title: Pompeii

text: Karl Weber directed the first scientific excavations. He was followed in 1764 by military engineer Franscisco la Vega, who was succeeded by his brother, Pietro, in 1804.


title: Pompeii

text: There was much progress in exploration when the French occupied Naples in 1799 and ruled over Italy from 1806 to 1815. The land on which Pompeii lies was confiscated, and up to 700 workers were employed in the excavations. The excavated areas in the north and south were connected. Parts of the Via dell'Abbondanza were also exposed in the west-east direction, and for the first time, an impression of the size and appearance of the ancient town could be appreciated. In the following years, the excavators struggled with a lack of money. Excavations progressed slowly, but with significant finds such as the houses of the Faun, of Menandro, of the Tragic Poet and the Surgeon.


title: Pompeii

text: Giuseppe Fiorelli took charge of the excavations in 1863 and made greater progress. During early excavations of the site, occasional voids in the ash layer had been found that contained human remains. Fiorelli realised these were spaces left by the decomposed bodies, and so devised the technique of injecting plaster into them to recreate the forms of Vesuvius's victims. This technique is still in use today, with a clear resin now used instead of plaster because it is more durable and does not destroy the bones, allowing further analysis.


title: Pompeii

text: Fiorelli also introduced scientific documentation. He divided the city into today's nine areas ("regiones") and blocks ("insulae") and numbered the entrances of the individual houses ("domus"). Fiorelli also published the first periodical with excavation reports. Under his successors, the entire west section of the city was exposed.


title: Pompeii

text: After those of Fiorelli, excavations continued in an increasingly more systematic and considered manner under several directors of archaeology though still with the main interest in making spectacular discoveries and uncovering more houses rather than answering the main questions about the city and its long term preservation.


title: Pompeii

text: In the 1920s, Amedeo Maiuri excavated older layers beneath those of 79 AD for the first time to learn about the settlement history. Maiuri made the last excavations on a grand scale in the 1950s, and the area south of the Via dell'Abbondanza and the city wall was almost completely uncovered, but they were poorly documented scientifically. Preservation was haphazard, and his reconstructions were difficult to distinguish from the original ruins, which is a great handicap for studying genuine antique remains. Questionable reconstruction was also done after the severe earthquake of 1980, which caused great destruction. Since then, work has been confined to the excavated areas except for targeted soundings and excavations. Further excavations on a large scale are not planned, and today archaeologists are more engaged in reconstructing, documenting and slowing the decay of the ruins.


title: Pompeii

text: In December 2018, archaeologists discovered the remains of harnessed horses in the Villa of the Mysteries.


title: Pompeii

text: Under the 'Great Pompeii Project' over of ancient walls within the city were relieved of danger of collapse by treating the unexcavated areas behind the street fronts in order to increase drainage and reduce the pressure of groundwater and earth on the walls, a problem especially in the rainy season. These excavations resumed on unexcavated areas of "Regio V". In November 2020 the remains of two men, thought to be a rich man and his slave, were found in a layer of ash. They appeared to have escaped the first eruption but were killed by a second blast the next day. A study of the bones showed that the younger one appeared to have done manual labour and hence was likely a slave.


title: Pompeii

text: In December 2020, a thermopolium, an inn or snack-bar, was excavated in Regio V. In addition to brightly coloured frescoes depicting some of the food on offer, archaeologists found eight dolia (terracotta pots) still containing remnants of meals, including duck, goat, pig, fish, and snails. They also found a decorated bronze drinking bowl known as a "patera", wine flasks, amphora, and ceramic jars used for cooking stews and soups. One fresco depicts a dog with a collar on a leash, possibly reminding customers to leash their pets. The complete skeleton of a tiny adult dog was also discovered, measuring only about at the shoulder, which provides evidence of the highly selective breeding of dogs in Roman times.


title: Pompeii

text: In January 2021 a well-preserved "large, four-wheel ceremonial chariot" was uncovered by archaeologists headed by Massimo Osanna at a villa in Civita Giuliana, north of Pompeii, where a stable had previously been discovered in 2018. The carriage is made of bronze and black and red wooden panels, with engraved metal medallions at the back.


title: Pompeii

text: In 2021 an exceptional 1st century AD painted tomb of a freed-slave, Marcus Venerius Secundio, containing mummified human remains, was discovered outside the Porta Sarno gate. Its inscription records he achieved custodianship of the Temple of Venus and membership of the Augustales, priests of the Imperial Cult. Also, he organised Greek and Latin performances lasting four days, the first evidence of Greek cultural events in Pompeii.


title: Pompeii

text: Objects buried beneath Pompeii were well-preserved for almost 2,000 years as the lack of air and moisture allowed little to no deterioration. However, Pompeii has been exposed to natural and anthropic deterioration following excavation.


title: Pompeii

text: Weathering, erosion, light exposure, water damage, poor methods of excavation and reconstruction, introduced plants and animals, tourism, vandalism and theft have all damaged the site in some way. The lack of adequate weather protection for all but the most interesting and important buildings has allowed original interior decoration to fade or be lost. Two-thirds of the city has been excavated, but the remnants of the city are rapidly deteriorating.


title: Pompeii

text: Furthermore, during World War II many buildings were badly damaged or destroyed by bombs dropped in several raids by the Allied forces.


title: Pompeii

text: The conservation concern has constantly worried archaeologists. The ancient city was included in the 1996 World Monuments Watch by the World Monuments Fund, and again in 1998 and in 2000. In 1996 the organisation claimed that Pompeii "desperately need[ed] repair" and called for the drafting of a general plan of restoration and interpretation. The organisation supported conservation at Pompeii with funding from American Express and the Samuel H. Kress Foundation.


title: Pompeii

text: The "Schola Armatorum" ('House of the Gladiators') collapsed in 2010 caused by heavy rainfall and lack of proper drainage. The structure was not open to visitors, but the outside was visible to tourists. There was fierce controversy after the collapse, with accusations of neglect.


title: Pompeii

text: Today, funding is mostly directed into conservation of the site; however, due to the expanse of Pompeii and the scale of the problems, this is inadequate in halting the slow decay of the materials. A 2012 study recommended an improved strategy for interpretation and presentation of the site as a cost-effective method of improving its conservation and preservation in the short term.


title: Pompeii

text: In June 2013, UNESCO warned that if restoration and preservation works "fail to deliver substantial progress in the next two years," Pompeii could be placed on the List of World Heritage in Danger. A "Grande Progetto Pompei" project of about five years had begun in 2012 with the European Union and included stabilization and conservation of buildings in the highest risk areas. In 2014, UNESCO headquarters received a new management plan to help integrate the property's management, conservation, and maintenance programs.


title: Pompeii

text: In 2020 many "domus" gardens, orchards and vineyards were carefully recreated using depictions in frescoes and archaeological finds to give better insights into what they were like before the catastrophe. These include the House of Julia Felix, the House of the Golden Cupids, the House of Loreius Tiburtinus, the House of Cornelius Rufus and the Garden of the Fugitives.


title: Pompeii

text: In 2021 several long-closed "domus" were re-opened after restoration including the House of the Ship Europa, House of the Orchard and House of the Lovers. Also the newly excavated House of Leda and the Swan has opened.


title: Pompeii

text: Owing to its wealth and its Greek, Etruscan and Roman history, Pompeii is of great interest for the study of Ancient Roman architecture in terms of building methods and urban planning. However, it was a relatively small provincial city and, except for the Amphitheatre, it did not have large monuments on the scale of other Roman cities. It also missed the large building schemes of the early Empire and kept much of its urban architecture dating from as early as the 4th century BC.


title: Pompeii

text: The evolution of Pompeii's private and public buildings is often unclear because of the lack of excavations beneath the levels of 79. It is, however, clear that by the time of the conquest by Sulla in 89 BC, the development of the street layout was largely complete, and most of the "insulae" were built up.


title: Pompeii

text: Under the Romans, Pompeii underwent a process of urban development which accelerated in the Augustan period from about 30 BC. New public buildings included the Amphitheatre with palaestra or gymnasium with a central natatorium ("cella natatoria") or swimming pool, two theatres, the Eumachia Building and at least four public baths. The amphitheatre has been cited by scholars as a model of sophisticated design, particularly in the area of crowd control.


title: Pompeii

text: Other service buildings were the Macellum ("meat market"); the Pistrinum (baker); the thermopolia (inns or snack-bars that served hot and cold dishes and drinks), and cauponae ("pubs" or "dives" with a seedy reputation as hangouts for thieves and prostitutes). At least one building, the Lupanar, was dedicated to prostitution. A large hotel or "hospitium" (of 1,000 m) was found at Murecine, a short distance from Pompeii, when the Naples-Salerno motorway was being built, and the Murecine Silver Treasure and the Tablets (providing a unique record of business transactions) were discovered there.


title: Pompeii

text: An aqueduct provided water to the public baths, to more than 25 street fountains, and to many private houses and businesses. The aqueduct was a branch of the great Serino Aqueduct built to serve the other large towns in the Bay of Naples region and the important naval base at Misenum. The "castellum aquae" is well preserved and includes many details of the distribution network and its controls.


title: Pompeii

text: There were at least 31 bakeries in the town, each with wood-burning ovens, millstones and a sales counter. The Modestus bakery, or House of the Oven, was the largest in the city and Sotericus's bakery, also among the largest, preserves the room for kneading bread.


title: Pompeii

text: Thermopolia were inns or snack-bars in which hot food and drinks were sold and in Pompeii there were nearly 100. The thermopolium of Vetutius Placidus overlooked the street directly, had a counter and several dolia, as well as a room behind the shop where customers could eat their meals: the lararium with frescoes of the Lares and Mercury and Dionysus and a triclinium decorated in the may be of interest. In the thermopolium of Asellina, with three sales counters and a lararium with depictions of Mercury and Bacchus, numerous furnishings have been found, both in bronze and terracotta, as well as 683 sesterces; the external façade bears a representation of jugs and funnels and an electoral inscription referring to Asellina, probably the owner of the inn.


title: Pompeii

text: Wool processing was well developed with 13 workshops that worked the raw material, seven that did the spinning, nine the dyeing, and 18 the washing: the Building of Eumachia, from the name of the priestess who built it, was the wool market, or the seat of the fullers guild; construction took place after 62 and was entirely in brickwork. Inside it has numerous niches in which statues were housed, mostly concerning the imperial family, a colonnade, and near the entrance, there was a jar in which urine was collected for use as a detergent for clothes. The fullonica of Stephanus, named after the owner or manager, was originally a house that was transformed into a workshop for the processing of fabrics: on the lower floor the working and washing activities took place, carried out in large tanks with water, soda and urine while on the upper floor the clothes were dried.


title: Pompeii

text: The garum workshop made the sauce obtained from the fermentation of the entrails of fish; in the building some containers were found, closed by lids, with the sauce inside while in the nearby garden there was a large deposit of "amphorae".


title: Pompeii

text: Modern archaeologists have excavated garden sites and urban domains to reveal the agricultural staples of Pompeii's economy. Pompeii was fortunate to have had fertile soil for crop cultivation. The soils surrounding Mount Vesuvius preceding its eruption have been revealed to have had good water-retention capabilities, implying productive agriculture. The Tyrrhenian Sea's airflow provided hydration to the soil despite the hot, dry climate. Barley, wheat, and millet were all produced along with wine and olive oil, in abundance for export to other regions.


title: Pompeii

text: Evidence of wine imported nationally from Pompeii in its most prosperous years can be found from recovered artefacts such as wine bottles in Rome. For this reason, vineyards were of utmost importance to Pompeii's economy. Agricultural policymaker Columella suggested that each vineyard in Rome produce a quota of three cullei of wine per jugerum; otherwise, the vineyard would be uprooted. The nutrient-rich lands near Pompeii were extremely efficient and often capable of largely exceeding these requirements, providing the incentive for local wineries to establish themselves. While wine was exported for Pompeii's economy, most other agricultural goods were likely produced in quantities sufficient for the city's consumption.


title: Pompeii

text: Remains of large formations of constructed wineries were found in the Forum Boarium, covered by cemented casts from the eruption of Vesuvius. It is speculated that these historical vineyards are strikingly similar in structure to the modern day vineyards across Italy.


title: Pompeii

text: Carbonised food plant remains, roots, seeds and pollens have been found in gardens in Pompeii, Herculaneum, and a Roman villa at Torre Annunziata. They revealed that emmer wheat, Italian millet, common millet, walnuts, pine nuts, chestnuts, hazel nuts, chickpeas, bitter vetch, broad beans, olives, figs, pears, onions, garlic, peaches, carob, grapes, and dates were consumed. All but the dates could have been produced locally.


title: Pompeii

text: The discovery of erotic art in Pompeii and Herculaneum left the archaeologists with a dilemma stemming from the clash of cultures between the mores of sexuality in ancient Rome and in Counter-Reformation Europe. An unknown number of discoveries were hidden away again. A wall fresco depicting Priapus, the ancient god of sex and fertility, with his grotesquely enlarged penis, was covered with plaster. An older reproduction was locked away "out of prudishness" and opened only on request – and only rediscovered in 1998 due to rainfall. In 2018, an ancient fresco depicting an erotic scene of "Leda and the Swan" was discovered at Pompeii.


title: Pompeii

text: Many artefacts from the buried cities are preserved in the Naples National Archaeological Museum. In 1819, when King Francis visited the Pompeii exhibition there with his wife and daughter, he was so embarrassed by the erotic artwork that he had it locked away in a "secret cabinet" ("gabinetto segreto"), a gallery within the museum accessible only to "people of mature age and respected morals". Re-opened, closed, re-opened again and then closed again for nearly 100 years, the Naples "Secret Museum" was briefly made accessible again at the end of the 1960s (the time of the sexual revolution) and was finally re-opened for viewing in 2000. Minors are still allowed entry only in the presence of a guardian or with written permission.


title: Pompeii

text: Pompeii has been a popular tourist destination for over 250 years; it was on the Grand Tour. By 2008, it was attracting almost 2.6 million visitors per year, making it one of Italy's most popular tourist sites. It is part of a larger Vesuvius National Park and was declared a World Heritage Site by UNESCO in 1997. To combat problems associated with tourism, the governing body for Pompeii, the 'Soprintendenza Archeologica di Pompei', has begun issuing new tickets that allow tourists to visit cities such as Herculaneum and Stabiae as well as the Villa Poppaea, to encourage visitors to see these sites and reduce pressure on Pompeii.


title: Pompeii

text: Pompeii is a driving force behind the economy of the nearby town of Pompei. Many residents are employed in the tourism and hospitality industry, serving as taxi or bus drivers, waiters, or hotel staff.


title: Pompeii

text: Excavations at the site have generally ceased due to a moratorium imposed by the superintendent of the site, Professor Pietro Giovanni Guzzo. The site is generally less accessible to tourists than in the past, with less than a third of all buildings open in the 1960s available for public viewing today.


title: Pompeii

text: Originally built by Giuseppe Fiorelli between 1873 and 1874, the Antiquarium of Pompeii began as an exhibition venue displaying archaeological finds that represented the daily life of the ancient city. The building suffered extensive damage in 1943 during the World War II bombings and again in 1980 due to an earthquake. The museum was closed to the public for 36 years before reopening in 2016 as a space for temporary exhibitions. The museum was re-opened on 25 January 2021 as a permanent exhibition venue. Visitors can see archaeological discoveries from the excavations, casts of the victims of the Mount Vesuvius eruption as well as displays documenting Pompeii's settlement history before becoming a thriving Roman city.


title: Pompeii

text: The 1954 film "Journey to Italy", starring George Sanders and Ingrid Bergman, includes a scene at Pompeii in which they witness the excavation of a cast of a couple who perished in the eruption.


title: Pompeii

text: Pompeii was the setting for the British comedy television series "Up Pompeii!" and the movie of the series. Pompeii also featured in the second episode of the fourth season of revived BBC science fiction series "Doctor Who", named "The Fires of Pompeii", which featured Caecilius as a character.


title: Pompeii

text: The rock band Pink Floyd filmed a 1971 live concert, "", in which they performed six songs in the city's ancient Roman amphitheatre. The audience consisted only of the film's production crew and some local children.


title: Pompeii

text: Siouxsie and the Banshees wrote and recorded the punk-inflected dance song "Cities in Dust", which describes the disaster that befell Pompeii and Herculaneum in AD 79. The song appears on their album 1985 "Tinderbox". The jacket of the single remix of the song features the plaster cast of a chained dog killed in Pompeii.


title: Pompeii

text: "Pompeii" is a 2003 Robert Harris novel featuring an account of the aquarius's race to fix the broken aqueduct in the days before the eruption of Vesuvius. Actual events and people inspired the novel.


title: Pompeii

text: "Pompeii" is a 2013 song by the British band Bastille. The lyrics refer to the city and the eruption of Mount Vesuvius.


title: Pompeii

text: "Pompeii" is a 2014 German-Canadian historical disaster film produced and directed by Paul W. S. Anderson.


title: Pompeii

text: 45 years after the Pink Floyd recordings, guitarist David Gilmour returned to the Pompeii amphitheatre in 2016 to perform a live concert for his Rattle That Lock Tour. This event was considered the first in the amphitheatre to feature an audience since the AD 79 eruption of Vesuvius.


title: NXIVM

text: NXIVM () is the name commonly used to describe the personality cult of imprisoned racketeer and sex offender Keith Raniere. NXIVM is also the trademarked name of the defunct corporation that Raniere founded, which provided seminars and videos in the field of human potential development. The United States seized ownership of NXIVM related entities and their intellectual property through asset forfeiture following Raniere's conviction.


title: NXIVM

text: The NXIVM Corporation was based in the New York Capital District and had centers throughout the United States, Canada, and Mexico. The subsidiary companies of NXIVM recruited based on the multi-level marketing model and used curricula based on the intellectual property ("tech") of Raniere called "Rational Inquiry". Courses attracted a variety of notable students including actors as well as the children of the rich and powerful. At its height, NXIVM had 700 active members.


title: NXIVM

text: Over its existence, former members and families of NXIVM clients alarmed by Raniere's behavior and NXIVM's practices spoke to investigative journalists of "Forbes, Vanity Fair, The New York Observer", and the "Times Union" of Albany calling the organization a "cult". The organization was criticized in similar terms by Rick Alan Ross of the Cult Education Institute and activists and academics from the anti-cult movement. In 2017, former members Sarah Edmondson, Bonnie Piesse and Mark Vicente, as well as Catherine Oxenberg (mother of member India Oxenberg) spoke to "The New York Times" and revealed grave concerns about Keith Raniere and NXIVM, including the existence of a secret society called "" in which women were branded, made to record false confessions and provide nude photographs for blackmail.


title: NXIVM

text: Following the "New York Times" exposé, the United States Attorney for the Eastern District of New York investigated the organization, and in 2018 brought criminal charges against Raniere, co-founder Nancy Salzman and her daughter Lauren, actress Allison Mack, Seagram heiress Clare Bronfman, and bookkeeper Kathy Russell. The U.S. Attorney's Office argued in its Racketeer Influenced and Corrupt Organizations Act prosecution that NXIVM and its subsidiaries existed to promote, enhance and protect Raniere and members of the enterprise. The indictment alleges that Raniere and his co-defendants comprised an organized racketeering enterprise by recruiting others into NXIVM and DOS for financial and personal benefits and committed crimes ranging from sex trafficking to forced labor and visa and wire fraud. All defendants except for Raniere pled guilty.


title: NXIVM

text: Raniere chose to go to trial in 2019. Prosecutors revealed a decades-long pattern of grooming, sexual abuse of girls and women, physical and psychological punishments against dissenters, and hacking and vexatious litigation against enemies. Raniere was convicted on the top charge of racketeering and racketeering conspiracy as well as several other charges. Judge Nicholas Garaufis sentenced Raniere to 120 years imprisonment. Co-conspirators Clare Bronfman, Nancy Salzman, and Allison Mack were given lesser prison sentences. Lauren Salzman and Kathy Russell were each given non-prison sentences.


title: NXIVM

text: Following Raniere's conviction, he continues to direct a small set of loyal members from his prison cell, encouraging continued recruitment. At his direction, members of the group danced outside Raniere's jail and staged protests against individual prosecutors. Based on statements of support, it was estimated that about 50 to 60 persons remain loyal to Raniere.


title: NXIVM

text: Before founding NXIVM, Raniere created Consumers Buyline, a business venture that the New York Attorney General accused of having been a pyramid scheme; Raniere signed a consent order in 1996 in which he denied any wrongdoing but agreed to pay a $40,000 fine and to be permanently banned from "promoting, offering or granting participation in a chain distribution scheme".


title: NXIVM

text: In 1998, Raniere and Nancy Salzman founded NXIVM, a personal development company offering "Executive Success Programs" (ESP) and a range of techniques for self-improvement. Raniere claimed that its "main emphasis is to have people experience more joy in their lives". In one account cited by former NXIVM member Sarah Edmondson, Raniere chose the name based on the ancient Roman system of debt bondage known as nexum. The 2002 registration with United States Patent and Trademark Office for the NXIVM trademark states that "The foreign wording in the mark translates into English as 'the next millennium'".


title: NXIVM

text: During NXIVM seminars, students would call Raniere and Salzman "Vanguard" and "Prefect", respectively. "The Hollywood Reporter" wrote that Raniere adopted the title from the 1981 video game "Vanguard," "in which the destruction of one's enemies increased one's own power". Within the organization, the reasoning for the titles was that Raniere was the leader of a philosophical movement and Salzman was his first student.


title: NXIVM

text: By 2003, 3,700 people had taken part in ESP classes. Reported participants included businesswoman Sheila Johnson, former Surgeon General Antonia Novello, Enron executive Stephen Cooper, Ana Cristina Fox (daughter of former Mexican president Vicente Fox), entrepreneur Richard Branson (who denied having taken the classes), businessman Edgar Bronfman Sr., and actresses Linda Evans, Grace Park, and Nicki Clyne. In the early 2000s, Seagram heiresses Clare and Sara Bronfman, daughters of Edgar Bronfman Sr., became attached to the organization.


title: NXIVM

text: NXIVM claimed its training is a trade secret, subject to non-disclosure agreements, but reportedly uses a technique the organization calls "rational inquiry" to facilitate personal and professional development. In 2003, NXIVM sued the Ross Institute in the case known as "NXIVM Corp. v. Ross Institute", alleging copyright infringement for publishing excerpts of content from its manual in three critical articles commissioned by cult investigator Rick Alan Ross and posted on his website. Ross posted a psychiatrist's assessment of NXIVM's "secret" manual on his website that called the regimen "expensive brainwashing".


title: NXIVM

text: Ross obtained the manual from former member Stephanie Franco, a co-defendant in the trial, who had signed a non-disclosure agreement not to divulge information from the manual to others. NXIVM filed suits in New York and New Jersey, but both were dismissed. On appeal, the United States Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit affirmed the dismissal, ruling that the defendant's critical analysis of material obtained in bad faith (i.e. in violation of a non-disclosure agreement) was fair use since the secondary use was transformative as criticism and was not a potential replacement for the original on the market.


title: NXIVM

text: In October 2003, "Forbes" published a critical article on NXIVM and Raniere. According to "Vanity Fair," NXIVM leadership, who had spoken to "Forbes", had expected a positive story. They were especially upset by remarks made by Bronfman, who told "Forbes" that he believed NXIVM was a cult and that he was troubled by his daughters' "emotional and financial investment" in it. In 2006, "Forbes" published an article about the Bronfman sisters, stating that they had taken out a line of credit to loan NXIVM $2 million, repayable through personal training sessions and phone consultations with Salzman. Another "Forbes" article in 2010 discussed the failures of commodities and real estate deals by the Bronfmans made on Raniere's advice.


title: NXIVM

text: After actress Kristin Kreuk became involved with NXIVM in 2006, Salzman and her daughter Lauren, a junior NXIVM leader, went to Vancouver to recruit Kreuk's "Smallville" co-star Allison Mack. Lauren bonded with Mack (the two women eventually became Raniere's inner circle and his sexual partners). Kreuk, however, left NXIVM in 2013. Mack became "an enthusiastic proselytizer" for NXIVM, persuading her parents to take courses, and after wrapping production of "Smallville" in 2011, moved to Clifton Park, New York, to be near NXIVM's home base in Albany.


title: NXIVM

text: In 2008, the Bronfman sisters allegedly pressured Stephen Herbits, a confidant of their father, to ask Albany County District Attorney David Soares, New York Governor Eliot Spitzer, and New Jersey Attorney General Anne Milgram to begin criminal investigations into NXIVM's critics. NXIVM reportedly kept dossiers on Soares, Spitzer, political consultants Roger Stone and Steve Pigeon, U.S. Senator Chuck Schumer, and Albany "Times Union" publisher George Randolph Hearst III in a box in the basement of Nancy Salzman's home. According to the "Times Union", NXIVM "developed a reputation for aggressively pursuing critics and defectors who broke from its ranks, including using litigation to punish critics of Raniere, the organization, or its training methods."


title: NXIVM

text: The World Ethical Foundations Consortium, an organization co-founded by Raniere and the Bronfman sisters, sponsored a visit to Albany by the Dalai Lama in 2009. The visit was initially canceled by the Dalai Lama owing to negative press about NXIVM, but was rescheduled; the Dalai Lama spoke at Albany's Palace Theatre in May 2009. In 2017, Lama Tenzin Dhonden, the self-styled "Personal Emissary for Peace for the Dalai Lama" who had arranged the appearance, was suspended from his position amid corruption charges; the investigation also revealed a personal relationship between Dhonden and Sara Bronfman, which began in 2009.


title: NXIVM

text: NXIVM has been described as a pyramid scheme, a sex-trafficking operation, a cult, and a sex cult. In a 2010 "Times Union" article, former NXIVM coaches characterized students as "prey" for Raniere's sexual or gambling-related proclivities. Kristin Keeffe, a longtime partner of Raniere and mother of his child, left the group in 2014 and called Raniere "dangerous", saying, "[a]ll the worst things you know about NXIVM are true."


title: NXIVM

text: In 2014, Raniere founded the NXIVM-affiliated news organization "The Knife of Aristotle", later known as "The Knife" and "The Knife Media". The Knife of Aristotle was subsequently described as a fake news website and a cult. The organization also reportedly hired journalists in an attempt to gain media support and solicit new members to NXIVM, as well as fabricating staff members.


title: NXIVM

text: article in "The New York Times", details began to emerge about "", a "secret sisterhood" that started in 2015 within NXIVM in which female members were allegedly called slaves, branded with the initials of Raniere and Mack, subjected to corporal punishment from their "masters", and required to provide nude photos or other potentially damaging information about themselves as "collateral". Law enforcement representatives have alleged that DOS members were forced into sexual slavery.


title: NXIVM

text: Sarah Edmondson, a Canadian actress who had been an ESP participant since 2005, said that she left NXIVM after Mack inducted her into DOS the previous March at her Albany home. Edmondson alleged that participants were blindfolded naked, held down by Mack and three other women, and branded by NXIVM-affiliated doctor Danielle Roberts, using a cauterizing pen. Appearing on an A&E television program about cults, Edmondson provided additional context for the use of the "collateral" concept, saying that it was used in innocuous forms from the earliest, outermost stages of NXIVM in order to acclimate victims—for example, collateralizing small amounts of money that one might forfeit if one did not go to the gym one day. The "New York Times" later reported that hundreds of members left NXIVM after Edmondson went public about her experience.


title: NXIVM

text: On December 15, 2017, the ABC newsmagazine "20/20" aired an exposé including interviews with many former NXIVM adherents, including Edmondson and Catherine Oxenberg, who alleged that her daughter, India Oxenberg, was in danger from the group. Several former members reported financial and sexual predation by NXIVM leaders. Edmondson further appeared in "Escaping NXIVM", during the first season of the CBC podcast "Uncover".


title: NXIVM

text: Seven socially prominent Mexican citizens, including Emiliano Salinas (son of former president Carlos Salinas de Gortari) and Ana Cristina Fox (daughter of former president Vicente Fox), Rosa Laura Junco, Loreta Garza Dávila (a business leader from Nuevo Leon), Daniela Padilla, Camila, and Mónica Durán, have been accused of involvement.


title: NXIVM

text: In March 2018, Raniere was arrested and indicted on charges related to DOS, including sex trafficking, sex trafficking conspiracy, and conspiracy to commit forced labor. He was arrested in Mexico and held in custody in New York after appearing in federal court in Fort Worth, Texas. The indictment alleged that at least one woman was coerced into sex with Raniere, who forced DOS members to undergo the branding ritual alleged by Edmondson and others. United States Attorney Richard Donoghue stated that Raniere "created a secret society of women whom he had sex with and branded with his initials, coercing them with the threat of releasing their highly personal information and taking their assets".


title: NXIVM

text: On April 20, 2018, Mack was arrested and indicted on similar charges to Raniere's. According to prosecutors, after she recruited women into first NXIVM and then DOS, Mack coerced them into engaging in sexual activity with Raniere and performing menial tasks, for which Raniere allegedly paid her. Mack was further alleged to be DOS's second-in-command after Raniere. On April 24, Mack was released on $5 million bond pending trial and held under house arrest with her parents in California. On May 4, Raniere pleaded not guilty.


title: NXIVM

text: Salzman's home was raided shortly after Raniere's arrest, and prosecutors stated during his arraignment that further arrests and a superseding indictment for Raniere and Mack should be expected. In late May, authorities moved to seize two NXIVM-owned properties near Albany.


title: NXIVM

text: In April 2018, the "New York Post" reported that NXIVM had moved to Brooklyn, New York, and was being led by Clare Bronfman. On June 12, 2018, the "Times Union" reported that NXIVM had suspended its operations owing to "extraordinary circumstances facing the company". Bronfman was arrested on July 24 and charged with racketeering. She was released to house arrest after signing a $100 million bail bond. Also arrested and charged with the same crime were NXIVM President Nancy Salzman; her daughter, Lauren Salzman; and another NXIVM employee, Kathy Russell.


title: NXIVM

text: On March 13, 2019, Nancy Salzman pleaded guilty to a charge of racketeering criminal conspiracy. She agreed, as nominal owner, not to contest forfeiture of NXIVM-related assets including real estate as well as corporations that owned Keith Raniere and NXIVM's trademark and patent portfolio.


title: NXIVM

text: The same day as Nancy Salzman's plea, the court unsealed a second (and final) superseding indictment against Raniere and his codefendants, adding the charge that Raniere produced and kept child sexual abuse material of a girl who was 15 at the time.


title: NXIVM

text: Later in March 2019, Lauren Salzman pleaded guilty to racketeering and racketeering conspiracy; she later testified against Raniere and received leniency.


title: NXIVM

text: Sentencing documents for Allison Mack state that she entered proffer sessions on April 2, 2019. The government credited her for providing relevant emails, documents and recordings later used to convict Raniere. On April 8, 2019, Mack pleaded guilty to racketeering and racketeering conspiracy. Though not called to testify against Keith Raniere, prosecutors said that Mack, "was available to testify at Raniere’s trial if requested to do so."


title: NXIVM

text: On April 19, 2019, Bronfman pleaded guilty to charges of harboring an alien and identity fraud; bookkeeper Kathy Russell pleaded guilty to visa fraud.


title: NXIVM

text: The federal trial of Keith Raniere began on May 7, 2019. On June 19, 2019, the jury convicted him of all counts.


title: NXIVM

text: The assets of NXIVM were held by Nancy Salzman, including several corporate entities and titles to intellectual property. As part of her plea agreement with the government, Salzman did not contest asset forfeiture.


title: NXIVM

text: Following the conviction of Keith Raniere, members of the defunct organization split, with many speaking out against Raniere and the organization. A small number of former NXIVM members continue to support Raniere and protest his innocence.


title: NXIVM

text: In January 2020, Sarah Edmondson became lead plaintiff in a Racketeer Influenced and Corrupt Organizations Act civil suit filed in United States District Court for the Eastern District of New York accusing Raniere and 14 associates (including Nancy Salzman, Clare Bronfman, Sara Bronfman, Lauren Salzman, Allison Mack, Kathy Russell, Karen Unterreiner, Brandon Porter, Danielle Roberts, and Nicki Clyne) of conducting illegal psychological experiments on members of the company and abusing them physically, emotionally and financially.


title: NXIVM

text: In summer 2020, with the COVID-19 pandemic preventing in-person visitation to the Metropolitan Detention Center, Brooklyn, Raniere's remaining followers including actress Nicki Clyne began assembling to dance near the jail. Though they initially claimed to be entertaining all of the detainees, they were seen with a sign addressed to "Kay Rose," a name sharing Raniere's initials. The group began calling itself "The Forgotten Ones" and "We Are As You." Former NXIVM member turned prosecution witness Mark Vicente dismissed the group as a "cover movement" for support of Raniere.


title: NXIVM

text: While incarcerated, Raniere has maintained his leadership role over NXIVM, regularly communicating with his followers by phone and through TRULINCS email. A July 16, 2020, intelligence analysis memorandum from the Federal Bureau of Prisons' Counter Terrorism Unit states that Raniere instructed his follower Suneel Chakravorty to get more women to dance "erotically" outside of the MDC. In response, authorities at the MDC moved Raniere to another unit to keep the dancers out of his line of sight. A frustrated Raniere instructed his followers to help get him moved back by ingratiating themselves to prison staff, including offering coffee and donuts as they left their shifts.


title: NXIVM

text: Ahead of his sentencing, prosecutors submitted a number of Raniere's communications and disciplinary issues in prison as evidence of remorselessness and that he continues to control his followers. The communications included Raniere instructing his followers to have Alan Dershowitz, the attorney who successfully negotiated a non-prosecution agreement of the late Jeffrey Epstein, speak on his behalf; Dershowitz did not comment on the matter. Prosecutors also submitted documentation that Raniere and his follower Chakravorty used a false name and "burner phone" to evade detection, with Raniere instructing Chakravorty to "get scrutiny" on Judge Nicholas Garaufis, explaining that "the judge needs to know he's being watched".


title: NXIVM

text: On September 30, 2020, Judge Nicholas G. Garaufis of the United States District Court for the Eastern District of New York sentenced Clare Bronfman to six years and nine months in federal prison. The sentence was more severe than guidelines, with Garaufis stating that, "Raniere and his adherents appear to understand Ms. Bronfman’s continued loyalty—even after his trial and conviction, during which all the details of his sexual abuse and exploitation became known to the world."


title: NXIVM

text: Ronald S. Sullivan Jr., attorney for Bronfman, called the sentence "an abomination." Sullivan filed notice of appeal on October 7, 2020. Bronfman may only appeal the sentence, as she has forfeited the right to appeal her conviction as part of her plea.


title: NXIVM

text: Bronfman initially served her sentence in Federal Detention Center, Philadelphia. She is presently imprisoned at Federal Correctional Institution, Danbury.


title: NXIVM

text: On October 27, 2020, federal judge Nicholas Garaufis sentenced Raniere to a prison term of 120 years (effectively a life sentence) in prison and fined him $1.75 million. Attorneys for Keith Raniere gave notice of appeal of both his conviction and sentence on November 4, 2020.


title: NXIVM

text: In January 2021, Raniere was transferred from Metropolitan Detention Center, Brooklyn to begin serving his 120-year sentence. The Federal Bureau of Prisons first transferred him temporarily to United States Penitentiary, Lewisburg, a medium-security penitentiary, followed by a transfer to his permanent prison at United States Penitentiary, Tucson. The facility in Tucson, Arizona is noted as the sole facility in the federal prison system that is both specially-designated for sex offenders and also at maximum-security level.


title: NXIVM

text: In a hearing on restitution claims against Raniere, criminal defense attorney Marc Fernich represented Keith Raniere and stated that Bronfman had paid his fee.


title: NXIVM

text: Oral arguments on both Raniere and Bronfman's appeals were heard before the United States Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit on May 3, 2022. On December 9, 2022, the federal appeals court upheld the convictions and sentences for Keith Raniere and Clare Bronfman.


title: NXIVM

text: In 2021, Raniere supporter Marc Elliot filed a lawsuit against Lions Gate Entertainment in the United States District Court for the Central District of California, alleging that the Starz network documentary "" libelled and defamed him. Joseph Tully, the attorney representing Elliot, also represents Raniere in his appeals.


title: NXIVM

text: In reply, Lions Gate Entertainment made a special motion to strike the lawsuit pursuant to the California Anti-SLAPP statute. Judge Sunshine Sykes granted the motion, dismissing the lawsuit and granting Lions Gate Entertainment's request for attorneys' fees and costs. In her decision, Judge Sykes found that the documentary did "imply that Plaintiff was a devoted member of an organization whose leader has been implicated in a range of serious sexual crimes, but this assertion – however unflattering – is substantially true."


title: NXIVM

text: A November 30, 2022 filing by attorneys for Lions Gate Entertainment states that "the Parties have settled the above-captioned action in all respects."


title: NXIVM

text: In May 2022, Keith Raniere filed suit against the U.S. Department of Justice and Bureau of Prisons, alleging that his civil rights are violated as a prisoner in United States Penitentiary, Tucson. Raniere sought an injunction allowing visitation and phone calls from follower Suneel Chakravorty, who he claims is a paralegal working on his appeals. The Department of Justice, Bureau of Prisons and authorities at USP Tucson moved to deny the injunction, on grounds that Chakravorty is not a paralegal but merely "an ardent former ESP and NXIVM coach with whom [Raniere] is banned from associating."


title: NXIVM

text: Judge Raner Collins granted the Department of Justice's motion to dismiss the suit on grounds that Raniere failed to exhaust administrative remedies (in line with the Prison Litigation Reform Act), and his lawyer's insufficient service of process.


title: NXIVM

text: In November 2022, advertisements similar in format to editorial content (commonly known as "advertorial" or "sponsored content") ran in the websites of the "Miami New Times", "The Mercury News", "East Bay Times", and "The Village Voice". The sponsored articles center echo complaints from Keith Raniere's appeals and prison-related case, including Raniere's complaints asserting that:


title: NXIVM

text: Of these articles, one (placed in the "Village Voice") names an author writing on behalf of the Ascend Agency. The company is listed as a "public relations" firm by the website of the City of Irvine (where it holds a business license).


title: NXIVM

text: NXIVM has been described as a cult and Raniere a cult leader by anti-cult activists such as Rick Alan Ross and Steven Hassan, as well as the billionaire businessman Edgar Bronfman Sr. Stephen A. Kent, a sociologist who studies new religious movements, in an article that compares NXIVM with Scientology, noted that NXIVM operated mainly as a business and never incorporated as a religious organization. When comparing the distinctions between cults and religions, cult expert Janja Lalich stated: "A legitimate religion is going to have you worshipping a higher source. You're not expected to worship the living being in front of you or the writings of some living being." Characteristics associated with cults include: the group is elitist, claiming a special, exalted status for itself, its leader, and its members (e.g. the leader is considered the Messiah, a special being, an avatar—or the group and the leader is on a special mission to save humanity).


title: NXIVM

text: Over the decades, NXIVM emphasized Raniere's specialness through hagiography. A complaint from a 2020 lawsuit by former members of NXIVM recapitulated several fantastical claims made in marketing materials about Raniere. These claims, the complaint states, were all false.


title: NXIVM

text: Every August, NXIVM members would gather in Silver Bay, New York, to celebrate Raniere's birthday, known as "Vanguard Week", which began as a single day and eventually expanded to 11 days. The event included "tribute ceremonies" to Raniere by NXIVM members.


title: NXIVM

text: Well before co-founding NXIVM, Keith Raniere made fantastical claims about his intelligence. In June 1988, the "Times Union" profiled Raniere, reporting on his membership in the Mega Society after he achieved a high score on founder Ronald K. Hoeflin's MEGA test, an unsupervised, 48-question test published in the April 1985 issue of "Omni" magazine. Although the MEGA test has been widely criticized as not having been properly validated, the 1989 edition of the "Guinness Book of World Records" (the last to include a category for highest IQ) described the Hoeflin Research Group as "the most exclusive ultrahigh IQ society", and the 1989 Australian edition identified Raniere, Marilyn vos Savant, and Eric Hart as the highest-scoring members of the group.


title: NXIVM

text: The 2003 "Forbes" expose of NXIVM and Raniere showed that Raniere continued to make the claim of being the world's most intelligent man, with the addition of being "the most ethical." By the time of a 2012 "Times Union" article, these claims had extended to Raniere convincing some in NXIVM that "his intellectual energy sets off radar detectors."


title: NXIVM

text: At Raniere's trial, testimony revealed that Raniere had convinced several girls and women that sex with him could heal their purported "disintegrations," and that his semen had supernatural qualities. Raniere instructed one sexual partner to seek out a virgin because he needed a "pure vessel" for reasons "energy-related and DNA-wise."


title: NXIVM

text: In a 2003 mission statement on the NXIVM website:NXIVM embodies a set of consistent and universal principles in which all humans can participate. These principles - apart from any mystical or religious notions - allow for life to persist and uphold a diversity of beliefs. By creating a new understanding, we can actualize our potential to live and work together and consequently bring human existence to a whole new level. Yet this cannot be done without first raising human awareness, fostering an ethical humanitarianism, and celebrating what it truly means to be human - and this is our mission.


title: NXIVM

text: In a transcript and audio of Clare Bronfman's testimony in a bankruptcy proceeding, Bronfman described the organization as a part of the Human Potential Movement.


title: NXIVM

text: The oldest program of NXIVM, Executive Success Programs, had students recite a "Twelve-point Mission Statement", pledging to "purge" themselves "of all parasite and envy-based habits", to enroll others, and to "ethically control as much of the money, wealth and resources of the world as possible within my success plan." The Mission Statement also labeled students who shared Executive Success Programs materials as "breaking a promise and breaching my contract", and compromising "inner honesty and integrity."


title: NXIVM

text: The doctrine of the NXIVM organization, "Rational Inquiry method", was treated as Raniere's scientific invention by and submitted to multiple patent offices.


title: NXIVM

text: NXIVM taught that some people, called "Suppressives", try to impede progress within NXIVM. People who irrevocably turned against Raniere were said to have undergone "The Fall" and were labeled, in the words of a former member, as "Luciferians, lost people for whom bad feels good, and good feels bad." Some members of NXIVM's inner circle were reportedly taught that, in past lives, they were high-ranking Nazis.


title: NXIVM

text: NXIVM conducted "Intensives," classes conducted for 12 hours daily for 16 days. One cited price was $7,500. Classes were divided into modules. In one module, "Relationship Sourcing", students were instructed to explore the benefits they would receive in the event of a partner's sudden death. Another module, "Dracula and his ghouls", reportedly discussed psychopaths and their followers. Other module titles included "Best People; Perfect World" and "The Heroic Struggle".


title: NXIVM

text: NXIVM has been associated with several related organizations. Jness was a society aimed at women, while the Society of Protectors was aimed primarily at men. A third group was known by the acronym DOS, short for "Dominus Obsequious Sororium", which, according to one member, means "master over slave women". In 2006, Raniere founded Rainbow Cultural Garden, an international chain of childcare organizations in which children were to be exposed to seven different languages.


title: NXIVM

text: Classes by NXIVM had a number of idiosyncratic practices, described within the Rational Inquiry patent as "rules and rituals" and third-party sources as including:


title: NXIVM

text: A 2018 documentary film directed by Alessandro Molatore showcases a purported study of the use of NXIVM's exploration of meaning technique to treat Tourette syndrome. The film is executive produced by Clare Bronfman. The film identifies the Tourette's study's "lead researcher" as Dr. Brandon Porter, at the time a hospitalist at St. Peter's Hospital in Albany.


title: NXIVM

text: In the sentencing of Clare Bronfman, prosecutors from the United States Attorney for the Eastern District of New York wrote, "the participants in this 'study' have expressed significant distress at their involvement" and offered one victim impact statement from a Tourette's study's participant said that the study "did nothing for me except ruin my self-esteem, ruin my mental health, and made me hate myself. It did not cure my Tourette’s in any way."


title: NXIVM

text: The purported treatment for Tourette syndrome was noted by one reporter as not having been tested in a scientific peer-reviewed setting. Another reporter reached out to NXIVM member Marc Elliot, who promotes both the purported treatment and film, and did not receive a reply. Dr. Alan Jern, Associate Professor of Psychology at Rose–Hulman Institute of Technology, wrote in "Psychology Today" that "[d]espite NXIVM’s obsession with being taken seriously by influential people and mainstream institutions, their penchant for secrecy and refusal to follow the norms of science means that their research was scientifically pretty worthless."


title: NXIVM

text: Another purported study Porter conducted within the NXIVM community was described as watching disturbing footage, including video of people being murdered, while their brainwaves, physiological activity, facial and auditory responses and was recorded through electroencephalography, galvanic skin response. and video recording.


title: NXIVM

text: The purported study is similar to a patent Raniere filed, "Determination of whether a luciferian can be rehabilitated":One example of a test to determine whether a person is a Luciferian comprises a video clip of an ice skater performing in a competition. Everything goes flawlessly until, at the very end, a mistake is made during a jump and the skater falls to the ice—all hope of winning the event is gone. A Luciferian will experience pleasure and satisfaction from this. Accordingly, the Luciferian's neurophysiological processes will register pleasure over the skater's misfortune which may be identified and quantified using the medical instrumentation. On the other hand, a non-Luciferian will feel sympathetic and empathize with the unfortunate skater. Unlike the Luciferian, a non-Luciferian's neurophysiological processes will not register as pleasure for this stimulus.


title: NXIVM

text: Several subjects complained to the New York State Board of the Office of Professional Medical Conduct about the experiments. Porter faced 24 professional conduct charges, including "moral unfitness to practice medicine". In August 2019, the New York State Department of Health suspended Porter's license to practice medicine in the state, finding that he conducted studies without an appropriate human research review committee.


title: NXIVM

text: Edgar Boone, the scion of a wealthy family, introduced NXIVM to numerous affluent Mexicans, becoming head of NXIVM-Mexico and rising to third in the NXIVM organization.


title: NXIVM

text: Clare Bronfman, daughter of billionaire Seagrams chairman Edgar Bronfman Sr., was introduced to NXIVM by her sister Sara. Clare Bronfman was arrested by federal agents on July 24, 2018, in New York City and charged with money laundering and identity theft in connection with NXIVM activities. She pleaded not guilty in the United States District Court for the Eastern District of New York in Brooklyn. She was released on $100 million bond and placed on house arrest with electronic monitoring. On April 19, 2019, Clare Bronfman pleaded guilty to conspiracy to conceal and harbor illegal aliens for financial gain and fraudulent use of identification; she faced 21 to 27 months in prison and has agreed to forfeit $6 million. On September 30, 2020, she was sentenced to six years, nine months in prison by a federal judge.


title: NXIVM

text: Pam Cafritz, daughter of Washington, D.C., socialites Buffy and William Cafritz. Cafritz was a founder of JNESS, a Raniere-affiliated women's group. Cafritz was reported to be Raniere's "most important long-term girlfriend". On November 7, 2016, Pam Cafritz died. After her death, her credit card was charged for over $300,000.


title: NXIVM

text: Suneel Chakravorty, a software developer, remained among Raniere's post-conviction followers, dancing outside the jail where Raniere is confined.


title: NXIVM

text: Nicki Clyne is a Canadian actress known for her role on the series "Battlestar Galactica". According to reports, in 2006, Clyne became involved with NXIVM. She married fellow senior member Allison Mack in 2017; the marriage was alleged to have been a sham to evade United States immigration laws. After Raniere's conviction, Clyne and others began dancing nightly outside the detention center containing Raniere.


title: NXIVM

text: Marc Elliot, an author, claims taking courses through NXIVM and working with Keith Raniere and Nancy Salzman have helped him overcome his Tourette syndrome. He is among the NXIVM members who remain loyal to Raniere.


title: NXIVM

text: Allison Mack is an American actress known for her role on the series "Smallville". Mack was reportedly recruited to the Vancouver chapter of NXIVM, along with her "Smallville" co-star Kristin Kreuk. Mack was reportedly a founder of DOS, a Raniere-affiliated Master/Slave group. Mack was arrested on April 20, 2018, on charges of sex trafficking, sex trafficking conspiracy, and forced labor conspiracy. Mack pleaded guilty to racketeering and racketeering conspiracy charges in April 2019, and was to be sentenced in September 2019. However, on July 15, 2019, the Senior U.S. District Judge Nicholas Garaufis postponed the sentencing until further notice to allow federal probation officials to conduct presentencing investigations. On June 30, 2021, Mack was sentenced to three years in prison.


title: NXIVM

text: Brandon Porter, a medical doctor, conducted unlicensed human-subjects research on 200 people for NXIVM. During a "fright study", Porter exposed subjects to disturbing videos, including actual footage of a decapitation. In 2016, Porter was present at a NXIVM retreat ("V-Week") where 300 to 400 individuals were struck by an unidentified disease; Porter failed to report the outbreak, in violation of his duties as a licensed medical doctor. Porter was stripped of his medical license in 2020.


title: NXIVM

text: Keith Raniere (born August 26, 1960) is the founder of NXIVM. In March 2018, Raniere was arrested and indicted on a variety of charges related to DOS (a "secret sisterhood" within NXIVM), including sex trafficking, sex trafficking conspiracy, and conspiracy to commit forced labor. He was found guilty of all charges at trial. On October 27, 2020, Raniere was sentenced to 120 years in prison.


title: NXIVM

text: Danielle Roberts, an osteopathic physician, gained notoriety for having used a cauterizing pen to brand 17 women in connection with the group known as DOS. In 2020, New York Board of Medical Conduct began an investigation into Roberts; a year later it brought charges against her with the possibility of the revocation of her license. After Raniere's conviction, Roberts was among the dancers outside the jail in which he was incarcerated. Roberts' medical license was revoked in October 2021.


title: NXIVM

text: Emiliano Salinas is a venture capitalist and businessman. He is the son of former Mexican president Carlos Salinas de Gortari. Salinas served as vice president of Prorsus Capital, a financial consortium with ties to Raniere and NXIVM.


title: NXIVM

text: Nancy Salzman, a psychiatric nurse and trained practitioner of hypnotism and neuro-linguistic programming, met Raniere in 1998. The two founded Executive Success Programs, a personal development company offering a range of techniques aimed at self-improvement. In March 2019, Salzman pleaded guilty to racketeering. In September 2021, Salzman was sentenced to 42 months in prison and a $150,000 fine for racketeering conspiracy.


title: NXIVM

text: Karen A. Unterreiner is a member who became Raniere's live-in partner beginning in the 1980s and an early employee of his company Consumers' Buyline.


title: NXIVM

text: Barbara Bouchey was a client of Nancy Salzman, having been referred to her in 1988. Beginning in 2000, Bouchey dated Raniere. In 2009, Bouchey and eight other women ("The NXIVM Nine") confronted Raniere with concerns about abuse within the organization. That year, Bouchey left the group and later went to law enforcement.


title: NXIVM

text: Sarah Edmondson is a Canadian actress. After leaving NXIVM in early 2017, she publicly denounced the organization, claiming that she was invited into DOS, a substructure within NXIVM operated by Keith Raniere and Allison Mack, and was branded with a combination of Raniere's and Mack's initials at Mack's Albany home. Edmondson showed the brand in a "New York Times" exposé of NXIVM.


title: NXIVM

text: Kristin Keeffe became Raniere's partner in the early 1990s. In 2013, Keeffe gave birth to Raniere's son Gaelyn. In February 2014, Keeffe broke with Raniere and his group. Fleeing the region with her son, an email bearing Keeffe's name explained: "I have full sole legal custody of Gaelyn. Keith was experimenting on him. I had to get Gaelyn away." Keeffe publicly described Raniere as "dangerous". In 2015, Keeffe alleged that NXIVM leaders had planned to lure critics to Mexico with an invitation to an anti-cult conference; once in Mexico, the critics were to be arrested on false charges by order of a judge who had been bribed.


title: NXIVM

text: Toni Natalie met Raniere in 1991 when he was pitching his business Consumer's Buyline. Natalie and her then-husband became top sellers for the organization. Natalie recalled that she was able to stop smoking after a two-hour session with Raniere. Natalie and her son later moved to be near Raniere; her marriage ended shortly thereafter. Natalie and Raniere dated for the next eight years. In the mid-90s, Raniere and Natalie operated a health-food store in Clifton Park, NY. In 1999, Raniere's eight-year relationship with Natalie ended. Natalie would subsequently claim to have been the victim of harassment. In a January 2003 ruling, federal judge Robert Littlefield implied Raniere was using a legal suit to harass Natalie. Wrote Littlefield: "This matter smacks of a jilted fellow's attempt at revenge or retaliation against his former girlfriend, with many attempts at tripping her up along the way." In 2011, Natalie filed documents in federal court alleging that she had been repeatedly raped by Raniere.


title: NXIVM

text: Joseph J. O'Hara was an attorney who departed NXIVM in 2005 after accusing the group of misdeeds. In 2007, O'Hara was indicted by Albany County. It was later revealed that the District Attorney had allowed Raniere's girlfriend Kristin Keeffe to operate within its office as a sort of victims' advocate. Charges were ultimately dismissed.


title: NXIVM

text: India Oxenberg, daughter of actress Catherine Oxenberg, was introduced to the group in 2011. At Raniere's trial, a witness testified that India had spent a year on a 500-calorie-per-day diet. In May 2017, India admitted to her mother that she was among those who had been branded. India left the group in June 2018, after Raniere's arrest. In August 2018, Catherine Oxenberg's book "Captive: A Mother's Crusade to Save Her Daughter from a Terrifying Cult" was published.


title: NXIVM

text: Mark Vicente, a filmmaker known for the 2004 film "What the Bleep Do We Know!?", began involvement with the group in 2005. Vicente testified against Raniere at his 2019 trial.


title: NXIVM

text: James Odato is an investigative reporter who wrote for the "Albany Times Union". In 2012, Odato reported Raniere's history of pedophilia. In October 2013, Odato was named in a lawsuit filed by NXIVM, along with Suzanna Andrews of "Vanity Fair" and blogger John J. Tighe; all had written critically of the group. The suit alleged that NXIVM computers had been illegally accessed. Shortly thereafter, Odato was described as being "on leave" from the "Times Union". Following Keith Raniere's sentencing in 2020, the editorial board of the "New York Daily News" praised Odato's work exposing NXIVM for its prescience, taking the unusual step of commending the work published by a competitor.


title: NXIVM

text: Frank Parlato was hired by NXIVM in 2007 to help with publicity. After concluding that NXIVM members were being defrauded by Raniere, Parlato began blogging about the group on his sites ArtVoice, The Niagara Falls Reporter, and The Frank Report.


title: NXIVM

text: Rick Alan Ross is the executive director of the Ross Institute, which specializes in studying cults. Ross received a copy of a NXIVM training manual and published portions of it on his website. In "NXIVM Corp. v. Ross Institute", NXIVM sued to try to block further publications. Courts ruled in favor of Ross.


title: NXIVM

text: John Tighe wrote about NXIVM on a blog. In 2013, NXIVM accused Tighe of illegally accessing NXIVM servers using a former member's login information. Tighe's home was raided by the New York State Police, and his computer was seized.


title: Tyrannosaurus

text: Tyrannosaurus is a genus of large theropod dinosaur. The species Tyrannosaurus rex ("rex" meaning "king" in Latin), often called T. rex or colloquially T-Rex, is one of the best represented theropods. "Tyrannosaurus" lived throughout what is now western North America, on what was then an island continent known as Laramidia. "Tyrannosaurus" had a much wider range than other tyrannosaurids. Fossils are found in a variety of rock formations dating to the Maastrichtian age of the Upper Cretaceous period, 68 to 66 million years ago. It was the last known member of the tyrannosaurids and among the last non-avian dinosaurs to exist before the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event.


title: Tyrannosaurus

text: Like other tyrannosaurids, "Tyrannosaurus" was a bipedal carnivore with a massive skull balanced by a long, heavy tail. Relative to its large and powerful hind limbs, the forelimbs of "Tyrannosaurus" were short but unusually powerful for their size, and they had two clawed digits. The most complete specimen measures up to in length; however, according to most modern estimates, "T. rex" could grow to lengths of over , up to tall at the hips, and in body mass. Although other theropods rivaled or exceeded "Tyrannosaurus rex" in size, it is still among the largest known land predators and is estimated to have exerted the strongest bite force among all terrestrial animals. By far the largest carnivore in its environment, "Tyrannosaurus rex" was most likely an apex predator, preying upon hadrosaurs, juvenile armored herbivores like ceratopsians and ankylosaurs, and possibly sauropods. Some experts have suggested the dinosaur was primarily a scavenger. The question of whether "Tyrannosaurus" was an apex predator or a pure scavenger was among the longest debates in paleontology. Most paleontologists today accept that "Tyrannosaurus" was both an active predator and a scavenger.


title: Tyrannosaurus

text: Specimens of "Tyrannosaurus rex" include some that are nearly complete skeletons. Soft tissue and proteins have been reported in at least one of these specimens. The abundance of fossil material has allowed significant research into many aspects of its biology, including its life history and biomechanics. The feeding habits, physiology, and potential speed of "Tyrannosaurus rex" are a few subjects of debate. Its taxonomy is also controversial, as some scientists consider "Tarbosaurus bataar" from Asia to be a second "Tyrannosaurus" species, while others maintain "Tarbosaurus" is a separate genus. Several other genera of North American tyrannosaurids have also been synonymized with "Tyrannosaurus".


title: Tyrannosaurus

text: As the archetypal theropod, "Tyrannosaurus" has been one of the best-known dinosaurs since the early 20th century and has been featured in film, advertising, postal stamps, and many other media.


title: Tyrannosaurus

text: Teeth from what is now documented as a "Tyrannosaurus rex" were found in 1874 by Arthur Lakes near Golden, Colorado. In the early 1890s, John Bell Hatcher collected postcranial elements in eastern Wyoming. The fossils were believed to be from the large species "Ornithomimus grandis" (now "Deinodon") but are now considered "T. rex" remains.


title: Tyrannosaurus

text: In 1892, Edward Drinker Cope found two vertebral fragments of a large dinosaur. Cope believed the fragments belonged to an "agathaumid" (ceratopsid) dinosaur, and named them "Manospondylus gigas", meaning "giant porous vertebra", in reference to the numerous openings for blood vessels he found in the bone. The "M. gigas" remains were, in 1907, identified by Hatcher as those of a theropod rather than a ceratopsid.


title: Tyrannosaurus

text: Henry Fairfield Osborn recognized the similarity between "Manospondylus gigas" and "T. rex" as early as 1917, by which time the second vertebra had been lost. Owing to the fragmentary nature of the "Manospondylus" vertebrae, Osborn did not synonymize the two genera, instead considering the older genus indeterminate. In June 2000, the Black Hills Institute found around 10% of a "Tyrannosaurus" skeleton (BHI 6248) at a site that might have been the original "M. gigas" locality.


title: Tyrannosaurus

text: Barnum Brown, assistant curator of the American Museum of Natural History, found the first partial skeleton of "T. rex" in eastern Wyoming in 1900. Brown found another partial skeleton in the Hell Creek Formation in Montana in 1902, comprising approximately 34 fossilized bones. Writing at the time Brown said "Quarry No. 1 contains the femur, pubes, humerus, three vertebrae and two undetermined bones of a large Carnivorous Dinosaur not described by Marsh... I have never seen anything like it from the Cretaceous". Henry Fairfield Osborn, president of the American Museum of Natural History, named the second skeleton "T. rex" in 1905. The generic name is derived from the Greek words "τύραννος" ("tyrannos", meaning "tyrant") and "σαῦρος" ("sauros", meaning "lizard"). Osborn used the Latin word "rex", meaning "king", for the specific name. The full binomial therefore translates to "tyrant lizard the king" or "King Tyrant Lizard", emphasizing the animal's size and perceived dominance over other species of the time.


title: Tyrannosaurus

text: Osborn named the other specimen "Dynamosaurus imperiosus" in a paper in 1905. In 1906, Osborn recognized that the two skeletons were from the same species and selected "Tyrannosaurus" as the preferred name. The original "Dynamosaurus" material resides in the collections of the Natural History Museum, London. In 1941, the "T. rex" type specimen was sold to the Carnegie Museum of Natural History in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, for $7,000. "Dynamosaurus" would later be honored by the 2018 description of another species of tyrannosaurid by Andrew McDonald and colleagues, "Dynamoterror dynastes", whose name was chosen in reference to the 1905 name, as it had been a "childhood favorite" of McDonald's.


title: Tyrannosaurus

text: From the 1910s through the end of the 1950s, Barnum's discoveries remained the only specimens of "Tyrannosaurus", as the Great Depression and wars kept many paleontologists out of the field.


title: Tyrannosaurus

text: Beginning in the 1960s, there was renewed interest in "Tyrannosaurus", resulting in the recovery of 42 skeletons (5–80% complete by bone count) from Western North America. In 1967, Dr. William MacMannis located and recovered the skeleton named "MOR 008", which is 15% complete by bone count and has a reconstructed skull displayed at the Museum of the Rockies. The 1990s saw numerous discoveries, with nearly twice as many finds as in all previous years, including two of the most complete skeletons found to date: Sue and Stan.


title: Tyrannosaurus

text: Sue Hendrickson, an amateur paleontologist, discovered the most complete (approximately 85%) and largest "Tyrannosaurus" skeleton in the Hell Creek Formation on August 12, 1990. The specimen Sue, named after the discoverer, was the object of a legal battle over its ownership. In 1997, the litigation was settled in favor of Maurice Williams, the original land owner. The fossil collection was purchased by the Field Museum of Natural History at auction for $7.6 million, making it the most expensive dinosaur skeleton until the sale of Stan for $31.8 million in 2020. From 1998 to 1999, Field Museum of Natural History staff spent over 25,000 hours taking the rock off the bones. The bones were then shipped to New Jersey where the mount was constructed, then shipped back to Chicago for the final assembly. The mounted skeleton opened to the public on May 17, 2000, in the Field Museum of Natural History. A study of this specimen's fossilized bones showed that Sue reached full size at age 19 and died at the age of 28, the longest estimated life of any tyrannosaur known.


title: Tyrannosaurus

text: Another "Tyrannosaurus", nicknamed Stan (BHI 3033), in honor of amateur paleontologist Stan Sacrison, was recovered from the Hell Creek Formation in 1992. Stan is the second most complete skeleton found, with 199 bones recovered representing 70% of the total. This tyrannosaur also had many bone pathologies, including broken and healed ribs, a broken (and healed) neck, and a substantial hole in the back of its head, about the size of a "Tyrannosaurus" tooth.


title: Tyrannosaurus

text: In 1998, Bucky Derflinger noticed a "T. rex" toe exposed above ground, making Derflinger, who was 20 years old at the time, the youngest person to discover a "Tyrannosaurus". The specimen, dubbed in honor of its discoverer, was a young adult, tall and long. Bucky is the first "Tyrannosaurus" to be found that preserved a furcula (wishbone). Bucky is permanently displayed at The Children's Museum of Indianapolis.


title: Tyrannosaurus

text: In the summer of 2000, crews organized by Jack Horner discovered five "Tyrannosaurus" skeletons near the Fort Peck Reservoir. In 2001, a 50% complete skeleton of a juvenile "Tyrannosaurus" was discovered in the Hell Creek Formation by a crew from the Burpee Museum of Natural History. Dubbed Jane (BMRP 2002.4.1), the find was thought to be the first known skeleton of a pygmy tyrannosaurid, "Nanotyrannus", but subsequent research revealed that it is more likely a juvenile "Tyrannosaurus", and the most complete juvenile example known; Jane is exhibited at the Burpee Museum of Natural History. In 2002, a skeleton named Wyrex, discovered by amateur collectors Dan Wells and Don Wyrick, had 114 bones and was 38% complete. The dig was concluded over 3 weeks in 2004 by the Black Hills Institute with the first live online "Tyrannosaurus" excavation providing daily reports, photos, and video.


title: Tyrannosaurus

text: In 2006, Montana State University revealed that it possessed the largest "Tyrannosaurus" skull yet discovered (from a specimen named MOR 008), measuring long. Subsequent comparisons indicated that the longest head was (from specimen LACM 23844) and the widest head was (from Sue).


title: Tyrannosaurus

text: Two isolated fossilized footprints have been tentatively assigned to "T. rex". The first was discovered at Philmont Scout Ranch, New Mexico, in 1983 by American geologist Charles Pillmore. Originally thought to belong to a hadrosaurid, examination of the footprint revealed a large 'heel' unknown in ornithopod dinosaur tracks, and traces of what may have been a hallux, the dewclaw-like fourth digit of the tyrannosaur foot. The footprint was published as the ichnogenus "Tyrannosauripus pillmorei" in 1994, by Martin Lockley and Adrian Hunt. Lockley and Hunt suggested that it was very likely the track was made by a "T. rex", which would make it the first known footprint from this species. The track was made in what was once a vegetated wetland mudflat. It measures long by wide.


title: Tyrannosaurus

text: A second footprint that may have been made by a "Tyrannosaurus" was first reported in 2007 by British paleontologist Phil Manning, from the Hell Creek Formation of Montana. This second track measures long, shorter than the track described by Lockley and Hunt. Whether or not the track was made by "Tyrannosaurus" is unclear, though "Tyrannosaurus" is the only large theropod known to have existed in the Hell Creek Formation.


title: Tyrannosaurus

text: A set of footprints in Glenrock, Wyoming dating to the Maastrichtian stage of the Late Cretaceous and hailing from the Lance Formation were described by Scott Persons, Phil Currie and colleagues in 2016, and are believed to belong to either a juvenile "T. rex" or the dubious tyrannosaurid "Nanotyrannus lancensis". From measurements and based on the positions of the footprints, the animal was believed to be traveling at a walking speed of around 2.8 to 5 miles per hour and was estimated to have a hip height of to . A follow-up paper appeared in 2017, increasing the speed estimations by 50–80%.


title: Tyrannosaurus

text: "T. rex" was one of the largest land carnivores of all time. One of the largest and the most complete specimens, nicknamed Sue (FMNH PR2081), is located at the Field Museum of Natural History in Chicago. Sue measured long, was tall at the hips, and according to the most recent studies, using a variety of techniques, maximum body masses have been estimated approximately . A specimen nicknamed Scotty (RSM P2523.8), located at the Royal Saskatchewan Museum, is reported to measure in length. Using a mass estimation technique that extrapolates from the circumference of the femur, Scotty was estimated as the largest known specimen at in body mass.


title: Tyrannosaurus

text: Not every adult "Tyrannosaurus" specimen recovered is as big. Historically average adult mass estimates have varied widely over the years, from as low as , to more than , with most modern estimates ranging between and .


title: Tyrannosaurus

text: The largest known "T. rex" skulls measure up to in length. Large fenestrae (openings) in the skull reduced weight, as in all carnivorous theropods. In other respects "Tyrannosaurus"<nowiki>'</nowiki>s skull was significantly different from those of large non-tyrannosaurid theropods. It was extremely wide at the rear but had a narrow snout, allowing unusually good binocular vision. The skull bones were massive and the nasals and some other bones were fused, preventing movement between them; but many were pneumatized (contained a "honeycomb" of tiny air spaces) and thus lighter. These and other skull-strengthening features are part of the tyrannosaurid trend towards an increasingly powerful bite, which easily surpassed that of all non-tyrannosaurids. The tip of the upper jaw was U-shaped (most non-tyrannosauroid carnivores had V-shaped upper jaws), which increased the amount of tissue and bone a tyrannosaur could rip out with one bite, although it also increased the stresses on the front teeth.


title: Tyrannosaurus

text: The teeth of "T. rex" displayed marked heterodonty (differences in shape). The premaxillary teeth, four per side at the front of the upper jaw, were closely packed, "D"-shaped in cross-section, had reinforcing ridges on the rear surface, were incisiform (their tips were chisel-like blades) and curved backwards. The "D"-shaped cross-section, reinforcing ridges and backwards curve reduced the risk that the teeth would snap when "Tyrannosaurus" bit and pulled. The remaining teeth were robust, like "lethal bananas" rather than daggers, more widely spaced and also had reinforcing ridges. Those in the upper jaw, twelve per side in mature individuals, were larger than their counterparts of the lower jaw, except at the rear. The largest found so far is estimated to have been long including the root when the animal was alive, making it the largest tooth of any carnivorous dinosaur yet found. The lower jaw was robust. Its front dentary bone bore thirteen teeth. Behind the tooth row, the lower jaw became notably taller. The upper and lower jaws of "Tyrannosaurus", like those of many dinosaurs, possessed numerous foramina, or small holes in the bone. Various functions have been proposed for these foramina, such as a crocodile-like sensory system or evidence of extra-oral structures such as scales or potentially lips.


title: Tyrannosaurus

text: The vertebral column of "Tyrannosaurus" consisted of ten neck vertebrae, thirteen back vertebrae and five sacral vertebrae. The number of tail vertebrae is unknown and could well have varied between individuals but probably numbered at least forty. Sue was mounted with forty-seven of such caudal vertebrae. The neck of "T. rex" formed a natural S-shaped curve like that of other theropods. Compared to these, it was exceptionally short, deep and muscular to support the massive head. The second vertebra, the axis, was especially short. The remaining neck vertebrae were weakly opisthocoelous, i.e. with a convex front of the vertebral body and a concave rear. The vertebral bodies had single pleurocoels, pneumatic depressions created by air sacs, on their sides. The vertebral bodies of the torso were robust but with a narrow waist. Their undersides were keeled. The front sides were concave with a deep vertical trough. They had large pleurocoels. Their neural spines had very rough front and rear sides for the attachment of strong tendons. The sacral vertebrae were fused to each other, both in their vertebral bodies and neural spines. They were pneumatized. They were connected to the pelvis by transverse processes and sacral ribs. The tail was heavy and moderately long, in order to balance the massive head and torso and to provide space for massive locomotor muscles that attached to the thighbones. The thirteenth tail vertebra formed the transition point between the deep tail base and the middle tail that was stiffened by a rather long front articulation processes. The underside of the trunk was covered by eighteen or nineteen pairs of segmented belly ribs.


title: Tyrannosaurus

text: The shoulder girdle was longer than the entire forelimb. The shoulder blade had a narrow shaft but was exceptionally expanded at its upper end. It connected via a long forward protrusion to the coracoid, which was rounded. Both shoulder blades were connected by a small furcula. The paired breast bones possibly were made of cartilage only.


title: Tyrannosaurus

text: The forelimb or arm was very short. The upper arm bone, the humerus, was short but robust. It had a narrow upper end with an exceptionally rounded head. The lower arm bones, the ulna and radius, were straight elements, much shorter than the humerus. The second metacarpal was longer and wider than the first, whereas normally in theropods the opposite is true. The forelimbs had only two clawed fingers, along with an additional splint-like small third metacarpal representing the remnant of a third digit.


title: Tyrannosaurus

text: The pelvis was a large structure. Its upper bone, the ilium, was both very long and high, providing an extensive attachment area for hindlimb muscles. The front pubic bone ended in an enormous pubic boot, longer than the entire shaft of the element. The rear ischium was slender and straight, pointing obliquely to behind and below.


title: Tyrannosaurus

text: In contrast to the arms, the hindlimbs were among the longest in proportion to body size of any theropod. In the foot, the metatarsus was "arctometatarsalian", meaning that the part of the third metatarsal near the ankle was pinched. The third metatarsal was also exceptionally sinuous. Compensating for the immense bulk of the animal, many bones throughout the skeleton were hollowed, reducing its weight without significant loss of strength.


title: Tyrannosaurus

text: "Tyrannosaurus" is the type genus of the superfamily Tyrannosauroidea, the family Tyrannosauridae, and the subfamily Tyrannosaurinae; in other words it is the standard by which paleontologists decide whether to include other species in the same group. Other members of the tyrannosaurine subfamily include the North American "Daspletosaurus" and the Asian "Tarbosaurus", both of which have occasionally been synonymized with "Tyrannosaurus". Tyrannosaurids were once commonly thought to be descendants of earlier large theropods such as megalosaurs and carnosaurs, although more recently they were reclassified with the generally smaller coelurosaurs.


title: Tyrannosaurus

text: Many phylogenetic analyses have found "Tarbosaurus bataar" to be the sister taxon of "T. rex". The discovery of the tyrannosaurid "Lythronax" further indicates that "Tarbosaurus" and "Tyrannosaurus" are closely related, forming a clade with fellow Asian tyrannosaurid "Zhuchengtyrannus", with "Lythronax" being their sister taxon. A further study from 2016 by Steve Brusatte, Thomas Carr and colleagues, also indicates that "Tyrannosaurus" may have been an immigrant from Asia, as well as a possible descendant of "Tarbosaurus".


title: Tyrannosaurus

text: Below is the cladogram of Tyrannosauridae based on the phylogenetic analysis conducted by Loewen and colleagues in 2013.


title: Tyrannosaurus

text: In 1955, Soviet paleontologist Evgeny Maleev named a new species, "Tyrannosaurus bataar", from Mongolia. By 1965, this species was renamed as a distinct genus, "Tarbosaurus bataar". While most palaeontologists continue to maintain the two as distinct genera, some authors such as Thomas Holtz, Kenneth Carpenter, and Thomas Carr argue that the two species are similar enough to be considered members of the same genus, with the Mongolian taxon having the resulting binomial of "Tyrannosaurus bataar".


title: Tyrannosaurus

text: In 2001, various tyrannosaurid teeth and a metatarsal unearthed in a quarry near Zhucheng, China were assigned by Chinese paleontologist Hu Chengzhi to the newly erected species "Tyrannosaurus zhuchengensis". However, in a nearby site, a right maxilla and left jawbone were assigned to the newly erected tyrannosaurid genus "Zhuchengtyrannus" in 2011. It is possible that "T. zhuchengensis" is synonymous with "Zhuchengtyrannus". In any case, "T. zhuchengensis" is considered to be a "nomen dubium" as the holotype lacks diagnostic features below the level Tyrannosaurinae.


title: Tyrannosaurus

text: In a 2022 study, Gregory S. Paul and colleagues argued that "Tyrannosaurus rex", as traditionally understood, actually represents three species: the type species "Tyrannosaurus rex", and two new species: "T. imperator" (meaning "tyrant lizard emperor") and "T. regina" (meaning "tyrant lizard queen"). The holotype of the former ("T. imperator") is the Sue specimen, and the holotype of the latter ("T. regina") is Wankel rex. The division into multiple species was primarily based on the observation of a very high degree of variation in the proportions and robusticity of the femur (and other skeletal elements) across catalogued "T. rex" specimens, more so than that observed in other theropods recognized as one species. Differences of general body proportions representing robust and gracile morphotypes was also used as a line of evidence, in addition to the number of small, slender incisiform teeth in the dentary, as based on tooth sockets. Specifically, the paper's "T. rex" was distinguished by robust anatomy, a moderate ratio of femur length vs circumference, and the possession of a singular slender incisiform dentary tooth; "T. imperator" was considered to be robust with a small femur length to circumference ratio and two of the slender teeth; and "T. regina" was a gracile form with a high femur ratio and one of the slender teeth. It was observed that variation in proportions and robustness became more extreme higher up in the sample, stratigraphically. This was interpreted as a single earlier population, "T. imperator", speciating into more than one taxon, "T. rex" and "T. regina".


title: Tyrannosaurus

text: However, several other leading paleontologists, including Stephen Brusatte, Thomas Carr, Thomas Holtz, David Hone, Jingmai O'Connor, and Lindsay Zanno, criticized the study or expressed skepticism of its conclusions when approached by various media outlets for comment. Their criticism was subsequently published in a technical paper. Holtz and Zanno both remarked that it was plausible that more than one species of "Tyrannosaurus" existed, but felt the new study was insufficient to support the species it proposed. Holtz remarked that, even if "Tyrannosaurus imperator" represented a distinct species from "Tyrannosaurus rex", it may represent the same species as "Nanotyrannus lancensis" and would need to be called "Tyrannosaurus lancensis". O'Connor, a curator at the Field Museum, where the "T. imperator" holotype Sue is displayed, regarded the new species as too poorly-supported to justify modifying the exhibit signs. Brusatte, Carr, and O'Connor viewed the distinguishing features proposed between the species as reflecting natural variation within a species. Both Carr and O'Connor expressed concerns about the study's inability to determine which of the proposed species several well-preserved specimens belonged to. Another paleontologist, Philip J. Currie, originally co-authored the study but withdrew from it as he did not want to be involved in naming the new species.


title: Tyrannosaurus

text: Other tyrannosaurid fossils found in the same formations as "T. rex" were originally classified as separate taxa, including "Aublysodon" and "Albertosaurus megagracilis", the latter being named "Dinotyrannus megagracilis" in 1995. These fossils are now universally considered to belong to juvenile "T. rex". A small but nearly complete skull from Montana, long, might be an exception. This skull, CMNH 7541, was originally classified as a species of "Gorgosaurus" ("G. lancensis") by Charles W. Gilmore in 1946. In 1988, the specimen was re-described by Robert T. Bakker, Phil Currie, and Michael Williams, then the curator of paleontology at the Cleveland Museum of Natural History, where the original specimen was housed and is now on display. Their initial research indicated that the skull bones were fused, and that it therefore represented an adult specimen. In light of this, Bakker and colleagues assigned the skull to a new genus named "Nanotyrannus" (meaning "dwarf tyrant", for its apparently small adult size). The specimen is estimated to have been around long when it died. However, In 1999, a detailed analysis by Thomas Carr revealed the specimen to be a juvenile, leading Carr and many other paleontologists to consider it a juvenile "T. rex" individual.


title: Tyrannosaurus

text: In 2001, a more complete juvenile tyrannosaur (nicknamed "Jane", catalog number BMRP 2002.4.1), belonging to the same species as the original "Nanotyrannus" specimen, was uncovered. This discovery prompted a conference on tyrannosaurs focused on the issues of "Nanotyrannus" validity at the Burpee Museum of Natural History in 2005. Several paleontologists who had previously published opinions that "N. lancensis" was a valid species, including Currie and Williams, saw the discovery of "Jane" as a confirmation that "Nanotyrannus" was, in fact, a juvenile "T. rex". Peter Larson continued to support the hypothesis that "N". "lancensis" was a separate but closely related species, based on skull features such as two more teeth in both jaws than "T. rex"; as well as proportionately larger hands with phalanges on the third metacarpal and different wishbone anatomy in an undescribed specimen. He also argued that "Stygivenator", generally considered to be a juvenile "T. rex", may be a younger "Nanotyrannus" specimen. Later research revealed that other tyrannosaurids such as "Gorgosaurus" also experienced reduction in tooth count during growth, and given the disparity in tooth count between individuals of the same age group in this genus and "Tyrannosaurus", this feature may also be due to individual variation. In 2013, Carr noted that all of the differences claimed to support "Nanotyrannus" have turned out to be individually or ontogenetically variable features or products of distortion of the bones.


title: Tyrannosaurus

text: In 2016, analysis of limb proportions by Persons and Currie suggested "Nanotyrannus" specimens to have differing cursoriality levels, potentially separating it from "T. rex". However, paleontologist Manabu Sakomoto has commented that this conclusion may be impacted by low sample size, and the discrepancy does not necessarily reflect taxonomic distinction. In 2016, Joshua Schmerge argued for "Nanotyrannus"' validity based on skull features, including a dentary groove in BMRP 2002.4.1's skull. According to Schmerge, as that feature is absent in "T. rex" and found only in "Dryptosaurus" and albertosaurines, this suggests "Nanotyrannus" is a distinct taxon within the Albertosaurinae. The same year, Carr and colleagues noted that this was not sufficient enough to clarify "Nanotyrannus"' validity or classification, being a common and ontogenetically variable feature among tyrannosauroids.


title: Tyrannosaurus

text: A 2020 study by Holly Woodward and colleagues showed the specimens referred to "Nanotyrannus" were all ontogenetically immature and found it probable that these specimens belonged to "T. rex". The same year, Carr published a paper on "T". "rex"'s growth history, finding that CMNH 7541 fit within the expected ontogenetic variation of the taxon and displayed juvenile characteristics found in other specimens. It was classified as a juvenile, under 13 years old with a skull less than . No significant sexual or phylogenetic variation was discernible among any of the 44 specimens studied, with Carr stating that characters of potential phylogenetic importance decrease throughout age at the same rate as growth occurs. Discussing the paper's results, Carr described how all ""Nanotyrannus"" specimens formed a continual growth transition between the smallest juveniles and the subadults, unlike what would be expected if it were a distinct taxon where the specimens would group to the exclusion of "Tyrannosaurus". Carr concluded that "the 'nanomorphs' are not all that similar to each other and instead form an important bridge in the growth series of "T. rex" that captures the beginnings of the profound change from the shallow skull of juveniles to the deep skull that is seen in fully-developed adults."


title: Tyrannosaurus

text: The identification of several specimens as juvenile "T. rex" has allowed scientists to document ontogenetic changes in the species, estimate the lifespan, and determine how quickly the animals would have grown. The smallest known individual (LACM 28471, the "Jordan theropod") is estimated to have weighed only , while the largest, such as FMNH PR2081 (Sue) most likely weighed about . Histologic analysis of "T. rex" bones showed LACM 28471 had aged only 2 years when it died, while Sue was 28 years old, an age which may have been close to the maximum for the species.


title: Tyrannosaurus

text: Histology has also allowed the age of other specimens to be determined. Growth curves can be developed when the ages of different specimens are plotted on a graph along with their mass. A "T. rex" growth curve is S-shaped, with juveniles remaining under until approximately 14 years of age, when body size began to increase dramatically. During this rapid growth phase, a young "T. rex" would gain an average of a year for the next four years. At 18 years of age, the curve plateaus again, indicating that growth slowed dramatically. For example, only separated the 28-year-old Sue from a 22-year-old Canadian specimen (RTMP 81.12.1). A 2004 histological study performed by different workers corroborates these results, finding that rapid growth began to slow at around 16 years of age.


title: Tyrannosaurus

text: A study by Hutchinson and colleagues in 2011 corroborated the previous estimation methods in general, but their estimation of peak growth rates is significantly higher; it found that the "maximum growth rates for T. rex during the exponential stage are 1790 kg/year". Although these results were much higher than previous estimations, the authors noted that these results significantly lowered the great difference between its actual growth rate and the one which would be expected of an animal of its size. The sudden change in growth rate at the end of the growth spurt may indicate physical maturity, a hypothesis which is supported by the discovery of medullary tissue in the femur of a 16 to 20-year-old "T. rex" from Montana (MOR 1125, also known as B-rex). Medullary tissue is found only in female birds during ovulation, indicating that B-rex was of reproductive age. Further study indicates an age of 18 for this specimen. In 2016, it was finally confirmed by Mary Higby Schweitzer and Lindsay Zanno and colleagues that the soft tissue within the femur of MOR 1125 was medullary tissue. This also confirmed the identity of the specimen as a female. The discovery of medullary bone tissue within "Tyrannosaurus" may prove valuable in determining the sex of other dinosaur species in future examinations, as the chemical makeup of medullary tissue is unmistakable. Other tyrannosaurids exhibit extremely similar growth curves, although with lower growth rates corresponding to their lower adult sizes.


title: Tyrannosaurus

text: An additional study published in 2020 by Woodward and colleagues, for the journal "Science Advances" indicates that during their growth from juvenile to adult, "Tyrannosaurus" was capable of slowing down its growth to counter environmental factors such as lack of food. The study, focusing on two juvenile specimens between 13 and 15 years old housed at the Burpee Museum in Illinois, indicates that the rate of maturation for "Tyrannosaurus" was dependent on resource abundance. This study also indicates that in such changing environments, "Tyrannosaurus" was particularly well-suited to an environment that shifted yearly in regards to resource abundance, hinting that other midsize predators might have had difficulty surviving in such harsh conditions and explaining the niche partitioning between juvenile and adult tyrannosaurs. The study further indicates that "Tyrannosaurus" and the dubious genus "Nanotyrannus" are synonymous, due to analysis of the growth rings in the bones of the two specimens studied.


title: Tyrannosaurus

text: Over half of the known "T. rex" specimens appear to have died within six years of reaching sexual maturity, a pattern which is also seen in other tyrannosaurs and in some large, long-lived birds and mammals today. These species are characterized by high infant mortality rates, followed by relatively low mortality among juveniles. Mortality increases again following sexual maturity, partly due to the stresses of reproduction. One study suggests that the rarity of juvenile "T. rex" fossils is due in part to low juvenile mortality rates; the animals were not dying in large numbers at these ages, and thus were not often fossilized. This rarity may also be due to the incompleteness of the fossil record or to the bias of fossil collectors towards larger, more spectacular specimens. In a 2013 lecture, Thomas Holtz Jr. suggested that dinosaurs "lived fast and died young" because they reproduced quickly whereas mammals have long life spans because they take longer to reproduce. Gregory S. Paul also writes that "Tyrannosaurus" reproduced quickly and died young, but attributes their short life spans to the dangerous lives they lived.