title: Citizen Kane

text: "Citizen Kane" received acclaim from several critics. "New York Daily News" critic Kate Cameron called it "one of the most interesting and technically superior films that has ever come out of a Hollywood studio". "New York World-Telegram" critic William Boehnel said that the film was "staggering and belongs at once among the greatest screen achievements". "Time" magazine wrote that "it has found important new techniques in picture-making and story-telling." "Life" magazine's review said that "few movies have ever come from Hollywood with such powerful narrative, such original technique, such exciting photography." John C. Mosher of "The New Yorker" called the film's style "like fresh air" and raved "Something new has come to the movie world at last." Anthony Bower of "The Nation" called it "brilliant" and praised the cinematography and performances by Welles, Comingore and Cotten. John O'Hara's "Newsweek" review called it the best picture he'd ever seen and said Welles was "the best actor in the history of acting." Welles called O'Hara's review "the greatest review that anybody ever had."


title: Citizen Kane

text: The day following the premiere of "Citizen Kane," "The New York Times" critic Bosley Crowther wrote that "... it comes close to being the most sensational film ever made in Hollywood."


title: Citizen Kane

text: Count on Mr. Welles: he doesn't do things by halves. ... Upon the screen he discovered an area large enough for his expansive whims to have free play. And the consequence is that he has made a picture of tremendous and overpowering scope, not in physical extent so much as in its rapid and graphic rotation of thoughts. Mr. Welles has put upon the screen a motion picture that really moves.


title: Citizen Kane

text: In the UK C. A. Lejeune of "The Observer" called it "The most exciting film that has come out of Hollywood in twenty-five years" and Dilys Powell of "The Sunday Times" said the film's style was made "with the ease and boldness and resource of one who controls and is not controlled by his medium." Edward Tangye Lean of "Horizon" praised the film's technical style, calling it "perhaps a decade ahead of its contemporaries."


title: Citizen Kane

text: A few reviews were mixed. Otis Ferguson of "The New Republic" said it was "the boldest free-hand stroke in major screen production since Griffith and Bitzer were running wild to unshackle the camera", but also criticized its style, calling it a "retrogression in film technique" and stating that "it holds no great place" in film history. Ferguson reacted to some of the film's celebrated visual techniques by calling them "just willful dabbling" and "the old shell game." In a rare film review, filmmaker Erich von Stroheim criticized the film's story and non-linear structure, but praised the technical style and performances, and wrote "Whatever the truth may be about it, "Citizen Kane" is a great picture and will go down in screen history. More power to Welles!"


title: Citizen Kane

text: Some prominent critics wrote negative reviews. In his 1941 review for "Sur", Jorge Luis Borges famously called the film "a labyrinth with no center" and predicted that its legacy would be a film "whose historical value is undeniable but which no one cares to see again." "The Argus Weekend Magazine" critic Erle Cox called the film "amazing" but thought that Welles's break with Hollywood traditions was "overdone". "Tatler"s James Agate called it "the well-intentioned, muddled, amateurish thing one expects from high-brows" and "a quite good film which tries to run the psychological essay in harness with your detective thriller, and doesn't quite succeed." Eileen Creelman of "The New York Sun" called it "a cold picture, unemotional, a puzzle rather than a drama". Other people who disliked the film were W. H. Auden and James Agee. After watching the film on January 29, 1942 Kenneth Williams, then aged 15, writing in his first diary curtly described it as "boshey rot".


title: Citizen Kane

text: Modern critics have given "Citizen Kane" an even more positive response. Review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes reports that 99% of 125 critics gave the film a positive review, with an average rating of 9.70/10. The site's critical consensus reads: "Orson Welles's epic tale of a publishing tycoon's rise and fall is entertaining, poignant, and inventive in its storytelling, earning its reputation as a landmark achievement in film." In April 2021, it was noted that the addition of an 80-year-old negative review from the "Chicago Tribune" reduced the film's rating from 100% to 99% on the site; "Citizen Kane" held its 100% rating until early 2021. On Metacritic, however, the film still has a rare weighted average score of 100 out of 100 based on 19 critics, indicating "universal acclaim".


title: Citizen Kane

text: It was widely believed the film would win most of its Academy Award nominations, but it received only the award for Best Original Screenplay. "Variety" reported that block voting by screen extras deprived "Citizen Kane" of Best Picture and Best Actor, and similar prejudices were likely to have been responsible for the film receiving no technical awards.


title: Citizen Kane

text: "Citizen Kane" was the only film made under Welles's original contract with RKO Pictures, which gave him complete creative control. Welles's new business manager and attorney permitted the contract to lapse. In July 1941, Welles reluctantly signed a new and less favorable deal with RKO under which he produced and directed "The Magnificent Ambersons" (1942), produced "Journey into Fear" (1943), and began "It's All True", a film he agreed to do without payment. In the new contract Welles was an employee of the studio and lost the right to final cut, which later allowed RKO to modify and re-cut "The Magnificent Ambersons" over his objections. In June 1942, Schaefer resigned the presidency of RKO Pictures and Welles's contract was terminated by his successor.


title: Citizen Kane

text: During World War II, "Citizen Kane" was not seen in most European countries. It was shown in France for the first time on July 10, 1946 at the Marbeuf theater in Paris. Initially most French film critics were influenced by the negative reviews of Jean-Paul Sartre in 1945 and Georges Sadoul in 1946. At that time many French intellectuals and filmmakers shared Sartre's negative opinion that Hollywood filmmakers were uncultured. Sartre criticized the film's flashbacks for its nostalgic and romantic preoccupation with the past instead of the realities of the present and said that "the whole film is based on a misconception of what cinema is all about. The film is in the past tense, whereas we all know that cinema has got to be in the present tense."


title: Citizen Kane

text: André Bazin, a then little-known film critic working for Sartre's "Les Temps modernes", was asked to give an impromptu speech about the film after a screening at the Colisée Theatre in the autumn of 1946 and changed the opinion of much of the audience. This speech led to Bazin's 1947 article "The Technique of Citizen Kane", which directly influenced public opinion about the film. Carringer wrote that Bazin was "the one who did the most to enhance the film's reputation." Both Bazin's critique of the film and his theories about cinema itself centered around his strong belief in mise-en-scène. These theories were diametrically opposed to both the popular Soviet montage theory and the politically Marxist and anti-Hollywood beliefs of most French film critics at that time. Bazin believed that a film should depict reality without the filmmaker imposing their "will" on the spectator, which the Soviet theory supported. Bazin wrote that "Citizen Kane"s mise-en-scène created a "new conception of filmmaking" and that the freedom given to the audience from the deep focus shots was innovative by changing the entire concept of the cinematic image. Bazin wrote extensively about the mise-en-scène in the scene where Susan Alexander attempts suicide, which was one long take while other films would have used four or five shots in the scene. Bazin wrote that the film's mise-en-scène "forces the spectator to participate in the meaning of the film" and creates "a psychological realism which brings the spectator back to the real conditions of perception."


title: Citizen Kane

text: In his 1950 essay "The Evolution of the Language of Cinema", Bazin placed "Citizen Kane" center stage as a work which ushered in a new period in cinema. One of the first critics to defend motion pictures as being on the same artistic level as literature or painting, Bazin often used the film as an example of cinema as an art form and wrote that "Welles has given the cinema a theoretical restoration. He has enriched his filmic repertory with new or forgotten effects that, in today's artistic context, take on a significance we didn't know they could have." Bazin also compared the film to Roberto Rossellini's "Paisan" for having "the same aesthetic concept of realism" and to the films of William Wyler shot by Toland (such as "The Little Foxes" and "The Best Years of Our Lives"), all of which used deep focus cinematography that Bazin called "a dialectical step forward in film language."


title: Citizen Kane

text: Bazin's praise of the film went beyond film theory and reflected his own philosophy towards life itself. His metaphysical interpretations about the film reflected humankind's place in the universe. Bazin believed that the film examined one person's identity and search for meaning. It portrayed the world as ambiguous and full of contradictions, whereas films up until then simply portrayed people's actions and motivations. Bazin's biographer Dudley Andrew wrote that:


title: Citizen Kane

text: The world of "Citizen Kane", that mysterious, dark, and infinitely deep world of space and memory where voices trail off into distant echoes and where meaning dissolves into interpretation, seemed to Bazin to mark the starting point from which all of us try to construct provisionally the sense of our lives.


title: Citizen Kane

text: Bazin went on to co-found "Cahiers du cinéma", whose contributors (including future film directors François Truffaut and Jean-Luc Godard) also praised the film. The popularity of Truffaut's auteur theory helped the film's and Welles's reputation.


title: Citizen Kane

text: By 1942 "Citizen Kane" had run its course theatrically and, apart from a few showings at big city arthouse cinemas, it largely vanished and both the film's and Welles's reputation fell among American critics. In 1949 critic Richard Griffith in his overview of cinema, "The Film Till Now", dismissed "Citizen Kane" as "... tinpot if not crackpot Freud."


title: Citizen Kane

text: In the United States, it was neglected and forgotten until its revival on television in the mid-to-late 1950s. Three key events in 1956 led to its re-evaluation in the United States: first, RKO was one of the first studios to sell its library to television, and early that year "Citizen Kane" started to appear on television; second, the film was re-released theatrically to coincide with Welles's return to the New York stage, where he played "King Lear"; and third, American film critic Andrew Sarris wrote "Citizen Kane: The American Baroque" for "Film Culture", and described it as "the great American film" and "the work that influenced the cinema more profoundly than any American film since "The Birth of a Nation"." Carringer considers Sarris's essay as the most important influence on the film's reputation in the US.


title: Citizen Kane

text: During Expo 58, a poll of over 100 film historians named "Kane" one of the top ten greatest films ever made (the group gave first-place honors to "Battleship Potemkin"). When a group of young film directors announced their vote for the top six, they were booed for not including the film.


title: Citizen Kane

text: In the decades since, its critical status as the greatest film ever made has grown, with numerous essays and books on it including Peter Cowie's "The Cinema of Orson Welles", Ronald Gottesman's "Focus on Citizen Kane", a collection of significant reviews and background pieces, and most notably Kael's essay, "Raising Kane", which promoted the value of the film to a much wider audience than it had reached before. Despite its criticism of Welles, it further popularized the notion of "Citizen Kane" as the great American film. The rise of art house and film society circuits also aided in the film's rediscovery. David Thomson said that the film 'grows with every year as America comes to resemble it."


title: Citizen Kane

text: The British magazine "Sight & Sound" has produced a Top Ten list surveying film critics every decade since 1952, and is regarded as one of the most respected barometers of critical taste. "Citizen Kane" was a runner up to the top 10 in its 1952 poll but was voted as the greatest film ever made in its 1962 poll, retaining the top spot in every subsequent poll until 2012, when "Vertigo" displaced it.


title: Citizen Kane

text: The film has also ranked number one in the following film "best of" lists: Julio Castedo's "The 100 Best Films of the Century", Cahiers du cinéma's 100 films pour une cinémathèque idéale, "Kinovedcheskie Zapiski", "Time Out" magazine's Top 100 Films (Centenary), "The Village Voice"s 100 Greatest Films, and The Royal Belgian Film Archive's Most Important and Misappreciated American Films.


title: Citizen Kane

text: Roger Ebert called "Citizen Kane" the greatest film ever made: "But people don't always ask about the greatest film. They ask, 'What's your favorite movie?' Again, I always answer with "Citizen Kane"."


title: Citizen Kane

text: In 1998 "Time Out" conducted a reader's poll and "Citizen Kane" was voted 3rd best film of all time. On February 18, 1999, the United States Postal Service honored "Citizen Kane" by including it in its Celebrate the Century series. The film was honored again February 25, 2003, in a series of U.S. postage stamps marking the 75th anniversary of the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences. Art director Perry Ferguson represents the behind-the-scenes craftsmen of filmmaking in the series; he is depicted completing a sketch for "Citizen Kane".


title: Citizen Kane

text: "Citizen Kane" was ranked number one in the American Film Institute's polls of film industry artists and leaders in 1998 and 2007. "Rosebud" was chosen as the 17th most memorable movie quotation in a 2005 AFI poll. The film's score was one of 250 nominees for the top 25 film scores in American cinema in another 2005 AFI poll. In 2005 the film was included on "Time"s All-Time 100 best movies list.


title: Citizen Kane

text: In 2012, the Motion Picture Editors Guild published a list of the 75 best-edited films of all time based on a survey of its membership. "Citizen Kane" was listed second. In 2015, "Citizen Kane" ranked 1st on BBC's "100 Greatest American Films" list, voted on by film critics from around the world.


title: Citizen Kane

text: The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reported that 99% of critics have given the film a positive review based on 125 reviews by approved critics, with an average rating of 9.70/10. The website's critics consensus states: "Orson Welles's epic tale of a publishing tycoon's rise and fall is entertaining, poignant, and inventive in its storytelling, earning its reputation as a landmark achievement in film." On another aggregator site, Metacritic, "Citizen Kane" has a weighted average score of 100 out of 100 based on 19 critics, indicating "universal acclaim".


title: Citizen Kane

text: "Citizen Kane" has been called the most influential film of all time. Richard Corliss has asserted that Jules Dassin's 1941 film "The Tell-Tale Heart" was the first example of its influence and the first pop culture reference to the film occurred later in 1941 when the spoof comedy "Hellzapoppin'" featured a "Rosebud" sled. The film's cinematography was almost immediately influential and in 1942 "American Cinematographer" wrote "without a doubt the most immediately noticeable trend in cinematography methods during the year was the trend toward crisper definition and increased depth of field."


title: Citizen Kane

text: The cinematography influenced John Huston's "The Maltese Falcon". Cinematographer Arthur Edeson used a wider-angle lens than Toland and the film includes many long takes, low angles and shots of the ceiling, but it did not use deep focus shots on large sets to the extent that "Citizen Kane" did. Edeson and Toland are often credited together for revolutionizing cinematography in 1941. Toland's cinematography influenced his own work on "The Best Years of Our Lives". Other films influenced include "Gaslight", "Mildred Pierce" and "Jane Eyre". Cinematographer Kazuo Miyagawa said that his use of deep focus was influenced by "the camera work of Gregg Toland in "Citizen Kane"" and not by traditional Japanese art.


title: Citizen Kane

text: Its cinematography, lighting, and flashback structure influenced such film noirs of the 1940s and 1950s as "The Killers", "Keeper of the Flame", "Caught", "The Great Man" and "This Gun for Hire". David Bordwell and Kristin Thompson have written that "For over a decade thereafter American films displayed exaggerated foregrounds and somber lighting, enhanced by long takes and exaggerated camera movements." However, by the 1960s filmmakers such as those from the French New Wave and Cinéma vérité movements favored "flatter, more shallow images with softer focus" and "Citizen Kane"s style became less fashionable. American filmmakers in the 1970s combined these two approaches by using long takes, rapid cutting, deep focus and telephoto shots all at once. Its use of long takes influenced films such as "The Asphalt Jungle", and its use of deep focus cinematography influenced "Gun Crazy", "The Whip Hand", "The Devil's General" and "Justice Is Done". The flashback structure in which different characters have conflicting versions of past events influenced "La commare secca" and "Man of Marble".


title: Citizen Kane

text: The film's structure influenced the biographical films "Lawrence of Arabia" and ""—which begin with the subject's death and show their life in flashbacks—as well as Welles's thriller "Mr. Arkadin". Rosenbaum sees similarities in the film's plot to "Mr. Arkadin", as well as the theme of nostalgia for loss of innocence throughout Welles's career, beginning with "Citizen Kane" and including "The Magnificent Ambersons", "Mr. Arkadin" and "Chimes at Midnight". Rosenbaum also points out how the film influenced Warren Beatty's "Reds". The film depicts the life of Jack Reed through the eyes of Louise Bryant, much as Kane's life is seen through the eyes of Thompson and the people who he interviews. Rosenbaum also compared the romantic montage between Reed and Bryant with the breakfast table montage in "Citizen Kane".


title: Citizen Kane

text: Akira Kurosawa's "Rashomon" is often compared to the film due to both having complicated plot structures told by multiple characters in the film. Welles said his initial idea for the film was "Basically, the idea "Rashomon" used later on," however Kurosawa had not yet seen the film before making "Rashomon" in 1950. Nigel Andrews has compared the film's complex plot structure to "Rashomon", "Last Year at Marienbad", "Memento" and "Magnolia". Andrews also compares Charles Foster Kane to Michael Corleone in "The Godfather", Jake LaMotta in "Raging Bull" and Daniel Plainview in "There Will Be Blood" for their portrayals of "haunted megalomaniac[s], presiding over the shards of [their] own [lives]."


title: Citizen Kane

text: The films of Paul Thomas Anderson have been compared to it. "Variety" compared "There Will Be Blood" to the film and called it "one that rivals "Giant" and "Citizen Kane" in our popular lore as origin stories about how we came to be the people we are." "The Master" has been called "movieland's only spiritual sequel to "Citizen Kane" that doesn't shrivel under the hefty comparison". "The Social Network" has been compared to the film for its depiction of a media mogul and by the character Erica Albright being similar to "Rosebud". The controversy of the Sony hacking before the release of "The Interview" brought comparisons of Hearst's attempt to suppress the film. The film's plot structure and some specific shots influenced Todd Haynes's "Velvet Goldmine". Abbas Kiarostami's "The Traveler" has been called "the "Citizen Kane" of the Iranian children's cinema." The film's use of overlapping dialogue has influenced the films of Robert Altman and Carol Reed. Reed's films "Odd Man Out", "The Third Man" (in which Welles and Cotten appeared) and "Outcast of the Islands" were also influenced by the film's cinematography.


title: Citizen Kane

text: Many directors have listed it as one of the greatest films ever made, including Woody Allen, Michael Apted, Les Blank, Kenneth Branagh, Paul Greengrass, Satyajit Ray, Michel Hazanavicius, Michael Mann, Sam Mendes, Jiří Menzel, Paul Schrader, Martin Scorsese, Denys Arcand, Gillian Armstrong, John Boorman, Roger Corman, Alex Cox, Miloš Forman, Norman Jewison, Richard Lester, Richard Linklater, Paul Mazursky, Ronald Neame, Sydney Pollack and Stanley Kubrick. Yasujirō Ozu said it was his favorite non-Japanese film and was impressed by its techniques. François Truffaut said that the film "has inspired more vocations to cinema throughout the world than any other" and recognized its influence in "The Barefoot Contessa", "Les Mauvaises Rencontres", "Lola Montès", and "8 1/2". Truffaut's "Day for Night" pays tribute to the film in a dream sequence depicting a childhood memory of the character played by Truffaut stealing publicity photos from the film. Numerous film directors have cited the film as influential on their own films, including Theo Angelopoulos, Luc Besson, the Coen brothers, Francis Ford Coppola, Brian De Palma, John Frankenheimer, Stephen Frears, Sergio Leone, Michael Mann, Ridley Scott, Martin Scorsese, Bryan Singer and Steven Spielberg. Ingmar Bergman disliked the film and called it "a total bore. Above all, the performances are worthless. The amount of respect that movie has is absolutely unbelievable!"


title: Citizen Kane

text: William Friedkin said that the film influenced him and called it "a veritable quarry for filmmakers, just as Joyce's "Ulysses" is a quarry for writers." The film has also influenced other art forms. Carlos Fuentes's novel "The Death of Artemio Cruz" was partially inspired by the film and the rock band The White Stripes paid unauthorized tribute to the film in the song "The Union Forever".


title: Citizen Kane

text: In 1982, film director Steven Spielberg bought a "Rosebud" sled for $60,500; it was one of three balsa sleds used in the closing scenes and the only one that was not burned. Spielberg eventually donated the sled to the Academy Museum of Motion Pictures as he stated he felt it belonged in a museum. After the Spielberg purchase, it was reported that retiree Arthur Bauer claimed to own another "Rosebud" sled. In early 1942, when Bauer was 12, he had won an RKO publicity contest and selected the hardwood sled as his prize. In 1996, Bauer's estate offered the painted pine sled at auction through Christie's. Bauer's son told CBS News that his mother had once wanted to paint the sled and use it as a plant stand, but Bauer told her to "just save it and put it in the closet." The sled was sold to an anonymous bidder for $233,500.


title: Citizen Kane

text: Welles's Oscar for Best Original Screenplay was believed to be lost until it was rediscovered in 1994. It was withdrawn from a 2007 auction at Sotheby's when bidding failed to reach its estimate of $800,000 to $1.2 million. Owned by the charitable Dax Foundation, it was auctioned for $861,542 in 2011 to an anonymous buyer. Mankiewicz's Oscar was sold at least twice, in 1999 and again in 2012, the latest price being $588,455.


title: Citizen Kane

text: In 1989, Mankiewicz's personal copy of the "Citizen Kane" script was auctioned at Christie's. The leather-bound volume included the final shooting script and a carbon copy of "American" that bore handwritten annotations—purportedly made by Hearst's lawyers, who were said to have obtained it in the manner described by Kael in "Raising Kane". Estimated to bring $70,000 to $90,000, it sold for a record $231,000.


title: Citizen Kane

text: In 2007, Welles's personal copy of the last revised draft of "Citizen Kane" before the shooting script was sold at Sotheby's for $97,000. A second draft of the script titled "American", marked "Mr. Welles' working copy", was auctioned by Sotheby's in 2014 for $164,692. A collection of 24 pages from a working script found in Welles's personal possessions by his daughter Beatrice Welles was auctioned in 2014 for $15,000.


title: Citizen Kane

text: In 2014, a collection of approximately 235 "Citizen Kane" stills and production photos that had belonged to Welles was sold at auction for $7,812.


title: Citizen Kane

text: The composited camera negative of "Citizen Kane" is believed to be lost forever. The most commonly-reported explanation is that it was destroyed in a New Jersey film laboratory fire in the 1970s. However, in 2021, Nicolas Falacci revealed that he had been told "the real story" by a colleague, when he was one of two employees in the film restoration lab which assembled the 1991 "restoration" from the best available elements. Falacci noted that throughout the process he had daily visits in 1990-1 from an unnamed "older RKO executive showing up every day – nervous and sweating". According to Falacci's colleague, this elderly man was keen to cover up a clerical error he had made decades earlier when in charge of the studio's inventory, which had resulted in the original camera negatives being sent to a silver reclamation plant, destroying the nitrate film to extract its valuable silver content. Falacci's account is impossible to verify, but it would have been fully in keeping with industry standard practice for many decades, which was to destroy prints and negatives of countless older films deemed non-commercially viable, to extract the silver.


title: Citizen Kane

text: Subsequent prints were derived from a master positive (a fine-grain preservation element) made in the 1940s and originally intended for use in overseas distribution. Modern techniques were used to produce a pristine print for a 50th Anniversary theatrical reissue in 1991 which Paramount Pictures released for then-owner Turner Broadcasting System, which earned $1.6 million in North America and worldwide.


title: Citizen Kane

text: In 1955, RKO sold the American television rights to its film library, including "Citizen Kane", to C&C Television Corp. In 1960, television rights to the pre-1959 RKO's live-action library were acquired by United Artists. RKO kept the non-broadcast television rights to its library.


title: Citizen Kane

text: In 1976, when home video was in its infancy, entrepreneur Snuff Garrett bought cassette rights to the RKO library for what United Press International termed "a pittance". In 1978 The Nostalgia Merchant released the film through Media Home Entertainment. By 1980 the 800-title library of The Nostalgia Merchant was earning $2.3 million a year. "Nobody wanted cassettes four years ago," Garrett told UPI. "It wasn't the first time people called me crazy. It was a hobby with me which became big business." RKO Home Video released the film on VHS and Betamax in 1985.


title: Citizen Kane

text: In 1984, The Criterion Collection released the film as its first LaserDisc. It was made from a fine grain master positive provided by the UCLA Film and Television Archive. When told about the then-new concept of having an audio commentary on the disc, Welles was skeptical but said "theoretically, that's good for teaching movies, so long as they don't talk nonsense." In 1992 Criterion released a new 50th Anniversary Edition LaserDisc. This version had an improved transfer and additional special features, including the documentary "The Legacy of Citizen Kane" and Welles's early short "The Hearts of Age".


title: Citizen Kane

text: Turner Broadcasting System acquired broadcast television rights to the RKO library in 1986 and the full worldwide rights to the library in 1987. The RKO Home Video unit was reorganized into Turner Home Entertainment that year. In 1991 Turner released a 50th Anniversary Edition on VHS and as a collector's edition that includes the film, the documentary "Reflections On Citizen Kane", Harlan Lebo's 50th anniversary album, a poster and a copy of the original script. In 1996, Time Warner acquired Turner and Warner Home Video absorbed Turner Home Entertainment. In 2011, Warner Bros. Discovery's Warner Bros. unit had distribution rights for the film.


title: Citizen Kane

text: In 2001, Warner Home Video released a 60th Anniversary Collectors Edition DVD. The two-disc DVD included feature-length commentaries by Roger Ebert and Peter Bogdanovich, as well as a second DVD with the feature length documentary "The Battle Over Citizen Kane" (1999). It was simultaneously released on VHS. The DVD was criticized for being " bright, ; the dirt and grime had been cleared away, but so had a good deal of the texture, the depth, and the sense of film grain."


title: Citizen Kane

text: In 2003, Welles's daughter Beatrice Welles sued Turner Entertainment, claiming the Welles estate is the legal copyright holder of the film. She claimed that Welles's deal to terminate his contracts with RKO meant that Turner's copyright of the film was null and void. She also claimed that the estate of Orson Welles was owed 20% of the film's profits if her copyright claim was not upheld. In 2007 she was allowed to proceed with the lawsuit, overturning the 2004 decision in favor of Turner Entertainment on the issue of video rights.


title: Citizen Kane

text: In 2011, it was released on Blu-ray and DVD in a 70th Anniversary Edition. The "San Francisco Chronicle" called it "the Blu-ray release of the year." Supplements included everything available on the 2001 Warner Home Video release, including "The Battle Over Citizen Kane" DVD. A 70th Anniversary Ultimate Collector's Edition added a third DVD with "RKO 281" (1999), an award winning TV movie about the making of the film. Its packaging extras included a hardcover book and a folio containing mini reproductions of the original souvenir program, lobby cards, and production memos and correspondence. The transfer for the US releases were scanned as 4K resolution from three different 35mm prints and rectified the quality issues of the 2001 DVD. The rest of the world continued to receive home video releases based on the older transfer. This was partially rectified in 2016 with the release of the 75th Anniversary Edition in both the UK and US, which was a straight repackaging of the main disc from the 70th Anniversary Edition.


title: Citizen Kane

text: On August 11, 2021 Criterion announced their first 4K Ultra HD releases, a six-film slate, would include "Citizen Kane". Criterion indicated each title was to be available in a combo pack including a 4K UHD disc of the feature film as well as the film and special features on the companion Blu-rays. "Citizen Kane" was released on November 23, 2021 by the collection as a 4K and 3 Blu-ray disc package. However, the release was recalled because at the half-hour mark on the regular blu-ray, the contrast fell sharply, which resulted in a much darker image compared to what was supposed to occur. However this issue does not apply to the 4K version itself.


title: Citizen Kane

text: In the 1980s, "Citizen Kane" became a catalyst in the controversy over the colorization of black-and-white films. One proponent of film colorization was Ted Turner, whose Turner Entertainment Company owned the RKO library. A Turner Entertainment spokesperson initially stated that "Citizen Kane" would not be colorized, but in July 1988 Turner said, ""Citizen Kane?" I'm thinking of colorizing it." In early 1989 it was reported that two companies were producing color tests for Turner Entertainment. Criticism increased when filmmaker Henry Jaglom stated that shortly before his death Welles had implored him "don't let Ted Turner deface my movie with his crayons."


title: Citizen Kane

text: In February 1989, Turner Entertainment President Roger Mayer announced that work to colorize the film had been stopped due to provisions in Welles's 1939 contract with RKO that "could be read to prohibit colorization without permission of the Welles estate." Mayer added that Welles's contract was "quite unusual" and "other contracts we have checked out are not like this at all." Turner had only colorized the final reel of the film before abandoning the project. In 1991 one minute of the colorized test footage was included in the BBC "Arena" documentary "The Complete Citizen Kane".


title: Citizen Kane

text: The colorization controversy was a factor in the passage of the National Film Preservation Act in 1988 which created the National Film Registry the following year. ABC News anchor Peter Jennings reported that "one major reason for doing this is to require people like the broadcaster Ted Turner, who's been adding color to some movies and re-editing others for television, to put notices on those versions saying that the movies have been altered".


title: Longest word in English

text: The identity of the longest word in the English language depends upon the definition of what constitutes a word in the English language, as well as how length should be compared.


title: Longest word in English

text: Words may be derived naturally from the language's roots or formed by coinage and construction. Additionally, comparisons are complicated because place names may be considered words, technical terms may be arbitrarily long, and the addition of suffixes and prefixes may extend the length of words to create grammatically correct but unused or novel words.


title: Longest word in English

text: The "length" of a word may also be understood in multiple ways. Most commonly, length is based on orthography (conventional spelling rules) and counting the number of written letters. Alternate, but less common, approaches include phonology (the spoken language) and the number of phonemes (sounds).


title: Longest word in English

text: The longest word in any of the major English language dictionaries is "pneumonoultramicroscopicsilicovolcanoconiosis", a word that refers to a lung disease contracted from the inhalation of very fine silica particles, specifically from a volcano; medically, it is the same as silicosis. The word was deliberately coined to be the longest word in English, and has since been used in a close approximation of its originally intended meaning, lending at least some degree of validity to its claim.


title: Longest word in English

text: "Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary" does not contain "antidisestablishmentarianism" (28 letters), as the editors found no widespread, sustained usage of the word in its original meaning. The longest word in that dictionary is "electroencephalographically" (27 letters).


title: Longest word in English

text: The longest non-technical word in major dictionaries is "floccinaucinihilipilification" at 29 letters. Consisting of a series of Latin words meaning "nothing" and defined as "the act of estimating something as worthless"; its usage has been recorded as far back as 1741.


title: Longest word in English

text: Ross Eckler has noted that most of the longest English words are not likely to occur in general text, meaning non-technical present-day text seen by casual readers, in which the author did not specifically intend to use an unusually long word. According to Eckler, the longest words likely to be encountered in general text are "deinstitutionalization" and "counterrevolutionaries", with 22 letters each.


title: Longest word in English

text: A computer study of over a million samples of normal English prose found that the longest word one is likely to encounter on an everyday basis is "uncharacteristically", at 20 letters.


title: Longest word in English

text: The word "internationalization" is abbreviated "i18n", the embedded number representing the number of letters between the first and the last.


title: Longest word in English

text: In his play "Assemblywomen" ("Ecclesiazousae"), the ancient Greek comedic playwright Aristophanes created a word of 171 letters (183 in the transliteration below), which describes a dish by stringing together its ingredients:


title: Longest word in English

text: Henry Carey's farce "Chrononhotonthologos" (1743) holds the opening line: "Aldiborontiphoscophornio! Where left you Chrononhotonthologos?"


title: Longest word in English

text: Thomas Love Peacock put these creations into the mouth of the phrenologist Mr. Cranium in his 1816 book "Headlong Hall": "osteosarchaematosplanchnochondroneuromuelous" (44 characters) and "osseocarnisanguineoviscericartilaginonervomedullary" (51 characters).


title: Longest word in English

text: James Joyce made up nine 100-letter words plus one 101-letter word in his novel "Finnegans Wake", the most famous of which is Bababadalgharaghtakamminarronnkonnbronntonnerronntuonnthunntrovarrhounawnskawntoohoohoordenenthurnuk. Appearing on the first page, it allegedly represents the symbolic thunderclap associated with the fall of Adam and Eve. As it appears nowhere else except in reference to this passage, it is generally not accepted as a real word. Sylvia Plath made mention of it in her semi-autobiographical novel "The Bell Jar", when the protagonist was reading "Finnegans Wake".


title: Longest word in English

text: "Supercalifragilisticexpialidocious", the 34-letter title of a song from the movie "Mary Poppins", does appear in several dictionaries, but only as a proper noun defined in reference to the song title. The attributed meaning is "a word that you say when you don't know what to say." The idea and invention of the word is credited to songwriters Robert and Richard Sherman.


title: Longest word in English

text: The English language permits the legitimate extension of existing words to serve new purposes by the addition of prefixes and suffixes. This is sometimes referred to as agglutinative construction. This process can create arbitrarily long words: for example, the prefixes "pseudo" (false, spurious) and "anti" (against, opposed to) can be added as many times as desired. More familiarly, the addition of numerous "great"s to a relative, such as "great-great-great-great-grandparent", can produce words of arbitrary length. In musical notation, an 8192nd note may be called a "".


title: Longest word in English

text: "Antidisestablishmentarianism" is the longest common example of a word formed by agglutinative construction.


title: Longest word in English

text: The IUPAC nomenclature for organic chemical compounds is open-ended, giving rise to the 189,819-letter chemical name "Methionylthreonylthreonyl...isoleucine" for the protein also known as titin, which is involved in striated muscle formation. In nature, DNA molecules can be much bigger than protein molecules and therefore potentially be referred to with much longer chemical names. For example, the wheat chromosome 3B contains almost 1 billion base pairs, so the sequence of one of its strands, if written out in full like "Adenilyladenilylguanilylcystidylthymidyl...", would be about 8 billion letters long. The longest published word, "Acetylseryltyrosylseryliso...serine", referring to the coat protein of a certain strain of tobacco mosaic virus (), is 1,185 letters long, and appeared in the American Chemical Society's Chemical Abstracts Service in 1964 and 1966. In 1965, the Chemical Abstracts Service overhauled its naming system and started discouraging excessively long names. In 2011, a dictionary broke this record with a 1909-letter word describing the "trpA" protein ().


title: Longest word in English

text: John Horton Conway and Landon Curt Noll developed an open-ended system for naming powers of 10, in which one ", coming from the Latin name for 6560, is the name for 10 = 10. Under the long number scale, it would be 10 = 10.


title: Longest word in English

text: " is sometimes cited as the longest binomial name—it is a kind of amphipod. However, this name, proposed by B. Dybowski, was invalidated by the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature in 1929 after being petitioned by Mary J. Rathbun to take up the case.


title: Longest word in English

text: "Myxococcus llanfairpwllgwyngyllgogerychwyrndrobwllllantysiliogogogochensis" is the longest accepted binomial name for an organism. It is a bacterium found in soil collected at Llanfairpwllgwyngyll (discussed below). "Parastratiosphecomyia stratiosphecomyioides" is the longest accepted binomial name for any animal, or any organism visible with the naked eye. It is a species of soldier fly. The genus name "Parapropalaehoplophorus" (a fossil glyptodont, an extinct family of mammals related to armadillos) is two letters longer, but does not contain a similarly long species name.


title: Longest word in English

text: "", at 52 letters, describing the spa waters at Bath, England, is attributed to Dr. Edward Strother (1675–1737). The word is composed of the following elements:


title: Longest word in English

text: The longest officially recognized place name in an English-speaking country is (85 letters), which is a hill in New Zealand. The name is in the Maori language. A widely recognized version of the name is Taumatawhakatangihangakoauauotamateaturipukakapikimaungahoronukupokaiwhenuakitanatahu (85 letters), which appears on the signpost at the location (see the photo on this page). In Maori, the digraphs "ng" and "wh" are each treated as single letters.


title: Longest word in English

text: In Canada, the longest place name is "Dysart, Dudley, Harcourt, Guilford, Harburn, Bruton, Havelock, Eyre and Clyde", a township in Ontario, at 61 letters or 68 non-space characters.


title: Longest word in English

text: The 58-letter name "Llanfairpwllgwyngyllgogerychwyrndrobwllllantysiliogogogoch" is the name of a town on Anglesey, an island of Wales. In terms of the traditional Welsh alphabet, the name is only 51 letters long, as certain digraphs in Welsh are considered as single letters, for instance "ll", "ng" and "ch". It is generally agreed, however, that this invented name, adopted in the mid-19th century, was contrived solely to be the longest name of any town in Britain. The official name of the place is "Llanfairpwllgwyngyll", commonly abbreviated to "Llanfairpwll" or "Llanfair PG".


title: Longest word in English

text: The longest non-contrived place name in the United Kingdom which is a single non-hyphenated word is Cottonshopeburnfoot (19 letters) and the longest which is hyphenated is Sutton-under-Whitestonecliffe (29 characters).


title: Longest word in English

text: The longest place name in the United States (45 letters) is "", a lake in Webster, Massachusetts. It means "Fishing Place at the Boundaries – Neutral Meeting Grounds" and is sometimes facetiously translated as "you fish your side of the water, I fish my side of the water, nobody fishes the middle". The lake is also known as Webster Lake. The longest hyphenated names in the U.S. are "Winchester-on-the-Severn", a town in Maryland, and "Washington-on-the-Brazos", a notable place in Texas history. The longest single-word town names in the U.S. are Kleinfeltersville, Pennsylvania and Mooselookmeguntic, Maine.


title: Longest word in English

text: The longest official geographical name in Australia is . It has 26 letters and is a Pitjantjatjara word meaning "where the Devil urinates".


title: Longest word in English

text: Liechtenstein is the longest country name with single name in English. The second longest country name with single name in English is Turkmenistan. There are longer country names if one includes ones with spaces.


title: Horizon Zero Dawn

text: Horizon Zero Dawn is a 2017 action role-playing game developed by Guerrilla Games and published by Sony Interactive Entertainment. The plot follows Aloy, a young hunter in a world overrun by machines, who sets out to uncover her past. The player uses ranged weapons, a spear, and stealth to combat mechanical creatures and other enemy forces. A skill tree provides the player with new abilities and bonuses. The player can explore the open world to discover locations and take on side quests. It is the first game in the "Horizon" series and was released for the PlayStation 4 in 2017 and Microsoft Windows in 2020.


title: Horizon Zero Dawn

text: "Horizon Zero Dawn" is Guerrilla Games' first intellectual property since "Killzone" in 2004 and its first role-playing video game. Development began in 2011 after the completion of "Killzone 3", with director Mathijs de Jonge considering it the riskiest idea pitched at the time. The game engine, Decima, was developed for "" and altered for "Horizon Zero Dawn". Being set in a post-apocalyptic setting, anthropologists were consulted to authenticate the world's decay over a millennium. The soundtrack was led by composer Joris de Man, featuring contributions from The Flight.


title: Horizon Zero Dawn

text: "Horizon Zero Dawn" was praised by critics for its open world, story, visuals, combat, characterization, and the performance of voice actress Ashly Burch; however, the dialogue, melee combat, and character models received some criticism. The game won numerous awards and sold over 20 million copies by February 2022, making it one of the best-selling PlayStation 4 games. An expansion, "The Frozen Wilds", was released in November 2017. A sequel, "Horizon Forbidden West", was released for the PlayStation 4 and PlayStation 5 on 18 February 2022. A television series is in development at Netflix.


title: Horizon Zero Dawn

text: "Horizon Zero Dawn" is an action role-playing game played from a third-person view. Players take control of Aloy, a hunter who ventures through a post-apocalyptic land ruled by robotic creatures. Aloy can kill enemies in a variety of ways – shooting them with arrows, setting traps such as tripwires using the Tripcaster, using explosives, and a spear. Machine components, including electricity and the metal they are composed of, are vital to Aloy's survival; she can loot their remains for crafting resources. Ammo, resource satchels, pouches, quivers, resistance, antidotes, health potions, and traps can all be crafted. Weapons have modification slots for dealing more damage. Aloy wears a Focus, a small head piece that scans machines to determine their susceptibilities, identify their location, their level, and the nature of loot they will drop. One machine, the Stalker, can enable cloaking technology to avert the gaze of Aloy's Focus scan. Machines attack with defensive and offensive measures, and in either case react to a perceived threat by charging at it with brute force or projectiles. Exhibiting the behaviour of wild animals, some machines are inclined to move in herds, and others, with the ability to fly, do so in flocks. Unless hacked with the Override Tool, or sufficiently hit with corruption arrows, machines do not exert aggressive force against each other. Aloy also engages in battle with human enemies, such as bandits and the Eclipse cult.


title: Horizon Zero Dawn

text: Aloy can dodge, sprint, slide, or roll to evade her enemies' advances. Hiding in foliage to ambush nearby enemies can ensure immediate takedowns. Swimming may reach enemies stealthily or places otherwise unreachable on foot. She is able to hack a selection of machines with the Override Tool, some of which can be turned into makeshift mounts. Explorable ruins called Cauldrons unlock additional machines to override. Three categories occur in the skill tree: "Prowler" concerns stealth, "Brave" improves combat, and "Forager" increases healing and gathering capabilities. To level up, Aloy attains experience points from individual kills and completing quests. Upgrades in each category result in more adept use of the skills learned, with "Prowler" leading to silent takedowns, "Brave" to aiming a bow in slow motion, and "Forager" to an enlarged medicine pouch. "The Frozen Wilds" added "Traveler", which unlocks the ability to jump off a mount to attack enemies. The game has a seamless open world with a day-night cycle and dynamic weather system.


title: Horizon Zero Dawn

text: The map is composed of forest, jungle, desert, and snowy mountain regions. Mountainous terrain is traversed with the employment of parkour, and aided by the use of zip-lines. Corrupted Zones constitute areas that heighten difficulty and are populated by corrupted machines that behave with more aggression. To uncover more of the map, Aloy must scale large giraffe-like machines known as Tallnecks. Twenty-five robotic creature designs are present in the game. Save points and fast travel can be accessed by interacting with campfires, once discovered. The quest structure unfolds to accommodate the exploration of tribes, while the main story covers the entire world. Side quests involve Aloy completing tasks, like gathering materials, coming to the aid of individuals in danger of being killed, solving mysteries, assuming control of bandit camps, eliminating criminals and more difficult machines, accomplishing various challenges at any of the five Hunting Grounds, and obtaining an ancient armour that makes Aloy almost impervious to damage. A dialogue wheel is used to communicate with non-player characters. Collectibles include vantages that offer visual information of the Old World, metal flowers that contain poetry, and old relics, such as ancient mugs and tribal artifacts.


title: Horizon Zero Dawn

text: The story is set in a post-apocalyptic United States, between the states of Colorado, Wyoming and Utah, in the 31st century. Humans live in scattered, primitive tribes with varying levels of technological development. Their technologically advanced predecessors are remembered as the "Old Ones". Large robotic creatures, known as "machines", dominate the Earth. For the most part, they peacefully coexist with humans, who occasionally hunt them for parts. However, a phenomenon known as the "Derangement" has caused machines to become more aggressive towards humans, and larger and deadlier machines have begun to appear. There are four tribes that are prominently featured: the Nora, the Banuk, the Carja and the Oseram. The Nora are fierce matriarchal hunter-gatherers who live in the mountains and worship their deity, the "All-Mother". The Carja are an empire of desert-dwelling city builders who worship the Sun. The Banuk consist of wandering clans made up of hunters and shamans who live in snowy mountains (Montana's Yellowstone National Park) and worship the "blue light" of the machines. The Oseram are tinkerers and salvagers known for their advanced weapons, metalworking, brewing, and talent as warriors.


title: Horizon Zero Dawn

text: Aloy (Ashly Burch) is cast out from the Nora tribe at birth and raised by a fellow outcast named Rost (JB Blanc). As a child (Ava Potter), Aloy obtains a Focus, an augmented reality device that gives her special perceptive abilities. Aloy becomes curious about her origins and is told by Rost that if she wins the Proving, a competition to earn the right to become a member of the Nora, the tribe's Matriarchs might concede this information. Aloy spends some years training in combat and survival under Rost's instruction.


title: Horizon Zero Dawn

text: After coming of age, Aloy takes part in the Proving; she wins the competition, but the Nora are attacked by masked cultists. Rost sacrifices himself to save Aloy from their leader, Helis (Crispin Freeman). When Aloy awakens, the Matriarchs explain that Aloy was found as an infant before a sealed door within the Nora's sacred mountain, and that these suspicious origins were the reason for being outcast. The Matriarchs name Aloy a "Seeker", allowing her to leave their lands in pursuit of the cultists. Aloy eventually learns that the cultists are part of a splinter Carja faction called the Eclipse, and that Aloy was may have targeted due to her resemblance to an Old World scientist named Elisabet Sobeck (also voiced by Burch). Aloy locates the ruined corporate campus of Faro Automated Solutions and discovers that the Old World was destroyed nearly a thousand years ago after Faro lost control of its automated peacekeeper military robots. The robots, which could self-replicate and consumed biomass, overran the planet and consumed the biosphere, stripping Earth of life. Zero Dawn, a project spearheaded by Sobeck, was initiated to create an automated terraforming system to deactivate the robots and restore life to Earth.


title: Horizon Zero Dawn

text: Aloy is contacted by Sylens (Lance Reddick), a secretive figure interested in uncovering the fate of the Old Ones. Aloy learns that Sobeck was sent to a decommissioned Orbital Launch Base to complete Zero Dawn, which is located under the Citadel, the centre of Eclipse power. Inside the base, Aloy learns that Zero Dawn was a vast underground system of databases, factories, and cloning facilities controlled by a single artificial intelligence, GAIA (Lesley Ewen). Once all life had been extinguished, GAIA developed a countermeasure to deactivate the Faro robots and build its own to restore the Earth's biosphere. Once the planet was habitable again, GAIA's next goal was to reseed life on Earth based on stored DNA and teach the first human clones not to repeat their predecessors' mistakes. However, APOLLO, the subsystem designed to teach humanity, was sabotaged by Faro's founder and CEO Theodore Faro in a fit of nihilism, and the first humans were reduced to a tribal, subsistence society. The Eclipse are secretly controlled by HADES (John Gonzalez), another of GAIA's subsystems designed to enact controlled extinction if the outcome of Zero Dawn was not favorable for human existence. Reaching Sobeck's office, Aloy obtains a registry to give her access to the door beneath the Nora's mountain. She is captured by Helis and sentenced to death at the Citadel, but escapes with the help of Sylens. Aloy helps the Nora fight off the Eclipse and unlocks the mountain's door.


title: Horizon Zero Dawn

text: She finds a recording from GAIA, revealing that a signal of unknown origin caused HADES to activate and seize control of her functions; as a last resort, GAIA self-destructed in order to stop HADES. Without GAIA to maintain the terraforming process, the entire system began to break down. As a contingency plan, GAIA created a clone of Sobeck in the form of Aloy, in the hope that she would find GAIA's message, destroy HADES, and restore GAIA's functions. Aloy learns that Sobeck sacrificed her life to ensure the Faro robots would not find GAIA. Aloy manages to obtain the master override to destroy HADES. Sylens reveals that he was the founder of the Eclipse, originally tempted by HADES' promises of knowledge. They surmise that HADES intends to send a signal to reactivate the Faro robots to extinguish life on Earth. Aloy kills Helis and helps fight off machines, before stabbing HADES and activating the master override, ending the war. She journeys to Sobeck's old home, finding her corpse, and mourns her predecessor. In a post-credits scene, HADES is trapped by Sylens, who intends to interrogate HADES to find out who sent the signal that activated it.


title: Horizon Zero Dawn

text: Aloy travels to the "Cut", the home of the Banuk tribe, after hearing word of dangerous machines appearing and a mountain belching smoke. She learns from Aratak (Richard Neil), chieftain of the largest Banuk clan, that the Banuk have been attempting to battle a "Daemon" on the mountain, "Thunder's Drum", which has corrupted the machines of the Cut. However, their first attack had been a failure, and their shaman, Ourea, had disappeared afterwards. Aloy searches for Ourea, coming across strange robotic towers which both control and repair the corrupted machines. She finds Ourea (Necar Zadegan) in an Old World facility that had been converted into a Banuk shrine and is housing an artificial intelligence the shaman calls the "Spirit". Aloy is able to make contact with the Spirit, which warns Ourea that the Daemon is blocking its transmissions before being cut off. Aloy and Ourea agree to work together to save the Spirit. Per Ourea's advice, Aloy defeats Aratak in a hunting competition, taking his place as chieftain. She also discovers that Aratak and Ourea are siblings.


title: Horizon Zero Dawn

text: Aloy, Ourea, and Aratak head for Thunder's Drum. They infiltrate the Old World facility built inside the mountain, where Aloy discovers that the Spirit is actually CYAN (Laurel Lefkow), a highly advanced AI designed to prevent the Yellowstone Caldera from erupting. Traveling further inside, they discover that the Daemon has already overtaken much of the facility, but CYAN suggests using lava from the caldera to destroy the infected areas while preserving the facility. It is also revealed that the Daemon is in fact HEPHAESTUS (Stefan Ashton Frank), another of GAIA's subsystems that manufactures machines. The group fights through HEPHAESTUS' defenses and Ourea sacrifices herself to override CYAN's core, allowing it to escape. CYAN transfers its core systems to an auxiliary data center and initiates self-destruction of the facility. Aloy and Aratak narrowly escape. Aloy returns to the Banuk Shrine, where CYAN is waiting; the AI provides additional information about the Old World but warns that HEPHAESTUS is still active somewhere and will continue to build machines designed specifically to kill humans, which is why it tried to seize control of CYAN and its facilities. Returning Aratak to his previous position as Chieftain, Aloy departs the Cut.


title: Horizon Zero Dawn

text: Guerrilla Games began developing "Horizon Zero Dawn" following the release of "Killzone 3" in 2011. When conceiving the idea for a new game, about 40 concepts were pitched. Among these was "Horizon Zero Dawn", which game director Mathijs de Jonge considered "the most risky" of the concepts and was pitched in 2010 by art director Jan-Bart van Beek. When this concept was chosen, a team of 10–20 began building prototypes of the game. Approximately 20 different stories were written for the game, exploring varying concepts for the game, such as different player characters. John Gonzalez, who previously acted as lead writer for "" (2010), was hired to write the game's story as narrative director, with Ben McCaw as lead writer. The main elements of the story and the character of Aloy remained intact since early development. Upon the completion of "" in late 2013, the remainder of the staff began working on "Horizon Zero Dawn". Guerrilla cancelled another game to allow the entire team to focus on the development of "Horizon". Sony would later admit to being reluctant about having the main character be female and conducted focus testing to see if such a decision was marketable. The game had an estimated budget of over 45 million.


title: Horizon Zero Dawn

text: The game's concept explores the juxtaposition between the danger and beauty of the world, particularly analysing the concept of humanity not being the dominant species. The team aimed to emphasise the game's exploration element by featuring a quest system, as well as including items throughout the world that can be used to craft or replenish health. The team wished for the game to have a simple user interface design, specifically avoiding complicated menus for crafting, and considered the game to be a technical challenge. They felt that the game engine, Decima, which was designed for games such as the "Killzone" series and was previously used for "Killzone: Shadow Fall", was difficult to alter for "Horizon", in terms of draw distance and loading. To discover how some game elements work differently in open world games, the team sought help from talent in the design, art and technical fields. In extrapolating the game world, Guerrilla turned to anthropologists and researched the formation of tribal cultures as well as how building materials would decay over a millennium. The game's quest system and narrative design took inspiration from other role-playing video games, ranging from the "Relaxed" quest design of "RPG Maker" games to the "Strict" quest design of hack and slash games. They defined "Relaxed" quest design as having few centralised systems for managing quest progression, and "Strict" quest design as having a rigid structure and predefined elements, with the team deciding the latter.


title: Horizon Zero Dawn

text: Lance Reddick and Ashly Burch's involvement was revealed in January 2017. Burch voiced Aloy, whose likeness was portrayed by Hannah Hoekstra and motion capture was performed by Amanda Piery in London. Following an auditioning process in 2014, Burch was called in to do the E3 2015 trailer and proceeded to work on the game for two years in Los Angeles, providing facial motion capture as well.


title: Horizon Zero Dawn

text: The game's soundtrack was composed by Joris de Man, The Flight, Niels van der Leest, and Jonathan Williams, with vocalist Julie Elven serving as the primary performer. Lucas van Tol, music supervisor and senior sound designer, provided the composers with a game design document, insisting on an intimate sound for the score. For the tribal theme, they experimented with bows on piano wire and resonator guitars (with layered tracks of harmonicas on top of the latter) and playing cellos with plectrums or the back of a bow to convey how contemporary instruments would be played by someone to whom the instruments were unknown; de Man also used a contrabass flute and made synth pads from blowing on a Thai bamboo flute, noting "distant pads and ambiences, and wide, spread out chords seemed to work well". Circuit-bent synthesizers and percussive loops, run through impulse responses of metal and iron being beaten, were devoted to making a thematic identifier for the machines based on technology and metal. Van Tol required that the music be supplied in stems so that different pieces could be combined. The positive response to the first E3 trailer's main theme led it to be included in the main menu. The composers also did the motion capture for diegetic music vignettes, portraying in-game tribal musicians. The four-hour soundtrack was released via digital music platforms on 10 March 2017.


title: Horizon Zero Dawn

text: The concept art as well as the game's codename, "Horizon", were leaked in September 2014. "Horizon Zero Dawn" was officially announced during Sony's E3 2015 press conference. The game was featured as the cover story in the September 2015 issue of "Edge" and the October 2016 issue of "Game Informer". At E3 2016, Sony had a life-sized cosplay version of one of the machines greet the trade show attendees. Originally set to be released in 2016, the game was delayed to February 2017 to be further polished. It was released to manufacturing in late January 2017, and launched to North American markets on 28 February 2017, in Europe, Australia and New Zealand on 1 March and Asia on 2 March for the PlayStation 4. "Horizon Zero Dawn" is forward compatible with the PS4 Pro, allowing it to run up to 4K resolution. In April 2017, a making-of documentary was released on Dutch public television. By March 2017, a story expansion had already been set in motion. New Game Plus, an Ultra Hard difficulty mode, additional trophies and aesthetic features were introduced with a patch released in July 2017. The expansion, "The Frozen Wilds", was released on 7 November 2017. The "Complete Edition", which contains the base game, "The Frozen Wilds", and all additional downloadable content (DLC), was released for the PlayStation 4 on 5 December 2017 and Microsoft Windows via Steam on 7 August 2020 and GOG on 24 November 2020. A tabletop game adaptation is being developed by Steamforged Games.


title: Horizon Zero Dawn

text: "Horizon Zero Dawn" received "generally favorable" reviews from critics, according to review aggregator Metacritic. "Destructoid"s Chris Carter commended Ashly Burch and Lance Reddick for their performances, with the character of Aloy receiving credit for maintaining a "captivating" and "interesting" consistency in the narrative and action sequences. Carter also lauded the focus on exploration and discovery, which he said grew more effective as he traversed more of the land. The game world itself was subject to compliment for its "beautiful" day-night cycle and weather system. According to Carter, the challenging nature of the machines and varied methods with which to battle them brought a real sense of fun to the combat. Matt Buchholtz of EGMNow likewise praised Burch as well as the game world, which he found to be mesmerising. Considered the most powerful part of the game, the Focus feature gained approval for complementing the combat in a way that "forces you to become a hunter". Writing for "Game Informer", Jeff Marchiafava opined that, unlike with other open world video games, searching for audio logs and emails provided the plot with a "remarkable sense of discovery". He was thankful that story-based missions dominated the overall experience, arguing that they worked to detail the world and inspired gameplay variation.


title: Horizon Zero Dawn

text: Peter Brown at GameSpot reflected on Aloy's character development with amazement. One constant thrill to Brown came from combating the machines, which he said took the spotlight and never lost its flair. He appreciated also that the main quests encouraged one to explore the environment. Zoe Delahunty-Light, writing for GamesRadar+, was fascinated with the intricacies of the world and found integral value in the lore scattered among the ruins. She echoed Brown's view that fighting machines maintained excitement throughout. Giant Bomb's Jeff Gerstmann declared "Horizon Zero Dawn" as "a near-perfect story" with a satisfying conclusion, and emphasised that it contained substantial depth. Lucy O'Brien at IGN admired its weight in meaning, while welcoming the charm of the protagonist's personality. A considerable impression was made with the combat, which was stated as the most compelling accomplishment. Writing for "Polygon", Philip Kollar applauded the game as what he dubbed the "refutation" of Guerrilla Games' past work, a change of pace he described as "refreshing". Aloy was observed to be perfectly coupled with the story in that she offered the curiosity to seek out its many mysteries. Kollar perceived the Focus as "key to combat" and the machines as engaging foes in battle. Colm Ahern of VideoGamer.com wrote in his verdict, "Destroying large robot beasts while frantically switching between weapons is intoxicating, but the strength of "Horizon Zero Dawn" is in Aloy's engaging quest to find out who she really is".


title: Horizon Zero Dawn

text: Conversely, Carter saw the characters beyond Aloy and Sylens as uninteresting and bland in their designs. He also disparaged the human artificial intelligence as being worse than that of the machines. To Buchholtz, the weapon system in relation to ammunition appeared convoluted; the ability to only purchase one item at a time "a massive oversight"; and Aloy's ability to only grab marked ledges was confusing for a "parkour master". Marchiafava's only major criticism was that it held too familiar roots with established open world formula. Although Brown drew enjoyment from other aspects of combat, he disparaged the melee for its ineffectiveness and simplicity. Delahunty-Light concurred that the melee fell short of its potential, and also took issue with the jumping mechanic. O'Brien felt the dialogue occasionally contradicted the otherwise intelligent narrative. Kollar bemoaned the character models as its one visual shortcoming.


title: Horizon Zero Dawn

text: Game director Yoko Taro listed it as one of his favourite PlayStation 4 games. "Entertainment Weekly" ranked it as the fourth best game of 2017, "GamesRadar+" ranked it second on their list of the 25 Best Games of 2017, and "Eurogamer" ranked it 31st on their list of the "Top 50 Games of 2017". "The Verge" named "Horizon Zero Dawn" as one of the 15 Best Games of 2017. In "Game Informer"s Reader's Choice Best of 2017 Awards, it took the lead for "Best Sony Game", coming up in second place for both "Best Action Game" and "Game of the Year". "Game Informer" also awarded it "Best Sony Exclusive" in their Best of 2017 Awards, and also gave it the awards for "Best Story" and "Best Character" (Aloy) in their 2017 Action Game of the Year Awards. "EGMNow" ranked the game third in their list of 25 Best Games of 2017, while "Polygon" ranked it eighth on their list of the 50 best games of 2017. The game won the Gold Prize and Users Choice Prize at the 2017 PlayStation Awards. It was nominated for "Best PS4 Game" at "Destructoid"s Game of the Year Awards 2017. It also won the awards for "Best PlayStation 4 Game" and "Best Graphics" at "IGN"s Best of 2017 Awards, whereas its other nominations were for "Game of the Year", "Best Action-Adventure Game", and "Best Art Direction". It was nominated for "Best Looking Game" at "Giant Bomb"s 2017 Game of the Year Awards. In 2018, it won the awards for Best PS4 Game, Best Performance for Ashly Burch, Best Art Direction, Best Soundtrack, Best Story, Best Post-Release Content, Best PlayStation Console Exclusive, and Best Use of PS4 Pro at PlayStation Blog's Game of the Year Awards.


title: Horizon Zero Dawn

text: "Horizon Zero Dawn" was the best-selling game during its release week in the UK. It surpassed "No Man's Sky" as the biggest launch of a new intellectual property on the PlayStation 4 and was the most successful launch of any kind on the platform since "", as well as Guerrilla Games' biggest debut to date. The game sold close to 117,000 copies in its first week in Japan, becoming the second best-selling game that week. "Horizon Zero Dawn" was the second most downloaded game on the North American PlayStation Store for February. Because its launch day occurred on the last day of February, only one day of sales was counted. Within two weeks it sold 2.6 million units.


title: Horizon Zero Dawn

text: It was the best-selling game in its week of release in Australia. In March 2017, it was the second best-selling game in the UK and the highest-selling PlayStation 4 game. "Horizon Zero Dawn" was also the best-selling game on PlayStation Store that month. It was ranked number one in the UK sales chart in April 2017, while hitting eighth place in the Japanese chart. By February 2018, over 7.6 million copies had been sold, increasing to over 10 million a year later, making it one of the best-selling PlayStation 4 games. By February 2022, over 20 million copies sold in PlayStation 4 and Windows platforms.


title: Horizon Zero Dawn

text: In an effort to increase profitability, in 2020 Sony decided to begin porting their first-party titles to PC. "Horizon Zero Dawn" released on PC in August 2020 and had a successful launch, moving over 700,000 digital copies. By March 2022, that number had increased to about 2.4 million copies.


title: Horizon Zero Dawn

text: In February 2022, Hermen Hulst announced via his Twitter account that the game had sold over 20 million copies as of 28 November 2021.


title: Horizon Zero Dawn

text: In June 2020, Guerrilla announced a sequel titled "Horizon Forbidden West". It was released on February 18, 2022. A spin-off, "Horizon Call of the Mountain" was announced in January 2022 and is slated to release in February 2023. A second, multiplayer-oriented spin-off was confirmed in December 2022.


title: Horizon Zero Dawn

text: The "Horizon" franchise includes various types of merchandise and adaptations outside of the video games, including comics, a board game, and a television series.


title: Horizon Zero Dawn

text: The "Horizon" universe was adapted into a comic book in 2020, with the release of "Horizon Zero Dawn: The Sunhawk". The comic book bridges the gap between "Horizon Zero Dawn" and "Forbidden West". A second comic, called "Liberation", was released in 2022.


title: Horizon Zero Dawn

text: An official licensed board game was released in 2020. The co-operative board game, created by SteamForge, includes story elements that take place right after "Horizon: Zero Dawn".


title: Horizon Zero Dawn

text: In May 2022, it was announced that a streaming television series adaptation is in development at Netflix, with Steve Blackman developing the series. Aloy will be one of the main characters in the series.


title: Katey Sagal

text: Catherine Louise Sagal (; born January 19, 1954), known as Katey Sagal, is an American actress and singer. She is known for playing Peggy Bundy on "Married... with Children" (1987–1997), Leela on "Futurama" (1999–2003, 2008–2013, 2023), Cate Hennessy on "8 Simple Rules" (2002–2005), Gemma Teller Morrow on the FX series "Sons of Anarchy" (2008–2014), for which she won the Golden Globe Award for Best Actress – Television Series Drama in 2011, Dr. Jones on "Shameless" (2018–2019), and Louise Goldufski-Conner on "The Conners" (2018–present).


title: Katey Sagal

text: Sagal was born on January 19, 1954, in Los Angeles, California, to a show business family with five children. Her mother, Sara Zwilling, was a singer (stage name Sara Macon), producer, and television writer who died of heart disease in 1975, and Sagal's father, Boris Sagal, worked as a television director. Her father was a Ukrainian-Jewish immigrant. Her mother had Amish ancestors. In 1977, Sagal's father married dancer/actress Marge Champion, a few years before his accidental death on the set of the miniseries "World War III" in 1981. Three of Sagal's four siblings are actors: her younger twin sisters, Jean and Liz Sagal and brother Joey Sagal; her other brother David Sagal is an attorney married to actress McNally Sagal. Sagal and her siblings grew up in Brentwood, Los Angeles.


title: Katey Sagal

text: Her godfather is sitcom producer and writer Norman Lear. In 2016, both Katey and Norman acknowledged that she was not only his goddaughter, but that he also introduced her parents to each other. Sagal has described herself as "culturally Jewish" but with no "formal religious experience."


title: Katey Sagal

text: Sagal graduated from Palisades High School. After graduation, she attended the California Institute of the Arts.


title: Katey Sagal

text: Sagal started her career in show business as a singer and songwriter. In 1973, she worked as a backing vocalist for various singers, including Bob Dylan, Etta James, and Tanya Tucker. In 1976, while a member of The Group with No Name, she contributed to the album "Moon over Brooklyn" (on which she was credited as "Katie Sagal"). She was a member of Bette Midler's backup group The Harlettes in 1978, and again from 1982 to 1983.


title: Katey Sagal

text: During the filming of 1983's "Valley Girl", Sagal was scheduled to sing at The Central. Her name can be seen in the schedule of upcoming acts, posted inside the door.


title: Katey Sagal

text: She performed backing vocals on the self-titled Gene Simmons solo album, the Molly Hatchet album "Take No Prisoners", and on Olivia Newton-John's 1985 single "Soul Kiss." She performed the song "It's the Time for Love" that appears in the movie "Silent Rage" featuring Chuck Norris. Sagal also provided the vocals for "Loose Cannons," the theme song for the 1990 movie of the same name featuring Gene Hackman and Dan Aykroyd.


title: Katey Sagal

text: On April 19, 1994, Sagal released her first solo album, "Well...". On June 1, 2004, she released her second album, "Room".


title: Katey Sagal

text: She has also contributed to the "Sons of Anarchy" soundtrack. working with its house band The Forest Rangers (Davey Faragher/bass, John Philipe Shenale(Phil Shenale)/keyboards, Billy Harvey/guitar-vocals, Michael Urbano/drums, Bob Thiele Jr./vocals-guitar) with songs that became part of its soundtrack albums (" , , ) and singles."


title: Katey Sagal

text: "She worked with the band for her album "Covered" (2013)". For their live performances The Forest Rangers have occasionally used the name The Reluctant Apostles.


title: Katey Sagal

text: "Mayans MC: Black is black" single from the Mayans MC was released in 2019 performed by Katey Sagal and The Forest Rangers.


title: Katey Sagal

text: One role was as a receptionist in the detective "Columbo" instalment "Candidate for Crime," which was directed by her father. Sagal's first major role was as a newspaper columnist in the series "Mary" (1985–86) starring Mary Tyler Moore. This led to her being cast as Peggy Bundy on the sitcom "Married... with Children" (1987–1997); she portrayed the lower-class, sex-starved, lazy and free-spending wife of shoe salesman Al Bundy. The series ran for 11 years. It had been reported that Sagal brought her own red bouffant wig to audition for the role, and with the producers' approval, the look transitioned into the show. However, Sagal later explained that she had initially styled her own hair, then once the show took off, the producers began to invest in a wig.


title: Katey Sagal

text: After the end of "Married... with Children", several more television films followed; Sagal also guest starred on the children's cartoon "Recess" as the voice of Spinelli's mother. In 1998, Matt Groening chose her to provide the character voice of the purple-haired mutant spaceship captain, Leela, in his science-fiction animated comedy "Futurama". The show developed a cult following, but was cancelled after four seasons. However, syndication on Adult Swim and Comedy Central increased the show's popularity and led Comedy Central to commission a season of "Futurama" direct-to-DVD films, which the network later retransmitted as a 16-episode fifth season. She reprised her role as Leela in these films, and in the sixth season that began airing June 24, 2010. The series ended its run on Comedy Central in 2013.


title: Katey Sagal

text: Sagal guest-starred as Edna Hyde, Steven Hyde's mother, in three episodes of "That '70s Show". She starred in the short-lived NBC sitcom "Tucker" in 2000.


title: Katey Sagal

text: Sagal was cast as the wife of John Ritter in the sitcom "8 Simple Rules for Dating My Teenage Daughter" in 2002. Ritter had completed only three episodes of the second season before his death, and the show was cancelled in 2005 after its third season.


title: Katey Sagal

text: In 2005 and 2006, Sagal made two appearances on "Lost" as Helen Norwood. In 2007, she had a role in the season finale of "The Winner" as Glen Abbot's former teacher, with whom Glen has his first sexual experience.


title: Katey Sagal

text: From 2008 to 2014, Sagal starred as Gemma Teller Morrow on the TV show "Sons of Anarchy", whose creator, Kurt Sutter, she had married in 2004, four years before the series premiered. In January 2009, Sagal reunited with David Faustino (who had played her son Bud Bundy in "Married... with Children") for an episode of Faustino's show "Star-ving". In 2010, she appeared twice more on "Lost". In 2009, she starred in the film "House Broken" with Danny DeVito. In 2010, she returned to the stage in Randy Newman's musical "Harps & Angels".


title: Katey Sagal

text: In 2013, Sagal had a cameo on "Glee" as Nancy Abrams, Artie Abrams' mother. She co-starred in "Pitch Perfect 2", released in 2015, as the mother of Hailee Steinfeld's character. She next appeared in the biography drama film "Bleed for This", as the mother of Vinny Pazienza.


title: Katey Sagal

text: On September 9, 2014, Sagal received a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame; most of the "Married ... with Children" cast – including Ed O'Neill, Christina Applegate, and David Faustino – were present to celebrate the actor's recognition.


title: Katey Sagal

text: On September 20, 2016, Sagal appeared on "The Big Bang Theory" as Susan, the mother of Penny (Kaley Cuoco). She had previously played the mother of Cuoco's character on "8 Simple Rules".


title: Katey Sagal

text: Sagal was also a series regular on the CBS sitcom "Superior Donuts" from 2017 to 2018. She also appeared on "Shameless" as Frank's latest, crazy lover.


title: Katey Sagal

text: Most recently she has appeared in a recurring role as Dan Conner's love interest, Louise Goldufski, in "The Conners" and a cameo appearance in the Netflix series "Dead to Me" in season 2, episodes 9 and 10 as Judy Hale's (Linda Cardellini) estranged, emotionally abusive, incarcerated mother Eleanor Hale.


title: Katey Sagal

text: In 2018 she had a cameo appearance in the crime drama series Mayans M.C. as Gemma Tellor Morrow reprising her role from the Sons of Anarchy series.


title: Katey Sagal

text: In 2021, Sagal played the lead role of Annie "Rebel" Bello in the ABC drama series "Rebel", which was written by Krista Vernoff. ABC cancelled "Rebel" after ten episodes.


title: Katey Sagal

text: On February 9, 2022, Hulu announced that streaming service would be reviving Futurama for a 20 episode run set to premiere in 2023 with Sagal returning as the voice of Leela.


title: Katey Sagal

text: In June 2016, the Human Rights Campaign released a video in tribute to the victims of the 2016 Orlando nightclub shooting; in the video, Sagal and others told the stories of the people killed there.


title: Katey Sagal

text: Sagal was married to musician Freddie Beckmeier, from 1978 to 1981 and Jack White, from 1993 to 2000. She married writer-producer Kurt Sutter in a private ceremony on October 2, 2004, at their home in the Los Angeles neighborhood of Los Feliz. They have a daughter, Esmé Louise, born in 2007 through a gestational carrier.


title: Katey Sagal

text: In 1991, while working on "Married... with Children", Sagal learned that she was pregnant. This was unexpected, so the pregnancy was written into the storyline of the show. In October 1991, however, she had to have an emergency caesarean section in her seventh month of pregnancy, ending in the stillbirth of a daughter. The pregnancy on the show was then treated as a "dream sequence," which was mentioned only briefly at the end of the episode "Al Bundy, Shoe Dick." Sagal and White eventually had two children—a daughter, Sarah Grace, in 1994, and a son, Jackson James White, in 1996. The writers of "Married... with Children" deliberately did not write Sagal's two later pregnancies into the show due to the earlier stillbirth, opting instead to write off her absences in a subplot in which Peg is traveling the world to reunite her parents. In scenes where Peg was shown, Sagal had her midsection obscured, such as in a taxi or at a craps table in Las Vegas and was often seen or heard talking to family members over the phone.


title: Katey Sagal

text: One after effect of Sagal's having lost her stillborn daughter was the inspiration to write the lyrics for "(You) Can't Hurry the Harvest". She recorded this song on her debut album, "Well...", which was released in April 1994.


title: Katey Sagal

text: She was the subject of an episode of the television genealogy series "Who Do You Think You Are?" in 2016.


title: Katey Sagal

text: On October 14, 2021, Sagal was hit by a car while crossing a street in Los Angeles. She was transported by ambulance to a local hospital where she was released the next day.


title: Antisemitism

text: Antisemitism (also spelled anti-semitism or anti-Semitism) is hostility to, prejudice towards, or discrimination against Jews. A person who holds such positions is called an antisemite. Antisemitism is considered to be a form of racism.


title: Antisemitism

text: Antisemitism has historically been manifested in many ways, ranging from expressions of hatred of or discrimination against individual Jews to organized pogroms by mobs, police forces, or genocide. Although the term did not come into common usage until the 19th century, it is also applied to previous and later anti-Jewish incidents. Notable instances of persecution include the Rhineland massacres preceding the First Crusade in 1096, the Edict of Expulsion from England in 1290, the 1348–1351 persecution of Jews during the Black Death, the massacres of Spanish Jews in 1391, the persecutions of the Spanish Inquisition, the expulsion from Spain in 1492, the Cossack massacres in Ukraine from 1648 to 1657, various anti-Jewish pogroms in the Russian Empire between 1821 and 1906, the 1894–1906 Dreyfus affair in France, the Holocaust in German-occupied Europe during World War II and Soviet anti-Jewish policies. Though historically most manifestations of antisemitism have taken place in Christian Europe, since the early 20th century antisemitism has increased in the Middle East.


title: Antisemitism

text: The root word "" gives the false impression that antisemitism is directed against all Semitic people, e.g., including Arabs, Assyrians, and Arameans. The compound word ('antisemitism') was first used in print in Germany in 1879 as a scientific-sounding term for ('Jew-hatred'), and this has been its common use since then.


title: Antisemitism

text: The origin of "antisemitic" terminologies is found in the responses of Moritz Steinschneider to the views of Ernest Renan. As Alex Bein writes: "The compound anti-Semitism appears to have been used first by Steinschneider, who challenged Renan on account of his 'anti-Semitic prejudices' [i.e., his derogation of the "Semites" as a race]." Avner Falk similarly writes: "The German word "antisemitisch" was first used in 1860 by the Austrian Jewish scholar Moritz Steinschneider (1816–1907) in the phrase "antisemitische Vorurteile" (antisemitic prejudices). Steinschneider used this phrase to characterise the French philosopher Ernest Renan's false ideas about how 'Semitic races' were inferior to 'Aryan races'".


title: Antisemitism

text: Pseudoscientific theories concerning race, civilization, and "progress" had become quite widespread in Europe in the second half of the 19th century, especially as Prussian nationalistic historian Heinrich von Treitschke did much to promote this form of racism. He coined the phrase "the Jews are our misfortune" which would later be widely used by Nazis. According to Avner Falk, Treitschke uses the term "Semitic" almost synonymously with "Jewish", in contrast to Renan's use of it to refer to a whole range of peoples, based generally on linguistic criteria.


title: Antisemitism

text: According to Jonathan M. Hess, the term was originally used by its authors to "stress the radical difference between their own 'antisemitism' and earlier forms of antagonism toward Jews and Judaism."


title: Antisemitism

text: In 1879, German journalist Wilhelm Marr published a pamphlet, "Der Sieg des Judenthums über das Germanenthum. Vom nicht confessionellen Standpunkt aus betrachtet" ("The Victory of the Jewish Spirit over the Germanic Spirit. Observed from a non-religious perspective") in which he used the word "Semitismus" interchangeably with the word "Judentum" to denote both "Jewry" (the Jews as a collective) and "jewishness" (the quality of being Jewish, or the Jewish spirit).


title: Antisemitism

text: This use of "" was followed by a coining of "" which was used to indicate opposition to the Jews as a people and opposition to the Jewish spirit, which Marr interpreted as infiltrating German culture. His next pamphlet, "Der Weg zum Siege des Germanenthums über das Judenthum" ("The Way to Victory of the Germanic Spirit over the Jewish Spirit", 1880), presents a development of Marr's ideas further and may present the first published use of the German word " Antisemitismus", "antisemitism".


title: Antisemitism

text: The pamphlet became very popular, and in the same year he founded the "Antisemiten-Liga" (League of Antisemites), apparently named to follow the "Anti-Kanzler-Liga" (Anti-Chancellor League). The league was the first German organization committed specifically to combating the alleged threat to Germany and German culture posed by the Jews and their influence and advocating their forced removal from the country.


title: Antisemitism

text: So far as can be ascertained, the word was first widely printed in 1881, when Marr published "Zwanglose Antisemitische Hefte", and Wilhelm Scherer used the term "Antisemiten" in the January issue of "Neue Freie Presse".


title: Antisemitism

text: The "Jewish Encyclopedia" reports, "In February 1881, a correspondent of the "Allgemeine Zeitung des Judentums" speaks of 'Anti-Semitism' as a designation which recently came into use ("Allg. Zeit. d. Jud." 1881, p. 138). On 19 July 1882, the editor says, 'This quite recent Anti-Semitism is hardly three years old.'"


title: Antisemitism

text: The word "antisemitism" was borrowed into English from German in 1881. "Oxford English Dictionary" editor James Murray wrote that it was not included in the first edition because "Anti-Semite and its family were then probably very new in English use, and not thought likely to be more than passing nonce-words... Would that anti-Semitism had had no more than a fleeting interest!" The related term "philosemitism" was used by 1881.


title: Antisemitism

text: From the outset the term "anti-Semitism" bore special racial connotations and meant specifically prejudice against Jews. The term is confusing, for in modern usage 'Semitic' designates a language group, not a race. In this sense, the term is a misnomer, since there are many speakers of Semitic languages (e.g. Arabs, Ethiopians, and Arameans) who are not the objects of antisemitic prejudices, while there are many Jews who do not speak Hebrew, a Semitic language. Though 'antisemitism' could be construed as prejudice against people who speak other Semitic languages, this is not how the term is commonly used.


title: Antisemitism

text: The term may be spelled with or without a hyphen (antisemitism or anti-Semitism). Many scholars and institutions favor the unhyphenated form. Shmuel Almog argued, "If you use the hyphenated form, you consider the words 'Semitism', 'Semite', 'Semitic' as meaningful ... [I]n antisemitic parlance, 'Semites' really stands for Jews, just that." Emil Fackenheim supported the unhyphenated spelling, in order to "[dispel] the notion that there is an entity 'Semitism' which 'anti-Semitism' opposes." Others endorsing an unhyphenated term for the same reason include the International Holocaust Remembrance Alliance, historian Deborah Lipstadt, Padraic O'Hare, professor of Religious and Theological Studies and Director of the Center for the Study of Jewish-Christian-Muslim Relations at Merrimack College; and historians Yehuda Bauer and James Carroll. According to Carroll, who first cites O'Hare and Bauer on "the existence of something called 'Semitism'", "the hyphenated word thus reflects the bipolarity that is at the heart of the problem of antisemitism".


title: Antisemitism

text: Though the general definition of antisemitism is hostility or prejudice against Jews, and, according to Olaf Blaschke, has become an "umbrella term for negative stereotypes about Jews", a number of authorities have developed more formal definitions.


title: Antisemitism

text: Holocaust scholar and City University of New York professor Helen Fein defines it as "a persisting latent structure of hostile beliefs towards Jews as a collective manifested in individuals as attitudes, and in culture as myth, ideology, folklore and imagery, and in actions—social or legal discrimination, political mobilization against the Jews, and collective or state violence—which results in and/or is designed to distance, displace, or destroy Jews as Jews."


title: Antisemitism

text: Elaborating on Fein's definition, Dietz Bering of the University of Cologne writes that, to antisemites, "Jews are not only partially but totally bad by nature, that is, their bad traits are incorrigible. Because of this bad nature: (1) Jews have to be seen not as individuals but as a collective. (2) Jews remain essentially alien in the surrounding societies. (3) Jews bring disaster on their 'host societies' or on the whole world, they are doing it secretly, therefore the anti-Semites feel obliged to unmask the conspiratorial, bad Jewish character."


title: Antisemitism

text: For Sonja Weinberg, as distinct from economic and religious anti-Judaism, antisemitism in its modern form shows conceptual innovation, a resort to 'science' to defend itself, new functional forms, and organisational differences. It was anti-liberal, racialist and nationalist. It promoted the myth that Jews conspired to 'judaise' the world; it served to consolidate social identity; it channeled dissatisfactions among victims of the capitalist system; and it was used as a conservative cultural code to fight emancipation and liberalism.


title: Antisemitism

text: Bernard Lewis defined antisemitism as a special case of prejudice, hatred, or persecution directed against people who are in some way different from the rest. According to Lewis, antisemitism is marked by two distinct features: Jews are judged according to a standard different from that applied to others, and they are accused of "cosmic evil." Thus, "it is perfectly possible to hate and even to persecute Jews without necessarily being anti-Semitic" unless this hatred or persecution displays one of the two features specific to antisemitism.


title: Antisemitism

text: There have been a number of efforts by international and governmental bodies to define antisemitism formally. The United States Department of State states that "while there is no universally accepted definition, there is a generally clear understanding of what the term encompasses." For the purposes of its 2005 Report on Global Anti-Semitism, the term was considered to mean "hatred toward Jews—individually and as a group—that can be attributed to the Jewish religion and/or ethnicity."


title: Antisemitism

text: In 2005, the European Monitoring Centre on Racism and Xenophobia (now Fundamental Rights Agency), then an agency of the European Union, developed a more detailed working definition, which states: "Antisemitism is a certain perception of Jews, which may be expressed as hatred toward Jews. Rhetorical and physical manifestations of antisemitism are directed toward Jewish or non-Jewish individuals and/or their property, toward Jewish community institutions and religious facilities." It also adds that "such manifestations could also target the state of Israel, conceived as a Jewish collectivity," but that "criticism of Israel similar to that leveled against any other country cannot be regarded as antisemitic." It provides contemporary examples of ways in which antisemitism may manifest itself, including promoting the harming of Jews in the name of an ideology or religion; promoting negative stereotypes of Jews; holding Jews collectively responsible for the actions of an individual Jewish person or group; denying the Holocaust or accusing Jews or Israel of exaggerating it; and accusing Jews of dual loyalty or a greater allegiance to Israel than their own country. It also lists ways in which attacking Israel could be antisemitic, and states that denying the Jewish people their right to self-determination, e.g. by claiming that the existence of a state of Israel is a racist endeavor, can be a manifestation of antisemitism—as can applying double standards by requiring of Israel a behavior not expected or demanded of any other democratic nation, or holding Jews collectively responsible for the actions of the State of Israel. The definition has been adopted by the European Parliament Working Group on Antisemitism, in 2010 it was adopted by the United States Department of State, in 2014 it was adopted in the Operational Hate Crime Guidance of the UK College of Policing and was also adopted by the Campaign Against Antisemitism. In 2016, the definition was adopted by the International Holocaust Remembrance Alliance. The Working Definition of Antisemitism is among the most controversial documents related to opposition to antisemitism, and critics argue that it has been used to censor criticism of Israel.


title: Antisemitism

text: In 1879, Wilhelm Marr founded the "Antisemiten-Liga" (Anti-Semitic League). Identification with antisemitism and as an antisemite was politically advantageous in Europe during the late 19th century. For example, Karl Lueger, the popular mayor of fin de siècle Vienna, skillfully exploited antisemitism as a way of channeling public discontent to his political advantage. In its 1910 obituary of Lueger, "The New York Times" notes that Lueger was "Chairman of the Christian Social Union of the Parliament and of the Anti-Semitic Union of the Diet of Lower Austria. In 1895, A. C. Cuza organized the "Alliance Anti-semitique Universelle" in Bucharest. In the period before World War II, when animosity towards Jews was far more commonplace, it was not uncommon for a person, an organization, or a political party to self-identify as an antisemite or antisemitic.


title: Antisemitism

text: The early Zionist pioneer Leon Pinsker, a professional physician, preferred the clinical-sounding term "Judeophobia" to antisemitism, which he regarded as a misnomer. The word "Judeophobia" first appeared in his pamphlet "Auto-Emancipation", published anonymously in German in September 1882, where it was described as an irrational fear or hatred of Jews. According to Pinsker, this irrational fear was an inherited predisposition.


title: Antisemitism

text: In the aftermath of the Kristallnacht pogrom in 1938, German propaganda minister Goebbels announced: "The German people is anti-Semitic. It has no desire to have its rights restricted or to be provoked in the future by parasites of the Jewish race."


title: Antisemitism

text: After 1945 victory of the Allies over Nazi Germany, and particularly after the full extent of the Nazi genocide against the Jews became known, the term "antisemitism" acquired pejorative connotations. This marked a full circle shift in usage, from an era just decades earlier when "Jew" was used as a pejorative term. Yehuda Bauer wrote in 1984: "There are no anti-Semites in the world ... Nobody says, 'I am anti-Semitic.' You cannot, after Hitler. The word has gone out of fashion."