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CGIAR 17

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[ "Bergmann's hypothesis", "Afrotropics", "thermal gradients", "endotherms", "altitude" ]

[ { "head": "INTRODUCTION", "index": 1, "paragraphs": [ { "index": 1, "size": 140, "text": "Bergmann's rule, an eco-evolutionary generalization predicting that endothermic animals will be larger in cold climates and smaller in warm climates, gives an explanation for the evolution of body size variation among similar groups of organisms (Bergmann, 1847;Salewski and Watt, 2017), which has been deployed to understand various aspects of ecology, such as predator-prey relationships (e.g., Mcnab, 1971). Although this hypothesis has been tested across different taxa, such as mammals (Clauss et al., 2013), birds (Ashton, 2002), and insects (Scriven et al., 2016), there is still an ongoing debate on its suitability for intra-and inter-specific studies (see Shelomi, 2012;Clauss et al., 2013). Simultaneous investigation of intra-and inter-specific variations in body size will enhance our understanding of the generalization of the Bergmann's rule. This is particularly important if such studies are conducted on little known species and regions such as Afrotropical regions." }, { "index": 2, "size": 110, "text": "The contrasting results obtained from the investigation of Bergmann's hypothesis suggest influence of other confounding factors, such as microclimates along latitudinal and altitudinal gradients (e.g., Shelomi, 2012;Bhusal et al., 2019). With the global climate change affecting all life forms on earth (Crozier et al., 2008;Şekercioĝlu et al., 2012), understanding species adaptation is important from an applied perspective. Species would need to adjust their physiology and behavior in order to cope with changing climatic conditions (Tieleman and Williams, 2000). Such studies are seldom reported from tropical areas, particularly Africa, which holds huge biodiversity, but projected to be adversely affected by global warming in the nearest future (Midgley and Bond, 2015;Sintayehu, 2018)." }, { "index": 3, "size": 152, "text": "Due to their relative ease of trapping, birds are an important model for physiological studies. Here, we tested the Bergmann's rule within and across 30 avian species along vegetation and altitudinal differences in Nigeria, West Africa. While several studies have supported the Bergmann's rule, demonstrating that average body size within a species tends to increase toward cooler and higher latitudes (Ashton, 2002), we chose to test this rule along an altitudinal gradient because the north-south temperature gradient at the same elevation in Nigeria is small (an average difference of 7 • C) and a previous study has already demonstrated a lack of relationship between latitude and body size in Nigeria (Nwaogu et al., 2018). We hypothesized a larger avian body size at high altitudes compared to lower altitudes and that the magnitude of size difference between lowland and montane populations will differ with respect to vegetation type (savanna vs. rainforest) and species." } ] }, { "head": "MATERIALS AND METHODS", "index": 2, "paragraphs": [] }, { "head": "Study Sites", "index": 3, "paragraphs": [ { "index": 1, "size": 182, "text": "The data analyzed in this study were collected as part of the regular Bird Ringing activities of the A.P. Leventis Ornithological Research Institute (APLORI) located in northern Nigeria (Mwansat et al., 2011;Cresswell, 2018), on the Jos Plateau (9.5196 • N, 8.5897 • E; 1280 m asl) and at Yankari Game Reserve (9.7567 • N, 10.5094 • E; 330 m asl). In southern Nigeria, birds were trapped on the Obudu Plateau (6.3858 • N, 9.3745 • E; 1400 m asl) and at the lowland forests at International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA; 7.2985 • N, 3.5333 • E) and Emerald Forest Reserve (EFR: 7.1780 • N, 4.0806 • E) both at 230 m asl (Figure 1). Because of close proximity (51 km apart), similar habitats and elevation, data from IITA and EFR were merged and analyzed as a single location (IITA). Data from Jos Plateau was from the period 200 to 2018, Yankari data was from 2011 to 2017, Obudu data was from the period 2005 to 2017, and the data from both IITA and Emerald was from the period 2017 to 2020." }, { "index": 2, "size": 91, "text": "The northern Nigeria sites are within the northern Guinea Savannah vegetation zone characterized by a mixture of trees and grass and receives annual rainfall of between 600 and 1,000 mm per mostly concentrated within 5-7 months (Ezealor, 2001;Omotoriogun et al., 2011;Braimoh et al., 2018). The southern sites are within the Guinea Forest vegetation zone characterized by dense evergreen forest of tall trees with thick undergrowth and receives annual rainfall of between 1,500 and 2,000 mm per annum with about 6-8 months of rainfall (Ezealor, 2001;Adeyanju et al., 2014;Awoyemi et al., 2020)." } ] }, { "head": "Data Collection and Analyses", "index": 4, "paragraphs": [ { "index": 1, "size": 102, "text": "Morphometric data of non-migratory bird species at low and high elevations at the northern and southern sites were used to test the Bergmann's rule. At all sites, birds were trapped with mist nets of various lengths at these different sites, tagged with numbered metal rings, aged, sexed, weighed (g), and wing length (mm) measured. Only adult individuals of nonmigratory or nomadic species were used for this study. Monthly precipitation and temperature data were obtained from the Bioclime website, 1 measured at 1 km 2 resolution, and extracted using the open-source program QGIS. These weather variables were used as covariates in further analyses." }, { "index": 2, "size": 271, "text": "For species with at least 10 records at both lowland and montane areas, we used the R package (R Core Team, 2016) to perform a principal component analysis (PCA) (Cozzolino et al., 2019) based on a correlation matrix using body mass and wing length. Both wing length and body mass are an indication of body size and have been consistently recorded at all ringing data but rather than analyze them separately, by using PCA, we can combine these two response variables into a single component to produce an index of body size. This procedure produces principal component scores for each individual; negative and low vales of scores indicate individuals with shorter wings and lighter body mass (i.e., smaller body sized individuals) while positive and higher values indicate larger body sized individuals. Because principal component scores had a Gaussian distribution, we used a general linear model to investigate if body size was affected by altitude (m), average monthly temperature ( • C), total monthly rainfall (mm), using latitude as weighted variable. We used latitude as a weighting factor rather than an explanatory variable because a previous study testing the Bergmann's Rule along latitudinal gradient indicated that latitude had a slight but non-statistically significant effect on body size of birds in Nigeria (Nwaogu et al., 2018). By doing this, we also avoided over-parameterization of models while still adjusting for possible, if only slight, effect of latitude. To also avoided over-parameterization of models, the northern and southern sites were analyzed separately. Because temperature and rainfall were correlated, we analyzed their effect on body size in two separate models in order to avoid effects multicollinearity." } ] }, { "head": "RESULTS", "index": 5, "paragraphs": [ { "index": 1, "size": 235, "text": "We analyzed data of six species in the southern Nigerian sites and 24 species in the northern Nigerian sites (Supplementary Table 1). The results of the principal component showed high and A plot of PC1 against PC2 and the general linear model with site as predictor indicated that for the southern zone, montane populations were on average significantly heavier than lowland populations, but with lowland species having a comparable longer wing length (Figure 2 and Table 1). Of the six species analyzed, only the Olive Sunbird Cyanomitra olivacea had a higher body size in the lowland population (Supplementary Table 1). However, since PCA 2 is the component of wing length and since lowland species have more positive scores along PCA 2 axis (Figure 2), it means that even though they are smaller than their montane counterparts, their wing length are comparatively longer. The GLM indicated that temperature was a significant predictor of body size, with body size and temperature having a negative relationship, The three-way interaction of location, species, and temperature was significant, indicating that differences in size between species was due to temperature variations between location (Table 1, Model a). Rainfall was not a significant predictor of body size and the three-way interaction between location, species, and rainfall was not significant either (Table 1, Model b), therefore, rainfall cannot explain the differences in body size between lowland and montane sites in the southern zone." }, { "index": 2, "size": 183, "text": "In northern sites, a plot of PC1 against PC2 showed a high degree of overlap in body sizes of lowland and montane populations (Figure 3), though montane populations were statistically heavier (Table 2). Of the 24 species considered in the study, populations of 17 species were heavier in montane areas while populations of seven species were heavier in lowland areas (Supplementary Table 1). A general linear model showed that both temperature and rainfall were significant predictors of body size (Table 2, Models a and b) with temperature showing a negative effect on body size. The three-way interaction of location, species, and temperature was significant indicating that temperature was responsible for the difference in body size of species at the different elevations. Although there was a significant effect of rainfall on the body sizes of species but the three-way interaction of location, species, and rainfall was not significant (Table 2, Model b). This is supported by weather data which shows that temperatures were lower at higher altitudes compared to lower (Figure 4A) latitudes whereas rainfall pattern did not follow and altitudinal trend (Figure 4B)." } ] }, { "head": "DISCUSSION", "index": 6, "paragraphs": [ { "index": 1, "size": 78, "text": "The findings of this study enhance our understanding of the validity of the Bergmann's rule, particularly from the understudied afrotropical region. In addition to determining the applicability of this rule among new afrotropical bird species (c.f. Nwaogu et al., 2018), our findings shed more light on the importance of microclimates while testing the Bergmann's rule along altitudinal gradients. To our understanding, this is the first study to simultaneously consider the interplay of these factors in the afrotropical context." }, { "index": 2, "size": 76, "text": "Although several studies have proven the effects of latitude on body size (see Olson et al., 2009;Shelomi, 2012;Clauss et al., 2013), we argue that these effects are dependent on habitat types. In the present study, montane populations were significantly heavier than lowland populations in the Guinea forest region. However, in the savanna region, there was extensive overlap in body sizes between montane and lowland populations. This pattern suggests the influence of other microclimates and macroclimate factors." }, { "index": 3, "size": 123, "text": "For the species that were found in both northern and southern zones, (African Thrush Turdus pelios and Snowy-crowned Robin Chat Cossypha niveicapilla), we used a t-test to also do a between-elevations comparison of body sizes across ecozones, i.e., body sizes of montane populations were compared between the north and southern zones and the same for lowland populations. Indices of body sizes indicated that populations in the southern zone were larger than the northern zone; body size on the Obudu Plateau were significantly larger than birds on the Jos Plateau (difference = 1.29, CI = 0.06-1.91, p < 0.001, Figure 4) and birds from IITA were also significantly larger than those of Yankari (difference = 0.36, CI = 0.12-0.59, p < 0.001; Figure 5)." }, { "index": 4, "size": 215, "text": "For instance, we found that temperature significantly influenced body size in both rainforest and savanna regions, whereas, rainfall only had a significant impact on savanna species populations in the north. This is hardly surprising. Unlike temperature, the duration and volume of rainfall in Nigeria is significantly higher in the southern rainforests in comparison with the northern savanna (Anyadike, 1993;Obot et al., 2010). Shorter rainfall duration and intensity in the north would result in shorter periods of food availability, thus resulting in a lower body size index. In highly variable environments when food availability is limited or unpredictable, a larger body size is a disadvantage because larger bodied individuals require high energy intake in order to meet their energy requirement (Yom-Tov and Geffen, 2006). This premise is supported by our results which show that in the same species, the northern populations were smaller than the southern populations for both lowland and montane regions. In addition, it is likely that the temperature difference between the montane and the lowland habitat in the savanna region was not wide enough to impact on body size difference in the studied populations (Figure 4). Although there was a wide altitudinal gradient between the Jos Plateau and the lowland Yankari, the temperature difference between these sites was less than 1 • C." }, { "index": 5, "size": 155, "text": "Our study has not only shown the applicability of the Bergmann's rule across afrotropical bird species, but also of its potential in understanding the impacts of climate change, which is important from a conservation standpoint. Although we attempted to fill knowledge gaps, our findings have exposed many others, which should provoke further studies. Since Africa supports a host of ecoregions and microclimates along latitudinal and altitudinal gradients (Olson et al., 2001), we would benefit more if further studies are conducted in understudied regions and species, particularly those that are sexually dimorphic (Blanckenhorn et al., 2006;Scriven et al., 2016). This study has also highlighted the need to study the potential impacts of climate change on avian species due to increasing temperature and erratic rains particularly its effect on the physiological state of organisms (Brown, 1996). Body condition, for instance, is known to influence survival and breeding in many species (Kitaysky et al., 1999;Souchay et al., 2013)." } ] } ]

[ { "text": "FIGURE 1 | FIGURE 1 | Map of Nigeria with study sites indicated as stars. " }, { "text": "FIGURE 2 | FIGURE 2 | Plots of principal component 1 vs. principal component 2 of lowland and montane species of southern guinea forest of Nigeria. " }, { "text": "FIGURE 5 | FIGURE 5 | Body size comparisons between northern and southern montane and lowland areas in Nigeria. " }, { "text": " " }, { "text": "TABLE 1 | General linear model investigating the relationship between body size (PC1) with sites (lowland vs. montane), species, temperature (model a), and rainfall (model b) in southern Nigeria. Parameter estimate df Sum of squares F P Parameter estimatedfSum of squaresFP Model a Location 1 185.6 1664.1 <0.001 Model aLocation1185.61664.1<0.001 Jos 0.25 Jos0.25 Yankari 0.21 Yankari0.21 Species 5 559.0 1002.4 <0.001 Species5559.01002.4<0.001 Temperature -0.01 1 0.7 6.1 0.013 Temperature-0.0110.76.10.013 Location: species 5 3.8 6.8 <0.001 Location: species53.86.8<0.001 Location: temperature 1 0.0 0.3 0.609 Location: temperature10.00.30.609 Species: temperature 5 2.3 4.1 0.001 Species: temperature52.34.10.001 Location: species: temperature 5 1.6 2.8 0.017 Location: species: temperature51.62.80.017 Model b Location 1 185.6 1591.5 <0.001 Model bLocation1185.61591.5<0.001 Jos 0.22 Jos0.22 Yankari 0.20 Yankari0.20 Species 5 559.0 958.7 <0.001 Species5559.0958.7<0.001 Rainfall -0.03 1 0.4 3.1 0.079 Rainfall-0.0310.43.10.079 Location: species 5 3.9 6.7 <0.001 Location: species53.96.7<0.001 Location: rainfall 1 0.0 0.0 0.869 Location: rainfall10.00.00.869 Species: rainfall 5 1.0 1.8 0.118 Species: rainfall51.01.80.118 Location: species: rainfall 5 1.0 1.7 0.137 Location: species: rainfall51.01.70.137 " }, { "text": "TABLE 2 | General Linear Model investigating the relationship between body size (PC1) with sites (lowland vs. montane), species, temperature (model a), and rainfall (model b) in northern Nigeria. Parameter estimate df Sum of squares F P Parameter estimatedfSum of squaresFP Model a Location 1 0.2 6.9 0.043 Model aLocation10.26.90.043 IITA 0.21 IITA0.21 Obudu 0.19 Obudu0.19 Temperature -0.78 1 262.5 104.8 <0.001 Temperature-0.781262.5104.8<0.001 Species 25 9958.5 158.3 <0.001 Species259958.5158.3<0.001 Location: temperature 1 0.1 5.4 0.019 Location: temperature10.15.40.019 Location: species 23 2.3 4.1 <0.001 Location: species232.34.1<0.001 Temperature: species 23 1.9 3.4 <0.001 Temperature: species231.93.4<0.001 Location: temperature: species 23 1.0 1.7 0.021 Location: temperature: species231.01.70.021 Model b Location Model bLocation IITA 0.18 IITA0.18 Obudu 0.20 Obudu0.20 Rainfall -0.05 1 1.0 40.1 <0.001 Rainfall-0.0511.040.1<0.001 Species 25 10219.9 162.6 <0.001 Species2510219.9162.6<0.001 Location: rainfall 1 0.0 0.9 0.349 Location: rainfall10.00.90.349 Location: species 23 2.5 4.4 <0.001 Location: species232.54.4<0.001 Rainfall: species 23 2.2 3.8 <0.001 Rainfall: species232.23.8<0.001 Location: rainfall: species 21 0.4 0.7 0.846 Location: rainfall: species210.40.70.846 " } ]

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[]

[ { "head": "Introduction", "index": 1, "paragraphs": [ { "index": 1, "size": 59, "text": "The incorporation of new areas has been the main source of animal production growth in the extensive systems of Latin America. However, marginal lands with higher productivity have already been exhausted, and only remote areas with low fertility soils in environmentally fragile ecosystems remain unused, resulting in greater intensification of those areas currently under production (FAO 1996; Table 1)." }, { "index": 2, "size": 141, "text": "Table 1 shows that, of the total increases in milk and beef production, productivity per cow during the 1990s was responsible for about 82% of this increase and biological herd growth was responsible for only 18% . In contrast, during the previous three decades, herd growth was responsible for about 70% of total increases in production and only about 30% was accounted for increments in productivity per cow. Therefore, these changes suggest that the increase in milk and beef production during the 90s are mainly a result of on-farm improvements such as establishment of improved forages, increased levels of supplements, and genetic improvement, and much less the result of incorporating new land and cattle into the livestock activity. This argument is supported by the fact that pasture area during the 90s have increased at a rate of only 0.2% per year." }, { "index": 3, "size": 74, "text": "The role of forage supplements, such as legumes, produced on the farm to strategically balance dietary nutrients, has been widely documented (Pizarro and Coradin 1996). Evidence from several ecosystems have shown the beneficial effects of introducing improved grasses and legumes into farms, including increased milk and meat production; reduced erosion; increased soil fertility, water retention, and biological activity; similar increases in crop productivity, and reduced fertilizer demand (Argel and Ramírez 1996;Miles et al. 1996)." } ] }, { "head": "Objectives", "index": 2, "paragraphs": [ { "index": 1, "size": 59, "text": "This study aimed to perform an ex ante economic evaluation of new forage alternatives available to farmers in Latin American tropical lowlands. Case studies, involving farmers participating in the Tropileche Consortia, were conducted in the forest margins of the humid tropics of Pucallpa (Peru) and in the hillsides of the dry tropics of Esparza (Costa Rica) and Esquipulas (Nicaragua)." } ] }, { "head": "Methodology", "index": 3, "paragraphs": [ { "index": 1, "size": 43, "text": "Every farmer participating in the Tropileche Consortia at the reference sites was interviewed to obtain data on production systems, use of resources, prices of inputs and products, and technologies used. Secondary information was also gathered on the region where the farms were located." }, { "index": 2, "size": 23, "text": "A linear programming agricultural model was used for analysis. This model, developed by CIAT to fit on one electronic sheet, maximized on-farm income." } ] }, { "head": "Current Situation", "index": 4, "paragraphs": [] }, { "head": "Current land use and productivity", "index": 5, "paragraphs": [ { "index": 1, "size": 22, "text": "Table 2 shows the averages of cattle inventory, milk production, and land use on dual-purpose farms in Peru, Costa Rica, and Nicaragua." }, { "index": 2, "size": 102, "text": "The largest average herd size is found in Costa Rica (47 cows and 72 AU), followed closely by Peru (31 cows and 50 AU) and Nicaragua (29 cows and 45 AU). Daily milk production per cow is highest in Costa Rica (5.0 kg), followed by Nicaragua (3.7 kg), and lowest in Peru (3.0 kg). The low milk production in Peru may be attributed to milk market constraints (which is discussed later in more detail), rather than to differences in animal genotype, also expressed by the low percentage of milking cows found in Peru (42%), compared with Costa Rica (60%) and Nicaragua (58%)." }, { "index": 3, "size": 89, "text": "Most of a farm's area is sown to pastures, ranging from 75% for Peru to 94% for Nicaragua. The largest proportion of forest is found in Peru (23%), while the smallest is in Nicaragua (4%). The average area planted to crops in Peru is 1.5 ha and in Nicaragua 0.7 ha. Crops are grown for subsistence and include rice, beans, and maize. In Costa Rica, the area under crops is larger (4.6 ha) and crops more diversified (rice, maize, beans, sugarcane, cashew, and fruits such as mango and melon)." }, { "index": 4, "size": 69, "text": "Most of the area sown to pastures is covered with \"naturalized\" species of low productivity, for example, jaragua grass (Hyparrhenia rufa) in Costa Rica and Nicaragua. Only a small percentage is sown to improved pastures (11% in Costa Rica, 15% in Peru, and 24% in Nicaragua); these are mostly degraded to some extent and receive no nitrogen fertilization. Stocking rates are thus similar in all countries, averaging 0.9 AU/ha." } ] }, { "head": "Prices of resources and capital investment", "index": 6, "paragraphs": [ { "index": 1, "size": 81, "text": "Table 3 indicates the prices of resources and capital investment in dual-purpose farms by country. Farmgate prices of milk differ markedly from country to country, ranging from US$0.22/kg in Esquipulas, Nicaragua, to US$0.32/kg in Pucallpa, Peru, with Costa Rica in between at $0.28/kg. However, the price received for milk in both Peru and Nicaragua refers to milk \"straight out of the cow,\" whereas the milk in Costa Rica has been cooled to 5 ° C and is therefore of higher quality." }, { "index": 2, "size": 47, "text": "The price of beef (culled cow) is similar in Peru and Costa Rica ($0.60/kg liveweight), but less in Nicaragua ($0.50/kg). However, animal prices are higher in Costa Rica, followed by Peru. In Nicaragua, prices are much lower, not only for milk and beef, but also for animals." }, { "index": 3, "size": 91, "text": "high level of public infrastructure, proximity to markets, and long social and economic stability increase land values at Esparza, relative to Pucallpa or Esquipulas (Nicaragua). The commercial value of a farm in Costa Rica therefore averages $280,000, compared with $53,000 in Peru and $45,000 in Nicaragua. In all three countries, land and cattle constitute the main investments. Land value accounts for 77% of the capital invested in Costa Rica, 40% in Nicaragua, and 28% in Peru; and cattle accounts for 15% in Costa Rica, 41% in Nicaragua, and 56% in Peru." } ] }, { "head": "Production costs and income", "index": 7, "paragraphs": [ { "index": 1, "size": 91, "text": "Table 4 gives an estimate of direct production costs during 1997, gross income, net cash flow, family labor wages, current income and return to capital investment. Labor costs comprise the most important production cost in Peru (43%) and Costa Rica (63%), and the second most important in Nicaragua (32%). This item includes family labor, valued at the minimum wage. The expenditure in feed supplements, for example, concentrates and mineral salts, was the fourth most important item in Peru and the second most in Costa Rica, and the most important in Nicaragua." }, { "index": 2, "size": 50, "text": "Total milk production costs differ significantly among the three countries, ranging from $0.20/kg in Esquipulas, Nicaragua, to $0.23/kg in Esparza, Costa Rica, to $0.29/kg in Pucallpa, Peru. Production costs in Nicaragua are low mainly because labor is 5 times cheaper than in Costa Rica and 1.05 times than in Peru." }, { "index": 3, "size": 66, "text": "Because of the low milk production per cow (3.0 kg/cow per day) and the small size of the milking herd (i.e., 10.6 cows), production costs in Pucallpa, Peru (Table 2), are high, compared with counterparts in Costa Rica and Nicaragua. These costs are also above the international value of milk, which is $2,000/metric ton, equivalent to 130 g powdered milk/L or $0.26/kg liquid milk (Table 4)." }, { "index": 4, "size": 34, "text": "Most gross sales come from milk (60% in Peru, 76% in Costa Rica, and 74% in Nicaragua). Remaining sales are represented by the income generated by the sale of weaned calves and culled cows." }, { "index": 5, "size": 59, "text": "Monthly family income is about $270 in Pucallpa, Peru; $586 in Esparza, Costa Rica; and $147 in Nicaragua. This income is equivalent to a day's wage of $8.90 in Peru, $19.27 in Costa Rica, and $4.83 in Nicaragua. However, these wages are approximately twice the national minimum wage in Peru and Costa Rica and almost triple that of Nicaragua." }, { "index": 6, "size": 73, "text": "The real annual return on capital investment for 1997 was very low in Costa Rica (1.37%), followed by Nicaragua (2.53%), and highest in Peru (2.87%). The reason why Costa Rica presents the lowest income return, despite having higher family income and labor wages, is because the land value of the average farm in Costa Rica is high ($280,000/farm). In contrast, unit values of both land and animals are lower in Peru or Nicaragua." } ] }, { "head": "Ex Ante Evaluation of Forage Alternatives", "index": 8, "paragraphs": [ { "index": 1, "size": 48, "text": "This study aimed to conduct an ex ante economic evaluation of new promising forage alternatives adapted to soils of low to intermediate fertility. These alternatives included grasses of the Brachiaria genus (i.e., B. brizantha, B. decumbens, B. dictyoneura), and the legumes Stylosanthes guianensis, Cratylia argentea, and Arachis pintoi." }, { "index": 2, "size": 50, "text": "The legume S. guianensis is highly digestible and palatable, and commonly used by farmers as a strategic supplement for pre-weaning calves under direct grazing. Because the simulation model used in this study does not discriminate by animal type, a partial budget methodology was used to evaluate 'Stylo' for pre-weaning calves." }, { "index": 3, "size": 75, "text": "The legume C. argentea is an ideal shrub for protein banks and can be used, combined with sugarcane, as protein supplement during the dry season for all animal types, especially milking cows, under the cut-and-carry system. The legume A. pintoi is evaluated in association with Brachiaria grasses under direct grazing. Table 5 shows the nutritional parameters and biomass production at different reference sites for all forage alternatives tested in this study with the simulation model." }, { "index": 4, "size": 40, "text": "Animal management parameters were based on farm averages at each reference site evaluated so that they represented current management conditions (Tables 2 and 4). Similarly, the model incorporated the prices of inputs and products typical of each country (Table 3)." }, { "index": 5, "size": 63, "text": "The case study consisted of the average farm participating in the Tropileche Consortia at each site. Therefore, for Peru, this was a farm with 57 ha; in Costa Rica, 78 ha; and in Nicaragua, 50 ha. Similarly, the herd size was the average of farms at each site, being 31 cows in Peru, 47 in Costa Rica, and 29 in Nicaragua (Table 2)." }, { "index": 6, "size": 152, "text": "A constant herd size (the same number of milking cows) was assumed for all the alternatives evaluated. Production costs per kilogram milk were estimated as the maximum expression of competitiveness, using three cow productivity parameters: the current average production per lactation (800 kg in Peru, 1,000 kg in Nicaragua, and 1,350 kg in Costa Rica); and two postulated parameters: 1,500 kg/lactation and 2,000 kg/lactation. Productivity parameters may be analyzed according to: (1) the genetic potential of the animals, that is, whether the milking herd can respond to improved diets, and/or (2) differences in pasture management. That is, a given pasture of jaragua grass may induce higher cow productivity, if the cow has access to adequate shade and fresh water at all times, if weeds are controlled, and if the paddocks are rotated adequately for grazing and resting. Herd fertility (i.e., calving rate) was assumed to remain constant, even after implementing forage options." }, { "index": 7, "size": 13, "text": "For each reference site, the prevailing conditions and four alternative scenarios were evaluated:" }, { "index": 8, "size": 88, "text": "Prevailing conditions consist of a farm totally covered with naturalized or degraded pastures (e.g., jaragua grass in Esparza, Costa Rica, and Esquipulas, Nicaragua, and degraded native pastures in Pucallpa, Peru), and supplements given during the dry season. In Pucallpa, Peru, supplements consisted of molasses, maize, or bran from breweries, all of which are available in the region. In Costa Rica, farmers used molasses, a commercial concentrate, and pollinaza (a type of manure from chickens being fed with concentrates for fattening). In Nicaragua, molasses and commercial concentrate were evaluated." }, { "index": 9, "size": 54, "text": "Alternative 1. The commercial supplements are replaced by C. argentea + sugarcane for the dry season. During the rainy season, the herd grazes paddocks of naturalized grasses. In Peru, this alternative was evaluated with only Cratylia (i.e., no sugarcane), because the lack of a marked dry season does not justify the investment of sugarcane." }, { "index": 10, "size": 22, "text": "Alternative 2. The naturalized grass is replaced by Brachiaria spp. and C. argentea and sugarcane are also established for dry season feeding." }, { "index": 11, "size": 31, "text": "Alternative 3. Brachiaria spp. are established in association with A. pintoi, and C. argentea is also planted with sugarcane. That is, all the forage alternatives are established on the same farm." }, { "index": 12, "size": 42, "text": "Alternative 4. Using the partial budget methodology, the establishment of S. guianensis for feeding pre-weaning calves was evaluated, using data that were already generated by farms of the Tropileche Consortia in Nicaragua and Peru and by extrapolating this information to Costa Rica." }, { "index": 13, "size": 80, "text": "For all the different forage options, the key factors to analyze were (1) milk production costs resulting from implementing each forage alternative; (2) the investment required to establish each option, assuming the same number of milking cows and herd fertility; (3) the feasibility of obtaining credit with a local bank to invest in a forage alternative; and (4) the percentage of pasture area on the farm freed for other uses as a result of establishing one of the forage alternatives." } ] }, { "head": "Results and Discussion", "index": 9, "paragraphs": [ { "index": 1, "size": 87, "text": "Costa Rica Current situation. Figure 1 shows the production cost per kilogram of milk according to forage option. Costs per kg of milk are higher when using the pasture commonly grown in the area (i.e., jaragua grass), because farmers must provide supplements for their animals during the 5-month dry season. At 1,350 kg per lactation, milk production cost is US$0.31/kg and the price received is $0.28/kg. That is, the farmer reaches a break-even point when selling weaned calves; the income obtained is similar to the minimum wage." }, { "index": 2, "size": 74, "text": "Production costs decrease as cow productivity increases. Thus, changing from a cow that produces 1,350 kg in a 270-day lactation (i.e., 5.0 kg/cow per day) to one that produces 1,500 kg (or 5.55 kg/day) reduces costs from $0.31/kg to $0.29/kg. When a cow produces 2,000 kg, costs are reduced to $0.23/kg, using the same jaragua grass and supplements of molasses mixed with chicken manure to supply those nutrients deficient in the jaragua grass pasture." }, { "index": 3, "size": 60, "text": "Jaragua grass + Cratylia argentea + sugarcane. With this forage option, the need for purchasing concentrates, molasses, or chicken manure for the dry season can be eliminated completely. Based on the nutrient content indicated in Table 5, this forage option is capable of maintaining production during the dry season, even in cows producing 2,000 kg per lactation (or 7.4 kg/day)." }, { "index": 4, "size": 151, "text": "At 1,350 kg per lactation, production costs per kg milk are reduced by 10%, compared with the current situation (jaragua + concentrate or chicken manure) and by 7% when production levels are at 1,500 kg per lactation. However, at 2,000 kg per lactation, production costs do not differ because a restriction was imposed on the model regarding the use of chicken manure. In Costa Rica, although chicken manure can be purchased at local farms, it must be purchased throughout the year. The model therefore chose the purchase of commercial concentrate during the dry season in cows producing 1,350 kg and 1,500 kg per lactation, but jaragua grass cannot support a production of 2,000 kg per lactation without there being additional protein and energy supplements throughout the year. In this case, the most inexpensive source was chicken manure, which makes the farm highly competitive, because of the manure's availability throughout the year." }, { "index": 5, "size": 99, "text": "Currently, chicken manure is cheap, costing $0.08/kg; it has a high crude protein content of 17% and 60% digestibility. This combination of factors makes chicken manure a highly viable option. However, its price may rise as its popularity increases, which would make the Cratylia + sugarcane option even more attractive. Chicken manure from layers has a high calcium content (2.25%, DM basis), and, to prevent poisoning from excess calcium, no more than 4 kg DM of chicken manure/cow are given per day. This is equivalent to a calcium level of 1% of the animal's daily feed intake (NRC 1988)." }, { "index": 6, "size": 33, "text": "The investment required to implement this option on a farm with an average herd of 47 cows in Esparza is about $6,000 (8.9 ha of Cratylia, 1.8 ha of sugarcane, and a chopper)." }, { "index": 7, "size": 113, "text": "Figure 2 shows the real interest rate with which this investment can be paid, depending on cow productivity and assuming that the farmer devotes 50% of the marginal income received as product of this forage alternative. The real interest rate in Costa Rica is currently 13% (24% nominal interest; 11% annual inflation) and the maximum credit available is on a 5-year term with 1 year of grace. Under these conditions, the credit cannot be paid unless cows produce 2,000 kg per lactation. With a productivity of 1,500 kg per lactation, this credit can be paid if real interest is lower (between 5% and 10%) and the terms of payment longer (about 10 years)." }, { "index": 8, "size": 53, "text": "This situation deserves attention from policy makers. If politicians put pressure on farmers to compete in open market economies, then farmers should have the option of lower interest rates that reflect the opportunity cost of money in the international market, currently at real interest rates between 6% and 9% over a 15-yr period." }, { "index": 9, "size": 22, "text": "The implementation of this forage option does not release areas for other uses. It only replaces the use of externally purchased supplements." }, { "index": 10, "size": 107, "text": "Brachiaria spp. + Cratylia argentea + sugarcane. Returning to Figure 1, the option to establish Brachiaria instead of jaragua grass and additionally establish Cratylia with sugarcane for dry-season feeding reduces milk production costs even more (from $0.27/kg to $0.18/kg, depending on the productivity of the milking cow). This option reduces production costs proportionally between 13% and 28%, compared with prevailing conditions on most of farms of the central Pacific region. Costs are reduced, not only because no supplements are purchased, but also because the area allocated to maintaining the same herd of 47 cows is lower, thus reducing the need for labor to maintain paddocks and fences." }, { "index": 11, "size": 83, "text": "Figure 3 shows the percentage of pasture area released as a result of intensification caused by the establishment of these options. With this forage alternative, 27.5% of the area currently allocated to livestock could be released and still maintain the same herd size of 47 cows, that is, from 83 to 59.1 ha. The jaragua grass was replaced by 53.5 ha of Brachiaria, 4.6 ha of Cratylia, and 1.0 ha of sugarcane, thus releasing 23.9 ha that could be put to other uses." }, { "index": 12, "size": 100, "text": "The investment required to establish these forage options was about $18,500. However, if farmers are to invest in these options, milk productivity per cow must increase under current real interest rates in order to pay back the credit (Figure 4). With current productivity levels, especially that of 1,500 kg per lactation, there is no way that credit can be paid. However, with a productivity level of 2,000 kg per lactation, a credit at the current 13% interest rate in Costa Rica may be paid, provided that the term be expanded from the current 5-yr period to one of 10 years." }, { "index": 13, "size": 82, "text": "Brachiaria spp. + Arachis + Cratylia + sugarcane. All improved alternatives are established on the same farm. Milk is therefore produced at a lower cost compared with the other alternatives (dropping from $0.25/kg under prevailing conditions, at 1350 kg per lactation, to $0.17/kg, with a productivity of 2,000 kg per lactation). This option is 20% to 30% less expensive than jaragua grass + supplements. Furthermore, a larger area can be released away from livestock to other uses (36.5%, equivalent to 31.2 ha)." }, { "index": 14, "size": 145, "text": "This investment involves the establishment of 47 ha to Brachiaria spp. in association with A. pintoi, 3.7 ha to C. argentea, and 1.0 ha to sugarcane, and requires $21,000. However, as with the previous alternative, a farmer who wants to establish these options cannot repay credit, except where productivity per cow is 2,000 kg per lactation and terms are about 10 years (Figure 5). With the current credit conditions of a real interest rate at 13% and payable in 5 years, these forage alternatives will not be adopted in Costa Rica, unless the capital to make these investments comes from the farmers' own income. The C. argentea + sugarcane alternative ($6,000/farm) would be the most feasible, but the other alternatives with Brachiaria spp. requiring investments of $18,500 to $21,000, would be almost impossible since these sums represent the farm net income of over 3 years." }, { "index": 15, "size": 45, "text": "Stylosanthes species. The partial budget methodology was used for this alternative because the simulation model did not allow alternatives to be evaluated by animal category. The Tropileche Consortia is validating this forage alternative as a strategy for feeding pre-weaning calves, especially during the dry season." }, { "index": 16, "size": 42, "text": "Based on preliminary data from Nicaragua (Soza and Fariñas 1997) and extrapolating to Costa Rica, Table 6 shows marginal profitability in using Stylosanthes to feed pre-weaning calves, assuming that the average farm with 47 cows produces 35 calves per year (Table 2)." }, { "index": 17, "size": 107, "text": "Under management with Stylosanthes sp., 6.5 ha are required to feed these calves during the dry season period. The average weight gain per calf is 300 g/day (under traditional management, calves lose weight). The investment required is about $1,075/farm, for a marginal gain, at the end of the dry season, of close to $2,000 (i.e., $57/calf more than under traditional management). This alternative has more probability of being adopted because the initial investment is less and can be quickly recovered through calf weight gain (calves are sold at 8 to 10 months of age). The farmers can invest the resulting income without having to resort to credit." } ] }, { "head": "Nicaragua", "index": 10, "paragraphs": [ { "index": 1, "size": 72, "text": "Prevailing situation. The situation in Esquipulas, Nicaragua, is similar to that of Costa Rica in that the forage alternatives evaluated significantly reduced production costs. Figure 6 shows milk production costs of different forage options, according to cow productivity. Under prevailing conditions, milk production costs are US$0.26/kg, while the price received is $0.22/kg. In other words, on selling weaned male calves, the farmer receives, overall, a break-even income, similar to the minimum wage." }, { "index": 2, "size": 93, "text": "However, this situation could improve if cow productivity was higher. The nutritional quality of jaragua grass, as indicated in Table 5, is capable of maintaining cows producing up to 1,500 kg per lactation without additional supplements, during the rainy season, and cows producing 2,000 kg per lactation, given both energy and protein supplements, throughout the year. Even with jaragua grass, milk production costs can be reduced to as low as $0.20/kg, depending on pasture management (e.g., degree of cover, weed control, paddock rotation, shade, availability of water to animals, and appropiate resting periods)." }, { "index": 3, "size": 21, "text": "Cratylia argentea + sugarcane. As in Costa Rica, this forage option completely eliminates the need for supplements during the dry season." }, { "index": 4, "size": 67, "text": "Production costs are reduced by 31% (from $0.26/kg to $0.18/kg) with the current productivity per cow in the area, compared with those farms in Esquipulas that depend on jaragua grass and must use concentrate supplements during the dry period. Similarly, production costs can be reduced to as low as $0.14/kg with a productivity of 1,500 kg per lactation and to $0.12/kg with a productivity of 2,000 kg." }, { "index": 5, "size": 56, "text": "In Esquipulas, the establishment of this forage option on an average farm with 29 cows would require an investment of about $4,600. This investment would cover the establishment of 5 ha of C. argentea, 2.4 ha of sugarcane, and the purchase of a gasoline-or diesel-powered chopper (rural electrification is scarce in this part of the country)." }, { "index": 6, "size": 123, "text": "Figure 7 shows the real interest rates at which this investment could be paid, depending on cow productivity and assuming that the farmer allocates 50% of the marginal income resulting from this forage option to pay back the credit received. Nicaragua's current financial system offers an 18% annual real interest rate for agricultural credit, with a maximum term of 5 years. This forage option is not financially viable under these conditions, with the current levels of milk production. However, when cow productivity is 1,500 kg per lactation, paying credit under prevailing conditions is feasible, because real interest as high as 22% can be paid over a 5-year term. When the productivity level is 2,000 kg per lactation, the situation is still more viable." }, { "index": 7, "size": 61, "text": "The Ministry of Agriculture/World Food Program (MAG-WFP) dairy development project grants credits to small-scale milk producers at a 10% real interest rate, payable over 5 years, although the maximum amount granted is $3,000/farm. This provides an excellent opportunity to foster and promote this forage option because it significantly improves the competitiveness and income of small-scale milk producers by reducing production costs." }, { "index": 8, "size": 76, "text": "Brachiaria spp. + Cratylia argentea + sugarcane. This forage alternative reduces milk production costs at levels similar to the C. argentea + sugarcane option with current milk production levels of 1,000 kg, and even 1,500 kg, per lactation. As a result, at these levels of milk production, no incentive exists for choosing this forage option because capital investment is much higher than that required for the option without Brachiaria spp. (i.e., only C. argentea + sugarcane)." }, { "index": 9, "size": 72, "text": "The capital investment required for this option is about $10,900 (39.1 ha to Brachiaria spp., 2.0 ha to C. argentea, and 1.0 ha to sugarcane) versus $4,600 for the C. argentea + sugarcane option. With production levels at 2,000 kg per lactation, production costs are reduced, compared with the C. argentea + sugarcane option ($0.14/kg versus $0.15/kg, respectively). However, this reduction is very small and does not compensate for the investment made." }, { "index": 10, "size": 71, "text": "Nevertheless, this forage option frees 22.1% of the area currently under pastures (Figure 8), amounting to a net area of 7.9 ha that the farmer can devote to other uses (i.e., fruit, reforestation), which is not possible with the C. argentea + sugarcane option. Despite being expensive, the Brachiaria spp. + C. argentea + sugarcane option is therefore considered the most viable option for farms located in hillsides with steep slopes." }, { "index": 11, "size": 113, "text": "Figure 9 shows the interest rate that a farmer can pay for credit to invest in this forage option. Because the price of investment is so high, paying the credit at current levels of production (i.e., 1,000 kg per lactation) would be impossible. However, it could be paid if the investment increases cow productivity by 50% (from 1,000 kg to 1,500 kg per lactation) and if terms for payment are extended to 10 years, at a real interest rate of 10%. With production levels at 2,000 kg per lactation, this forage option is financially viable because it would be possible to pay real interests between 10% and 20%, depending on the terms established." } ] }, { "head": "Brachiaria spp. + Arachis pintoi + Cratylia argentea + sugarcane.", "index": 11, "paragraphs": [ { "index": 1, "size": 72, "text": "As in Costa Rica, this forage option involves the establishment of all alternatives. Milk is produced at a lower cost than that of all the other forage options considered in this study, decreasing from $0.17/kg with the current production level to $0.10/kg at 2,000 kg. This alternative therefore reduces production costs between 35% and 44%, compared with the prevailing situation in Esquipulas (i.e., jaragua grass supplemented with concentrates during the dry season)." }, { "index": 2, "size": 63, "text": "To establish this alternative, each farm has to invest about $12,300 (29.8 ha to Brachiaria spp. in association with A. pintoi, 2.5 ha to C. argentea, 1.1 ha to sugarcane, and a chopper). This forage option frees 32.8% of the area currently under pastures and still maintains the same herd size (Figure 8). That is, 16.4 ha can be devoted to other uses." }, { "index": 3, "size": 104, "text": "Figure 10 shows the real interest rates at which credit can be paid to establish this forage alternative. With current cow productivity at 1,000 kg per lactation, paying back a credit would not be feasible because of the high investment of capital, even with a 10-year term. However, this alternative could be financially attractive if production per cow is increased by 50% to 1,500 kg per lactation and with financing over 10 years and a real interest rate of 10%. Thus, under the current commercial banking conditions (a 5-year term and 18% real interest) it is not possible to adopt this technology thru credit." }, { "index": 4, "size": 120, "text": "Stylosanthes species. Preliminary data on the use of Stylosanthes sp. for feeding pre-weaning calves were obtained from a farm in Esquipulas (Soza and Fariñas 1997). Using the partial budget methodology, Table 7 shows the marginal profitability of the use of this forage option. Under traditional management, pre-weaning calves remain grazing with the dam during the morning and are then separated in the afternoon under a roofed corral until the following day. The calves consume the equivalent to one-fourth of the udder plus the residual milk from milking. The alternative assessed consisted in introducing the calves to a paddock of Stylosanthes sp. during the afternoon and then spending the night in confinement, as under traditional management, until the next morning milking." }, { "index": 5, "size": 104, "text": "Under traditional management, calves usually lose weight, especially toward the end of the dry season when the availability of both forage and milk is reduced. According to preliminary data obtained by Soza and Fariñas, the investment required to maintain 24 calves during the three most critical months of the dry season was $675, consisting in the establishment of 4.5 ha to Stylosanthes (1.5 ha per month). The daily weight gain was 300 g, in contrast to traditional management, where weight loss was 222 g/day. A marginal income of $47/calf ($1,128 per lot) was thus generated, equivalent to 42.7% more income than for traditional management." }, { "index": 6, "size": 61, "text": "These data suggest that this alternative is extremely viable because the marginal income compensates the initial investment ($1,128 versus $675). This forage option can also be established without credit, especially in situations where the opportunity cost for family labor is low, as in the case of Nicaragua, since the open unemployment rate in the rural sector is estimated at about 52%." } ] }, { "head": "Peru", "index": 12, "paragraphs": [ { "index": 1, "size": 72, "text": "The case of Pucallpa, Peru, differs from those of Costa Rica and Nicaragua. One characteristic is that the annual precipitation is higher (2,000 mm versus 1,200 mm in Costa Rica and Nicaragua) and more evenly distributed. The dry season in Pucallpa lasts only 3 months and not 6 as in Esparza and Esquipulas. As a result, no signifficant water deficit occurs in Pucallpa, enabling grass to grow throughout most of the year." }, { "index": 2, "size": 66, "text": "Another important characteristic of Pucallpa is that milk production per cow is very low (3 kg/cow per day, Table 2), especially when considering that the dry season is practically nonexistent. This characteristic may be due to several factors: (1) low genetic potential of cows; (2) limited nutrient availability in the grass, resulting from high pasture degradation in low fertility soils; and/or (3) a constrained milk market." }, { "index": 3, "size": 141, "text": "Daily fresh milk production in the area of Pucallpa barely reaches 2,500 L, and cattle numbers have dropped from 82,000 head of cattle in 1986 to the current 26,000 head as a result of activities of the Sendero Luminoso (\"Shining Path\") terrorist group and cattle rustling. The city of Pucallpa, with a population of 300,000 inhabitants, does not have a milk pasteurizer plant. As a result, milk consumption in Pucallpa is mostly in the form of evaporated milk imported from other Peruvian cities. The raw milk market is thus very small. Four of the nine farmers who collaborate with the Tropileche Consortia thought that if they increased milk production on their farms they would have problems marketing the extra milk. The other five farmers sell their milk to the \"School Milk Program\", a state project that provides milk for school children." }, { "index": 4, "size": 146, "text": "Another factor that restricts the small market for raw milk is the substitution of protein sources in Pucallpa. One kilogram of dry matter (DM) of crude protein from \"chico\" fish of the Ucayali River is priced at US$2.90 throughout the year, while that of milk is $8.80. Protein from milk is therefore 303% more expensive than protein from fish. Cassava and rice are the main sources of energy, both being significantly cheaper than milk in DM equivalents. As a result, the raw milk market in Pucallpa is limited to the upper class population and its possibilities of growth are severely limited, unless a milk pasteurizer plant is established in Pucallpa to substitute the evaporated milk imported from Lima. The demand for locally produced milk will then increase, but at a price lower than the current price to compete with milk produced in other regions of Peru." }, { "index": 5, "size": 91, "text": "Prevailing conditions versus the alternatives evaluated. Figure 11 shows milk production costs for the different forage alternatives evaluated in the study. Unlike other sites, the most profitable alternative (i.e., with the lowest costs) under prevailing conditions in Peru is the one currently used by farmers. The most competitive alternative is to maintain the herd on native pastures and provide, for the 3-month dry season, brewers yeast from the local beer brewery, a viable option because it is abundant, very cheap to transport, and nutritious ($0.15/kg DM, 22% CP, and 65% IVDMD)." }, { "index": 6, "size": 44, "text": "With this alternative, milk production costs are $0.33/kg, and the price received by farmers is $0.32/kg. The income received for male calves allows the farmer to receive an income that is slightly more than the minimum wage, while milk income pays for variable costs." }, { "index": 7, "size": 49, "text": "This alternative would also be the most attractive where cow productivity is 1,500 kg per lactation or even 2,000 kg. Neither did the forage alternatives Brachiaria + Arachis or Brachiaria + Cratylia succeed in reducing milk production costs to levels below those of native pastures supplemented with brewers yeast." }, { "index": 8, "size": 95, "text": "On the assumption that brewers yeast may cease to be a viable option for supplementation, maize was evaluated as an alternative. Its price is currently $0.23/kg. For the alternative, Brachiaria + Arachis and/or Cratylia, to form part of the solution, and with the current milk production levels at 800 kg per lactation, maize prices must rise to $0.38/kg (a 65% increase) so that milk production costs equal those of the current alternative. With milk yields at 1,500 kg per lactation, maize prices must rise by 9% to equal the production costs of both alternatives evaluated." }, { "index": 9, "size": 129, "text": "The main reason why none of the improved forage alternatives can compete with native pastures + brewers yeast is because of the high capital investment in relation to the percentage of milking cows in the herd, which induces a high pasture depreciation per cow. Pucallpa has 41% of the herd in milk while this figure is close to 60% in Costa Rica and Nicaragua (Table 2). To offset this effect, the percentage of milking cows in the Pucalpa herd must be increased throughout the year to a minimum of 53%, or the stocking rate must be increased from the current 0.9 AU/ha to 1.3 AU/ha by introducing more animals. Under current conditions, degraded native pastures cannot support these high stocking rates and the forage alternatives tested could become viable." }, { "index": 10, "size": 131, "text": "From the financial viewpoint, Figures 12 and 13 contain the real interest rates that a farmer from Pucallpa would pay if he or she invested in any of these forage alternatives. Peru has the highest real interest rate of the three countries, with a real interest of 34% (44% nominal; 10% annual inflation). Even if the investment in these forage alternatives was economically superior, the real interest rate in Peru is so high that farmers would not have the option of intensifying production. They would not be able to pay the 34% real interest in any scenario (not even if cow productivity were 2,000 kg per lactation or terms of payment were over 10 years). In the best of cases, the highest real interest rate which could be paid was 15%." }, { "index": 11, "size": 66, "text": "However, the advantage of establishing these forage alternatives in Pucallpa is that both options release significant areas of pasture for other uses, such as reforestation and/or conservation (Figure 14). In the case of Brachiaria spp. + C. argentea, the area released accounts for 35.4% (i.e., 20.2 ha) and, in the case of Brachiaria spp. + A. pintoi + C. argentea, it is 48.1% (i.e., 27.4 ha)." }, { "index": 12, "size": 67, "text": "Stylosanthes species. The case of the Stylosanthes alternative is different because preliminary data obtained at Pucallpa (Vela 1997) show that this option is highly profitable for pre-weaning calves. In Pucallpa, the meat-to-milk price ratio is much lower (i.e., 3.1:1), thus much more favorable to milking cows, whereas, in Nicaragua or Costa Rica, this ratio is high (4:1), meaning that, in Central America, fattening calves is more profitable." }, { "index": 13, "size": 107, "text": "Table 8 indicates that the investment required to feed eight pre-weaning calves is $680 (i.e., $85/calf) and the marginal income received was $720 from the additional milk sold. Calf weight gain was similar, whether with Stylosanthes or with the traditional system, but milk production (in the bucket) increased by 1 liter per cow (22%) per day. This technology may be readily accepted by small-scale farmers in the short term because it increases their incomes from milk sales without affecting calf development and using relatively small areas of Stylosanthes-based pastures. Consequently, this forage alternative is perhaps the only one in Pucallpa to have good possibilities of being adopted. " } ] } ]

[ { "text": " matter; CP = crude protein; IVDMD = in vitro dry matter digestibility. . Biomass production in both the rainy and dry seasons in Pucallpa, Peru, was estimated to be 20% greater than in Costa Rica and Nicaragua for all forage alternatives because of higher rainfall.b.Equivalent to 20% of the biomass production during the rainy season. c.Equivalent to 25% of the biomass production during the rainy season for grasses and 100% for Cratylia and sugarcane. d.peru holmann file:///D|/Anderson/documentos/articulos/ex ante jlrrd/Ex-ante-JLRRD.html (13 of 26) [15-03-2000 9:19:34 AM] " }, { "text": " " }, { "text": " " }, { "text": " " }, { "text": " " }, { "text": " " }, { "text": " " }, { "text": " " }, { "text": " " }, { "text": " " }, { "text": " " }, { "text": " " }, { "text": " " }, { "text": " " }, { "text": " " }, { "text": " " }, { "text": " " }, { "text": "Table 2 . Averages of cattle inventory, milk production, and land use on dual-purpose cattle farms in Peru, Costa Rica, and Nicaragua (n = number of farms). Milk production 4.6 3.3 2.5 3.2 Milk production4.63.32.53.2 Beef production 3.7 3.9 2.5 2.9 Beef production3.73.92.52.9 Cattle inventory 3.2 3.7 1.6 0.6 Cattle inventory3.23.71.60.6 Area sown to pastures 1.4 0.6 0.6 0.2 Area sown to pastures1.40.60.60.2 SOURCE: FAO (1996). SOURCE: FAO (1996). Variable Peru Costa Rica Nicaragua VariablePeruCosta RicaNicaragua (n = 9) (n = 7) (n = 4) (n = 9)(n = 7)(n = 4) Cattle inventory (no.) Cattle inventory (no.) Milking cows 10.6 28.0 16.9 Milking cows10.628.016.9 Dry cows 20.1 19.3 12.0 Dry cows20.119.312.0 Heifers 21.9 16.1 14.5 Heifers21.916.114.5 Calves 15.7 35.1 15.3 Calves15.735.115.3 Bulls 1.3 2.0 1.3 Bulls1.32.01.3 Total animal units (AU) a 49.8 71.7 45.3 Total animal units (AU) a49.871.745.3 Daily milk production (kg) Daily milk production (kg) Total 32.1 139.9 62.5 Total32.1139.962.5 Per cow 3.0 5.0 3.7 Per cow3.05.03.7 Milking cows (%) 41.5 60.1 58.5 Milking cows (%)41.560.158.5 Land use (ha) Land use (ha) Native pastures 48.3 69.1 37.5 Native pastures48.369.137.5 Improved pastures 8.4 8.7 12.2 Improved pastures8.48.712.2 Agriculture 1.5 4.6 0.7 Agriculture1.54.60.7 Forest/fallow 17.7 9.1 2.3 Forest/fallow17.79.12.3 Total 75.9 91.6 52.7 Total75.991.652.7 Area under improved pasture (%) 14.8 11.2 24.5 Area under improved pasture (%)14.811.224.5 Stocking rate (AU/ha) 0.88 0.92 0.91 Stocking rate (AU/ha)0.880.920.91 " }, { "text": "Table 3 . Prices (in US dollars) of resources and capital invested in dual-purpose farms in Peru, Costa Rica, and Nicaragua (n = number of farms).Includes social benefits, estimated at 24% for Peru, 43% for Costa Rica, and 17% for Nicaragua. .The capital invested was estimated at 50% of establishment cost, multiplied by the area in improved pastures on each farm. b.An average of 5,280 m was estimated for farms at Pucallpa, 7,580 m for Costa Rica, and 5,108 m for Nicaragua, at an average investment of $0.90/m with 4 wires separated by posts placed every 3 m. Variable Variable " }, { "text": "Table 4 . Direct production costs, gross income, net cash flow, and wages for family labor on dual-purpose farms in Peru, Costa Rica, and Nicaragua (in US dollars) (n = number of farms). Assessed as minimum wage and including social benefits.b. Based on direct production costs, multiplied by the percentage of total income from the sale of milk + culled cows, and estimated at 76.7% for Peru, 84.3% for Costa Rica, and 85.5% for Nicaragua. c. Gross income minus direct costs. d. Gross income minus direct costs and not including the opportunity cost for family labor. e. Net flow/farm per year, divided by the capital invested. Variable Variable " }, { "text": "Table 5 . Forage parameters used to run the model for dual-purpose cattle farms at different reference sites in Costa Rica, Nicaragua, and Peru. Parameters a Jaragua Brachiaria Arachis Cratylia Sugarcane Parameters aJaraguaBrachiariaArachisCratyliaSugarcane Duration of crop (years) 20 10 10 20 10 Duration of crop (years)2010102010 Rainy season Rainy season Edible biomass production 2,500 3,500 1,000 2,000 10,500 Edible biomass production2,5003,5001,0002,00010,500 (kg DM/ha) b (kg DM/ha) b CP (%) 8 9 20 15 3.5 CP (%)8920153.5 CP digestibility (%) 50 60 CP digestibility (%)5060 " }, { "text": "Table 6 . Marginal profitability from using Stylosanthes guianensis to feed pre-weaning calves in Costa Rica. (Adapted from data bySoza and Fariñas, 1997.) . Variable Variable " }, { "text": "Table 7 . Marginal profitability from using Stylosanthes guianensis to feed pre-weaning calves in Nicaragua. (Based on data fromSoza and Fariñas, 1997.) Variable Variable " }, { "text": "Table 8 . Marginal profitability from using Stylosanthes guianensis to feed calves in Pucallpa, Peru. (Based on data byVela, 1997.) Variable Variable " } ]

{ "id": "0015cce99b9e782de1b4bc0c5f560640", "source": "gardian_index", "url": "https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/5dd011c9-a271-4cfe-9117-bc56594203cb/retrieve" }

[ "Aïcha L. Coulibaly", "Commodities and Trade Division", "FAO Pascal Liu", "Commodities and Trade Division", "FAO Cora Dankers", "Commodities and Trade Division", "FAO Antoine Fayossewo", "Techno 3M Services & Farms Ltd" ]

[ { "head": "", "index": 1, "paragraphs": [ { "index": 1, "size": 170, "text": "i Why this manual? any producers may feel that the market for certified agricultural products is very complex and that the opportunities and requirements associated with the certification programmes are not always clear. In addition, producers do not always know if the requirements are compulsory (created as an official law or regulation in the importing country) or voluntary. It is in this framework that this manual has been created. After having read its content, the reader should be able to understand the main voluntary certification schemes, their importance, the differences between them as well as their advantages and limitations. In order to be able to export his/her products any producer or exporter must also conform with the regulations of importing countries. Therefore, the reader will be able to find in this manual information concerning the main import regulations in the United States (US), the European Union (EU) and Japan. However, topics such as farming practices and post-harvest activities are beyond the scope of this manual. This manual comprises two parts:" }, { "index": 2, "size": 8, "text": "-standards and Import Regulations -main voluntary Certification Schemes" }, { "index": 3, "size": 76, "text": "It is difficult to provide comprehensive information on import regulations and certification programmes for many reasons such as the changing nature of regulations in import countries and the diversity of products and their characteristics. Therefore, numerous Internet addresses have been provided where additional information can be obtained when necessary. You will find at the end of the manual a blank page that will enable you to update or add the Internet links gathered during your search." }, { "index": 4, "size": 95, "text": "We hope this manual responds to your needs. CTA's tasks are to develop and provide services that improve access to information for agricultural and rural development, and to strengthen the capacity of ACP countries to produce, acquire, exchange and utilize information in this area. CTA's programmes are designed to: provide a wide range of information products and services and enhance awareness of relevant information sources; promote the integrated use of appropriate communication channels and intensify contacts and information exchange (particularly intra-ACP); and develop ACP capacity to generate and manage agricultural information and to formulate ICM " } ] }, { "head": "GLOSSARY Bioterrorism", "index": 2, "paragraphs": [ { "index": 1, "size": 27, "text": "Bioterrorism is a new form of terrorism based on pathogen use. This practice comprises the use of bacteria, virus or other toxins against persons, animals or plants." } ] }, { "head": "Biological contamination", "index": 3, "paragraphs": [ { "index": 1, "size": 16, "text": "It is the contamination of any material or living matter by pathogens or genetically modified organisms." } ] }, { "head": "Fumigation", "index": 4, "paragraphs": [ { "index": 1, "size": 31, "text": "It is a treatment based on the disinfection of products by chemical agents. This type of treatment is also sometimes required to disinfect material used for commodity packaging meant for export." } ] }, { "head": "Quarantining", "index": 5, "paragraphs": [ { "index": 1, "size": 46, "text": "Quarantining is the confinement of products that do not comply with the phytosanitary requirements of import countries. This confinement of products aims at avoiding the introduction and the spreading of diseases. Confined products are kept under observation and research or for further inspection, testing and/or treatments." } ] }, { "head": "HACCP principles", "index": 6, "paragraphs": [ { "index": 1, "size": 114, "text": "The HACCP system maintains food safety along the food supply chain from farm to consumer table. It consists of analysing possible contamination hazards in order to identify critical control points in the production line of the product and therefore avoiding possible contamination and ensuring food safety. The steps leading to HACCP system implantation are: To export their products into the international market, producers and exporters must comply with norms and regulations in order to ensure product quality, environmental protection and consumer health. These norms and regulations are different depending on the product and the country of export and import. Some regulations are based on international food standards, while others are developed by individual countries." }, { "index": 2, "size": 14, "text": "Non-compliance with these requirements may lead to quarantining or product rejection by import countries. " } ] }, { "head": "European Union", "index": 7, "paragraphs": [] }, { "head": "Japan", "index": 8, "paragraphs": [ { "index": 1, "size": 54, "text": "The European Union requires that imported fresh fruits and vegetables meet the European Community marketing standards for quality and labelling. The control is done by an inspection body at the point of import or in the case of some approved \"third countries\", at the point of export. For more information on the marketing standards " } ] }, { "head": "FOOD SAFETY REGULATIONS", "index": 9, "paragraphs": [ { "index": 1, "size": 22, "text": "Producers need to ensure the quality and safety of the produce and avoid all potential hazards such as risks from contaminated water." } ] }, { "head": "Maximum Residue Limits of Pesticides", "index": 10, "paragraphs": [ { "index": 1, "size": 82, "text": "egulations on the maximum residue limits (MRLs) of pesticides (herbicides, insecticides, fungicides etc.) are effective both at national and international levels. Producers and exporters must comply with the regulations of their country (when the latter has a regulation on maximum residue limits of pesticides) and the regulations of import countries. They may only use chemicals that are registered for use on a particular crop and must strictly follow the directions indicated in the instructions leaflet or on their containers (boxes and bottles)." } ] }, { "head": "R", "index": 11, "paragraphs": [ { "index": 1, "size": 95, "text": "The following links contain comprehensive information on The European Union continues to lower the maximum limits of pesticide residues permitted in products. For many pesticides there are now common limits that apply to the entire European Union. However, for some pesticides the residue limits vary from country to country. Each country verifies that regulations are met (usually through the ministry of agriculture) at its point of entry. When European Union countries have not set up maximum limits, exporters are required to obtain an import tolerance. For more information about pesticide residue limits in the European" }, { "index": 2, "size": 39, "text": "In Japan, the Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare and the Environmental Department are responsible for establishing and testing residue limits. These limits are based on the Food Sanitation Law. Information on pesticide residue levels can be found at:" }, { "index": 3, "size": 1, "text": "http://www.mhlw.go.jp/english/topics/foodsafety/positivelist060228/index.html" } ] }, { "head": "Biological Contamination and Product Traceability", "index": 12, "paragraphs": [ { "index": 1, "size": 91, "text": "n response to recent problems about food safety (e.g. mad cow disease) and global terrorism, many governments are increasing control over all stages of food production, processing and distribution to protect consumers against the biological contamination of food. Traceability systems are used to identify products, their origin and their location within the supply chain. They also enable efficient recall in case of products' contamination. Furthermore, they help determine the origin of a food safety problem, comply with legal requirements and meet consumer's expectations for the safety and quality of purchased products." }, { "index": 2, "size": 15, "text": "To limit contamination risks, it is necessary to monitor each stage of the supply chain." } ] }, { "head": "I", "index": 13, "paragraphs": [ { "index": 1, "size": 36, "text": "A growing number of governments and retailers are now requiring that the HACCP principles together with the application of Good Hygienic Practices (GHPs) and Good Agricultural Practices (GAPs) be used in crop production. http://www.fao.org/ag/agn/food/food_fruits_en.stm http://www.fao.org/ag/agn/food/quality_haccp_en.stm Japan" } ] }, { "head": "ENVIRONMENTAL SAFETY AND PHYTOSANITARY REGULATIONS", "index": 14, "paragraphs": [ { "index": 1, "size": 58, "text": "roducers must comply with phytosanitary regulations to prevent the entry and spread of plant diseases and pests into new areas. The major importing countries around the world implement pest risk analysis systems in order to determine the risk level of an imported product and inspect products on arrival to ensure that the level of risk is not exceeded." }, { "index": 2, "size": 21, "text": "It is necessary to apply for phytosanitary certificates for regulated products such as plants, seeds, fruits and vegetables, and cut flowers." }, { "index": 3, "size": 13, "text": "For detailed information on phytosanitary certificate content: https://www.ippc.int/IPP/En/default.jsp (under phytosanitary regulations' section) P" } ] }, { "head": "CUSTOMS CLEARANCE", "index": 15, "paragraphs": [ { "index": 1, "size": 74, "text": "inal authorization for product entry depends on the customs officials in the country of import. To clear customs, the exporter must fill out the necessary forms (commercial, shipping) and pay all fees (duties, taxes). Since processing these forms can be time-consuming, some countries now offer pre-clearance programmes to save time. This means that products can be cleared for customs in the country of origin by officials who can guarantee that product regulations were followed." }, { "index": 2, "size": 27, "text": "Non compliance with one of these norms or regulations of import countries may cause product rejection. Various organizations may help you find the right information PART 2" } ] }, { "head": "At International Level", "index": 16, "paragraphs": [] }, { "head": "VOLUNTARY CERTIFICATION", "index": 17, "paragraphs": [ { "index": 1, "size": 22, "text": "The first part of this manual described important technical norms and import regulations of the United States, the European Union and Japan." }, { "index": 2, "size": 16, "text": "They are compulsory for exporters or producers who want to sell their products into these markets." }, { "index": 3, "size": 47, "text": "he second part of the manual deals with voluntary private certification. The objective of this part is to provide producers and exporters with general information on some of the major voluntary private agricultural certification programmes, available in Western Africa, including contacts where more information can be found." } ] }, { "head": "T 1. QUESTIONS ABOUT CERTIFICATION", "index": 18, "paragraphs": [ { "index": 1, "size": 4, "text": "What is voluntary certification?" }, { "index": 2, "size": 28, "text": "certificate is a written guarantee by an independent certification agency that the production process or the product complies with certain standards established by different private organizations or countries." }, { "index": 3, "size": 40, "text": "These standards can focus on environmental issues (such as soil conservation, water protection, pesticide use, or waste management), or social issues (such as producer income, worker rights, occupational health and safety) or on other aspects of production like food safety." }, { "index": 4, "size": 5, "text": "Why do these programmes exist?" }, { "index": 5, "size": 50, "text": "ertification brings opportunities to producers such as market access, protection of local resources, improvement of workers' health and living conditions of rural communities. It may also ensure consumer health. Consumers are increasingly aware of the social and environmental problems associated with the production and trade of the food they consume." }, { "index": 6, "size": 24, "text": "In response to these concerns, different types of certification programmes have been developed by private organizations or governments in order to solve these problems." } ] }, { "head": "A C", "index": 19, "paragraphs": [ { "index": 1, "size": 2, "text": "Why certify?" }, { "index": 2, "size": 94, "text": "ertification is used to demonstrate that a product has been produced in a certain way or has certain characteristics. It can help differentiate the product from other products, which can be helpful to promote the product in the market. Certification can also help improve market access, and in some cases, result in higher producer prices. Certification is mainly used when the producer and the consumer are not in direct contact, in the international market where for instance the consumer cannot easily verify that the product was produced in the manner described by the producer." }, { "index": 3, "size": 1, "text": "Cost?" }, { "index": 4, "size": 106, "text": "he cost of meeting a standard and getting certified depends on the kind of changes the producer will have to make on his/her farm and on the type of certification program chosen. In general, the cost of certification depends on the time spent doing the farm inspection (farm audit) and on the travel expenses of the inspector (s). T 2. ENVIRONMENTAL CERTIFICATIONS rganic agriculture is based on the rejection of synthetic chemicals or genetically modified inputs. It promotes sustainable traditional farming practices that maintain soil fertility such as fallow. In organic farming, soil fertilisation requires organic substance (animal or vegetable origin) and small quantities of minerals." } ] }, { "head": "Main requirements?", "index": 20, "paragraphs": [ { "index": 1, "size": 52, "text": "here are specific requirements for most organically certified crops as well as livestock, fish farming, bee keeping, forestry and the harvesting of wild products. Organic standards require that there is a conversion period (or time that a farm has to use organic production methods before it can be certified, usually 2-3 years)." } ] }, { "head": "O", "index": 21, "paragraphs": [ { "index": 1, "size": 23, "text": "In West Africa, organic farming is expanding notably for crops such as cotton, bananas, mangoes, pineapples, shea butter, papayas, cashew nuts and avocadoes." } ] }, { "head": "T ORGANIC AGRICULTURE", "index": 22, "paragraphs": [ { "index": 1, "size": 9, "text": "Some organic farming criteria Crop production requirements apply to:" }, { "index": 2, "size": 46, "text": "selection of seeds and plant materials maintenance of soil fertility and the recycling of organic materials prohibition of genetically modified inputs diversity of crops on farm processing, packaging and traceability of products use of organic fertilizers and compounds for the control of pests, diseases and weeds" }, { "index": 3, "size": 5, "text": "Animal production requirements apply to:" }, { "index": 4, "size": 9, "text": "animal health feeding and breeding transport and slaughter procedures" }, { "index": 5, "size": 4, "text": "How to get certified?" }, { "index": 6, "size": 78, "text": "tandards for organic farming have mainly been developed by private certification bodies but a number of countries also have national organic standards and regulations. In West African countries there are no national regulations. However, there are private initiatives (Agrinat, Agrecol-Afrique) that promote organic farming. The European Union, the United States and Japan all have national regulations on the labelling of organic products and if producers want to export their products to these countries, they must meet these regulations." }, { "index": 7, "size": 52, "text": "The choice of a certification agency is very important. The certification agency chosen by the producer must be officially recognized in the country where the product is to be sold. National certification agencies are often less expensive than international agencies but they may not be as well known in some foreign markets." }, { "index": 8, "size": 40, "text": "The conversion period of 2-3 years is often costly for the producer because the produce must be sold at conventional prices even though organic methods are used which may result in higher production costs and lower yields, at least initially." } ] }, { "head": "S", "index": 23, "paragraphs": [ { "index": 1, "size": 49, "text": "To reduce costs, a group of producers can join together and create their own internal control system in order to improve production and fulfil organic standard requirements. To do this, it is important that the producers trust and work well together, as they will largely depend on each other." } ] }, { "head": "Opportunities and constraints?", "index": 24, "paragraphs": [ { "index": 1, "size": 106, "text": "rganic agriculture may represent an interesting opportunity for many producers in West Africa especially for those who presently do not use a lot of agrochemical products. Once the farm is certified, selling organic products might improve the quality of life and income of producers. Producers shift to organic agriculture for a variety of reasons. Some feel that the use of agrochemicals is bad for their health and the environment, while other producers are attracted by the generally higher prices and the rapidly growing market for many organic products in recent years. Converting to organic agriculture may be easier or more profitable for producers depending on whether:" }, { "index": 2, "size": 15, "text": "They use organic fertilizers and other permitted inputs or whether they use agrochemical products intensively." }, { "index": 3, "size": 4, "text": "They own the land." }, { "index": 4, "size": 12, "text": "They have access to labour (as organic production often demands more labour)." }, { "index": 5, "size": 198, "text": "In West Africa, organic products are usually sold in farmers' markets. The local demand for these products is low but it is growing. Europe, especially France and Switzerland, remains the main market for organic products from West Africa. Organic agriculture is mostly practised by small producers but the price premium and the importance of the European market may encourage large producers to use this type of practice. Competition coming mostly from countries from Latin America and the risk that the organic market becomes oversupplied may both decrease the price premium. However, this decrease might lead more and more consumers to prefer organic products to conventional products. SO 14001 is designed to help the implementation of environmental management systems for organizations in both the private and public sectors. It was created by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) which is an international network of national standard institutes working along with governments, industry and consumer representatives. While there are a number of other ISO standards that can be used as environmental management tools, only ISO 14001 can be used for certification. The group of ISO standards, which contains various international harmonized voluntary standards, is widely applied across all industrial sectors." } ] }, { "head": "Main requirements?", "index": 25, "paragraphs": [ { "index": 1, "size": 80, "text": "he ISO 14001 standard requires that the enterprise develops an environmental management system that includes: environmental objectives and goals, policies and procedures for reaching these goals, definition of responsibilities, staff training activities, documentation and a system to review any changes made. The ISO 14001 standard describes the management process that the company must follow and requires that the company respect the national environmental regulations. However, it does not set specific performance levels or require that particular performance targets be met." } ] }, { "head": "How to get certified?", "index": 26, "paragraphs": [ { "index": 1, "size": 55, "text": "he ISO 14001 certification is granted by either governmental or private certification agencies under their own responsibility. In some parts of the world, national authorities accredit certification agencies to do the ISO certification. In most cases, the producer must pay a consultant to help with the preparation process and to make the environmental management plan." } ] }, { "head": "I T T ISO 14001 CERTIFICATION Opportunities and constraints?", "index": 27, "paragraphs": [ { "index": 1, "size": 146, "text": "he ISO 14001 is well known in the industrial sector. The certification aims to reduce the impact on the environment with a management system that can also create internal benefits by improving environmental performance (for example by reducing the use of raw materials and energy or by improving waste management). A main limitation of ISO 14001 is that there are no performance requirements. This means that an enterprise with very high environmental targets and one with low targets may both be certified. Therefore, the effect largely depends on the commitment of the individual company. Also the ISO logo cannot be used on products. However it is possible either to use your organization's own logo and adapt it by including that your company is certified ISO 14001, to develop a new logo that embeds information about your ISO 14001 certification or to use your certification body's logo." } ] }, { "head": "More information on ISO 14001 International", "index": 28, "paragraphs": [ { "index": 1, "size": 62, "text": "International Organization for Standardization : www.iso.org tz Kapeh is a certification programme that enables coffee producers to grow coffee in a sustainable way. This program was founded in 1997 by Guatemalan coffee producers and the Dutch coffee roaster, Ahold Coffee Company. The code of conduct is benchmarked against the EurepGap code. Criteria from ILO (International Labour Organization) conventions have also been added." } ] }, { "head": "In West Africa", "index": 29, "paragraphs": [] }, { "head": "Main requirements?", "index": 30, "paragraphs": [ { "index": 1, "size": 94, "text": "he main objectives of Utz Kapeh are to enable consumers and buyers to answer two questions, namely: Where does the coffee come from? and How was it produced? To reach these goals, a web-based traceability system has been created and producers must meet the Chain of Custody requirements such as separating Utz Kapeh certified coffee from non-Utz Kapeh coffee and keeping records of direct suppliers and buyers. A code of conduct has also been developed and comprises Good Agricultural & Business Practices, environmental and social criteria some of which are summarized in the following " } ] }, { "head": "How to get certified?", "index": 31, "paragraphs": [ { "index": 1, "size": 96, "text": "tz Kapeh certification can be applied by any coffee producer or group of coffee producers. Interested farmers have to go through a self-assessment process to compare their current situation to the Utz Kapeh Code of Conduct. Once they are ready to get certified, they must be inspected by the certification bodies approved by Utz Kapeh in order to see how they comply with Utz Kapeh requirements. If they successfully pass the inspection they will be able to get the Utz Kapeh certificate. The certified producers or groups of producers must be inspected on an annual basis." } ] }, { "head": "Opportunities and constraints?", "index": 32, "paragraphs": [ { "index": 1, "size": 103, "text": "tz Kapeh certification enables coffee farmers to produce a value added coffee as products are differentiated and bear the Utz Kapeh logo. They can therefore benefit from a price premium. Another advantage is that they don't have to pay any fees as the Utz Kapeh administration fee is covered by buyers. The main constraint is that Utz Kapeh certification requires the necessary administration and financial capacity to be able to comply with criteria such as traceability. Another constraint is that there is only one product that can be certified namely coffee. However, Utz Kapeh is working on the possibility to include more products." } ] }, { "head": "U U 3. SOCIAL CERTIFICATIONS", "index": 33, "paragraphs": [ { "index": 1, "size": 43, "text": "air-trade is based on the fair remuneration of producers. Buyers that commit to fair-trade must pay a minimum price to producers as well as a premium called fair-trade premium. This premium should enable producers to support themselves and to invest in community development." }, { "index": 2, "size": 49, "text": "In return, producers that commit to fair-trade must comply with labour rights, environmental and social requirements. Standard setting and certification are under the control of the Fairtrade Labelling Organizations International (FLO). This organization is the worldwide umbrella organization of 20 national non-governmental organizations in Europe, America, Asia and Oceania." } ] }, { "head": "F", "index": 34, "paragraphs": [ { "index": 1, "size": 14, "text": "In West Africa, fair-trade certified products are mostly cocoa, mango and other tropical fruits." } ] }, { "head": "FAIR-TRADE", "index": 35, "paragraphs": [] }, { "head": "Main requirements?", "index": 36, "paragraphs": [ { "index": 1, "size": 32, "text": "o obtain certification, producer associations must function in a democratic manner. There are also rules on how the fair-trade premium has to be spent and requirements for the protection of the environment." }, { "index": 2, "size": 58, "text": "For plantations, there are a number of requirements related to labour rights: workers' treatment, freedom of association and collective bargaining, workers' housing and sanitation; workers' health and safety; and no child or forced labour. In addition, the producer must comply with the environmental and social laws in the producing country and demonstrate continual improvement in annual inspections (audits)." } ] }, { "head": "How to get certified?", "index": 37, "paragraphs": [ { "index": 1, "size": 105, "text": "air-trade certification can be applied for by a group of producers in a cooperative, a farmer association or by large farms with an organized labour force. Local auditors inspect the farm and the certification agency Flo-Cert Ltd decides whether or not to certify the producer association. Once certified, there is a regular inspection once a year to check that the producers are meeting the fair-trade requirements and to examine how the producers used the fair-trade premium. Traders who use the FLO certification mark on their packages currently pay a license fee. Producers have to pay fees which are based on the costs of the inspection." } ] }, { "head": "T F Opportunities and constraints?", "index": 38, "paragraphs": [ { "index": 1, "size": 30, "text": "producer association or a plantation can benefit from fair-trade certification since certified products normally receive higher and more stable prices. The price paid to producers is determined by production costs." }, { "index": 2, "size": 44, "text": "It takes into consideration any additional costs that might arise from meeting the fair-trade requirements, such as providing living wages for workers. In general, the fair-trade premium is meant to provide some resources to the community to improve the living conditions of its members." }, { "index": 3, "size": 85, "text": "A key constraint in the fair-trade system is that a group of producers can only get certified if FLO finds that there is a market for their fair-trade labelled products. In order to enter the fair-trade system, a necessary first step is to ask FLO and fair-trade importers for information regarding market opportunities for their products. Another constraint is that when a producer association or a plantation has been certified there is no guarantee that the whole production will be sold and marketed as ''fair-trade''." } ] }, { "head": "More information on fair-trade", "index": 39, "paragraphs": [ { "index": 1, "size": 77, "text": "-FLO International, Bonn, Germany; Tel.: (49) 228 24930; Email : [email protected]; web: www.fairtrade.net -FLO Branch office in France [email protected]; web: www.maxhavelaarfrance.org (FR) -FLO Certification Unit, Bonn/Germany; Email: [email protected] A A8000 is a voluntary private workplace certification that has been developed by the non governmental organization Social Accountability International (SAI) with the aim to create better working conditions. The SA8000 standard is based on international workplace norms including those related to social justice, worker rights and working conditions." } ] }, { "head": "Main requirements?", "index": 40, "paragraphs": [ { "index": 1, "size": 51, "text": "he SA8000 certification sets minimum standards for working conditions to ensure: a safe and healthy working environment, freedom of association and collective bargaining and an enterprise strategy for managing social workplace issues. Also there are rules for working hours, wages, prevention of discrimination and the use of children or forced labour." } ] }, { "head": "How to get certified?", "index": 41, "paragraphs": [ { "index": 1, "size": 108, "text": "enterprises that operate production facilities can apply for SA8000 certification by one of the certification agencies approved by SAI. After the initial inspection and once the workplace is certified, the company is monitored to ensure continued compliance with the standards. The producing company usually pays the certification fee which includes the audit and corrective or preventative action costs. The SA8000 certification mark is not used on product labels but the company may use it in promotional activities. There is no specific price premium or market for SA8000 certified products. Some of the very large firms exporting banana, pineapple, tobacco, wine, canned fruits and processed coffee are SA8000 certified." }, { "index": 2, "size": 9, "text": "S T E SA 8000 CERTIFICATION Opportunities and constraints?" }, { "index": 3, "size": 270, "text": "he SA8000 certification is one of the most detailed workplace standards for international labour rights. It primarily benefits larger agro-industrial enterprises that can use it in their corporate public relations. The SA8000 standard can help to improve productivity and quality and can also help to recruit and retain workers. Although more common in other industries, the SA8000 standard has been taken up slowly by the agricultural industry because it is difficult to implement in seasonal production. EUREPGAP aims to increase consumers' confidence in food safety by developing \"good agricultural practices\" (GAP) which must be adopted by producers. It also aims to harmonize buyers' requirements for food hygiene and for maximum residue limits for pesticides. Unlike the other certification programmes, the focus of EUREPGAP is not on environmental or social issues but rather on food safety and traceability. However, the EUREPGAP standard also includes some requirements on the use of pesticides, workers safety and compliance with national labour regulations. Among all the EUREPGAP standards, the one on fruits and vegetables is the most advanced 2 . It should be borne in mind that EUREPGAP has not been established by the European Union. he EUREPGAP standard requires that producers establish a complete control and monitoring system. Products can then be registered and traced back to the specific farm unit where they were grown. EUREP rules are relatively flexible about field practices such as soil fumigation and fertilizer usage. There are strict regulations about pesticide storage and pesticide residue limits. In addition, it is important to document and justify how the product was produced, so detailed records must be kept about farm practices." } ] }, { "head": "More information on SA8000", "index": 42, "paragraphs": [] }, { "head": "How to get certified?", "index": 43, "paragraphs": [ { "index": 1, "size": 61, "text": "rivate certification agencies approved by the EUREP Secretariat (FoodPLUS) can certify against EUREPGAP. Both individual producers and groups of producers can apply for certification, the cost of which depends on the certification agency chosen and the time spent on the inspection. In addition to the certification fee, the producer must also pay an annual fee to FoodPLUS to maintain the certification." } ] }, { "head": "Opportunities and constraints?", "index": 44, "paragraphs": [ { "index": 1, "size": 40, "text": "o get the EUREPGAP certification, the producer needs a complete administrative system to keep track of all farm activities. For a company largely involved in exports, this system could make it easier to fulfil and meet other regulations and certifications." }, { "index": 2, "size": 188, "text": "The EUREPGAP certified producer may also have an advantage when selling products to one of the EUREP members. In the future, some of these supermarkets will probably require that their suppliers have the EUREPGAP certification. Most of the 31 retail-members operate in the United Kingdom, the Netherlands and in Germany. In France, Norway, Finland there is one member but there are no Eurep members in countries like Spain, Italy and Denmark. T P T Some EUREP members he BRC standard is a private voluntary standard developed by the British Retail Consortium (BRC). The standard has been set up in order to protect consumers' health and to enable British retailers to comply with the United Kingdom Food Safety Act. Therefore, BRC standard can be considered as a tool that provides retailers with a common basis for the audit of their suppliers of food products. The use of this standard requires the adoption and implementation of HACCP principles, the setting up of a documented and effective quality management system as well as the control of working environment, products, processes and personnel. It can be applied by any food supplier company." }, { "index": 3, "size": 84, "text": "The application of the BRC Standard requires certification by a third party. Certified products are differentiated in the market as they carry the BRC logo. For many producers, the market for certified agricultural products is very complex and the advantages and requirements associated with the certification programme are not always clear. In addition, producers do not always know the difference between the compulsory or voluntary nature of standards applied to export products. Therefore, this manual has been designed in order to clarify voluntary certification." }, { "index": 4, "size": 67, "text": "After having read its content, the reader should be able to understand the main voluntary certification schemes, the importance of these schemes, the difference between these programmes as well as their advantages and constraints. The manual also provides information on the main import regulations in the United States, the European Union and Japan. This information is hoped to facilitate the export of certified products into these markets." }, { "index": 5, "size": 1, "text": "TC/D/A0587E/1/7.06/1200" } ] } ]

[ { "text": " An important part of the mandate of the Commodities and Trade Division (ESC) of FAO is to identify the problems affecting commodity trade and propose solutions to address them, preferably through international action. ESCR (the Raw Materials, Tropical and Horticultural Products Service) became involved in issues regarding social and environmental certification as these continued to arise in the analytical work on trade and economic problems related to bananas and other commodities for which it is responsible. FAO-ESCR has produced several technical studies and information publications on social and environmental certification. These include: a small brochure targeted at wholesale and retail buyers of bananas, explaining the differences between various certification schemes; an extension manual aimed at producer associations and exporters in Central America on voluntary certification programmes and describing the import regulations of main export markets; cost-benefit analyses on certified citrus in Spain and in Costa Rica; and recently, a technical paper on environmental and social standards, certification and labelling for cash crops. FAO has established an Internet portal where relevant studies and links to organizations working to improve social and environmental conditions in agricultural production and trade can be found. http://www.fao.org/es/ESC/en/20953/22218/highlight_44152en.html The Technical Centre for Agricultural and Rural Cooperation (CTA) was established in 1983 under the Lomé Convention between the ACP (African, Caribbean and Pacific Group of States) and the European Union Member States. Since 2000, it has operated within the framework of the ACP-EC Cotonou Agreement. " }, { "text": " onsumers are increasingly concerned about their health, the country of origin and the quality of the products they consume.Most popular regulations focus on grade, size, weight, and package labelling. Regarding labelling, required information includes: country of origin, product name, variety and quantity. Requirements relating to commercial quality are about variety, colour, expiration date, external damage and shape. " }, { "text": "Food safety regulations at international level (e.g. Codex Standards) and/or national level : http://www.ipfsaph.org/En/default.jsp http://www.fao.org/ag/agn/food/food_fruits_en.stm For treatments, it is important to meet recommended doses " }, { "text": " clearance in the European Union vary according to countries. However, many of these countries have electronic customs systems and other programmes that speed up clearance time. For specific information about customs procedures and tariff rates (by country): Taxation and Customs Union http://europa.eu.int/comm/taxation_customs/common/about/welcome/index_en.htm Centre for the Promotion of Imports from Developing Countries (CBI): www.cbi.nl Prior to arrival of the products, exporters must notify the quarantine station at the point of entry through an electronic system operated by the Ministry of Health and Welfare. To further reduce the time spent at customs, a sample of the product can be brought to an official lab in Japan or in the exporting country and the results submitted for pre-clearance. Consumption tax and duties are paid before final clearance is given. For further information about import procedures: www.mhlw.go.jp/english/topics/importedfoods/index.html Customs officials can only authorize the entrance of products into the United States after inspections by APHIS and the FDA at the point of entry. Exporters must also pay the necessary duties there, as determined by quantity, value, description and country of origin. To speed up the processing time at the border, exporters can complete certain customs procedures before departure. For example, through APHIS International Services it is now possible for some countries to get pre-clearance on import documents like phytosanitary certificates. For more details about the available pre-clearance arrangements in the United States: www.aphis.usda.gov/ppq/preclearance/ Exporters can also use an Automated Commercial System developed by the US Customs to process documents electronically. For more information: www.cbp.gov/xp/cgov/import/operations_support/automated_systems/ams/ 5. ORGANIZATIONS SUPPORTING EXPORT FROM WEST AFRICA roducers and exporters need to familiarize themselves with a large variety of technical norms and import regulations which can at first seem complicated. However, there are a number of international and national organizations located in each of the West African countries that work to help producers comply with these regulations. " }, { "text": "P--- Don't hesitate to contact international or local organizations! They can provide you with additional information or relevant training. National Organizations -Association de développement des produits d'exportations (ADEX); Tel.: (229) 31 78 21, Email: [email protected] -Centre béninois du commerce extérieur, Tel.: (229) 301320/301397; Email: [email protected], www.cbce.africa-web.org/ (FR) -Fédération des groupements d'intérêts économiques de l'atlantique, Tel.: (229) 315726, Email: [email protected] -Association professionnelle des exportateurs de fruits et légumes du Burkina (APEFEL), Tel.: (226) 300210/311338 -Ministère du commerce, de l'artisanat et de la promotion de l'entreprise; Tel.: (226) 324828; Email: [email protected] -Union nationale de groupements et sociétés coopératives de production fruitière et maraîchère du Burkina Faso, Tel.: (226) 20975234; Email: [email protected] -Association pour la promotion des produits d'exportation de Côte d'Ivoire (APEXCI), Tel.: (225) 20315700; Email: [email protected] -Association pour la promotion des produits d'exportation agricoles non-traditionnelles de Côte d'Ivoire (PROMEXA), Tel.: (225) 20210561/62; Email: [email protected] -Organisation centrale des producteurs/exportateurs d'ananas & bananes de CI, Tel.: (225) 20/25251872; Email: [email protected] (exportation: mangue, ananas) -Société d'étude et de développement de la culture bananière, Tel.: (225) 20209300; Email: [email protected] Federation of Associations of Ghanaian Exporters (FAGE); Tel.: (233) 21232554; Email: [email protected]; web: www.ghana-exporter.org -Ghana Association of Vegetable Exporters (GAVEX), Email: [email protected] -Ghana Export Promotion Council (GEPC); Tel: (233)-21228813/228830, Email: [email protected]; web: www.exportghana.org -Horticulturist Association of Ghana (HAG), Email: [email protected] -Ministry of Trade and Industry; Tel.: (233-21) 663188, Email: [email protected]; web: www.moti-ghana.com -Papaya and Mango Producers and Exporters Association of Ghana (PAMPEAG), Email: [email protected] -Plant Protection and Regulatory Services Directorate, Tel.: (233) 21302638; Email: [email protected] or [email protected] -Vegetable Growers and Exporters Association of Ghana (VEPEAG), Email: [email protected], Web: www.ghana-exporter.org/vepeag/DEFAULT2.HTM -Projet cadre de promotion des exportations agricoles (PCPEA); Tel.: (224) 411461; Email: [email protected] -Ministry of Commerce and Industry, Tel.: (231) 226283 -Ministère de l'industrie et du commerce; Tel.: (223) 2214928; Email: [email protected] -Trade Mali, Tel.: (223) 2291750; Email: [email protected] -Department of State of Trade, Industry and Employment Tel.: (220) 228868, Email: [email protected] Web: www.gambia.gm/Introduction/introduction.html Centre nigérien du commerce extérieur, Tel.: (227) 732288 -Ministère du commerce de l'industrie et de la promotion du secteur privé Tel.: (227) 735867, Email: [email protected]. -Chamber of Commerce, Industry, Mines and Agriculture of Port Harcourt, Tel.: (234-84) 330394 -International Trade Center of Lagos, Tel.: (234-1) 2635276, Email: [email protected] -Nigeria Export Promotion Council (NEPC), Tel.: (234-9) 5230932; web: www.nepc.gov.ng -Centre international du commerce extérieur du Sénégal (CICES), Tel: (221) 8275266; Email: [email protected] -Chambre de commerce, d'industrie et d'agriculture de Dakar (CCIA); Tel.: (221) 8237189; Email: [email protected] -Fondation trade point Sénégal, Tel.: (221) 8397373, Email: [email protected]; web: www.tpsnet.org (FR) -Organisation nationale des producteurs/exportateurs de fruits et légumes du Sénégal (ONAPES), Tel.: (221) 8227853/7854; Email: [email protected] Togo -Chambre de commerce, d'agriculture et de l'industrie du Togo, Tel: (228) 212 068/217 065, Fax : (228) 214 730 -Ministère du commerce, de l'industrie et de l'artisanat, Tel.: (228) 2212971/2212025, Fax: (228Ministry of Trade and Industry Tel.: (232-22) 222706/ 222640 -Sierra Leone Export Development and Investment Corporation (SLEDIC), Tel.: (232-22)229216/227604 " }, { "text": "C Producers can choose among many different types of certification. Decisions to obtain certification as well as the type of certification chosen are important decisions that influence farm management, investments and marketing strategies. " }, { "text": "O More information on Organic Agriculture International sites -FAO: http://www.fao.org/organicag/default.htm -GTZ; Tel.: (49) 6196 79 1466 ; Email: [email protected] -International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements -IFOAM; Tel.: (49) 228 926 0-10; Web: www.ifoam.org NGOs in West Africa -Organisation béninoise pour la promotion de l'agriculture biologique (OBEPAB); web: www.obepab.bj (FR); Email: [email protected] -Réseau de développement d'Agriculture Durable (REDAD); Tel.: (229) 362491; Email: [email protected] Benin Burkina Faso -Agri Bio Conseil; address: BP 2545. Bobo Dioulasso, Burkina Faso -Association pour la recherche et la formation en agro écologie (ARFA); Tel.: (226) 770670 or 770275; Email: [email protected] -Centre écologique Albert Schweitzer du Burkina Faso (CAES); Tel.: (226) 50343008; web: http://www.ceas-ong.net/burkina1.html (FR) -Ghana Organic Agriculture Network (GOAN); Tel.: (233) 5120954; Email: [email protected] -Ideal Providence Farms; Email: [email protected] -Kumasi Institute of Tropical Agricultura (KITA); Tel.: (233) 2081 7 64; Web: www.kita-ghana.org; Email: [email protected] -Groupe de recherches et d'applications techniques (GRAT) Groupe Tel.: (223) 2224341 -Helvetas Mali, Tel.: (223)2217998/2210964/2210965, Web: www.helvetas-mali.org/index.html (FR), Email: [email protected] -AGRECOL; Tel.: (221) 9514206; web: www.agrecol-afrique.sn (FR); Email: [email protected]; -Agriculteurs Naturalistes (AGRINAT), Tel.: (221) 9514202; Email: [email protected] -Association Sénégalaise pour la promotion de l'agriculture biologique (ASPAB); Tel. : (221) 9512026 -Protection naturelle des cultures-environnement développement (PRONAT); Tel.: (221) 8225565; web: www.enda.sn/pronat/(FR); Email: [email protected]; -ANCE/Togo; Tel.: (228) 9080742 ou 9483549; web: www.ancetogo.globalink.org(FR); Email: [email protected] -Association pour la protection de l'environnement et le bien-être social (APEBES); Tel.: (228) 4410280 -Centre de recherche action pour l'environnement et le développement intégré (CREDI); Tel.: (228) 2253760 -CREDA (Consultation-recherche-éducation en environnement pour un développement durable en Afrique); Tel: (228 " }, { "text": "-- Centre béninois de normalisation et de gestion de la qualité (CEBENOR); Tel.: (229) 309359; Email: [email protected] -SGS ; Tel. : (229) 21300709; www.sgs.com -Direction de la normalisation et de la promotion de la qualité (FASONORM), Tel.: (226) 50311300; [email protected] -SGS; Tel.: (226) 50315042/43 ou (226) 20971471 Email: [email protected]; www.sgs.comThe products from an ISO14001 certified farm cannot be ISO labelled and there is no price premium. Since a growing number of companies are becoming ISO certified, the standard may no longer be a determining factor for market advantage but could lead to other internal benefits within the companyT Côte d'Ivoire Normalisation (CODINORM); Tel.: (225) 20215512; Email: [email protected] -SGS, Tel.: (225) 21752200; www.sgs.com -Ghana Standards Board (GSB); Tel.: (233) 21501495; Email: [email protected] -SGS; Tel.: (233) 21764708/709/773997/773994, web: www.gh.sgs.com; Email: [email protected] -Institut National de la normalisation et de la métrologie (INM) Tel.: (224) 412816; Email: [email protected] -SGS; Tel.: (224) 454790/454791; [email protected] -Direction nationale des industries (MLIDNI) Tel.: (223) 2220663; Email: [email protected] -Direction de la normalisation de la qualité et de la métrologie (DNQM); Tel.: (227) 736950; Email: [email protected] -Standards Organisation of Nigeria (SON);Tel.: (234) 1 2708247; [email protected]; web: www.sononline-ng.org -SGS; Tel.: (234) 1 2625347 -50, 2620735-37; web: www.ng.sgs.com; Email: [email protected] -Association sénégalaise de normalisation Tel: (221) 8276401; Email : [email protected] -SGS; Email: [email protected] Niger Côte d'Ivoire Togo -Conseil supérieur de normalisation (CSN) Tel.: (228) 2200750; Email: [email protected] " }, { "text": "T SCHEMES " }, { "text": " " }, { "text": " " }, { "text": " " }, { "text": " " }, { "text": " " }, { "text": " strategies, including those relevant to science and technology. CTA's work incorporates new developments in methodologies and cross-cutting issues such as gender and social capital. iii iii ESCR CONTENTS ESCR CONTENTS WHY THIS MANUAL? i WHY THIS MANUAL?i GLOSSARY iv GLOSSARYiv PART1: TECHNICAL REGULATIONS AND CONTROLS FOR PART1: TECHNICAL REGULATIONS AND CONTROLS FOR IMPORTING IMPORTING 1. -Commercial Quality and Labelling Regulations 1. -Commercial Quality and Labelling Regulations 2. -Food Safety Regulations 2. -Food Safety Regulations Maximum Residue Limits of Pesticides Maximum Residue Limits of Pesticides Biological Contamination and Product Traceability Biological Contamination and Product Traceability 3. -Environmental Safety and Phytosanitary Regulations 3. -Environmental Safety and Phytosanitary Regulations 4. -Customs Clearance 4. -Customs Clearance 5. -Organizations supporting export from West Africa 5. -Organizations supporting export from West Africa PART2: VOLUNTARY CERTIFICATION PART2: VOLUNTARY CERTIFICATION 1. -Questions about certification 1. -Questions about certification 2. -Environmental Certifications 2. -Environmental Certifications Organic agriculture Organic agriculture ISO 14001 Certification ISO 14001 Certification Utz Kapeh Utz Kapeh 3. -Social Certifications 3. -Social Certifications Fair-Trade Fair-Trade SA 8000 Certification SA 8000 Certification 4. -Food Safety and Quality Certifications 4. -Food Safety and Quality Certifications EUREPGAP Certification 37 EUREPGAP Certification37 ISO 22 000 4 ISO 22 0004 BRC Global Standard 41 BRC Global Standard41 5. -Goals of the six certification schemes 5. -Goals of the six certification schemes 6. -Opportunities and constraints of the six certification schemes 6. -Opportunities and constraints of the six certification schemes CTA, Postbus 380 -6700 AJ Wageningen -Netherlands -Website: www.cta.int CTA, Postbus 380 -6700 AJ Wageningen -Netherlands -Website: www.cta.int " }, { "text": "htm Japan requires that imported products comply with regulations in the Food Sanitation Law, the Japan Agricultural Standards (JAS) Law and the Measurement Law. For more information on standards and import procedures for specific products: United States The United States requires that agricultural imports be United StatesThe United States requires that agricultural imports be graded according to the standards of the American Marketing graded according to the standards of the American Marketing Service of the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA). Service of the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA). For more information on product grading and quality requirements For more information on product grading and quality requirements established by the USDA: established by the USDA: USDA: www.ams.usda.gov/standards/stanfrfv.htm USDA: www.ams.usda.gov/standards/stanfrfv.htm USDA: www.ams.usda.gov/fv/moab-8e.html USDA: www.ams.usda.gov/fv/moab-8e.html FDA: www.cfsan.fda.gov/~dms/lab-ind.html FDA: www.cfsan.fda.gov/~dms/lab-ind.html One of the components of the 2002 Farm Bill (the Farm Security and Rural One of the components of the 2002 Farm Bill (the Farm Security and Rural Investment Act of 2002) is the implementation of mandatory country of origin Investment Act of 2002) is the implementation of mandatory country of origin labelling (COOL). For more information on this programme: labelling (COOL). For more information on this programme: USDA: http://www.ams.usda.gov/cool/ USDA: http://www.ams.usda.gov/cool/ Japan External Trade Organization: Japan External Trade Organization: http://www.jetro.go.jp/en/market/regulations/ http://www.jetro.go.jp/en/market/regulations/ Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries: Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries: http://www.maff.go.jp/soshiki/syokuhin/hinshitu/e_label/index.htm http://www.maff.go.jp/soshiki/syokuhin/hinshitu/e_label/index.htm " }, { "text": "table . Some criteria of Utz Kapeh Certification Some criteria of Utz Kapeh Certification Good Agricultural and Good Agricultural and Business Practices' Environmental Criteria Social Criteria Business Practices'Environmental CriteriaSocial Criteria Criteria Criteria workers trained properly reduce and prevent soil workers are protected by workers trained properlyreduce and prevent soilworkers are protected by implementation of accident erosion national laws and ILO implementation of accidenterosionnational laws and ILO and emergency procedures implementation of hygiene comply with maximum UTZ KAPEH residue limits conventions regarding age, working hours, pensions, and emergency procedures implementation of hygienecomply with maximum UTZ KAPEH residue limitsconventions regarding age, working hours, pensions, rules and practices minimize water and working conditions, rules and practicesminimize water andworking conditions, traceability system environmental pollution collective bargaining and traceability systemenvironmental pollutioncollective bargaining and annual internal inspections optimize use of safety annual internal inspectionsoptimize use ofsafety sustainable energy workers receive sustainable energyworkers receive sources protective clothing for the sourcesprotective clothing for the protect water sources use of chemicals protect water sourcesuse of chemicals avoid deforestation of access to health care for avoid deforestation ofaccess to health care for primary forests the workers and their primary foreststhe workers and their families families access to education for access to education for children children " }, { "text": " SAI, Tel.: (1) 212 6841414; Email: [email protected]; web: www.sa-intl.org, 4. FOOD SAFETY AND QUALITY 4. FOOD SAFETY AND QUALITY T CERTIFICATIONS TCERTIFICATIONS UREPGAP is a voluntary UREPGAP is a voluntary private certification privatecertification system created by the system created by the Euro-Retailer Produce Working Euro-Retailer Produce Working Group (EUREP). The group is Group (EUREP). The group is made up of 31 members 1 that made up of 31 members 1 that operate in Western Europe. operate in Western Europe. United States United States " } ]

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[ { "head": "Introduction", "index": 1, "paragraphs": [ { "index": 1, "size": 65, "text": "• Agrifood systems (AFS) play an important role in reducing poverty and food insecurity. In 2019, an estimated 1.23 billion people worked in AFS globally (Davis et al., 2023) • AFS are a far greater source of livelihood in low-income countries, where 73 percent of working men and women are employed in AFS, compared with 53 percent of working men and women in lower-middle-income countries." }, { "index": 2, "size": 39, "text": "• Women engage in all segments of AFS -as farmers, entrepreneurs, wage employees as well as unpaid contributing family workers (Christiaensen et al., 2021), however, robust estimates of the number of women in different segments of AFS are missing." }, { "index": 3, "size": 16, "text": "• This study provides the first documented global estimates of employment in AFS disaggregated by sex." } ] }, { "head": "Definition of AFS", "index": 2, "paragraphs": [ { "index": 1, "size": 36, "text": "• AFS refers to activities related to the production, processing, distribution, sale, and consumption of products originating from agriculture, forestry, fishery. We consider employment all activities regardless of whether they are performed for pay or profit." }, { "index": 2, "size": 68, "text": "• At the ISIC 2-digit level, we can identify AFS by the following ISIC codes and divisions shown below. ). The modelled estimates, however, are only disaggregated by broad sectors (e.g., agriculture and total employment). To address this issue, we use the ILO modelled estimates to measure employment in agriculture and total employment and develop an econometric model to impute the missing non-agricultural AFS employment as described below." } ] }, { "head": "Categories", "index": 3, "paragraphs": [] }, { "head": "Methods", "index": 4, "paragraphs": [] }, { "head": "Results", "index": 5, "paragraphs": [ { "index": 1, "size": 48, "text": "• Globally, 38 percent of AFS workers were women in 2019. While globally a larger number of men than women are employed in AFS, women constitute over 50 percent of all AFS workers in sub-Saharan Africa and over 40 percent of all agrifood-system workers in several other regions" }, { "index": 2, "size": 56, "text": "• Women comprised 38 percent of all agricultural workers in 2019. On average, in SSA women made up 47 percent of agricultural workers, while only 13 percent of agricultural workers in Northern Africa were women. The share of women among agricultural workers is also rather low in LAC --only 22 percent of agricultural workers are women." }, { "index": 3, "size": 28, "text": "• In off-farm AFS, women represent 41 percent of workers, ranging from 60% in Sub-Saharan Africa to 23 and 13 percent in Eastern Asia and Northern Africa, respectively" }, { "index": 4, "size": 26, "text": "• Consistent with a process of structural transformation, countries with a higher GDP per capita have a smaller share of their workforce in AFS (Panel A)." }, { "index": 5, "size": 30, "text": "• Panels B and C show that even within AFS, as countries develop people move out of agriculture and into off-farm activities such as processing, transport, trade, storage, and marketing." }, { "index": 6, "size": 28, "text": "• At any level of development, a larger share of men's employment than women's employment is in agriculture (Panel B); the opposite holds for off-farm AFS (Panel C)." }, { "index": 7, "size": 46, "text": "• A larger share of working women than men globally in both agriculture and off-farm agrifood systems are in vulnerable forms of self-employment, which include own-account and contributing family workers. • Vulnerable employment is significantly more common in agriculture than in the non-agriculture segment of AFS" }, { "index": 8, "size": 23, "text": "• In agriculture, 86 percent of female workers compared to 76 percent of male workers in are engaged in vulnerable forms of employment" } ] } ]

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{ "id": "001e38d913400a1d112c39b7f3267995", "source": "gardian_index", "url": "https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/ca8a06f2-6e7e-443b-ac34-c99ead484949/retrieve" }

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[ { "head": "OBJETIVOS", "index": 1, "paragraphs": [ { "index": 1, "size": 39, "text": "Evaluar el comportamiento reproductivo de las novillas bajo condiciones de pastoreo en pastos mejorados • 2.2 Establecer comparaciones entre el comportamiento reproductivo de las novillas que tienen acceso a pastos mejorados versus las ~ue se encuentran solamente en sabana." }, { "index": 2, "size": 24, "text": "2.3 Evaluar el comportamiento de los pastos mejorados a travez del tiempo. principalmente lo correspondiente a persistencia. composi ción botánica e invasión de malezas." } ] }, { "head": "REVISION DE LITERATÚRA", "index": 2, "paragraphs": [ { "index": 1, "size": 12, "text": "3.1 Factores que influyen en el comportamiento reproductivo de las nov; 11as." }, { "index": 2, "size": 5, "text": "3.1.1 Nutrición de novillas 2." }, { "index": 3, "size": 151, "text": "Son muchos los factores que pueden modificar el comportamiento reproductivo de las novillas. discutirlos todos sería un tema muy amplio y complejo. El objetivo del presente trabajo es analizar los aspectos relacionados con la nutrición. su efecto en el crecimiento y. la vida rep•roductiva de las novillas. Aspecto que depende directamente de la calidad de las praderas y la suplementación mineral (CIAT 1983), afirma que una de las características de la ganadería extensiva en los trópicos es el muy lento crecimiento de las hembra~ jóvenes de reemplazo. existiendo una relación entre las bajas tasas de crecimiento y la manifestación del primer celo; debido probablemente a una interacción entre peso y edad para alcanzar la pubertad. La nutrición adecuada permite al animal expresar todo su potenCial genético en términos de eficiencia reproductiva; peso al destete. crecimiento y engorde; altos índices de conversión alimenticia y buen rendimiento al mercado (Plasse 1979) . ," } ] }, { "head": "4.", "index": 3, "paragraphs": [ { "index": 1, "size": 117, "text": "Según Helman (1977), en la primera de las etapas dé crecimiento, que ,es muy activo y se extiende hasta los seis y ocho meses, la' alimentación ,queda cubierta por la leche de la madre. Esto significa que, para satisfacer plenamente las necesidades de las mamonas, el esfuerzo deberá dirigirse a asegurar un buen amamantamiento brindando buenas pasturas a la madre. y, es en este 'aspecto donde el clima tropical, con sus altas temperaturas, tiene un poderoso papel negativo. Como reacción a la incomodidad fisiológfca que ,producen los fuertes calores, las vacas padecen una intensa inapetencia. Dejan de comer para no aumentar la formación de calor, pero, al disminuir el aporte de nutrientes reducen la producción de leche." }, { "index": 2, "size": 46, "text": "Una ración nutricional adecuada es básica para un buen crecimiento y normal funcionamiento del proceso reproductivo. Es bien conocido que la falta de fósforo dispon~ble en los suelos tropicales influye negativamente en la eficiencia reproductiva y el mismo resultado tiene la falta de proteína, , '" }, { "index": 3, "size": 254, "text": "'energía y de algunas vitaminas (Plasse 1979). Cajas (1984), menciona que niveles bajos de energía resultan en inactividad ovárica y anestros postparto, sin influencia de los niveles óe proteína dados a vacas jóvenes lactando. Según (Helman '1977), se ha demostrado, en forma experimental, que la falta de energía en la alimentación de vacunos en crecimiento es responsable de una disminución en el volúmen del animal, mientras que carencias o disminuciones en el aporte de proteína retardan la formación muscular. la edad de 1 a vaca, el estado de 'lactanci a y 1 a interacción entre ambos constituyen influencias de orden no genético inherentes al animal. Existen suficientes observaciones para considerar un hecho el fenómeno de que la vaca, cebuína no concibe bien durante su primera lactancia. resultando esto en valores, altos para el primer intervalo entre partos y en un porcentaje de preñez bajo para vacas que entran a su segunda temporada de monta. Aun cuando este fenómeno ha sido corregido en parte por cruzamientos y un mejor desarrollo de las novillas de primer servicio, se observa en rebaños 'con una adecuada eficiencia reproductiva que las vacas de primer parto tienen una efi~iencia reproductiva muy por debajO del promedio del rebaño (Plasse 1979). Cajas (1984) menciona que la ,más baja reproduCCión'en el ganado de la Florida fue observado en novillas de dos años en su primér parto y en vacas lactantes de tres años, en su segundo parto. La razón principal para la baja reproducción de las novillas. fue el nivel nutricional inadecuado 5." }, { "index": 4, "size": 114, "text": "después del destete. al punto de que el crecimiento y la pubertad no fueron alcanzados a la edad deseada. As1 mismo los bajos niveles de nutrición de las vacas de tres años tuvo como consecuencia el que éstas no entrasen en' calor después del parto. dentro del período de apareamiento regular. Si no existe un adecuado crecimiento después'del destete. la novilla tratará de obtenerlo cuando esté criando su prime'r ternero. Esto es agravado por la necesidad de mantener un nivel nutriciona1 suficiente para que continúe ovulando y conciba durante el segundo período de apareamiento; entonces son necesarios nutrientes adicionales para mantener la función fisiológica, normal de una madre adulta en el período de lactancia." }, { "index": 5, "size": 37, "text": "Estudios real; zados por ETES en los L-l anos Or;-enta 1 es de Co lombi a encontraron que los pesos ,dramáticamente bajos de vacas y novillas en estas fincas muestran claramente que su n'ivel nutricional fue inadecuado." }, { "index": 6, "size": 66, "text": "Entre novillas de 36 meses de edad, las que aún no habían'concebido pesaban, aproximadamente. 255 kg; las que estaban preñadas. cerca de 300 kg; y las que ya hab1an parido, solamente 252 kg. En otras palabras. descontando el efecto de ]a gestación sobre el peso. estos animales pesaban a los 3 años lo que en otros sistemas de pastoreo podrían haber pesado al aJi.o de edad." }, { "index": 7, "size": 149, "text": "Dentro de este panorama de nutrición insuficiente. ,con una baja tasa de procreo de las vacas y un tardío comienzo de la actividad reproductiva de las novillas, se puede examinar la variación de los parámetros reproductivos entre las fincas en función de la variación en peso vivo de las hembras. La tala de preñez estuvo estrechamente asociada con el promedio del peso de las vacas, la tasa de preñez aumentó en 2.8 unidades porcentuales. con un coeficiente de correlación de 0.8 (ETES 1982) Es bien sabido que las pasturas tropicales suelen caracterizarse por ser pronunciadamente pobres en proteínas y relativamente parcas en el sumistro de los niveles necesarios de principios energéticos. Cuando se trata de .los• meses correspondientes al período seco del año. las pasturas abundan en celulosas'y ligninas. poco digestibles y con extrema escasez de hidratos de carbono solubles y proteínas. por lo' tanto configuran una alimentación 7." }, { "index": 8, "size": 15, "text": "extremadamente deficiente para las novillas que se hallan en pleno crecimiento y desarrollo (Helman 1977)." }, { "index": 9, "size": 266, "text": "La presentación periódica de épocas de insuficiencia en el aporte de alimentos es casi habitual en las regiones tropicales, como consecuencia de la pronunciada estacionalidad de ras pasturas. De esa situación deriva que los animales en crecimiento manifiesten un retardo en la .evoluciÓn de su conformación y aptitudes. En. las vaquillas se registra una demora de más de siete meses en la presentación de la pubertad y de alrededor de más de 10 meses en la obtención de la primera cria (Helman 1977). La sequía se convierte en estas condiciones en un modifi~ador preponderante de los sistemas de producción (Paladines y Leal 1978). En la sabana nativa, la baja carga animal que se emplea, es lo que permite el mantenimiento del equilibrio biológico. Los intentos de intensificación de la producción, con el solo 'aumento de la carga animal, tienen como consecuencia final la perturbación del balance ecológico y la disminución de la productividad, ya -inicialmente baja (Vilela '1977, Paladines y Leal 1978). La vegetación predominante en la sabana nativa y que es consumida por el ganado como forraje, está constituida por: Trachypogon vestitus, Heptochoritium lanatus, Paspalum pectenatum, Andropogon semiberbis, Axenopus pulcher, Panicum versfcolor, etc.; los cuales ofrecen allá una disponibilidad de forrajes (Paladines 1978). No es posible afirmar que la~ diferencias en ganancia de peso se deban a la di•sponibil idad de forrajes. En este tipo de praderas la quema juega un papel importante. siendo costumbre quemar las praderas durante la época seca para conseguir un rebrote tierno, en esta forma se consigue aumentar el crecimiento de los animales hasta en 250% (Paladines y leal 1978)." }, { "index": 10, "size": 46, "text": "Es clara la evidencia en el sentido de la baja calidad de la sabana nativa y en general de las pasturas nativas en los trópicos; lo cual incide fundamentalmente en el comportamiento de los animales, tanto en el crecimiento como en el aspecto reproductivo. ¡ 8." } ] }, { "head": "Pastos mejorados en el trópico", "index": 4, "paragraphs": [ { "index": 1, "size": 74, "text": ". La disponibilidad de energta radiante y de temperaturas favorables para el crecimiento de las.plantas forrajeras determinan que el potencial de p~oducción de materia seca de los pastos tropicales sea muy alta (Tergas 1983) • Lo antes mencionado llamó la atención de investigadores y empezaron las pruebas con pastos mejorados. primeramente en la Estación Experimental de Cárimagua y posteriormente en fincas colaborativas de los Llanos Orientales de Colombia en condiciones de sabana bien drenada." }, { "index": 2, "size": 69, "text": "'En trabajos realizados por el ClAT. a 'nivel de granja experimental, . como a nivel de fincas comerciales se ha encontrado una alta correlación \" entre el peso del animal y la tasa de concepción. Se encontró relación entre ~l peso y la edad al primer celo, de modo que las novillas de menor edad y mayor' peso presentaron el primer celo más temprano que las demás (Cajas 1984)." }, { "index": 3, "size": 33, "text": "Se vienen desarrollando experimentos. con la finalidad de evaluar diferentes modalidades de uso estratégiCO de pasturas mejoradas como suplemento de la sabana nativa', para mejorar parametros reproductivos en novillas y vacas de cda." }, { "index": 4, "size": 85, "text": "Resultados preliminares sugieren que durante el pertodo' examinado, el uso estratégico de pequeñas áreas de pasto mejorado fueran capaces de mantener los indices productivos de la sabana nativa a pesar de una carga animal mayor en aquellos. Desde el punto de vista del peso de las vacas, se observó la tendencia a que los animales de los sistemas de manejo intensivo lograron pesos ligeramente más altos en los periodos críticos de concepción y parto, momentos en los cuales tenían acceso controlado a \"los pastos mejorados." }, { "index": 5, "size": 71, "text": "En experimentos realizados por (Tergas, Paladines. K1einheisterkamp y Velásquez 1983). reportan el potencial de las pasturas mejoradas para aumentar la productividad animal en Brachiaria decumbens de un 8-26%, mediante el pastoreo complementario con Pueraria Orientales de Colombia, debido prinCipalmente al en la nutrición animal durante la estación seca. por (Holroyd, O'Rourke, Clarke, Loxton 1983) para phaseol.oides en los Llanos efecto de la leguminosa En un estudio realizado examinar el comportamiento 9." }, { "index": 6, "size": 151, "text": "reproductivo de vacas y la tasa de crecimiento de sus terneros hasta el momento del destete durante un periodo de 4 años. las vacas pastorean en una pradera natural con una carga animal de 1 vacal 4 ha; o en una pradera natural sobre la cual se sembró Stylosanthes .humilis y fertilizada con superfosfato (carga animal de 1 vaca/ 2 ha). Se observó que las vacas que pastorean en una pradera de leguminosa fertilizada presentaran tasas de concepción significativamente mayores, as1 como fecha de parición mas tempranas; estas vaca~ presentaron generalmente una mejor condición f1sica, mayor peso. y sus terneros alcanzaron más rápidamente el momento del destete que las que pastorean en una pradera natural. La pradera de leguminosa fertilizada produjo un aumento de 2.4 veces (en comparación con la pradera natural) en el peso vivo de vacas y terneros/unidad de área (38.7 Kg/ha vs. 159.8 kg/ha) durante los 4 años." }, { "index": 7, "size": 141, "text": "(Caja~, .1984) encontró un efecto altamente significativo de carga •anima1 en pastos mejorados sobre las ganacias diarias de peso vivo. La mayor gana~cia fue para la carga baja, siendo las novillas de dicho tratamiento las que en menos tiempo alcanzaroñ el peso. que se había establecido para entrar al servicio. Las novillas de carga media alcanzaron dicho peso tres meses después, mientras que las de carga alta llegaron al final del experimento con solo 219 kg en promedia. Esto fue debido principalmente al efecto de la carga sobre las disponibilidad de forraje; aún que la calidad fuera buena, la baja disponibilidad de forraje en la carga alta afecta tremendamente el crecimiento y consecuentemente en el comportamiento reproductivo de dichas novillas. la edad a la cual se presentó el primer celo estuvo relacionada en este trabajo con el peso vivo. .. ," } ] }, { "head": "MATERIALES Y METODOS", "index": 5, "paragraphs": [] }, { "head": "10.", "index": 6, "paragraphs": [ { "index": 1, "size": 30, "text": "entre Puerto lópez y Carimagua. se considera este tramo como representativo de las sabanas de la Orinoquía Colombiana que ocupan aproximadamente, 17 millones de ha. el 15% del territorio nacional." } ] }, { "head": "Caracter1sticas fisiográfícas", "index": 7, "paragraphs": [ { "index": 1, "size": 88, "text": "Dentro de las características del ecosistema de esta región. se'distinguen cuatro unidades fisiógráficas bien demarcadas y diferenciadas entre si: a) Sabana alta o bien drenada. son sectores altos y planos. de topografía ligeramente convexa y con pendientes muy suaves. la vegetación, es la típica sabana. casi sin árboles ni arbustos; estas áreas soportan un período de sequía de aproximadamente 4 meses tienen general~ente buen drenaje 10 cual hace posible la mecanización 'agrícola. ya que favorece la topografía; carecen de pedrejosidad. y presentan buenas condic';ones físicas para el laboreo." }, { "index": 2, "size": 215, "text": "las limítantes de estas áreas son su baja fertilidad y la falta de humedad del suelo durante el verano para facilitar el desarrollo vegetativo de las especies forrajeras. La ganaderí'a del Ll ano se desarrolla principalmente en las áreas de sabana alta durante la mayor parte del año. es aquí donde se tiene toda la infraestructura existente para el manejo de los hatos y los potreros con pasturas . ' \" mejoradas. b) Sabana .baja, llamada también bajos. se caracteriza por presentar mal drenaje, son estrechos y elongados que sirven como sistema de drenaje de la sabana alta. Los bajos aparentan pequeños valles muy humedos la vegetación es de tamaño medio donde predomina la palma moriche que le dá también la denominación de morichales. La corriente de agua es estacional, solamente en la época lluviosa, condición que favorece al desarrollo de pasto tierno durante las épocas críticas del año (sequía) y es muy bien aprovechada por los ganaderos. el valor de Cabe mencionar de que los bajos son la tierra en la altillanura plana. Q) Bosque de galería, se presenta en las márgenes de lechos con agua ~nente conocidos en la región con el nombre de caños. aquí el moriche es desplazado por una vegetación más diversificada y de mayor embergadura encontrandose hasta especies maderables." } ] }, { "head": "Suelos", "index": 8, "paragraphs": [ { "index": 1, "size": 103, "text": "Según los estudios realizados por ETES Colombia, las características de los suelos son marcadamente similares a lo largo de todo el paisaje. la fertilidad de estos suelos es extremadamente baja y se clasifican como Haplustox Típico, caolinítico, arcilloso. isohipertérmico. Son suelos profundos, bien estructurados. porosos. muy permeables. que no se encharcan con las lluvias torrenciales. No tienen pedrejosidad ni en la superficie ni en la profundidad. En las áreas mal drenadas se presentan abundantes moteados y pocas concreciones blandas fracturables con las uñas. Los bajos presentan una mayor disponibilidad de fósforo razón por la cual son considerados como suelos buenos por los ganaderos." } ] }, { "head": "Clima", "index": 9, "paragraphs": [ { "index": 1, "size": 34, "text": "Para caracterizar el clima de la región se toman en cuenta los registros meteorológicos del Centro Nacional de Investigaciones Agropecuarias (CNIA) en Carimagua por considerarse los más representativos para el área en estudi•o. ." }, { "index": 2, "size": 21, "text": ". Brasil Colombia Brasil Colombia --------------------kgl an ; r.la 1 --------------------- ' ,--, ¡, --' . ' \", '-: . ," }, { "index": 3, "size": 16, "text": "; 91t, 1975 197.6 197i 1978 1~79 1980' 1961, \\91\\2 1~53 l'ror::c- : Julio '. -." }, { "index": 4, "size": 142, "text": "--,. Realizando una observación del panorama general de la ganadería en los Llanos Orientales de Colombia, pueden diferenciarse tres niveles de\" explotación ganadera. 4.1.4.1 Uno de los tipos, qUizás el ancestral, se caracteriza por la oacupación de grandes superficies de tierras que no tienen infraestructura digna de mención, cuando más un corral rústico y cercas perimetrales. Lo's animales se encuentran libres en la sabana. no se realiza ningún tipo de manejo, excepto al final de la época lluvio~a cuando son recogidos para hacer la hierra y' el aparte de las reses para la venta. Los costos de producción en estos hatos son insignificantes así como los rendimientos obtenidos: y los ingresos que obtiene el ganadero o finquero más propiamente dicho. es por la cantidad de animales que dispone para la venta y ~ .. ,. . n~,as' por la calidad de estos." } ] }, { "head": "4.1.4.2", "index": 10, "paragraphs": [ { "index": 1, "size": 132, "text": "En el segundo nivel, el ganadero ya ha cercado su propiedad y ha realizado algunas subdivisiones. El ganado es trabajado dos veces al año, a la entrada y finalización de la época lluviosa con el fin de herrar los becerros, vacunar los animales y hacer el aparte para la venta, cría y ceba. 12. 4.1.4.3 Finalmente, hay un reducido número de ganaderos que realizan grandes inve.rsiones económicas destinadas a la construcción de infraestructura de manejo (corrales, bretes, alambradas y bañaderos) e implantación de, pasturas: se toman medidas profilácticas en la prevención de enfermedades y parásitos. En estos hatos se realizan controles permanentes del estado ~eproductivo de los animales, se llevan registros 'bien organizados del hato y generalmente tienen la visita periódica del Médico Veterinario que es, también solventada por ellos-o .' \"-13." } ] }, { "head": "Descripción de las fincas en estudio:", "index": 11, "paragraphs": [ { "index": 1, "size": 141, "text": "Los resultados de estudios realizados por ETES indican que el tamaño de las fincas varían entre 375 y 8.891 ha. En_promedio el 65% de la superficie de las fincas estaba ocupada por sabana alta y un 20% por bajos. El resto de la superficie comprendía la serranía (11%) y bosque (4%). la sabana bien drenada es el principal recurso forrajero durante la época lluviosa. mientras que-'os bajos constituyen la base del pastoreo durante los periodos de sequía y en algunas fincas. los caños constituyen los abrevaderos para el ganado. los suelos de todas las firicas tienen las características edáficas comunes a la región. es decir. son ácidos e infértiles. Dentro de éstas características generales el suelo de Jos bajo tiene, en promedio. una disponibilidad de. fósforo mayor y una saturación de aluminio algo menor que el suelo de la sabana alta." }, { "index": 2, "size": 69, "text": "La subdivisión de la mayor parte de las fincas en potreros respondía a un esquema común. en que era típica la presencia de uno o dos potreros de más_de 1.000 ha que representaban 60% o más de la superficie de la finca, y de un número variable de potreros menores generalmente de menos de 100 ha que en muchos casos ocupaban un área cubierta con pastos cultivados (ETES 1985)." } ] }, { "head": "las pasturas", "index": 12, "paragraphs": [ { "index": 1, "size": 61, "text": "Al iniciarse el estudio. en 1977, siete de las fincas tenían más del 5% de su superficie cubiertos con pastos cultivados. mientras que en otras tres fincas había exclusivamente sabana nativa. Los pastos cultivados estab~n representdos exclusivamente por las gramíneas Me1inis minutiflora, Hyparrhenia rufa y Brachiaria decumbens. Esta última está sustituyendo a las otras dos en la preferencia de los ganaderos." }, { "index": 2, "size": 54, "text": "El material utilizado por el Proyecto ETES en la fase de validación de tecnología, está constituido por especies forrajeras que fueron liberadas por el Centro N~cional de Investigac\"iones Agropecuarias de Carimagua. Este material está constituido por gramíneas y leguminosas que serán evaluadas en fincas comerciales bajo condiciones de pastoreo en establecimientos de praderas asociadas. " } ] }, { "head": "Las novillas", "index": 13, "paragraphs": [ { "index": 1, "size": 75, "text": "En cada finca se realiza la 'selección de las novillas bajo el criterio de obtener lotes o grupos más o 'menos uniformes en edad y peso. alcanzando una edad promedio de 15 meses y 165 kg de peso vivo aproximadamente. 10 importante es que todas las novillas no hayan llegado todavía a la prubertad El número de animales por grupo es variable así como también el número de grupos en las diferentes pasturas o tratamientos." } ] }, { "head": "Metodología", "index": 14, "paragraphs": [] }, { "head": "Establecimiento de las pasturas", "index": 15, "paragraphs": [ { "index": 1, "size": 38, "text": "La ejecución de los programas en las fincas empieza con el establecimiento de las pasturas. ya sean estas solamente de gramíneas o de asociaciones con leguminosas. Las siembras se realizan con una aplicación simultánea de , \" \"" }, { "index": 2, "size": 124, "text": ". fertilizante para el establecimiento a base de Calfos en la proporción. de 300 kg/ha. En el caso de asociaciones con leguminosas, e'stas últimas, 15 . deben ser previamente inoculada con la rizobia correspondiente para garantizar una buena modulación y conSecuentemente asegurar un buen establecimiento. Las densidades de siembra son variables según la especie; en el caso de las asociaciones de ~. gayanus más ~. capitata, se emplean 7 kg de semilla de ~,gayanus más 1.5 kg de semilla de ~. capitata por hectárea. Cuando se trata de asociaciones con Centrosemas, se utilizan 2 kg de semilla de éstas por hectárea, Las siembras se realizan al boleo, con boleadoras calibradas para garantizar una distribución uniforme tanto de la semi 11a éomo del fertil izante." }, { "index": 3, "size": 22, "text": "El terreno debe ser preparado con anticipación para asegurar un buen reciclaje de la materia orgánica hasta el momento de la siembra." } ] }, { "head": "Visitas a las fincas y datos a tomar", "index": 16, "paragraphs": [ { "index": 1, "size": 34, "text": "El equipo técnico del CrAT, realiza como m~nimo tres visitas por año a las diferentes fincas del programa para realizar trabajos de corral y evaluaciones en las pasturas donde se toman los siguientes datos:" }, { "index": 2, "size": 83, "text": "-De los animales, información correspondiente a peso y reproducción: peso de los terneros, pesó de los levantes, pesos de 'los terneros al año de edad, lo cual permite calcular las ganancias de pesos ~n los levantes; en el aspecto reproductivo, se toman pesos de las novillas a los 36 meses de edad. peso de las vacas, tasa de preñez por palpación rectal; tasa de aborto y de pérdidas de terneros. Con la tasa de preñez se calcula el intervalo entre partos por vaca." }, { "index": 3, "size": 74, "text": "De las pasturas, datos de composición botánica como número de plantasl m 2 , porcentaje de cobertura, porciento de maleza y altura promedio de las plantas. También se toman muestras de cada potrero para determinar materia seca, relación hoja tallo y,material inerte. ,Estos datos permitirán evaluar el comportamiento de las praderas bajo el efecto del animal y en el transcurso del tiempo, 10 que en otros términos se denominaría persistencia de la pradera. -." }, { "index": 4, "size": 2, "text": "---O--t --oPeso " } ] }, { "head": "RESULTADOS", "index": 17, "paragraphs": [ { "index": 1, "size": 69, "text": "En el presente trabajo se muestran algunos resultdos preliminares registrados hasta el año 1984 con las diferentes especies forrajeras en estudio: Brachiaria decumbens es una de las gram~neas mejores adaptadas a las condiciones de los LLanos Orientales de Colombia no solamente por su tolerancia a bajos niveles de fertilidad natural del suelo ( Spain. 1975) sino también por su productividad animal y facilidad de manejo (Tergas et aL 1982)." }, { "index": 2, "size": 12, "text": "En la Evaluación de un hato por su comportamiento reproductivo en 16." }, { "index": 3, "size": 72, "text": "~. decumbens. 4 terneros murieron durante la lactancia: estas presentaron sintomas de fotosensibilización. 10 cual podría obstaculizar la evaluación precisa del potenCial reproductivo en pasturas de esta gramínea. Sin embargo. el comporta~iento de los terneros sobrevivientes fue satisfactorio. La reconcepción de las vacas lactantes fue también alta. 78%. 10 cual contrasta con la sit4ación observada normalmente en las sabanas nativas: la diferencia es debida probablemente a los altos pesos de éstos animales." }, { "index": 4, "size": 99, "text": "La alternativa más interesante que se presenta en pastúras constituyen indudablemente las asociaciones de gramíneas y leguminosas. Las asociaciones que se vienen evaluando en fincas son: ~. gayanus +~. capitata y ~. humidico1a + Q. ovalifolium. en este último caso por problemas de nemátodos desapareció la legumi'nosa y se evaluó a los animales como en !. humidicola sóla. Otras asociaciones como~. gayanus + Centrosema sp. 5277. ~. gayanus + Centrosema brasilianum y Brachiaria.dietyoneura + Arachis pintoi. están recién en fase de establecimiento a nivel de fincas comerciales en los Llanos Orientales de Colombia. por tanto no se tiene •." }, { "index": 5, "size": 10, "text": "todavla absolutamente ningún dato sobre comportamiento de animales pastoreando \"." }, { "index": 6, "size": 5, "text": "estas asociaciones en fines comerciales." }, { "index": 7, "size": 111, "text": "Actualmente se está evaluando la asociación de~. gayanus y ~. capitata en las fincas cooperadoras de los Llanos Orientales de Colombia •. En 'dos de las mismas se compara el crecimiento y desempeño reproductivo de novillas en sabanas. sujeta al manejo habitual del productor (tratamiento los datos antes citados sobre peso y natalidad sugieren que las mezclas minerales utiljzadas no han limitado el desempeño de los animales hasta el presente, y comparando el comportamiento de 'novillas en sabana versus asociación ~. gayanus/~. capitata parecerla que en presencia de estos niveles de suplementación mineral, la disponibilidad suficiente de forraje de buena calidad es factor determinante del comportamiento reproductivo de \"ovil 1 as." } ] }, { "head": "CONCLUSIONES", "index": 18, "paragraphs": [ { "index": 1, "size": 39, "text": "-Durante los primeros años del uso de pastos mejorados para el levante \"de novillas. confirman la superioridad de la asociación de~. gayanus y~. capitata en ganancia de peso. capacidad de carga y desempeño reproductivo en relación a la sabana." }, { "index": 2, "size": 36, "text": "-Los pesos y edades a la primera concepción reflejan claramente el muy lilllitado potenci a 1 de 1 a sabana. en 1 a cual 1 a primera gestad ón comienza a los tres o más años." }, { "index": 3, "size": 82, "text": "En la asociación de~. gayanus/~. capitata se dió la primera parición a los tres años de edad de las novillas • . Por el contrario. la pastura de ~. numidicola confirmó que en ausencia de una leguminosa asociada. su potencial para generar ganancia de peso no es superior al de la sabana • la influencia del peso en la tasa de concepción de las novillas se pone de manifiesto. concontrándose una alta correlación entre ambos parámetros. Cajas, G., S • celos de" } ] } ]

[ { "text": " . " }, { "text": " . " }, { "text": " queA continuación se presenta un esquema enumerativo de los problemas acarrea la deficiente alimentación en las novillas antes del primer servicio y después de la primera parición: " }, { "text": "4. 1 localización y características de las fincas las fincas que fueron seleccionadas para la fase de. validación de tecnología por el proyecto ETES en 105 llanos Orientales de Colombia, se . encuentran ubicadas en el Departamento del Meta, al sur del Río Meta, , . " }, { "text": " . son paisajes de colinas redondeadas con pendientes mayores al 30%. suelos muy pedregosos y no aptos para la mecanización agrícola. " }, { "text": " 14. " }, { "text": "- Figura 1. entre peso vivo y la tasa de concepción en novillas. Datos de la finca 15. " }, { "text": "Figura 2 . Figura 2. Curva de crecimiento de novillas. " }, { "text": " .... . testigo) con animales semejantes permanentemente en pastos mej~rados o con acceso estacional a los mismos • 17. • , , • , , . ' '. . ' '. . , . , ' . ' . " } ]

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[ "Crossbreeding", "Growth", "Reproductive", "preference", "Gurage", "Silte", "Wolayta", "Arbegona" ]

[{"head":"List of Abbreviations","index":1,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"List of Tables","index":2,"para(...TRUNCATED)

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[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":7,"text":"The key findings of the SVCA were:"}(...TRUNCATED)

[ { "text": " " }, { "text": " " } ]

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["Pratima Shrestha","Consultant","International Water Management Institution (IWMI-Nepal)","Jawalakh(...TRUNCATED)

[{"head":"Executive Summary","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":395,"text":"Users' organizati(...TRUNCATED)

[{"text":"2 0 2 Kilometers Landuse.shp Cultivation Forest Bush Grass Sand Channel River Cliff Lake/p(...TRUNCATED)

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[{"head":"| INTRODUCTION","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":128,"text":"Information dissemin(...TRUNCATED)

[{"text":"Figure 1 : Figure 1: Major information sources for seed producers, by country "},{"text":"(...TRUNCATED)

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[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":24,"text":"Applications in Plant Sciences 2013(...TRUNCATED)

[{"text":"Fig. 1 . Fig. 1. An example result for the exsic function using fi ve records from a sampl(...TRUNCATED)