Congo, Ethiopia, Ghana, Kenya, Lao PDR, Liberia, Nepal, Madagascar and Tanzania directly cite governance and institutional failures, including inadequate enforcement, as critical underlying drivers that REDD+ strategies must address. The low financial returns of forest use in comparison with alternate uses, the 'tragedy of the commons' where lack of local user rights, inadequate land tenure and common access acts as a disincentive for sustainable forest resource use.The third column in Table1indicates whether agricultural drivers of D&D are primarily commercial and/or industrial or predominantly caused by smallholders. Argentina and Vietnam offer the boldest examples. Industrial soybean cultivation accounts for 70% of Argentine deforestation. Vietnam's export commodities-coffee, cashew, pepper, shrimp (affecting coastal mangroves), rice and rubber-drive forest conversion, and future agricultural policies will increase production for rubber and cashew, while stabilizing coffee production. Ghana reports varietal changes in cocoa (from shade-grown to full-sun varieties) as having a dramatic effect on deforestation in the high forest zones. Other countries with significant commercial/industrial impacts on forests are: Lao PDR (plantations fuelled by foreign direct investment), Costa Rica (meat exports to the US, promoted by government lending policies), Mexico (82% of deforestation due to agriculture or grazing, with NAFTA significantly influencing amount of exports into the US), and Tanzania (increasing biofuel production). Most countries (15 out of 20) indicate increasing commercial/industrial agricultural land use, particularly serving export and urban markets, and biofuel production. reflects this uncertainty. However, Indonesia's overall deforestation rate between reflects this uncertainty. However, Indonesia's overall deforestation rate between 2003 and 2006 was about 1.17 million hectares per year. It is well documented that conversion 2003 and 2006 was about 1.17 million hectares per year. It is well documented that conversion for oil palm plantations occurs at a large scale (Koh 2011), and has a dramatic impact on carbon for oil palm plantations occurs at a large scale (Koh 2011), and has a dramatic impact on carbon emissions due to the immense carbon storage in the forest and peat soils throughout Indonesia. emissions due to the immense carbon storage in the forest and peat soils throughout Indonesia. Adding to the complexity of the role of agriculture as a driver of D&D in countries participating Adding to the complexity of the role of agriculture as a driver of D&D in countries participating in REDD+ is the myriad of underlying drivers that enable land conversion and unsustainable use in REDD+ is the myriad of underlying drivers that enable land conversion and unsustainable use of resources. of resources.  "},{"text":"Table 1 : Agriculture as a key driver in deforestation and degradation based on analysis of Forest Carbon Partnership Facility REDD+ Readiness Plan submissions Country Agriculture is primary D&D driver Agricultural D&D drivers commercial/industrial or smallholder  Argentina ✔ Industrial Argentina✔Industrial Costa Rica ✔ Both Costa Rica✔Both Cambodia ✔ Smallholder Cambodia✔Smallholder DR of Congo ✔ Smallholder DR of Congo✔Smallholder Ethiopia ✔ Unknown Ethiopia✔Unknown Ghana ✔ Smallholder Ghana✔Smallholder Guyana mining  Guyanamining Indonesia 1 unknown Unclear. Non-government sources Indonesia 1unknownUnclear. Non-government sources   indicate industrial agric. indicate industrial agric. Kenya ✔ Smallholder Kenya✔Smallholder Lao PDR ✔ Both Lao PDR✔Both Liberia ✔ Smallholder Liberia✔Smallholder Nepal Unsustainable logging  NepalUnsustainable logging Madagascar ✔ Unknown Madagascar✔Unknown Mexico ✔ Both Mexico✔Both Panama ✔ Both Panama✔Both Republic of Congo ✔ Smallholder Republic of Congo✔Smallholder Suriname unknown Unknown SurinameunknownUnknown Tanzania ✔ Both Tanzania✔Both Uganda ✔ Unknown Uganda✔Unknown Vietnam ✔ Industrial Vietnam✔Industrial  "},{"text":"Table 2 , found below. While readiness proposals are not inferred to be final REDD strategies, they are detailed and thoughtful assessments. Overall, countries demonstrate acknowledgement of the importance of addressing agricultural drivers of D&D, but REDD+ strategies and actions generally fail to address agricultural drivers. A summary of that evaluation was based on prioritizing country responses and identifying commonalities, which fell into the following categories: sorting out tenure and land rights; inefficiencies of agricultural systems; lack of operational clarity in draft readiness concepts; countries identified clear conflicts between REDD+ and national agriculture (or related) policies; and linkage of REDD+ to low carbon development plans and other higher-level policy platforms. This cross-cutting issue was cited by many countries as being a prerequisite to addressing smallholder agricultural impacts, and holds the potential to address poverty and forest-dependent people's disenfranchisement. Addressing this issue will lay the critical groundwork for designing benefit-sharing mechanisms that provide financial incentives to leave forests standing. Twelve countries cite this as critical: Argentina, DR Congo, Ethiopia, Ghana, Liberia, Nepal, Madagascar, Republic of Congo, Suriname, Tanzania, Uganda, and Vietnam. However, Nepal identifies absentee landlords with land being cultivated by tenants as problematic, but it is unclear whether the proposed activity of community forestry can address this issue. In Madagascar the issue of free access to resources is a problem, which tenure and rights can remedy. The parliament of the Republic of Congo considered a bill in 2010 on customary and cultural rights. Payments for Environmental Services systems in Costa Rica, viewed by many as a model for REDD+, have been restricted to owners and holders of natural forests under forest management regimes. Sorting out tenure and land rights Sorting out tenure and land rights  "},{"text":"Table 2 : Evaluation of FCPF R-PP Country submissions: Influencing agricultural drivers of deforestation and degradation  Country Is proposed REDD+ strategy adequate to affect Clear enough multi-sectoral links to affect CountryIs proposed REDD+ strategy adequate to affectClear enough multi-sectoral links to affect  agricultural drivers of D&D? agricultural drivers of D&D? agricultural drivers of D&D?agricultural drivers of D&D?  "},{"text":"umbrella REDD+ programme tied directly into the Acre Sustainable Deforestation will be avoided by halting the expansion of agriculture and cattle ranching into areas of native vegetation, and promoting the use and recovery of degraded lands for agribusiness. (Government of Brazil 2010). Development Plan, including: 1) a Programme for Valuing Environmental Assets-including best practices and property certification (including payments) for family farming in already cleared or altered areas, and support for forest management in intact forests, and 2) the Recuperation of Altered Areas Programme-including reforestation, agroforestry and ranching on cleared and degraded areas, and 3) the Carbon ISA Program-established to create and implement economic and financial instruments to achieve emission reduction targets, infrastructure and instruments for measurement, quantification and verification, with registration and transparency (MQVRT), strengthening the cooperation and alignment at the international, national, subnational and local levels, benefit-sharing, and promoting a new model of sustainable local and regional low carbon development. (State of Acre 2010, p. 14). The programme is nested within federal targets Acre's emissions reduction target mandates compliance and alignment \"with the goal of reducing emissions, contained in Federal Law number 12.187 of 2009\" (State of Acre 2010, p. 2). It mirrors the 80% Amazon deforestation reduction target. The programme is based on multi-sectoral land use plans \"Compliance, by programs linked to SISA, with the provisions set forth in the Law number 1.904 of June 5, 2007, which established ZEE/AC (Ecological-Economic Zoning of the State of Acre) (State of Acre 2010, p. 2).\" Acre's zoning initiative reflects the strategy and approach of the Amazon Ecological-Economic Macrozoning initiative (MacroZEE), announced in March 2010, which guides, at a regional scale, the design and spatial distribution of public policies for development, territorial planning and the environment, A State Commission for Validation and Monitoring, the Regulation, Control and Registration Institute, Scientific Committee, Group of Councils, and the Agency for Development of Environmental Services of Acre State, a private and public joint stock corporation, overseen by the Forestry Department, charged with: developing strategies aimed at raising funds and attracting investments in programs, prepares action plans and projects, helps align financing for environmental services, and manages and disperses assets and credits arising from ecosystem services and products deriving from the programs, subprograms, plans and based upon sustainability criteria. Governance of the programme is strong, with enforcement ability projects. (State of Acre 2010, p. 11) Development Plan, including: 1) a Programme for Valuing Environmental Assets-including best practices and property certification (including payments) for family farming in already cleared or altered areas, and support for forest management in intact forests, and 2) the Recuperation of Altered Areas Programme-including reforestation, agroforestry and ranching on cleared and degraded areas, and 3) the Carbon ISA Program-established to create and implement economic and financial instruments to achieve emission reduction targets, infrastructure and instruments for measurement, quantification and verification, with registration and transparency (MQVRT), strengthening the cooperation and alignment at the international, national, subnational and local levels, benefit-sharing, and promoting a new model of sustainable local and regional low carbon development. (State of Acre 2010, p. 14). The programme is nested within federal targets Acre's emissions reduction target mandates compliance and alignment \"with the goal of reducing emissions, contained in Federal Law number 12.187 of 2009\" (State of Acre 2010, p. 2). It mirrors the 80% Amazon deforestation reduction target. The programme is based on multi-sectoral land use plans \"Compliance, by programs linked to SISA, with the provisions set forth in the Law number 1.904 of June 5, 2007, which established ZEE/AC (Ecological-Economic Zoning of the State of Acre) (State of Acre 2010, p. 2).\" Acre's zoning initiative reflects the strategy and approach of the Amazon Ecological-Economic Macrozoning initiative (MacroZEE), announced in March 2010, which guides, at a regional scale, the design and spatial distribution of public policies for development, territorial planning and the environment, A State Commission for Validation and Monitoring, the Regulation, Control and Registration Institute, Scientific Committee, Group of Councils, and the Agency for Development of Environmental Services of Acre State, a private and public joint stock corporation, overseen by the Forestry Department, charged with: developing strategies aimed at raising funds and attracting investments in programs, prepares action plans and projects, helps align financing for environmental services, and manages and disperses assets and credits arising from ecosystem services and products deriving from the programs, subprograms, plans and based upon sustainability criteria. Governance of the programme is strong, with enforcement ability projects. (State of Acre 2010, p. 11)  "}],"sieverID":"c09f1a81-fd12-475f-9616-d4bcd8fa116a","abstract":"The views expressed in this document cannot be taken to reflect the official opinions of these agencies, nor the official position of the CGIAR or ESSP."}

data/part_4/092fdc62f8a7f9a0d540a7b04ad31111.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"092fdc62f8a7f9a0d540a7b04ad31111","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/14213f66-6f43-443a-ab97-d6f5f161e5a3/retrieve"},"pageCount":3,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"OUTCOME STORY FOR COMMUNICATIONS USE","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":263,"text":"The Agro-Climatic Bulletins (ACBs) project in Vietnam is a success story. It has demonstrated how climate service-informed decision-making can help farmers to better manage risks and take advantage of favorable climate conditions. The ACBs are produced based on seasonal, monthly, or 10-day weather forecasts. They provide farmers with information about the expected weather conditions, such as rainfall, temperature, and humidity. This information can be used by farmers to make decisions about their crops, such as when to plant, when to harvest, and how much fertilizer and pesticides to use. The ACBs were piloted in two provinces in 2020 and scaled to six more provinces in the Mekong River Delta during the Summer-Autumn season 2022 and Winter-Spring season 2022-2023. Through multiple media, the project reached over 130,000 farmers (520,000 beneficiaries). A household survey of 202 farmers in Tien Giang province showed that ACB adoption is associated with a significant increase in rice yield and revenue. ACB adopters had an increased average rice yield of 266 kilograms per hectare, and an average rice revenue increase of 1.834 million VND (USD 78) per hectare. In addition, 39.6% of interviewed farmers reported reduced use and costs of pesticides (reducing 1.36 million VND or USD 58 per hectare on average for 2021-2022 Winter-Spring season). The successful implementation of the ACBs project in Vietnam illustrates how climate service-informed decision-making can help farmers to better manage risks and take advantage of favorable climate conditions. The project has the potential to be replicated in other countries and regions, and it could help to improve agricultural productivity and resilience to climate change."}]},{"head":"CGIAR INNOVATION(S) OR FINDINGS THAT HAVE RESULTED IN THIS OUTCOME OR IMPACT","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":160,"text":"The model being tested in Vietnam on climateinformed agricultural advice is based on the \"Local Technical Agroclimatic Committees\" (LTAC) approach ( 12). LTAC was developed by the International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT) in Latin America between 2013 and 2015 and has been successfully implemented and adapted to tailor the context in Southeast Asia. LTAC is a dialogue process among a diversity of local actors along the climate service value chain, including scientists, technicians, representatives from the public and private sectors, and farmers, which seeks to understand the climate's possible behavior in a locality and to generate localspecific recommendations to reduce risks associated with expected climate variability. The output from this process is a local agroclimatic or agro-weather bulletin that contains the climate prediction and 10-day weather forecast for the region, the possible impacts on crops for specific conditions in time and space, as well as recommendations around planning and decisionmaking for agricultural production and disseminated to end-users or farmers."}]},{"head":"ELABORATION OF OUTCOME/IMPACT STATEMENT","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":345,"text":"The Alliance of Bioversity International and CIAT and Vietnam's Department of Crop Production (DCP) introduced a participatory process to develop Agro-Climatic Bulletins (ACBs) with local partners (1,2). ACBs are produced based on seasonal, monthly, or 10-day weather forecasts. ACBs were piloted in two provinces in 2020 and scaled to six more provinces in the Mekong River Delta during the Summer-Autumn season 2022 and Winter-Spring season 2022-2023, reaching 351 communes in eight provinces (1, 3). Through multiple media, the project reached over 130,000 farmers (520,000 beneficiaries), although a larger group may be exposed through posters, loudspeakers, and other channels (4,5,6). Based on the ACBs, farmers promptly adjusted their cultivation calendar, application of fertilizer and pesticides, and harvesting timing and avoided negative impacts of unfavorable weather and climate conditions (3,7,8). The findings from a household survey of 202 farmers in Tien Giang province showed that ACB adoption is associated with a significant increase in rice yield and revenue (9). ACB adopters had an increased average rice yield of 266 kilograms per hectare, and an average rice revenue increase of 1.834 million VND (USD 78) per hectare. In addition, 39.6% of interviewed farmers reported reduced use and costs of pesticides (reducing 1.36 million VND or USD 58 per hectare on average for 2021-2022 Winter-Spring season). After successful pilot implementation of ACBs in 2020 and 2021, a training workshop was held in seven Mekong Delta provinces (10). This resulted in integrating ACBs implementation into DCP's directive letters for continuing ACB implementation (11). Sub-DCPs then issued official work plans to maintain and expand ACBs (11). As the next step, DCP plans to expand the implementation of ACBs in the Delta and beyond while working with relevant government agencies on a model that can be sustained and scaled. DCP will also support an application to the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development to mobilize local government funds for further implementation (5). The successful implementation of this project in Vietnam illustrates how climate service-informed decision-making enables farmers to better manage risks and take advantage of favorable climate conditions and adapt to change."}]},{"head":"LINKS TO ANY COMMUNICATIONS MATERIALS RELATING TO THIS OUTCOME","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":44,"text":"ACBs can help farmers to make better decisions about their crops. ACBs can lead to increased crop yields and revenue. ACBs can help farmers to reduce their use of pesticides. ACBs are a cost-effective way to improve agricultural productivity and resilience to climate change."},{"index":2,"size":11,"text":"Here are some of the key findings of the ACBs project:"}]}],"figures":[{"text":"  "}],"sieverID":"1e4af4cd-124e-4cc3-b035-4299697db600","abstract":"REPORTING 2022 EVIDENCES OUTCOME IMPACT CASE REPORT Study #4702 Stage of Maturity of change reported: stage 3 PART 1: Description and all informacion of the outcome/impact reported TYPE OICR: Outcome Impact Case Report SHORT OUTCOME /IMPACT STATEMENT Through \"Local Technical Agroclimatic Committees\" (LTACs) and multiple media, timely Agro-Climatic Bulletins are being disseminated to over 130,000 farmers (520,000 beneficiaries) in 351 communities in Vietnam's Mekong Delta and South-Central Coast. Based on a sample survey of 202 farmers in one province, the use of this information has enabled farmers to increase their rice yields and revenue significantly. The LTAC model was developed in Latin America by CIAT and has been successfully adapted to the southeast Asian context. Article here STATUS New YEAR 2022 COUNTRY: The Socialist Republic of Viet Nam GEOGRAPHIC SCOPE: NATIONAL TITLE Over 130,000 farmers in the Mekong Delta, Vietnam, have used timely weather forecasts and advisories to improve farm decisions, leading to higher yields and profits Contributing external partners: MARD -Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development (Vietnam) NCHMF -National Center for Hydro-Meteorological ForecastingAgro-Climatic Bulletins: improving farmer decision-making through climate information services: here Alliance of Bioversity and CIAT (2022) Steps to co-develop Agro-Climatic Bulletin (ACB) for local agricultural planning and decision-making. Hanoi (Vietnam): DeRISK SE Asia. 48 p. here Le, T.T.; Nguyen Mai, H. (2022) Review Workshop. Implementation results and scaling Agro-Climatic Bulletins (ACB) in Mekong River Delta. here Calculation of the number of farmers reached by local agro-climatic bulletin in Vietnam disseminated using communication channels. here Le, T.T.; Nguyen Mai, H. (2022). Workshop report. Project result and experience sharing workshop in Vietnam. here National channel on Agriculture VTC16, 2022. Farmers benefiting from Agro-climatic bulletin for agricultural risk management here Agro-climatic bulletins: farmers' feedback. here Agro-climatic bulletins: farmers' feedback here Economic analysis of the adoption of Agro-Climatic Bulletin (ACB) at farm level in Tien Giang province here"}

data/part_4/093a73df56bef94e6ae2e13dceba5155.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"093a73df56bef94e6ae2e13dceba5155","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/f91e8d5a-93ec-435f-8068-b231907ac061/retrieve"},"pageCount":8,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Innovation of business case","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":500,"text":"The project proposal will empower 100 beneficiaries (10 cooperative groups of 10 members per group) in central province to engage in profitable and sustainable soya beans and groundnuts farming using good agronomic farming practices, enhanced utilization of climate information services and adoption of climate resilient seed varieties. This project is aimed at empowering 100 smallholder farmers to engage in profitable soya beans and groundnut farming through out-grower partnership. The 10 cooperative groups will cultivate 20 hectares of land to produce 90 tons of soya beans and 50 tons of groundnuts in the first season of the project. Good agronomic farming practices, utilization of climate information services and the adoption of climate resilient seed varieties are sustainable farming approach for high crop yield and increased economic security among smallholder farmers. The target beneficiaries in this project are vulnerable communities i.e the groups of People Living HIV (PLHIV), groups of women led households, groups of young women & groups of Gender-Based Violence Survivors. The training of these smallholder farmers in sustainable farming practices, promoting utilization of regional-specific climate information, adoption of climate resilient seed varieties and ongoing advisory will empower farmers to build resilient food systems that are adaptive to climate stresses. Once trained and recruited as out-grower partners the farmers will be provided with start-up inputs and a ready market. The project team will roll out climate resilient seed varieties for Soya Beans (Dina) and groundnuts (MGV 04-05) to out-grower partners. The climate resilient seed varieties are early maturing, drought resilient and high crop yield varieties. To provide a ready market for farmers, the project team will purchase 100% of harvested crops as raw materials for edible oil and soya cakes production. The Project will recover its initial start-up capital for inputs from farmers through harvested crops and additionally give farmers an option to purchase 100% of harvested soya beans and groundnuts. However, farmers will be given the option to sell produce to other markets. Each cooperative group is expected to produce 90 of 50kg bags of soya beans per hectare, and for groundnuts each group will produce 100 of 50kg per hectare. The projected cash flow per cooperative group for soya beans at the current average market price of K650/50kg is K58,500 and groundnuts at K1,200/50kg is K120,000 per season respectively. The projected cash flows will raise household income to K12,000 per household on average translating to K1,000 per month. This will raise household income among target beneficiaries from less than $1 per day to $2 per day. The household income double as groups mature to 2 hectares per group in the second year of the project. Each group member will be required to re-invest back 15% in the project and 5% towards village banking savings. Groups members will be encouraged to borrow from the village banking savings at 10% interest to promote individual asset investment such purchase of land. The group members will share equally all profits gained from the village banking savings at the end of the year."},{"index":2,"size":149,"text":"The project will collaborate and partner with local cooperatives, traditional leaders, extension officers, social welfare officers, victim support units, community-based initiatives and the Networks of People Living HIV to recruit the target beneficiaries. The project team will work with these partners in central province to identify and recruit target beneficiaries who are 3 groups of People Living HIV (PLHIV), 2 groups of women led households, ,3 groups of young people & 1 groups of Gender-Based Violence Survivors as out-grower partners. To promote society integration and prevent stigma members will not be restricted to belong to a specific group. The project will (i) train the 10 cooperative groups in climate smart and sustainable farming to enhance good agronomic practices, (ii) provide ongoing extension advisory support, and (iii) provide regional specific climate information, (iv) roll out climate resilient seed varieties, and (v) provide a ready market for 100% of harvested crops."},{"index":3,"size":172,"text":"Business collaboration and strategic partners for the project will include micro-finance institutions, digital services providers, the Zambia Meteorological Department, AICCRA local partners, insurance companies, Village banking and saving groups promoters such Catholic Relief Services, mobile money service providers, government line ministries, and key partners. The market strategic partners will include local livestock feed producers, chain stores, shops and retailers. This innovative approach is aimed at build resilient food production system, a ready market and increase economic security at household level. The project is aimed at increasing economic and food security among smallholder farmers to address the poor nutrition status, food and economic insecurities, reduce women vulnerability of women due to economic dependence on men. The project is aimed at reducing cases of gender-based violence and HIV infections among women. The project will also empower beneficiary households and families with income to making feasible for them to afford face masks and hand sanitizer for COVID19. Other secondary social benefits are reduced school drop outs among beneficiary families as result of increased household income."}]},{"head":"Commercial viability and sustainability","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":291,"text":"The demand for edible oil and raw materials for livestock feed have increased rapidly in recent years. Zambia and the SADC region have recorded a shape increase in demand for edible oil and feed due to increased demand for livestock and fish production. Zambia's edible oil deficit by 2019 was at 80 MT per year. Zambia is facing an increase in edible oil deficit and in 2020 the Zambia Development Agency (ZDA) reported that the country spent $ 200 million importing edible oil. To meet this demand deficit for edible oil, farmers are expected to increase production for raw materials such as soya beans to support an increase in edible oil production. Soya beans account for 60% of edible oil production while groundnuts fall in the 6%. Agricultural Policy Research Institute (IAPRI) in 2019 estimated the total domestic production of edible oils standing at 40, 096 tons with a deficit of 80, 397 tons per annum. This project proposal will take advantage of this local market deficit and demand for edible oil. Using a social enterprise approach the project will recruit community-based out-grower partners as strategic partners for a steady supply of raw materials for edible oils and soya cakes. The project adopting an out-grower scheme will recruit and support vulnerable communities in rural areas as primary suppliers of soya beans and groundnuts. 100 community-based out-grower partners will be recruited in the first two years of the project as primary producers for raw materials for edible oil processing and packaging. Byproduct's soya cokes and peanuts will be sold as raw material for livestock feed producers to supplement the increased demand for livestock and fish feed as result of increase in demand for pork, beef, and fish in the country and region."},{"index":2,"size":105,"text":"The project value addition processing plant will target to produce 6,760 liters of cooking oil per month. The annual production target is 81,120 liters of cooking oil and over 50 tons of soya cakes. Soya cakes will be sold to feed producers as raw material for livestock and fish feed. The cooking will be sold at K40 per liter. The projected annual revenue from edible oil is K3,244,800 and K280,000 from byproducts. Therefore, the combined projected total annual cash flow in the first two (2) years of the project is K7,049,600.00 while running costs are projected at K413,362, and the projected net income is K6,636,238.00."},{"index":3,"size":278,"text":"Community-based out-grower partners will be key strategic partners for the success of this project. Therefore, the project will continuously invest to recruit more community-based out-grower partners as producers of raw materials. The project business strategy is to increase the number of out-grower partners from 10 cooperative groups to 20 making the number of beneficiaries from 100 individuals to 200 individuals. This will increase cooking oil production from 6,760 liters per month to 13,520 liters per month and 162,240 liters per year starting from the third year onward. This increase in production will double revenue to K14 million plus, and the project will re-invest over 60% to recruit 400 additional beneficiaries bringing the total number of beneficiaries to 600. The project business strategy to expand and increase production will setup 2 more edible oil processing plants. All the processing plants will be setup right in the community and near cooperatives to easy transportation of harvested crops and create jobs for the local women and youths. This expansion plan will increase revenue and help the project to reach more beneficiaries through the out-grower scheme. To support trained beneficiaries, make informed decisions on crop choices and management and access to timely climate information, the project will develop a mobile-based decision-making support tool to provide vital information on climate resilient seed varieties, crop yield estimation and management and current market prices. The tool will also provide trained farmers with timely and regional specific climate information as released by the Zambia Meteorological Department (ZMD). The mobile based app is aimed at promoting utilization of climate information and adoption of climate resilient to empower farmers make informed choices and reduce crop failure and losses."},{"index":4,"size":113,"text":"The decision-making support tool a mobile app that will run on both android and IOS operating system will provide vital information on soya beans and groundnuts. As way of monetizing the tool for project sustainability, the project team will add crop information for 8 more climate resilient crops for prospecting and existing farmers. Each cooperative group will be supported by a cooperative group coordinator that will be provided vital information using mobile phone. These cooperative group coordinators will be trained on interpretation of information including climate information for group decision-making. The project team will send periodic updates and communication to cooperative group coordinators as a way of providing technical support to the groups."},{"index":5,"size":63,"text":"Risk management, as part of risk mitigation and management, the project team will ensure that all the 10 out-grower partners' crops are insured against unforeseen natural disasters, drought or force majeure. The insurance will protect the farmers from unforeseen loses due to crop failure. The risk transfer to an insurance company will also protect from losing start-up investment as result of crop failure."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"  "}],"sieverID":"212fe44d-f280-463d-8adb-6f14c57a9b2d","abstract":""}

data/part_4/09a85195ff6c86a11f521467f28a13f6.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"09a85195ff6c86a11f521467f28a13f6","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/bf1f3e2b-0a2c-4183-a2f5-f236c5332710/retrieve"},"pageCount":7,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":15,"text":"The general guideline for the features can be studied below 1. Feature Describing the situation:"},{"index":2,"size":24,"text":"• Enough and quality feed is key for the health and productivity of a cow • Many cows are underfed in quantity and quality"},{"index":3,"size":15,"text":"• Feeding accounts for up to 70% of production costs Possibility to mitigate the problem:"},{"index":4,"size":10,"text":"• Planting and feeding of high quality forages (planted feed)"},{"index":5,"size":9,"text":"• Presentation of Brachiaria Hybrids (Mulato2, Cayman, Cobra, Camello)"},{"index":6,"size":8,"text":"• Presentation of Brachiaria cultivars (Basilisk, Xaraes, Piata)"},{"index":7,"size":2,"text":"Technical info:"},{"index":8,"size":8,"text":"• Preconditions (choice of appropriate land, soil, rainfall,"},{"index":9,"size":4,"text":"• Time for establishment"},{"index":10,"size":12,"text":"• Soil preparation (spraying with herbicide, ploughing, harrowing, compaction with a roller)"},{"index":11,"size":11,"text":"• Seeding (distance, depth, covering of seeds, assure seed /soil contact)"}]},{"head":"• Weeding","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":13,"text":"• Harvesting (time to first harvest, cutting intervals, how to cut-height of cut)"},{"index":2,"size":5,"text":"• Fertilisation (mineral fertilizer, manure)"},{"index":3,"size":9,"text":"• Use of the forage (direct feeding, hay, silage)(rationing)"},{"index":4,"size":74,"text":"• For how long can the forages be used Where can farmers find the seed and how much do they cost? Effect of the feeding with high quality forage (better health status of the cows, higher productivity) After the G-FEAST survey Meru edition that was carried out at Githongo Dairy Farmers' Cooperative Society on 13 th and 14 th February 2020, we identified the demonstration farms through the assistance of the respective dairy societies."},{"index":5,"size":232,"text":"Githongo Dairy Coop has two farms, for the intensive mode and while Atoria Dairy Coop has one farmer for the semi intensive mode. During the month of March, we followed on land preparation amid the arrival of seeds and onset of rains in readiness for planting. A total of 12 varieties of seeds have been established. Below is a table illustrating the name of the farmer, plot sizes, varieties planted and the dates established. On 14 th March 2020, we visited 8 farmers across Meru to record their testimonies and experiences with the improved forages since we started working with them as demonstration farmers. The promotional materials were recorded by one Mwenda Gichuru who is the host and producer of the famous 'Kaju ka Murimi' ie The Voice of the farmer' with the slogan 'Let's do a productive farming'. Mwenda has been producing the agricultural program that is aired through Muuga Fm the last 12 years and this has made the program so famous to the farmers as they eagerly await to learn the emerging issues concerning agriculture either from their fellow farmers who are doing farming exemplarily well thereby giving them an opportunity to feature in the program or from experts in the various fields. The program is aired from Mon to Fri from 7.30am in the morning show and a repeat of the same at 20.30hrs on the same days."}]},{"head":"NAME","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":95,"text":"Having recorded the features on 14 th March 2020, they went on air from Mon 23 rd March to 27 th March 2020 at 7.30am and a repeat of the same in the evening at 20.30hrs during the evening show that is hosted by Mwenda himself. Each of the features had an average of 8min and 47 sec sharing technical knowledge with the farmers narrated by Fredrick Muthomi. There were also 3 testimonials from farmers that were aired during the day as they were narrated by different farmers and were an average of 2min each."},{"index":2,"size":127,"text":"Since the promotional materials started going on air, there has been a lot impact and the farmers have been constantly making calls to ask where they can get the seeds to plant while others are calling to get clarification on the questions they have. The range of calls from the farmers has been extensively all parts of Meru County, Tharaka Nithi and some few Meru farmers who are based in Nairobi. On an average, 30 farmers have been calling our contact person while others have been calling the testimonial farmers they heard talking on the program to get to learn more about the forages. While moving to the field during the farm visits, the farmers have also been commenting on how they have been following the program."}]},{"head":"Details on Kisii features","index":4,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Kisii county-Bracharia farming feature on Egesa radio fm-extensive promotion","index":5,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Background","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":44,"text":"Egesa FM broadcasts in Abagusii(Kisii) language in Nyamira, Kisii, Migori and Transmara counties. The station is the leading in the region and enjoys listenership of over 2 million ardent Kisii speakers. The station also reaches listeners in in Nairobi, Central Kenya and Rift Valley."}]},{"head":"Brachiaria feature on Egesa FM","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":71,"text":"Part of the CIATs fodder activities is development of promotional materials to be used in media campaign to promote adoption of better fodder varieties among smallholder farmers in Kisii county. As a result, a media campaign was run in Egesa FM between 23 rd and 27 th of March 2020. The feature was run twice daily at 7.30AM and 5.30 PM, for 10 mins. These are usually peak time for radio."},{"index":2,"size":52,"text":"The campaign was recorded at the farm of Laban, who is a lead farmer and a chairman of Bomabobo dairy farmers cooperative. Laban is one of the farmers working with CIAT in piloting fodder varieties in Kisii county. Technical explanation was done by Mr. Ndubi Zablon who is the area livestock officer."}]},{"head":"Topics covered","index":8,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Topics covered included","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":39,"text":"• Benefits of Brachiaria as compared to other fodder varieties • Where seeds can be found • Seedbed preparation and planting • Crop management -transplanting, weeding • Harvesting -stage of harvesting, how to cut, no of cuttings per season"}]},{"head":"• Preservation and feeding","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":80,"text":"Based on the response from calls, text and online on Facebook page of the radio presenter, it's evident the feature captured the interest of most dairy farmers as the region has a fast growing population of farmers who are eager to do dairy farming as a business and to improve their incomes. The feature also captured attention of people who come from the region but work elsewhere. They showed interest in dairy and would like to know more about dairy."},{"index":2,"size":5,"text":"Testimonials of the features: https://soundcloud.com/tropical-grasslands-forrajestropicales/sets/kisii-county-bracharia-farming-feature-on-radio"}]}],"figures":[{"text":" explaining their experience with the forages Quantity of yield, regrowth (rainy season/dry season) Quality aspects How do the cows like it? Feed rationing Effect on feeding cost Effect on the productivity of the cows General judgement (are they happy with the forages and can they recommend other farmers to invest in it Details on Meru features: KIT FORAGE SEED SYSTEMS PROGRESS REPORT. "},{"text":"EXTENSIVE PROMOTION APPROACH VIA MUUGA FM.    TURNIP  11m by 2.5 TURNIP11m by 2.5   COMMANDER - COMMANDER-   COWPEA GLENDA 11m by 2.5m COWPEA GLENDA11m by 2.5m   RHODES KATAMBORA  RHODESKATAMBORA    (COATED) 11m by 2.5m (COATED)11m by 2.5m   RHODES TOLGAR  RHODESTOLGAR    (COATED) 11m by 2.5m (COATED)11m by 2.5m   CROTALARIA SUNN HEMP  CROTALARIA SUNN HEMP LYDIA MWIRIGI ATORIA BRACHIARIA MULATO II 16m by 6m 23/3/2020 LYDIA MWIRIGIATORIABRACHIARIA MULATO II16m by 6m23/3/2020    SABIA  SABIA    COBRA  COBRA    CAYMAN  CAYMAN    CAMELLO  CAMELLO   SORGHUM BARGRAZER  SORGHUM BARGRAZER   PANICUM MOMBASA  PANICUM MOMBASA   TURNIP  6m by 4m TURNIP6m by 4m   COMMANDER 6m by 4m COMMANDER6m by 4m   COWPEA GLENDA 8.5m by 2m COWPEA GLENDA8.5m by 2m   RHODES KATAMBORA  RHODESKATAMBORA    (COATED) 8.5m by 2m (COATED)8.5m by 2m  DAIRY COOP FORAGE RHODES TOLGAR PLOT SIZE DATE PLANTED DAIRY COOPFORAGE RHODESTOLGARPLOT SIZEDATE PLANTED DOROTHY GITHONGO BRACHIARIA MULATO II (COATED) 14m by 7m 8m by 2m 26/3/2020 DOROTHYGITHONGOBRACHIARIA MULATO II (COATED)14m by 7m 8m by 2m26/3/2020 MURITHI DAIRY SABIA CROTALARIA SUNN HEMP  MURITHIDAIRYSABIA CROTALARIA SUNN HEMP    COBRA  COBRA    CAYMAN  CAYMAN    CAMELLO  CAMELLO   SORGHUM BARGRAZER  SORGHUM BARGRAZER   PANICUM MOMBASA  PANICUM MOMBASA   TURNIP COMMANDER 12m by 2.5m TURNIPCOMMANDER12m by 2.5m   COWPEA GLENDA  COWPEA GLENDA   RHODES KATAMBORA  RHODESKATAMBORA    (COATED)  (COATED)   RHODES TOLGAR  RHODESTOLGAR    (COATED)  (COATED)   CROTALARIA SUNN HEMP 12m by 6m CROTALARIA SUNN HEMP12m by 6m MOSES MURIUNGI GITHONGO BRACHIARIA MULATO II - 27/3/2020 MOSES MURIUNGI GITHONGOBRACHIARIA MULATO II-27/3/2020  DAIRY  SABIA 7m by 5m DAIRYSABIA7m by 5m    COBRA 11m by 2m COBRA11m by 2m    CAYMAN 7m by 5m CAYMAN7m by 5m    CAMELLO 5.5m by 5m CAMELLO5.5m by 5m   SORGHUM BARGRAZER 9m by 8m SORGHUM BARGRAZER9m by 8m   PANICUM MOMBASA 8.5m by 5m PANICUM MOMBASA8.5m by 5m  "}],"sieverID":"0bf64201-e564-407a-8ce0-f6f47ac6c3fe","abstract":"Cluster 4 Uwe Ohmstedt"}