Who discovered genes?
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Various genetic discoveries have been essential in the development of genetic engineering. Genetic inheritance was first discovered by Gregor Mendel in 1865 following experiments crossing peas. Although largely ignored for 34 years he provided the first evidence of hereditary segregation and independent assortment. In 1889 Hugo de Vries came up with the name "(pan)gene" after postulating that particles are responsible for inheritance of characteristics and the term "genetics" was coined by William Bateson in 1905. In 1928 Frederick Griffith proved the existence of a "transforming principle" involved in inheritance, which Avery, MacLeod and McCarty later (1944) identified as DNA. Edward Lawrie Tatum and George Wells Beadle developed the central dogma that genes code for proteins in 1941. The double helix structure of DNA was identified by James Watson and Francis Crick in 1953.As well as discovering how DNA works, tools had to be developed that allowed it to be manipulated. In 1970 Hamilton Smith's lab discovered restriction enzymes that allowed DNA to be cut at specific places and separated out on an electrophoresis gel. This enabled scientists to isolate genes from an organism's genome. DNA ligases, that join broken DNA together, had been discovered earlier in 1967 and by combining the two enzymes it was possible to "cut and paste" DNA sequences to create recombinant DNA. Plasmids, discovered in 1952, became important tools for transferring information between cells and replicating DNA sequences. Frederick Sanger developed a method for sequencing DNA in 1977, greatly increasing the genetic information available to researchers. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR), developed by Kary Mullis in 1983, allowed small sections of DNA to be amplified and aided identification and isolation of genetic material.
History of genetic engineering
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The history of genetics dates from the classical era with contributions by Hippocrates, Aristotle and Epicurus. Modern biology began with the work of the Augustinian friar Gregor Johann Mendel. His work on pea plants, published in 1866,what is now Mendelian inheritance. Some theories of heredity suggest in the centuries before and for several decades after Mendel's work.
The year 1900 marked the "rediscovery of Mendel" by Hugo de Vries, Carl Correns and Erich von Tschermak, and by 1915 the basic principles of Mendelian genetics had been applied to a wide variety of organisms—most notably the fruit fly "Drosophila melanogaster". Led by Thomas Hunt Morgan and his fellow "drosophilists", geneticists developed the Mendelian model, which was widely accepted by 1925. Alongside experimental work, mathematicians developed the statistical framework of population genetics, bringing genetic explanations into the study of evolution.
History of genetics
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In 1972, Walter Fiers and his team at the University of Ghent were the first to determine the sequence of a gene: the gene for bacteriophage MS2 coat protein. Richard J. Roberts and Phillip Sharp discovered in 1977 that genes can be split into segments. This led to the idea that one gene can make several proteins. The successful sequencing of many organisms' genomes has complicated the molecular definition of the gene. In particular, genes do not always sit side by side on DNA like discrete beads. Instead, regions of the DNA producing distinct proteins may overlap, so that the idea emerges that "genes are one long continuum". It was first hypothesized in 1986 by Walter Gilbert that neither DNA nor protein would be required in such a primitive system as that of a very early stage of the earth if RNA could serve both as a catalyst and as genetic information storage processor.
History of genetics
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In 1961, Jacques Monod, Jean-Pierre Changeux and François Jacob discovered the lac operon in the bacterium "Escherichia coli". It was a cluster of genes, arranged in a feedback control loop so that its products would only be made when "switched on" by an environmental stimulus. One of these products was an enzyme that splits a sugar, lactose; and lactose itself was the stimulus that switched the genes on. This was a revelation, as it showed for the first time that genes, even in an organism as small as a bacterium, were subject to fine-grained control. The implication was that many other genes were also elaborately regulated.
Evolutionary developmental biology
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The bacteria "Bacillus thuringiensis" was first discovered in 1901 as the causative agent in the death of silkworms. Due to these insecticidal properties the bacteria was used as a biological insecticide, developed commercially in 1938. The cry proteins were discovered to provide the insecticidal activity in 1956 and by the 1980s scientists had successfully cloned the gene that codes for this protein and expressed it in plants. Luck may also be involved. The gene that provides resistance to the glyphosate herbicide was found, after seven years searching, in bacteria that were surviving in the outflow pipe of a Monsanto RoundUp manufacturing facility. In animals the majority of genes used are growth hormone genes.
Genetic engineering techniques
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Gene is a thriller novel by Stel Pavlou (born 1970), published in 2005 in England by Simon & Schuster. It is published in several languages with some title changes. The Italian edition has the title La Conspirazione del Minotauro (The Minotaur Conspiracy). The novel is about a fictional New York detective, James North, who in the process of hunting down a criminal, uncovers a genetics experiment to unlock past lives through genetic memory, therefore achieving a kind of immortality. In so doing North discovers his own origins, that of a soldier from the Trojan War who is reincarnated seven times through history, forced to confront his nemesis each time, all for the loss of his one true love.
Gene (novel)
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BCKDHA was discovered by John Menkes in 1954. After he had seen a family with four children die after only a few months after birth, he found that their urine smelled sweet like maple syrup. While he was not the one to discover the specific gene, he did discover the maple syrup urine disease (MSUD). The BCKD complex is made up of three different catalytic pieces. It was in 1960 when Dancis discovered the gene itself, but this was from Menkes discovering of the disease leading to further investigation of its origin. He found that looking at the branched-chain amino acids and their corresponding alpha-keto acids, in turn aided in the realization that they were pathogenetic compounds. Dancis was the one to specifically track down the enzymatic defect in (MSUD) by finding what gene in the pool of human chromosomes was defecting the urine. He found the gene on the level of the decarboxylation of the branched-chain amino acids.
BCKDHA
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The bead theory is a disproved hypothesis that genes are arranged on the chromosome like beads on a necklace. This theory was first proposed by Thomas Hunt Morgan after discovering genes through his work with breeding red and white eyed fruit flies. According to this theory, the existence of a gene as a unit of inheritance is recognized through its mutant alleles. A mutant allele affects a single phenotypic character, maps to one chromosome locus, gives a mutant phenotype when paired and shows a Mendelian ratio when intercrossed. Several tenets of the bead theory are worth emphasizing :-
1. The gene is viewed as a fundamental unit of structure, indivisible by crossing over. Crossing over take place between genes ( the beads in this model ) but never within them.
2. The gene is viewed as the fundamental unit of change or mutation. It changes in toto from one allelic form into another; there are no smaller components within it that can change.
3. The gene is viewed as the fundamental unit of function ( although the precise function of gene is not specified in this model ). Parts of a gene, if they exist cannot function. Guido Pontecorvo continued to work under the basis of this theory until 
Seymour Benzer showed in the 1950s that the bead theory was not correct. He demonstrated that a gene can be defined as a unit of function. A gene can be subdivided into a linear array of sites that are mutable and that can be recombined. The smallest units of mutation and recombination are now known to be correlated with single nucleotide pairs.
Bead theory
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"We designed the building from the inside out, not the outside in,” said Loretta H. Cockrum, Foram’s founder, chairman and CEO. “We wanted the most efficient office building ever designed, with no wasted space or wasted energy. This is a building of the future more than a building of the present. A lot of love has gone into that building, and a lot of pride."
Brickell World Plaza
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2-hydroxypropyl-CoM lyase (, "epoxyalkane:coenzyme M transferase", "epoxyalkane:CoM transferase", "epoxyalkane:2-mercaptoethanesulfonate transferase", "coenzyme M-epoxyalkane ligase", "epoxyalkyl:CoM transferase", "epoxypropane:coenzyme M transferase", "epoxypropyl:CoM transferase", "EaCoMT", "2-hydroxypropyl-CoM:2-mercaptoethanesulfonate lyase (epoxyalkane-ring-forming)", "(R)-2-hydroxypropyl-CoM 2-mercaptoethanesulfonate lyase (cyclizing", "(R)-1,2-epoxypropane-forming)") is an enzyme with systematic name "(R)-(or (S)-)2-hydroxypropyl-CoM:2-mercaptoethanesulfonate lyase (epoxyalkane-ring-forming)". This enzyme catalyses the following chemical reaction
2-hydroxypropyl-CoM lyase
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Shortly after recovering from this attack, Gene begins to hear the urgings again, for the first time since discovering the land bridge. The urgings lead Gene to discover a small farm run by a community of humans. The farm is surrounded by a fence to keep Them out, but Gene manages to get inside. Once in the farm, Gene befriends a young girl, called Leezee Sower, who introduces him to her father. The adults accept Gene, recognising that his combat abilities will be useful in defending the farm against Them, who have recently been attacking with greater frequency and ferocity than before.
Kingdom (comics)