{"metadata":{"id":"013a445b3a68e51a1626910da664c118","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/6ae51a96-0b7c-43b0-ae60-6c039bcd73a7/retrieve"},"pageCount":24,"title":"ADAPTING GREEN INNOVATION CENTRES TO CLIMATE CHANGE: ANALYSIS OF VALUE CHAIN ADAPTATION POTENTIAL Peanuts, cashews, and soya beans in the Centre, Kara, Maritime, Plateaux, and Savanes Regions, Togo CLIMATE RISK PROFILE SERIES","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":20,"text":"Agricultural production in Togo is reliant on rain-fed irrigation, leaving the country highly vulnerable to the effects of climate change."},{"index":2,"size":87,"text":"Changes in rain patterns coupled with other climatic hazards like heat waves and droughts have caused the country to experience a decline in crop yields and revenue. Climatic projections depict increasing temperature and decreasing rainfall, which will continue to affect farming households. This situation calls for interventions that increase farmers' adaptive capacity, for example through extension delivery, policy implementation, and the provision of climate information. Togo has already developed policies to strengthen the agricultural sector and tackle climate change but implementation of these policies is still weak."}]},{"head":"Development cooperation and the private sector collaborate with the government to supplement efforts on climate change.","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":212,"text":"A key collaboration is the one between the German Agency for International Cooperation (GIZ), the Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock, and Fisheries (MAEP), and other locally acting nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) to execute Green Innovation Centres (GIC) under GIZ's \"ONEWORLD No Hunger\" initiative. 2 Through the GICs, GIZ aims to enhance farmers' income, create employment and improve farmers' technical and management skills, and develop awareness of biodiversity and environmental protection. In Togo, the GICs focus on three value chains: soya beans, peanuts, and cashews (Figure 1).  Togolese agriculture is non-mechanized, relying heavily on individual labour (Ministry of Agriculture, 2014). While many farmers rely on family labour, when laborers are hired, it is often for intense activities like harvesting and ploughing. Payments made to workers vary depending on the activity, but on average women earn less due to the lower value of their tasks. Women are responsible for more than half of sowing, where they represent 65% of the labour force, followed by transport (61%) and harvesting (56%). The paid workforce is primarily male (87%) (Ministère de l'Agriculture, de l'Elevage et de la Pêche, 2014). In regions like Savanes and Kara, where the cropping cycle makes it possible to cultivate several crops on the same plot (for example, millet and peanuts), labour intensity is higher."}]},{"head":"This document presents","index":3,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Key messages","index":4,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Agricultural Context","index":5,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Economic relevance of farming","index":6,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"People and livelihoods","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":173,"text":"The total population in Togo in 2018 was 7,889,094 and 58.3% of the total population lives in rural areas. 49.5% were men and 50.5% women (World Bank, 2019). Though the population is growing, the growth rate has decreased since 2010. Additionally, the rural population has also decreased (-0.07% since 2010). Importantly, a large share of the rural population is comprised of young people. On average, 42.4% of the rural population is between the ages of 15 and 49. According to the National Census of Agriculture, the Plateau region has the largest segment of Togo's rural population at 31.4%, up from 29% in 1996. This is due to availability of agricultural land that has drawn people from other regions (Ministry of Agriculture, 2014). In the last several decades, most regions in the country have seen an increase in their rural populations. The exception is the Maritime region, whose share of the rural dropped from 26.9% in 1996 to 19.4% in 2012 due to growing economic development of the region and urbanization (Figure 2).  2020)."}]},{"head":"The population of","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":6,"text":"The adult population also faces malnutrition."},{"index":2,"size":71,"text":"Importantly, 48.9% of women of reproductive age have anaemia (Global Nutrition Report, 2020). The prevalence of undernourishment among the total population in 2017 was 16.1% (Global Nutrition Report, 2020). Nationwide, the main causes of food insecurity are insufficient financial resources (46.1%), followed by rainfall irregularities (28%) and high costs of food products on the market (13.2%). In rural areas, the main cause of food insecurity is poor harvests (44.7%) (INSEED, 2016). "}]},{"head":"Agricultural activities","index":9,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"The use of chemical fertilizers is minimal.","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":102,"text":"Most plots use organic fertilizers. The Savanes region has the highest use of fertilizers; 86% of plots here use organic and 36% use chemical fertilizers (Ministère de l'Agriculture, de l'Elevage et de la Pêche, 2014). According to the latest data available, in 2016, the use of fertilizers in Togo averaged 11.03 kg/ha of arable land, well below the world average of 418.7 kg/ha for that same year (World Bank, 2019). The Togolese government has tried to increase the use of inputs through subsidies covering up to 52% of the market price. These subsidies aim to improve accessibility for small farmers (ECDPM, 2013)."},{"index":2,"size":31,"text":"As the current use of fertilizers is low, possible concurrent environmental impacts are also low; significant increases in chemical fertilizer use in coming years could affect soil quality and water ecosystems."},{"index":3,"size":92,"text":"The main source of credit is from NGOs and cooperatives. In 2012, these provided 47% of cash credits and 31% of in-kind credits. Banks have a very low representation, providing only 4% of the cash credits (Ministère de l'Agriculture, de l'Elevage et de la Pêche, 2014). Of the total credits given in 2012, 65% were cash credits and 35% were credit-in-kind. Men in general have higher access to credits; in 2012 they received 60% of cash credits and 68% of in-kind credits (Ministère de l'Agriculture, de l'Elevage et de la Pêche, 2014)."}]},{"head":"Agricultural value chain commodities","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":14,"text":"The soya bean, cashew, and peanut value chains have been analyzed in this study."},{"index":2,"size":85,"text":"While these crops make up less volume and area under cultivation compared to maize, yams, and cassava, they present notable development potential within the framework of climate-smart agriculture (CSA). Wholesalers, on the other hand, are usually men based in the main cities of a region. Wholesalers work closely with collectors who go into small villages to buy the produce. They generally sell the produce for exports to regional clients from Benin, Burkina Faso, and Ghana, although India and China are gaining importance as export markets."}]},{"head":"Soya bean","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":11,"text":"Compared with conventional production, the organic farming sector is highly structured."},{"index":2,"size":72,"text":"Organic producers are organized into groups of 10 to 15 farmers at the village level. These groups are usually also part of a cooperative that supports farmers with access to inputs such as seeds and sacs, credits, and help with monitoring for quality (GFA & GIZ, 2018). Microfinance actors are also important as they help cover up to 50% of production costs, particularly for buying seeds. Organic soy producers are mainly male."},{"index":3,"size":80,"text":"Cooperatives also play an important role in the production and commercialization of organic soya beans, providing training for producers, helping them access inputs, and linking producers to exporters (GFA & GIZ, 2018). Each year, exporters set purchase price and supply targets with the cooperatives, which then set a purchase price for the producers. The margins for organic soya bean farming organizations are, on average, 5 to 10 FCFA/kg (less than 0.02 USD/ kg), but the margin of exporters is unreported"},{"index":4,"size":55,"text":"Organic soya bean production in Togo is governed by international standards and certification bodies. The main certification bodies are: ECOCERT (France), CERTISYS (Belgium), CERES (Germany) and AGROBIOCERT (Italy). These agencies apply European and American standards. 4 It is exporters who generally contact the agencies and finance certification of the value chain (GFA & GIZ, 2018)."},{"index":5,"size":186,"text":"In this sense, they are the foundation of the organic soy value chain.  GIZ, 2015). The small fraction of Togolese cashew nuts that are consumed within the country often go through an artisanal value addition in the hands of women who grill them and turn them into appetizers to be sold in Lomé (Tebonou et al., 2012). Opportunities furthermore exist to add value to cashew fruits, for example, by processing them into juice. However, limitations on storage and packaging and cultural beliefs that drinking cashew apple juice is unhealthy limit the development of this area of the value chain. Production is dominated by men, who constitute of 62.2% of producers. Nationally, women represent only 37.8% of producers, but as many as 46.7% are engaged in peanut production in the Kara region (Banla et al., 2018). Clearing and plowing are done mostly by men, sometimes as a hired workforce. Sowing is done by both men and women (Banla et al., 2018). Most farmers (51.67%) save seeds from the previous season's harvest for the next season's plating, while 38.9% buy seeds from local markets (Banla et al., 2018)."}]},{"head":"Peanut","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":44,"text":"Most producers grow groundnuts mixed with other crops such as sorghum, millet, and maize (Banla et al., 2018). Chemical fertilizers are only applied to peanuts when they are produced with maize, as groundnuts receive the fertilizers applied to the maize (Banla et al., 2018)."},{"index":2,"size":112,"text":"81% of the peanuts produced in the Centrale, Kara, and Savanes regions are sold in local markets (Banla et al., 2018). Farmers are often forced to sell a large proportion of their produce soon after harvest, at low price, to cover their debts or to meet financial needs such as school fees and health care (Banla et al., 2018). Access to credit is limited, necessitating selling at low prices. There is no evidence of peanut farmers' organizations in Togo, but since peanuts are often produced in a mixed system, farmers may benefit from other cooperatives in which they participate.  » The costs and scope of these plans will present challenges to implementation."}]},{"head":"Agricultural sector challenges","index":14,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Policies, Strategies and Programs on Climate Change Key messages","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":173,"text":"The most important adaptation policy in Togo is the National Climate Change Adaptation Plan (PNACC). This policy identifies agriculture as the sector most in need of adaptation given its importance to the economy and its vulnerability (Gouvernement du Togo, 2017). There are also structural factors within the agriculture sector that make farmers particularly vulnerable to climate change effects. These include land tenure insecurity, gender inequality, insufficient infrastructure, and a lack of connectivity between rural areas and main cities. These must also be addressed to have a more resilient agricultural sector.  Tossou 2015). Farmers estimates of temperature increases were generally aligned with measured temperature changes. Farmer perceptions of rainfall patterns over the same time period were also aligned with rainfall data to some extent (Gadédjisso-Tossou 2015). About 75% of farmers across the three regions detected a decrease in total rainfall, while the data shows a slight decreasing trend for the maritime and plateau regions and a slight increasing trend for the savannah region. Interannual rainfall data was highly variable, making these trends statistically insignificant."}]},{"head":"Adapting Green Innovation","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":71,"text":"Farmers' gender, land tenure status, farming experience, and home region significantly impact climate change perceptions (Gadédjisso-Tossou 2015). Men and individuals with land tenure were more likely to report temperature change than women and untenured farmers; there was no difference in rainfall perceptions across gender or land tenure status. Farmers with more farming experience were less likely to perceive changes in temperature or rainfall, especially those in the plateau and savannah regions."}]},{"head":"Climate change and variability: historic and future trends","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":50,"text":"Agriculture in Mali is mainly rain-fed and Heat stress poses an imminent risk to agricultural production in Togo. Climate projections show an increase of the number of days with a maximum temperature above 35ºC across the country (Figure 3), with the greatest effect in the regions of Savanes, Plateaux, and"},{"index":2,"size":90,"text":"Maritimes. In Savanes, the number of days with heat stress is projected to increase from fewer than 80 days/year to approximately 125 days/ year. In Plateaux, the number of days with heat stress increases from 50 to approximately 125 days/year. Maritimes is mainly affected during the first half of the year, when the number of days with heat stress increases from fewer than 40 to approximately 140 days/year. Moreover, mean temperature in the departments of Savanes and Kara is projected to reach 32.1ºC -33.1ºC by 2100 (Government of Togo, 2015)."}]},{"head":"Changes in the length of the growing season","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":100,"text":"(LGP) will also affect agricultural production across Togo. The LGP is projected to decrease in most of the country, with the Savanes and Kara regions being the most affected (Figure 4). In Savanes, the LGP may fall from a current average of 100 to 120 days per year low as 60-100 days. Kara may experience a drop from a current average of 140-160 days per year to fewer than 120 days per year. The Maritimes region is an outlier in that the LGP there may increase slightly (by about 5 days per year) during the second half of the year."}]},{"head":"The results of climate modelling indicate that drought is one of the main hazards affecting","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":69,"text":"Togo. In the Plateaux region, the number of consecutive dry days (CDD) is projected to double from an average 20 days per year to 40 days per year (Figure 5). In Maritimes, the number of CDD will increase in the first half of the year and then decrease slightly in the second half. In Savanes, Kara, and Centrale regions, there will be a slight increase in CDD as well."},{"index":2,"size":74,"text":"Another indicator of drought is moisture stress, which modelling indicates is a risk for northern part of the country. In the Savanes region, the number of days with moisture stress (NDWS) is projected to increase from 50 days/year to 100-110 days/year. In the Kara region, a current average of 40-60 NDWS per year is projected to increase to 70-90 days/year. Other regions would experience slight increases in the number of days with moisture stress."},{"index":3,"size":58,"text":"Flooding due to extreme rainfall events also presents a major risk in the Savanes, Kara, and Plateaux regions. The maximum 5-day running average precipitation is projected to experience a significant increase. For instance, in the Savanes and Kara regions, it may increase from an average rainfall of 18 mm in 2015 to 30 mm by 2061 (Figure 6).  "}]},{"head":"Climate vulnerabilities across agriculture value chain commodities","index":20,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Soya bean","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":108,"text":"The main hazard identified for the soya bean value chain is drought. Drought's impacts are variable across production stages, low at the input supply stage, moderate at the on-farm stage, and low to major on the post-harvest and marketing stages. Temperature variability is a related hazard that affects the growing season by hastening plant development (especially the grain filling stage), resulting in lower yields (Billore et al., 2018;Chen, 2019;Mall et al., 2004). Based on this information, the main impacts of higher temperatures fall on the input supply stage, insofar as they may affect water availability and soil conditions, and the on-farm stage, given their effects on plant development."}]},{"head":"Cashew","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":119,"text":"The two main hazards identified by experts in the survey for the cashew value chain are drought and high temperatures. Cashew trees are drought tolerant, but sensitive to high temperatures and changes in rainfall patterns, such as excess moisture and flooding-they thrive in well drained soils. Survey participants were asked to rank the impact of these hazards on the different stages of the value chain, they ranked drought as having a major impact at the on-farm stage (land preparation, nursery, planting, weeding, harvesting). For the other stages (input supply, post-harvest, and marketing), the impact was rated low. High temperatures impacts were distributed similarly, considered major at the on-farm stage and low on the other stages of the value chain."}]},{"head":"Peanut","index":23,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":141,"text":"For the peanut value chain, the two main hazards identified were drought and decreased length of the rainy season. The impacts of drought are considered to be low on the input supply stage (land preparation; acquisition of seeds/planting material, fertilizers, pesticides), moderate to major on the onfarm stage, low to moderate on the postharvest stage, and low on the marketing stage. Regarding the decreased length of the rainy season, impacts are moderate on the input supply stage, and major on all the other stages of the value chain. The identification of these hazards is consistent with the literature review, where high temperatures and reduced rainfall are said to be the main limiting climatic factors for peanuts. Although some studies suggest that there might be a positive feedback through the CO 2 fertilizing effect, this requires further study (Ezihe et al., 2017)."}]},{"head":"Adapting Green Innovation Centres to climate change: analysis of value chain adaptation potential","index":24,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":56,"text":"Peanuts, cashews, and soya beans in the Centre, Kara, Maritime, Plateaux, and Savanes regions, Togo » With the exception of highly-organized organic soya bean farmers, producers in the soya bean, peanut, and cashew value chains all currently have a low adaptive capacity due to small land holdings, subsistence-level agriculture, low input use, and poor market integration."},{"index":2,"size":29,"text":"» A range of strategies were identified as promising to meet climate threats in Togo; improved seed varieties, improved seek quality, and agricultural insurance were common across value chains."},{"index":3,"size":19,"text":"» Adoption of these adaptive strategies is limited by poor access to resources such as land, inputs, and information."},{"index":4,"size":35,"text":"» The CBA analysis shows that the high implementation cost and a longer payback period may be, therefore, a barrier to the adoption and scaling up of 'changing planting and harvesting period' for peanut production."}]},{"head":"Adaptation to Climate Change and Variability","index":25,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Key messages","index":26,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"On-farm adaptation strategies","index":27,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":75,"text":"The current adaptive capacity of producers in the peanut, cashew, and soya bean value chains is generally low. With the exception of organic soya bean producers, who are organized into cooperatives, most producers in the selected value chains are smallholders, operating at a subsistence level, with low levels of input use, and with variable, mediated connection to markets. These factors together serve to render producers in Togo particularly vulnerable to climate change effects (Table 1)."}]},{"head":"Soya bean","index":28,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":120,"text":"Organic soya bean producers are linked by highly structured cooperatives. These organizations provide inputs such as seeds, sacs, credits, and help monitor quality. Therefore, organic soy producers have access to better information, technical assistance, and production monitoring than conventional soy producers. Given these characteristics, the adaptive capacity of organic soya bean famers is higher than that of conventional producers. Ongoing adaptation strategies for the soya beans value chains under the green innovations project include the improvement of the availability and quality of seeds, climate-intelligent innovations, CSA practices (i.e. mulching), and introduction of modifications in agricultural calendars. Potential adaptation strategies may include the use of new varieties tolerant to heat stress, the promotion of sustainable soil management and agricultural insurance programs."},{"index":2,"size":69,"text":"Neither organic nor conventional soy producers have direct access to markets, resulting in low levels of governance involvement for farmers. Organic producers' cooperatives facilitate the export of crops, while conventional farmers are dependent on collectors and wholesalers for market access. In addition to these limiting factors, transportation costs are high due to deficits in road infrastructure as only 18% of the national road networks are asphalted (Togo First, 2020)."}]},{"head":"Cashews","index":29,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":92,"text":"An increase in the number of cooperatives in the cashew value chain is providing structure for adaptation efforts. For example, the company Cajou Espoir has helped to empower women within the value chain and to provide structure to it. The fact that there is a private sector actor with interest in the prosperity of the value chain can strengthen the adaptive capacity of producers and other actors in the value chain. Current adaptation strategies include planting cashew in poor soils to help recover fertility and to prevent erosion (Catarino et al., 2015);"},{"index":2,"size":35,"text":"improving the availability and quality of seeds, introducing climate-intelligent innovations and climate smart practices (i.e. mulching), and crop association. Potential strategies include the adoption of varieties more resistant to heat stress and agricultural insurance programs."}]},{"head":"Peanuts","index":30,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":13,"text":"Ongoing adaptation strategies for the peanut value chain focus on inputs and intercropping."},{"index":2,"size":82,"text":"They include improving the availability and quality of seeds, introducing climate-intelligent innovations and CSA practices (i.e. mulching), and crop association. Since peanuts help fix nitrogen in the soil, they are often mixed with other crops, particularly maize. Potential adaptation strategies include the adoption of high-yielding peanut varieties that have a large pod size and resistance to late leaf spot; changes in the agricultural calendar (for example, offseason production), and the development of farmers' cooperatives that could promote best practices and technology transfer."}]},{"head":"Overall ranking of the adaptation strategies","index":31,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":106,"text":"Adaptations were identified and selected using an iterative process with experts from each value chain. A literature review identified farmers' current adaptation strategies, some of which are traditional CSA practices, while others are modern practices introduced by development organizations including those introduced by GICs. Similarly, a list of all hazards that affected production in the three value chains was compiled. Experts were then tasked with identifying the two hazards that impacted each value chain the most. Then, the experts chose the two most promising adaptation strategies for each of the two hazards at every stage of the value chain (input acquisition, onfarm production, post-harvest and marketing)."},{"index":2,"size":58,"text":"All the promising strategies were then ranked on a scale of 1-8, where the value 1 implied a highly-ranked strategy and 8 a low one. The final ranking resulted in two strategies for each hazard in each value chain This section will present the main adaptation strategies for the two most important hazards selected for each value chain."},{"index":3,"size":92,"text":"For the cashew value chain, the most promising adaptation strategies focus on inputs, with quality seed as a primary concern. The highest-ranked adaptations against drought are improving the availability and quality of seeds and providing technical assistance. For heat stress, the most promising adaptation strategies are better seeds and the rehabilitation of abandoned cashew plantations. The improvement of seed quality is ranked as most promising adaptation across the stages of the value chain, while rehabilitation of abandoned cashew plantations is ranked as most promising in the input and on-farm stages (Table 2)."},{"index":4,"size":85,"text":"In the peanut value chain, promising adaptations focus on crop calendars, insurance, and the introduction of improved varieties. The most promising adaptation strategies in the case of drought are modifying agricultural calendars and the introduction of new varieties. For the decrease of the rainy season, the most promising adaptation strategies are agricultural insurance and the introduction of improved varieties. New and improved varieties and calendar modification are most promising at the input and on-farm stages, while agricultural insurances are most promising in the post-harvest stage."},{"index":5,"size":19,"text":"Finally, the introduction of new, tolerant varieties and improving seed quality are the most promising adaptations for soya beans."},{"index":6,"size":44,"text":"These are thought to be effective against the main hazards of drought and high temperatures, and they are most promising on the inputs and on-farm stages. As with peanuts, agricultural insurance is ranked as most promising for the post-harvest stage in this value chain."}]},{"head":"Cost benefit analysis of the prioritized adaptation strategies","index":32,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":134,"text":"Cost and benefit analysis (CBA) is critical when making investment decisions, including those associated with Climate-Smart agricultural practices or innovations. This is because CBA allows for the comparison of costs and returns associated with a given CSA innovation when compared to those already existing (or business as usual) (Ng'ang 'a et al., 2017). In CBA, three indicators, the Net Present Value (NPV), Internal Rate of Return (IRR), and payback period are normally used to assess the profitability associated with an improved practice or innovation. The NPV measures the incremental flow of net benefits from the innovation over its lifecycle, while the IRR is the discount rate that equates NPV to 0. A higher IRR indicates that innovation is profitable. The payback period is the number of years it takes to recoup the initial investment."},{"index":2,"size":57,"text":"In this report, CBA was computed for the highest-ranked innovation in the peanut value chain in Togo, specifically, \"changing planting and harvesting period\". \"Changing planting and harvesting period\" for peanut was considered a priority because it improves the yields when compared to the conventional practice. Changing the planting and harvesting period has a lifecycle of 4 years.    "},{"index":3,"size":15,"text":"The \"new innovation\" in this case refers to the \"changing the planting and harvesting period.\""},{"index":4,"size":210,"text":"To implement and maintain \"changing planting and harvesting period\" of peanut requires a similar amount of capital as is required in the case of BAU 3). The cost of operating \"changing planting and harvesting period\" was 50% more compared to that of BAU. The main benefit arising from \"changing planting and harvesting period\" for peanut, therefore, was associated with the increase in yield by about 50% (Table 3 and Figure 10). The lack of change in installation and maintenance cost when \"changing planting and harvesting period\" for peanut is because no new inputs were introduced as compared to the BAU or conventional practice 6 . The NPV \"changing planting and harvesting period\" for peanut was on average US$ 425 over its lifecycle per hectare (Table 4) and an IRR of more than 500% which is higher than the prevailing discount rate of 6%. Investing in \"changing planting and harvesting period\" for peanuts had a payback period of 1 year (Table 4), meaning that \"changing planting and harvesting period\" for peanut could be quite appealing to farmers because of the relatively short payback period and the low cost of implementing and maintaining this practice. Under normal circumstances, a longer payback act as a barrier for adoption and scaling up of innovations."},{"index":5,"size":45,"text":"The risk associated with \"changing planting and harvesting period\" for peanut was assessed using modelled using Monte Carlo simulation (n=10,000). The result showing the probability of losing money after investing \"changing planting and harvesting period\" for peanut is summarized in column 6 in Table 4."},{"index":6,"size":80,"text":"The likelihood or risk of losing money invested \"changing planting and harvesting period\" for peanut given the characteristics of the cumulative density function of expressing the probability of the NPV of being less than or equal to the costs of adopting this innovation (i.e., when taking into account the no-change in implementation and maintenance costs) is significantly high (approximately 95%). This means that \"changing 6 Conventional irrigation system and business as usual (BAU) are used synonymously in the CBA reporting."},{"index":7,"size":28,"text":"planting and harvesting period\" for peanut has promising returns, investing in it is not risky at all because the likelihood of losing invested money is 0% (Table 3)."},{"index":8,"size":67,"text":"The lack of change in implementation and maintenance costs (Table 3) could also explain why this innovation takes 1 year to achieve a break-even point. This implies that this innovation is one of the promising innovation in the study area, and even without sufficient financial support for a majority of the farmers, they will still be able to adopt \"changing planting and harvesting period\" for peanut innovation."},{"index":9,"size":27,"text":"High implementation cost and a longer payback period may be, therefore, a barrier to the adoption and scaling up of innovation among smallholder farmers in most cases."},{"index":10,"size":235,"text":"CBA is a very important evaluation too, especially when an investment decision needs to be made. Although CBA like any other methodology has its strengths and limitation (i.e., potential inaccuracies that may arise when identifying and/or quantifying costs and benefits for a given innovation), it is critical when it comes to planning, when making a future investment decision (i.e., whether to invest on a given innovation or not) and scaling up. \"Changing planting and harvesting period\" for peanut in Togo considered in this CBA analysis is a 'noregret option', implying that it has the potential to yield economic benefits now and in the future and could, therefore, play an important role in strengthening household resilience in the future.\" Changing planting and harvesting period\" for peanut is profitable and have a high IRR, and this could explain why this innovation emerged as a strong choice for stakeholders during the prioritization process. \"Changing planting and harvesting period\" for peanut as a practice requires similar investment capital as BAU, thereby increasing the likelihood of being profitable. Given that GIC interest is in helping to identify innovations that can produce desirable outcomes for a majority of smallholder farmers in Togo. The CBA results presented here are crucial because investments that require high investment costs may not be appealing to a majority of the smallholder farmers unless they are supported both technically and financially at the start of the practice. "}]},{"head":"Synthesis and Recommendations","index":33,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":94,"text":"The main hazards expected to affect Togo are drought, heat stress, shortening of the growing season, and flooding. While drought will affect mainly the Plateaux and Maritimes regions, the northern departments of Savanes and Kara will be affected by increasing moisture stress and by flood risks. Heat stress will mainly affect the departments of Savanes, Plateaux, and Maritimes, while the decreasing LGP will mostly affect the Kara and Savanes regions. These hazards have affected production in the cashew nut, peanut and soya bean value chains, pointing to the need of enhancing farmers' adaptive capacity."},{"index":2,"size":16,"text":"With support from international cooperation and NGOs, farmers have been able to implement some adaptation strategies."},{"index":3,"size":60,"text":"The most adaptation strategies with the best potential for cushioning farmers from the impacts of the climatic hazards include the use of quality and improved seed varieties, providing technical assistance, rehabilitation of existing (abandoned) cashew plantations, modification of agricultural calendars, and the introduction of agricultural insurance programs. These strategies can help improve producers' income levels, food security, and overall wellbeing."},{"index":4,"size":74,"text":"However, institutional capacity building is key for agricultural development. For example, in the conventional soya bean value chain, the organization of producers (into cooperatives or associations) could be very helpful to strengthen producers' governance and adaptive capacity. In the cashew value chain, which is well organized, it would be helpful to have other private sector actors such as Cajou Espoir in other regions of the country, processing the produce locally and generating aggregate value."},{"index":5,"size":14,"text":"It is also necessary to address structural issues. This includes improving access to basic "}]}],"figures":[{"text":" CONTEXT ..................................................... "},{"text":"Figure 1 .Figure 2 .Figure 3 .Figure 4 .Figure 5 .Figure 6 .Figure 7 .Figure 8 .Figure 9 .Figure 10 . Figure 1. Map of the selected regions in Togo ...................................... 9 Figure 2. Agriculture and livelihoods ............................................. 14 Figure 3. Historical (right), future projected (center), and projected change (right) for the total number of days with maximum temperature greater or equal to 35°C in season 1 (average of last 30 years) in Togo ......................................25Figure 4. Historical (right), future projected (center), and projected change (right) for the length (days) of the first growing season (average of last 30 years) in Togo......26 Figure 5. Historical (left), future projected (center) and projected change (right) for the maximum number of consecutive dry days in season 1 (average of last 30 years) in Togo........................................................................26 Figure 6. Historical (left), future projected (center), and projected change (right) for the maximum 5-day running average precipitation in millimeters for season 1 (average of last 30 years) in Togo .................................................26 Figure 7. Left: Historical and future (scenario RCP 8.5, periods 2030 and 2050) suitability of cashew production in Togo. Right: Suitability change of cashew production ....................................................................28 Figure 8. Left: Historical and future (scenario RCP 8.5, periods 2030 and 2050) suitability of soya bean production in Togo. Right: Suitability change of soya bean production ...............................................................28 Figure 9. Left: Historical and future (scenario RCP 8.5, periods 2030 and 2050) suitability of groundnut production in Togo. Right: Suitability change of groundnut production ....................................................................29 Figure 10. Yield for Business as usual versus \"changing planting and harvesting period\" for peanuts in Togo .....................................................37 "},{"text":"»»»» Figure 1. Map of the selected regions in Togo Togo is a West African country bordered by Burkina Faso in the north, Ghana to the west, and Benin to the east. "},{"text":" ©www.freepik.com Adapting Green Innovation Centres to climate change: analysis of value chain adaptation potential Peanuts, cashews, and soya beans in the Centre, Kara, Maritime, Plateaux, and Savanes regions, Togo » Togo has adopted policies and plans that address climate change and agriculture directly, including PNACC, the National Development Plan, and PNIASA. "},{"text":"» Centres to climate change: analysis of value chain adaptation potential Peanuts, cashews, and soya beans in the Centre, Kara, Maritime, Plateaux, and Savanes regions, Togo » High temperatures, drought, and shortening growing seasons are the climatic hazards affecting value chain activities in the cashew, peanut, and soya bean value chains. Only negligible climate-instigated changes in crop suitability are projected for the highlighted crops in Togo. The majority of farmers believe temperatures are increasing; this is supported by meteorological data for the same time period, which shows a statistically significant upward trend in temperature (Gadédjisso- "},{"text":"Figure 3 . Figure 3. Historical (right), future projected (center), and projected change (right) for the total number of days with maximum temperature greater or equal to 35°C in season 1 (average of last 30 years) in Togo "},{"text":"Figure 4 .Figure 6 . Figure 4. Historical (right), future projected (center), and projected change (right) for the length (days) of the first growing season (average of last 30 years) in Togo "},{"text":"Figure 10 . Figure10. Yield for Business as usual versus \"changing planting and harvesting period\" for peanuts in Togo "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"Table 1 . Specific practices within each practice group relevant to the focus value chains ........................................................................31  "},{"text":"Table 2 . Adapting to climate change: strategies across major value chain commodities ...............................................................33  "},{"text":"Table 3 . Summary Information on Installation cost for business as usual (BAU) and \"changing planting and harvesting period\" for peanut in Togo ...................37  "},{"text":"Table 4 . Summary  "},{"text":"Agriculture generates over 20% of export earnings (Government of Togo, 2018), and contributes to 23.4% of GDP (World Bank  , , 2019). According to the National Development 2019). According to the National Development Plan (NDP), Togolese economic growth has Plan (NDP), Togolese economic growth has increased steadily since 2008, with a 5.2% increased steadily since 2008, with a 5.2% growth rate in the period 2013-2016. This growth growth rate in the period 2013-2016. This growth is explained by increases both in agricultural is explained by increases both in agricultural activities and in other sectors of the economy, activities and in other sectors of the economy, such public investments or the extraction of such public investments or the extraction of phosphates and clinker (Government of Togo, phosphates and clinker (Government of Togo, 2018). 2018). While there are many agricultural activities While there are many agricultural activities in Togo, the subsistence farming of food in Togo, the subsistence farming of food crops dominates the system. Of the total crops dominates the system. Of the total available land for agriculture in Togo, 93% is available land for agriculture in Togo, 93% is dedicated to subsistence agriculture. The main dedicated to subsistence agriculture. The main crops are cereals (61%), tubers (22%), and grain crops are cereals (61%), tubers (22%), and grain legumes (13%) (Ministry of Agriculture, 2014). legumes (13%) (Ministry of Agriculture, 2014).  "},{"text":"Agriculture is the main activity of 79% of the rural population, followed closely by livestock husbandry. In  2018, agriculture employed 38.3% 2018, agriculture employed 38.3% of the population overall, contributing to 40.2% of the population overall, contributing to 40.2% of total male employment and 36.4% of total of total male employment and 36.4% of total female employment (World Bank, 2019). Other female employment (World Bank, 2019). Other important secondary activities are commerce and important secondary activities are commerce and arts and crafts (Ministry of Agriculture, 2014). arts and crafts (Ministry of Agriculture, 2014).  "},{"text":"Access to basic services is very low in the rural areas of Togo compared to the urban centres. Sanitation  Factors that contributing to poverty include Factors that contributing to poverty include low economic growth, low levels of access to low economic growth, low levels of access to productive resources, and the low levels of productive resources, and the low levels of access to basic social services such as drinking access to basic social services such as drinking water, health systems, electricity, and education water, health systems, electricity, and education (Government of Togo, 2015). (Government of Togo, 2015). services were only available services were only available to 7.4% of the rural areas in 2017, compared to to 7.4% of the rural areas in 2017, compared to 28.6% in urban areas. Access to electricity in that 28.6% in urban areas. Access to electricity in that same year was 19.5% in rural areas, compared same year was 19.5% in rural areas, compared to 88.8% in urban areas (World Bank, 2019). to 88.8% in urban areas (World Bank, 2019). The percentage of the population with access to The percentage of the population with access to basic drinking water in rural areas was 48.4% in basic drinking water in rural areas was 48.4% in 2017 (89.1% in urban areas), and the prevalence 2017 (89.1% in urban areas), and the prevalence of practicing open defecation was 72.1% in rural of practicing open defecation was 72.1% in rural areas and 12.8% in urban areas (World Bank, areas and 12.8% in urban areas (World Bank, 2019). 2019). Togo is also subject to Togo is also subject to poverty. According to the World Bank, as of poverty. According to the World Bank, as of 2015, 49.8% of Togo's population lived on less 2015, 49.8% of Togo's population lived on less than 1.90 USD/day (World Bank, 2019). The than 1.90 USD/day (World Bank, 2019). The Unified Questionnaire of Basic Indicators of Well- Unified Questionnaire of Basic Indicators of Well- being (QUIBB) survey reports that in the same being (QUIBB) survey reports that in the same year, 78.9% of poor people lived in rural areas, year, 78.9% of poor people lived in rural areas, and that they represented 68.7% of the rural and that they represented 68.7% of the rural population (Government of Togo, 2018; INSEED, population (Government of Togo, 2018; INSEED, 2016). QUIBB also found that the impoverished 2016). QUIBB also found that the impoverished population was mainly located in the Savanes population was mainly located in the Savanes and Central regions. Self-employed farmers had and Central regions. Self-employed farmers had the highest poverty rate at 72.6% (INSEED, 2016). the highest poverty rate at 72.6% (INSEED, 2016).  "},{"text":"The literacy rate for people over 15 years in Togo was 63.8% in 2015, with a higher literacy rate for men (76.7%) than women (51%) (World Bank, 2019); (INSEED, 2016). Urban  areas also have a higher rate of literacy, at 79.8% areas also have a higher rate of literacy, at 79.8% compared to a rate of 49.3% in rural areas in compared to a rate of 49.3% in rural areas in 2015 (INSEED, 2016). When analysed by type of 2015 (INSEED, 2016). When analysed by type of employment, the highest literacy rates appear employment, the highest literacy rates appear among public sector employees (97.4%), while among public sector employees (97.4%), while the rate among self-employed farmers is only the rate among self-employed farmers is only 49.6% (INSEED, 2016). The Kara and Savanes 49.6% (INSEED, 2016). The Kara and Savanes regions have the highest illiteracy rates, at 45.4% regions have the highest illiteracy rates, at 45.4% and 54.9% respectively. Illiteracy is higher among and 54.9% respectively. Illiteracy is higher among rural women, who comprise 60% of the illiterate rural women, who comprise 60% of the illiterate rural population. rural population.  "},{"text":"In 2015, 33.9% of Togolese households had difficulties meeting the food needs of their members. This  rate was higher in rural areas rate was higher in rural areas (35.7%) than in urban areas (31.8%) (INSEED, (35.7%) than in urban areas (31.8%) (INSEED, 2016). It is estimated that 46.6% of households 2016). It is estimated that 46.6% of households had experienced food shortages in the past had experienced food shortages in the past 12 months. There was, however, a notable 12 months. There was, however, a notable difference between rural areas (51.2%) and difference between rural areas (51.2%) and urban areas (41.5%) (INSEED, 2016). A monthly urban areas (41.5%) (INSEED, 2016). A monthly analysis showed that food shortages were most analysis showed that food shortages were most frequent in June and July (INSEED, 2016). frequent in June and July (INSEED, 2016).  "},{"text":"Adapting Green Innovation Centres to climate change: analysis of value chain adaptation potential Peanuts , cashews, and soya beans in the Centre, Kara, Maritime, Plateaux, and Savanes regions,  "},{"text":"Togo Incidences of malnutrition and poor health outcomes among children are also prevalent in Togo. In  2017, 71% of children under five 2017, 71% of children under five years old suffered from anaemia and 51.7% of years old suffered from anaemia and 51.7% of childhood deaths in 2016 were attributed to childhood deaths in 2016 were attributed to communicable diseases or maternal, prenatal, communicable diseases or maternal, prenatal, and nutrition conditions (World Bank, 2019). The and nutrition conditions (World Bank, 2019). The national prevalence of under-five stunting was national prevalence of under-five stunting was 27.6% in 2014 and the prevalence of wasting in 27.6% in 2014 and the prevalence of wasting in the same age group was 6.6% (Global Nutrition the same age group was 6.6% (Global Nutrition Report, 2020). Wasting is only slightly more Report, 2020). Wasting is only slightly more common in rural areas (6.8%) than in urban common in rural areas (6.8%) than in urban areas (6.3%), but there is a marked difference areas (6.3%), but there is a marked difference between the prevalence of stunting in rural between the prevalence of stunting in rural areas (33.3%) compared to urban (16.2%), as areas (33.3%) compared to urban (16.2%), as of 2014 (Global Nutrition Report, 2020). In that of 2014 (Global Nutrition Report, 2020). In that same year, 57.2% of infants in the country same year, 57.2% of infants in the country were exclusively breastfed, well above the West were exclusively breastfed, well above the West African average of 32.5%, and rate of low birth African average of 32.5%, and rate of low birth weights was of 16.1% (Global Nutrition Report, weights was of 16.1% (Global Nutrition Report,  "},{"text":"Togo's agricultural land is dominated by smallholder farmers. Togo  (INSEED, 2016). Land ownership is higher (INSEED, 2016). Land ownership is higher among households headed by men (66.3%) among households headed by men (66.3%) than women (52.3%) (INSEED, 2016). 76.6% of than women (52.3%) (INSEED, 2016). 76.6% of farm households have less than 0.5 ha, while farm households have less than 0.5 ha, while 14.7% hold between 0.5 and 1 ha (Ministère de 14.7% hold between 0.5 and 1 ha (Ministère de l'Agriculture, de l'Elevage et de la Pêche, 2013). l'Agriculture, de l'Elevage et de la Pêche, 2013). has 38,200 km2 has 38,200 km2 of agricultural land, which represents 70.2% of agricultural land, which represents 70.2% of its total land area (World Bank, 2019). The of its total land area (World Bank, 2019). The arable land surface is 2,650,000 hectares, arable land surface is 2,650,000 hectares, corresponding to 48.7% of the total land corresponding to 48.7% of the total land area (World Bank, 2019). 3 About 62.7% of area (World Bank, 2019). 3 About 62.7% of households owned their land in 2015, with households owned their land in 2015, with 86% of landowners residing in the rural areas 86% of landowners residing in the rural areas 3 This information corresponds to the year 2016, last year available for this indicator. 3 This information corresponds to the year 2016, last year available for this indicator.  "},{"text":"Legacy is by far the main method for acquiring agricultural land. At  the national the national level, 54.7% of cultivated land is acquired level, 54.7% of cultivated land is acquired by inheritance, followed by 17.3% obtained by inheritance, followed by 17.3% obtained by loan or usufruct. Purchase and lease by loan or usufruct. Purchase and lease together represent only 5% of land ownership together represent only 5% of land ownership transactions. There are regional variations to transactions. There are regional variations to these patterns: inheritance accounts for as these patterns: inheritance accounts for as much as 73% of land ownership in the Savanes much as 73% of land ownership in the Savanes region and as little as 41% in the Centrale region. region and as little as 41% in the Centrale region. Likewise, more land is loaned or in usufruct in Likewise, more land is loaned or in usufruct in the Centrale (29%) and Kara (27%) regions than the Centrale (29%) and Kara (27%) regions than the national average. Of the land obtained by the national average. Of the land obtained by inheritance, women hold 51% of it (this is the inheritance, women hold 51% of it (this is the main way for women to acquire land) (Ministère main way for women to acquire land) (Ministère de l'Agriculture, de l'Elevage et de la Pêche, de l'Agriculture, de l'Elevage et de la Pêche, 2014) Women hold 51% of the land obtained by 2014) Women hold 51% of the land obtained by inheritance. The proportion of men and women inheritance. The proportion of men and women in other modes of land acquisitions are very in other modes of land acquisitions are very similar. similar.  "},{"text":"In Togo, 70.1% of farm households practice livestock breeding and farming simultaneously. About  14.3% practice 14.3% practice agriculture only, while 10.4% combine agriculture only, while 10.4% combine agriculture with livestock breeding and forestry agriculture with livestock breeding and forestry (Ministère de l'Agriculture, de l'Elevage et de la (Ministère de l'Agriculture, de l'Elevage et de la Pêche, 2013). Again, there are significant regional Pêche, 2013). Again, there are significant regional differences: 86% of farm households in Savanes differences: 86% of farm households in Savanes and 76% in Kara practice agriculture paired with and 76% in Kara practice agriculture paired with livestock husbandry while just 64% in the Plateau livestock husbandry while just 64% in the Plateau and 60% in the Maritime regions do so (Ministère and 60% in the Maritime regions do so (Ministère de l'Agriculture, de l'Elevage et de la Pêche, de l'Agriculture, de l'Elevage et de la Pêche, 2013). 2013).  "},{"text":"Togolese agriculture is characterized by low levels of mechanization and irrigation 4% in Savanes, 3.7% in Kara, and only 1% in the Centrale region use irrigation (Ministère de l'Agriculture, de l'Elevage et de la Pêche, 2014). Under-equipment in agriculture results in low productivity, and so it is important to note that the National Census of Agriculture identified only 341 hitches, 7 tillers, and 37 private tractors in the country as of 2012, and these numbers represent decreases from 1996, when, for example, 174 private tractors had been identified. Low maintenance justifies this decrease (Ministère de l'Agriculture, de l'Elevage et de la Pêche, 2013).  "},{"text":"Soya beans have great potential to contribute to food security as a source of income for producers and due to their high protein content for on-farm consumption  In contrast, only 36% of conventional soya In contrast, only 36% of conventional soya beans are exported. Within Togo, 35% of the beans are exported. Within Togo, 35% of the conventional soya bean crop is used for roasting, conventional soya bean crop is used for roasting, 15% is processed in other ways, and 2% is used 15% is processed in other ways, and 2% is used for on-farm consumption (GIZ, 2018). for on-farm consumption (GIZ, 2018).  "},{"text":"Adapting Green Innovation Centres to climate change: analysis of value chain adaptation potential Peanuts, cashews, and soya beans in the Centre, Kara, Maritime, Plateaux, and Savanes regions, Togo Agriculture and livelihoods is reflected in the fact that inputs represent, on average, 11% of costs, while the main expense comes from the workforce (44-70%) (GFA & GIZ, 2018). In addition to farmers' cooperatives, an important institution for commercialization is the Service Enterprises and Producers Organization (ESOP). ESOP was created in 1998 to support the production, commercialization, and transformation of soya beans. In 2016 they commercialized 10% of the national production Figure 2.      Figure 2. DEMOGRAPHICS     DEMOGRAPHICS    of the population 58.3% Savanes Kara of the population 58.3%Savanes Kara togo's population  live in rural areas Centrale togo's populationlive in rural areasCentrale 7,889,094 inhabitants % of female vs. male population 50.5% 49.5% Plateaux Maritime 7,889,094 inhabitants% of female vs. male population50.5%49.5%Plateaux Maritime ACCESS TO BASIC NEEDS    ACCESS TO BASIC NEEDS % of the population suffering from  % of households with access Urban population Rural population % of the population suffering from% of households with accessUrban populationRural population 49.8% absolute poverty   to electricity for lighting 87% 20% 49.8% absolute povertyto electricity for lighting87%20% Youth literacy rate (15-30 years) 84.3%  % households with access to electricity for cooking 47% Youth literacy rate (15-30 years)84.3%% households with access to electricity for cooking47% % households with access to potable water 65.1% % of total households with access to clean fuels and technologies for cooking 6.7% % households with access to potable water65.1%% of total households with access to clean fuels and technologies for cooking6.7% FOOD SECURITY     FOOD SECURITY % children stunting  29.4%  % children wasted in Togo 2.0% % children stunting29.4%% children wasted in Togo2.0% FARMING & LAND USE     FARMING & LAND USE Arable land % of total in country land area BEEF caTTLE DAIRY caTTLE 30,620 314,810 Arable land% of total in country land areaBEEF caTTLE DAIRY caTTLE30,620314,810     SHEEP  337,598 SHEEP337,598 2,011KM 2 62%   CHICKEN GOAT 88,429 427,517 2,011KM 2 62%CHICKEN GOAT88,429427,517     0 50,000 150,000 250,000 350,000 450,000 050,000150,000250,000350,000450,000  "},{"text":"Because farmers' access to markets in the soya bean value chain is rarely direct, soybean farmers see low levels of governance and high transportation costs   "},{"text":"Collection and bulking are important activities in the conventional soya bean value chain. Since  most producers have small plots most producers have small plots (< 0.5 ha on average), their production volume (< 0.5 ha on average), their production volume is low, averaging 530 kg per producer. In cases is low, averaging 530 kg per producer. In cases where producers are involved in cooperatives, where producers are involved in cooperatives, soy is generally sold through these cooperatives soy is generally sold through these cooperatives to local collectors and wholesalers (GFA & GIZ, to local collectors and wholesalers (GFA & GIZ, 2018). Collectors, generally women, work either 2018). Collectors, generally women, work either alone or in groups to buy from producers and alone or in groups to buy from producers and then sell bulked produce in village and city then sell bulked produce in village and city markets. While collectors usually work with markets. While collectors usually work with clients based in Lomé, they also sometimes clients based in Lomé, they also sometimes interface with clients from other countries such interface with clients from other countries such as Benin and Burkina Faso (GFA & GIZ, 2018). as Benin and Burkina Faso (GFA & GIZ, 2018).  "},{"text":"Adapting Green Innovation Centres to climate change: analysis of value chain adaptation potential Peanuts, cashews, and soya beans in the Centre, Kara, Maritime, Plateaux, and Savanes regions,  "},{"text":"Togo 2.4.2. Cashew In 2018, Togo produced 7,197 tons of raw cashew nuts on an area of 4,864 ha (FAO   Historically, the cashew sector is not Historically, the cashew sector is not  very well organized, but the number of very well organized, but the number of , cooperatives is increasing. Currently, there ,cooperatives is increasing. Currently, there 2019). Between 2014-2018, there was a slight are about 30 cooperatives nation-wide. The 2019). Between 2014-2018, there was a slightare about 30 cooperatives nation-wide. The decrease (-3%) in the volume of production. National Association of Cashew Cooperatives decrease (-3%) in the volume of production.National Association of Cashew Cooperatives Cashew nuts are primarily produced in the and Producers (ANCPA) was created in 2015 Cashew nuts are primarily produced in theand Producers (ANCPA) was created in 2015 Centrale (44% of total production) and Plateaux (Ministry of Agriculture & GIZ, 2015). 5 Another Centrale (44% of total production) and Plateaux(Ministry of Agriculture & GIZ, 2015). 5 Another (45.5%) regions. There is no production in the key actor is Cajou Espoir, which is the only (45.5%) regions. There is no production in thekey actor is Cajou Espoir, which is the only Maritimes region (GFA, 2017). Cashews are local company engaged in value addition by Maritimes region (GFA, 2017). Cashews arelocal company engaged in value addition by produced either in monocrop plantations or in processing raw cashew fruits into cashew nuts. produced either in monocrop plantations or inprocessing raw cashew fruits into cashew nuts. mixed crop systems. In the latter, cashews are Their factory, which has generated 700 jobs, mixed crop systems. In the latter, cashews areTheir factory, which has generated 700 jobs, commonly combined with the production of is in Tchamba (Centrale region). Most of the commonly combined with the production ofis in Tchamba (Centrale region). Most of the maize, rice, manioc, cowpea (blacked-eye pea), employees are women. In 2014 this company maize, rice, manioc, cowpea (blacked-eye pea),employees are women. In 2014 this company peanuts, soya beans, sorghum, and sesame. As processed 2400 tonnes and exported 25 peanuts, soya beans, sorghum, and sesame. Asprocessed 2400 tonnes and exported 25 cashew production is almost entirely for exports, containers of cashew nuts, worth $3 million USD cashew production is almost entirely for exports,containers of cashew nuts, worth $3 million USD it could present a threat to food security when (Ministry of Agriculture & GIZ, 2015). However, it could present a threat to food security when(Ministry of Agriculture & GIZ, 2015). However, cultivated as a monoculture. local companies are subject to competition with cultivated as a monoculture.local companies are subject to competition with  foreign exporters in the country, to the extent foreign exporters in the country, to the extent  that they sometimes must import cashews that they sometimes must import cashews  from Benin to meet their production quotas from Benin to meet their production quotas  (ResponsAbility, 2016; Tebonou et al., 2012). (ResponsAbility, 2016; Tebonou et al., 2012).  The Farmer Business School, (FBS) funded The Farmer Business School, (FBS) funded  by GIZ and the Gates Foundation, has also by GIZ and the Gates Foundation, has also  provided support for this value chain. While provided support for this value chain. While  it has supported the development of farmers' it has supported the development of farmers'  entrepreneurial skills and the improvement entrepreneurial skills and the improvement  of techniques and investments in agricultural of techniques and investments in agricultural  production, improvements can still be made production, improvements can still be made  to increase productivity and rents. The African to increase productivity and rents. The African  Cashew Alliance offers a certification to cashew Cashew Alliance offers a certification to cashew  processors, ACA SEAL, to guarantee the quality processors, ACA SEAL, to guarantee the quality  of their products for international exporters of their products for international exporters  (African Cashew Alliance, 2020; Ministry of (African Cashew Alliance, 2020; Ministry of  Agriculture & GIZ, 2015). Agriculture & GIZ, 2015). Access to inputs and finance are low in the Collectors and small processors play Access to inputs and finance are low in theCollectors and small processors play cashew value chain in Togo. Most producers important roles in the cashew value chain. As cashew value chain in Togo. Most producersimportant roles in the cashew value chain. As use natural fertilizers (e.g., rotten manioc leaves) most cashews in Togo are exported to the United use natural fertilizers (e.g., rotten manioc leaves)most cashews in Togo are exported to the United due to the expense of chemical fertilizers. States and the European Union, exporters are due to the expense of chemical fertilizers.States and the European Union, exporters are Access to financial services is a constraint in key aggregators. Most of the exporters in Togo Access to financial services is a constraint inkey aggregators. Most of the exporters in Togo the cashew value chain, as it is for agricultural are Indian or Pakistani (Ministry of Agriculture & the cashew value chain, as it is for agriculturalare Indian or Pakistani (Ministry of Agriculture & producers generally in Togo, but organization  producers generally in Togo, but organization into cooperatives and micro-finance initiatives  into cooperatives and micro-finance initiatives can help.  can help.  "},{"text":"In Togo, peanuts are an important legume crop, grown for both home consumption and marketing (Banla et al., 2018).  In 2018, Togo In 2018, Togo produced 43,842 tons of peanuts on 59,290 ha of produced 43,842 tons of peanuts on 59,290 ha of land (FAO, 2019). Kara and Savanes are the main land (FAO, 2019). Kara and Savanes are the main producing regions. Between 2014 and 2018, producing regions. Between 2014 and 2018, peanut production increased by 8%. peanut production increased by 8%.  "},{"text":"The absence of a clear development strategy for agriculture in the medium and long term has affected the development of competitive growth poles around which agriculture could develop. This may be resolved with the new Despite the country's economic growth, Despite the country's economic growth, extreme poverty persists throughout extreme poverty persists throughout Togo. According to the NDP 2018-2022, the Togo. According to the NDP 2018-2022, the low productivity of the agro-pastoral sector low productivity of the agro-pastoral sector is a contributing factor (Government of Togo, is a contributing factor (Government of Togo, 2018). The NDP further identifies the main 2018). The NDP further identifies the main weaknesses of the agricultural sector as low weaknesses of the agricultural sector as low levels of organization among farmers (mainly levels of organization among farmers (mainly smallholders), weak structuring of the value smallholders), weak structuring of the value chains, lack of control over water resources, chains, lack of control over water resources, insufficient technologies, difficulties in land insufficient technologies, difficulties in land access, insufficient infrastructures and access, insufficient infrastructures and equipment combined with weak supervision, equipment combined with weak supervision, and the isolation of production areas due to a and the isolation of production areas due to a lack of roads and tracks (Government of Togo, lack of roads and tracks (Government of Togo, 2018). The low professionalization of actors in 2018). The low professionalization of actors in the sector, low quality of investment in terms the sector, low quality of investment in terms of opportunities and jobs, and lack of financing of opportunities and jobs, and lack of financing mechanisms are also challenging. In addition, mechanisms are also challenging. In addition, agriculture in Togo is heavily dependent on agriculture in Togo is heavily dependent on weather conditions, which makes it more weather conditions, which makes it more vulnerable to climate change (Government of vulnerable to climate change (Government of Togo, 2018). Togo, 2018). Programme National d'Investissements Agricoles Programme National d'Investissements Agricoles et de Sécurité alimentaire (PNIASA) 2016-2030, et de Sécurité alimentaire (PNIASA) 2016-2030, although that program is still in its early stages. although that program is still in its early stages. Agricultural transformation poles (agropoles) Agricultural transformation poles (agropoles) could focus on improving productivity and could focus on improving productivity and achieving food security. Diversification of the achieving food security. Diversification of the  "},{"text":"Innovation Centres to climate change: analysis of value chain adaptation potential Peanuts, cashews, and soya beans in the Centre, Kara, Maritime, Plateaux, and Savanes regions, Togo Regulation and Regulation and awareness regarding awareness regarding the use of pesticides the use of pesticides is also an important is also an important issue. Pesticide use is issue. Pesticide use is not well regulated in not well regulated in Togo, even though some Togo, even though some pesticides are harmful pesticides are harmful for human health and the for human health and the environment. Pesticides environment. Pesticides are heavily used in are heavily used in cotton, coffee, and cocoa cotton, coffee, and cocoa production and their production and their use for vegetable crops use for vegetable crops is increasing. Some is increasing. Some NGOs are working on NGOs are working on education and raising education and raising public awareness, public awareness, particularly in reducing particularly in reducing the use of insecticides, the use of insecticides, supporting traditional supporting traditional methods of conservation methods of conservation and pest control, and and pest control, and combating pollution by combating pollution by chemical fertilizers. The chemical fertilizers. The country has had a Pest country has had a Pest Management Plan since Management Plan since 2011, which provides 2011, which provides guidance to farmers, guidance to farmers, but stricter regulation is but stricter regulation is needed (Government of needed (Government of Togo, 2016). Togo, 2016). Finally, disparities Finally, disparities in access to factors in access to factors of production (land, of production (land, finance, technology) finance, technology) for rural women must for rural women must still be addressed. For still be addressed. For example, the revision of example, the revision of the PNIASA included in the PNIASA included in its vision a \"development its vision a \"development that is inclusive for all that is inclusive for all rural actors without rural actors without discrimination,\" but discrimination,\" but the implementation of the implementation of this vision may still be a this vision may still be a challenge (FAO, 2018). challenge (FAO, 2018).  "},{"text":"Innovation Centres to climate change: analysis of value chain adaptation potential Peanuts, cashews, and soya beans in the Centre, Kara, Maritime, Plateaux, and Savanes regions,  (Government of Togo, 2018). For this it relies of (Government of Togo, 2018). For this it relies of  four pillars: access to inputs, social inclusion, four pillars: access to inputs, social inclusion,  mitigation of climate change, and governance mitigation of climate change, and governance  improvement (Government of Togo, 2018). While improvement (Government of Togo, 2018). While  all four pillars support climate change resiliency, all four pillars support climate change resiliency,  access to inputs, including improved seed, access to inputs, including improved seed, Among its guidelines for agriculture, PNACC is particularly key for effective adaptation to Among its guidelines for agriculture, PNACCis particularly key for effective adaptation to proposes the construction or recovery of water rapidly evolving climatic conditions. proposes the construction or recovery of waterrapidly evolving climatic conditions. storage for micro-irrigation (estimated cost: 50  storage for micro-irrigation (estimated cost: 50 million USD) because droughts and changes in The government is also on track to modernize million USD) because droughts and changes inThe government is also on track to modernize rainfall patterns are one of the main climate and improve its institutional management rainfall patterns are one of the main climateand improve its institutional management hazards for agriculture in Togo. It also proposes of agriculture. It has set up a tool called the hazards for agriculture in Togo. It also proposesof agriculture. It has set up a tool called the the promotion of resilient and productive crops Agri-SWAP Agenda, which integrates Internet- the promotion of resilient and productive cropsAgri-SWAP Agenda, which integrates Internet- within a climate change context (estimated controlled technologies (ICTs) through the within a climate change context (estimatedcontrolled technologies (ICTs) through the cost: 10 million USD) and fighting against soil Agri PME Project to connect farmers and cost: 10 million USD) and fighting against soilAgri PME Project to connect farmers and degradation by promoting comprehensive improve practices for soil fertility and land use degradation by promoting comprehensiveimprove practices for soil fertility and land use management for soil fertility (estimated cost: 25 while generating agricultural potential maps management for soil fertility (estimated cost: 25while generating agricultural potential maps Million USD) (Gouvernement du Togo, 2017). (Government of Togo, 2018). This type of tool Million USD) (Gouvernement du Togo, 2017).(Government of Togo, 2018). This type of tool The National Development Plan (NDP 2018-2022) can help farmers improve and modernize their The National Development Plan (NDP 2018-2022)can help farmers improve and modernize their also prioritizes the agricultural sector. Among practices, better connect them to markets, and also prioritizes the agricultural sector. Amongpractices, better connect them to markets, and the measures it proposes are a policy for water ultimately allow them to gain in advocacy in the measures it proposes are a policy for waterultimately allow them to gain in advocacy in resources, a policy for disaster prevention, governance. resources, a policy for disaster prevention,governance. and an action program to fight desertification.  and an action program to fight desertification. Although these measures do not specifically aim  Although these measures do not specifically aim for climate change adaptation, their goals are  for climate change adaptation, their goals are aligned with climate change risks and could be  aligned with climate change risks and could be helpful for this purpose.  helpful for this purpose.  "},{"text":"Togo » Climate-smart agriculture has support from the Togolese national government and international organizations. » Institutional capacity is, however, limited by finance, gaps in research capacity, and barriers to implementing climate related policies. » Climate-smart agriculture has support from the Togolese national government and international organizations. » Institutional capacity is, however, limited by finance, gaps in research capacity, and barriers to implementing climate related policies. Key messages 4. Governance, institutional resources and capacity The MAEP and the Ministry of Rural Equipment constitute the decision-making centres of agricultural development.  The  The MAEP comprises five regional directorates. In  MAEP comprises five regional directorates. In addition, it has nine attached organizations,  addition, it has nine attached organizations, including the Institute of Consulting and  including the Institute of Consulting and Technical Support (ICAT), which supports the Nevertheless, institutional capacities in Technical Support (ICAT), which supports theNevertheless, institutional capacities in professionalization of agricultural producers; agricultural sector in the country remain professionalization of agricultural producers;agricultural sector in the country remain the Togolese Institute of Agricultural Research low. Total government expenditure in this the Togolese Institute of Agricultural Researchlow. Total government expenditure in this (ITRA), which carries out research and provides sector has not reached the 10% set under the (ITRA), which carries out research and providessector has not reached the 10% set under the guidelines for the management of natural Comprehensive Africa Agriculture Development guidelines for the management of naturalComprehensive Africa Agriculture Development resources, agricultural systems, and technology Programme (CAADP) agreement. Moreover, resources, agricultural systems, and technologyProgramme (CAADP) agreement. Moreover, use; and the Togo National Food Security Agency the country only spends 0.4% of its agricultural use; and the Togo National Food Security Agencythe country only spends 0.4% of its agricultural (ANSAT). The National Institute of Statistics GDP on research and development. Agricultural (ANSAT). The National Institute of StatisticsGDP on research and development. Agricultural and Economic and Demographic Studies research capacity in Togo is low and needs to be and Economic and Demographic Studiesresearch capacity in Togo is low and needs to be (INSEED) also plays a key role in conducting expanded to foster innovation. The number of (INSEED) also plays a key role in conductingexpanded to foster innovation. The number of the agricultural census, which is essential for young agricultural researchers needs to increase the agricultural census, which is essential foryoung agricultural researchers needs to increase appropriate policy and planning. as a large number of researchers may retire appropriate policy and planning.as a large number of researchers may retire  in the coming years (ZEF et al., 2017). ITRA is in the coming years (ZEF et al., 2017). ITRA is International organizations and research heavily dependent on the support received from International organizations and researchheavily dependent on the support received from institutions are also present in the country. external organizations such as the World Bank. institutions are also present in the country.external organizations such as the World Bank.  There seems to be a gap between the policy There seems to be a gap between the policy  and planning stage and the implementation and planning stage and the implementation  "},{"text":"Table 1 . Specific practices within each practice group relevant to the focus value chains Practice SOYA BEAN CASHEW PEANUT PracticeSOYA BEANCASHEWPEANUT Groups Value Value Value GroupsValueValueValue  Chain Chain Chain ChainChainChain Variety improvement • Introduction of heat-  • Introduction of new, Variety improvement• Introduction of heat-• Introduction of new,  resistant varieties  improved varietes resistant varietiesimproved varietes  • Improving availability  • Improving availability • Improving availability• Improving availability  and quailty of seed  and quality of seed and quailty of seedand quality of seed Conservation agriculture • Mulching • Intercropping • Crop Association • Mulching Conservation agriculture• Mulching • Intercropping• Crop Association• Mulching Land management  • Rehabilitation of  Land management• Rehabilitation of   abandoned cashew  abandoned cashew   plantations  plantations Production best practices • Modifying cropping calendars • Providing technical assistance • Modifying cropping calendars * Production best practices• Modifying cropping calendars• Providing technical assistance• Modifying cropping calendars * insurance   • Agricultural risk insurance• Agricultural risk    insurance insurance *Denotes most promising adaptation strategy in the value chain  *Denotes most promising adaptation strategy in the value chain  "},{"text":"Adapting Green Innovation Centres to climate change: analysis of value chain adaptation potential Peanuts, cashews, and soya beans in the Centre, Kara, Maritime, Plateaux, and Savanes regions, Togo  "},{"text":"Table 2 . Adapting to climate change: strategies across major value chain commodities  "},{"text":"Adapting Green Innovation Centres to climate change: analysis of value chain adaptation potential Peanuts, cashews, and soya beans in the Centre, Kara, Maritime, Plateaux, and Savanes regions, Togo Adapting          Adapting Cashews input ON-FARM POST-Harvest marketing Peanuts input ON-FARM POST-Harvest marketing Cashews inputON-FARMPOST-HarvestmarketingPeanuts inputON-FARMPOST-Harvestmarketing Drought • A low quantity of certified seed • May affect the flowering stage • Lower yields • No information Drought  • A low quantity of certified seed growing period • Shorter length of • Lower yields • No information Drought• A low quantity of certified seed• May affect the flowering stage• Lower yields• No informationDrought• A low quantity of certified seedgrowing period • Shorter length of• Lower yields• No information  available, a low • May reduce crop     available, a low • Disease and pest risks  available, a low• May reduce cropavailable, a low• Disease and pest risks  germination rate after sowing;, a quality     germination rate after sowing;, a may reduce yields particularly in Kara and  germination rate after sowing;, aqualitygermination rate after sowing;, amay reduce yields particularly in Kara and  decrease in the      decrease in the Savanes regions  decrease in thedecrease in theSavanes regions  income of seed      income of seed • May cause reduction  income of seedincome of seed• May cause reduction  producers      producers of photosynthesis, affecting plant growth.  producersproducersof photosynthesis, affecting plant growth. Magnitude of impact Promising strategies adaptation low • Providing technical assistance • Improving the availability and quality of seeds MAJOR low low impact of low low-moderate MAJOR low Magnitude of impact Promising strategies adaptationlow • Providing technical assistance • Improving the availability and quality of seeds MAJORlowlowimpactoflowlow-moderateMAJORlow High temperatures • A low quantity available, a low of certified seed be burned • Leaf plasmolysis • Flowers and crops can harvesting more difficult • Makes manual • No information      High temperatures• A low quantity available, a low of certified seedbe burned • Leaf plasmolysis • Flowers and crops canharvesting more difficult • Makes manual• No information  germination rate decrease in the after sowing;, a development. • Damage to flowers can unfavorable to crop • Lower yields       germination rate decrease in the after sowing;, adevelopment. • Damage to flowers can unfavorable to crop• Lower yields  income of seed lead to early maturity        income of seedlead to early maturity  producers and reduced yields        producersand reduced yields Magnitude of impact low MAJOR low low      Magnitude of impactlowMAJORlowlow Promising strategies adaptation • Improving the availability and quality of seeds • Rehabilitation of existing (abandoned) cashew plantations       Promising strategies adaptation• Improving the availability and quality of seeds • Rehabilitation of existing (abandoned) cashew plantations Strategies to mitigate both hazards         Strategies to mitigate both hazards Farmers' coping strategies • Use of cashew tree leaves for mulching • Application of manure        Farmers' coping strategies• Use of cashew tree leaves for mulching • Application of manure On-going adaptation strategies • Improving the availability and quality of seeds • Climate smart practices (i.e. mulching) • Crop association        On-going adaptation strategies• Improving the availability and quality of seeds • Climate smart practices (i.e. mulching) • Crop association  "},{"text":"Green Innovation Centres to climate change: analysis of value chain adaptation potential Peanuts, cashews, and soya beans in the Centre, Kara, Maritime, Plateaux, and Savanes regions, Togo  "},{"text":"Table 3 . Summary Information on Installation cost for business as usual (BAU) and \"changing planting and harvesting period\" for peanut in Togo      and harvesting period\" for peanut in Togo VALUE CHAIN INNOVATION Installation Costs (US $ /ha) Business Changing of as usual planting and Maintenance costs (US$/ha) Operation Cost (US$/ha) Business as Changing of Business as Changing of usual planting and usual planting and VALUE CHAININNOVATIONInstallation Costs (US $ /ha) Business Changing of as usual planting andMaintenance costs (US$/ha) Operation Cost (US$/ha) Business as Changing of Business as Changing of usual planting and usual planting and   harvesting dates  harvesting dates  harvesting dates harvesting datesharvesting datesharvesting dates  Cost per hectare 489 489 1,312 1,312 600 900 Cost per hectare4894891,3121,312600900 PeanuT % change in cost when the innovation 7 is compared with the BAU n/a 0% n/a 0% n/a +50% PeanuT% change in cost when the innovation 7 is compared with the BAUn/a0%n/a0%n/a+50%  "},{"text":"Table 4 . Summary information on profitability associated with investing in \"changing planting and harvesting period\" for peanut in Togo   harvesting period\" for peanut in Togo Value chain Innovation Net present Profitability indicators Internal rate Payback The riskiness of the Value chainInnovationNet presentProfitability indicators Internal rate Payback The riskiness of the   Value (NPV) of returns (IRR) period investment Value (NPV)of returns (IRR)periodinvestment   in US$ in (%) (year) in US$in (%)(year) Peanut Changing 425 More than 1 A farmer has a 0% Peanut Changing425More than1A farmer has a 0%  planting and harvesting period  500% (>r)  probability of making unprofitable returns planting and harvesting period500% (>r)probability of making unprofitable returns  "},{"text":" necessities (water, electricity), communication and information technologies (internet, phones, radio), and road networks. It is also very important to develop better development and commercial policies for value chains like cashew and soya bean that are mainly exported, since activities generating aggregate value are currently done abroad (processing, transformation, certification). Developing local capacities to carry out these activities could help create jobs, professionalize actors in the value chains, and improve the livelihoods of rural populations, while generating more solid grounds for the sustainable development of agriculture in Togo.  "}],"sieverID":"f5ccf6bb-b615-461f-99ba-dfecbfdf0f85","abstract":"Peanuts, cashews, and soya beans in the Centre, Kara, Maritime, Plateaux, and Savanes regions, Togo"}