title: Deontay Wilder

text: Wilder attributed his defeat to factors including his water "being spiked as if I took a muscle relaxer", his ring-walk costume being "way too heavy for me... it weighed 40lb with the helmet and all the batteries", and that Fury had "scratched flesh out of my ears which caused them to bleed". Wilder's attempts at justifying his loss were widely criticized and labeled by many as "excuses", including by Tyson Fury himself, former undisputed heavyweight champion Mike Tyson, and British heavyweight rivals Anthony Joshua and Dillian Whyte. Despite the widespread criticism of Wilder's allegations, for which he provided no credible evidence to support, he did not back down; on October 31, 2020 he issued a series of statements on social media continuing to accuse Fury of cheating, as well as asking for a trilogy bout. In one tweet directed at Fury, Wilder stated, "I was offered more money to fight [Anthony] Joshua than I was getting to fight you [Fury]." Both Joshua and his promoter Eddie Hearn reacted by confirming the veracity of the statement, happy at its implication that it was Wilder who had previously avoided a proposed undisputed fight with Joshua, and not the other way around.


title: Deontay Wilder

text: On May 17, 2021, arbitration judge Daniel Weinstein ruled that WBC and "The Ring" champion Tyson Fury will have to honor a contractual clause which calls for a third fight with Wilder. Subsequently, Fury's promoter Bob Arum claimed that the Allegiant Stadium in Las Vegas had been reserved for July 24, 2021 in anticipation of Wilder's trilogy fight with Fury. On June 3, Wilder stated that his "mind is very violent", and that he had "built a whole facility to commit a legal homicide" against Fury. Fury is the third opponent that Wilder has alluded to having intentions of killing, having previously made similar death threats in the past to Bermane Stiverne and Dominic Breazeale.


title: Deontay Wilder

text: That same month, it was announced that Wilder had appointed his former rival turned friend Malik Scott as his new head trainer, calling Scott a "genius". Ahead of the pre-fight press conference on June 15, the venue was officially confirmed as T-Mobile Arena in Las Vegas. The bout was postponed from the original date of July 24 until October 9 after Fury's camp suffered an outbreak of COVID-19. At the pre-fight weigh-in on October 8, both men weighed in at their respective career-heaviest weights, with the champion Fury weighing in at 277 lbs, and the challenger Wilder at 238 lbs.


title: Deontay Wilder

text: On the night of the fight, both men exchanged a total of five knockdowns as Fury won the bout via eleventh-round knockout. Wilder had started the first round well, jabbing the champion to the body and landing several clean right hands to his chest and stomach, doing enough to win the first round on all three judges' scorecards. In the second, Fury landed some good shots in the clinch. Midway through the third, Fury sent Wilder to the canvas with a series of hard right hands, and continued to pummel him as Wilder was effectively saved by the bell. Wilder came back in the fourth with a vicious short right hand that put Fury down on the canvas. Wilder continued coming forwards, and sent the champion down again towards the end of the round. In the middle rounds, Fury recovered and started landing with more regularity, racking up a commanding lead on the cards and marking up Wilder's face badly, with the latter now visibly exhausted as a result of all of the punishment he had taken. In the tenth, Wilder was decked by a huge right hook, but came back yet again with a huge series of wild swings that caught Fury at the bell. With Wilder badly hurt and bleeding, Fury managed to finish his opponent in the eleventh round with a clean right hook thrown from the clinch. Referee Robert Mora waved the contest off with Wilder face-down on the canvas. After the fight, Fury praised his opponent, calling Wilder a "top fighter", but criticized him for being a "sore loser" and refusing to "show any sportsmanship or respect". Before being taken to hospital for precautionary post-fight checks, Wilder provided his assessment of the fight: “I did my best, but it wasn’t good enough tonight. I’m not sure what happened."


title: Deontay Wilder

text: At the time of the stoppage, Wilder was behind on all three judges' scorecards with 95–91, 94–92, and 95–92. According to CompuBox, Fury landed 150 of 385 punches (39%), while Wilder connected with 72 of 355 punches (20%). The 150 punches landed on Wilder is the most ever landed by an opponent. Despite the back and forth nature of the bout, CompuBox calculated Fury as having outlanded Wilder in every single round of the fight, including the fourth round in which Fury was knocked down twice. The fight was widely acclaimed by observers and pundits for its action and high-level intensity: hall-of-fame promoter Bob Arum said, “I’ve been in this business 57 years promoting fights and I have to say I’ve truly never seen a heavyweight fight as magnificent as this", while the "Ring" magazine described it as "the obvious fight of the year so far" and "a rare and historic heavyweight championship trilogy".


title: Deontay Wilder

text: Six days after the conclusion of the fight, on October 15, Wilder released a statement on social media paying tribute to God, his team, his fans and Fury: "I would like to first and foremost thank God for allowing me to give the world another part of me that’s driven with passion and determination. I would like to thank my team and my fans for sticking by my side through this long process... Last but not least I would like to congratulate Tyson Fury for his victory and thank you for the great historical memories that will last forever.”


title: Deontay Wilder

text: In August 2022, it was announced that Wilder will have his first fight a year later after his Fury loss. It was announced Wilder would be facing Finland's Robert Helenius, with the fight scheduled to take place on October 15, 2022 at Brooklyn's Barclays Center.


title: Deontay Wilder

text: Wilder has 8 children. Wilder's first child, a daughter with ex-girlfriend Helen Duncan, was born in 2005 with spina bifida. Wilder also has two other daughters and one son with Jessica Scales-Wilder, whom he married in 2009 and later divorced. Wilder is currently engaged to and has a child with Telli Swift and has been featured on the reality television show, WAGS Atlanta.


title: Deontay Wilder

text: Wilder comes from a family of Alabama preachers, namely his father and grandmother. He has three sisters and one younger brother. His brother Marsellos Wilder, is also a professional boxer; Marsellos currently fights in the cruiserweight division and has a 5–3 record. As a youngster, Wilder attended church every week. He has referred to his belief in Christianity, saying that "God is very important in my life."


title: Deontay Wilder

text: Wilder graduated from Tuscaloosa Central High School in 2004 and dreamed of playing football (wide receiver) or basketball (forward) for his hometown Alabama Crimson Tide, but the birth of his oldest daughter and poor grades caused him to attend nearby Shelton State Community College and to focus on a boxing career. Wilder later revealed that during this time, he struggled with depression and had briefly contemplated suicide via gunshot. When reflecting on the incident, he stated "You don't think about what effect it would cause for your family, your daughter, your kids and so forth and so on... In that state of mind, you just become selfish. You think of the inner pain and the outer pain that you're feeling right at that very moment in time."


title: Deontay Wilder

text: On May 4, 2013, Las Vegas police were called at around 7:30 a.m. for a reported battery at a hotel in the 3700 block of South Las Vegas Boulevard, where Wilder and a woman were taken into custody. He was held at Clark County Detention Center on charges of domestic battery by strangulation, and was released on a $15,000 bond. According to the police, "the woman had swollen eyebrows, a possibly broken nose, a cut lip, and red marks on her neck". She was taken to the University Medical Center of Southern Nevada and treated for her injuries. Wilder's attorney Paul Patterson claimed Wilder had "instinctively acted under the false impression that someone was stealing from him,” and that he "regrets his actions". He had apparently been in Las Vegas to watch the Floyd Mayweather Jr. vs. Robert Guerrero fight.


title: Deontay Wilder

text: In May 2022, Wilder was honored with a statue in his hometown of Tuscaloosa, Alabama. The statue is made out of bronze in homage to Wilder's fight nickname, "The Bronze Bomber".


title: Ken Miles

text: Kenneth Henry Jarvis Miles (1 November 1918 – 17 August 1966) was a British sports car racing engineer and driver best known for his motorsport career in the US and with American teams on the international scene. He is an inductee to the Motorsports Hall of Fame of America.


title: Ken Miles

text: Miles was born on 1 November 1918 in Sutton Coldfield, then in Warwickshire, now in the city of Birmingham. He was the son of Eric Miles and Clarice Jarvis. After a failed attempt to run away to the United States, Miles left school at the age of 15 to work as an apprentice at Wolseley Motors, who sent him to a technical school to broaden his knowledge of vehicle construction. He raced motorcycles before joining the British Army, during World War II


title: Ken Miles

text: Miles' first role in the military was driving instructor in Territorial Army. On 1 October 1942, as an armament artificer, he was among the founding members of the Royal Electrical and Mechanical Engineers (REME), and transferred to the REME Training Establishment. The following year Miles was posted to Guards Armoured Division Workshops, followed by the 29th Armoured Brigade Workshop. He landed in Normandy on 15 June 1944, and later that year was posted to the Light Aid Detachment of the 15th/19th King’s Royal Hussars. Miles served in North West Europe until the end of the war, by which time he had achieved the rank of staff sergeant. He served as a tank commander, and the experience is said to have fuelled a new love in Miles for high-performance engineering. He was discharged to the reserves on 1 April 1946.


title: Ken Miles

text: After the war, Miles raced Bugattis, Alfa Romeos, and Alvises with the Vintage Sports Car Club. He then turned to a Ford V8 Frazer-Nash.


title: Ken Miles

text: In 1952 Miles moved from England to the US, and settled in Los Angeles, California as a service manager for Gough Industries, the Southern California MG distributor. In 1953, he won 14 straight victories in SCCA racing in an MG-based special of his own design and construction.


title: Ken Miles

text: For the 1955 season, he designed, constructed and campaigned a second special based on MG components that was known as the "Flying Shingle". It was very successful in the SCCA F modified class on the west coast. Miles raced the "Flying Shingle" at Palm Springs in late March, finishing first overall against veteran driver Cy Yedor, also in an MG Special, and novice driver, actor James Dean in a Porsche 356 Speedster. Miles was later disqualified on a technical infraction because his fenders were too wide, thus allowing Yedor and Dean to get 'bumped up' to first and second. During 1956, Miles raced John von Neumann's Porsche 550 Spyder at most of the Cal Club and SCCA events.


title: Ken Miles

text: For the 1957 season (in co-operation with Otto Zipper), Miles engineered the installation of a Porsche 550S engine and transmission in a 1956 Cooper chassis and body. It was the second successful race car to be known on the West Coast as "the Pooper", the first being an early 1950s Cooper chassis and body powered by a Porsche 356 power train that was built and campaigned by Pete Lovely of Tacoma, Washington. The resulting car dominated the F Modified class of SCCA on the west coast in the 1957 and 1958 seasons with Miles driving.


title: Ken Miles

text: Due to his great skill and talent, both as a driver and mechanical engineer, Miles was a significant member of the Shelby/Cobra race team in the early 1960s. Miles described himself this way:


title: Ken Miles

text: I am a mechanic. That has been the direction of my entire vocational life. Driving is a hobby, a relaxation for me, like golfing is to others. I should like to drive a Formula One machine, not for the grand prize, but just to see what it is like. I should think it would be jolly good fun!


title: Ken Miles

text: With a very pronounced Brummie accent (from his hometown of Birmingham, renowned for car manufacturing) combined with a seemingly obscure and sardonic sense of humour, he was affectionately known by his American racing crew as "Teddy Teabag" (for his tea drinking) or "Sidebite" (as he talked out of the side of his mouth). He played a major role in the development and success of the racing versions of the Shelby Cobra 289 in SCCA, USRRC and FIA sports car racing between 1962 and 1965 as well as the Daytona Coupe and 427 versions of the Cobra and the Ford GT (GT40).


title: Ken Miles

text: Miles had a "reputation for courtesy on the track" and was sometimes called the "Stirling Moss of the West Coast". While a member of the AC-Cobra Ford Team, Miles entered a Lotus 23 in the 1964 Player's 200 at Mosport.


title: Ken Miles

text: In 1965, he shared a Ford GT Mk II with Bruce McLaren at the 24 Hours of Le Mans but retired with gearbox trouble. Earlier in the year, also with McLaren, he had finished second at the 12 Hours of Sebring.


title: Ken Miles

text: The next year he won the 24 Hours of Daytona, sharing the Ford GT Mk II with Lloyd Ruby, and then won the 12 Hours of Sebring. Several months later, sharing the drive with Denny Hulme, Miles was leading the 1966 24 Hours of Le Mans in the #1 car, but Ford Motor Company executive Leo Beebe, desiring a publicity photo of three of Ford's cars crossing the finish line together, instructed Miles to slow down, which he did. Accordingly, on the final lap the next car from Ford driven by Bruce McLaren/Chris Amon and the third-place car from Ford drew up, and they cruised to the line together. The French race officials, after initially agreeing to Ford's dead-heat "photo-finish", reneged during the final hour of the race. Although Miles' #1 car and McLaren's #2 car crossed the finish line together, McLaren's #2 was declared the winner because having started in second position behind Miles' car, it had therefore covered 8 meters more distance during the race. Miles was denied the unique achievement of winning Sebring, Daytona, and Le Mans in the same year.


title: Ken Miles

text: The Ford J-car was intended to be the successor to the Ford GT40 Mk II and, despite reliability problems, showed potential in the springtime Le Mans trials. After the death of Walt Hansgen in a J-car while testing at Le Mans in April, Ford decided to shelve the J-car and focus on the proven Mk IIs. Little development was done for the rest of the 1966 World Sports Car Championship season. In August 1966, Shelby American resumed testing and development work with Miles as primary test driver. The J-car featured a breadvan-shaped rear section experimenting with Kammback aerodynamic theories, and a honeycomb panel design supposed to both lighten and stiffen the car, but the design was unproven with high-speed prototype sports cars.


title: Ken Miles

text: After almost a day of testing at Riverside International Raceway in the very hot Southern California desert, Miles approached the end of the track's downhill back straight at top speed – over 200 miles per hour (320 km/h) – when the car suddenly looped, flipped, crashed, and caught fire. The car broke into pieces and ejected Miles, killing him instantly.


title: Ken Miles

text: After the crash, the aerodynamics of the J-car were greatly modified to correct the rear-end lift generated at race speeds. Years later Porsche and others had the same problem, as the long low silhouette of a Kammback tailed car behaves like an aerofoil aircraft wing and lifts at high speed. Ford executives, under pressure after the second fatal accident in the program in five months, ordered a roll cage be installed in future versions of the car. The significantly revised J-car, renamed the Ford Mk IV, won the only two races in which it was entered: the 1967 Sebring 12 Hours, and the 1967 24 Hours of Le Mans.


title: Ken Miles

text: Miles is interred at the Abbey of the Psalms Mausoleum of the Hollywood Forever Cemetery in Hollywood, California.


title: Ken Miles

text: Ken Miles was married to Mollie and had a son, Peter Miles (b. September 28, 1950). He was also a close friend of Carroll Shelby. Peter was almost 16 when he witnessed his father's death in the prototype J-car crash in 1966. A few months after Ken's death, Peter went to work for Ken's friend Dick Troutman at the Troutman and Barnes custom car shop in Culver City, California. Peter stayed at the workshop for four years. In 1986, Peter joined Precision Performance Inc. (PPI), starting as a fabricator and then a mechanic before becoming the crew chief. Peter was the crew chief for Ivan Stewart when Stewart won the 1991 Nissan 400 in Nevada. In a 2019 interview with Le Mans, Peter said that the last time he went to Le Mans was in 1965 with his father Ken, and he has not returned since.


title: Ken Miles

text: Miles is portrayed by Christian Bale in the 2019 film "Ford v Ferrari" (released under the title "Le Mans '66" in some parts of Europe). Miles' wife Mollie and his son Peter are portrayed by Caitriona Balfe and Noah Jupe, respectively.


title: The Last Supper (Leonardo)

text: The Last Supper ( or ) is a mural painting by the Italian High Renaissance artist Leonardo da Vinci, dated to . The painting represents the scene of the Last Supper of Jesus with the Twelve Apostles, as it is told in the Gospel of Johnspecifically the moment after Jesus announces that one of his apostles will betray him. Its handling of space, mastery of perspective, treatment of motion and complex display of human emotion has made it one of the Western world's most recognizable paintings and among Leonardo's most celebrated works. Some commentators consider it pivotal in inaugurating the transition into what is now termed the High Renaissance.


title: The Last Supper (Leonardo)

text: The work was commissioned as part of a plan of renovations to the church and its convent buildings by Leonardo's patron Ludovico Sforza, Duke of Milan. In order to permit his inconsistent painting schedule and frequent revisions, it is painted with materials that allowed for regular alterations: tempera on gesso, pitch, and mastic. Due to the methods used, a variety of environmental factors, and intentional damage, little of the original painting remains today despite numerous restoration attempts, the last being completed in 1999. Housed in the refectory of the Convent of Santa Maria delle Grazie in Milan, Italy, "The Last Supper" is his largest work, aside from the "Sala delle Asse".


title: The Last Supper (Leonardo)

text: "The Last Supper" measures and covers an end wall of the dining hall at the monastery of Santa Maria delle Grazie in Milan, Italy. The theme was a traditional one for refectories, although the room was not a refectory at the time that Leonardo painted it. The main church building was being completed (in 1498). Leonardo's patron, Ludovico Sforza, planned that the church should be remodeled as a family mausoleum, and to this end, changes were made, perhaps to plans by Bramante; these plans were not fully carried out, and a smaller mortuary chapel was constructed, adjacent to the cloister.


title: The Last Supper (Leonardo)

text: The painting was commissioned by Sforza to decorate the wall of the mausoleum. The lunettes above the main painting, formed by the triple arched ceiling of the refectory, are painted with Sforza coats-of-arms. The opposite wall of the refectory is covered by the Crucifixion fresco by Giovanni Donato da Montorfano, to which Leonardo added figures of the Sforza family in tempera; these figures have deteriorated in much the same way as has "The Last Supper".


title: The Last Supper (Leonardo)

text: Leonardo worked on "The Last Supper" from about 1495 to 1498, but did not work continuously. The beginning date is not certain, as the archives of the convent for the period have been destroyed. A document dated 1497 indicates that the painting was nearly completed at that date.


title: The Last Supper (Leonardo)

text: One story goes that a prior from the monastery complained to Leonardo about its delay, enraging him. He wrote to the head of the monastery, explaining he had been struggling to find the perfect villainous face for Judas, and that if he could not find a face corresponding with what he had in mind, he would use the features of the prior who had complained.


title: The Last Supper (Leonardo)

text: In 1557, Gian Paolo Lomazzo wrote that Leonardo's friend Bernardo Zenale advised him to leave Christ's face unfinished, arguing that "it would be impossible to imagine faces lovelier or gentler than those of James the Greater or James the Less." Leonardo apparently took the advice.


title: The Last Supper (Leonardo)

text: Leonardo, as a painter, favoured oil painting, a medium which allows the artist to work slowly and make changes with ease. Fresco painting does not facilitate either of these objectives. Leonardo also sought a greater luminosity and intensity of light and shade (chiaroscuro) than could be achieved with fresco. Instead of painting with water-soluble paints onto wet plaster, laid freshly each day in sections, Leonardo painted "The Last Supper" on a wall sealed with a double layer of gesso, pitch, and mastic. Then, borrowing from panel painting, he added an undercoat of white lead to enhance the brightness of the oil and tempera that was applied on top. This was a method that had been described previously by Cennino Cennini in the 14th century. However, Cennini described the technique as being more risky than fresco painting, and recommended the use of "a secco" painting (on dry plaster) for the final touches alone.


title: The Last Supper (Leonardo)

text: "The Last Supper" portrays the reaction given by each apostle when Jesus said one of them would betray him. All twelve apostles have different reactions to the news, with various degrees of anger and shock. The apostles were identified by their names, using an unsigned, mid-sixteenth-century fresco copy of Leonardo's Cenacolo. Before this, only Judas, Peter, John and Jesus had been positively identified. From left to right, according to the apostles' heads:


title: The Last Supper (Leonardo)

text: In common with other depictions of the Last Supper from this period, Leonardo seats the diners on one side of the table, so that none of them has his back to the viewer. The tablecloth is white with blue stripes, which are colours commonly associated with the Jewish people. This is the painting's only overt reference to the ethnicity of Jesus and his disciples. Most previous depictions excluded Judas by placing him alone on the opposite side of the table from the other eleven disciples and Jesus, or placing halos around all the disciples except Judas.


title: The Last Supper (Leonardo)

text: Leonardo instead has Judas lean back into shadow. Jesus is predicting that his betrayer will take the bread at the same time he does to Thomas and James the Greater to his left, who react in horror as Jesus points with his left hand to a piece of bread before them. Distracted by the conversation between John and Peter, Judas reaches for a different piece of bread not noticing Jesus too stretching out with his right hand towards it (Matthew 26: 23). The angles and lighting draw attention to Jesus, whose turned right cheek is located at the vanishing point for all perspective lines. In addition, the painting demonstrated Da Vinci's masterful use of perspective as it "draws our attention to the face of Christ at the center of the composition, and Christ's face, through his down-turned gaze, directs our focus along the diagonal of his left arm to his hand and therefore, the bread."


title: The Last Supper (Leonardo)

text: Leonardo reportedly used the likenesses of people in and around Milan as inspiration for the painting's figures. The convent's prior complained to Sforza of Leonardo's "laziness" as he wandered the streets to find a criminal to base Judas on. Leonardo responded that if he could find no one else, the prior would make a suitable model.


title: The Last Supper (Leonardo)

text: While the painting was being executed, Leonardo's friend, the mathematician Luca Pacioli, called it "a symbol of man's burning desire for salvation".


title: The Last Supper (Leonardo)

text: Two early copies of "The Last Supper" are known to exist, presumed to be work by Leonardo's assistants. The copies are almost the size of the original, and have survived with a wealth of original detail still intact. One, by Giampietrino, is in the collection of the Royal Academy of Arts, London, and the other, by Cesare da Sesto, is installed at the Church of St. Ambrogio in Ponte Capriasca, Switzerland. A third copy (oil on canvas) is painted by Andrea Solari (c. 1520) and is on display in the Leonardo da Vinci Museum of the Tongerlo Abbey, Belgium.


title: The Last Supper (Leonardo)

text: Because Sforza had ordered the church to be rebuilt hastily, the masons filled the walls with moisture-retaining rubble. The painting was done on a thin exterior wall, so the effects of humidity were felt keenly, and the paint failed to properly adhere to it. Because of the method used, soon after the painting was completed on 9 February 1498 it began to deteriorate. In 1499, Louis XII contemplated removing the painting from the wall and taking it to France. As early as 1517, the painting was starting to flake, and in 1532 Gerolamo Cardano described it as "blurred and colorless compared with what I remember of it when I saw it as a boy". By 1556 – fewer than sixty years after it was finished – Giorgio Vasari described the painting as reduced to a "muddle of blots" so deteriorated that the figures were unrecognizable. By the second half of the 16th century, Gian Paolo Lomazzo stated that "the painting is all ruined". In 1652, a doorway was cut through the (then unrecognisable) painting, and later bricked up; this can still be seen as the irregular arch-shaped structure near the center base of the painting. It is believed, through early copies, that Jesus' feet were in a position symbolizing the forthcoming crucifixion. In 1768, a curtain was hung over the painting intended for its protection; the curtain instead trapped moisture on the surface, and whenever it was pulled back, it scratched the flaking paint.


title: The Last Supper (Leonardo)

text: A first restoration was attempted in 1726 by Michelangelo Bellotti, who filled in missing sections with oil paint then varnished the whole mural. This repair did not last well and another restoration was attempted in 1770 by an otherwise unknown artist named Giuseppe Mazza. Mazza stripped off Bellotti's work then largely repainted the painting; he had redone all but three faces when he was halted due to public outrage. In 1796, French revolutionary anti-clerical troops used the refectory as an armory and stable; they threw stones at the painting and climbed ladders to scratch out the Apostles' eyes. Goethe wrote that in 1800, the room was flooded with two feet of water after a heavy rainstorm. The refectory was used as a prison; it is not known if any of the prisoners may have damaged the painting. In 1821, Stefano Barezzi, an expert in removing whole frescoes from their walls intact, was called in to remove the painting to a safer location; he badly damaged the center section before realizing that Leonardo's work was not a fresco. Barezzi then attempted to reattach damaged sections with glue. From 1901 to 1908, Luigi Cavenaghi first completed a careful study of the structure of the painting, then began cleaning it. In 1924, Oreste Silvestri did further cleaning, and stabilised some parts with stucco.


title: The Last Supper (Leonardo)

text: During World War II, on 15 August 1943, the refectory was struck by Allied bombing; protective sandbagging prevented the painting from being struck by bomb splinters, but it may have been damaged by the vibration. Between 1946 and 1954, undertook a clean-and-stabilise restoration, which Brera director was involved in. Pellicioli reattached paint to the wall using a clear shellac, making it relatively darker and more colorful, and removed some of the overpainting. However, as of 1972, the repainting done in various restorations had made the heads of saints Peter, Andrew, and James differ significantly from the original design.


title: The Last Supper (Leonardo)

text: The painting's appearance by the late 1970s had badly deteriorated. From 1978 to 1999, Pinin Brambilla Barcilon guided a major restoration project to stabilize the painting and reverse the damage caused by dirt and pollution. The eighteenth- and nineteenth-century restoration attempts were also reversed. Since it had proved impractical to move the painting to a more controlled environment, the refectory was instead converted to a sealed, climate-controlled environment, which meant bricking up the windows. Then, detailed study was undertaken to determine the painting's original form, using scientific tests (especially infrared reflectoscopy and microscopic core-samples), and original cartoons preserved in the Royal Library at Windsor Castle. Some areas were deemed unrestorable. These were using watercolor in subdued colors intended to indicate they were not original work, while not being too distracting.


title: The Last Supper (Leonardo)

text: This restoration took 21 years and, on 28 May 1999, the painting was returned to display. Intending visitors were required to book ahead and could only stay for 15 minutes. When it was unveiled, considerable controversy was aroused by the dramatic changes in colors, tones, and even some facial shapes. James Beck, professor of art history at Columbia University and founder of ArtWatch International, had been a particularly strong critic. Michael Daley, director of ArtWatch UK, has also complained about the restored version of the painting. He has been critical of Christ's right arm in the image which has been altered from a draped sleeve to what Daley calls "muff-like drapery".


title: The Last Supper (Leonardo)

text: "The Last Supper" has frequently been referenced, reproduced, or parodied in Western culture. Some of the more notable examples are:


title: The Last Supper (Leonardo)

text: A 16th-century oil on canvas copy is conserved in the abbey of Tongerlo, Antwerp, Belgium. It reveals many details that are no longer visible on the original. The Roman mosaic artist Giacomo Raffaelli made another life-sized copy (1809–1814), commissioned by Napoleon Bonaparte, that resides in the Minoritenkirche in Vienna.


title: The Last Supper (Leonardo)

text: In 1955, Salvador Dalí painted "The Sacrament of the Last Supper", with Jesus portrayed as blond and clean shaven, pointing upward to a spectral torso while the apostles are gathered around the table heads bowed so that none may be identified. It is reputed to be one of the most viewed paintings in the collection of the National Gallery of Art in Washington, D.C.


title: The Last Supper (Leonardo)

text: Mary Beth Edelson's "Some Living American Women Artists / Last Supper" (1972) appropriated "The Last Supper", with the heads of notable women artists collaged over the heads of Christ and his apostles. The artists collaged over the heads of Christ and his apostles in "Some Living American Women Artists / Last Supper" include Lynda Benglis, Louise Bourgeois, Elaine de Kooning, Helen Frankenthaler, Nancy Graves, Lila Katzen, Lee Krasner, Georgia O'Keeffe, Louise Nevelson, Yoko Ono, M. C. Richards, Alma Thomas, and June Wayne. As well, other women artists have their image shown in the border of the piece; in all eighty-two women artists are part of the whole image. This image, addressing the role of religious and art historical iconography in the subordination of women, became "one of the most iconic images of the feminist art movement."


title: The Last Supper (Leonardo)

text: Sculptor Marisol Escobar rendered "The Last Supper" as a life-sized, three-dimensional, sculptural assemblage using painted and drawn wood, plywood, brownstone, plaster, and aluminum. This work, "Self-Portrait Looking at The Last Supper", (1982–84) is in New York's Metropolitan Museum of Art.


title: The Last Supper (Leonardo)

text: In 1986, Andy Warhol was commissioned to produce a series of paintings based on "The Last Supper" that were exhibited initially in Milan. This was his last series of paintings before his death.


title: The Last Supper (Leonardo)

text: In her 1834 ekphrasic poem, , Lydia Sigourney focuses on Christ's betrayer, repeatedly asks "Is it I?" and closes with the prayer that our feet be so guided:


title: The Last Supper (Leonardo)

text: Author Mary Shelley describes her impression of the painting in her travel narrative, "Rambles in Germany and Italy", published 1844:


title: The Last Supper (Leonardo)

text: The painting is closely resembled in the film "Quo Vadis", where Peter preaches in front of a large Christian crowd. As he tells the story of the Last Supper, the film shifts into a brief scene where the background, clothing, and positions of Jesus and the 12 Disciples is alike to the painting itself. In Luis Buñuel's 1961 Spanish film "Viridiana", a "tableau vivant" of Leonardo's painting is staged with beggars. Another beggar "photographs" the scene by flashing them. This scene contributed to its refusal by the Vatican who called it "blasphemous". The painting is parodied in the motion picture of "M*A*S*H" (1970), in the scene where Hawkeye Pierce stages a "last supper" for Walt (Painless) Waldowski before his planned suicide. The various doctors, all in surgical scrubs, pose in imitation of the painting. In Norman Jewison's film version of "Jesus Christ Superstar" (1973), in the Last Supper sequence, Jesus and the 12 apostles briefly mimic the posture of each character in Da Vinci's painting. The painting is also parodied in Mel Brooks's movie "History of the World, Part I" (1981), making Leonardo a contemporary of Jesus.


title: The Last Supper (Leonardo)

text: Many parodies of the painting appear on the small screen, including "That '70s Show"s 1998 first-season episode "Streaking", with Eric flanked by his friends (and Jackie wondering why everyone is sitting on the same side of the table); The season seven finale of "The X-Files", "Requiem" (and Mulder's last episode as a series regular) features a scene in Skinner's office with the characters lined up in homage to the painting; "The Simpsons" 2005 Season 16 episode "Thank God, It's Doomsday", with Homer as Jesus and Moe and his other patrons as the disciples; and "South Park"s 2009 Season 13 episode "Margaritaville", with Kyle and his friends eating at a pizza parlor. In one 2015 episode of the CBC drama "Murdoch Mysteries" called "Barenaked Ladies", the suspects recreate the poses of Peter, Judas, and Thomas in their victims.


title: The Last Supper (Leonardo)

text: "The Last Supper" has been the target of much speculation by writers and historical revisionists alike, usually centered on purported hidden messages or hints found within the painting, especially since the publication of Dan Brown's novel "The Da Vinci Code" (2003), in which one of the characters suggests that the person to Jesus' right (left of Jesus from the viewer's perspective) is actually Mary Magdalene. It also states that there was a letter ‘glaring in the center of the painting’ (M) standing for Matrimonio or Mary Magdalene. This speculation originated in earlier books "The Templar Revelation" (1997) by Lynn Picknett and "The Holy Blood and the Holy Grail" by Michael Baigent, Henry Lincoln and Richard Leigh (1982). Art historians hold that the figure is the Apostle John, who appears feminine in line with Leonardo's characteristic fascination with blurring the lines between the sexes, a quality which is found in his other paintings, such as "St. John the Baptist" (painted 1513–1516). Christopher L. Hodapp and Alice Von Kannon comment, "If he [John] looks effeminate and needs a haircut, so does James, the second figure on the left." According to Ross King, an expert on Italian art, Mary Magdalene's appearance at the last supper would not have been controversial and Leonardo would have had no motive to disguise her as one of the other disciples, since she was widely venerated in her role as the "Apostle to the Apostles" and was the patron of the Dominican Order, for whom "The Last Supper" was painted. There would have even been precedent for it, since the earlier Italian Renaissance painter Fra Angelico had included her in his painting of the Last Supper.


title: The Last Supper (Leonardo)

text: The painting contains several possible numerical references, including to the number three. The Apostles are seated in groups of three, there are three windows behind Jesus, and the shape of Jesus' figure resembles a triangle. His hands are located at the golden ratio of half the height of the composition. The painting can also be interpreted using the Fibonacci series: one table, one central figure, two side walls, three windows and figures grouped in threes, five groups of figures, eight panels on the walls and eight table legs, and thirteen individual figures. Debates among art historians still surround the use of the Fibonacci series as some argue that its purposeful use did not fully begin to be applied to architecture until the early 19th century.


title: S.S.C. Napoli

text: The club was formed in 1926 as Associazione Calcio Napoli following the merger of U.S. Internazionale Napoli and Naples Foot-Ball Club. Napoli saw relatively little success in its early years, winning their first major trophy in the 1962 Coppa Italia. Napoli then saw increased success in the late 1970s (including their second Coppa Italia in 1976) and especially in the 1980s, after the club acquired Diego Maradona in 1984. During his time in Naples, Maradona helped the team win several trophies, which led to the club retiring his number 10 jersey. During this period, Napoli won their sole league titles, in 1987 and 1990, the 1987 Coppa Italia, the 1990 Supercoppa Italiana, and their only European trophy with the 1989 UEFA Cup. Following his departure, however, Napoli struggled financially, and endured several relegations and a bankruptcy, prior to being re-founded in 2004 by film producer Aurelio De Laurentiis. Under his leadership, the club has stabilized, which has led to renewed on-field success, winning 2005-06 Serie C1, the 2012, 2014, and 2020 Coppa Italia titles, and the 2014 Supercoppa Italiana.


title: S.S.C. Napoli

text: By attendance, Napoli have the fourth-largest fan base in Italy, and were ranked as the fifth highest-earning football club in Serie A, with $182 million in revenue during the 2017–18 season. In 2018, Forbes estimated the club is the fifth most valuable club in Italy, worth $379 million. Napoli are also one of the associate members of the European Club Association.


title: S.S.C. Napoli

text: Since 1959, the club has played their home games at the Stadio San Paolo, which was renamed Stadio Diego Armando Maradona after the Argentine's death in 2020. Napoli traditionally wear sky blue shirts, white shorts, and sky blue socks at home and white shirts, white or sky blue shorts, and white or sky blue socks away; this is derived from the shirts of Naples FBC and the shorts of Internazionale Napoli after the clubs merged to form Napoli in 1922. Napoli have rivalries with Roma, Juventus and Palermo. The club's anthem is "'O surdato 'nnammurato", one of the most famous songs in the Neapolitan language.


title: S.S.C. Napoli

text: Napoli traces its roots to the first relevant Neapolitan club, founded as Naples Foot-Ball & Cricket Club in 1905 by English sailor William Poths and his associate Hector M. Bayon. Neapolitans such as Conforti, Catterina and Amedeo Salsi were also involved; Salsi was named the club's first president. The original kit of the club was a sky blue and navy blue striped shirt, with black shorts. Naples' first match was a 3–2 win against the English crew of the boat "Arabik" with goals from William MacPherson, Michele Scafoglio and Léon Chaudoir.


title: S.S.C. Napoli

text: Early into its existence, the Italian Football Championship was limited to just northern clubs, so southern clubs competed against sailors or in cups such as Thomas Lipton's Lipton Challenge Cup. In the cup competed between Naples FBC and Palermo FBC Naples won three finals. The foreign contingent at the club broke off in 1911 to form Internazionale Napoli, who wore blue shirts with white shorts, in time for both club's debut in the Italian Championship of 1912–13. Each of the teams won a Prima Categoria southern Italian title and therefore competed in the national semifinal, Naples doing so in 1912–13 and Internazionale Napoli in 1913–14. They were set to face each other for the southern title again in 1914–15 but it was canceled due to World War I.


title: S.S.C. Napoli

text: Due to financial pressure, the two rival clubs merged as the Foot-Ball Club Internazionale-Naples, abbreviated as FBC Internaples on 2 October 1922. Internaples', and later Napoli's kits are derived from those of Naples FBC and Internazionale Napoli; adopting the sky blue from Naples' shirts and the white shorts from Internazionale Napoli.


title: S.S.C. Napoli

text: The merged club was seen by some media and fans to be a continuation of Internazionale Napoli rather than a new club; it played its games at Internazionale Napoli's Terme di Agnano rather than Naples FBC's Campo del Poligono and kept Internazionale Napoli's nickname of "Gli Azzurri" (The Blues) rather than "I Blucelesti" (The Navy Blue and Sky Blues) used by Naples. Internaples were also given the nickname "I Puledri" (the foals), as the horse is a symbol of Naples.


title: S.S.C. Napoli

text: Internaples were immediately enrolled in the top-flight Prima Divisione Lega Sud championship, as both Internazionale Napoli and Naples competed in that division pre-merger. Since the end of World War I both clubs had lost dominance of the region to the likes of Puteolana and Savoia. Even with the combined strength of Internaples, Savoia still proved to be the top team in southern Italy. Internaples reached the interregional semi-final of Lega Sud in each of its first two seasons, and reached the Lega Sud final in 1925–26. This secured the club a spot in the new Divisione Nazionale for the following season.


title: S.S.C. Napoli

text: Under the presidency of Giorgio Ascarelli, and likely under pressure from the new fascist government to "Italianize" the club name, Internaples changed its name to Associazione Calcio Napoli on 25 August 1926. The newly renamed team also moved from the Terme di Agnano to a new stadium, the Stadio Militare dell'Arenaccia. After a poor start, with a sole point in an entire championship, Napoli was re-admitted to Serie A's forerunner, the Divisione Nazionale, by the Italian Football Federation ("FIGC"), and began to improve thanks in part to Paraguayan-born Attila Sallustro, who was the first fully fledged hero to the fans. He was a capable goal-scorer and eventually set the all-time goal-scoring record for Napoli, which was later surpassed by players like Diego Maradona and Marek Hamšík.


title: S.S.C. Napoli

text: Napoli entered the Serie A era under the management of William Garbutt. During Garbutt's six-year stint, the club would be dramatically transformed, frequently finishing in the top half of the table. This included two third-place finishes during the 1932–33 and 1933–34 seasons, with added notables such as Antonio Vojak, Arnaldo Sentimenti and Carlo Buscaglia. However, in the years leading up to World War II, Napoli went into decline, only surviving relegation in 1939–40 by goal average.


title: S.S.C. Napoli

text: Napoli lost a closely contested relegation battle at the end of 1942 and were relegated to Serie B. They moved from the Stadio Giorgio Ascarelli to the Stadio Arturo Collana and remained in Serie B until after the war.


title: S.S.C. Napoli

text: Play restarted in 1945 with two divisions: one consisting of Serie A teams from the north and one combined division of Serie A and Serie B teams from the central and south, with the top four of each division advancing to the national round that followed. Napoli won the Centro-Sud Serie A-B to secure a place in the Divisione Nazionale (where they placed fifth) and automatic promotion to the next season's Serie A. They were relegated after two seasons for a bribery scandal. The club won the Serie B title that season to ensure top flight football at the start of the 1950s. Napoli moved to their new home ground Stadio San Paolo in 1959.


title: S.S.C. Napoli

text: Despite erratic league form with highs and lows during this period, including multiple relegations and promotions, Napoli won their first major trophy when they beat SPAL to lift the Coppa Italia in 1962, with goals from Gianni Corelli and Pierluigi Ronzon. The victory made Napoli the first team to win the Coppa while in Serie B, and they were promoted to Serie A that season. Their fourth relegation cut celebrations short the following season.


title: S.S.C. Napoli

text: As the club changed their name to Società Sportiva Calcio Napoli on 25 June 1964 they began to rise up again, gaining promotion in 1964–65. Under the management of former player Bruno Pesaola, they won the Coppa delle Alpi and were back among the elite in Serie A, with consistent top-five finishes. Napoli came very close to winning the league in 1967–68, finishing just behind Milan in second place. Some of the most popular players from this period were Dino Zoff, José Altafini, Omar Sívori and hometown midfielder Antonio Juliano. Juliano would eventually break the appearance records, which still stands today.


title: S.S.C. Napoli

text: The trend of Napoli performing well in the league continued into the 1970s, with third place spots in 1970–71 and 1973–74. Under the coaching of former player Luís Vinício, this gained them entry into the early UEFA Cup competitions. In 1974–75, they reached the third round knocking out Porto 2–0 "en route". During the same season, Napoli finished second in Serie A, just two points behind champions Juventus. Solid performances from locally born players such as Giuseppe Bruscolotti, Antonio Juliano and Salvatore Esposito were relied upon during this period, coupled with goals from Giuseppe Savoldi.


title: S.S.C. Napoli

text: The club won their second Coppa Italia trophy in 1975–76, eliminating Milan and Fiorentina "en route", before beating rivals Hellas Verona 4–0 in the final. That season, they also defeated Southampton 4–1 on aggregate to lift the 1976 Anglo-Italian League Cup. Napoli were entered into the UEFA Cup Winners' Cup for 1976–77, where they reached the semi-finals, losing 2–1 on aggregate to Anderlecht. In the Italian league, Napoli were still very much a consistent top six side for much of the late 1970s. Even into the earliest two seasons of the 1980s, the club were performing respectably with a third-place finish in 1980–81. Napoli's Primavera squad was also doing well at the time, winning the Torneo di Viareggio Cup in 1975 and their only Campionato Nazionale Primavera title in 1979. However, by 1983, they had slipped dramatically and were involved in relegation battles.


title: S.S.C. Napoli

text: Napoli broke the world transfer record fee after acquiring Diego Maradona in a €12 million deal from Barcelona on 30 June 1984. The squad was gradually re-built, with the likes of Ciro Ferrara, Salvatore Bagni and Fernando De Napoli filling the ranks. The rise up the tables was gradual, by 1985–86, they had a third-place finish under their belts, but better was yet to come. With the attacking trio of Maradona, Bruno Giordano, and Careca (nicknamed MaGiCa), the 1986–87 season was the landmark in Napoli's history, becoming just the third Italian team to win the double after securing the Serie A title by three points and then beating Atalanta 4–0 to lift the Coppa Italia.


title: S.S.C. Napoli

text: Because a mainland Southern Italian team had never won the league before, this turned Maradona into a cultural, social and borderline religious icon for Neapolitans, which stretched beyond the realms of just football.


title: S.S.C. Napoli

text: The club were unsuccessful in the European Cup in the following season and finished runners-up in Serie A. However, Napoli were entered into the UEFA Cup for 1988–89 and won their first major European title. Juventus, Bayern Munich and PAOK were defeated "en route" to the final, where Napoli beat VfB Stuttgart 5–4 on aggregate, with two goals from Careca and one each from Maradona, Ferrara and Alemão.


title: S.S.C. Napoli

text: Napoli added their second Serie A title in 1989–90, defeating Milan by two points in the title race. However, this was surrounded by less auspicious circumstances as Napoli were awarded two points for a game, when in Bergamo, an Atalanta fan threw a 100 lira coin at Alemão's head.


title: S.S.C. Napoli

text: A controversial set of events set off at the 1990 World Cup, when Maradona made comments pertaining to North–South inequality in the country and the "risorgimento", asking Neapolitans to root for Argentina in the semi-finals against Italy in Naples.


title: S.S.C. Napoli

text: The Stadio San Paolo was the only stadium during the competition where the Argentine national anthem was not jeered, Maradona bowed to the Napoli fans at the end and his country went on to reach the final. However, after the final, the Italian Football Federation (FIGC) forced Maradona to take a doping test, which he failed testing positive for cocaine; both Maradona and Napoli staff later claimed it was a revenge plot for events at the World Cup. Maradona was banned for 15 months and would never play for the club again. The club still won the Supercoppa Italiana that year, with a record 5–1 victory against Juventus, but it would be their last major trophy for 22 years. In the European Cup, they were eliminated in the second round.


title: S.S.C. Napoli

text: Though the club finished fourth during the 1991–92 season, Napoli gradually went into decline after that season, both financially and on the field. Players such as Gianfranco Zola, Daniel Fonseca, Ciro Ferrara and Careca had all departed by 1994. Nonetheless, Napoli qualified for the 1994–95 UEFA Cup, reaching the third round and in 1996–97, Napoli appeared at the Coppa Italia final, but lost 3–1 to Vicenza; Napoli's primavera squad won the Coppa Italia Primavera that season. Napoli's league form had dropped lower, and relegation to Serie B came at the end of 1997–98 when they won only two matches all season.


title: S.S.C. Napoli

text: The club returned to Serie A after gaining promotion in the 1999–2000 season, though after a closely contested relegation battle, they were relegated immediately back down the following season. By August 2004, Napoli was declared bankrupt. To secure football in the city, film producer Aurelio De Laurentiis re-founded the club under the name Napoli Soccer, as they were not allowed to use their old name until the next season. FIGC placed Napoli in Serie C1, where they missed out on promotion after losing 2–1 in play-offs to local rivals Avellino in 2004–05.


title: S.S.C. Napoli

text: Despite the fact Napoli were playing in a low division, they retained higher average attendances than most of the Serie A clubs, breaking the Serie C attendance record with 51,000 at one match. The following season, they secured promotion to Serie B and De Laurentiis brought back the club's history, restoring its name to Società Sportiva Calcio Napoli in May 2006. After just one season in Serie B, they were promoted to the top division, along with fellow "sleeping giants" Genoa. In 2010, under manager Walter Mazzarri, Napoli finished in sixth place to qualify for a 2010–11 UEFA Europa League spot. Napoli finished third in the 2010–11 season, qualifying directly for the group stage of the 2011–12 UEFA Champions League.


title: S.S.C. Napoli

text: In the 2011–12 season, Napoli ended in fifth place in Serie A, but defeated unbeaten champions Juventus at the Stadio Olimpico to win the Coppa Italia for the fourth time in the club's history, 25 years after their last cup win. The team finished second in its group of the 2011–12 UEFA Champions League, progressing to the round of 16, where they were eliminated by eventual winners Chelsea. In 2012–13, Napoli finished in second place in Serie A, the club's best performance since winning the 1989–90 Scudetto. Edinson Cavani finished as top scorer in the division with 29 goals, which resulted in him being sold to Paris Saint-Germain for a club-record fee of €64 million.


title: S.S.C. Napoli

text: In the 2013 close-season, Mazzarri left Napoli and Rafael Benítez became the club's manager. They finished the 2013–14 season by winning the 2014 Coppa Italia Final, their fifth title in the tournament, with a 3–1 win against Fiorentina, as well as qualifying for the Champions League, but missed out on the group stage as they lost to Athletic Bilbao in the play-off round. Their subsequent run in the Europa League ended when they lost 2–1 on aggregate to FC Dnipro in the semi-finals. They finished the 2014–15 season in fifth, with Benítez then leaving for Real Madrid and being replaced by Maurizio Sarri.


title: S.S.C. Napoli

text: In Sarri's first season in charge in the 2015–16 season, Napoli finished in 2nd place on 82 points and were knocked out of the Europa League in the round of 32 against Villarreal. In the following season, Napoli finished in 3rd place on 86 points and were knocked out of the Champions League in the round of 16 against Real Madrid. This year saw the breakout season for Dries Mertens who scored 34 goals in all competitions after he was moved from the left-wing to centre-forward following Milik's torn Anterior cruciate ligament.


title: S.S.C. Napoli

text: In the 2017–18 season, Napoli challenged for the title for the entire season, and finished with a club record of 91 points. However, the title ultimately went to Juventus in the penultimate round of matches. On 23 December 2017, Marek Hamšík overtook Diego Maradona as Napoli's all-time leading scorer after scoring his 115th goal. At the end of the season, Sarri left for Chelsea, succeeded by Carlo Ancelotti in May 2018. He managed the club to another second-place finish, but was sacked on 10 December 2019, following a poor run of results in the 2019–20 season which left them seventh in the table. Gennaro Gattuso was named head coach the next day. On 14 June 2020, Dries Mertens became Napoli's all-time top scorer after scoring his 122nd goal in a Coppa Italia semi-final match against Inter. Napoli went on to win the 2019–20 Coppa Italia in a penalty shoot-out against Juventus in the final.


title: S.S.C. Napoli

text: In December 2020, Napoli renamed San Paolo after Diego Maradona, after the passing away of their beloved club icon. Napoli finished fifth in Serie A that season after a draw on the final day, missing a Champions League berth by one point.


title: S.S.C. Napoli

text: In the 2021–22 season, Luciano Spalletti replaced Gennaro Gattuso as head coach and led the team to the third place in Serie A, securing a Champions League spot for the azzurri after a two-years absence.


title: S.S.C. Napoli

text: Below is the official presidential history of Napoli, from when Giorgio Ascarelli took over at the club in 1926, until the present day.


title: S.S.C. Napoli

text: In the summer of 2000, Napoli retired the jersey number 10 belonged to former club legend Diego Maradona, who played for the club from 1984 to 1991. In order, the last players to wear number 10 were Fausto Pizzi (1995–1996), Beto (in 1996–1997), Igor Protti in 1997–1998 was the last player to play and score a goal with the number 10 shirt in Serie A and Claudio Bellucci in 1998–1999 and 1999–2000 in Serie B. Karl Corneliusson wore the number 10 shirt in 2004–2005 in Serie C. In Serie C the starting players had to wear shirts with the number 1-11


title: S.S.C. Napoli

text: However, for regulatory reasons, the number was reissued on blue shirts 2004 to 2006 Serie C1, a tournament where there is the old numbering from 1 to 11. The last player to wear and score goals with this shirt in an official match was Mariano Bogliacino in the home match of 18 May 2006 against Spezia, valid for the final leg of the Supercoppa di Lega Serie C1; primacy belongs to him also for last appearance in the championship, 12 May 2006 at the home match against Lanciano. As regards exclusively the championship, however, the honour goes to the Argentine footballer Roberto Sosa, the distinction of being the last to wear the 10 at the San Paolo and at the same time to score in the match against Frosinone on 30 April 2006.


title: S.S.C. Napoli

text: As Naples is a coastal city, the colours of the club have always been derived from the blue waters of the Gulf of Naples. Originally, while using the name "Naples FBC", the colours of the club implemented two shades of blue. However, since the 1920s, a singular blue tone has been used in the form of azure. Thus, Napoli share the nickname ""Azzurri"" with the Italy national team. The shade of blue has been sky blue in many instances.


title: S.S.C. Napoli

text: Napoli typically wear azure shirts with white shorts at home and white shirts with either white or blue shorts away, though in recent years the away kits have often deviated from this tradition.


title: S.S.C. Napoli

text: One of the nicknames of Napoli is ""I ciucci"", which means "the donkeys" in the Neapolitan language. Napoli were given this name after a particularly poor performance during the 1926–27 season. It was originally meant to be derogatory, as the Neapolitan symbol is a rampant black horse, but the club adopted the donkey as a mascot named ""'O Ciuccio"".


title: S.S.C. Napoli

text: Napoli's first badge featured a rampant horse on top of a football with the letters "ACN" around it. The current club badge features a large "N" placed within a circle. This crest can be traced back to Internazionale Napoli, which used a similar design on their shirts. Since the club officially adopted the "N badge" as its representative, Napoli have altered it slightly at various times; sometimes it features the club's name around it, sometimes it does not. The main difference between each badge is the shade of blue used. Usually the "N" is white, although it has occasionally been gold (especially prior to 1980).


title: S.S.C. Napoli

text: ""Partenopei"" is a popular nickname for the club and people from the city of Naples in general. It is derived from Greek mythology where the siren Parthenope tried to enchant Odysseus from his ship to Capri. In the story, Odysseus had his men tie him to the ship's mast so he was able to resist the song of the siren. Consequently, Parthenope, unable to live with the rejection of her love, drowned herself and her body was washed up upon the shore of Naples.


title: S.S.C. Napoli

text: Napoli is the fourth most supported football club in Italy with around 13% of Italian football fans supporting the club. Like other top clubs in the country, Napoli's fanbase goes beyond the Italian border; in 2018 the society announced that the team had over 35 million supporters worldwide and 120 million people who liked to watch Napoli matches.


title: S.S.C. Napoli

text: The main ultra groups of Napoli are "Fedayn EAM 1979", "Ultras Napoli", "Fossato Flegreo", "Secco Vive", "Mastiffs", "Brigata Carolina", "Teste Matte", "Sud1996", "Nuova Guardia", "Vecchi Lions" and "Masseria".


title: S.S.C. Napoli

text: Napoli fans have occasionally cheered loud enough to register as earthquakes on seismographs at University of Naples Federico II.


title: S.S.C. Napoli

text: Unlike other Italian cities such as Genoa, Milan, Rome and Turin, Napoli is the only major football club in the city and therefore there is no derby in the strict sense of the term. The now-infrequent derby with Savoia, the next largest club in Naples, was played for the first time 24 December 1939, during the knockout phase of the 1939–40 Coppa Italia, the score was 1–3 in favor of Napoli. The last meeting between the clubs was in Serie B in 2000, won 0–1 by Napoli.


title: S.S.C. Napoli

text: Napoli's most hated rival is AS Roma, known as the Derby del Sole (Derby of the Sun). A rivalry with Juventus also exists, but Napoli is not considered to be as much of a rival by Juventus fans as Juventus is to Napoli fans. They also have a rivalry with the other Roman club Lazio, and contest the Derby Mezzogiorno (Midday Derby/Derby of Southern Italy) against Bari and Derby Bourbon (referencing the family that ruled the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies) against Foggia.


title: S.S.C. Napoli

text: The Derby del Sud Italia (Derby of Southern Italy) against Catanzaro was considered one of the most important rivalries in Italy during the 1970s.


title: S.S.C. Napoli

text: The fans of Napoli do co-star in two particular derbies in Italy against other regional teams: Derby della Campania generally refers to a rivalry with regional clubs, mainly Avellino and Salernitana.


title: S.S.C. Napoli

text: A "friendly rivalry" with Palermo is contested, known as the Derby delle Due Sicilie (Derby of the Two Sicilies), in reference to the historical link of the former Kingdom of Two Sicilies. Another friendly rivalry exists with Catania known as the Derby del Vulcano (Volcano Derby), referencing Mount Vesuvius near Naples and Mount Etna near Catania.


title: S.S.C. Napoli

text: Friendships with teams outside Italy exist Borussia Dortmund, Paris Saint-Germain, Celtic, and Lokomotiv Plovdiv, among others.


title: S.S.C. Napoli

text: Napoli formerly had a famous and long-standing friendship with the fans of Genoa, but the friendship ended in 2019. Napoli also once had a friendship with Roma.


title: S.S.C. Napoli

text: S.S.C. Napoli was expelled from the professional league in 2004. Thanks to Article 52 of N.O.I.F., the sports title was transferred to Napoli Soccer (later the "new" Napoli) in the same year, while the corporate entity which administered the "old" Napoli was liquidated. In the second last season before bankruptcy, the club was partially saved by the non-standard accounting practice of amortization after Silvio Berlusconi, owner of Milan and Prime Minister of Italy, introduced Italian Law 91/1981, Article 18B.


title: S.S.C. Napoli

text: Since re-foundation in 2004, the club's large numbers of supporters provided the main source of income, particularly through gate revenues and TV rights. Napoli made an aggregate profit in 2006–07 Serie B. They have continued to be profitable since returning to Serie A. Napoli equity in 2005 was a negative €261,466, having started from €3 million capital. By 2010 the equity was at €25,107,223 and Napoli achieved self-sustainability.


title: S.S.C. Napoli

text: Marek Hamšík holds Napoli's official appearance record, having made 520. He also holds the record for league appearances with 408 over the course of 12 years from 2007 to 2019.


title: S.S.C. Napoli

text: Diego Maradona finished the season of Serie A as the league's top scorer, known in Italy as the "Capocannoniere", in the 1987–88 season with 15 goals. This achievement was matched by Edinson Cavani in 2012–13, and Gonzalo Higuaín in 2015–16.


title: S.S.C. Napoli

text: The record for most goals in the league (also including the Divisione Nazionale tournaments) belongs to Attila Sallustro, with 106 goals, while the highest scorer in Serie A is Dries Mertens with 103 goals. The record for most goals in a single league season belongs to Gonzalo Higuaín, with 36 in the 2015–16 Serie A.


title: S.S.C. Napoli

text: The biggest ever victory recorded by Napoli was 8–1 against Pro Patria, in the 1955–56 season of Serie A. Napoli's heaviest championship defeat came during the 1927–28 season when eventual champions Torino beat them 11–0.


title: S.S.C. Napoli

text: On 26 July 2016, Gonzalo Higuaín became the third-highest football transfer of all-time and highest ever transfer for an Italian club when he joined Juventus for €90 million.


title: S.S.C. Napoli

text: On 31 July 2020, Napoli confirmed the signing of Victor Osimhen from Lille for a transfer fee of €70 million, making him Napoli's most expensive signing.


title: Nuremberg trials

text: The Nuremberg trials were held by the Allies against representatives of the defeated Nazi Germany, for plotting and carrying out invasions of other countries, and other crimes, in World War II.


title: Nuremberg trials

text: Between 1939 and 1945, Nazi Germany invaded many countries across Europe, inflicting 27 million deaths in the Soviet Union alone. Proposals for how to punish the defeated Nazi leaders ranged from a show trial (the Soviet Union) to summary executions (the United Kingdom). In mid-1945, France, the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom, and the United States agreed to convene a joint tribunal in Nuremberg, with the Nuremberg Charter as its legal instrument. Between 20 November 1945 and 1 October 1946, the International Military Tribunal (IMT) tried 21 of the most important surviving leaders of Nazi Germany in the political, military, and economic spheres, as well as six German organizations. The purpose of the trial was not just to convict the defendants but also to assemble irrefutable evidence of Nazi crimes, offer a history lesson to the defeated Germans, and delegitimize the traditional German elite.


title: Nuremberg trials

text: The IMT focused on the crime of aggression—plotting and waging aggressive war, which the verdict declared "the supreme international crime" because "it contains within itself the accumulated evil of the whole". Most of the defendants were also charged with war crimes and crimes against humanity. Twelve further trials were conducted by the United States against lower-level perpetrators, which focused more on the Holocaust. Although controversial at the time for their use of "ex post facto" law, the trials' innovation of holding individuals responsible for violations of international law established international criminal law.


title: Nuremberg trials

text: Between 1939 and 1945, Nazi Germany waged war across Europe, invading Czechoslovakia, Poland, the Low Countries, France, Denmark, Norway, Yugoslavia, Greece, and the Soviet Union, among others. German aggression was accompanied by immense brutality in occupied areas and the systematic murder of millions of Jews in the Holocaust. War losses in the Soviet Union alone included 27 million dead, mostly civilians, which was th of the prewar population.


title: Nuremberg trials

text: In early 1942, representatives of eight governments-in-exile in the United Kingdom issued a declaration on Punishment for War Crimes, which demanded an international court to try the Axis crimes committed in occupied countries. The United States and United Kingdom refused to endorse this proposal, citing the failure of war crimes prosecutions after World War I. Soviet jurist Aron Trainin developed the concept of crimes against peace (waging aggressive war) which would later be central to the proceedings at Nuremberg. Trainin's ideas were reprinted in the West and widely adopted. On 1 November 1943, the Soviet Union, United Kingdom, and United States issued the Moscow Declaration to "give full warning" to the Nazi leadership of the Allies' intent to "pursue them to the uttermost ends of the earth…in order that justice may be done". The declaration also stated that those high-ranking Nazis who had committed crimes in several countries would be dealt with jointly.


title: Nuremberg trials

text: Of all the Allies, the Soviet Union lobbied most intensely for trying the defeated German leaders for aggression in addition to war crimes. The Soviet Union wanted to hold a show trial similar to the 1930s Moscow trials, in order to demonstrate the Nazi leaders' guilt and build a case for war reparations to rebuild the Soviet economy, which had been devastated by the war. The United States insisted on a fair trial as a means of reforming Germany. Planners in the United States Department of War were drawing up plans for an international tribunal in late 1944 and early 1945. The British government was still opposed, unable to see the benefit of such a trial and preferring summary execution of Nazi leaders. The exact form that retribution would take was left unresolved at the Yalta Conference in February 1945. On 2 May, at the San Francisco Conference, the United States' new president Harry S. Truman announced the formation of an international military tribunal. On 8 May, Germany surrendered unconditionally.


title: Nuremberg trials

text: At the London Conference, held from 26 June to 2 August 1945, representatives of France, the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom, and the United States negotiated the exact form that the trial would take. Until the end of the negotiations, it was not clear that any trial would be held at all, due to acrimonious disputes over fundamental matters; the American delegation threatened to walk out.


title: Nuremberg trials

text: The Nuremberg Charter upended the traditional view of international law by holding individuals, rather than states, responsible for breaches of international law. The offenses that would be prosecuted were crimes against peace, crimes against humanity, and war crimes. At the conference, it was debated whether wars of aggression were prohibited in existing international customary law; regardless, before the charter was adopted there was no law providing for criminal responsibility for aggression. War crimes already existed in international law as criminal violations of the laws and customs of war. Although a novel construct, "crimes against humanity" covered acts that were already prohibited by the laws of most countries.


title: Nuremberg trials

text: The final version of the charter only gave the court the ability to punish those crimes against humanity that had been committed "in connection with any crimes within the jurisdiction of the Tribunal". Especially the United States wanted to avoid countenancing any rule that would give an international court jurisdiction over a government's treatment of its own citizens. The charter limited the jurisdiction of the court to Germany's actions because the Allies did not want to answer to an international court for their own actions; only Germans could be tried. Article 7 prevented the defendants from claiming immunity for their actions under the act of state doctrine, and the plea of acting under superior orders was left for the judges to decide. The trial was held under modified common law.


title: Nuremberg trials

text: The negotiators decided that the tribunal's permanent seat would be in Berlin, while the trial would be held at the Palace of Justice in Nuremberg. Located in the American occupation zone, Nuremberg was a symbolic location as the site of Nazi rallies. The Palace of Justice was relatively intact but needed to be renovated for the trial due to bomb damage; it had an attached prison where the defendants could be held. On 8 August, the Nuremberg Charter was signed in London. Nineteen states ratified the charter and were admitted as observers.


title: Nuremberg trials

text: In early 1946, there were a thousand employees from the four countries' delegations in Nuremberg, of which about two-thirds were from the United States. Besides legal professionals, there were many social-science researchers, psychologists, translators and interpreters, and graphic designers, the latter to make the many charts used during the trial. Each state appointed a prosecution team and two judges, one being an alternate.


title: Nuremberg trials

text: The United States' chief prosecutor was Supreme Court justice Robert H. Jackson. The United States prosecution believed that Nazism was the product of a German deviation from Western history (the "Sonderweg" thesis) and sought to correct this deviation with a trial that would serve both retributive and educational purposes. As the numerically strongest delegation, it would take on the bulk of the prosecutorial effort. At Jackson's recommendation, the United States appointed judges Francis Biddle and John Parker. The British chief prosecutor was Hartley Shawcross, assisted by David Maxwell Fyfe, who had been the attorney general in Churchill's government. Although the chief British judge, Sir Geoffrey Lawrence (Lord Justice of Appeal), was the nominal president of the tribunal, in practice Biddle exercised more authority.


title: Nuremberg trials

text: The French prosecutor, François de Menthon, had just overseen trials of the leaders of Vichy France; he resigned in January 1946 and was replaced by Auguste Champetier de Ribes. The French judges were Henri Donnedieu de Vabres, a professor of criminal law, and alternate Robert Falco, who had represented France at the London Conference. The French government tried to appoint staff who were not tainted by collaboration with the Vichy regime; some appointments were of those who had been in the French resistance. Because the Soviet Union expected a show trial, its appointees were familiar with this form. Initially, it was planned that Iona Nikitchenko, who had presided over the Moscow trials, would serve as the chief prosecutor; but he was appointed as a judge and replaced by Roman Rudenko, a show trial prosecutor chosen for his skill as an orator. The Soviet judges and prosecutors were not permitted to make any major decisions without consulting a commission in Moscow led by Soviet politician Andrei Vyshinsky; the resulting delays hampered the Soviet effort to set the agenda. The Soviet personnel's lack of knowledge of English, lack of interpreters, and unfamiliarity with diplomacy and international institutions also limited their influence.


title: Nuremberg trials

text: The work of drafting the indictment was divided up by the national delegations. The British worked on putting together the aggressive war charge; the French and Soviet delegations were assigned the task of covering crimes against humanity and war crimes committed on the Western Front and the Eastern Front, respectively. The United States delegation outlined the overall Nazi conspiracy and criminality of Nazi organizations. After this division of formulating the charges, the British and American delegations decided to work jointly in drafting the charges of conspiracy to wage aggressive war. On 17 September, the various delegations met to discuss the indictment.


title: Nuremberg trials

text: The charge of conspiracy was spearheaded by the United States prosecution and was less popular with the other Allies. The conspiracy charge was used to charge the top Nazi leaders, as well as bureaucrats who had never killed anyone or perhaps even directly ordered killing. It was also a way to indirectly charge crimes committed before the beginning of World War II, which the charter placed outside the court's jurisdiction. Conspiracy charges were especially central to the cases against propagandists and industrialists; the former were charged with providing the ideological justification for war and other crimes, while the latter were accused of economic mobilization without which no war would have been possible.


title: Nuremberg trials

text: The problem of translating the indictment and evidence into the three official languages of the tribunal, as well as German, was severe due to the scale of the task and difficulty in recruiting interpreters, especially in the Soviet Union. Vyshinsky demanded extensive corrections to the crimes-against-peace charges, especially regarding the role of the German–Soviet pact in starting World War II. Jackson also rewrote the indictment with the intent of keeping the proceedings under American control by separating out an overall conspiracy charge from the other three charges. The division of labor, and the haste with which the indictment was prepared, resulted in duplication, imprecise language, and lack of attribution of specific charges to individual defendants.


title: Nuremberg trials

text: Some of the most prominent Nazis—Adolf Hitler, Heinrich Himmler, and Joseph Goebbels—had committed suicide and therefore could not be tried. The prosecutors wanted to try representative leaders of German politics, economy, and military; and the Americans had a list of 70 names at the London Conference. Most of the defendants had surrendered to the United States or United Kingdom.


title: Nuremberg trials

text: The defendants, who were largely unrepentant, included former cabinet ministers: Franz von Papen (who had brought Hitler to power); Joachim von Ribbentrop (foreign minister), Wilhelm Frick (interior minister), and Alfred Rosenberg, minister for the occupied eastern territories. Also prosecuted were leaders of the German economy, such as Gustav Krupp (of the conglomerate Krupp AG), former Reichsbank president Hjalmar Schacht, and economic planners Albert Speer and Walther Funk, along with Speer's subordinate and head of the forced labor program, Fritz Sauckel. The military leaders were Hermann Göring, Wilhelm Keitel, Alfred Jodl, Erich Raeder, and Karl Dönitz. Also on trial were propagandists Julius Streicher and Hans Fritzsche; Rudolf Hess, Hitler's deputy who had flown to Britain in 1941; Hans Frank, governor-general of the General Governorate of Poland; Hitler Youth leader Baldur von Schirach; Arthur Seyss-Inquart, Reich Commissioner for the Netherlands; and Ernst Kaltenbrunner, the leader of Himmler's Reich Main Security Office.


title: Nuremberg trials

text: Although the list of defendants was finalized on 29 August, as late as October, Jackson demanded changes and expansion of the defendants list, but this was rejected. Of the 24 men indicted, Martin Bormann was tried in absentia, as the Allies were unaware of his death; Krupp was too ill to stand trial; and Robert Ley committed suicide. Göring, the most famous surviving Nazi, headlined the trial. Former Nazis were allowed to serve as counsel and by mid-November all defendants had lawyers. The defendants' lawyers jointly appealed to the court, claiming it did not have jurisdiction against the accused; but this motion was rejected. The defense lawyers saw themselves as acting on behalf of their clients, but also the German nation; they prioritized the Wehrmacht's reputation over the lives of the generals on trial. Initially, the Americans had planned to try fourteen organizations and their leaders, but this was narrowed to six: the Reich Cabinet, the Leadership Corps of the Nazi Party, the Gestapo, the SA, the SS and the SD, and the General Staff and High Command of the Wehrmacht. The aim was to have these organizations declared criminal, so that their members could be tried expeditiously for membership in a criminal organization. Senior American officials believed that convicting organizations was a good way of showing that not just the top German leaders were responsible for crimes, without condemning the entire German people.


title: Nuremberg trials

text: Over the summer, all of the national delegations struggled to gather evidence for the upcoming trial. Institutional rivalries hampered the search. The American and British prosecutors focused on documentary evidence and affidavits rather than testimony from survivors, as the latter was considered less reliable and more liable to accusations of bias, but at the expense of reducing public interest in the proceedings. The American prosecution drew on reports of the Office of Strategic Services and information provided by the YIVO Institute for Jewish Research and the American Jewish Committee. Overall, the prosecution called 37 witnesses compared to the defense's 83, not including 19 defendants who testified on their own behalf. The prosecution examined 110,000 captured German documents and entered 4,600 into evidence, along with of film and 25,000 photographs.


title: Nuremberg trials

text: The charter allowed the admissibility of any evidence deemed to have probative value, including depositions. Because of the loose evidentiary rules, photographs, charts, maps, and films played an important role in making incredible crimes believable. After the American prosecution flooded the trial with untranslated evidence, the judges insisted that all of the evidence be read into the record, which slowed the trial. The bringing of conspiracy charges also slowed the trial, as the same evidence ended up being read out multiple times, when it was relevant to both substantive and conspiracy charges.


title: Nuremberg trials

text: The International Military Tribunal began trial on 20 November 1945, after postponement requests from the Soviet prosecution, who wanted more time to prepare its case, were rejected. All defendants pleaded not guilty. As Jackson made clear, the purpose of the trial was not just to convict the defendants but also to assemble irrefutable evidence of Nazi crimes, establish individual responsibility and the crime of aggression in international law, offer a history lesson to the defeated Germans, delegitimize the traditional German elite, and allow the Allies to distance themselves from appeasement. Jackson maintained that while the United States did "not seek to convict the whole German people of crime", neither did the trial "serve to absolve the whole German people except 21 men in the dock". Nevertheless, defense lawyers (although not most of the defendants) often argued that the prosecution was trying to promote German collective guilt and forcefully countered this as a strawman argument. According to historian Kim Christian Priemel, the conspiracy charge "invited apologetic interpretations: narratives of absolute, totalitarian dictatorship, run by society's lunatic fringe, of which the Germans had been the first victims rather than agents, collaborators, and fellow travellers".


title: Nuremberg trials

text: On 21 November, Jackson gave the opening speech for the prosecution. He described the fact that the defeated Nazis received a trial as "one of the most significant tributes that Power has ever paid to Reason". Jackson's focus was on the aggressive war charge, which he described as the root of the crimes against humanity and of war crimes. He promoted an intentionalist view of the Nazi state and its overall conspiracy to commit all of the crimes mentioned in the indictment. The speech was favorably received by the prosecution, the tribunal, the audience, historians, and even the defendants.


title: Nuremberg trials

text: Much of the American case focused on the development of the Nazi conspiracy before the outbreak of war. The American prosecution became derailed during attempts to provide evidence of the German annexation of Austria. On 29 November, the prosecution was unprepared to continue presenting on the invasion of Czechoslovakia, and instead screened "Nazi Concentration and Prison Camps". The film, compiled from footage of the liberation of Nazi concentration camps, shocked both the defendants and the judges, who adjourned the trial. The American prosecutors were not any more effective when presenting documentary evidence on the conspiracy to commit crimes against humanity, and ended up reaching a "saturation point of horror" by their indiscriminate selection and disorganized presentation of evidence without tying it to specific defendants. The Americans summoned Einsatzgruppen commander Otto Ohlendorf, who testified about the murder of 80,000 people by those under his command, and SS general Erich von dem Bach-Zelewski, who admitted that German anti-partisan warfare was little more than a cover for the mass murder of Jews.


title: Nuremberg trials

text: On 12 December, Shawcross gave the opening speech for the British. Unlike Jackson, he attempted to minimize the novelty of the aggression charges. The British case covered invasions, from that of Poland to that of the Soviet Union, which Shawcross covered in the second part of his speech; these charges took three days to present, with Maxwell Fyfe detailing 15 treaties broken by Germany.


title: Nuremberg trials

text: In mid-December the Americans switched to presenting the case against the indicted organizations, while in January both the British and Americans presented evidence against individual defendants.


title: Nuremberg trials

text: From 17 January to 7 February 1946, France presented its charges and supporting evidence. In contrast to the other prosecution teams, the French prosecution emphasized how Nazi ideology and pan-Germanism had led to the Nazis' crimes, and delved into the "Sonderweg" theory of Germany's development in the nineteenth century. The French prosecutors, more than their British or American counterparts, emphasized the guilt of the German people; they barely mentioned the charge of aggressive war and instead focused on forced labor, economic plunder, massacres, and Germanization. Unlike the British and American prosecution strategy, which focused on using German documents to make their case, the French prosecutors took the perspective of the victims, submitting postwar police reports and calling eleven witnesses. Ultimately, the French prosecution was unable to convince the court that Germanization was a crime against humanity, and incidents such as the German annexation of Alsace–Lorraine went unmentioned in the final verdict. The only part of the French charges that were accepted by the judges was the deportation of Jews from France and other parts of Western Europe.


title: Nuremberg trials

text: On 8 February, the Soviet prosecution opened its case with a speech by Rudenko that covered all four prosecution charges, highlighting both aggressive war and the devastation of Eastern Europe and listing many crimes committed by the German occupiers against the Soviet people. The next week, the Soviet prosecution suddenly produced former field marshal Friedrich von Paulus, captured after the Battle of Stalingrad, as a witness and questioned him about the preparations for the invasion of the Soviet Union. Paulus incriminated his former associates, pointing to Keitel, Jodl, and Göring as the defendants most responsible for the war.


title: Nuremberg trials

text: More so than other delegations, Soviet prosecutors showed the gruesome details of German mistreatment of prisoners of war and forced laborers, as well as the systematic murder of Jews in eastern Europe. Although these aspects had already been covered by the American prosecution, Soviet prosecutors introduced new evidence from Extraordinary State Commission reports and interrogations of senior enemy officers. Lev Smirnov presented evidence on the Lidice massacre in Czechoslovakia, adding that such destruction of villages had occurred throughout eastern Europe. Evidence was presented on the murder of children, attempts to cover up atrocities, systematic plunder of occupied territories, and confiscation or destruction of cultural heritage. The Soviet prosecution also attempted to fabricate German responsibility for the Katyn massacre, which had in fact been committed by the Soviet Union. By early 1946, Western prosecutors were uneasy about the Katyn charge, although they never publicly rejected it for fear of casting the entire proceedings into question. The defense presented evidence of Soviet responsibility, and Katyn was not mentioned in the verdict. The inclusion of Katyn in the charges undermined the credibility of Soviet evidence in general.


title: Nuremberg trials

text: Inspired by the films shown by the American prosecution, the Soviet Union commissioned three films for the trial: "The German Fascist Destruction of the Cultural Treasures of the Peoples of the USSR", "Atrocities Committed by the German Fascist Invaders in the USSR", and "The German Fascist Destruction of Soviet Cities", using footage from Soviet filmmakers as well as shots from German newsreels. The second film included footage of the liberation of Majdanek and the liberation of Auschwitz and was considered even more disturbing than the American concentration camp film. The Soviet Union also called two Holocaust survivors as witnesses, Samuel Rajzman—a Treblinka survivor—and poet Abraham Sutzkever, who eloquently described the murder of tens of thousands of Jews from Vilna, although their testimony did not directly incriminate any of the defendants. The Soviet prosecution case was generally well received and presented compelling evidence about the suffering of the Soviet people and the Soviet contribution to victory.


title: Nuremberg trials

text: From March to July 1946, the defense presented its counterarguments. None of the defendants tried to assert that the Nazis' crimes had not occurred; instead, they attempted to divert blame from their own actions. Some defendants denied their involvement in, or knowledge of, certain crimes, even resorting to implausible lies. The defendants tried to blame their crimes on Hitler, who was mentioned 1,200 times during the trial—more than the top five defendants combined. Other absent and dead men including Himmler, Reinhard Heydrich, Adolf Eichmann, and Bormann were also blamed. In contrast, most defendants avoided incriminating each other. Although a few defense lawyers inverted the arguments of the prosecution to assert that the Germans' authoritarian mindset and obedience to the state exonerated them from any personal guilt, most rejected such arguments. Most defendants argued their own insignificance within the Nazi system, but Göring took the opposite approach, presenting himself as Hitler's loyalist and expecting that while he would be executed, the German people would eventually appreciate his loyalty.


title: Nuremberg trials

text: Despite the fact that the charter did not recognize a "tu quoque" defense, such arguments were repeatedly raised during the trial. The Nuremberg Laws were compared to discriminatory laws in the United States. Defense lawyer repeatedly tried to disclose the secret protocols of the German–Soviet pact. Six defendants were charged with the German invasion of Norway, and their lawyers argued that this invasion was undertaken to prevent a British invasion; a cover-up prevented the defense from capitalizing on this argument. United States admiral Chester Nimitz testified that the United States had used the same methods of submarine warfare that the German admirals were accused of; Dönitz's counsel successfully argued that this meant that such actions could not be crimes. The judges barred most evidence on Allied misdeeds from being heard in court.


title: Nuremberg trials

text: In order to appease concerns about fair process, the defendants were allowed a free hand with their witnesses and a great deal of irrelevant testimony was heard. The defendants' witnesses sometimes managed to exculpate them, but other witnesses—including Rudolf Höss, the former commandant of Auschwitz, and Hans Bernd Gisevius, a member of the German resistance—effectively incriminated the defendants. Midway through the trial, Winston Churchill's Iron Curtain speech denouncing the Soviet threat delighted the defense. Over the course of the trial, Western judges allowed the defendants additional leeway to denounce the Soviet Union, which was ultimately revealed to be a co-conspirator in the outbreak of World War II. The United States controlled the prison where the defendants and some of the witnesses were held, and tried its best to shut the Soviets out of the proceedings. In the context of the brewing Cold War, the trial became a means of condemning not only Germany but also the Soviet Union.


title: Nuremberg trials

text: On 31 August, closing arguments were presented. Over the course of the trial, crimes against humanity and especially against Jews (who were mentioned as victims of Nazi atrocities far more than any other group) came to upstage the aggressive war charge. In contrast to the opening prosecution statements, all eight closing statements highlighted the Holocaust; and the French and British prosecutors made this the main charge, as opposed to that of aggression. During the closing statements, most defendants disappointed the judges by their lies and denial. Speer managed to distinguish himself from other defendants, giving the impression of apologizing, although without assuming personal guilt or naming any victims other than the German people. On 2 September, the court recessed; and the judges retreated into seclusion to decide the verdict and sentences, which had been under discussion since June. The verdict was drafted by British alternate judge Norman Birkett. All eight judges participated in the deliberations, but the alternates could not cast a vote.


title: Nuremberg trials

text: The International Military Tribunal agreed with the prosecution that aggression was the gravest charge against the accused, stating in its judgement that because war in general is evil, "To initiate a war of aggression, therefore, is not only an international crime; it is the supreme international crime differing only from other war crimes in that it contains within itself the accumulated evil of the whole." The judges did not attempt to define aggression and decided not to mention the retroactivity of the charges in the verdict. The official interpretation of the IMT held that all of the charges had a solid basis in customary international law, which was elaborated in the verdict. The judgement argued that aggressive war had already been illegal, even if no one had been punished for it, and therefore the German leaders could not count on immunity from prosecution. The judges were aware that both the Allies and the Axis had planned or committed acts of aggression, writing the verdict carefully to avoid discrediting either the Allied governments or the tribunal.


title: Nuremberg trials

text: The judgment found that there was a premeditated conspiracy to commit crimes against peace, the goals of the conspiracy being "the disruption of the European order as it had existed since the Treaty of Versailles" and "the creation of a Greater Germany beyond the frontiers of 1914". Contrary to the prosecution, the verdict dated the planning of aggression to the 1937 Hossbach Memorandum and not to the founding of the Nazi Party. Through a compromise among the judges, the charge of conspiracy was narrowed to a conspiracy to wage aggressive war. The judges did not agree that the conspiracy extended to anyone who participated in the affairs of the Nazi government, only taking being present at the high-level meetings discussing war plans in 1937 and 1939 as evidence of belonging to the conspiracy. Only eight defendants were convicted on that charge; all of whom were also found guilty of crimes against peace. All 22 defendants were charged with crimes against peace, and 12 were convicted. The war crimes and crimes-against-humanity charges held up the best, with only two defendants who were charged being acquitted on those charges. The judges interpreted crimes against humanity narrowly; they determined that crimes against German Jews before 1939 were not under the court's jurisdiction because the prosecution had not proven a connection to aggressive war.


title: Nuremberg trials

text: Four organizations were ruled to be criminal: the Leadership Corps of the Nazi Party, the SS, the Gestapo, and the SD, although some lower ranks and subgroups were excluded. The SA, the Reich Cabinet, and the General Staff and High Command were not ruled to be criminal organizations. In the latter case, the Wehrmacht leadership was not considered an organization within the meaning of the charter; but this verdict was later misrepresented as an acquittal of the criminality of the Wehrmacht, forming one of the foundations of the clean Wehrmacht myth.


title: Nuremberg trials

text: The exact sentences to be given each defendant were debated at length by the judges. Twelve of the defendants were sentenced to death (Göring, Ribbentrop, Keitel, Kaltenbrunner, Rosenberg, Frank, Frick, Streicher, Sauckel, Jodl, Seyss-Inquart, and Bormann). On 16 October, ten were hanged, with Göring committing suicide the day before. Seven defendants (Hess, Funk, Raeder, Dönitz, Schirach, Speer, and Neurath) were sent to Spandau Prison to serve their sentences. All three acquittals (Papen, Schacht, and Fritzsche) were based on a deadlock between the judges; these acquittals surprised observers. Despite being accused of the same crimes, Sauckel was sentenced to death, while Speer was given a prison sentence because the judges considered that he could reform. Nikichenko released a dissent approved by Moscow that rejected all the acquittals, called for a death sentence for Hess, and convicted all the organizations. The judges proved their independence from the governments that appointed them, the defendants were seen as receiving due process, and the evidence of guilt amassed by the prosecution was overwhelming.


title: Nuremberg trials

text: A summary of the verdict appears in the table below. The 24 accused were:indicted but not convicted (I), indicted and found guilty (G), or not charged. For each defendant, verdicts are listed by count.


title: Nuremberg trials

text: Initially, it was planned to hold a second international tribunal for German industrialists, but this was never held because of differences between the Allies. Twelve military trials were convened solely by the United States in the same courtroom that had hosted the International Military Tribunal. These trials were held under Law No. 10 issued by the Joint Chiefs of Staff. Pursuant to this law, United States forces had arrested almost 100,000 Germans as war criminals. The Office of Chief Counsel for War Crimes identified 2,500 major war criminals, of whom 177 were tried. Many of the worst offenders were not prosecuted, for logistical or financial reasons.