title: Soviet Union

text: By the early 1940s, the Soviet economy had become relatively self-sufficient; for most of the period until the creation of Comecon, only a tiny share of domestic products was traded internationally. After the creation of the Eastern Bloc, external trade rose rapidly. However, the influence of the world economy on the USSR was limited by fixed domestic prices and a state monopoly on foreign trade. Grain and sophisticated consumer manufactures became major import articles from around the 1960s. During the arms race of the Cold War, the Soviet economy was burdened by military expenditures, heavily lobbied for by a powerful bureaucracy dependent on the arms industry. At the same time, the USSR became the largest arms exporter to the Third World. Significant amounts of Soviet resources during the Cold War were allocated in aid to the other socialist states.


title: Soviet Union

text: From the 1930s until its dissolution in late 1991, the way the Soviet economy operated remained essentially unchanged. The economy was formally directed by central planning, carried out by Gosplan and organized in five-year plans. However, in practice, the plans were highly aggregated and provisional, subject to "ad hoc" intervention by superiors. All critical economic decisions were taken by the political leadership. Allocated resources and plan targets were usually denominated in rubles rather than in physical goods. Credit was discouraged, but widespread. The final allocation of output was achieved through relatively decentralized, unplanned contracting. Although in theory prices were legally set from above, in practice they were often negotiated, and informal horizontal links (e.g. between producer factories) were widespread.


title: Soviet Union

text: A number of basic services were state-funded, such as education and health care. In the manufacturing sector, heavy industry and defence were prioritized over consumer goods. Consumer goods, particularly outside large cities, were often scarce, of poor quality and limited variety. Under the command economy, consumers had almost no influence on production, and the changing demands of a population with growing incomes could not be satisfied by supplies at rigidly fixed prices. A massive unplanned second economy grew up at low levels alongside the planned one, providing some of the goods and services that the planners could not. The legalization of some elements of the decentralized economy was attempted with the reform of 1965.


title: Soviet Union

text: Although statistics of the Soviet economy are notoriously unreliable and its economic growth difficult to estimate precisely, by most accounts, the economy continued to expand until the mid-1980s. During the 1950s and 1960s, it had comparatively high growth and was catching up to the West. However, after 1970, the growth, while still positive, steadily declined much more quickly and consistently than in other countries, despite a rapid increase in the capital stock (the rate of capital increase was only surpassed by Japan).


title: Soviet Union

text: Overall, the growth rate of per capita income in the Soviet Union between 1960 and 1989 was slightly above the world average (based on 102 countries). A 1986 study published in the "American Journal of Public Health" claimed that, citing World Bank data, the Soviet model provided a better quality of life and human development than market economies at the same level of economic development in most cases. According to Stanley Fischer and William Easterly, growth could have been faster. By their calculation, per capita income in 1989 should have been twice higher than it was, considering the amount of investment, education and population. The authors attribute this poor performance to the low productivity of capital. Steven Rosefielde states that the standard of living declined due to Stalin's despotism. While there was a brief improvement after his death, it lapsed into stagnation.


title: Soviet Union

text: In 1987, Mikhail Gorbachev attempted to reform and revitalize the economy with his program of "perestroika". His policies relaxed state control over enterprises but did not replace it by market incentives, resulting in a sharp decline in output. The economy, already suffering from reduced petroleum export revenues, started to collapse. Prices were still fixed, and the property was still largely state-owned until after the country's dissolution. For most of the period after World War II until its collapse, Soviet GDP (PPP) was the second-largest in the world, and third during the second half of the 1980s, although on a per-capita basis, it was behind that of First World countries. Compared to countries with similar per-capita GDP in 1928, the Soviet Union experienced significant growth.


title: Soviet Union

text: In 1990, the country had a Human Development Index of 0.920, placing it in the ‘high’ category of human development. It was the third-highest in the Eastern Bloc, behind Czechoslovakia and East Germany, and the 25th in the world of 130 countries.


title: Soviet Union

text: The need for fuel declined in the Soviet Union from the 1970s to the 1980s, both per ruble of gross social product and per ruble of industrial product. At the start, this decline grew very rapidly but gradually slowed down between 1970 and 1975. From 1975 and 1980, it grew even slower, only 2.6%. David Wilson, a historian, believed that the gas industry would account for 40% of Soviet fuel production by the end of the century. His theory did not come to fruition because of the USSR's collapse. The USSR, in theory, would have continued to have an economic growth rate of 2–2.5% during the 1990s because of Soviet energy fields. However, the energy sector faced many difficulties, among them the country's high military expenditure and hostile relations with the First World.


title: Soviet Union

text: In 1991, the Soviet Union had a pipeline network of for crude oil and another for natural gas. Petroleum and petroleum-based products, natural gas, metals, wood, agricultural products, and a variety of manufactured goods, primarily machinery, arms and military equipment, were exported. In the 1970s and 1980s, the USSR heavily relied on fossil fuel exports to earn hard currency. At its peak in 1988, it was the largest producer and second-largest exporter of crude oil, surpassed only by Saudi Arabia.


title: Soviet Union

text: The Soviet Union placed great emphasis on science and technology within its economy, however, the most remarkable Soviet successes in technology, such as producing the world's first space satellite, typically were the responsibility of the military. Lenin believed that the USSR would never overtake the developed world if it remained as technologically backward as it was upon its founding. Soviet authorities proved their commitment to Lenin's belief by developing massive networks, research and development organizations. In the early 1960s, the Soviets awarded 40% of chemistry PhDs to women, compared to only 5% in the United States. By 1989, Soviet scientists were among the world's best-trained specialists in several areas, such as Energy physics, selected areas of medicine, mathematics, welding and military technologies. Due to rigid state planning and bureaucracy, the Soviets remained far behind technologically in chemistry, biology, and computers when compared to the First World. The Soviet government opposed and persecuted geneticists in favour of Lysenkoism, a pseudoscience rejected by the scientific community in the Soviet Union and abroad but supported by Stalin's inner circles. Implemented in the USSR and China, it resulted in reduced crop yields and is widely believed to have contributed to the Great Chinese Famine.


title: Soviet Union

text: Under the Reagan administration, Project Socrates determined that the Soviet Union addressed the acquisition of science and technology in a manner that was radically different from what the US was using. In the case of the US, economic prioritization was being used for indigenous research and development as the means to acquire science and technology in both the private and public sectors. In contrast, the USSR was offensively and defensively maneuvering in the acquisition and use of the worldwide technology, to increase the competitive advantage that they acquired from the technology while preventing the US from acquiring a competitive advantage. However, technology-based planning was executed in a centralized, government-centric manner that greatly hindered its flexibility. This was exploited by the US to undermine the strength of the Soviet Union and thus foster its reform.


title: Soviet Union

text: Transport was a vital component of the country's economy. The economic centralization of the late 1920s and 1930s led to the development of infrastructure on a massive scale, most notably the establishment of Aeroflot, an aviation enterprise. The country had a wide variety of modes of transport by land, water and air. However, due to inadequate maintenance, much of the road, water and Soviet civil aviation transport were outdated and technologically backward compared to the First World.


title: Soviet Union

text: Soviet rail transport was the largest and most intensively used in the world; it was also better developed than most of its Western counterparts. By the late 1970s and early 1980s, Soviet economists were calling for the construction of more roads to alleviate some of the burdens from the railways and to improve the Soviet government budget. The street network and automotive industry remained underdeveloped, and dirt roads were common outside major cities. Soviet maintenance projects proved unable to take care of even the few roads the country had. By the early-to-mid-1980s, the Soviet authorities tried to solve the road problem by ordering the construction of new ones. Meanwhile, the automobile industry was growing at a faster rate than road construction. The underdeveloped road network led to a growing demand for public transport.


title: Soviet Union

text: Despite improvements, several aspects of the transport sector were still riddled with problems due to outdated infrastructure, lack of investment, corruption and bad decision-making. Soviet authorities were unable to meet the growing demand for transport infrastructure and services.


title: Soviet Union

text: Excess deaths throughout World War I and the Russian Civil War (including the postwar famine) amounted to a combined total of 18 million, some 10 million in the 1930s, and more than 26 million in 1941–1945. The postwar Soviet population was 45 to 50 million smaller than it would have been if pre-war demographic growth had continued. According to Catherine Merridale, ‘...reasonable estimate would place the total number of excess deaths for the whole period somewhere around 60 million.’


title: Soviet Union

text: The birth rate of the USSR decreased from 44.0 per thousand in 1926 to 18.0 in 1974, mainly due to increasing urbanization and the rising average age of marriages. The mortality rate demonstrated a gradual decrease as well – from 23.7 per thousand in 1926 to 8.7 in 1974. In general, the birth rates of the southern republics in Transcaucasia and Central Asia were considerably higher than those in the northern parts of the Soviet Union, and in some cases even increased in the post–World War II period, a phenomenon partly attributed to slower rates of urbanization and traditionally earlier marriages in the southern republics. Soviet Europe moved towards sub-replacement fertility, while Soviet Central Asia continued to exhibit population growth well above replacement-level fertility.


title: Soviet Union

text: The late 1960s and the 1970s witnessed a reversal of the declining trajectory of the rate of mortality in the USSR, and was especially notable among men of working age, but was also prevalent in Russia and other predominantly Slavic areas of the country. An analysis of the official data from the late 1980s showed that after worsening in the late-1970s and the early 1980s, adult mortality began to improve again. The infant mortality rate increased from 24.7 in 1970 to 27.9 in 1974. Some researchers regarded the rise as mostly real, a consequence of worsening health conditions and services. The rises in both adult and infant mortality were not explained or defended by Soviet officials, and the Soviet government stopped publishing all mortality statistics for ten years. Soviet demographers and health specialists remained silent about the mortality increases until the late-1980s, when the publication of mortality data resumed, and researchers could delve into the real causes.


title: Soviet Union

text: Under Lenin, the state made explicit commitments to promote the equality of men and women. Many early Russian feminists and ordinary Russian working women actively participated in the Revolution, and many more were affected by the events of that period and the new policies. Beginning in October 1918, Lenin's government liberalized divorce and abortion laws, decriminalized homosexuality (re-criminalized in the 1930s), permitted cohabitation, and ushered in a host of reforms. However, without birth control, the new system produced many broken marriages, as well as countless out-of-wedlock children. The epidemic of divorces and extramarital affairs created social hardships when Soviet leaders wanted people to concentrate their efforts on growing the economy. Giving women control over their fertility also led to a precipitous decline in the birth rate, perceived as a threat to their country's military power. By 1936, Stalin reversed most of the liberal laws, ushering in a pronatalist era that lasted for decades.


title: Soviet Union

text: By 1917, Russia became the first great power to grant women the right to vote. After heavy casualties in World War I and II, women outnumbered men in Russia by a 4:3 ratio. This contributed to the larger role women played in Russian society compared to other great powers at the time.


title: Soviet Union

text: Anatoly Lunacharsky became the first People's Commissar for Education of Soviet Russia. In the beginning, the Soviet authorities placed great emphasis on the elimination of illiteracy. All left-handed children were forced to write with their right hand in the Soviet school system. Literate people were automatically hired as teachers. For a short period, quality was sacrificed for quantity. By 1940, Stalin could announce that illiteracy had been eliminated. Throughout the 1930s, social mobility rose sharply, which has been attributed to reforms in education. In the aftermath of World War II, the country's educational system expanded dramatically, which had a tremendous effect. In the 1960s, nearly all children had access to education, the only exception being those living in remote areas. Nikita Khrushchev tried to make education more accessible, making it clear to children that education was closely linked to the needs of society. Education also became important in giving rise to the New Man. Citizens directly entering the workforce had the constitutional right to a job and to free vocational training.


title: Soviet Union

text: The education system was highly centralized and universally accessible to all citizens, with affirmative action for applicants from nations associated with cultural backwardness. However, as part of a general antisemitic policy, an unofficial Jewish quota was applied in the leading institutions of higher education by subjecting Jewish applicants to harsher entrance examinations. The Brezhnev era also introduced a rule that required all university applicants to present a reference from the local Komsomol party secretary. According to statistics from 1986, the number of higher education students per the population of 10,000 was 181 for the USSR, compared to 517 for the US.


title: Soviet Union

text: The Soviet Union was an ethnically diverse country, with more than 100 distinct ethnic groups. The total population of the country was estimated at 293 million in 1991. According to a 1990 estimate, the majority of the population were Russians (50.78%), followed by Ukrainians (15.45%) and Uzbeks (5.84%). Overall, in 1989 the ethnic demography of the country showed that 69.8% was East Slavic, 17.5% was Turkic, 1.6% were Armenians, 1.6% were Balts, 1.5% were Finnic, 1.5% were Tajik, 1.4% were Georgian, 1.2% were Moldovan and 4.1% were of other various ethnic groups.


title: Soviet Union

text: All citizens of the USSR had their own ethnic affiliation. The ethnicity of a person was chosen at the age of sixteen by the child's parents. If the parents did not agree, the child was automatically assigned the ethnicity of the father. Partly due to Soviet policies, some of the smaller minority ethnic groups were considered part of larger ones, such as the Mingrelians of Georgia, who were classified with the linguistically related Georgians. Some ethnic groups voluntarily assimilated, while others were brought in by force. Russians, Belarusians, and Ukrainians, who were all East Slavic and Orthodox, shared close cultural, ethnic, and religious ties, while other groups did not. With multiple nationalities living in the same territory, ethnic antagonisms developed over the years.


title: Soviet Union

text: Members of various ethnicities participated in legislative bodies. Organs of power like the Politburo, the Secretariat of the Central Committee etc., were formally ethnically neutral, but in reality, ethnic Russians were overrepresented, although there were also non-Russian leaders in the Soviet leadership, such as Joseph Stalin, Grigory Zinoviev, Nikolai Podgorny or Andrei Gromyko. During the Soviet era, a significant number of ethnic Russians and Ukrainians migrated to other Soviet republics, and many of them settled there. According to the last census in 1989, the Russian ‘diaspora’ in the Soviet republics had reached 25 million.


title: Soviet Union

text: In 1917, before the revolution, health conditions were significantly behind those of developed countries. As Lenin later noted, ‘Either the lice will defeat socialism, or socialism will defeat the lice’. The Soviet principle of health care was conceived by the People's Commissariat for Health in 1918. Health care was to be controlled by the state and would be provided to its citizens free of charge, a revolutionary concept at the time. Article 42 of the 1977 Soviet Constitution gave all citizens the right to health protection and free access to any health institutions in the USSR. Before Leonid Brezhnev became general secretary, the Soviet healthcare system was held in high esteem by many foreign specialists. This changed, however, from Brezhnev's accession and Mikhail Gorbachev's tenure as leader, during which the health care system was heavily criticized for many basic faults, such as the quality of service and the unevenness in its provision. Minister of Health Yevgeniy Chazov, during the 19th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, while highlighting such successes as having the most doctors and hospitals in the world, recognized the system's areas for improvement and felt that billions of rubles were squandered.


title: Soviet Union

text: After the revolution, life expectancy for all age groups went up. This statistic in itself was seen by some that the socialist system was superior to the capitalist system. These improvements continued into the 1960s when statistics indicated that the life expectancy briefly surpassed that of the United States. Life expectancy started to decline in the 1970s, possibly because of alcohol abuse. At the same time, infant mortality began to rise. After 1974, the government stopped publishing statistics on the matter. This trend can be partly explained by the number of pregnancies rising drastically in the Asian part of the country where infant mortality was the highest while declining markedly in the more developed European part of the Soviet Union.


title: Soviet Union

text: Soviet dental technology and dental health were considered notoriously bad. In 1991, the average 35-year-old had 12 to 14 cavities, fillings or missing teeth. Toothpaste was often not available, and toothbrushes did not conform to standards of modern dentistry.


title: Soviet Union

text: Under Lenin, the government gave small language groups their own writing systems. The development of these writing systems was highly successful, even though some flaws were detected. During the later days of the USSR, countries with the same multilingual situation implemented similar policies. A serious problem when creating these writing systems was that the languages differed dialectally greatly from each other. When a language had been given a writing system and appeared in a notable publication, it would attain ‘official language’ status. There were many minority languages which never received their own writing system; therefore, their speakers were forced to have a second language. There are examples where the government retreated from this policy, most notably under Stalin where education was discontinued in languages that were not widespread. These languages were then assimilated into another language, mostly Russian. During World War II, some minority languages were banned, and their speakers accused of collaborating with the enemy.


title: Soviet Union

text: As the most widely spoken of the Soviet Union's many languages, Russian "de facto" functioned as an official language, as the ‘language of interethnic communication’ (), but only assumed the "de jure" status as the official national language in 1990.


title: Soviet Union

text: Christianity and Islam had the highest number of adherents among the religious citizens. Eastern Christianity predominated among Christians, with Russia's traditional Russian Orthodox Church being the largest Christian denomination. About 90% of the Soviet Union's Muslims were Sunnis, with Shias being concentrated in the Azerbaijan SSR. Smaller groups included Roman Catholics, Jews, Buddhists, and a variety of Protestant denominations (especially Baptists and Lutherans).


title: Soviet Union

text: Religious influence had been strong in the Russian Empire. The Russian Orthodox Church enjoyed a privileged status as the church of the monarchy and took part in carrying out official state functions. The immediate period following the establishment of the Soviet state included a struggle against the Orthodox Church, which the revolutionaries considered an ally of the former ruling classes.


title: Soviet Union

text: In Soviet law, the ‘freedom to hold religious services’ was constitutionally guaranteed, although the ruling Communist Party regarded religion as incompatible with the Marxist spirit of scientific materialism. In practice, the Soviet system subscribed to a narrow interpretation of this right, and in fact used a range of official measures to discourage religion and curb the activities of religious groups.


title: Soviet Union

text: The 1918 Council of People's Commissars decree establishing the Russian SFSR as a secular state also decreed that ‘the teaching of religion in all [places] where subjects of general instruction are taught, is forbidden. Citizens may teach and may be taught religion privately.’ Among further restrictions, those adopted in 1929 included express prohibitions on a range of church activities, including meetings for organized Bible study. Both Christian and non-Christian establishments were shut down by the thousands in the 1920s and 1930s. By 1940, as many as 90% of the churches, synagogues, and mosques that had been operating in 1917 were closed.


title: Soviet Union

text: The Soviet Union was officially a secular state, but a ‘government-sponsored program of forced conversion to atheism’ was conducted under the doctrine of state atheism. The government targeted religions based on state interests, and while most organized religions were never outlawed, religious property was confiscated, believers were harassed, and religion was ridiculed while atheism was propagated in schools. In 1925, the government founded the League of Militant Atheists to intensify the propaganda campaign. Accordingly, although personal expressions of religious faith were not explicitly banned, a strong sense of social stigma was imposed on them by the formal structures and mass media, and it was generally considered unacceptable for members of certain professions (teachers, state bureaucrats, soldiers) to be openly religious. While persecution accelerated following Stalin's rise to power, a revival of Orthodoxy was fostered by the government during World War II and the Soviet authorities sought to control the Russian Orthodox Church rather than liquidate it. During the first five years of Soviet power, the Bolsheviks executed 28 Russian Orthodox bishops and over 1,200 Russian Orthodox priests. Many others were imprisoned or exiled. Believers were harassed and persecuted. Most seminaries were closed, and the publication of most religious material was prohibited. By 1941, only 500 churches remained open out of about 54,000 in existence before World War I.


title: Soviet Union

text: Convinced that religious anti-Sovietism had become a thing of the past, and with the looming threat of war, the Stalin regime began shifting to a more moderate religion policy in the late 1930s. Soviet religious establishments overwhelmingly rallied to support the war effort during World War II. Amid other accommodations to religious faith after the German invasion, churches were reopened. Radio Moscow began broadcasting a religious hour, and a historic meeting between Stalin and Orthodox Church leader Patriarch Sergius of Moscow was held in 1943. Stalin had the support of the majority of the religious people in the USSR even through the late 1980s. The general tendency of this period was an increase in religious activity among believers of all faiths.


title: Soviet Union

text: Under Nikita Khrushchev, the state leadership clashed with the churches in 1958–1964, a period when atheism was emphasized in the educational curriculum, and numerous state publications promoted atheistic views. During this period, the number of churches fell from 20,000 to 10,000 from 1959 to 1965, and the number of synagogues dropped from 500 to 97. The number of working mosques also declined, falling from 1,500 to 500 within a decade.


title: Soviet Union

text: Religious institutions remained monitored by the Soviet government, but churches, synagogues, temples, and mosques were all given more leeway in the Brezhnev era. Official relations between the Orthodox Church and the government again warmed to the point that the Brezhnev government twice honored Orthodox Patriarch Alexy I with the Order of the Red Banner of Labour. A poll conducted by Soviet authorities in 1982 recorded 20% of the Soviet population as ‘active religious believers.’


title: Soviet Union

text: The legacy of the USSR remains a controversial topic. The socio-economic nature of communist states such as the USSR, especially under Stalin, has also been much debated, varyingly being labelled a form of bureaucratic collectivism, state capitalism, state socialism, or a totally unique mode of production.


title: Soviet Union

text: The USSR implemented a broad range of policies over a long period of time, with a large amount of conflicting policies being implemented by different leaders. Some have a positive view of it whilst others are critical towards the country, calling it a repressive oligarchy. The opinions on the USSR are complex and have changed over time, with different generations having different views on the matter as well as on Soviet policies corresponding to separate time periods during its history. Leftists have largely varying views on the USSR. Whilst some leftists such as anarchists and other libertarian socialists, agree it did not give the workers control over the means of production and was a centralized oligarchy, others have more positive opinions as to the Bolshevik policies and Vladimir Lenin. Many anti-Stalinist leftists such as anarchists are extremely critical of Soviet authoritarianism and repression. Much of the criticism it receives is centered around massacres in the Soviet Union, the centralized hierarchy present in the USSR and mass political repression as well as violence towards government critics and political dissidents such as other leftists. Critics also point towards its failure to implement any substantial worker cooperatives or implementing worker liberation as well as corruption and the Soviet authoritarian nature.


title: Soviet Union

text: Many Russians and other former Soviet citizens have nostalgia for the USSR, pointing towards most infrastructure being built during Soviet times, increased job security, increased literacy rate, increased caloric intake and supposed ethnic pluralism enacted in the Soviet Union as well as political stability. The Russian Revolution is also seen in a positive light as well as the leadership of Lenin, Nikita Khrushchev and the later USSR, although many view Joseph Stalin's rule as positive for the country. In Armenia, 12% of respondents said the USSR collapse did good, while 66% said it did harm. In Kyrgyzstan, 16% of respondents said the collapse of the USSR did good, while 61% said it did harm. In a 2018 Rating Sociological Group poll, 47% of Ukrainian respondents had a positive opinion of Soviet leader Leonid Brezhnev, who ruled the Soviet Union from 1964 to 1982. A 2021 poll conducted by the Levada Center found that 49% of Russians prefer the USSR's political system, while 18% prefer the current political system and 16% would prefer a Western Democracy. A further 62% of people polled preferred the Soviet system of central planning, while 24% prefer a market-based system. Much of the admiration of the USSR comes from the failings of the modern post-Soviet governments such as the control by oligarchs, corruption and outdated Soviet-era infrastructure as well as the rise and dominance of organized crime after the dissolution of the Soviet Union all directly leading into nostalgia for it.


title: Soviet Union

text: The 1941–1945 period of World War II is still known in Russia as the ‘Great Patriotic War’. The war became a topic of great importance in cinema, literature, history lessons at school, the mass media, and the arts. As a result of the massive losses suffered by the military and civilians during the conflict, Victory Day celebrated on 9 May is still one of the most important and emotional dates in Russia.


title: Soviet Union

text: In some post Soviet republics, there is a more negative view of the USSR, although there is no unanimity on the matter. In large part due to the Holodomor, ethnic Ukrainians have a negative view of it. Russian-speaking Ukrainians of Ukraine's southern and eastern regions have a more positive view of the USSR. In some countries with internal conflict, there is also nostalgia for the USSR, especially for refugees of the post-Soviet conflicts who have been forced to flee their homes and have been displaced. This nostalgia is less an admiration for the country or its policies than it is a longing to return to their homes and not to live in poverty. The many Russian enclaves in the former USSR republics such as Transnistria have in a general a positive remembrance of it.


title: Soviet Union

text: The left's view of the USSR is complex. While some leftists regard the USSR as an example of state capitalism or that it was an oligarchical state, other leftists admire Vladimir Lenin and the Russian Revolution. Council communists generally view the USSR as failing to create class consciousness, turning into a corrupt state in which the elite controlled society.


title: Soviet Union

text: Anarchists are also critical of the country, labeling the Soviet system as "red fascism". Factors contributing to the anarchist animosity towards the USSR included the Soviet attacks against the Makhnovist movement after an initial alliance, the suppression of the anarchist Kronstadt rebellion, and the defeat of the rival anarchist factions by the Soviet-supported Communist faction during the Spanish Civil War.


title: Soviet Union

text: Maoists also have a mixed opinion on the USSR, viewing it negatively during the Sino-Soviet Split and denouncing it as revisionist and reverted to capitalism. The Chinese government in 1963 articulated its criticism of the USSR's system and promoted China's ideological line as an alternative.


title: Soviet Union

text: The culture of the Soviet Union passed through several stages during the USSR's existence. During the first decade following the revolution, there was relative freedom and artists experimented with several different styles to find a distinctive Soviet style of art. Lenin wanted art to be accessible to the Russian people. On the other hand, hundreds of intellectuals, writers, and artists were exiled or executed, and their work banned, such as Nikolay Gumilyov who was shot for alleged conspiring against the Bolshevik regime, and Yevgeny Zamyatin.


title: Soviet Union

text: The government encouraged a variety of trends. In art and literature, numerous schools, some traditional and others radically experimental, proliferated. Communist writers Maxim Gorky and Vladimir Mayakovsky were active during this time. As a means of influencing a largely illiterate society, films received encouragement from the state, and much of director Sergei Eisenstein's best work dates from this period.


title: Soviet Union

text: During Stalin's rule, the Soviet culture was characterized by the rise and domination of the government-imposed style of socialist realism, with all other trends being severely repressed, with rare exceptions, such as Mikhail Bulgakov's works. Many writers were imprisoned and killed.


title: Soviet Union

text: Following the Khrushchev Thaw, censorship was diminished. During this time, a distinctive period of Soviet culture developed, characterized by conformist public life and an intense focus on personal life. Greater experimentation in art forms was again permissible, resulting in the production of more sophisticated and subtly critical work. The regime loosened its emphasis on socialist realism; thus, for instance, many protagonists of the novels of author Yury Trifonov concerned themselves with problems of daily life rather than with building socialism. Underground dissident literature, known as "samizdat", developed during this late period. In architecture, the Khrushchev era mostly focused on functional design as opposed to the highly decorated style of Stalin's epoch. In music, in response to the increasing popularity of forms of popular music like jazz in the West, many jazz orchestras were permitted throughout the USSR, notably the Melodiya Ensemble, named after the principle record label in the USSR.


title: Soviet Union

text: In the second half of the 1980s, Gorbachev's policies of "perestroika" and "glasnost" significantly expanded freedom of expression throughout the country in the media and the press.


title: Soviet Union

text: In summer of 1923 in Moscow was established the Proletarian Sports Society "Dynamo" as a sports organization of Cheka.


title: Soviet Union

text: Founded on 20 July 1924 in Moscow, "Sovetsky Sport" was the first sports newspaper of the Soviet Union.


title: Soviet Union

text: On 13 July 1925 the Central Committee of the Russian Communist Party (Bolsheviks) adopted a statement "About the party's tasks in sphere of physical culture". In the statement was determined the role of physical culture in Soviet society and the party's tasks in political leadership of physical culture movement in the country.


title: Soviet Union

text: The Soviet Olympic Committee formed on 21 April 1951, and the IOC recognized the new body in its 45th session. In the same year, when the Soviet representative Konstantin Andrianov became an IOC member, the USSR officially joined the Olympic Movement. The 1952 Summer Olympics in Helsinki thus became first Olympic Games for Soviet athletes. The Soviet Union was the biggest rival to the United States at the Summer Olympics, winning six of its nine appearances at the games and also topping the medal tally at the Winter Olympics six times. The Soviet Union's Olympics success has been attributed to its large investment in sports to demonstrate its superpower image and political influence on a global stage.


title: Soviet Union

text: The Soviet Union national ice hockey team won nearly every world championship and Olympic tournament between 1954 and 1991 and never failed to medal in any International Ice Hockey Federation (IIHF) tournament in which they competed.


title: Soviet Union

text: The advent of the state-sponsored ‘full-time amateur athlete’ of the Eastern Bloc countries further eroded the ideology of the pure amateur, as it put the self-financed amateurs of the Western countries at a disadvantage. The Soviet Union entered teams of athletes who were all nominally students, soldiers, or working in a profession – in reality, the state paid many of these competitors to train on a full-time basis. Nevertheless, the IOC held to the traditional rules regarding amateurism.


title: Soviet Union

text: A 1989 report by a committee of the Australian Senate claimed that ‘there is hardly a medal winner at the Moscow Games, certainly not a gold medal winner... who is not on one sort of drug or another: usually several kinds. The Moscow Games might well have been called the Chemists' Games’.


title: Soviet Union

text: A member of the IOC Medical Commission, Manfred Donike, privately ran additional tests with a new technique for identifying abnormal levels of testosterone by measuring its ratio to epitestosterone in urine. Twenty percent of the specimens he tested, including those from sixteen gold medalists, would have resulted in disciplinary proceedings had the tests been official. The results of Donike's unofficial tests later convinced the IOC to add his new technique to their testing protocols. The first documented case of ‘blood doping’ occurred at the 1980 Summer Olympics when a runner was transfused with two pints of blood before winning medals in the 5000 m and 10,000 m.


title: Soviet Union

text: Documentation obtained in 2016 revealed the Soviet Union's plans for a statewide doping system in track and field in preparation for the 1984 Summer Olympics in Los Angeles. Dated before the decision to boycott the 1984 Games, the document detailed the existing steroids operations of the program, along with suggestions for further enhancements. Dr. Sergei Portugalov of the Institute for Physical Culture prepared the communication, directed to the Soviet Union's head of track and field. Portugalov later became one of the leading figures involved in the implementation of Russian doping before the 2016 Summer Olympics.


title: Soviet Union

text: Official Soviet environmental policy has always attached great importance to actions in which human beings actively improve nature. Lenin's quote ‘Communism is Soviet power and electrification of the country!’ in many respects summarizes the focus on modernization and industrial development. During the first five-year plan in 1928, Stalin proceeded to industrialize the country at all costs. Values such as environmental and nature protection have been completely ignored in the struggle to create a modern industrial society. After Stalin's death, they focused more on environmental issues, but the basic perception of the value of environmental protection remained the same.


title: Soviet Union

text: The Soviet media has always focused on the vast expanse of land and the virtually indestructible natural resources. This made it feel that contamination and uncontrolled exploitation of nature were not a problem. The Soviet state also firmly believed that scientific and technological progress would solve all the problems. Official ideology said that under socialism environmental problems could easily be overcome, unlike capitalist countries, where they seemingly could not be solved. The Soviet authorities had an almost unwavering belief that man could transcend nature. However, when the authorities had to admit that there were environmental problems in the USSR in the 1980s, they explained the problems in such a way that socialism had not yet been fully developed; pollution in a socialist society was only a temporary anomaly that would have been resolved if socialism had developed.


title: Soviet Union

text: The Chernobyl disaster in 1986 was the first major accident at a civilian nuclear power plant. Unparalleled in the world, it resulted in a large number of radioactive isotopes being released into the atmosphere. Radioactive doses have scattered relatively far. 4,000 new cases of thyroid cancer were reported after the incident, but this led to a relatively low number of deaths (WHO data, 2005). However, the long-term effects of the accident are unknown. Another major accident is the Kyshtym disaster.


title: Soviet Union

text: After the dissolution of the Soviet Union, it was discovered that the environmental problems were greater than what the Soviet authorities admitted. The Kola Peninsula was one of the places with clear problems. Around the industrial cities of Monchegorsk and Norilsk, where nickel, for example, is mined, all forests have been destroyed by contamination, while the northern and other parts of Russia have been affected by emissions. During the 1990s, people in the West were also interested in the radioactive hazards of nuclear facilities, decommissioned nuclear submarines, and the processing of nuclear waste or spent nuclear fuel. It was also known in the early 1990s that the USSR had transported radioactive material to the Barents Sea and Kara Sea, which was later confirmed by the Russian parliament. The crash of the K-141 Kursk submarine in 2000 in the west further raised concerns. In the past, there were accidents involving submarines K-19, K-8, a K-129, K-27, K-219 and K-278 Komsomolets.


title: Peaky Blinders (TV series)

text: Peaky Blinders is a British period crime drama television series created by Steven Knight. Set in Birmingham, England, it follows the exploits of the Peaky Blinders crime gang in the direct aftermath of the First World War. The fictional gang is loosely based on a real urban youth gang of the same name who were active in the city from the 1880s to the 1910s.


title: Peaky Blinders (TV series)

text: It features an ensemble cast led by Cillian Murphy, starring as Tommy Shelby, Helen McCrory as Elizabeth "Polly" Gray, Paul Anderson as Arthur Shelby, Sophie Rundle as Ada Shelby, and Joe Cole as John Shelby, the gang's senior members. Sam Neill, Annabelle Wallis, Iddo Goldberg, Tom Hardy, Charlotte Riley, Finn Cole, Natasha O'Keeffe, Paddy Considine, Adrien Brody, Aidan Gillen, Anya Taylor-Joy, Sam Claflin, Amber Anderson, James Frecheville, and Stephen Graham are also starring. It premiered on 12 September 2013, telecast on BBC Two until the fourth series (with repeats on BBC Four), then moved to BBC One for the fifth and sixth series.


title: Peaky Blinders (TV series)

text: Netflix, under a deal with Weinstein Company and Endemol, acquired the rights to release the show in the United States and around the world. In January 2021, it was announced that the sixth series would be the last, followed by a spinoff film. The final series was broadcast in 2022.


title: Peaky Blinders (TV series)

text: "Peaky Blinders" is a crime drama centred on a family of mixed Irish Traveller and Romani origins based in Birmingham, England, starting in 1919, several months after the end of the First World War. It centres on the Peaky Blinders street gang and their ambitious, cunning crime boss Tommy Shelby (Murphy). The gang comes to the attention of Major Chester Campbell (Neill), a detective chief inspector in the Royal Irish Constabulary sent over by Winston Churchill from Belfast, where he had been sent to clean up the city of the Irish Republican Army flying columns, the Communist Party of Great Britain, street gangs, and common criminals. Winston Churchill (played by Andy Nyman in series 1 and Richard McCabe in series 2) charges him with suppressing disorder and uprising in Birmingham and recovering a stolen cache of arms meant to be shipped to Libya. The first series concludes on 3 December 1919—"Black Star Day", the event where the Peaky Blinders plan to take over Billy Kimber's betting pitches at the Worcester Races.


title: Peaky Blinders (TV series)

text: The second series has the Peaky Blinders expand their criminal organisation in the "South and North while maintaining a stronghold in their Birmingham heartland". It begins in 1921 and ends with a climax at Epsom racecourse on 31 May 1922, Derby Day.


title: Peaky Blinders (TV series)

text: The third series takes place in 1924, following Tommy and the gang as they enter an even more dangerous world by expanding once again, this time internationally. The third series also features Father John Hughes (Paddy Considine), who is involved in an anti-communist organisation; Ruben Oliver (Alexander Siddig), a painter whom Polly enlists to paint her portrait; Russian Grand Duchess Tatiana Petrovna (Gaite Jansen); and Linda Shelby (Kate Phillips), new wife of Arthur.


title: Peaky Blinders (TV series)

text: The fourth series begins on Christmas Eve 1925, with the Peaky Blinders getting word that the New York Mafia is coming to avenge the murders committed the previous season and ends following the general strike of May 1926, with Tommy using Jessie Eden for information and being elected as a Member of Parliament in 1927.


title: Peaky Blinders (TV series)

text: The fifth series runs two years later, from (Black Tuesday), 29 October 1929, to 7 December 1929, the morning after a rally led by British Union of Fascists leader Sir Oswald Mosley.


title: Peaky Blinders (TV series)

text: The sixth series begins on 5 December 1933, as prohibition is repealed in the United States. The Nazi Party has obtained power in Germany, leading to a growth in membership of the British Union of Fascists. Tommy must not only deal with Mosley but also with plots from the Irish Mob as well as the Anti-Treaty IRA.


title: Peaky Blinders (TV series)

text: "Peaky Blinders" was created by Steven Knight and produced by Katie Swinden. Screen Yorkshire provided funding for the production through the Yorkshire Content Fund, ensuring that the majority of the show was filmed in Yorkshire as part of the deal. Linguists weren't hired in the production to assist in the show, leading to the Romani Gypsies in the earlier series frequently speaking broken Romanian (as opposed to Romani).


title: Peaky Blinders (TV series)

text: The first series was filmed in Birmingham, Bradford, Dudley, Leeds, Liverpool, and Port Sunlight. Railway sequences were filmed between Keighley and Damems, using carriages from the Ingrow Museum of Rail Travel (owned by Vintage Carriages Trust), and carriages owned by the Lancashire and Yorkshire Railway Trust. Many of the scenes for the show were shot at the Black Country Living Museum. Steven Knight, Stephen Russell and Toby Finlay all had writing credits on the series.


title: Peaky Blinders (TV series)

text: Ulster-born, New Zealand-raised Sam Neill enlisted the help of Northern Irish actors James Nesbitt and Liam Neeson to help him recover his lost Northern Irish accent for the role of C.I. Campbell. In the end, he had to tone down the accent since the series was marketed in the United States.


title: Peaky Blinders (TV series)

text: A second series was commissioned shortly after the broadcast of the first and aired in October and November 2014. On 11 January 2014, auditions were held in Digbeth area of Birmingham (near where parts of the series are set) for white and mixed race teenage male extras, resulting in lengthy queues.


title: Peaky Blinders (TV series)

text: Shortly after the final episode of the second series, the show announced via its Twitter account that it had been renewed for a third series. On 5 October 2015, the official "Peaky Blinders" Twitter account announced that filming had begun for series 3. Filming completed on 22 January 2016, after 78 days of shooting.


title: Peaky Blinders (TV series)

text: During the initial broadcast of series 3, the BBC renewed "Peaky Blinders" for series 4 and 5, each of which comprises six episodes. Filming for series 4 started in March 2017 and premiered on 15 November 2017 on BBC Two. Both The Weinstein Company and its logo in its credits weren't included, even though the company was formerly involved in the US distribution of the series.


title: Peaky Blinders (TV series)

text: The BBC commissioned a fifth series in mid-2016. On 22 August 2018, it was confirmed that series 5 would be broadcast on BBC One. Having already premiered to a select audience at Birmingham Town Hall on 18 July 2019, the series began airing on BBC One on 25 August 2019.


title: Peaky Blinders (TV series)

text: On 5 May 2018, Steven Knight told "Birmingham Press Club" that "we are definitely doing [series] six". Production on the series was due to begin in March 2020, but was delayed due to the COVID-19 pandemic. During 2020, rumours emerged linking comedian Rowan Atkinson to the show for the role of Adolf Hitler in series 6, but the producers denied the involvement saying that the news is "completely false".


title: Peaky Blinders (TV series)

text: On 18 January 2021, it was announced that series six, which had just begun filming, would be the final television series of "Peaky Blinders"; though Knight revealed "the story will continue in another form". Helen McCrory, who played the character of Polly Gray, died in April 2021 and had been unable to film any scenes for the series. Series six premiered on 27 February 2022.


title: Peaky Blinders (TV series)

text: Following the announcement that the sixth series would be the last, Knight clarified that, following the year-long production hiatus in 2020, it had been decided to produce a feature length movie in place of a seventh television series, with other connected television series potentially following. There is still no production date, but creator Steven Knight has revealed that the movie should hit cinema screens in 2024.


title: Peaky Blinders (TV series)

text: "Peaky Blinders" won the Returning Drama award at the 2022 National Television Awards ceremony, with Knight subsequently confirming during his acceptance speech that production of the film would begin in Spring 2023.


title: Peaky Blinders (TV series)

text: The show received widespread critical acclaim. David Renshaw of "The Guardian" summarised the series as a "riveting, fast-paced tale of post-first world war Birmingham gangsters", praising Murphy as the "ever-so-cool Tommy Shelby" and the rest of the cast for their "powerful performances". Sarah Compton of "The Telegraph" gave the series a 4/5 rating, praising the show for its originality and "taking all of our expectations and confounding them". Alex Fletcher from Digital Spy believes that ""Peaky Blinders" has started as sharp as a dart", while Den of Geek called the series "the most intelligent, stylish and engrossing BBC drama in ages". Cult TV Times critic Hugh David said the show "warrants the billing" by "managing to tick several ratings boxes – period drama, gangster epic, film star leads – yet go against the grain of those in the most interesting of ways".


title: Peaky Blinders (TV series)

text: The show has been particularly celebrated for its stylish cinematography and charismatic performances, as well as for casting an eye over a part of England and English history rarely explored on television. Historians have been divided over whether bringing characters and events from other decades into a 1920s story undermines claims to historical accuracy, or whether working-class life in the period is nevertheless depicted in a truthful and resonant way. Reviews for the second series have remained positive, with Ellen E. Jones of "The Independent" commenting that ""Peaky Blinders" can now boast several more big-name actors to supplement the sterling work of Cillian Murphy, Helen McCrory and Sam Neill", referring to second series additions Tom Hardy and Noah Taylor.


title: Peaky Blinders (TV series)

text: Several critics have compared the show favourably to the American series "Boardwalk Empire", which shares the same themes and historical context. Show writer Steven Knight stated in an early interview: "Do you know – and I'm not just saying this – but I've never watched them. I've never seen "The Wire", I've never seen "Boardwalk Empire", I've never seen any of them." When asked if he deliberately avoided watching these dramas, he responded: "It's sort of deliberate in that I don't really want to be looking at other people's work because it does affect what you do inevitably." On 2 March 2016, Knight told the "Crime Scene Quarterly" "I've had unsolicited communication from Michael Mann, the film director, from Dennis Lehane, Snoop Dogg – he's such a fan. And the late David Bowie was a huge fan – more of that to come" (strongly hinting Bowie's involvement on series 3). It was later confirmed that David Bowie's music would be featured, and Leonard Cohen had also written a new song for series 3.


title: Peaky Blinders (TV series)

text: The sixth and final series has received universal acclaim. On Metacritic, it has a weighted average score of 86 out of 100 based on 7 reviews, indicating "universal acclaim". On Rotten Tomatoes, it holds a 100% approval rating based on 14 reviews, with an average critic rating of 8/10. The website's critical consensus reads, ""Peaky Blinders"' sixth season gracefully addresses the untimely passing of star Helen McCrory while setting the stage for a fitting climax to this epic saga of likable scalawags."


title: Peaky Blinders (TV series)

text: Series four and five introduced the character Jessie Eden, based on the real-life British communist and trade union leader. Although the reception was mixed, some people who had known Jessie Eden personally took offence to the way she was depicted. Graham Stevenson, a historian of British communism, a personal friend of Jessie Eden and the writer of her biography, was a harsh critic of the show, stating:


title: Peaky Blinders (TV series)

text: Stevenson also criticised the show for its clothing choices, incorrectly showing Churchill as Home Secretary in 1919, incorrectly depicting Eden as a mass leader during the 1926 General Strike; eventually these inaccuracies led Stevenson to stop watching the show. He went on to elaborate: "Although the TV series' cinematography, music and fast-paced action is obviously attractive, especially matched to outstanding charismatic performances, it's disappointing that an expert in Tudor history was the historical adviser to the series, rather than someone with a background in trade unionism or communism."


title: Peaky Blinders (TV series)

text: At a round table event featuring Stevenson, the poet Dave Puller, and cultural historian Paul Long, the three discussed the series and its depictions of the British working class. Long rated the series positively and praised the series as a great representation of interesting working-class protagonists. Puller had mixed feelings and was disappointed that the show chose to focus on Jessie Eden's fictional romance with Tommy, rather than her real achievements as a communist and a trade union leader.


title: Peaky Blinders (TV series)

text: On 24 September 2014, it was announced that Netflix had acquired exclusive US distribution rights from the Weinstein Company and Endemol. The entirety of series 1 became available for streaming on 30 September 2014; series 2 launched in November 2014. Series 3 was made available 31 May 2016. Due to licensing restrictions, however, most of the show's original soundtrack is not available on the Netflix-distributed version of the series. In 2018, it was announced "Peaky Blinders" would be moved from its original broadcast channel, BBC Two, to BBC One for its fifth and sixth series.


title: Peaky Blinders (TV series)

text: According to the Office for National Statistics (ONS), "Peaky Blinders" has had a detectable cultural impact in the UK. In 2018, the name Arthur surged into the top 10 boys names for the first time since the 1920s, and Ada jumped into the girls' top 100 for the first time in a century too. The assumption reached by the ONS is that the popularity of these names was inspired by the characters Arthur Shelby Jr. and Ada Thorne.


title: Peaky Blinders (TV series)

text: In August 2020, a video game based on the television series, titled "Peaky Blinders: Mastermind", was developed by FuturLab and released for Xbox One, PlayStation 4, Nintendo Switch, and for PC via Steam. A virtual reality game, "Peaky Blinders: The King's Ransom", is currently in development by Maze Theory and will be released for Meta Quest 2 and PICO 4 on March 9, 2023.


title: Marvel Cinematic Universe: Phase Four

text: Phase Four of the Marvel Cinematic Universe (MCU) is a group of American superhero films and television series produced by Marvel Studios based on characters that appear in publications by Marvel Comics. Phase Four features all of the Marvel Studios productions released from 2021 through 2022. It is the first phase in the franchise to include television series, alongside television specials marketed as "Marvel Studios Special Presentations", with Marvel Studios developing several event series for the streaming service Disney+ in addition to the feature films that it was already set to produce. Phase Four began with the series "WandaVision", which premiered in January 2021, while the first theatrical film in this phase is "Black Widow", which was released in July 2021 by Walt Disney Studios Motion Pictures. The phase concluded with the television special "The Guardians of the Galaxy Holiday Special" in November 2022. The release schedule of Phase Four was changed several times due to the COVID-19 pandemic. Kevin Feige produces every film and executive produces every series and special in this phase, alongside producers Jonathan Schwartz for "Shang-Chi and the Legend of the Ten Rings", Nate Moore for "Eternals" and "", Amy Pascal for "", and Brad Winderbaum for "".


title: Marvel Cinematic Universe: Phase Four

text: The films of the phase include "Black Widow" with Scarlett Johansson returning as Natasha Romanoff / Black Widow, "Shang-Chi and the Legend of the Ten Rings" starring Simu Liu, the ensemble "Eternals", the sequels "Spider-Man: No Way Home" from Sony Pictures Releasing with Tom Holland returning as Peter Parker / Spider-Man, "Doctor Strange in the Multiverse of Madness" with Benedict Cumberbatch returning as Dr. Stephen Strange, "Thor: Love and Thunder" with Chris Hemsworth returning as Thor, and "Black Panther: Wakanda Forever" with Letitia Wright returning as Shuri / Black Panther.


title: Marvel Cinematic Universe: Phase Four

text: The Disney+ television series of the phase include "WandaVision" with Elizabeth Olsen and Paul Bettany in the title roles, "The Falcon and the Winter Soldier" with Anthony Mackie and Sebastian Stan in the title roles, the first season of "Loki" starring Tom Hiddleston, the first season of the animated "What If...?" narrated by Jeffrey Wright, "Hawkeye" starring Jeremy Renner and Hailee Steinfeld, "Moon Knight" starring Oscar Isaac, "Ms. Marvel" starring Iman Vellani, and "" starring Tatiana Maslany. The Special Presentation television specials "Werewolf by Night" starring Gael García Bernal and the ensemble "The Guardians of the Galaxy Holiday Special", and the series of short films "I Am Groot" starring Vin Diesel are also included in this phase. Phase Four, along with and , constitutes The Multiverse Saga.


title: Marvel Cinematic Universe: Phase Four

text: By October 2016, Walt Disney Studios had scheduled multiple release dates for untitled Marvel Studios films for 2020 and 2021. Marvel Studios President Kevin Feige said some of the films for those dates were already known, explaining, "We know what [films] we'd like them to be for 2020. Over the years, where we're aiming we've been lucky enough that it's usually been the same thing but we always leave ourselves the opportunity to bob and weave and adapt if we have to." Feige was not sure if Marvel would continue to group the films of the MCU into phases once concluded in 2019, saying that "it might be a new thing", but by December 2018, Marvel was believed to be using the term Phase Four. Feige said Marvel hoped to reveal some upcoming films after the release of "" (2019), with The Walt Disney Company CEO Bob Iger later indicating that Marvel would reveal its slate of post-"Avengers: Endgame" films in mid-2019.


title: Marvel Cinematic Universe: Phase Four

text: By November 2017, Disney was developing a Marvel television series specifically for release on its new streaming service Disney+, which was planned to launch before the end of 2019. In September 2018, Marvel Studios was revealed to be developing several limited series for the service, to be centered on "second-tier" characters from the MCU films who had not and were unlikely to star in their own films; the actors who portrayed the characters in the films were expected to reprise their roles for the series. Stories for each series were still being decided on, but the series were expected to be six to eight episodes each and have a "hefty [budget] rivaling those of a major studio production". The series would be produced by Marvel Studios rather than Marvel Television, which produced the previous television series set in the MCU. Feige was taking a "hands-on role" in each series' development, focusing on "continuity of story" with the films and "handling" the actors who would be reprising their roles from the films. Feige stated in February 2019 that the series would be "entirely interwoven with both the current MCU, the past MCU, and the future of the MCU", and a month later he elaborated that the series would take characters from the films, change them, and see those changes reflected in future films, unlike the weaker relationship the films have with the Marvel Television series. He also said that new characters introduced in the Disney+ series could go on to appear in films. In May, Feige compared the Disney+ series to the Marvel One-Shots short films that Marvel Studios had previously released alongside their films, saying, "The best thing about the One-Shots is that we got to flesh out other characters. It's tremendously exciting that we now have Disney+ series where we get to do that on a grand scale".


title: Marvel Cinematic Universe: Phase Four

text: In July 2019, Marvel Studios held a panel at San Diego Comic-Con where Feige announced the full Phase Four slate. This included five films to be released—"Black Widow", "Eternals", "Shang-Chi and the Legend of the Ten Rings", "Doctor Strange in the Multiverse of Madness", and ""—as well as five event series to be released on Disney+—"The Falcon and the Winter Soldier", "WandaVision", "Loki", "What If...?", and "Hawkeye". He confirmed that there would be connections between the films and series, with the events of "WandaVision" directly setting up "Doctor Strange in the Multiverse of Madness" and "Loki" tying into it. Feige stated that these ten projects were the full Phase Four slate at that point, despite Marvel already developing further projects at that time, such as the long-in-development "Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 3", sequels to "Black Panther" (2018) and "Captain Marvel" (2019), and a film based on the Fantastic Four. Feige also noted that the studio had films scheduled to be released after 2021 which would not be officially announced or given release dates at that time. A month later at D23, Feige announced three more Disney+ series that would be released as part of the Phase Four slate: "Ms. Marvel", "Moon Knight", and "", as well as the "Black Panther" sequel with the placeholder title "Black Panther II" and a May 6, 2022, release. In September, Disney and Sony Pictures announced that Marvel Studios and Feige would return to produce "", set for release during this phase.


title: Marvel Cinematic Universe: Phase Four

text: "Black Widow" was removed from Disney's release schedule in March 2020 due to the COVID-19 pandemic. Discussing this decision for "Variety", Adam B. Vary and Matt Donnelly questioned whether the MCU could be impacted more by this delay than other big properties due to the interconnected nature of the franchise, though a Marvel Studios source told the pair that changing "Black Widow" release date would not affect the rest of the MCU timeline. In April, Disney changed its entire Phase Four release slate, scheduling "Black Widow" when "Eternals" had been set for release in November 2020 and moving all its other Phase Four films back in the schedule to accommodate this. Later that month, Sony delayed "Spider-Man: No Way Home" to November 2021, resulting in Disney adjusting the release of "Doctor Strange in the Multiverse of Madness" and "Thor: Love and Thunder". In July 2020, Disney confirmed that "The Falcon and the Winter Soldier" would not release in August 2020 as planned, because the series had not completed filming due to the COVID-19 pandemic, while Sony pushed back the release of "Spider-Man: No Way Home" to December 2021. In early September, "WandaVision" was set to be the first television series released for the phase as "The Falcon and the Winter Soldier" release was pushed back to 2021 due to its production delays. Later that month, "Black Widow" release was delayed to May 2021, resulting in "Eternals" and "Shang-Chi and the Legends of the Ten Rings" also being rescheduled; this made 2020 the first year since 2009 without a Marvel Studios release. When adjusting the release of the films and series in the phase, Marvel Studios was being cognizant to ensure major story points would not be spoiled with the new release order, but Feige noted many of the properties in the Phase were mostly standalone or a continuation from "Endgame". He also credited the studio's "long lead plan" for being able to avoid any creative shifts to their Phase Four plans because of the pandemic, only shuffling release dates and production schedules. Additionally, he stated that many of the series had their release dates shifted only "by a matter of weeks" from their original dates. The only significant aspect of the phase that was affected by the pandemic was Julia Louis-Dreyfus's introduction as Valentina Allegra de Fontaine, which came in "The Falcon and the Winter Soldier" rather than "Black Widow" as was originally planned, since "Black Widow" ended up being released after the series.


title: Marvel Cinematic Universe: Phase Four

text: In December 2020, Marvel Studios adjusted "Thor: Love and Thunder" and "Black Panther II" back in its schedule, to May 6 and July 8, 2022, respectively, and also announced "" and "Fantastic Four" were in development, along with the Disney+ series "Secret Invasion", "Ironheart", and "Armor Wars" (later changed to a film), "The Guardians of the Galaxy Holiday Special", and the series of short films "I Am Groot". These new Disney+ series, plus "Black Panther II", "Captain Marvel 2" (later retitled "The Marvels"), "Ant-Man and the Wasp: Quantumania", "Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 3", and "Fantastic Four", were believed to be a part of Phase Four at this time. In March 2021, Disney moved "Black Widow" to July 2021 (taking the spot of "Shang-Chi and the Legend of the Ten Rings"), and announced that it would release simultaneously in theaters and on Disney+ with Premier Access. "Shang-Chi and the Legend of the Ten Rings" was moved to September 2021, with the intent for a theatrical-only release. In May, Marvel Studios announced the title for the "Black Panther" sequel as "". Feige described the phase as being about "continuing in new ways and... leaving the Infinity Saga behind [for] a new beginning". By August 2021, a Halloween-themed television special for Disney+ was in development, reportedly centered on Werewolf by Night. In October 2021, Marvel Studios further adjusted "Doctor Strange in the Multiverse of Madness", "Thor: Love and Thunder", and "Black Panther: Wakanda Forever" to May 6, July 8, and November 11, 2022, respectively, because of production-related issues.


title: Marvel Cinematic Universe: Phase Four

text: In late June 2022, Feige indicated that Phase Four was nearing its conclusion, stating audiences would begin to see where the next saga of the MCU would be heading, and that there had been many clues in the phase to what that would be. He said Marvel Studios would be a "little more direct" on their future plans in the following months to provide audiences with "the bigger picture [so they] can see a tiny, tiny bit more of the roadmap". At Marvel Studios' San Diego Comic-Con panel in July, Feige announced that "Wakanda Forever" would conclude Phase Four, with other films and Disney+ series believed to be part of the phase moving to and . He also announced that Phase Four would be the first phase, along with Phases Five and Six, of The Multiverse Saga. Feige stated that many of the projects in Phases Four and Five, and their post-credit teases, would connect and lead towards the conclusion of The Multiverse Saga, while some would remain standalone. James Gunn, the writer and director of the "Guardians of the Galaxy" films, said that "The Guardians of the Galaxy Holiday Special" was the epilogue of Phase Four. At the 2022 D23 Expo, Marvel confirmed the Halloween special as "Werewolf by Night". At that time, "Werewolf by Night" and "The Guardians of the Galaxy Holiday Special" were revealed to be marketed as "Marvel Studios Special Presentations".


title: Marvel Cinematic Universe: Phase Four

text: Natasha Romanoff finds herself alone and forced to confront a dangerous conspiracy with ties to her past. Pursued by a force that will stop at nothing to bring her down, Romanoff must deal with her history as a spy and the broken relationships left in her wake long before she became an Avenger.


title: Marvel Cinematic Universe: Phase Four

text: After exploring the backstory of Scarlett Johansson's character Natasha Romanoff / Black Widow in "" (2015), Kevin Feige expressed interest in further exploring it in a solo film. By January 2018, Jac Schaeffer was hired to write the script, with Cate Shortland hired to direct that July. Ned Benson was rewriting the script the next February. Schaeffer and Benson received story credit on the film, with Eric Pearson credited for the screenplay. Filming began in May 2019 and concluded that October, shooting in Norway, the United Kingdom, Budapest, Morocco, and Georgia. "Black Widow" premiered on June 29, 2021, at various red carpet fan events in London, Los Angeles, Melbourne, and New York City, and was released in the United States on July 9, 2021, in theaters and on Disney+ with Premier Access.


title: Marvel Cinematic Universe: Phase Four

text: "Black Widow" is set in 2016, mostly taking place between the main plot of "" (2016) and its final scene. William Hurt reprises his role as Thaddeus Ross from previous MCU films. "Black Widow" post-credits scene features Julia Louis-Dreyfus, uncredited, as Valentina Allegra de Fontaine from the series "The Falcon and the Winter Soldier" (2021), and sets up Florence Pugh's appearance in the series "Hawkeye" (2021) as Yelena Belova. Jeremy Renner has an uncredited voice cameo in his MCU role of Clint Barton / Hawkeye, while a picture of him is also featured.


title: Marvel Cinematic Universe: Phase Four

text: When Shang-Chi is drawn into the clandestine Ten Rings organization, he is forced to confront the past he thought he left behind.


title: Marvel Cinematic Universe: Phase Four

text: By December 2018, Marvel Studios was actively developing their first Asian-led film for Shang-Chi, with Dave Callaham hired to write the screenplay, and Destin Daniel Cretton to direct by March 2019. At the San Diego Comic-Con that July, Simu Liu was revealed to play the title role, along with Tony Leung as Wenwu. Filming began in February 2020, but was halted in March due to the COVID-19 pandemic. Production resumed in August and concluded that October. Shooting occurred in Australia and San Francisco. In April 2021, Cretton was revealed as a credited writer along with Callaham and Andrew Lanham. "Shang-Chi and the Legend of the Ten Rings" premiered in Los Angeles on August 16, 2021, and was released in the United States on September 3, 2021.


title: Marvel Cinematic Universe: Phase Four

text: "Shang-Chi and the Legend of the Ten Rings" is set after the events of "" (2019), during the days leading to the Qingming Festival in early April. Benedict Wong reprises his role as Wong from previous MCU films, along with Ben Kingsley as Trevor Slattery, an impostor posing as the Mandarin, from "Iron Man 3" (2013) and the Marvel One-Shot "All Hail the King" (2014). The Ten Rings organization has been featured or referenced in "Iron Man" (2008), "Iron Man 2" (2010), "All Hail the King", and "Ant-Man" (2015). Tim Roth also provided uncredited vocals for Emil Blonsky / Abomination, reprising the role from "The Incredible Hulk" (2008), while the mid-credits scene features Mark Ruffalo and Brie Larson, uncredited, in their respective MCU roles of Bruce Banner and Carol Danvers / Captain Marvel.


title: Marvel Cinematic Universe: Phase Four

text: After the return of half the population ignites "the emergence", the Eternals—an immortal alien race created by the Celestials who have secretly lived on Earth for over 7,000 years—reunite to protect humanity from their evil counterparts, the Deviants.


title: Marvel Cinematic Universe: Phase Four

text: By early 2018, Marvel Studios was developing a film for the Eternals, with Kaz Firpo and Ryan Firpo writing the script to focus on a love story between the characters Sersi and Ikaris. Late that September, Chloé Zhao was hired to direct "The Eternals", and also served as the film's credited writer along with Patrick Burleigh and the Firpos. Filming occurred from July 2019 to February 2020, shooting throughout England. The main cast, headlined by Richard Madden as Ikaris and Angelina Jolie as Thena, was announced at the July 2019 San Diego Comic-Con, with Gemma Chan cast as Sersi the next month. The title was shortened in August 2020. "Eternals" premiered in Los Angeles on October 18, 2021, and was released in the United States on November 5.


title: Marvel Cinematic Universe: Phase Four

text: "Eternals" takes place around the same time as "The Falcon and the Winter Soldier" and "" (2019), six to eight months after "Avengers: Endgame" in 2024. The mid-credits scene features Harry Styles as Thanos's brother Eros / Starfox and Patton Oswalt as Pip the Troll, while Mahershala Ali has an uncredited cameo as the voice of Blade in the post-credits scene, before starring in the film "Blade".


title: Marvel Cinematic Universe: Phase Four

text: Peter Parker's life and reputation are turned upside down following his identity being exposed at the hands of Mysterio. Seeking help from Stephen Strange to try and fix everything, things soon become much more dangerous when the multiverse breaks open, allowing villains from alternate realities who have previously fought versions of Spider-Man to arrive.


title: Marvel Cinematic Universe: Phase Four

text: A third MCU "Spider-Man" film was planned by early 2017 to be set during Peter Parker's senior year of high school, with Feige later saying it would tell "a Peter Parker story" not previously done on film due to the mid-credits scene in "Spider-Man: Far From Home". By August 2019, Chris McKenna and Erik Sommers were writing the script while Disney and Sony split on adjusting their agreement over Marvel Studios' involvement in Spider-Man films, but announced the next month they would co-produce the film, with Tom Holland returning to star, along with Jon Watts as director by June 2020. Filming began in October 2020 in New York City, before moving to Trilith Studios in Atlanta, Georgia later that month. The title was officially announced in February 2021, before filming concluded in late March. Producer Amy Pascal described the film as "the culmination of the "Homecoming" trilogy". "Spider-Man: No Way Home" premiered in Los Angeles on December 13, 2021, and was released in the United States on December 17, 2021.


title: Marvel Cinematic Universe: Phase Four

text: "Spider-Man: No Way Home" begins immediately after the events of "Spider-Man: Far From Home", and continues over late 2024, while also tying into "Doctor Strange in the Multiverse of Madness" (2022); Benedict Cumberbatch and Benedict Wong reprise their roles as Dr. Stephen Strange and Wong, respectively. "No Way Home" explores the concept of the multiverse and ties the MCU to past "Spider-Man" film series, with Tobey Maguire and Andrew Garfield returning as their versions of Spider-Man from Sam Raimi's "Spider-Man" trilogy and Marc Webb's "The Amazing Spider-Man" films, who were respectively dubbed "Peter-Two" and "Peter-Three", alongside Willem Dafoe as Norman Osborn / Green Goblin, Alfred Molina as Otto Octavius / Doctor Octopus, and Thomas Haden Church as Flint Marko / Sandman from the Raimi films, and Rhys Ifans as Curt Connors / Lizard and Jamie Foxx as Max Dillon / Electro from the Webb films. Charlie Cox appears as Matt Murdock, reprising the role from Marvel Television's Netflix series, while Tom Hardy appears, uncredited, in the mid-credits scene as Eddie Brock / Venom, reprising his role from Sony's Spider-Man Universe.


title: Marvel Cinematic Universe: Phase Four

text: Dr. Stephen Strange protects America Chavez, a teenager capable of traveling between universes in the multiverse, from Wanda Maximoff / Scarlet Witch.


title: Marvel Cinematic Universe: Phase Four

text: By December 2018, "Doctor Strange" (2016) director and co-writer Scott Derrickson signed to direct a sequel, with Benedict Cumberbatch reprising his title role. The title was officially announced at the 2019 San Diego Comic-Con, along with Elizabeth Olsen's involvement. In January 2020, Derrickson stepped down as director over creative differences, but remained an executive producer. The next month, Sam Raimi signed on to direct, and "Loki" (2021) head writer Michael Waldron joined to rewrite the script; Raimi confirmed his involvement in April 2020. Filming began by November 2020 in London, but was halted in January 2021 due to the COVID-19 pandemic. Production resumed by that March, and concluded in mid-April 2021 in Somerset. Shooting also occurred at Longcross Studios in Surrey. "Doctor Strange in the Multiverse of Madness" premiered in Hollywood on May 2, 2022, and was released in the United States on May 6, 2022.


title: Marvel Cinematic Universe: Phase Four

text: "Doctor Strange in the Multiverse of Madness" is set after the events of "Spider-Man: No Way Home". Elizabeth Olsen co-stars as Wanda Maximoff / Scarlet Witch, continuing from her appearance in the series "WandaVision" (2021), with Julian Hilliard and Jett Klyne portraying alternate versions of Maximoff's sons Billy and Tommy, respectively. The film introduces the Illuminati, a group of heroes from the alternate universe Earth-838, which consists of Patrick Stewart as Charles Xavier / Professor X (after playing a different version of the character in 20th Century Fox's "X-Men" film series), Hayley Atwell as Peggy Carter / Captain Carter (after voicing a similar version in the animated series "What If...?"), Lashana Lynch as Maria Rambeau / Captain Marvel (after playing the main MCU version of Rambeau in "Captain Marvel"), Anson Mount as Blackagar Boltagon / Black Bolt (after playing another version of Black Bolt in Marvel's ABC television series "Inhumans"), and John Krasinski as Reed Richards / Mister Fantastic, a member of the Fantastic Four.


title: Marvel Cinematic Universe: Phase Four

text: Thor attempts to find inner peace but ends up recruiting Valkyrie, Korg, and Jane Foster—who has become the Mighty Thor—to help stop Gorr the God Butcher from eliminating all gods.


title: Marvel Cinematic Universe: Phase Four

text: Chris Hemsworth expressed ongoing interest playing Thor in January 2018, at the time his Marvel Studios contract had come to an end. After previously directing "" (2017), Taika Waititi signed to write and direct a fourth "Thor" film in July 2019, and the title was officially announced at the San Diego Comic-Con later that month, with Hemsworth returning alongside Tessa Thompson as Valkyrie and Natalie Portman as Jane Foster, who becomes the superhero the Mighty Thor. Jennifer Kaytin Robinson joined to co-write the script with Waititi in February 2020. Filming began late January 2021 in Australia, and concluded that June. "Thor: Love and Thunder" premiered in Los Angeles on June 23, 2022, and was released in the United States on July 8, 2022.


title: Marvel Cinematic Universe: Phase Four

text: "Thor: Love and Thunder" is set after the events of "Avengers: Endgame", eight and a half years after Thor broke up with Foster, which had occurred by "Ragnarok", and "a few weeks" since Thor joined the Guardians of the Galaxy, who appear in the film, with Chris Pratt, Karen Gillan, Dave Bautista, Pom Klementieff, Sean Gunn, Vin Diesel, and Bradley Cooper reprising their respective MCU roles as Peter Quill / Star-Lord, Nebula, Drax the Destroyer, Mantis, Kraglin Obfonteri, Groot, and Rocket. Daley Pearson appears as Darryl, after first portraying the role in the "Team Thor" short films.


title: Marvel Cinematic Universe: Phase Four

text: The leaders of the kingdom of Wakanda fight to protect their nation in the wake of King T'Challa's death, and a new threat emerges from the hidden undersea nation of Talokan.


title: Marvel Cinematic Universe: Phase Four

text: By October 2018, Ryan Coogler signed to write and direct a sequel to "Black Panther" (2018). Joe Robert Cole also returned for the film to once again co-write the screenplay with Coogler. Feige confirmed the film was in development by mid-2019 with the placeholder title "Black Panther II". Plans for the film changed in August 2020 when "Black Panther" star Chadwick Boseman died from colon cancer, with his role as T'Challa not recast. Some of the main returning cast members were confirmed by that November, with Letitia Wright headlining the film as Shuri / Black Panther. The title, "Black Panther: Wakanda Forever", was revealed in May 2021. Production began in late June 2021 at Trilith Studios in Atlanta, and lasted until early November 2021, before a hiatus began later that month. Filming resumed in mid-January 2022. Shooting also occurred in Boston and Worcester, Massachusetts, and in Brunswick, Georgia, before wrapping in Puerto Rico in March 2022. "Black Panther: Wakanda Forever" premiered in Hollywood on October 26, 2022, and was released on November 11, 2022.


title: Marvel Cinematic Universe: Phase Four

text: "Black Panther: Wakanda Forever" is set after the events of "Spider-Man: No Way Home", and "potentially concurrent" with "Love and Thunder" and "" (2023) according to producer Nate Moore. Dominique Thorne appears as Riri Williams / Ironheart, ahead of starring in the Disney+ series "Ironheart" (2023). Julia Louis-Dreyfus reprises her MCU role as Valentina Allegra de Fontaine, now serving as the director of the CIA.


title: Marvel Cinematic Universe: Phase Four

text: Wanda Maximoff and Vision are living an idyllic suburban life in the town of Westview, New Jersey, trying to conceal their true natures. As their surroundings begin to move through different decades and they encounter various television tropes, the couple suspects that things are not as they seem.


title: Marvel Cinematic Universe: Phase Four

text: By September 2018, Marvel Studios was developing a limited series starring Elizabeth Olsen as Wanda Maximoff and Paul Bettany as Vision, with a focus on their relationship. Jac Schaeffer was hired to write the first episode and serve as head writer in January 2019, and the series was officially announced and titled that April, with Olsen and Bettany confirmed. It explores where Maximoff's alias the Scarlet Witch comes from. Filming began in November 2019 at Pinewood Atlanta Studios, with Matt Shakman directing the series, but was suspended in March 2020 due to the COVID-19 pandemic. Production resumed in Los Angeles in September 2020, and concluded that November. "WandaVision" premiered on January 15, 2021, and ran for nine episodes, concluding on March 5, 2021. Two spin-off series, "", starring Kathryn Hahn as Agatha Harkness, and "Vision Quest", starring Bettany as The Vision, are in development.


title: Marvel Cinematic Universe: Phase Four

text: "WandaVision" is set three weeks after the events of "Avengers: Endgame", and directly sets up "Doctor Strange in the Multiverse of Madness", which also features Maximoff. Teyonah Parris plays an adult version of Monica Rambeau, who appeared as a child in "Captain Marvel", played by Akira Akbar, while Randall Park and Kat Dennings reprise their MCU roles of Jimmy Woo and Darcy Lewis in the series. Evan Peters appears as Ralph Bohner, a man posing as Wanda's deceased brother Pietro, who was portrayed by Aaron Taylor-Johnson in previous MCU films. This was a nod to Peters' role as Peter Maximoff in 20th Century Fox's "X-Men" film series. The organization S.W.O.R.D. was introduced in the series, one of the first comic elements previously controlled by Fox to be integrated into the MCU following the acquisition of 21st Century Fox by Disney, while the "Darkhold" is also featured, after previously appearing in the Marvel Television series "Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D." and "Runaways" with a different design.


title: Marvel Cinematic Universe: Phase Four

text: Sam Wilson teams up with Bucky Barnes on a global mission to stop an anti-patriotism group, the Flag Smashers, who are enhanced with a recreation of the Super Soldier Serum and believe the world was better during the Blip.


title: Marvel Cinematic Universe: Phase Four

text: By late October 2018, Malcolm Spellman was hired to write and serve as head writer on a limited series starring Anthony Mackie as Sam Wilson / Falcon and Sebastian Stan as Bucky Barnes / Winter Soldier. The series was officially announced and titled in April 2019, with Mackie and Stan confirmed. Filming began in October 2019, in Atlanta, with Kari Skogland directing the series, but was suspended in March 2020 due to the COVID-19 pandemic. Production resumed in early September 2020, and concluded late the next month. "The Falcon and the Winter Soldier" premiered on March 19, 2021, and ran for six episodes, concluding on April 23, 2021. A feature film, "" (2024), starring Mackie as Sam Wilson / Captain America is in development as a continuation of the series.


title: Marvel Cinematic Universe: Phase Four

text: "The Falcon and the Winter Soldier" is set six months after the events of "Avengers: Endgame". Georges St-Pierre, Don Cheadle, Daniel Brühl, Emily VanCamp, and Florence Kasumba reprise their respective MCU roles of Georges Batroc, James "Rhodey" Rhodes, Helmut Zemo, Sharon Carter, and Ayo. Julia Louis-Dreyfus appears as Valentina Allegra de Fontaine in the series. Louis-Dreyfus had been expected to first appear in "Black Widow" before pandemic delays pushed the film's release until after the series.


title: Marvel Cinematic Universe: Phase Four

text: After stealing the Tesseract, an alternate version of Loki is brought to the mysterious Time Variance Authority (TVA) to help fix the timeline and stop a greater threat, ending up trapped in a crime thriller of his own making, traveling through time.


title: Marvel Cinematic Universe: Phase Four

text: By September 2018, Marvel Studios was developing a limited series starring Tom Hiddleston as Loki, which Disney CEO Bob Iger confirmed that November. In February 2019, Michael Waldron was hired as head writer, and Hiddleston was confirmed to reprise his title role. Filming began in February 2020, with Kate Herron directing the series, but was suspended that March due to the COVID-19 pandemic. Production resumed in September 2020 at Pinewood Atlanta Studios, and concluded in early December. The first season of "Loki" premiered on June 9, 2021, and ran for six episodes, concluding on July 14, 2021. A second season is set for release in mid-2023 as part of .


title: Marvel Cinematic Universe: Phase Four

text: "Loki" begins after the 2012 events seen in "Avengers: Endgame", but much of the season exists outside of time and space or in different time periods that the characters travel to. The season ties into "Doctor Strange in the Multiverse of Madness", and Feige said it would be "tremendously important" and "lay the groundwork" for the future of the MCU. This includes the appearance of Jonathan Majors as He Who Remains, a variant of the character Kang the Conqueror, who will appear in "Ant-Man and the Wasp: Quantumania". Jaimie Alexander makes an uncredited cameo appearance as Sif, reprising her role from previous MCU media, while Thor actor Chris Hemsworth has an uncredited cameo as the voice of Throg, a frog version of Thor.


title: Marvel Cinematic Universe: Phase Four

text: "What If...?" explores what would happen if major moments from the Marvel Cinematic Universe (MCU) occurred differently, as observed by the Watcher.


title: Marvel Cinematic Universe: Phase Four

text: By March 2019, Marvel Studios was developing an animated anthology series based on the "What If" comic book concept to explore how the MCU would be altered if certain events had occurred differently. Jeffrey Wright was revealed to narrate the series as the Watcher that July, with voice recording beginning the next month. Production continued remotely during the COVID-19 pandemic, with on-site work suspended. A. C. Bradley serves as head writer with Bryan Andrews directing. The first season of "What If...?" premiered on August 11, 2021, and ran for nine episodes, concluding on October 6, 2021. A second season is set for release in early 2023.


title: Marvel Cinematic Universe: Phase Four

text: "What If...?" is set after the establishment of the multiverse in "Loki" first season finale. Many actors from the films voice their respective characters in the series.


title: Marvel Cinematic Universe: Phase Four

text: Clint Barton must work together with the young Kate Bishop to confront enemies from his past time as Ronin in order to get back to his family in time for Christmas.


title: Marvel Cinematic Universe: Phase Four

text: By April 2019, Marvel Studios was developing a limited series starring Jeremy Renner as Clint Barton / Hawkeye, which would involve Barton passing the mantle of Hawkeye to the character Kate Bishop. At the 2019 San Diego Comic-Con, the series was officially announced with it exploring more of Barton's time as the vigilante Ronin, with Jonathan Igla hired as head writer that September while Hailee Steinfeld was in consideration to portray Bishop. Steinfeld was confirmed as Bishop in early December 2020, when filming began in New York City, with both Rhys Thomas and Bert & Bertie each directing a block of episodes. Shooting also occurred at Trilith Studios in Atlanta, and concluded in late April 2021. "Hawkeye" premiered on November 24, 2021, and ran for six episodes, concluding on December 22. A spin-off series, "Echo", starring Alaqua Cox as Maya Lopez / Echo, is set for release in mid-2023.


title: Marvel Cinematic Universe: Phase Four

text: "Hawkeye" is set one year after the events of "Avengers: Endgame" during the 2024 Christmas season, and occurs over the course of about a week. Florence Pugh reprises her role as Yelena Belova / Black Widow from "Black Widow", along with Linda Cardellini as Barton's wife Laura from previous MCU films, and Vincent D'Onofrio as Wilson Fisk / Kingpin from Marvel Television's Netflix series "Daredevil" (2015–2018).


title: Marvel Cinematic Universe: Phase Four

text: Marc Spector, who suffers from dissociative identity disorder, is drawn into a deadly mystery involving Egyptian gods with his multiple identities, such as Steven Grant.


title: Marvel Cinematic Universe: Phase Four

text: At the August 2019 D23 Expo, Marvel Studios announced that a series centered on Marc Spector / Moon Knight was in development, with Jeremy Slater hired as head writer that November. In October 2020, Oscar Isaac entered negotiations to portray the title role, and was confirmed to have been cast by January 2021. Filming began in late April 2021 in Budapest, with Mohamed Diab and duo Justin Benson and Aaron Moorhead directing episodes of the series, and concluded in early October in Hungary and Jordan, before moving to Atlanta. Filming wrapped by mid-October. "Moon Knight" premiered on March 30, 2022, and ran for six episodes, concluding on May 4.


title: Marvel Cinematic Universe: Phase Four

text: Kamala Khan, a fan of the Avengers, particularly Carol Danvers, struggles to fit in until she gains her own powers.


title: Marvel Cinematic Universe: Phase Four

text: By the 2019 D23 Expo, Marvel Studios was developing a series centered on Kamala Khan / Ms. Marvel, with Bisha K. Ali hired as head writer. In September 2020, Iman Vellani was cast in the title role. Filming began by early November 2020 at Trilith Studios in Atlanta, with Adil El Arbi and Bilall Fallah (credited as Adil & Bilall), Meera Menon, and Sharmeen Obaid-Chinoy each directing two episodes of the series. Shooting also occurred in New Jersey, and concluded in early May 2021 in Thailand. "Ms. Marvel" premiered on June 8, 2022, and ran for six episodes, concluding on July 13.


title: Marvel Cinematic Universe: Phase Four

text: "Ms. Marvel" is set one to two years after "Endgame", and will set-up "The Marvels" (2023), in which Vellani will also star. The Department of Damage Control (DODC) is featured in the series after appearing in the films "" (2017) and "Spider-Man: No Way Home", with Arian Moayed reprising his role as agent P. Cleary from "No Way Home". Brie Larson cameos as Carol Danvers / Captain Marvel.


title: Marvel Cinematic Universe: Phase Four

text: Jennifer Walters has a complicated life as a single attorney in her 30s who also becomes the 6-foot-7, green superhero She-Hulk after getting accidentally cross-contaminated with the blood of her cousin Bruce Banner.


title: Marvel Cinematic Universe: Phase Four

text: At the 2019 D23 Expo, Marvel Studios announced that the series "She-Hulk", centered on Jennifer Walters / She-Hulk, was in development, with Jessica Gao hired as head writer that November. In September 2020, Tatiana Maslany was cast in the title role. Filming began in mid-April 2021 in Los Angeles and at Trilith Studios in Atlanta, with Kat Coiro and Anu Valia directing episodes of the series. Filming wrapped by mid-August 2021. The subtitle for the series was added by May 2022. "She-Hulk: Attorney at Law" premiered on August 18, 2022, and consisted of nine episodes, concluding on October 13.


title: Marvel Cinematic Universe: Phase Four

text: "She-Hulk: Attorney at Law" is set "a relatively short amount of time" after "Shang-Chi and the Legend of the Ten Rings". Reprising their MCU roles in the series are Mark Ruffalo as Bruce Banner / Hulk, Tim Roth as Emil Blonsky / Abomination, Benedict Wong as Wong, and Charlie Cox as Matt Murdock / Daredevil.


title: Marvel Cinematic Universe: Phase Four

text: Both specials in Phase Four were released on Disney+, and are marketed as "Marvel Studios Special Presentations".


title: Marvel Cinematic Universe: Phase Four

text: A secret group of monster hunters gather at Bloodstone Castle following the death of their leader and engage in a mysterious and deadly competition for a powerful relic, which will bring them face to face with a dangerous monster.


title: Marvel Cinematic Universe: Phase Four

text: By August 2021, Marvel Studios was developing a Halloween-themed television special for Disney+ that was reportedly centered on Werewolf by Night. Gael García Bernal was cast in the lead role for the special in November, starring as the Jack Russell version of the character. Filming began in late March 2022 at Trilith Studios in Atlanta, Georgia, with Michael Giacchino directing the special, and Heather Quinn and Peter Cameron co-writing the screenplay, and concluded by late April 2022. It was formally announced as "Werewolf by Night" in September 2022, and released on October 7, 2022.


title: Marvel Cinematic Universe: Phase Four

text: "Werewolf by Night" exists within the MCU but does not state "when, how or why". Giacchino has "a very specific idea" of how the special fits into the MCU that had not been discussed with Marvel Studios.


title: Marvel Cinematic Universe: Phase Four

text: The Guardians of the Galaxy celebrate Christmas and set out to Earth to find Peter Quill the best present.


title: Marvel Cinematic Universe: Phase Four

text: In December 2020, Marvel Studios announced that James Gunn would write and direct a new television special featuring the Guardians of the Galaxy, with the main cast returning. Filming began by February 2022 at Trilith Studios in Atlanta, and concluded in late April 2022, during the production of "Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 3" (2023). Shooting also occurred in Los Angeles. "The Guardians of the Galaxy Holiday Special" was released on November 25, 2022.


title: Marvel Cinematic Universe: Phase Four

text: "The Guardians of the Galaxy Holiday Special" is set "a fairly long time" after the Guardians parting ways with Thor as seen in "Thor: Love and Thunder", and before the events of "Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 3". The "Holiday Special" allowed Gunn to introduce important elements to "Vol. 3" that he then would not need to explain at the beginning of that film.


title: Marvel Cinematic Universe: Phase Four

text: Many of the properties in the Phase are set after the events of "Avengers: Endgame". "WandaVision" is set three weeks after the events of that film, with "The Falcon and the Winter Soldier" set six months after "Endgame". "Shang-Chi and the Legend of the Ten Rings" is also set after "Endgame" during the days leading to the Qingming Festival in early April, with "She-Hulk: Attorney at Law" set "a relatively short amount of time" after "Shang-Chi". "Eternals" takes place around the same time as "The Falcon and the Winter Soldier" and "Spider-Man: Far From Home", six to eight months after "Endgame" in 2024, while "Spider-Man: No Way Home" begins immediately after "Far From Home", and continues over late 2024. "Hawkeye" takes place one year after the events of "Endgame" during the 2024 Christmas season, occurring over the course of about a week.