title: United Nations

text: Ironically, the US had simultaneously scrutinized the UN for employing communists and Soviet sympathizers, following a high-profile accusation that Alger Hiss, an American who had taken part in the establishment of the UN, had been a Soviet spy. US Senator Joseph McCarthy claimed that the UN Secretariat under Secretary-General Lie harbored American communists, leading to further pressure that the UN chief resign. The US saw nascent opposition to the UN into the 1960s, particularly among political conservatives, with groups such as the John Birch Society alleging that the organization was an instrument for communism. Popular opposition to the UN was expressed through bumper stickers and signs with slogans such as "Get the U.S. out of the U.N. and the U.N. out of the U.S.!" and "You can't spell communism without U.N."


title: United Nations

text: In the United States, there were concerns about supposed threats to national sovereignty, most notably promoted by the John Birch Society, which mounted a nationwide campaign in opposition to the UN during the 1960s.


title: United Nations

text: Beginning in the 1990s, the same concern appeared with the American Sovereignty Restoration Act, which has been introduced multiple times in the United States Congress. In 1997, an amendment containing the bill received a floor vote, with 54 representatives voting in favor. The 2007 version of the bill () was authored by U.S. Representative Ron Paul, Republican of the 14th district of Texas, to effect U.S. withdrawal from the United Nations. It would repeal various laws pertaining to the UN, terminate authorization for funds to be spent on the UN, terminate UN presence on U.S. property, and withdraw diplomatic immunity for UN employees. It would provide up to two years for the U.S. to withdraw. The "Yale Law Journal" cited the Act as proof that "the United States’s complaints against the United Nations have intensified." The most recent iteration, as of 2022, is H.R.7806, introduced by Rep. Mike D. Rogers.


title: United Nations

text: The UN's attention to Israel's treatment of Palestinians is considered excessive by a range of critics, including Israeli diplomat Dore Gold, British scholar Robert S. Wistrich, American legal scholar Alan Dershowitz, Australian politician Mark Dreyfus, and the Anti-Defamation League. In September 2015, Saudi Arabia's Faisal bin Hassan Trad was elected chair of an advisory committee in the UN Human Rights Council that appoints independent experts, a move criticized by human rights groups. The UNHRC has likewise been accused of anti-Israel bias, as it has passed more resolutions condemning Israel than the rest of the world combined.


title: United Nations

text: According to international relations scholar Edward Luck, former director of the Center on International Organization of the School of International and Public Affairs of Columbia University, the United States has preferred a feeble United Nations in major projects undertaken by the organization so as to forestall UN interference with, or resistance to, American policies. "The last thing the U.S. wants is an independent U.N. throwing its weight around," Luck said. Similarly, former US Ambassador to the United Nations Daniel Patrick Moynihan explained that "The Department of State desired that the United Nations prove utterly ineffective in whatever measures it undertook. The task was given to me, and I carried it forward with not inconsiderable success."


title: United Nations

text: In 1994, former special representative of the secretary-general of the UN to Somalia Mohamed Sahnoun published "Somalia: The Missed Opportunities", a book in which he analyses the reasons for the failure of the 1992 UN intervention in Somalia. Sahnoun claims that between the start of the Somali civil war in 1988 and the fall of the Siad Barre regime in January 1991, the UN missed at least three opportunities to prevent major human tragedies; when the UN tried to provide humanitarian assistance, they were totally outperformed by NGOs, whose competence and dedication sharply contrasted with the UN's excessive caution and bureaucratic inefficiencies. Sahnoun warned that if radical reform were not undertaken, then the UN would continue to respond to such crises with inept improvisation.


title: United Nations

text: Beyond specific instances or areas of alleged ineffectiveness, some scholars debate the overall effectiveness of the UN. Adherents to the realist school of international relations take a pessimistic position, arguing that the UN is not an effective organization because it is dominated and constrained by great powers. Liberal scholars counter that it is an effective organization because it has proved capable of solving many problems by working around the restrictions imposed by powerful member states. The UN is generally considered by scholars to be more effective in realms such as public health, humanitarian assistance, and conflict resolution.


title: United Nations

text: Critics have also accused the UN of bureaucratic inefficiency, waste, and corruption. In 1976, the General Assembly established the Joint Inspection Unit to seek out inefficiencies within the UN system. During the 1990s, the US withheld dues citing inefficiency and only started repayment on the condition that a major reforms initiative be introduced. In 1994, the Office of Internal Oversight Services (OIOS) was established by the General Assembly to serve as an efficiency watchdog.


title: United Nations

text: In 2004, the UN faced accusations that its recently ended Oil-for-Food Programme—in which Iraq had been allowed to trade oil for basic needs to relieve the pressure of sanctions—had suffered from widespread corruption, including billions of dollars of kickbacks. An independent inquiry created by the UN found that many of its officials had been involved in the scheme, and raised "significant" questions about the role of Kojo Annan, the son of Kofi Annan.


title: United Nations

text: The United Nations has inspired the extracurricular activity Model United Nations (MUN). MUN is a simulation of United Nations activity based on the UN agenda and following UN procedure. It is usually attended by high school and university students who organize conferences to simulate the various UN committees to discuss important issues of the day. Today, MUN educates tens of thousands on the activities of the UN around the world. MUN has many famous and notable alumni, such as former UN Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon.


The Lord of the Rings: The Rings of Power is an American fantasy television series developed by J. D. Payne and Patrick McKay for Amazon Prime Video. Based on the novel "The Lord of the Rings" and its appendices by J. R. R. Tolkien, the series is set in the Second Age of Middle-earth, thousands of years before Tolkien's "The Hobbit" and "The Lord of the Rings". It is produced by Amazon Studios in association with New Line Cinema, and in consultation with the Tolkien Estate.


title: The Lord of the Rings: The Rings of Power

text: Amazon bought the television rights for "The Lord of the Rings" from the Tolkien Estate in November 2017, making a five-season production commitment worth at least $US1 billion. This would make it the most expensive television series ever made. Payne and McKay were hired in July 2018. The series is primarily based on the appendices of "The Lord of the Rings", which include discussion of the Second Age, and Tolkien's grandson Simon Tolkien was consulted on the development of the series. Per the requirements of Amazon's deal with the Tolkien Estate, it is not a continuation of "The Lord of the Rings" and "The Hobbit" film trilogies, despite having the involvement of New Line Cinema, responsible for both trilogies. The production intended to evoke the films using similar production design, younger versions of characters from the films, and a main theme by Howard Shore, who composed the music for the trilogies. Bear McCreary composed the series's score. A large international cast was hired, and filming for the eight-episode first season took place in New Zealand, where the films were produced, from February 2020 to August 2021 (with a production break due to the COVID-19 pandemic). Amazon moved production for future seasons to the United Kingdom, where filming for the second season began on October 3, 2022.


text: "The Lord of the Rings: The Rings of Power" premiered on September 1, 2022, with the first two episodes, which Amazon stated had the most viewers for a Prime Video premiere. The rest of the eight-episode first season ran until October 14. It has received generally positive reviews from critics, with particular praise for its cinematography, visuals, and musical score, but criticism for its pacing and characterization.


text: Set thousands of years before the events of "The Hobbit" and "The Lord of the Rings", the series is based on author J. R. R. Tolkien's history of Middle-earth. It begins during a time of relative peace and covers all the major events of Middle-earth's Second Age: the forging of the Rings of Power, the rise of the Dark Lord Sauron, the fall of the island kingdom of Númenor, and the last alliance between Elves and Men. These events take place over thousands of years in Tolkien's original stories but are condensed for the series.


text: In July 2017, a lawsuit was settled between Warner Bros., the studio behind "The Lord of the Rings" and "The Hobbit" film trilogies, and the estate of author J. R. R. Tolkien upon whose books those films were based. With the two sides "on better terms", they began offering the rights to a potential television series based on Tolkien's "The Lord of the Rings" to several outlets, including Amazon, Netflix, and HBO, with a starting price of . Amazon emerged as the frontrunner by September and entered negotiations. Uncommonly for programming developments at the studio, Amazon CEO Jeff Bezos was personally involved with the negotiations. Bezos had previously given Amazon Studios a mandate to develop an ambitious fantasy series of comparable scale to HBO's "Game of Thrones". The studio decided to pursue "The Lord of the Rings", which Bezos was a personal fan of. This made Amazon the lead contender for the project.


text: Amazon initially pitched a retelling of "The Lord of the Rings" similar to Peter Jackson's film series, but this was rejected by the Tolkien Estate. Netflix meanwhile pitched developing several shows centering on characters like Gandalf and Aragorn, which was also rejected. Amazon eventually managed to convince the estate without any specific pitch, through a combination of its bid amount and by promising it a role in making creative decisions. On November 13, 2017, it was reported that Amazon had acquired the global television rights for close to . Industry commentators described this amount—before any production costs and without any creative talent attached to the project—as "insane", although some considered the project to be more of a reputational risk for Amazon than a financial one, due to Bezos's wealth. "The Hollywood Reporter" however later reported that the $250 million bid was made by Netflix and Amazon's bid was less by tens of millions of dollars, though it was still a substantial one.


text: Amazon's streaming service Prime Video gave a multi-season commitment to the series, with the possibility of a spin-off series as well. The budget was expected to be in the range of per season, and was likely to eventually exceed which would make it the most expensive television series ever made. Warner Bros. Television was not involved in the project because Amazon Studios wanted to produce it themselves. Amazon was working with the Tolkien Estate and Trust, HarperCollins, and New Line Cinema (the Warner Bros. division who produced the films). New Line was reportedly included to allow the series to use material from the films. The Tolkien Estate imposed some creative restrictions on the series, and the deal stipulated that production begin within two years.


text: In April 2018, "The Lord of the Rings" and "The Hobbit" film director Peter Jackson had begun discussing his potential involvement with Amazon, but by June he was not expected to be involved in the series. Later that month, Head of Amazon Studios Jennifer Salke said discussions regarding Jackson's involvement were ongoing, and added that the deal for the series had only been officially completed a month earlier. The studio had been meeting with potential writers about the project and intended to have a game plan for the series and a writing team set "very soon", with the hope that the series could debut in 2021. The studio asked for story pitches based on anything in Tolkien's "The Hobbit", "The Lord of the Rings", and its appendices. These included prequel stories focused on characters such as Aragorn, Gimli, and Gandalf. J. D. Payne and Patrick McKay pitched a series that explored the major events of Middle-earth's Second Age, thousands of years before "The Lord of the Rings", including the forging of the Rings of Power, the rise of the Dark Lord Sauron, the fall of the island kingdom of Númenor, and the last alliance between Elves and Men. These events were covered in a five-minute prologue in the "Lord of the Rings" films, but the pair wanted to expand this into "50 hours of television". Payne said it felt like "an amazing, untold story" that was "worthy of Tolkien", and McKay added, "We didn't want to do a side thing. A spinoff or the origin story of something else. We wanted to find a huge Tolkienian mega epic, and Amazon agreed". Payne and McKay were hired to develop the series in July 2018. They were an unlikely choice, having only done unproduced or uncredited writing before the series, but their vision aligned with Amazon's and they were championed to the studio by director J. J. Abrams who worked with them on an unproduced "Star Trek" film.


text: In December, Jackson said he and his producing partners would read some scripts for the series and offer notes on them, but otherwise he would enjoy watching a Tolkien adaptation that he did not make. Bryan Cogman joined the series as a consultant in May 2019 after signing an overall deal with Amazon. Cogman previously served as a writer on "Game of Thrones", and was set to work alongside Payne and McKay in developing the new series. In July, J. A. Bayona was hired to direct the first two episodes of the series and serve as executive producer alongside his producing partner Belén Atienza. Later that month, "Game of Thrones" creators David Benioff and D. B. Weiss were in discussions with several outlets regarding signing an overall deal, including with Amazon who were interested in having the pair consult on "The Lord of the Rings"; they ultimately signed a deal with Netflix instead. At the end of July, Amazon announced that Payne and McKay would serve as showrunners and executive producers for the series, and revealed the full creative team that was working on the project: executive producers Bayona, Atienza, Bruce Richmond, Gene Kelly, Lindsey Weber, and Sharon Tal Yguado; co-producer Ron Ames; costume designer Kate Hawley; production designer Rick Heinrichs; visual effects supervisor Jason Smith; and illustrator/concept artist John Howe, who was one of the chief conceptual designers on the films. Special effects company Wētā Workshop and visual effects vendor Wētā FX were also expected to be involved in the series as they were for the films. Additionally, Tolkien scholar Tom Shippey was revealed to be working on the series, but he was no longer involved by April 2020; other Tolkien scholars and "lore experts" remained involved.


text: Following development of the first season, Cogman left the series to focus on developing new projects. Kelly also left the series, while Yguado left when she exited her role as Amazon Studios' head of genre programming. Callum Greene joined as a new executive producer by December 2020, after previously serving as producer on "" (2013). Heinrichs was eventually replaced as production designer by Ramsey Avery. In March 2021, Wayne Che Yip was announced as director for four episodes of the series, and was set as a co-executive producer. Charlotte Brändström was revealed as director for another two episodes in May. That August, Jackson said he had not been contacted again about seeing scripts for the series. Amazon explained that the deal to acquire the television rights for "The Lord of the Rings" required them to keep the series distinct from Jackson's films, and the Tolkien Estate were reportedly against Jackson's involvement in the project. Despite this, the showrunners had privately discussed the series with Jackson and Yguado had championed his inclusion before her exit. The second season was revealed that month to have an all-female directing team.


text: Prime Video gave the series a multi-season commitment, believed to be for five seasons, as part of the initial deal with the Tolkien Estate, though the streaming service still had to give a formal greenlight to future seasons before work could begin on them. In July 2019, Shippey stated that he believed the first season of the series was supposed to consist of 20 episodes. In November, Amazon officially ordered a second season of the series, and scheduled a longer-than-usual four or five month production break after completion of filming on the first two episodes. This was to allow all the footage for the first episodes to be reviewed, and so the series's writers room could be reconvened to begin work on the second season before filming on the first season continued. This gave the series the option to film the first two seasons back-to-back, as the "Lord of the Rings" films had been. Amazon announced that the first season would consist of eight episodes in January 2020, and revealed the series's full title, "The Lord of the Rings: The Rings of Power", in January 2022. Payne and McKay felt the title could "live on the spine of a book next to J.R.R. Tolkien's other classics".


text: A writers room for the series had begun work in Santa Monica by mid-February 2019. Salke described extensive security measures that were being taken to keep details of this writing secret, including windows being taped closed and a security guard requiring fingerprint clearance from those entering the room. In addition to Payne and McKay, writers on the series include Gennifer Hutchison, Helen Shang, Jason Cahill, Justin Doble, Bryan Cogman, and Stephany Folsom, with Glenise Mullins acting as a consulting writer. The writers room was set to be disbanded once production on the series began, but would be reconvened during the four or five-month break in filming that was scheduled following production on the first two episodes. The writers were expected to map out the second season and write the majority of its scripts during this production break.


text: "The Lord of the Rings" and "The Hobbit" are set during the Third Age, while the First and Second Ages are explored in other Tolkien writings such as "The Silmarillion", "Unfinished Tales", and "The History of Middle-earth". Because Amazon only bought the television rights to "The Lord of the Rings" and "The Hobbit", the writers had to identify all of the references to the Second Age in those books and create a story that bridged those passages. These are primarily in the appendices of "The Lord of the Rings", but also in certain chapters and songs. Tolkien's estate was prepared to veto any changes from his established narrative, including anything that contradicted what Tolkien wrote in other works. The writers were free to add characters or details, and worked with the estate and Tolkien lore experts to ensure these were still "Tolkienian". They referenced "The Letters of J. R. R. Tolkien" for additional context on the setting and characters. Simon Tolkien, a novelist and the grandson of J.R.R. Tolkien, consulted on the series and helped develop its story and character arcs. He is credited as a "series consultant". The showrunners disagreed with suggestions that the series was only "vaguely connected" to Tolkien's writings. McKay said they felt it was "deeply, deeply connected" and a "story we're stewarding that was here before us and was waiting in those books" to be told. A disclaimer is featured in the series's end credits stating that some elements are "inspired by, though not contained in, the original source material".


text: Payne and McKay knew the series was expected to run for five seasons and were able to plan elements of the final season, including the series's final shot, while working on the first. Because they were mostly not able to adapt direct dialogue from Tolkien's Second Age stories, the writers attempted to repurpose Tolkien's dialogue that they did have access to while also taking inspiration from religious texts and poetry. They tailored the dialogue to different characters using dialects and poetic meters. Leith McPherson returned from the "Hobbit" films as dialect coach and noted that Tolkien's fictional languages evolve over time, so they are different for the Second Age compared to the Third. The series's Elves mostly speak Quenya, a language described as "Elvish Latin" that is often just used for spellcasting in the Third Age. Dwarvish and Orcish are also heard, along with English, Scottish, and Irish dialects. The biggest deviation made from Tolkien's works, which was approved by the estate and lore experts, was to condense the Second Age from thousands of years to a short period of time. This avoided human characters frequently dying due to their relatively short lifespans, and allowed major characters from later in the timeline to be introduced earlier in the series. The showrunners considered using non-linear storytelling instead, but felt this would prevent the audience from emotionally investing in the series. They said many real-life historical dramas also condense events like this, and felt they were still respecting the "spirit and feeling" of Tolkien's writings.


text: After the series was revealed to have hired Jennifer Ward-Lealand as an intimacy coordinator, Tolkien fans expressed concern that it would include "Game of Thrones"-style graphic sex and violence. Payne and McKay said this would not be the case and the series would be family-friendly. They hoped to evoke the tone of Tolkien's books, which can be "intense, sometimes quite political, sometimes quite sophisticated—but it's also heartwarming and life-affirming and optimistic." They also said they did not want to be influenced by modern politics, instead aspiring to tell a timeless story that matched Tolkien's own intention to create a mythology that would always be applicable.


text: The first season features several locations not previously seen in the film adaptations, including the Elf-capital Lindon and the island kingdom of Númenor, but it also revisits familiar locations from the films such as Khazad-dûm, which is in ruins during the "Lord of the Rings" films but is shown in its "full glory" during the series. One of the groups that the series includes are the Harfoots, depicted as precursors to the popular Hobbit race from "The Hobbit" and "The Lord of the Rings". Payne and McKay explained that they felt the series would not truly feel like Middle-earth to the audience without Hobbits. Tolkien's writings state that the Hobbits were not known during the Second Age, so they chose to explore the Harfoots instead, saying they were "satisfyingly Hobbit-adjacent". The Harfoots are depicted as having a secretive society and their story takes place in the "margins of the bigger quests" which was compared to the play "Rosencrantz and Guildenstern Are Dead". McKay said the first season was about "reintroducing this world and the return of evil", focusing on introducing the Second Age of Middle-earth and the heroic major characters rather than telling a "villain-centric" story. Despite being mentioned in a synopsis for the series and being a major character in the Second Age, the Dark Lord Sauron was reported to not be appearing in the first season at all. McKay said the season was influenced by dialogue from the second chapter of Tolkien's "The Lord of the Rings", "The Shadow of the Past", which he paraphrased as "After a defeat and a respite, a shadow grows again in a new form." Bayona said the season would hint at the presence of Sauron, and the overall story was about "the repercussions of war and the shadow of the past". He was influenced by his own childhood growing up in Spain following the Francoist dictatorship.


text: Salke stated in June 2018 that though the series would not be a remake of the films, it would bring back some characters from them. By July 2019, casting for the series was taking place around the world, with casting directors working in the United States, the United Kingdom, and Australia. Casting for extras also began in New Zealand at that time. Due to the secrecy surrounding the series, many actors did not know what roles they were going to play when they were cast. Markella Kavenagh was in talks to portray a character referred to as "Tyra" at the end of July, a series regular role. Will Poulter was cast as one of the series's leads, reportedly called "Beldor", in September. The role was described as being "one of the more coveted jobs" for young actors in Hollywood before Poulter's casting. Maxim Baldry was informally attached to the series in a "significant role" in mid-October, while Joseph Mawle was cast later that month. Mawle was reportedly playing the series's lead villain, referred to as "Oren". In December, Ema Horvath was cast in another series regular role; Poulter was forced to leave the series due to scheduling conflicts, with his role set to be recast; and Morfydd Clark was cast as a young version of the character Galadriel, who was portrayed in the films by Cate Blanchett.


text: Robert Aramayo was cast in a lead role, replacing Poulter, in early January 2020. He was later revealed to be playing a young version of the character Elrond, who was portrayed by Hugo Weaving in the films. A week after Aramayo's casting, Amazon officially announced his involvement along with the casting of Owain Arthur, Nazanin Boniadi, Tom Budge, Clark, Ismael Cruz Córdova, Horvath, Kavenagh, Mawle, Tyroe Muhafidin, Sophia Nomvete, Megan Richards, Dylan Smith, Charlie Vickers and Daniel Weyman. After six or seven auditions, Vickers was unknowingly cast as Sauron after the showrunners gave him two monologues of William Shakespeare's play "Richard III" and of John Milton's epic poem "Paradise Lost" to recite for the role as Halbrand; given how the latter monologue was spoken by Satan, Vickers started suspecting that his role was for a villainous character, but remained unaware of Halbrand actually being Sauron until the showrunners told him during the third episode's filming. Amazon's co-head of television Vernon Sanders noted that there were still some key roles that had yet to be filled. One of these key roles was confirmed to go to Baldry in March, when his deal for the series was completed. Baldry replaces Harry Sinclair as Isildur, who appeared in flashbacks during the films. In December 2020, Amazon announced 20 new cast members for the series: Cynthia Addai-Robinson, Baldry, newcomer Ian Blackburn, Kip Chapman, Anthony Crum, Maxine Cunliffe, Trystan Gravelle, Lenny Henry, Thusitha Jayasundera, Fabian McCallum, Simon Merrells, Geoff Morrell, Peter Mullan, Lloyd Owen, Augustus Prew, Peter Tait, Alex Tarrant, Leon Wadham, Benjamin Walker, and Sara Zwangobani. Owen and Walker portray Elendil and Gil-galad, who were briefly played by Peter McKenzie and Mark Ferguson in the films.


text: In March 2021, Budge announced that he had departed the series after filming several episodes. He explained that Amazon had reviewed the first episodes and decided to recast his character, who was reported to be Celebrimbor. Charles Edwards was cast to replace him as Celebrimbor in July, when Will Fletcher, Amelie Child-Villiers, and Beau Cassidy were also added to the season's cast. Seven of the series's main actors are New Zealanders, and overall a third of the first season's 124 speaking roles went to New Zealand actors. The rest of the cast came from Australia, Sri Lanka, the United Kingdom, and the United States.


text: While promoting the first season at San Diego Comic-Con in July 2022, the showrunners said they would give a role in the second season to television host and avid Tolkien fan Stephen Colbert, who was moderating the series's panel at the convention. A month later, they said the character Círdan would be introduced in the second season. The character briefly appeared in the "Lord of the Rings" films portrayed by Michael Elsworth.


text: On December 1, 2022, Amazon announced seven new cast members for the series: Gabriel Akuwudike, Yasen Atour, Ben Daniels, Sam Hazeldine, Amelia Kenworthy, Nia Towle, and Nicholas Woodeson. Hazeldine was revealed to be replacing Joseph Mawle in the role of Adar. This decision was made months earlier, and Mawle had not participated in any promotional material for season one. A week later, on December 7, Amazon further announced eight new cast members: Oliver Alvin-Wilson, Stuart Bowman, Gavi Singh Chera, William Chubb, Kevin Eldon, Will Keen, Selina Lo, and Calam Lynch. All remain undisclosed roles.


text: It was Jackson's understanding in December 2018 that the series would be set in the same continuity as the films and Amazon wanted to be consistent with the designs that were created for them, which illustrator and concept artist John Howe reiterated in August 2019, saying the showrunners were determined to remain faithful to the designs of the film trilogies. Payne and McKay later clarified that the series is not a direct continuation of the films, per Amazon's deal for the series, but they did not want it to "clash" with the films and tried to have similar designs. They took advantage of Howe's experience working on Jackson's adaptations, as well as that of costume designer Kate Hawley who worked on the "Hobbit" films. Other influences included the 1977 animated television adaptation of "The Hobbit" by Rankin/Bass.


text: Howe had filled 40 sketchbooks with drawings for the project by May 2022, and said the biggest difference between the films and series was the latter visited new locations, such as the oceans of Middle-earth. Avery's biggest challenge was making Middle-earth feel both familiar and new. He chose to build as many practical sets as possible, wanting the series to "feel real and honest... to make sure that the actors had a world that felt inhabitable". Payne said being on set "was like going to Middle-earth every day for work". Avery used different styles for each location, such as Lindon's "tree-like columns" which were inspired by Gothic architecture. He added "arboreal details" to reflect the Elves' love of nature. Khazad-dûm was designed to be "less severe" than the film version, using a "sensitivity toward the stone" rather than "harsh lines and gargantuan statues" to show the kingdom before the Dwarves "got greedy". Avery compared the large wheels on the Harfoot wagons to the round Hobbit doors seen in the films.


text: Payne, McKay, and Avery put a lot of focus on Númenor, which Payne explained was because "it's never been seen before. People have some ideas of what Elves look like or what Dwarves look like and what those kingdoms might look like. But Númenor was, in some ways, a blank canvas." They planned out the entire city, and made sure that this reflected Tolkien's description of it originally having Elvish influences but becoming more "Mannish" as it was developed. Tolkien also compared the city to Venice, so Avery took inspiration from that city and its connection to water. He used the color blue in a lot of the city's locations to emphasize the culture's relationship with water and sailing. Númenor's "looming marble structures" and "bold shapes, rich colors, and geometrical ornament[s]" were inspired by Ancient Greece, Ancient Egypt, and the rest of North Africa and the Middle East. The distinct shape of the sails on Númenórean ships were based on the ceremonial headwear worn by Gondorian kings, the descendants of Númenóreans, in the Third Age. Avery worked with experts to ensure the ships were still functional with the unique sails. The main Númenor set was almost and was described as "an entire seaside city" with buildings, alleyways, shrines, graffiti, and a ship docked at the harbor inside a large water tank. There were additional sets for specific locations within the city. The sets were built with a lot of real materials that were cheaper to source in New Zealand than the "movie fakery typically used to save time and money on sets in Los Angeles". Avery's team also created a form of Roman concrete using seashells that they used in the alleyways to show some of the history of the city. To further help immerse the actors, Avery used real plants, fruits, and incense on set so the "smells were right". Yip described the Númenor sets as "breathtaking... we were there for weeks, but every day I'd notice a new detail".


text: Jamie Wilson was the head of prosthetics for the series after previously working on the film trilogies. He noted that there had been advancements in the technology available since the films were produced, including encapsulated silicone that looks much more like real skin than previous techniques. The prosthetics team also worked closely with the series's visual effects department for digital "tweaks" to the prosthetics. The showrunners were particularly interested in the series's depiction of Orcs and ensuring that practical effects were used where possible. Wilson explained that the Orcs in the series were intended to be "younger"-looking than those in the films, since these groups are just emerging from hiding. Because of this, the series's Orcs feature less battle-scars than those in the films and are also lighter-skinned with some skin conditions caused by new exposure to the sun.


text: Salke said in June 2018 that the series could be produced in New Zealand, where the films were made, but Amazon was also willing to shoot in other countries as long as they could "provide those locations in a really authentic way, because we want it to look incredible". Pre-production on the series reportedly began around that time in Auckland, while location scouting also took place in Scotland, including around the Isle of Skye, Portpatrick, Scourie, Perthshire, and Loch Lomond. Amazon and Creative Scotland held talks about the series being based at new studios that were under construction in Leith, Edinburgh. In December, Amazon held a "crisis meeting" with David Parker, then New Zealand's Minister of Economic Development, after the studio threatened to take the production out of the country due to the lack of available studio space in Auckland. New Zealand's Major Screen Production Grant, which provides tax rebates for productions, was offered to Amazon, but Parker did not propose any special deal because he wanted the series to be made "on terms that are good for New Zealand".


text: Amazon decided to film in New Zealand, and were reportedly influenced by the New Zealand government's reassurances that the country was safe following the Christchurch mosque shootings in March 2019, as well as concern regarding the potential effects of Brexit in Scotland. Production was set to primarily take place in Auckland, but additional filming was expected to take place in Queenstown and other locations around New Zealand. Auckland was chosen as the primary filming location in New Zealand because the Wellington studios that the films were produced in were being used by the "Avatar" films at the time. Leases for the series at Kumeu Film Studios and Auckland Film Studios took effect in July, and Amazon officially confirmed that the series would be filmed in New Zealand in September 2019 after completing negotiations with the New Zealand Government, the New Zealand Film Commission, and Auckland Tourism, Events and Economic Development (ATEED). The studio said filming would begin in the "coming months", with some specific locations still being discussed with ATEED. Payne and McKay said the creative team chose New Zealand because they needed "somewhere majestic, with pristine coasts, forests, and mountains" that could also meet the production requirements of the series.


text: Through New Zealand's Major Screen Production Grant, all film and television productions receive a 20 per cent tax rebate, with those that offer "significant economic benefits" able to negotiate for an additional 5 per cent rebate. To gain access to the latter, Amazon signed two Memoranda of Understanding in December 2020 with the New Zealand Film Commission, Tourism New Zealand, and the country's Ministry of Business, Innovation and Employment (MBIE). One memorandum outlined Amazon's overall obligations in exchange for the extra refund, and the other was specific to the first season. Further memoranda needed to be signed for future seasons. The agreements allowed Tourism New Zealand to promote the country using material from the series, while Amazon would work with the Film Commission to help grow the country's screen sector and with MBIE to run an "innovation program" to benefit New Zealand companies and research groups. Details of the memoranda were revealed in April 2021, when New Zealand's Minister of Economic Development and Tourism, Stuart Nash, revealed that Amazon was spending () on the first season, making it eligible for () in tax rebates. James Hibberd at "The Hollywood Reporter" noted that the amount "almost certainly" included additional costs to the season's production budget, including the startup costs of building sets, costumes, and props that would be used in future seasons as well. Salke soon confirmed this, describing the cost as a "crazy headline that's fun to click on, but that is really building the infrastructure of what will sustain the whole series". In August, Amazon announced that it was moving production of future seasons to the United Kingdom and would not preserve the terms of the memoranda that they had signed. Nash confirmed that the series was no longer eligible for the additional rebate (around or ).


text: Table reads with the cast began in New Zealand by mid-January 2020, ahead of the start of filming in early February, under the working title "Untitled Amazon Project" or simply "UAP". The production was based in Auckland, primarily at Kumeu Film Studios and Auckland Film Studios, as well as Kelly Park Film Studios. J. A. Bayona directed the first two episodes, and acknowledged the "massive expectations" for the series, especially following the "high bar" set by Jackson's films. Óscar Faura was the cinematographer for the two episodes after serving the same role on all of Bayona's previous films. As part of the production's approach to secrecy, actors were often stopped from entering sets that they did not have scenes in. Different techniques were used to make the Dwarf and Harfoot actors appear smaller than the rest of the cast, including oversized props and prosthetics, and actors looking over the heads of their scene partners.


text: Location filming took place around Auckland in February. Filming for the first two episodes was expected to continue through May, followed by a longer-than-usual four or five month production break to allow all the footage for the episodes to be reviewed and so the writers could begin work on the second season. Production was set to resume in mid-October and continue until late June 2021. However, filming was placed on hold indefinitely in mid-March 2020, after 25 days of filming, due to the COVID-19 pandemic. Around 800 cast and crew members were told to stay home. Filming was allowed to resume in early May under new safety guidelines from the New Zealand government, when the majority of filming for the first two episodes was confirmed to have been completed. Instead of finishing the episodes then, the filming shutdown segued into the intended production break and the two episodes were set to be completed once filming on further episodes was ready to begin. The crew took advantage of the extended break in filming to refine the designs and scripts for the season, including adjusting the ending of the season to better align with the second-season storylines that the writers were working on. The series was one of seven film and television productions that were granted exemptions to allow cast and crew members to enter New Zealand while its borders were closed to non-New Zealanders due to COVID-19. The exemptions were granted before June 18 by Economic Development Minister Phil Twyford, and applied to 93 members of the production as well as 20 family members. Around 10 percent of the series's crew were believed to be non-New Zealanders, and many of them had remained in the country during its pandemic lockdown and did not require exemptions. Pre-production for further episodes began by July 2020, and filming resumed on September 28.


text: Bayona completed filming for his episodes by December 23. Production on further episodes was set to begin in January 2021 following a two-week Christmas break. Yip confirmed that he had begun filming his episodes by March, and Brändström was in New Zealand for production on the series in May. Aaron Morton and Alex Disenhof were the cinematographers for their episodes. Walker said in June that he was unsure how much longer the cast was required to stay in New Zealand, saying the production's timeline was "a bit nebulous" and Amazon would "let us go when they're done with us"; many of the series's international cast members were unable to leave New Zealand during filming due to the country's restrictive pandemic-era border policies putting limits on who could leave and return as well as requiring a two-week quarantine for anyone entering the country. This meant many actors were trapped in the country for nearly two years, and Boniadi said the cast "became a fellowship [who] were forced to lean on each other. We didn't have anybody else. We were on an island, away from our support systems, mid-pandemic." Addai-Robinson added, "We had to be there for each other in a way that is different from other on-location jobs. It really was about that protective bubble, and trying to focus on the task at hand." Other cast members helped Nomvete and her husband look after their newborn baby during filming. The closed border also meant that Amazon executives could not visit and monitor the expensive production.


text: In July 2021, several stunt performers alleged that a senior stunt supervisor for the production had created an "uneasy environment" that contributed to an unsafe workplace. At least three stunt performers were seriously injured on the set, including stuntwoman Dayna Grant who suffered a head injury in March and was diagnosed with a brain aneurysm and upper spinal injury; fans crowdfunded to help Grant pay for surgery. Stuntwoman Elissa Cadwell was injured when she struck her head falling into a water tank while rehearsing a stunt in February 2020. Amazon notified New Zealand's workplace health and safety regulator WorkSafe a week later, when Caldwell was recovering from her injuries after being treated in hospital. Amazon paid Caldwell , in part to help her return home to Australia. Responding to the allegations, the production's head of safety Willy Heatley said the injury rate was 0.065 percent across the 16,200 days of stunt work since filming began, and this was mostly due to "common stunt-related sprains, bruises and muscle and soft tissue strains".


text: Filming wrapped on August 2, 2021. 38 filming locations were chosen for the season. 15 were in Auckland, and the others included the Hauraki Gulf, the Coromandel Peninsula, the Denize Bluffs in the King Country, Mount Kidd in Fiordland, Piha, Rangitikei, Kahurangi National Park, Central Otago, and Queenstown. Unlike the films, the series used New Zealand's coastlines, including an unnamed beach in the South Island that was only accessible by boat or helicopter. This was used for the entrance to Númenor's harbor because it had surrounding rock formations that matched with concept art of "King Stones" at the entrance to the harbor. The showrunners intended to film in the Waitomo Caves for scenes set in the city of Khazad-dûm, but this proved to be impractical. More than 1,000 New Zealanders were contracted for the season and around 700 more were indirectly engaged by it.


text: In November 2022, "The Guardian" reported that film production during the first season had generated an estimated total of 14,387 tonnes of landfill waste including polystyrene, polyester, soft plastic, timber, and plastic set pieces and props. "The Guardian" also reported that Amazon Studios had promoted several sustainable practices including recycling office paper waste and batteries, installing an electric vehicle charging station at each studio, distributing reusable water bottles, promoting vegetarian meals, and working with local waste disposal companies to recycle 3,490 cubic metres of waste. In response to "The Guardian" story, an Amazon Studios spokesperson claimed that the studio's sustainability practices during the first season of the "Rings of Power" "either met or exceeded industry standards" and complied with New Zealand's environmental laws and regulations.


text: At the end of filming for the season, the crew were unsure when filming for the second season would begin though there was expected to be a hiatus of at least one year to allow post-production on the first season and writing for the second season to be completed. Amazon retained its lease on Auckland Film Studios and Kumeu Film Studios, and reportedly Studio West also, for the duration of the hiatus, which allowed the series's sets to remain at the studios and prevented other productions from using the space.


text: The week after filming ended, Amazon announced that it was moving production of the series to the United Kingdom starting with the second season. At that time, Amazon was in the process of booking studio space in the UK, with Scotland reported to be the frontrunner for new shooting locations. The company planned to ship all of the sets that were built for the first season to the UK, and hire a new UK-based crew since the majority of the first season's crew was New Zealand-based. Factors that played a role in the change included Amazon already heavily investing in UK studio space for several other productions; a belief that the UK would be a "more economical choice" following the high cost of making the first season in New Zealand; the opportunity to film in other European countries near the UK as was done for the series "Game of Thrones"; the Tolkien Estate wanting the series to be filmed in the UK since Tolkien was inspired by locations there for his books; and the fact that New Zealand's restrictive pandemic-era border policies had prevented Amazon executives from visiting and monitoring the production, while many international cast members (more than half of whom are British) were unable to leave the country for nearly two years during filming of the first season. Amazon had offered in August 2020 to pay for the use of hotels and rental properties as private quarantine facilities to give the production more flexibility with travel, but this idea was rejected by the New Zealand government due to the need for additional services related to quarantining. In the UK, 80 per cent of expenditure is eligible for a 25 per cent tax rebate through the government's "high-end television" tax relief program.


text: The cast and crew expressed regret that they were not returning to New Zealand for the second season. Executive producer Lindsey Weber called it a "hard departure" and said they would not have been able to make the first season without the New Zealand crew, many having worked on the films as well. However, McKay felt that because Tolkien was inspired by the UK for his writings they would be "bring[ing] the property home" with the second season which would be an "opportunity... pregnant with possibilities". He also suggested that future seasons would be visiting new lands within Tolkien's world that would justify having new filming locations.


text: Pre-production for the second season was expected to begin in the UK in the second quarter of 2022, taking place concurrently with post-production for the first season which was continuing in New Zealand until June 2022. Bray Film Studios and Bovingdon Airfield, both outside of London, were set to be the initial production locations for the season. The showrunners were scouting for additional filming locations in June 2022, and the cast was preparing to travel to the UK in August ahead of an October filming start. Production for the second season began in the UK on 3 October 2022. In December 2022, the directors of the second season were revealed to be Charlotte Brändström, returning from the first season, Sanaa Hamri, and Louise Hooper. Brändström will direct four episodes and will serve as co-executive producer. Hamri and Hooper will each direct two episodes.


text: In addition to Wētā FX, visual effects for the first season were created by Industrial Light & Magic (ILM), Rodeo FX, Method Studios, DNEG, Rising Sun Pictures, Cause and FX, Cantina Creative, Atomic Arts, and Outpost VFX. 1,500 visual effects artists worked on the season, which has more than 9,500 visual effects shots. Visual effects producer Ron Ames said the effects were completed to a theatrical resolution so they could be shown on screens ranging from televisions to IMAX. Effects work for the season included shots featuring Dwarf and Harfoot actors appearing small beside the other cast, set extensions, and big effects sequences.


text: Howard Shore, the composer for the "Lord of the Rings" and "Hobbit" films, was reported to be in discussions with Amazon about working on the series in September 2020. He was said to be interested in developing musical themes but not necessarily composing the entire score. Shore was confirmed to be in talks for the series a year later, when composer Bear McCreary was reported to be involved as well. Their hiring was officially announced in July 2022, with McCreary composing the score and Shore writing the main title theme. McCreary said the main theme was created independently of the score, but he felt the two "fit together so beautifully".


text: McCreary began working on the series in July 2021, and said it was a "once-in-a-lifetime opportunity" to work on such an ambitious score with the creative freedom that he wanted. He spent two months writing new musical themes based on the scripts, which he compared to writing a symphony, and then used those to compose nine hours of music for the first season over eight months. He wanted to honor Shore's musical legacy and hoped to create a "continuity of concept" between the series and films, with the 15 new themes he wrote for the season being added to the "pantheon of memorable melodies" that Shore had written. He did note that his music would reflect the series's depiction of "these societies at their peak" compared to Shore's music for the Third Age which had "a wistfulness and a melancholy". McCreary used different approaches for the different groups in the series: the music for the Elves features "etheral voices" and choir, the Dwarven music has "deep male vocals", the Harfoots have music based in natural sounds, and the harmonic language for Númenor has Middle Eastern influences.


text: The score for each episode took four days to record, using up to 90-piece orchestras at Abbey Road Studios and AIR Studios in London as well as a 40-person choir at Synchron Stage in Vienna. For the choral music, McCreary pulled text from Tolkien's writings and worked with the series's language experts to write new lyrics in Tolkien's fictional languages, including the Elvish languages Sindarin and Quenya, the Dwarvish language Khuzdûl, Black Speech, and the Númenórean language Adûnaic. Soloists were recorded in Los Angeles and across Europe playing folk instruments such as the hardanger fiddle, nyckelharpa, bagpipes, and bodhrán drums. McCreary was still writing music for the first season in Los Angeles while recording for most of the episodes took place, but he was able to conduct the orchestra for the final episode at AIR Studios in April 2022.


text: Two singles from McCreary's score, "Galadriel" and "Sauron", were released on Amazon Music on July 21, 2022. They were followed by a full soundtrack album featuring Shore's main theme and selections from McCreary's score. The album was released on all major streaming services on August 19 and will be physically released by Mondo on CD (October 14) and vinyl (January 13, 2023). The Amazon Music version of the album includes two exclusive tracks. Additional soundtrack albums featuring the full score for each episode will be released after the episode premieres.


text: Early promotions for the series on social media used several maps of Middle-earth's Second Age, as well as excerpts from the novel "The Lord of the Rings". The maps were designed and created by illustrator John Howe and overseen by Tolkien scholar Tom Shippey to ensure they were accurate to Tolkien's works. Howe and Shippey spent a lot of time working on the maps, which were based on Tolkien's maps of Númenor during the Second Age as well as his maps of the Third Age. Despite their efforts, HarperCollins received complaints from fans shortly after the maps were released online regarding two mistakes that were made on them.


text: Amazon considered the reveal of the series's full title in January 2022 to be crucial due to it beginning the series's marketing campaign at the start of its premiere year. Instead of just using visual effects to create the title reveal, the studio released an announcement video in which the letters of the title are physically cast from molten metal while an excerpt of the "Ring Verse" from "The Lord of the Rings" is read in voiceover. The video was directed by Klaus Obermeyer, who worked with special effects supervisor Lee Nelson under advisement by veteran special effects supervisor Douglas Trumbull. They filmed the video with foundryman Landon Ryan in late 2021 in Los Angeles, after experimenting with different combinations of metals, as well as sparkler dust, argon pours, and liquid hydrogen, to create the desired look. The final metal was a mixture of bronze and aluminum which was poured into moulds of compressed sand that could be used multiple times. The pouring was filmed at 5,000 frames per second with a Phantom Flex4K camera so it could be shown in ultra-slow motion. For the final title card, the forged letters were inscribed with Elvish writing and placed on a large piece of redwood. Staff from the Tolkien fan website "TheOneRing.net" and entertainment journalists were invited by Amazon to watch the filming of the video. Prologue Films provided previsualization for the sequence as well as compositing and additional visual effects. They recreated the final title card digitally, taking care to maintain the "integrity of the live action shots and lighting".


text: Twenty-three "character posters" for the series were released on February 3, though unusually they do not feature actor or character names and focus on the hands and torsos of the characters rather than their faces. Amazon said this was to "fuel fan speculation and discussion", and it did lead to speculation and analysis about who each character could be. A first look at some of the series's main characters was then revealed on February 10 along with story details, before the first teaser trailer was released on February 13, during Super Bowl LVI. "TheOneRing.net" hosted an official "watch party" for the trailer on YouTube, while some "high-profile" fans were flown to Bellver Castle in the Balearic Islands, Spain, to help promote the teaser globally. Commentators noted that the teaser did not reveal many new details about the series, but Graeme Guttmann of "Screen Rant" felt it did not hold back on "epic" spectacle. "The Hollywood Reporter" James Hibberd also described the teaser as epic, and felt it showed off the series's large budget, while Susana Polo at "Polygon" said it "wastes no time reintroducing viewers to the lush fantasy setting many know" from Jackson's film adaptations. Writing for "IGN", Amelia Emberwing said the most successful aspect of the teaser was that "it like "The Lord of the Rings"" and appeared to balance the "serenity and dangers of Middle-earth" like the films did. In contrast, Jack Butler of "National Review" had felt the first look images were "Tolkienesque" but was less sure about the teaser, which led him to think that the series would be more reliant on visual effects than the "grounded approach" of Jackson's films. Kevin E G Perry of "The Independent" was even more critical of the visual effects, saying the trailer looked "cheap" and like a "cut scene from an old "Final Fantasy" computer game". RelishMix reported that the teaser trailer had 80.34 million views in 24 hours across Facebook, Twitter, YouTube, and Instagram, which was the third highest among those airing during the Super Bowl according to their metrics. Amazon reported 257 million views within 24 hours, which they said was a record for any film or television trailer released during the Super Bowl.


text: The early marketing material led to a "cacophony" of online fan discourse, including concerns about accuracy to the source material and the series's compression of Tolkien's Second Age timeline. Discussing these responses for "The Escapist", Darren Mooney said "extreme reactions" from online media fans were now expected due to cultural forces, "an entire online economy running on manufactured outrage", and the "near-religious reverence" that modern fans have for media. He said the online reaction was likely not representative of general opinions on the series and noted that Jackson's films, which were "beloved by mainstream audiences", faced similar complaints from Tolkien fans. In response to the fan concerns, Amazon invited several Tolkien critics, fan websites, and influencers to a screening in May 2022. They were flown to Merton College, Oxford, where Tolkien worked as a professor, and shown 20 minutes of completed footage from the series. They also talked to the showrunners and Howe. Justin Sewell of "TheOneRing.net" said they were unable to discuss details, but the footage "looks like it should, sounds like it should, and feels like a return to the comfortable universe we all love", addressing the concerns of most of the fans in attendance. Kaitlyn Facista, writing for the "Tea with Tolkien" blog, said the footage immersed her in Middle-earth in a way that the teaser trailer did not, and she was impressed by the showrunners' knowledge of the source material. Others reported that the screening and discussion with the showrunners made them "cautiously optimistic" about the series. Corey Olsen, an academic and podcaster known as the "Tolkien Professor", felt after meeting the showrunners that the series was in " good hands".


text: An "exclusive sneak peek" of the series was made available to Amazon Prime members for 48 hours on July 6, before being widely released online, ahead of "Amazon Prime Day" on July 12 to 13. This was followed by a second teaser trailer on July 14 which Hibberd described as "a more extensive look at the show's rendition of Middle-earth". Cydney Contreras at "E! Online" said the teaser and locations were awe-inspiring and breathtaking, Jim Vorel of "Paste" said it was "visually splendid" and reflected the large budget, and "Gizmodo" Germain Lussier said it felt like fans of Middle-earth were "going home". Adam B. Vary and Wilson Chapman at "Variety" acknowledged the locations and visuals, but felt the teaser did not explain the story for audience members who were unaware of Tolkien's writings. Writing for "Forbes", Scott Mendelson said the teaser was likely not connected enough to the "Lord of the Rings" films in terms of cast and story to entice general audiences, putting it on par with other fantasy properties inspired by the films that were not successful. Blake Hawkins at "Comic Book Resources" felt the teaser's inclusion of more Tolkien mythology and lore would help assuage the concerns of Tolkien fans, but "TechRadar" Matt Evans said it was unlikely to win over those fans. He explained that many fans had come to accept the changes Jackson made to adapt "The Lord of the Rings", but the same could not be said for his "Hobbit" films. Evans felt "The Rings of Power" would likely be treated similarly to the "Hobbit" films due to it being a "blockbuster ploy to keep our money" which was "the absolute antithesis of Tolkien's work". He added, "being a good fantasy show on its own merit is simply not going to be enough. It has to be truly great to justify its own existence".


text: The series was promoted at the San Diego Comic-Con in late July with a meet-and-greet between 21 cast members and a group of Tolkien fans; a private dinner with the cast, crew, Amazon executives, and media; branding on San Diego trains and at the convention's entrances; and a two-hour panel moderated by Stephen Colbert, who was flown in for the day as a surprise for those in attendance. The panel began with McCreary conducting a 25-piece orchestra and 16-person choir, performing a suite of his original score. A full trailer and five clips were shown, and Colbert interviewed the cast and crew. Marketing executive Sue Kroll said the convention was "our first real opportunity to show fans our dedication" to the source material. Several outlets included the series on lists of "winners" at the convention, such as "TheWrap" whose staff said Amazon "took the exact right approach" to its Comic-Con presence. For "IGN" list, Adam Bankhurst said the panel "changed the conversation" and created positive "buzz" for the series in a way that the teaser trailers did not. The trailer from the panel was also released online, and Vary noted that it explained the series's premise, unlike the teasers. He and several other commentators highlighted the appearance of a Balrog. James Whitbrook at "Gizmodo" said there was a lot going on in the trailer and it was "looking quite fantastic", while Jack Shepherd of "GamesRadar+" called it the best look yet at the series.


text: A final trailer for the first season was released in late August, during the week before the series premiere. Multiple commentators pointed out that the trailer came following the premiere of rival fantasy series and "Game of Thrones" spin-off "House of the Dragon", and some suggested that this was a way to remind audiences that "The Rings of Power" would be premiering soon as well. Also that week, Prime Video announced a promotion with Samsung that would see 8K footage from the series displayed on large LED screens at the "Samsung 837" experience center and Time's Square in New York City, Piccadilly Circus in London, and Piazza del Duomo in Milan. A new book chronicling the events of Middle-earth's Second Age, titled "The Fall of Númenor", was compiled and edited by Tolkien scholar Brian Sibley from Tolkien's writings about the Second Age. The book will be published in November 2022, following the release of the first season of "The Rings of Power", to capitalize on new interest in Tolkien's works arising from the series's release.


text: The first two episodes were screened at premiere events in August 2022, in Los Angeles, Mexico City, Mumbai, New York City, and London. They were also shown in free fan screenings on August 31 in around 200 countries, including the U.S., Canada, the UK, Ireland, Argentina, Colombia, Australia, and New Zealand. The episodes premiered on Prime Video in the U.S. on September 1. The other six episodes of the first season were released weekly from September 9 to October 14. Episodes were released on Prime Video around the world at the same time as the U.S. release, in more than 240 countries and territories.


text: Amazon announced that "The Rings of Power" had been watched by 25 million viewers globally in the first 24 hours that the first two episodes were available on Prime Video. The company stated that this was the biggest premiere ever for the service. It was the first time that Amazon had publicly stated viewership data for Prime Video and the company did not specify how much of an episode a user needed to watch to count as a viewer.


text: Analytics company Samba TV, which gathers viewership data from certain Smart TVs and content providers, reported that 1.8 million U.S. households watched the series' first episode within four days of its release. This dropped to 1.3 million for the second episode, indicating that roughly a quarter of the audience chose not to continue watching after the first.


text: Whip Media calculated that for the week ending September 4, three days after "The Rings of Power" debut, it was the second-highest original streaming series for U.S. viewership behind Disney+'s "". It also stated that "The Rings of Power" had the fifth-highest debut, in terms of three-day viewership following the premiere, in TV Time's history and retained 87 percent of the viewership during the second episode.


text: Nielsen estimated that "The Rings of Power" was watched by 12.6 million viewers in the US during the first four days. It also stated that the show was streamed for 1.253 billion minutes in the US for the week of August 29–September 4, acquiring the first rank among both the original and overall titles category. This marked the first time an Amazon series had debuted atop the Nielsen charts. 55% of the viewers were male and the 35–49 age group formed the largest demographic. Ormax Media estimated that 7.3 million people or around three million accounts in India watched the premiere over the first three days. The third episode was watched by 7.4 million US viewers according to Nielsen.


text: Head of Amazon Studios Jennifer Salke revealed in late-September 2022 that the show had been watched by nearly 100 million customers. Nielsen stated in November 2022 that viewers above the age of 50 formed 42% of the audience for the show.


text: "The Rings of Power" was compared to fellow fantasy series "House of the Dragon" by a number of commentators. According to Whip Media, who track viewership data for the 21 million worldwide users of their TV Time app, "House of the Dragon" had 20% more followers than "The Rings of Power" at the start of August 2022. Writing for "Quartz" later that month, Adario Strange compared Google Trends data for both series and found that there was low audience interest in both until July 2022, at which point "House of the Dragon" jumped up to "100 out of a possible 100 in terms of interest" while interest in "The Rings of Power" remained low.


text: The executive producers of "The Rings of Power" stated that they did not feel any competition with "House of the Dragon", and Lindsey Weber said this had been "manufactured by the media for headlines". "The Hollywood Reporter" however reported that Amazon closely follows the viewership of "House of the Dragon" and the growth of its viewership during the second episode distressed the producers.


text: Jennifer Maas at "Variety" felt that a fair comparison between the series and "House of the Dragon" was not possible based on the company's self-reported data; the single-episode premiere of "House of the Dragon" reportedly had 10 million U.S. viewers across HBO and HBO Max.


text: Viewer numbers reported by Samba TV were considerably lower than the 4.8 million U.S. households they reported as watching "House of the Dragon" in its first four days, and was also behind the premiere numbers for Netflix's "Stranger Things" season four (2.9 million) and Disney+'s "Obi-Wan Kenobi" (2.1 million) earlier in 2022.


text: Conversely, Nielsen reported that the two-part premiere of "The Rings of Power" was streamed by more viewers during the first four days of release than "House of the Dragon", which was streamed by 10.6 million viewers. Later it stated that "The Rings of Power" leaned towards an older demographic and struggled to attract younger viewers unlike "House of the Dragon".


text: Meanwhile there was a significant overlap between audiences watching both shows. The viewership of "The Rings of Power" was ahead of "House of the Dragon" for nearly every week except one while new episodes were being released according to Nielsen. "House of the Dragon" however generated more online interest, which Business Insider stated might have been a reflection of the demographics of both shows.


text: On the review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes, "The Lord of the Rings: The Rings of Power" holds an 85% approval rating based on 466 reviews by critics. Critical consensus summarized, "It may not yet be the One Show to Rule Them All, but "The Rings of Power" enchants with its opulent presentation and deeply-felt rendering of Middle Earth." On Metacritic, which uses a weighted average, the series premiere has received a score of 71 out of 100 based on 40 critic reviews, indicating "generally favorable reviews".


text: The first two episodes received generally positive reviews from critics, with particular praise for its cinematography, visuals, and musical score and some criticism for its pacing and characterization. Kevin Perry from "The Independent" praised the series saying that it "rummages around in JRR Tolkien's 'The Lord of the Rings' appendices and comes up with gold". Darren Franich from "Entertainment Weekly" expressed a negative opinion, calling it "a special catastrophe of ruined potential, sacrificing a glorious universe's limitless possibilities at the altar of tried-and-true blockbuster desperation" while criticizing the characterization of Galadriel.


text: While praising the overall production, Ed Power from "The Irish Times" and "The Daily Telegraph" was critical of the Harfoots' affected Irish accents and saw the characters as a depiction of offensive stereotypes of Irish people. Other Irish critics and publications agreed, though some were less critical of this element.


text: The critic Stuart Heritage, writing in "The Guardian", described the series as "inept". He felt that it was in the main poorly acted because of inadequate direction, though he admired Morfydd Clark's performance. He found the score "syrupy", the lighting inappropriate, and the visual effects variable in quality despite the cost of the show.


text: Alan Sepinwall in "Rolling Stone" commented that one could wish the series would do more with less. There had, he wrote, been "memorable, powerful moments", as with the Harfoots, or the way it introduced Galadriel, or Durin's friendship with Elrond, or the battle between Men and Orcs before Mount Doom erupted. All the same, in his view the "mystery box plotting" about who would turn out to be Sauron was overblown and not really engaging. Sepinwall found both action and night sequences grossly overlit. He felt, too, that the show appeared uncertain whether it was trying to please Tolkien fans or newcomers.


text: According to CNET's Roger Cheng, writing after the final episode of the first season had aired, "At best, it was a lesser version of Peter Jackson's original Lord of the Rings trilogy, particularly the bromance between Elrond (Robert Aramayo) and Prince Durin IV (Owain Arthur). At worst, it was flat out sleep-inducing. I couldn't stay awake for some of the early episodes, even for the ones set in the beautiful, but oddly soulless Númenor set pieces."


text: Actor Bernard Hill, who starred in the Peter Jackson trilogy in the role of King Théoden, criticized the series, calling it a "money-making venture", and that he would not be watching it, saying that the franchise should have ended with Jackson's first three films.


text: A day after the series premiered, Amazon began holding reviews of it on Prime Video for 72 hours to ensure each review was "legitimate" and not coming from internet trolls. James Hibberd of "The Hollywood Reporter" called this an unusual step, but Amazon stated that it was a policy the company had introduced for all its series earlier in the year. Hibberd said this was partially due to review bombing by users who were posting "numerous negative reviews for [the series] due to its perceived cultural or political issues rather than its actual quality". However, Hibberd also found that the majority of negative reviews focused on other reasons such as the story, acting, and pacing. He felt the audience rating would increase if the series could "deliver consistent quality over time... [and] win people over" in a similar way to the concurrent Disney+ series "She-Hulk: Attorney at Law". Average reviews on IMDb and Google were slightly higher than the Rotten Tomatoes audience score at that point, but were polarized with the majority of reviews being the highest or lowest possible score. Analysis company Brandwatch found 60 percent of online discussions about the series in the few days following its premiere to be negative and focused on slow pacing, poor writing and acting, reliance on visual effects, and differences from Tolkien's writings. The other 40 percent praised the series for promising plotlines, intriguing characters, "breathtaking" cinematography, and respect for Tolkien. Discussing this data for "TechRadar", Tom Power said many of the negative responses were from Tolkien fans that likely did not want the series to be made in the first place, or more casual fans who had been influenced by that group's views. He attributed the positive responses to "TV aficionados" and other fans. Cindy White at "The A. V. Club" described some of the fan discourse as "a fight between loyal [Tolkien] fans who simply want to preserve the integrity of the thing they love and a multinational corporation looking to cash in on that devotion", and Anthony Palomba, professor of business administration at the University of Virginia, also partially attributed the responses to "super diehard people" who did not necessarily reflect the views of general audiences. Shaun Gunner, the chair of the Tolkien Society, agreed that responses to the series away from social media were more nuanced. He stated that among members of the society, some loved the series, others were unsure, but "very few people are just writing it off ... cautious optimism is probably where most people are at."


text: Star Lenny Henry revealed in October 2021 that he and other people of color had been cast as Harfoots, which was explained with Tolkien's description of the Harfoots as being "browner of skin". Several non-white actors were also cast as Elves and Dwarves for the first time in the franchise. After this was revealed, Amazon received backlash from social media users complaining about these casting decisions, including arguments that Tolkien's descriptions invariably portrayed Elves, Dwarves, and Hobbits as white and that these castings were therefore disrespectful to his writings. The series's official social media accounts removed some of the comments which were deemed to be racist. The producers said they expected to receive some responses like this, but wanted to ensure the series reflected "what the world actually looks like" and felt this approach to casting would be closer to the spirit of the books. Executive producer Lindsey Weber stated, "Tolkien is for everyone. His stories are about his fictional races doing their best work when they leave the isolation of their own cultures and come together." Members of the cast praised this approach, including Henry. Cynthia Addai-Robinson reiterated Weber's comments, stating that Tolkien explores "people of different ethnicities, backgrounds, and walks of life all coming together for a common cause. For me personally, as a viewer, I would have the expectation that [the series] would reflect the real world, as well as the world as I aspire it to be."


text: "The Escapist" Darren Mooney described these responses as "the reactionary backlash accompanying any modern project with female characters or characters of color". Andrew Blair at "Den of Geek" discussed how this was an example of the increasing racist and sexist complaints made by certain online groups about different media projects over the prior decade (such as the 2016 "Ghostbusters" reboot and the "Star Wars" sequel trilogy), using some established techniques such as "spamming and overwhelming conversation". As part of the backlash on various online forums and comment sections, members of these groups often used the following quote which they incorrectly attributed to Tolkien: "Evil is not able to create anything new, it can only distort and destroy what has been invented or made by the forces of good." Blair felt this was "colossally lacking in self-awareness". "TheGamer" Ben Sledge compared the backlash to homophobic complaints about Ian McKellen's casting as Gandalf in the "Lord of the Rings" films. Sledge acknowledged the argument that Tolkien had hoped to create a mythology and fictional history for Britain in his writings, but said the assumption that all people in Britain's history were white was not historically accurate and did not apply to a fantasy story anyway; Dimitra Fimi, a lecturer in fantasy and children's literature and specialist on Tolkien at the University of Glasgow, wrote a piece with Mariana Rios Maldonado for "The Conversation" that concurred with Sledge in this view, discussing Britain's history of diversity, the freedom of adaptations to make changes where needed, and that Tolkien often did not discuss the biology of his characters but did suggest the existence of dark-skinned Elves in drafts of "The Silmarillion".


text: Discussion of the casting backlash continued after the series premiered, including in analysis of the alleged review bombing on websites such as Rotten Tomatoes, IMDb, and Google. Angus Dalton at "The Sydney Morning Herald" found that "many of the most-liked one-star Google reviews cite[d] the show's inclusion of black and brown actors". He discussed this with Helen Young, a lecturer of writing and literature at Deakin University as well as an editorial board member at the Journal of Tolkien Research, who suggested that there was only a small group of fans expressing these views but they were being amplified by "far-right political activists" to create a false narrative that "real fans of Tolkien don't want actors of color in their Middle-earth". Dalton also noted criticisms of Galadriel being portrayed as stronger than male Elves.


text: In early September 2022, Puerto Rican star Ismael Cruz Córdova said he had been receiving messages featuring "pure and vicious hate speech" for two years due to his casting as an Elf. Soon after this was revealed, "Lord of the Rings" film actors Elijah Wood, Billy Boyd, and Dominic Monaghan released a photo of themselves on social media wearing shirts featuring Human, Hobbit, and Elf ears with different skin tones along with the phrase "You are all welcome here" in Elvish. Fellow cast member Sean Astin released his own photo wearing a hat with the same design. Clothing featuring the design was made available for purchase, with half of all proceeds going to a charity that supports people of color. The "Rings of Power" cast also released a joint statement using the hashtag #YouAreAllWelcomeHere which similarly denounced the racism that several of their members had faced. Orlando Bloom, who portrayed Legolas in the original trilogy of films and "The Hobbit" posted a picture of himself with Cruz Córdova, tagging it "friend" in Elvish.


text: An official aftershow hosted by "Deadline Hollywood" Dominic Patten and Anthony D'Alessandro was revealed on September 3, 2022. Titled "Deadline's Inside the Ring: LOTR: The Rings of Power", a new episode of the video series is being released soon after each episode of "The Rings of Power" debuts on Prime Video. The aftershow features interviews with cast and crew as well as exclusive "footage and insights" for each episode.


title: Belarus

text: Belarus, officially the Republic of Belarus, is a landlocked country in Eastern Europe. It is bordered by Russia to the east and northeast, Ukraine to the south, Poland to the west, and Lithuania and Latvia to the northwest. Covering an area of and with a population of 9.4 million, Belarus is the 13th-largest and the 20th-most populous country in Europe. The country has a hemiboreal climate and is administratively divided into seven regions. Minsk is the capital and largest city.


title: Belarus

text: Until the 20th century, different states at various times controlled the lands of modern-day Belarus, including Kievan Rus', the Principality of Polotsk, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, and the Russian Empire. In the aftermath of the Russian Revolution in 1917, different states arose competing for legitimacy amid the Civil War, ultimately ending in the rise of the Byelorussian SSR, which became a founding constituent republic of the Soviet Union in 1922. After the Polish-Soviet War, Belarus lost almost half of its territory to Poland. Much of the borders of Belarus took their modern shape in 1939, when some lands of the Second Polish Republic were reintegrated into it after the Soviet invasion of Poland, and were finalized after World War II. During World War II, military operations devastated Belarus, which lost about a quarter of its population and half of its economic resources. The republic was redeveloped in the post-war years. In 1945, the Byelorussian SSR became a founding member of the United Nations, along with the Soviet Union.


title: Belarus

text: The parliament of the republic proclaimed the sovereignty of Belarus on 27 July 1990, and during the dissolution of the Soviet Union, Belarus declared independence on 25 August 1991. Following the adoption of a new constitution in 1994, Alexander Lukashenko was elected Belarus's first president in the country's first and only free election post-independence, serving as president ever since. Lukashenko heads a highly centralized authoritarian government, and has referred to himself as the "last dictator" in Europe. Belarus ranks low in international measurements of freedom of the press and civil liberties. It has continued a number of Soviet-era policies, such as state ownership of large sections of the economy. Belarus is the only European country using capital punishment. In 2000, Belarus and Russia signed a treaty for greater cooperation, forming the Union State.


title: Belarus

text: Belarus is a developing country, ranking 60th in the Human Development Index. It has been a member of the United Nations since its founding and has joined the CIS, the CSTO, the EAEU, the OSCE, and the Non-Aligned Movement. It has shown no aspirations of joining the European Union but nevertheless maintains a bilateral relationship with the bloc and also participates in two EU projects, the Baku Initiative and the Eastern Partnership. Belarus suspended its participation in the latter on 28 June 2021, after the EU imposed more sanctions against the country.


title: Belarus

text: The name "Belarus" is closely related with the term "Belaya Rus", i.e., "White Rus'". There are several claims to the origin of the name "White Rus<nowiki>'</nowiki>". An ethno-religious theory suggests that the name used to describe the part of old Ruthenian lands within the Grand Duchy of Lithuania that had been populated mostly by Slavs who had been Christianized early, as opposed to Black Ruthenia, which was predominantly inhabited by pagan Balts. An alternative explanation for the name comments on the white clothing worn by the local Slavic population. A third theory suggests that the old Rus' lands that were not conquered by the Tatars (i.e., Polotsk, Vitebsk and Mogilev) had been referred to as "White Rus"'. A fourth theory suggests that the color white was associated with the west, and Belarus was the western part of Rus in the 9th to 13th centuries.


title: Belarus

text: The name "Rus" is often conflated with its Latin forms "Russia" and "Ruthenia", thus Belarus is often referred to as "White Russia" or "White Ruthenia". The name first appeared in German and Latin medieval literature; the chronicles of Jan of Czarnków mention the imprisonment of Lithuanian grand duke Jogaila and his mother at "" in 1381. The first known use of "White Russia" to refer to Belarus was in the late-16th century by Englishman Sir Jerome Horsey, who was known for his close contacts with the Russian royal court. During the 17th century, the Russian tsars used "White Rus" to describe the lands added from the Grand Duchy of Lithuania.


title: Belarus

text: The term "Belorussia" (, the latter part similar but spelled and stressed differently from Росси́я, "Russia") first rose in the days of the Russian Empire, and the Russian Tsar was usually styled "the Tsar of All the Russias", as "Russia" or the "Russian Empire" was formed by three parts of Russia—the Great, Little, and White. This asserted that the territories are all Russian and all the peoples are also Russian; in the case of the Belarusians, they were variants of the Russian people.


title: Belarus

text: After the Bolshevik Revolution in 1917, the term "White Russia" caused some confusion, as it was also the name of the military force that opposed the red Bolsheviks. During the period of the Byelorussian SSR, the term "Byelorussia" was embraced as part of a national consciousness. In western Belarus under Polish control, "Byelorussia" became commonly used in the regions of Białystok and Grodno during the interwar period.


title: Belarus

text: The term "Byelorussia" (its names in other languages such as English being based on the Russian form) was only used officially until 1991. Officially, the full name of the country is "Republic of Belarus" (, , ). In Russia, the usage of "Belorussia" is still very common.


title: Belarus

text: In Lithuanian, besides "Baltarusija" (White Russia), Belarus is also called "Gudija". The etymology of the word "Gudija" is not clear. By one hypothesis the word derives from the Old Prussian name "Gudwa", which, in turn, is related to the form "Żudwa", which is a distorted version of "Sudwa, Sudovia. Sudovia", in its turn, is one of the names of the Yotvingians. Another hypothesis connects the word with the Gothic Kingdom that occupied parts of the territory of modern Belarus and Ukraine in the 4th and 5th centuries. The self-naming of Goths was "Gutans" and "Gytos", which are close to Gudija. Yet another hypothesis is based on the idea that "Gudija" in Lithuanian means "the other" and may have been used historically by Lithuanians to refer to any people who did not speak Lithuanian.


title: Belarus

text: From 5000 to 2000 BC, the Bandkeramik predominated in what now constitutes Belarus, and the Cimmerians as well as other pastoralists roamed through the area by 1,000 BC. The Zarubintsy culture later became widespread at the beginning of the 1st millennium. In addition, remains from the Dnieper–Donets culture were found in Belarus and parts of Ukraine. The region was first permanently settled by Baltic tribes in the 3rd century. Around the 5th century, the area was taken over by the Slavs. The takeover was partially due to the lack of military coordination of the Balts, but their gradual assimilation into Slavic culture was peaceful in nature. Invaders from Asia, among whom were the Huns and Avars, swept through c. 400–600 AD, but were unable to dislodge the Slavic presence.


title: Belarus

text: In the 9th century the territory of modern Belarus became part of Kievan Rus', a vast East Slavic state ruled by the Rurikid dynasty. Upon the death of Kievan Rus' ruler Yaroslav I the Wise in 1054, the state split into independent principalities. The Battle on the Nemiga River in 1067 was one of the more notable events of the period, the date of which is considered the founding date of Minsk.


title: Belarus

text: Many early Rus' principalities were virtually razed or severely affected by a major Mongol invasion in the 13th century, but the lands of modern-day Belarus avoided the brunt of the invasion and eventually joined the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. There are no sources of military seizure, but the annals affirm the alliance and united foreign policy of Polotsk and Lithuania for decades. Trying to avoid the Tatar Yoke, the Principality of Minsk sought protection from Lithuanian princes further north and in 1242, the Principality of Minsk became a part of the expanding Grand Duchy of Lithuania.


title: Belarus

text: Incorporation into the Grand Duchy of Lithuania resulted in an economic, political and ethno-cultural unification of Belarusian lands. Of the principalities held by the duchy, nine of them were settled by a population that would eventually become the Belarusians. During this time, the duchy was involved in several military campaigns, including fighting on the side of Poland against the Teutonic Knights at the Battle of Grunwald in 1410; the joint victory allowed the duchy to control the northwestern borderlands of Eastern Europe.


title: Belarus

text: The Muscovites, led by Ivan III of Moscow, began military campaigns in 1486 in an attempt to incorporate the former lands of Kievan Rus', specifically the territories of modern-day Belarus, Russia and Ukraine.


title: Belarus

text: On 2 February 1386, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and the Kingdom of Poland were joined in a personal union through a marriage of their rulers. This union set in motion the developments that eventually resulted in the formation of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, created in 1569 by the Union of Lublin.


title: Belarus

text: The Lithuanian nobles were forced to seek rapprochement with the Poles because of a potential threat from Muscovy. To strengthen their independence within the format of the union, three editions of the Statutes of Lithuania were issued in the second half of the 16th century. The third Article of the Statutes established that all lands of the duchy will be eternally within the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and never enter as a part of other states. The Statutes allowed the right to own land only to noble families of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. Anyone from outside the duchy gaining rights to a property would actually own it only after swearing allegiance to the Grand Duke of Lithuania (a title dually held by the King of Poland). These articles were aimed to defend the rights of the Lithuanian nobility within the duchy against Polish and other nobles of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth.


title: Belarus

text: In the years following the union, the process of gradual Polonization of both Lithuanians and Ruthenians gained steady momentum. In culture and social life, both the Polish language and Catholicism became dominant, and in 1696, Polish replaced Ruthenian as the official language, with Ruthenian being banned from administrative use. However, the Ruthenian peasants continued to speak their native language. Also, the Belarusian Byzantine Catholic Church was formed by the Poles in order to bring Orthodox Christians into the See of Rome. The Belarusian church entered into a full communion with the Latin Church through the Union of Brest in 1595, while keeping its Byzantine liturgy in the Church Slavonic language.


title: Belarus

text: The Statutes were initially issued in the Ruthenian language alone and later also in Polish. Around 1840 the Statutes were banned by the Russian tsar following the November Uprising. Ukrainian lands used them until 1860s.


title: Belarus

text: The union between Poland and Lithuania ended in 1795 with the Third Partition of Poland by Imperial Russia, Prussia, and Austria. The Belarusian territories acquired by the Russian Empire under the reign of Catherine II were included into the Belarusian Governorate () in 1796 and held until their occupation by the German Empire during World War I.


title: Belarus

text: Under Nicholas I and Alexander III the national cultures were repressed. Policies of Polonization changed by Russification, which included the return to Orthodox Christianity of Belarusian Uniates. Belarusian language was banned in schools while in neighboring Samogitia primary school education with Samogitian literacy was allowed.


title: Belarus

text: In a Russification drive in the 1840s, Nicholas I prohibited use of the Belarusian language in public schools, campaigned against Belarusian publications and tried to pressure those who had converted to Catholicism under the Poles to reconvert to the Orthodox faith. In 1863, economic and cultural pressure exploded in a revolt, led by Konstanty Kalinowski (also known as Kastus). After the failed revolt, the Russian government reintroduced the use of Cyrillic to Belarusian in 1864 and no documents in Belarusian were permitted by the Russian government until 1905.


title: Belarus

text: During the negotiations of the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, Belarus first declared independence under German occupation on 25 March 1918, forming the Belarusian People's Republic. Immediately afterwards, the Polish–Soviet War ignited, and the territory of Belarus was divided between Poland and Soviet Russia. The Rada of the Belarusian Democratic Republic exists as a government in exile ever since then; in fact, it is currently the world's longest serving government in exile.


title: Belarus

text: The Belarusian People's Republic was the first attempt to create an independent Belarusian state under the name "Belarus". Despite significant efforts, the state ceased to exist, primarily because the territory was continually dominated by the German Imperial Army and the Imperial Russian Army in World War I, and then the Bolshevik Red Army. It existed from only 1918 to 1919 but created prerequisites for the formation of a Belarusian state. The choice of name was probably based on the fact that core members of the newly formed government were educated in tsarist universities, with corresponding emphasis on the ideology of West-Russianism.


title: Belarus

text: The Republic of Central Lithuania was a short-lived political entity, which was the last attempt to restore Lithuania in the historical confederacy state (it was also supposed to create Lithuania Upper and Lithuania Lower). The republic was created in 1920 following the staged rebellion of soldiers of the 1st Lithuanian–Belarusian Division of the Polish Army under Lucjan Żeligowski. Centered on the historical capital of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, Vilna (, ), for 18 months the entity served as a buffer state between Poland, upon which it depended, and Lithuania, which claimed the area. After a variety of delays, a disputed election took place on 8 January 1922, and the territory was annexed to Poland. Żeligowski later in his memoir which was published in London in 1943 condemned the annexation of the Republic by Poland, as well as the policy of closing Belarusian schools and general disregard of Marshal Józef Piłsudski's confederation plans by Polish ally.


title: Belarus

text: In 1919 a part of Belarus under Russian rule emerged as the Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic (Byelorussian SSR). Soon thereafter it merged to form the Lithuanian-Byelorussian SSR. The contested lands were divided between Poland and the Soviet Union after the war ended in 1921, and the Byelorussian SSR became a founding member of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics in 1922. In the 1920s and 1930s, Soviet agricultural and economic policies, including collectivization and five-year plans for the national economy, led to famine and political repression.


title: Belarus

text: The western part of modern Belarus remained part of the Second Polish Republic. After an early period of liberalization, tensions between increasingly nationalistic Polish government and various increasingly separatist ethnic minorities started to grow, and the Belarusian minority was no exception. The polonization drive was inspired and influenced by the Polish National Democracy, led by Roman Dmowski, who advocated refusing Belarusians and Ukrainians the right for a free national development. A Belarusian organization, the "Belarusian Peasants' and Workers' Union", was banned in 1927, and opposition to Polish government was met with state repressions. Nonetheless, compared to the (larger) Ukrainian minority, Belarusians were much less politically aware and active, and thus suffered fewer repressions than the Ukrainians. In 1935, after the death of Piłsudski, a new wave of repressions was released upon the minorities, with many Orthodox churches and Belarusian schools being closed. Use of the Belarusian language was discouraged. Belarusian leadership was sent to Bereza Kartuska prison.


title: Belarus

text: In 1939, Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union invaded and occupied Poland, marking the beginning of World War II. The Soviets invaded and annexed much of eastern Poland, which had been part of the country since the Peace of Riga two decades earlier. Much of the northern section of this area was added to the Byelorussian SSR, and now constitutes West Belarus. The Soviet-controlled Byelorussian People's Council officially took control of the territories, whose populations consisted of a mixture of Poles, Ukrainians, Belarusians and Jews, on 28 October 1939 in Białystok. Nazi Germany invaded the Soviet Union in 1941. The defense of Brest Fortress was the first major battle of Operation Barbarossa.


title: Belarus

text: The Byelorussian SSR was the hardest-hit Soviet republic in World War II; it remained in Nazi hands until 1944. The German called for the extermination, expulsion, or enslavement of most or all Belarusians for the purpose of providing more living space in the East for Germans. Most of Western Belarus became part of the "Reichskommissariat Ostland" in 1941, but in 1943 the German authorities allowed local collaborators to set up a client state, the Belarusian Central Council.


title: Belarus

text: The German occupation in 1941–1944 and war on the Eastern Front devastated Belarus. During that time, 209 out of 290 towns and cities were destroyed, 85% of the republic's industry, and more than one million buildings. After the war, it was estimated that 2.2 million local inhabitants had died and of those some 810,000 were combatants—some foreign. This figure represented a staggering quarter of the prewar population. In the 1990s some raised the estimate even higher, to 2.7 million. The Jewish population of Belarus was devastated during the Holocaust and never recovered. The population of Belarus did not regain its pre-war level until 1971.