title: Adobe Photoshop

text: Adobe released Photoshop CS4 Extended, which has the features of Adobe Photoshop CS4, plus capabilities for scientific imaging, 3D, motion graphics, accurate image analysis and high-end film and video users. The faster 3D engine allows users to paint directly on 3D models, wrap 2D images around 3D shapes and animate 3D objects. As the successor to Photoshop CS3, Photoshop CS4 is the first x64 edition of Photoshop on consumer computers for Windows. The color correction tool has also been improved significantly.


title: Adobe Photoshop

text: CS4 and CS4 Extended were released on October 15, 2008. They were also made available through Adobe's online store and Adobe Authorized Resellers. Both CS4 and CS4 Extended are offered as either a stand-alone application or feature of Adobe Creative Suite. Both products are compatible with Intel-based Mac OS X and PowerPCs, supporting Windows XP and Windows Vista.


title: Adobe Photoshop

text: Photoshop CS5 was launched on April 12, 2010. In a video posted on its official Facebook page, the development team revealed the new technologies under development, including three-dimensional brushes and warping tools.


title: Adobe Photoshop

text: In May 2011, Adobe Creative Suite 5.5 (CS5.5) was released, with new versions of some of the applications. Its version of Photoshop, 12.1, is identical to the concurrently released update for Photoshop CS5, version 12.0.4, except for support for the new subscription pricing that was introduced with CS5.5.


title: Adobe Photoshop

text: CS5 introduces new tools such as the Content-Aware Fill, Refine Edge, Mixer Brush, Bristle Tips and Puppet Warp. The community also had a hand in the additions made to CS5 as 30 new features and improvements were included by request. These include automatic image straightening, the Rule-of-Thirds cropping tool, color pickup, and saving a 16-bit image as a JPEG. Another feature includes the Adobe Mini Bridge, which allows for efficient file browsing and management.


title: Adobe Photoshop

text: CS5 Extended includes everything in CS5 plus features in 3D and video editing. A new materials library was added, providing more options such as Chrome, Glass, and Cork. The new Shadow Catcher tool can be used to further enhance 3D objects. For motion graphics, the tools can be applied to over more than one frame in a video sequence.


title: Adobe Photoshop

text: CS5 and CS5 Extended were made available through Adobe's online store, Adobe Authorized Resellers and Adobe direct sales. Both CS5 and CS5 Extended are offered as either a stand-alone application or a feature of Adobe Creative Suite 5. Both products are compatible with Intel-based Mac OS X and Windows XP, Windows Vista, and Windows 7.


title: Adobe Photoshop

text: Photoshop CS6, released in May 2012, added new creative design tools and provided a redesigned interface with a focus on enhanced performance. New features have been added to the Content-Aware tool such as the Content-Aware Patch and Content-Aware Move.


title: Adobe Photoshop

text: Adobe Photoshop CS6 brought a suite of tools for video editing. Color and exposure adjustments, as well as layers, are among a few things that are featured in this new editor. Upon completion of editing, the user is presented with a handful of options of exporting into a few popular formats.


title: Adobe Photoshop

text: CS6 brings the "straighten" tool to Photoshop, where a user simply draws a line anywhere on an image, and the canvas will reorient itself so that the line drawn becomes horizontal, and adjusts the media accordingly. This was created with the intention that users will draw a line parallel to a plane in the image, and reorient the image to that plane to more easily achieve certain perspectives.


title: Adobe Photoshop

text: CS6 allows background saving, which means that while another document is compiling and archiving itself, it is possible to simultaneously edit an image. CS6 also features a customizable auto-save feature, preventing any work from being lost.


title: Adobe Photoshop

text: With version 13.1.3, Adobe dropped support for Windows XP (including Windows XP Professional x64 Edition); thus, the last version that works on Windows XP is 13.0.1. Adobe also announced that CS6 will be the last suite sold with perpetual licenses in favor of the new Creative Cloud subscriptions, though they will continue to provide OS compatibility support as well as bug fixes and security updates as necessary.


title: Adobe Photoshop

text: Starting January 9, 2017, CS6 is no longer available for purchase, making a Creative Cloud license the only purchase option going forward. No more updates will be available for all CS6 software either.


title: Adobe Photoshop

text: Photoshop CC (14.0) was launched on June 18, 2013. As the next major version after CS6, it is only available as part of a Creative Cloud subscription. Major features in this version include new Smart Sharpen, Intelligent Upsampling, and Camera Shake Reduction for reducing blur caused by camera shake. Editable Rounded Rectangles and an update to Adobe Camera Raw (8.0) were also included.


title: Adobe Photoshop

text: Since the initial launch, Adobe has released two additional feature-bearing updates. The first, version 14.1, was launched on September 9, 2013. The major features in this version were Adobe Generator, a Node.js-based platform for creating plug-ins for Photoshop. Photoshop 14.1 shipped with two plug-ins, one to automatically generate image assets based on an extension in the layer name, and another to automatically generate assets for Adobe Edge Reflow.


title: Adobe Photoshop

text: Version 14.2 was released on January 15, 2014. Major features include Perspective Warp, Linked Smart Objects, and 3D Printing support.


title: Adobe Photoshop

text: Photoshop CC 2014 (15.0) was released on June 18, 2014. CC 2014 features improvements to content-aware tools, two new blur tools (spin blur and path blur) and a new focus mask feature that enables the user to select parts of an image based on whether they are in focus or not. Other minor improvements have been made, including speed increases for certain tasks.


title: Adobe Photoshop

text: Photoshop CC 2015 was released on June 15, 2015. Adobe added various creative features including Adobe Stock, which is a library of custom stock images. It also includes and have the ability to have more than one layer style. For example, in the older versions of Photoshop, only one shadow could be used for a layer but in CC 2015, up to ten are available. Other minor features like Export As, which is a form of the Save For Web in CC 2014 were also added. The updated UI as of November 30, 2015, delivers a cleaner and more consistent look throughout Photoshop, and the user can quickly perform common tasks using a new set of gestures on touch-enabled devices like Microsoft Surface Pro. CC 2015 also marks the 25th anniversary of Photoshop.


title: Adobe Photoshop

text: Photoshop CC 2017 was released on November 2, 2016. It introduced a new template selector when creating new documents, the ability to search for tools, panels and help articles for Photoshop, support for SVG OpenType fonts and other small improvements. In December 2016, a minor update was released to include support for the MacBook Pro Touch Bar.


title: Adobe Photoshop

text: Photoshop CC 2018 (version 19) was released on October 18, 2017. It featured an overhaul to the brush organization system, allowing for more properties (such as color and opacity) to be saved per-brush and for brushes to be categorized in folders and sub-folders. It also added brush stroke smoothing, and over 1000 brushes created by Kyle T. Webster (following Adobe's acquisition of his website, KyleBrush.com). A Curvature Pen tool, similar to the one in Illustrator, was added, allowing for faster creation of Bézier paths. Other additions were Lightroom Photo access, Variable font support, select subject, copy-paste layers, enhanced tooltips, 360 panorama and HEIF support, PNG compression, increased maximum zoom level, symmetry mode, algorithm improvements to Face-aware and selection tools, color and luminance range masking, improved image resizing, and performance improvements to file opening, filters, and brush strokes.


title: Adobe Photoshop

text: Photoshop CC 2019 was released on October 15, 2018. Beginning with Photoshop CC 2019 (version 20.0), the 32-bit version of Windows is no longer supported. This version Introduced a new tool called Frame Tool to create placeholder frames for images. It also added multiple undo mode, auto-commitment, and prevented accidental panel moves with lock work-space. Live blend mode previews are added, allowing for faster scrolling over different blend mode options in the layers panel. Other additions were Color Wheel, Transform proportionally without Shift key, Distribute spacing like in Illustrator, ability to see longer layer names, match font with Japanese fonts, flip document view, scale UI to font, reference point hidden by default, new compositing engine, which provides a more modern compositing architecture is added which is easier to optimize on all platforms.


title: Adobe Photoshop

text: Photoshop 2020 was released on November 4, 2019. Version 21 has many new and enhanced features like the new object selection tool for better automate complex selections, new properties panel, enhanced transform warp, new keyboard shortcuts for paint & brush and background image removal option. It added several improvements to the new content-aware fill and to the new document tab. Also added were animated GIF support, improved lens blur performance and one-click zoom to a layer's contents. It introduced new swatches, gradients, patterns, shapes and stylistic sets for OpenType fonts. With this version users now can easily convert smart objects to layers and also can adjust 32-bit layers for brightness/contrast and curves. Presets are now more intuitive to use and easier to organize.


title: Adobe Photoshop

text: With the February 2020 update (version 21.1) Photoshop now can iteratively fill multiple areas of an image without having to leave content-aware fill workspace. This version improved GPU based lens blur quality and provided performance improvements, such as accelerating workflows with smoother panning, zooming and navigation of documents.


title: Adobe Photoshop

text: Version 21 was the first version where the iPad version was released. With Photoshop on the iPad, combined with the new Cloud PSD file format, a user can save cloud documents and work across Windows, Mac and iPad. Photoshop on the iPad does not have all the features of the desktop Photoshop. Adobe promises to update Photoshop on the iPad at "a much more aggressive pace than it has with its current Creative Cloud apps for the desktop". Adobe has provided a timeline for enhancing Photoshop on the iPad to have more of the features of desktop Photoshop.


title: Adobe Photoshop

text: Version 21.2 of the desktop version was released in June 2020. It introduced faster portrait selection, Adobe Camera Raw improvements, auto-activated Adobe Fonts, rotatable patterns, and improved Match Font.


title: Adobe Photoshop

text: Version 22.3 was released in March 2021. This is the first macOS release to run natively on Apple silicon.


title: Adobe Photoshop

text: Content Credentials (Beta) was introduced. When enabled, the editing information is captured in a tamper-evident form and resides with the file through successive copy generations. It aligns with the C2PA standard on digital provenance across the internet.


title: Adobe Photoshop

text: The Adobe Photoshop family is a group of applications and services made by Adobe Inc. for the use of professional image editing. Several features of the Adobe Photoshop family are pixel manipulating, image organizing, photo retouching, and more.


title: Nick Kroll

text: Nicholas Kroll (born June 5, 1978) is an American actor, voice actor, comedian, writer, and producer. He is known for creating and starring in the Comedy Central series "Kroll Show", "The Oh, Hello Show", the FX comedy series "The League", and starring in and co-creating the animated Netflix series "Big Mouth".


title: Nick Kroll

text: He has also acted or voice-acted in films such as "Adult Beginners", "Sausage Party", "Loving", "Sing", "", "The House", "Uncle Drew", "Operation Finale", "The Secret Life of Pets 2", and "The Addams Family".


title: Nick Kroll

text: Kroll was born in Rye, New York, on June 5, 1978, to Lynn and Jules Kroll. His father is a billionaire businessman who founded the corporate investigations and risk consulting firm Kroll Inc. The youngest child in the family, Kroll has a brother, Jeremy, and two sisters, Vanessa and Dana. He grew up in a Conservative Jewish family, and attended the Solomon Schechter School of Westchester. He went on to high school at Rye Country Day School. During this time, he also briefly attended The Mountain School in Vershire, Vermont, where he developed a fondness for hiking. In 2001, Kroll graduated from Georgetown University. He described himself as a history major who minored in art and Spanish, but found himself "gravitating toward media studies as time went on".


title: Nick Kroll

text: Early in his career, Kroll contributed writing for Comedy Central's "Chappelle's Show" and MTV's "Human Giant". In November and December 2008, he toured with Aziz Ansari on his "Glow in the Dark" comedy tour in the United States. Kroll's live work is a mix of standup, sketch and characters. In 2011, Comedy Central aired his stand-up special "Thank You Very Cool". He has studied and performed regularly at the Upright Citizens Brigade Theater in NYC and LA and co-hosted the stand-up show "Welcome to Our Week" with Jessi Klein.


title: Nick Kroll

text: He is well known as a performer for his characters such as Bobby Bottleservice, who has been featured in a number of online videos for the Funny or Die website, including the "Ed Hardy Boyz" and an audition tape for the MTV show "Jersey Shore". Other characters include Ref Jeff and Fabrice Fabrice, and Gil Faizon of "The Oh, Hello Show", who he created with writing partner John Mulaney. His character work features prominently in "Kroll Show", a sketch comedy show on Comedy Central. Kroll was honored with the Breakout Star of the Year award from the 2013 Just For Laughs Comedy Festival in Montreal, Quebec, Canada.


title: Nick Kroll

text: Kroll toured the U.S. alongside John Mulaney in a show called "Oh, Hello", with both in character as Gil Faizon and George St. Geegland respectively. The show premiered on Broadway on September 23, 2016 and ran for six months to positive reviews. The Broadway performance was filmed and released on Netflix in 2017.


title: Nick Kroll

text: Kroll's first significant career success came when he co-starred in the ABC sitcom "Cavemen", based on the Geico-insurance TV-commercial characters. Although the show was cancelled after seven episodes, he called his role “the most important experience of my professional career”. He went on to VH1's "Best Week Ever", and to guest-starring roles on "Parks and Recreation", "Community", "Unbreakable Kimmy Schmidt", and "New Girl". He made appearances on numerous Comedy Central series such as "Reno 911!", "John Oliver's New York Stand Up Show", and "The Benson Interruption", both performing as himself and in character.


title: Nick Kroll

text: Kroll had a starring role as Rodney Ruxin in the FXX comedy series "The League", which aired October 29, 2009 to December 9, 2015. Concurrently, he created and starred in his own Comedy Central sketch series, "Kroll Show", which aired January 16, 2013 to March 24, 2015. Kroll had a recurring role on "Childrens Hospital" on Adult Swim. His voice work includes the character Stu on the HBO animated series "The Life & Times of Tim", as well as Andrew LeGustambos, the flamboyant, bisexual drama teacher in the animated Fox comedy series "Sit Down, Shut Up". voiced to sound like a "modern day Snagglepuss", and as Reuben Grinder in the PBS Kids GO! series "WordGirl". Kroll was one of the roasters on the Comedy Central Roast of James Franco.


title: Nick Kroll

text: In 2017, Kroll co-created, wrote, and starred in "Big Mouth", an animated television show on Netflix. The show features the experiences of a group of 7th graders in the throes of puberty. Two of the main characters are based on, and named after, Kroll and his best friend from childhood, Andrew Goldberg. Kroll plays Nick, as well as Coach Steve, Maurice the Hormone Monster, Lola, Rick the Hormone Monster, the Jansen twins and Lady Liberty, in addition to several further minor and one-off characters. The second season premiered on October 5, 2018.


title: Nick Kroll

text: Kroll starred in "A Good Old Fashioned Orgy" and had supporting roles in comedy films such as "Sing", "Dinner For Schmucks", "Date Night", "Get Him to the Greek", "Adventures of Power", and "I Love You Man".


title: Nick Kroll

text: In 2016, Kroll's first villain role was a vaginal douche in the adult animated film "Sausage Party". Originally, he played Douche's voice in a British accent, but the team wanted to make a Pixar-like film instead of a Disney Renaissance-like film.


title: Nick Kroll

text: In 2017, Kroll then had a second villain voice role as a villainous mad scientist Professor Poopypants in the DreamWorks animated superhero film "". Although many critics only either mentioned his character in passing, some pointing out his similarities with Albert Einstein, or his "committed" performance, Matt Zoller Seitz took particular note of his performance, praising it as "irrepressibly silly" with "an orange juice spit-take voice". Seitz further stated that "[t]he way Kroll savors every syllable of his alternately peevish, self-pitying and nonsensical dialogue—aided mightily by the animators, who've given the character a fireplug body and a waddling walk—transforms the ridiculous into the sublime." In recent years, Kroll has taken several non-comedic acting roles, such as that of Bernie Cohen in "Loving" and Rafi Eitan in "Operation Finale", both historical drama films.


title: Nick Kroll

text: In May 2013, Kroll began dating comedian and actress Amy Poehler. They ended their relationship in 2015.


title: Nick Kroll

text: Kroll met landscape artist Lily Kwong in 2018. They married in November 2020 and their son was born in January 2021.


title: Nick Kroll

text: Kroll's brother-in-law is journalist Roger Bennett. Through his wife, his cousin-in-law is fashion designer Joseph Altuzarra.


title: Ibuprofen

text: Ibuprofen (iso-butyl-phenyl-propionic acid) is a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) that is used for treating pain, fever, and inflammation. This includes painful menstrual periods, migraines, and rheumatoid arthritis. It may also be used to close a patent ductus arteriosus in a premature baby. It can be used by mouth or intravenously. It typically begins working within an hour.


title: Ibuprofen

text: Common side effects include heartburn and a rash. Compared to other NSAIDs, it may have other side effects such as gastrointestinal bleeding. It increases the risk of heart failure, kidney failure, and liver failure. At low doses, it does not appear to increase the risk of heart attack; however, at higher doses it may. Ibuprofen can also worsen asthma. While whether it is safe in early pregnancy is unclear, it appears to be harmful in later pregnancy, so is not recommended. Like other NSAIDs, it works by inhibiting the production of prostaglandins by decreasing the activity of the enzyme cyclooxygenase (COX). Ibuprofen is a weaker anti-inflammatory agent than other NSAIDs.


title: Ibuprofen

text: Ibuprofen was discovered in 1961 by Stewart Adams and John Nicholson while working at Boots UK Limited and initially marketed as Brufen. It is available under a number of trade names, including Nurofen, Advil, and Motrin. Ibuprofen was first marketed in 1969 in the United Kingdom and in 1974 in the United States. It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines. It is available as a generic medication. In 2020, it was the 38th-most commonly prescribed medication in the United States, with more than 16million prescriptions.


title: Ibuprofen

text: Ibuprofen is used primarily to treat fever (including postvaccination fever), mild to moderate pain (including pain relief after surgery), painful menstruation, osteoarthritis, dental pain, headaches, and pain from kidney stones. About 60% of people respond to any NSAID; those who do not respond well to a particular one may respond to another.


title: Ibuprofen

text: It is used for inflammatory diseases such as juvenile idiopathic arthritis and rheumatoid arthritis. It is also used for pericarditis and patent ductus arteriosus.


title: Ibuprofen

text: If a patient is self-treating with over-the-counter ibuprofen, it should not be taken for more than 10 days, unless the patient has approval from their doctor.


title: Ibuprofen

text: In some countries, ibuprofen lysine (the lysine salt of ibuprofen, sometimes called "ibuprofen lysinate") is licensed for treatment of the same conditions as ibuprofen; the lysine salt is used because it is more water-soluble.


title: Ibuprofen

text: Ibuprofen lysine is sold for rapid pain relief; given in form of a lysine salt, absorption is much quicker (35 minutes compared to 90120 minutes). However, a clinical trial with 351 participants in 2020, funded by Sanofi, found no significant difference between ibuprofen and ibuprofen lysine concerning the eventual onset of action or analgesic efficacy.


title: Ibuprofen

text: In 2006, ibuprofen lysine was approved in the U.S. by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for closure of patent ductus arteriosus in premature infants weighing between , who are no more than 32 weeks' gestational age when usual medical management (such as fluid restriction, diuretics, and respiratory support) is not effective.


title: Ibuprofen

text: Adverse effects include nausea, dyspepsia, diarrhea, constipation, gastrointestinal ulceration/bleeding, headache, dizziness, rash, salt and fluid retention, and high blood pressure.


title: Ibuprofen

text: Infrequent adverse effects include esophageal ulceration, heart failure, high blood levels of potassium, kidney impairment, confusion, and bronchospasm. Ibuprofen can exacerbate asthma, sometimes fatally.


title: Ibuprofen

text: Allergic reactions, including anaphylaxis and anaphylactic shock, may occur. Ibuprofen may be quantified in blood, plasma, or serum to demonstrate the presence of the drug in a person having experienced an anaphylactic reaction, confirm a diagnosis of poisoning in people who are hospitalized, or assist in a medicolegal death investigation. A monograph relating ibuprofen plasma concentration, time since ingestion, and risk of developing renal toxicity in people who have overdosed has been published.


title: Ibuprofen

text: In October 2020, the US FDA required the drug label to be updated for all NSAID medications to describe the risk of kidney problems in unborn babies that result in low amniotic fluid. They recommend avoiding NSAIDs in pregnant women at 20 weeks or later in pregnancy.


title: Ibuprofen

text: Along with several other NSAIDs, chronic ibuprofen use has been found correlated with risk of progression to hypertension in women, though less than for acetaminophen, and myocardial infarction (heart attack), particularly among those chronically using higher doses. On 9 July 2015, the US FDA toughened warnings of increased heart attack and stroke risk associated with ibuprofen and related NSAIDs; the NSAID aspirin is not included in this warning. The European Medicines Agency (EMA) issued similar warnings in 2015.


title: Ibuprofen

text: Along with other NSAIDs, ibuprofen has been associated with the onset of bullous pemphigoid or pemphigoid-like blistering. As with other NSAIDs, ibuprofen has been reported to be a photosensitising agent, but it is considered a weak photosensitising agent compared to other members of the 2-arylpropionic acid class. Like other NSAIDs, ibuprofen is an extremely rare cause of the autoimmune disease Stevens–Johnson syndrome (SJS). Ibuprofen is also an extremely rare cause of toxic epidermal necrolysis.


title: Ibuprofen

text: According to the FDA, "ibuprofen can interfere with the antiplatelet effect of low-dose aspirin, potentially rendering aspirin less effective when used for cardioprotection and stroke prevention". Allowing sufficient time between doses of ibuprofen and immediate-release (IR) aspirin can avoid this problem. The recommended elapsed time between a dose of ibuprofen and a dose of aspirin depends on which is taken first. It would be 30 minutes or more for ibuprofen taken after IR aspirin, and 8 hours or more for ibuprofen taken before IR aspirin. However, this timing cannot be recommended for enteric-coated aspirin. If ibuprofen is taken only occasionally without the recommended timing, though, the reduction of the cardioprotection and stroke prevention of a daily aspirin regimen is minimal.


title: Ibuprofen

text: Ibuprofen overdose has become common since it was licensed for OTC use. Many overdose experiences are reported in the medical literature, although the frequency of life-threatening complications from ibuprofen overdose is low. Human responses in cases of overdose range from an absence of symptoms to a fatal outcome despite intensive-care treatment. Most symptoms are an excess of the pharmacological action of ibuprofen, and include abdominal pain, nausea, vomiting, drowsiness, dizziness, headache, ear ringing, and nystagmus. Rarely, more severe symptoms, such as gastrointestinal bleeding, seizures, metabolic acidosis, hyperkalemia, low blood pressure, slow heart rate, fast heart rate, atrial fibrillation, coma, liver dysfunction, acute kidney failure, cyanosis, respiratory depression, and cardiac arrest have been reported. The severity of symptoms varies with the ingested dose and the time elapsed; however, individual sensitivity also plays an important role. Generally, the symptoms observed with an overdose of ibuprofen are similar to the symptoms caused by overdoses of other NSAIDs.


title: Ibuprofen

text: Correlation between severity of symptoms and measured ibuprofen plasma levels is weak. Toxic effects are unlikely at doses below 100mg/kg, but can be severe above 400mg/kg (around 150 tablets of 200mg units for an average man); however, large doses do not indicate the clinical course is likely to be lethal. A precise lethal dose is difficult to determine, as it may vary with age, weight, and concomitant conditions of the individual person.


title: Ibuprofen

text: Treatment to address an ibuprofen overdose is based on how the symptoms present. In cases presenting early, decontamination of the stomach is recommended. This is achieved using activated charcoal; charcoal adsorbs the drug before it can enter the bloodstream. Gastric lavage is now rarely used, but can be considered if the amount ingested is potentially life-threatening, and it can be performed within 60 minutes of ingestion. Purposeful vomiting is not recommended. Most ibuprofen ingestions produce only mild effects, and the management of overdose is straightforward. Standard measures to maintain normal urine output should be instituted and kidney function monitored. Since ibuprofen has acidic properties and is also excreted in the urine, forced alkaline diuresis is theoretically beneficial. However, because ibuprofen is highly protein-bound in the blood, the kidneys' excretion of unchanged drug is minimal. Forced alkaline diuresis is, therefore, of limited benefit.


title: Ibuprofen

text: A Canadian study of pregnant women suggests that those taking any type or amount of NSAIDs (including ibuprofen, diclofenac, and naproxen) were 2.4 times more likely to miscarry than those not taking the medications. However, an Israeli study found no increased risk of miscarriage in the group of mothers using NSAIDs.


title: Ibuprofen

text: NSAIDs such as ibuprofen work by inhibiting the cyclooxygenase (COX) enzymes, which convert arachidonic acid to prostaglandin H (PGH). PGH, in turn, is converted by other enzymes to several other prostaglandins (which are mediators of pain, inflammation, and fever) and to thromboxane A (which stimulates platelet aggregation, leading to the formation of blood clots).


title: Ibuprofen

text: Like aspirin and indomethacin, ibuprofen is a nonselective COX inhibitor, in that it inhibits two isoforms of cyclooxygenase, COX-1 and COX-2. The analgesic, antipyretic, and anti-inflammatory activity of NSAIDs appears to operate mainly through inhibition of COX-2, which decreases the synthesis of prostaglandins involved in mediating inflammation, pain, fever, and swelling. Antipyretic effects may be due to action on the hypothalamus, resulting in an increased peripheral blood flow, vasodilation, and subsequent heat dissipation. Inhibition of COX-1 instead would be responsible for unwanted effects on the gastrointestinal tract. However, the role of the individual COX isoforms in the analgesic, anti-inflammatory, and gastric damage effects of NSAIDs is uncertain, and different compounds cause different degrees of analgesia and gastric damage.


title: Ibuprofen

text: Ibuprofen is administered as a racemic mixture. The "R"-enantiomer undergoes extensive interconversion to the "S"-enantiomer "in vivo". The "S"-enantiomer is believed to be the more pharmacologically active enantiomer. The "R"-enantiomer is converted through a series of three main enzymes. These enzymes include acyl-CoA-synthetase, which converts the "R"-enantiomer to (−)-"R"-ibuprofen I-CoA; 2-arylpropionyl-CoA epimerase, which converts (−)-"R"-ibuprofen I-CoA to (+)-"S"-ibuprofen I-CoA; and hydrolase, which converts (+)-"S"-ibuprofen I-CoA to the "S"-enantiomer. In addition to the conversion of ibuprofen to the "S"-enantiomer, the body can metabolize ibuprofen to several other compounds, including numerous hydroxyl, carboxyl and glucuronyl metabolites. Virtually all of these have no pharmacological effects.


title: Ibuprofen

text: Unlike most other NSAIDs, ibuprofen also acts as an inhibitor of Rho kinase and may be useful in recovery from spinal-cord injury.


title: Ibuprofen

text: After oral administration, peak serum concentration is reached after 12 hours, and up to 99% of the drug is bound to plasma proteins. The majority of ibuprofen is metabolized and eliminated within 24 hours in the urine; however, 1% of the unchanged drug is removed through biliary excretion.


title: Ibuprofen

text: Ibuprofen is practically insoluble in water, but very soluble in most organic solvents like ethanol (66.18g/100mL at 40°C for 90% EtOH), methanol, acetone and dichloromethane.


title: Ibuprofen

text: The original synthesis of ibuprofen by the Boots Group started with the compound 2-methylpropylbenzene. The synthesis took six steps. A modern, greener technique for the synthesis involves only three steps.


title: Ibuprofen

text: Ibuprofen, like other 2-arylpropionate derivatives such as ketoprofen, flurbiprofen and naproxen, contains a stereocenter in the α-position of the propionate moiety.


title: Ibuprofen

text: The product sold in pharmacies is a racemic mixture of the "S" and "R"-isomers. The "S" (dextrorotatory) isomer is the more biologically active; this isomer has been isolated and used medically (see dexibuprofen for details).


title: Ibuprofen

text: The isomerase enzyme, alpha-methylacyl-CoA racemase, converts ("R")-ibuprofen into the ("S")-enantiomer.


title: Ibuprofen

text: The (S)- ibuprofen, the eutomer, harbors the desired therapeutic activity. Interestingly, the inactive (R)-enantiomer, the distomer, undergoes a unidirectional chiral inversion to offer the active (S)-enantiomer. That is, when the ibuprofen is administered as a racemate the distomer is converted "in vivo" into the eutomer while the latter is unaffected.


title: Ibuprofen

text: Ibuprofen was derived from propionic acid by the research arm of Boots Group during the 1960s. The name is derived from the 3 functional groups: isobutyl (ibu) propionic acid (pro) phenyl (fen). Its discovery was the result of research during the 1950s and 1960s to find a safer alternative to aspirin. The molecule was discovered and synthesized by a team led by Stewart Adams, with a patent application filed in 1961. Adams initially tested the drug as treatment for his hangover. In 1985, Boots' worldwide patent for ibuprofen expired and generic products were launched.


title: Ibuprofen

text: The drug was launched as a treatment for rheumatoid arthritis in the United Kingdom in 1969, and in the United States in 1974. Later, in 1983 and 1984, it became the first NSAID (other than aspirin) to be available over the counter (OTC) in these two countries. Boots was awarded the Queen's Award for Technical Achievement in 1985 for the development of the drug. Dr. Adams was subsequently awarded an Order of the British Empire (OBE) in 1987.


title: Ibuprofen

text: In November 2013, work on ibuprofen was recognized by the erection of a Royal Society of Chemistry blue plaque at Boots' Beeston Factory site in Nottingham, which reads:


title: Ibuprofen

text: Ibuprofen was made available under prescription in the United Kingdom in 1969, and in the United States in 1974. In the years since, the good tolerability profile, along with extensive experience in the population, as well as in so-called phase-IV trials (postapproval studies), have resulted in the availability of ibuprofen OTC in pharmacies worldwide, as well as in supermarkets and other general retailers.


title: Ibuprofen

text: Ibuprofen is its International nonproprietary name (INN), British Approved Name (BAN), Australian Approved Name (AAN) and United States Adopted Name (USAN). In the U.S., Motrin has been on the market since 1974, and Advil has been on the market since 1984. Ibuprofen is commonly available in the United States up to the FDA's 1984 dose limit OTC, rarely used higher by prescription.


title: Ibuprofen

text: In 2009, the first injectable formulation of ibuprofen was approved in the United States, under the trade name Caldolor.


title: Ibuprofen

text: Ibuprofen is sometimes used for the treatment of acne because of its anti-inflammatory properties, and has been sold in Japan in topical form for adult acne. As with other NSAIDs, ibuprofen may be useful in the treatment of severe orthostatic hypotension (low blood pressure when standing up). NSAIDs are of unclear utility in the prevention and treatment of Alzheimer's disease.


title: Ibuprofen

text: Ibuprofen has been associated with a lower risk of Parkinson's disease and may delay or prevent it. Aspirin, other NSAIDs, and paracetamol (acetaminophen) had no effect on the risk for Parkinson's. In March 2011, researchers at Harvard Medical School announced in "Neurology" that ibuprofen had a neuroprotective effect against the risk of developing Parkinson's disease. People regularly consuming ibuprofen were reported to have a 38% lower risk of developing Parkinson's disease, but no such effect was found for other pain relievers, such as aspirin and paracetamol. Use of ibuprofen to lower the risk of Parkinson's disease in the general population would not be problem-free, given the possibility of adverse effects on the urinary and digestive systems.


title: Ibuprofen

text: Some dietary supplements might be dangerous to take along with ibuprofen and other NSAIDs, but more research needs to be conducted to be certain. These supplements include those that can prevent platelet aggregation, including ginkgo, garlic, ginger, bilberry, dong quai, feverfew, ginseng, turmeric, meadowsweet ("Filipendula ulmaria"), and willow ("Salix" spp.); those that contain coumarin, including chamomile, horse chestnut, fenugreek and red clover; and those that increase the risk of bleeding, like tamarind.


title: Georges St-Pierre

text: Georges St-Pierre (; born May 19, 1981) is a Canadian actor and former professional mixed martial artist. He is widely regarded as one of the greatest fighters in mixed martial arts (MMA) history. St-Pierre was a two-division champion in the Ultimate Fighting Championship (UFC), having won titles in the welterweight and middleweight divisions.


title: Georges St-Pierre

text: St-Pierre is a three-time former UFC Welterweight Champion, having won the title twice and the interim title once between November 2006 and April 2008. St-Pierre was ranked as the #1 welterweight in the world for several years by Sherdog and numerous other publications. In 2008, 2009 and 2010 he was named the Canadian Athlete of the Year by Rogers Sportsnet. Fight Matrix lists him as the top MMA welterweight of all time and most accomplished fighter in MMA history.


title: Georges St-Pierre

text: He retired as the reigning Welterweight Champion in December 2013, having held the record for most wins in title bouts and the second longest combined title streak in UFC history (2,204 days) while defending his title nine consecutive times. He returned to the Octagon in November 2017 at UFC 217, when he defeated Michael Bisping by submission to win the Middleweight title, thus becoming the fourth fighter in the history of the UFC to be a multi-division champion.


title: Georges St-Pierre

text: St-Pierre, a Québécois, was born in Saint-Isidore, Montérégie, Quebec, to Roland and Pauline St-Pierre on May 19, 1981. St-Pierre has two younger sisters. St-Pierre had a difficult childhood, attending a school where others would steal his clothes and money. As a child he played hockey, skated and participated in several sports. He began learning Kyokushin Karate at age seven to defend himself against a school bully. He took up wrestling, Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu and boxing after his Karate teacher died when he was around 16 years old. St-Pierre attended high school at École Pierre-Bédard where he held the school record for number of chin-ups done. After graduation he enrolled in kinesiology studies at Cégep Édouard-Montpetit. Before turning pro as a mixed martial artist, St-Pierre worked as a bouncer at a Montreal night club in the South Shore called Fuzzy Brossard and as a garbageman for six months to pay for his school fees. Already a 2nd dan Kyokushin karate black belt at age 12, his first professional fight was at age 20.


title: Georges St-Pierre

text: As a youth, St-Pierre was inspired by Jean-Claude Van Damme, and described fighting him in the film "" as "a dream come true".


title: Georges St-Pierre

text: St-Pierre has trained with a number of groups in a large variety of gyms throughout his fighting career. Prior to his fight with B.J. Penn at UFC 58, he trained at the Renzo Gracie Jiu-Jitsu Academy in New York City. St-Pierre received his brown belt in BJJ from Renzo Gracie on July 21, 2006. In September 2008, St-Pierre earned his black belt in Brazilian jiu-jitsu under Bruno Fernandes.


title: Georges St-Pierre

text: St-Pierre began training with Rashad Evans, Nathan Marquardt, Keith Jardine, Donald Cerrone and other mixed martial arts fighters at Greg Jackson's Submission Fighting Gaidojutsu school in New Mexico. Some of Jackson's students accompanied St-Pierre to Montreal to help prepare him for his fight at UFC 94 against B.J. Penn at the Tristar Gym, including Keith Jardine, Nathan Marquardt, Donald Cerrone, and Rashad Evans. Georges' strength and conditioning coach is Jonathan Chaimberg of Adrenaline Performance Centre in Montréal. Georges' Head Trainer is Firas Zahabi of Zahabi MMA, out of the Tristar gym. The two have cornered all of St-Pierre's most recent bouts and remain as his close friends. Between 2006 and 2009, St-Pierre trained in Muay Thai under Phil Nurse at the Wat in New York City.


title: Georges St-Pierre

text: St-Pierre made his Ultimate Fighting Championship (UFC) debut at UFC 46, where he defeated highly ranked Karo Parisyan by unanimous decision (29–28, 30–27, and 30–27). His next fight in the UFC was against Jay Hieron at UFC 48. St-Pierre defeated Hieron via technical knockout in only 1:42 of the first round.


title: Georges St-Pierre

text: Following his second win in the UFC, he faced Matt Hughes at UFC 50 for the vacant UFC Welterweight Championship. Despite a competitive performance against the much more experienced fighter, St-Pierre tapped out to an armbar with only 10 seconds remaining in the first round. The loss was the first of St-Pierre's career and he has since admitted that he was in awe of Hughes going into the title bout.


title: Georges St-Pierre

text: After his loss to Matt Hughes, St-Pierre rebounded with a win over Dave Strasser at TKO 19 by a first-round kimura submission. He then returned to the UFC to face Jason Miller at UFC 52, defeating Miller by unanimous decision (30–27, 30–27, and 30–27).


title: Georges St-Pierre

text: A month after UFC 52, St-Pierre decided to participate in the biggest grappling tournament in the world in the under 77 kg division. In his first fight participation in the ADCC Submission Wrestling World Championship he faced Otto Olson (Trials champion and ADCC 2003 silver medalist beating names like Daniel Moraes, in the Trials final and in the first fight of the ADCC tournament, Fernando Augusto and Cris Brown). St-Pierre won on points showing superiority in Wrestling.


title: Georges St-Pierre

text: In his second fight, St-Pierre faced Leonardo Silva Dos Santos: bronze (2000) and silver (2001) medalist of the World IBJJF Jiu-Jitsu Championship and was defeated in a flying armbar at 50 seconds into the fight.


title: Georges St-Pierre

text: St-Pierre was then matched up against top contender Frank Trigg at UFC 54. St-Pierre controlled the fight and eventually sneaked in a rear-naked choke with less than a minute remaining in the first round. He then faced future lightweight champion Sean Sherk at UFC 56. Midway through the second round, St-Pierre became the second fighter to defeat Sherk and the first to finish him. During the post-fight interview, he famously went down on his knees with an impassioned plea to UFC management to give him another title shot.


title: Georges St-Pierre

text: At UFC 58, St-Pierre defeated former UFC welterweight champion B.J. Penn to become the No. 1 contender for the UFC welterweight title. St-Pierre won the match by split decision and was set for a rematch against then-champion Matt Hughes at UFC 63. St-Pierre was forced to withdraw from the match, however, due to a groin injury and was replaced by the man he defeated in March, B.J. Penn. The UFC announced afterward that St-Pierre would have the opportunity to fight for the title when his condition was fully healed.


title: Georges St-Pierre

text: St-Pierre was seen as a trainer on "The Ultimate Fighter 4: The Comeback" on Spike TV, which featured fighters who were previously seen in UFC events including Matt Serra, Shonie Carter, Pete Sell, Patrick Côté, and Travis Lutter. St-Pierre was seen vocally supporting fellow Canadian and training partner Patrick Côté during the season's airing.


title: Georges St-Pierre

text: At UFC 63, St-Pierre made an appearance to support fellow Canadian David "The Crow" Loiseau. At that time he was seen pushing Loiseau to "fight his fight" against Mike Swick. At the same event, after Matt Hughes had defeated B.J. Penn, St-Pierre stepped into the cage to hype up his upcoming title fight against Hughes, stating that he was glad that Hughes won his fight, but that he was "not impressed" by Hughes' performance.


title: Georges St-Pierre

text: According to both commentator Joe Rogan and Hughes' own autobiography, Hughes was unhappy with St-Pierre's statement. Hughes said that they "had words" off-camera shortly after, at which time St-Pierre apologized, saying he had misunderstood something Hughes had said on the microphone and did not mean to offend him. St-Pierre challenged Matt Hughes again at UFC 65 for the UFC Welterweight Championship. The fight was almost stopped near the end of the first round when St-Pierre sent Hughes to the mat with a superman punch and left hook, but Hughes managed to survive the first round. In the second round, St-Pierre won the fight via technical knockout after a left kick to Hughes' head followed by a barrage of unanswered punches and elbows. After the fight, on January 30, 2007, St-Pierre signed a new six-fight deal with the UFC.


title: Georges St-Pierre

text: At UFC 69 in 2007, St-Pierre suffered only his second (and last, as of his official retirement in 2019) loss in MMA, when he lost the welterweight title to "The Ultimate Fighter 4" winner Matt Serra when Serra forced the referee to step in after a series of unanswered strikes at 3:25 of round one. Matt Serra was an 11–1 underdog going into the bout.


title: Georges St-Pierre

text: St-Pierre has said that he lost the match partially due to a lack of focus because of problems in his personal life, including the death of a close cousin and his father's serious illness, and later parted ways with his manager and most of his entourage. St-Pierre has since gone on to say that he should not have made any excuses and that Serra was simply the better fighter that night.


title: Georges St-Pierre

text: On August 25, 2007, at UFC 74, St-Pierre won a unanimous decision (30–27, 29–28, and 29–28) over Josh Koscheck. He outwrestled Koscheck, who is a four-time Division I NCAA All-American and an NCAA wrestling champion, by scoring takedowns, stopping Koscheck's takedown attempts and maintaining top position throughout most of the fight. Many predicted that Koscheck would outmatch St-Pierre on the ground due to his credentials, but St-Pierre was confident that he was a better wrestler and striker and was more well-versed in submissions than Koscheck.


title: Georges St-Pierre

text: Before and after the fight, St-Pierre stated his intention to reclaim his lost title, miming the act of placing a championship belt around his waist while still in the octagon. His win over Koscheck had placed him in the No. 1 contender spot for the UFC Welterweight Championship. That fight was to be against the winner of Matt Hughes and Matt Serra. Matt Serra had to pull out of UFC 79 due to a back injury sustained during training, and instead St-Pierre faced Hughes in a rubber match for the interim UFC Welterweight Championship. Hughes was unable to mount any serious offense against St-Pierre, who again showcased his wrestling skills by not only avoiding all of Hughes' takedown attempts but also taking Hughes down at will. In a reversal of their first fight, St-Pierre attempted a kimura on Hughes' right arm, then switched to a straight armbar with fifteen seconds left in the second round. Hughes fought the extension, but was forced to verbally submit at 4:55 of the second round, making St-Pierre the interim Welterweight Champion.


title: Georges St-Pierre

text: At UFC 83 on April 19, 2008, St-Pierre fought Matt Serra in a rematch to determine the undisputed UFC welterweight champion. It was the UFC's first event in Canada and was held at the Bell Centre in Montreal, Québec. Instead of starting with strikes, St-Pierre pressed the action early with a takedown and then mixed up his attack, which never allowed Serra the chance to mount a significant offense. In the second round, St-Pierre continued his previous actions and forced Serra into the turtle position and delivered several knees to Serra's midsection. Near the end of round two, the fight was stopped by referee Yves Lavigne with a visibly gassed Serra unable to defend himself from St-Pierre's continuous knee blows or improve his position.


title: Georges St-Pierre

text: St-Pierre's first title defense after regaining the belt was against Jon Fitch at UFC 87. Fitch was on a 16-fight winning streak and a victory against St-Pierre would have been Fitch's ninth consecutive UFC win, a new UFC record. St-Pierre defeated Jon Fitch by unanimous decision (50–43, 50–44, and 50–44), scoring multiple devastating strikes and taking the former Purdue wrestling captain down seemingly at will.


title: Georges St-Pierre

text: The win over Fitch set up one of the most anticipated rematches in UFC history. B.J. Penn entered the octagon after Fitch's loss and challenged St-Pierre to a rematch of their UFC 58 bout from 2006, which had ended in a split-decision victory for St-Pierre. The rematch took place on January 31, 2009, at UFC 94. The first round of the fight was nearly even, with both men exchanging punches and Penn exercising elusive head movement, fast hands, good takedown defense - thwarting all of St-Pierre's take-down attempts. In the ensuing three rounds, however, Penn put forth a lackluster performance. St-Pierre dominated the rest of the bout, scoring the first take-down of the night midway through the second round and from that point on, taking Penn down at will, repeatedly passing his guard, and persistently punishing the Hawaiian with a brutal ground-and-pound attack.


title: Georges St-Pierre

text: The fight ended after the fourth round when Penn's cornerman, Jason Parillo, requested that the referee stop the fight. Penn failed to attend the post-fight press conference due to hospitalization for injuries. Penn later admitted that he could not recall anything that happened during the 3rd and 4th rounds because "I was probably borderline knocked out or something." During the fight, Penn complained that St-Pierre was too slippery to hold, which led to suspicion about petroleum jelly being illegally applied to St-Pierre's back. The matter was formally investigated by the UFC and Nevada State Athletic Commission upon the request of the Penn camp. Dana White said it was unfortunate GSP's dominant win was overshadowed by the cornerman controversy. "Do I think that he got greased? Yeah, I do," White told "The Canadian Press" prior to the UFC 95 weigh-in Friday at the Dominion Theatre. "Absolutely, 100 percent, I think that that guy was rubbing grease on him. Do I think Georges was trying to cheat? Absolutely not at all, but that cornerman was rubbing grease on him; you cannot do that."


title: Georges St-Pierre

text: Prior to UFC 100, Beau Dure of "USA Today" stated that St-Pierre was possibly "the best in the world." At the event, St-Pierre defeated No. 1 contender Thiago Alves by unanimous decision (50–45, 50–44, and 50–45). Alves showed promise on his feet standing up in the fight, but St-Pierre's wrestling offensive, endurance, and ground control proved too much for the challenger and put St-Pierre en route to a unanimous decision victory, despite suffering a pulled groin muscle in the third round. While St-Pierre said in his post-fight interview that the injury was sustained in the third round, he later said on his blog that the injury in fact occurred in the fourth round. On July 18, 2009, it was revealed that St-Pierre's groin injury would not require surgery.


title: Georges St-Pierre

text: St-Pierre successfully defended his welterweight title against Dan Hardy on March 27, 2010, at UFC 111 which took place in Newark, New Jersey. St-Pierre dominated the fight with his wrestling. He caught Hardy in the first round with an armbar, but Hardy refused to tap and eventually fought out of the hold. In the fourth round St-Pierre caught Hardy in a kimura while in the reverse-mount position, but St-Pierre was again unable to finish Hardy before he was able to escape. St-Pierre went on to win the fight by unanimous decision (50–43, 50–44, and 50–45). After the fight, he stated that he was glad to win but was not impressed by his performance, stating that he wanted to finish the fight which fans agreed. St-Pierre received harsh criticism for stalling the fight against Hardy and not being able to finish him.


title: Georges St-Pierre

text: St-Pierre's next fight was a rematch against Josh Koscheck at UFC 124 where he won by unanimous decision (50–45, 50–45, and 50–45). St-Pierre once again dominated the fight, this time around by use of superior striking and accurate boxing. He landed a total of 55 jabs to Koscheck's head, with Joe Rogan stating that it was "the most jabs I've ever seen in an MMA fight." During the first round, Koscheck's right eye became very swollen from one of St-Pierre's jabs, and by the end of the fight, due to a broken orbital bone, his right eye was completely swollen shut. St-Pierre stated at the post-fight conference that his plan included catching Koscheck off-guard by striking with him rather than wrestling. Despite the eye injury, St-Pierre was unable to put Koscheck away.


title: Georges St-Pierre

text: UFC president Dana White stated that Jake Shields would be St-Pierre's next opponent and confirmed that the two would meet in the main event of UFC 129 on April 30, 2011, in Toronto. White suggested that if St-Pierre defeated Shields, it could mark a move to middleweight and a superfight against then UFC Middleweight Champion Anderson Silva. St-Pierre defeated Shields via unanimous decision (50–45, 48–47, and 48–47). When asked about fighting Silva during the post-fight interview, St-Pierre stated that he had no desire to pursue it.


title: Georges St-Pierre

text: St-Pierre received a 60-day medical suspension following his UFC 129 fight with Shields due to damage to his left eye. Two days after the fight, however, Firas Zahabi, St-Pierre's trainer, said that doctors had declared that his eye had not suffered any serious damage and that he would be able to resume training after 10 days.


title: Georges St-Pierre

text: At the UFC 129 post-fight press conference, UFC President Dana White stated that St-Pierre could next fight Strikeforce Welterweight champion Nick Diaz. "I've got to go talk him about boxing first, and then we'll see what happens there. It's an interesting fight," White said. "I was there live for that last fight and I was blown away by Nick Diaz's last fight. He looked incredible."


title: Georges St-Pierre

text: Dana White confirmed via Twitter that St-Pierre's next opponent would be Nick Diaz at UFC 137 at the Mandalay Bay Event Center in Las Vegas, Nevada. However, at the UFC 137 press conference, White announced that Carlos Condit would no longer face B.J. Penn and instead would replace Nick Diaz, who had failed to show up for any event related press appearances. Condit was to face St-Pierre for the UFC Welterweight Title at UFC 137. On October 18, 2011, it was announced that St-Pierre had pulled out of the fight due to a knee injury. After conferring with management and UFC officials, Condit elected not to compete against a replacement fighter at "UFC 137", but face St-Pierre in early 2012. In a strange turn of events, Nick Diaz fought and defeated B.J. Penn at UFC 137 and UFC officials decided to have St-Pierre return and fight Diaz at UFC 143. According to White, St-Pierre said "He's [Nick Diaz] the most disrespectful human being I've ever met and I'm going to put the worst beating you've ever seen on him in the UFC."


title: Georges St-Pierre

text: However, on December 7, 2011, it was revealed St-Pierre had sustained a torn right ACL, an injury which would force him to be out for up to ten months, forcing him out of the bout with Diaz. At UFC 143, in a fight for the UFC Interim Welterweight Championship, Diaz lost to Condit.


title: Georges St-Pierre

text: St-Pierre was set to return and fight Condit for the undisputed championship on November 17, 2012, at UFC 154. On August 28, 2012, St-Pierre posted to his official Facebook page that he had the green light from his medical team to compete once again. He ended his post by announcing that his return would be in UFC 154, in which he was to fight Carlos Condit.


title: Georges St-Pierre

text: St-Pierre once again successfully defended his welterweight title on November 17, 2012, at UFC 154 against Condit, winning a unanimous decision (49–46, 50–45, and 50–45). Despite being badly hurt in the third round by a headkick, St-Pierre was able to take and hold down Condit repeatedly during the bout, while defending multiple submission attempts and delivering multiple strikes from Condit's active guard. Both participants earned "Fight of the Night" honors for their performance.


title: Georges St-Pierre

text: Georges St-Pierre defended his title for the 8th time and defeated Nick Diaz at UFC 158 on March 16, 2013, by unanimous decision (50–45, 50–45, and 50–45). In preparation for the bout, GSP retained well-known boxer Lucian Bute as a sparring partner.


title: Georges St-Pierre

text: St-Pierre faced Johny Hendricks on November 16, 2013, in the main event at UFC 167. St-Pierre won the fight by controversial split decision (47–48, 48–47, and 48–47), a win which UFC president Dana White stated was unwarranted immediately after the fight. Additionally, each of the sixteen MMA journalists' scorecards collected on MMADecisions.com showed a win for Hendricks. In his post-fight interview, St-Pierre said he would step away from fighting 'for a little bit'.


title: Georges St-Pierre

text: St-Pierre officially announced on December 13, 2013, that he voluntarily vacated the title and needed to take some time off from MMA. He left the door open for a possible return to MMA in the future.


title: Georges St-Pierre

text: Via Twitter, St-Pierre announced on March 27, 2014, that he had torn his left ACL while training, further delaying a potential return to fighting. The torn left ACL would require surgery. He was medically cleared to resume training on October 17, 2014, but it remained unclear if he had plans to fight professionally again. In 2015, St-Pierre played a key role in Rory MacDonald's preparation for his rematch with Robbie Lawler at UFC 189.


title: Georges St-Pierre

text: St-Pierre announced on June 20, 2016, that he was re-negotiating his contract with the UFC with hopes of returning to the Octagon for December's UFC 206 in Toronto.


title: Georges St-Pierre

text: After months of negotiations, on February 15, 2017, St-Pierre and UFC reportedly agreed to financial terms of a multi-fight contract. The next day, UFC president Dana White confirmed St-Pierre had officially re-signed with the organization. In March 2017, St-Pierre revealed the contract was for four fights.


title: Georges St-Pierre

text: While on SportsCenter, Dana White confirmed that St-Pierre would make his return against UFC Middleweight Champion Michael Bisping sometime in 2017. On May 11, 2017, Dana White announced the fight had been canceled. The UFC and Bisping had wanted to have the fight at early July's UFC 213 but St-Pierre announced on his Instagram page that he had an eye injury and difficulty moving up a weight class would prevent him from fighting until November. During the post-fight conference at late July's UFC 214, Dana White stated the fight was back on. White had intended for St-Pierre to fight current UFC Welterweight Champion Tyron Woodley. However White was critical of Woodley's performance in his last two fights and with Robert Whittaker, Bisping's next intended opponent, medically suspended until January 2018, White decided to return to the original plan.


title: Georges St-Pierre

text: The pairing with Bisping took place in the main event of UFC 217 on November 4, 2017, nearly four years since UFC 167, when GSP last fought. St-Pierre defeated Bisping via technical submission in the third round to become the Middleweight Champion and the fourth person in UFC history to become a champion in multiple divisions. This win earned St-Pierre his first Performance of the Night bonus award.  St-Pierre's return to the octagon set the record for the Canadian pay-per-view market, surpassing the Floyd Mayweather vs. Conor McGregor boxing match from August 2017. St-Pierre's win earned him the praise of Canadian Prime Minister Justin Trudeau.


title: Georges St-Pierre

text: On December 7, 2017, St-Pierre announced that he was vacating his UFC middleweight title after 34 days of holding the belt. Suffering from ulcerative colitis, St-Pierre wanted to avoid holding up the middleweight division.


title: Georges St-Pierre

text: After his win at UFC 223, UFC Lightweight Champion Khabib Nurmagomedov called out St-Pierre as his first title defense later in the year. St-Pierre declined, stating again that he was not medically fit to compete. In June, it was leaked that the UFC was attempting to book St-Pierre against Nate Diaz as the co-main event at UFC 227. St-Pierre confirmed he had been approached but declined by saying a match-up against Diaz did not interest him. In August, St-Pierre announced he was looking to return at the end of the year and was interested in dropping down to lightweight and fighting the winner of Khabib Nurmagomedov and Conor McGregor. Dana White said St-Pierre would not be fighting the winner of Nurmagomedov vs McGregor and White would request St-Pierre remain at welterweight.


title: Georges St-Pierre

text: On December 13, 2018, St-Pierre revealed on La Sueur podcast that he had recovered completely from ulcerative colitis, but had not yet decided whether or not he would return to fighting.


title: Georges St-Pierre

text: St-Pierre announced his official retirement on February 21, 2019, at a press conference at the Bell Centre in Montreal.


title: Georges St-Pierre

text: On May 9, 2020, UFC announced St-Pierre will be inducted into the Modern-Era Wing of the UFC Hall of Fame.


title: Georges St-Pierre

text: On 9 June 2021, Saint-Isidore honoured St-Pierre with the unveiling of a life-sized 136 kg bronze statue of himself, complete with a biography entitled “Place GSP”. The statue sits in an octagon representing the UFC cage with St-Pierre's eight core values engraved in French on the octagon floor: family, perseverance, wisdom, integrity, generosity, respect, creativity and honour.


title: Georges St-Pierre

text: He has founded a charity, the GSP Foundation, that aims to reduce bullying and encourage youth participation in sports.


title: Rudy Giuliani

text: Rudolph William Louis Giuliani (, ; born May 28, 1944) is an American politician and lawyer who served as the 107th Mayor of New York City from 1994 to 2001. He previously served as the United States Associate Attorney General from 1981 to 1983 and the United States Attorney for the Southern District of New York from 1983 to 1989.


title: Rudy Giuliani

text: Giuliani led the 1980s federal prosecution of New York City mafia bosses as U.S. Attorney for the Southern District of New York. After a failed campaign for Mayor of New York City in the 1989 election, he succeeded in 1993, and was reelected in 1997, campaigning on a "tough on crime" platform. He led New York's controversial "civic cleanup" as its mayor from 1994 to 2001. Mayor Giuliani appointed an outsider, William Bratton, as New York City's new police commissioner. Reforming the police department's administration and policing practices, they applied the broken windows theory, which cites social disorder, like disrepair and vandalism, for attracting loitering addicts, panhandlers, and prostitutes, followed by serious and violent criminals. For example, Giuliani removed panhandlers and sex clubs from Times Square. As crime rates fell steeply, well ahead of the national average pace, Giuliani was widely credited, though later critics cite other contributing factors. In 2000, he ran against First Lady Hillary Clinton for a US Senate seat from New York, but left the race once diagnosed with prostate cancer. For his mayoral leadership after the September11 attacks in 2001, he was called "America's mayor". He was named "Time" magazine's Person of the Year for 2001 and was given an honorary knighthood in 2002 by Queen Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom.


title: Rudy Giuliani

text: In 2002, Giuliani founded a security consulting business, Giuliani Partners, and acquired, but later sold, an investment banking firm, Giuliani Capital Advisors. In 2005, he joined a law firm, renamed Bracewell & Giuliani. Vying for the Republican Party's 2008 presidential nomination, Giuliani was an early frontrunner yet did poorly in the primary election; he later withdrew and endorsed the party's subsequent nominee, John McCain. Declining to run for New York governor in 2010 and for the Republican presidential nomination in 2012, Giuliani focused on the activities of his business firms. In addition, he has often been engaged for public speaking, political commentary, and Republican campaign support.


title: Rudy Giuliani

text: Giuliani joined President Donald Trump's personal legal team in April 2018. His activities as Trump's attorney have drawn renewed media scrutiny, in particular due to allegations that he engaged in corruption and profiteering and his promotion of conspiracy theories, most notably about the 2018 and 2020 elections. In late 2019, Giuliani was reportedly under federal investigation for violating lobbying laws, and possibly several other charges, as a central figure in the Trump–Ukraine scandal, which resulted in Trump's first impeachment. Following the 2020 presidential election, he represented Trump in many lawsuits filed in attempts to overturn the election results, making false and debunked allegations about rigged voting machines, polling place fraud, and an international communist conspiracy. Giuliani spoke at the rally preceding the January 6 United States Capitol attack where he made false claims of voter fraud and called for "trial by combat". As a consequence, his license to practice law was suspended in New York State in June 2021 and in the District of Columbia in July 2021.


title: Rudy Giuliani

text: Giuliani was born in 1944 in the East Flatbush section during the time it was an Italian-American enclave in New York City's borough of Brooklyn, the only child of working-class parents Helen (née D'Avanzo; 1909–2002) and Harold Angelo Giuliani (1908–1981), both children of Italian immigrants. Giuliani is of Tuscan descent on his father's side, as his paternal grandparents (Rodolfo and Evangelina Giuliani) were born in Montecatini Terme, Tuscany, Italy. He was raised a Roman Catholic. Harold Giuliani, a plumber and a bartender, had trouble holding a job, was convicted of felony assault and robbery, and served prison time in Sing Sing. Once released, he worked as an enforcer for his brother-in-law Leo D'Avanzo, who operated an organized crime-affiliated loan sharking and gambling ring at a restaurant in Brooklyn. The couple lived in East Flatbush until Harold died of prostate cancer in 1981, whereupon Helen moved to Manhattan's Upper East Side.


title: Rudy Giuliani

text: When Giuliani was seven years old in 1951, his family moved from Brooklyn to Garden City South, where he attended the local Catholic school, St. Anne's. Later, he commuted back to Brooklyn to attend Bishop Loughlin Memorial High School, graduating in 1961.


title: Rudy Giuliani

text: Giuliani attended Manhattan College in Riverdale, Bronx, where he majored in political science with a minor in philosophy and considered becoming a priest.


title: Rudy Giuliani

text: Giuliani was elected president of his class in his sophomore year, but was not re-elected in his junior year. He joined the Phi Rho Pi college forensic fraternity and honor society. He graduated in 1965. Giuliani decided to forgo the priesthood and instead attended the New York University School of Law in Manhattan, where he was a member of the "NYU Law Review" and graduated "cum laude" with a Juris Doctor degree in 1968.


title: Rudy Giuliani

text: Giuliani started his political life as a Democrat. He volunteered for Robert F. Kennedy's presidential campaign in 1968. He also worked as a Democratic Party committeeman on Long Island in the mid-1960s and voted for George McGovern for president in 1972.


title: Rudy Giuliani

text: Upon graduation from law school, Giuliani clerked for Judge Lloyd Francis MacMahon, United States District Judge for the Southern District of New York.


title: Rudy Giuliani

text: Giuliani did not serve in the military during the Vietnam War. His conscription was deferred while he was enrolled at Manhattan College and NYU Law. Upon graduation from the latter in 1968, he was classified 1-A (available for military service), but in 1969 he was reclassified 2-A (essential civilian) as Judge MacMahon's law clerk. In 1970, Giuliani was reclassified 1-A but received a high 308 draft lottery number and was not called up for service.


title: Rudy Giuliani

text: Giuliani switched his party registration from Democratic to Independent in 1975. This occurred during a period of time in which he was recruited for a position in Washington, D.C., with the Ford administration: Giuliani served as the associate deputy attorney general and chief of staff to Deputy Attorney General Harold "Ace" Tyler.


title: Rudy Giuliani

text: His first high-profile prosecution was of Democratic U.S. Representative Bertram L. Podell (NY-13), who was convicted of corruption. Podell pleaded guilty to conspiracy and conflict of interest for accepting more than $41,000 in campaign contributions and legal fees from a Florida airline to obtain federal rights for a Bahama route. Podell, who maintained a legal practice while serving in Congress, said the payments were legitimate legal fees. The "Washington Post" later reported: "The trial catapulted future New York mayor Rudolph Giuliani to front-page status when, as assistant U.S. attorney, he relentlessly cross-examined an initially calm Rep. Podell. The congressman reportedly grew more flustered and eventually decided to plead guilty."


title: Rudy Giuliani

text: From 1977 to 1981, during the Carter administration, Giuliani practiced law at the Patterson, Belknap, Webb and Tyler law firm, as chief of staff to his former boss, Ace Tyler. In later years, Tyler became "disillusioned" by what Tyler described as Giuliani's time as US Attorney, criticizing several of his prosecutions as "overkill".


title: Rudy Giuliani

text: On December 8, 1980, one month after the election of Ronald Reagan brought Republicans back to power in Washington, he switched his party affiliation from Independent to Republican. Giuliani later said the switches were because he found Democratic policies "naïve", and that "by the time I moved to Washington, the Republicans had come to make more sense to me." Others suggested that the switches were made in order to get positions in the Justice Department. Giuliani's mother maintained in 1988 that he "only became a Republican after he began to get all these jobs from them. He's definitely not a conservative Republican. He thinks he is, but he isn't. He still feels very sorry for the poor."


title: Rudy Giuliani

text: In 1981, Giuliani was named associate attorney general in the Reagan administration, the third-highest position in the Department of Justice. As Associate Attorney General, Giuliani supervised the U.S. Attorney Offices' federal law enforcement agencies, the Department of Corrections, the Drug Enforcement Administration, and the United States Marshals Service. In a well-publicized 1982 case, Giuliani testified in defense of the federal government's "detention posture" regarding the internment of more than 2,000 Haitian asylum seekers who had entered the country illegally. The U.S. government disputed the assertion that most of the detainees had fled their country due to political persecution, alleging instead that they were "economic migrants". In defense of the government's position, Giuliani testified that "political repression, at least in general, does not exist" under President of Haiti Jean-Claude Duvalier's regime.


title: Rudy Giuliani

text: In 1983, Giuliani was appointed to be U.S. Attorney for the Southern District of New York, which was technically a demotion but was sought by Giuliani because of his desire to personally litigate cases and because the SDNY is considered the highest-profile United States Attorney's Office in the country and as such is often used by those who have held the position as a springboard for running for public office. It was in this position that he first gained national prominence by prosecuting numerous high-profile cases, resulting in the convictions of Wall Street figures Ivan Boesky and Michael Milken. He also focused on prosecuting drug dealers, organized crime, and corruption in government. He amassed a record of 4,152 convictions and 25 reversals. As a federal prosecutor, Giuliani was credited with bringing the perp walk, parading of suspects in front of the previously alerted media, into common use as a prosecutorial tool. After Giuliani "patented the perp walk", the tool was used by increasing numbers of prosecutors nationwide.


title: Rudy Giuliani

text: Giuliani's critics said that he arranged for people to be arrested but then dropped charges for lack of evidence on high-profile cases rather than going to trial. In a few cases, his arrests of alleged white-collar criminals at their workplaces with charges later dropped or lessened sparked controversy and damaged the reputations of the alleged "perps". He said veteran stock trader Richard Wigton, of Kidder, Peabody & Co., was guilty of insider trading; in February 1987 he had officers handcuff Wigton and march him through the company's trading floor, with Wigton in tears. Giuliani had his agents arrest Tim Tabor, a young arbitrageur and former colleague of Wigton, so late that he had to stay overnight in jail before posting bond.


title: Rudy Giuliani

text: Within three months, charges were dropped against both Wigton and Tabor; Giuliani said, "We're not going to go to trial. We're just the tip of the iceberg," but no further charges were forthcoming and the investigation did not end until Giuliani's successor was in place. Giuliani's high-profile raid of the Princeton/Newport firm ended with the defendants having their cases overturned on appeal on the grounds that what they had been convicted of were not crimes.


title: Rudy Giuliani

text: In the Mafia Commission Trial, which ran from February 25, 1985, through November 19, 1986, Giuliani indicted eleven organized crime figures, including the heads of New York City's so-called "Five Families", under the Racketeer Influenced and Corrupt Organizations Act (RICO) on charges including extortion, labor racketeering, and murder for hire. "Time" magazine called this "case of cases" possibly "the most significant assault on the infrastructure of organized crime since the high command of the Chicago Mafia was swept away in 1943", and quoted Giuliani's stated intention: "Our approach is to wipe out the five families." Gambino crime family boss Paul Castellano evaded conviction when he and his underboss Thomas Bilotti were murdered on the streets of midtown Manhattan on December 16, 1985. However, three heads of the Five Families were sentenced to 100 years in prison on January 13, 1987. Genovese and Colombo leaders, Tony Salerno and Carmine Persico received additional sentences in separate trials, with 70-year and 39-year sentences to run consecutively. He was assisted by three Assistant United States Attorneys: Michael Chertoff, the eventual second United States Secretary of Homeland Security and co-author of the Patriot Act; John Savarese, now a partner at Wachtell Lipton Rosen & Katz; and Gil Childers, a later deputy chief of the criminal division for the Southern District of New York and now managing director in the legal department at Goldman Sachs.


title: Rudy Giuliani

text: According to an FBI memo revealed in 2007, leaders of the Five Families voted in late 1986 on whether to issue a contract for Giuliani's death. Heads of the Lucchese, Bonanno, and Genovese families rejected the idea, though Colombo and Gambino leaders, Carmine Persico and John Gotti, encouraged assassination. In 2014, it was revealed by former Sicilian Mafia member and informant Rosario Naimo that Salvatore Riina, a notorious Sicilian Mafia leader, had ordered a murder contract on Giuliani during the mid 1980s. Riina allegedly was suspicious of Giuliani's efforts prosecuting the American Mafia and was worried that he might have spoken with Italian anti-Mafia prosecutors and politicians, including Giovanni Falcone and Paolo Borsellino, who were both murdered in 1992 in separate car bombings. According to Giuliani, the Sicilian Mafia offered $800,000 for his death during his first year as mayor of New York in 1994.


title: Rudy Giuliani

text: Ivan Boesky, a Wall Street arbitrageur who had amassed a fortune of about $200million by betting on corporate takeovers, was originally investigated by the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) for making investments based on tips received from corporate insiders, leading the way for the US Attorney's Office of the Southern District of New York to investigate as well. These stock and options acquisitions were sometimes brazen, with massive purchases occurring only a few days before a corporation announced a takeover. Although insider trading of this kind was illegal, laws prohibiting it were rarely enforced until Boesky was prosecuted. Boesky cooperated with the SEC and informed on several others, including junk bond trader Michael Milken. Per agreement with Giuliani, Boesky received a -year prison sentence along with a $100million fine. In 1989, Giuliani charged Milken under the RICO Act with 98 counts of racketeering and fraud. In a highly publicized case, Milken was indicted by a grand jury on these charges.


title: Rudy Giuliani

text: In June 2021 Giuliani had his license to practice law suspended in the state of New York, pending an investigation related to the disputed 2020 presidential election.


title: Rudy Giuliani

text: Giuliani was U.S. Attorney until January 1989, resigning as the Reagan administration ended. He garnered criticism until he left office for his handling of cases and was accused of prosecuting cases to further his political ambitions. He joined the law firm White & Case in New York City as a partner. He remained with White & Case until May 1990, when he joined the law firm Anderson Kill Olick & Oshinsky, also in New York City.


title: Rudy Giuliani

text: Giuliani first ran for New York City mayor in 1989, when he attempted to unseat three-term incumbent Ed Koch. He won the September 1989 Republican Party primary election against business magnate Ronald Lauder in a campaign marked by claims that Giuliani was not a true Republican after an acrimonious debate between the two men. In the Democratic primary, Koch was upset by Manhattan Borough president David Dinkins.


title: Rudy Giuliani

text: In the general election, Giuliani ran as the fusion candidate of both the Republican and the Liberal parties. The Conservative Party, which had often co-lined the Republican party candidate, withheld support from Giuliani and ran Lauder instead. Conservative Party leaders were unhappy with Giuliani on ideological grounds. They cited the Liberal Party's endorsement statement that Giuliani "agreed with the Liberal Party's views on affirmative action, gay rights, gun control, school prayer, and tuition tax credits".


title: Rudy Giuliani

text: During two televised debates, Giuliani framed himself as an agent of change, saying, "I'm the reformer," that "If we keep going merrily along, this city's going down," and that electing Dinkins would represent "more of the same, more of the rotten politics that have been dragging us down". Giuliani pointed out that Dinkins had not filed a tax return for many years and several other ethical missteps, in particular a stock transfer to his son. Dinkins filed several years of returns and said the tax matter had been fully paid off. He denied other wrongdoing, saying that "what we need is a mayor, not a prosecutor" and that Giuliani refused to say "the R-wordhe doesn't like to admit he's a Republican". Dinkins won the endorsements of three of the four daily New York newspapers, while Giuliani won approval from the "New York Post".


title: Rudy Giuliani

text: In the end, Giuliani lost to Dinkins by a margin of 47,080 votes out of 1,899,845 votes cast, in the closest election in New York City's history. The closeness of the race was particularly noteworthy, considering the small percentage of New York City residents who are registered Republicans, and it resulted in Giuliani being the presumptive nominee for a rematch with Dinkins at the next election.


title: Rudy Giuliani

text: Four years after his defeat to Dinkins, Giuliani again ran for mayor. Once again, Giuliani also ran on the Liberal Party line but not the Conservative Party line, which ran activist George Marlin.


title: Rudy Giuliani

text: Although crime had begun to fall during the Dinkins administration, Giuliani's campaign capitalized on the perception that crime was uncontrolled in the city following events such as the Crown Heights riot and the Family Red Apple boycott. The year prior to the election, Giuliani was a key speaker at a Patrolmen's Benevolent Association rally opposing Dinkins, in which Giuliani blamed the police department's low morale on Dinkins' leadership. The rally quickly devolved into a riot, with nearly 4,000 off-duty police officers storming the City Hall and blocking traffic on the Brooklyn Bridge.


title: Rudy Giuliani

text: In his pitch to lower crime rates in the city, Giuliani promised to focus police resources toward shutting down petty crimes and nuisances as a way of restoring the quality of life:


title: Rudy Giuliani

text: Dinkins and Giuliani never debated during the campaign, because they were never able to agree on how to approach a debate. Dinkins was endorsed by "The New York Times" and "Newsday", while Giuliani was endorsed by the "New York Post" and, in a key switch from 1989, the "Daily News". Giuliani went to visit the Lubavitcher Rebbe, Rabbi Menachem Mendel Schneerson, seeking his blessing and endorsement.


title: Rudy Giuliani

text: On election day, Giuliani's campaign hired off-duty cops, firefighters, and corrections officers to monitor polling places in Manhattan, Brooklyn, and The Bronx for cases of voter fraud. Despite objections from the Dinkins campaign, who said that the effort would intimidate Democratic voters, Police Commissioner Ray Kelly assigned an additional 52 police captains and 3,500 officers to monitor the city's polling places.


title: Rudy Giuliani

text: Giuliani won by a margin of 53,367 votes. He became the first Republican elected mayor of New York City since John Lindsay in 1965. Similar to the election four years prior, Giuliani performed particularly well in the white ethnic neighborhoods in Brooklyn, Queens, and Staten Island. Giuliani saw especially high returns in the borough of Staten Island, as a referendum to consider allowing the borough to secede from New York City was on the ballot.


title: Rudy Giuliani

text: Giuliani's opponent in 1997 was Democratic Manhattan Borough president Ruth Messinger, who had beaten Al Sharpton in the September 9, 1997, Democratic primary. In the general election, Giuliani once again had the Liberal Party and not the Conservative Party listing. Giuliani ran an aggressive campaign, parlaying his image as a tough leader who had cleaned up the city. Giuliani's popularity was at its highest point to date, with a late October 1997 Quinnipiac University Polling Institute poll showing him as having a 68 percent approval rating; 70 percent of New Yorkers were satisfied with life in the city and 64 percent said things were better in the city compared to four years previously.


title: Rudy Giuliani

text: Throughout the campaign he was well ahead in the polls and had a strong fund-raising advantage over Messinger. On her part, Messinger lost the support of several usually Democratic constituencies, including gay organizations and large labor unions. The local daily newspapers"The New York Times", "Daily News", "New York Post" and "Newsday"all endorsed Giuliani over Messinger.


title: Rudy Giuliani

text: In the end, Giuliani won 58% of the vote to Messinger's 41%, becoming the first registered Republican to win a second term as mayor while on the Republican line since Fiorello H. La Guardia in 1941. Voter turnout was the lowest in twelve years, with 38% of registered voters casting ballots. The margin of victory included gains in his share of the African American vote (20% compared to 1993's 5%) and the Hispanic vote (43% from 37%) while maintaining his base of white ethnic and Catholic and Jewish voters from 1993.


title: Rudy Giuliani

text: In Giuliani's first term as mayor, the New York City Police Departmentat the instigation of Commissioner Bill Brattonadopted an aggressive enforcement/deterrent strategy based on James Q. Wilson's "Broken Windows" approach. This involved crackdowns on relatively minor offenses such as graffiti, turnstile jumping, cannabis possession, and aggressive panhandling by "squeegee men", on the theory that this would send a message that order would be maintained. The legal underpinning for removing the "squeegee men" from the streets was developed under Giuliani's predecessor, Mayor David Dinkins. Bratton, with Deputy Commissioner Jack Maple, also created and instituted CompStat, a computer-driven comparative statistical approach to mapping crime geographically and in terms of emerging criminal patterns, as well as charting officer performance by quantifying criminal apprehensions. Critics of the system assert that it creates an environment in which police officials are encouraged to underreport or otherwise manipulate crime data. An extensive study found a high correlation between crime rates reported by the police through CompStat and rates of crime available from other sources, suggesting there had been no manipulation. The CompStat initiative won the 1996 Innovations in Government Award from Harvard Kennedy School.


title: Rudy Giuliani

text: During Giuliani's administration, crime rates dropped in New York City. The extent to which Giuliani deserves the credit is disputed. Crime rates in New York City had started to drop in 1991 under previous mayor David Dinkins, three years before Giuliani took office. The rates of most crimes, including all categories of violent crime, made consecutive declines during the last 36 months of Dinkins' four-year term, ending a 30-year upward spiral. A small nationwide drop in crime preceded Giuliani's election, and some critics say he may have been the beneficiary of a trend already in progress. Additional contributing factors to the overall decline in New York City crime during the 1990s were the addition of 7,000 officers to the NYPD, lobbied for and hired by the Dinkins administration, and an overall improvement in the national economy. Changing demographics were a key factor contributing to crime rate reductions, which were similar across the country during this time. Because the crime index is based on that of the FBI, which is self-reported by police departments, some have alleged that crimes were shifted into categories the FBI does not collect.


title: Rudy Giuliani

text: Some studies conclude that the decline in New York City's crime rate in the 1990s and 2000s exceeds all national figures and therefore should be linked with a local dynamic that was not present as such anywhere else in the country: what University of California, Berkeley sociologist Frank Zimring calls "the most focused form of policing in history". In his book "The Great American Crime Decline", Zimring argues that "up to half of New York's crime drop in the 1990s, and virtually 100 percent of its continuing crime decline since 2000, has resulted from policing."


title: Rudy Giuliani

text: Bratton was featured on the cover of "Time" magazine in 1996. Giuliani reportedly forced Bratton out after two years, in what was seen as a battle of two large egos in which Giuliani was not tolerant of Bratton's celebrity. Bratton went on to become chief of the Los Angeles Police Department. Giuliani's term also saw allegations of civil rights abuses and other police misconduct under other commissioners after Bratton's departure. There were police shootings of unarmed suspects, and the scandals surrounding the torture of Abner Louima and the killings of Amadou Diallo, Gidone Busch and Patrick Dorismond. Giuliani supported the New York City Police Department, by releasing, for example, what he called Dorismond's "extensive criminal record" to the public, including a sealed juvenile file.


title: Rudy Giuliani

text: The Giuliani administration advocated the privatization of the city's public schools, which he called "dysfunctional", and the reduction of state funding for them. He advocated a voucher-based system to promote private schooling. Giuliani supported protection for illegal immigrants. He continued a policy of preventing city employees from contacting the Immigration and Naturalization Service about immigration violations, on the grounds that illegal aliens should be able to take actions such as sending their children to school or reporting crimes to the police without fear of deportation.


title: Rudy Giuliani

text: During his mayoralty, gay and lesbian New Yorkers received domestic partnership rights. Giuliani induced the city's Democratic-controlled New York City Council, which had avoided the issue for years, to pass legislation providing broad protection for same-sex partners. In 1998, he codified local law by granting all city employees equal benefits for their domestic partners.


title: Rudy Giuliani

text: With term limits, Giuliani was ineligible to run in 2001 for a third term as mayor. In November 1998, four-term incumbent Democratic U.S. Senator Daniel Patrick Moynihan announced his retirement and Giuliani immediately indicated an interest in running in the 2000 election for the now-open seat. Because of his high profile and visibility, Giuliani was supported by the state Republican Party. Giuliani's entrance led Democratic Congressman Charles Rangel and others to recruit then-First Lady Hillary Clinton to run for Moynihan's seat, hoping she might combat his star power.


title: Rudy Giuliani

text: An early January 1999 poll showed Giuliani trailing Clinton by ten points. In April 1999, Giuliani formed an exploratory committee in connection with the Senate run. By January 2000, polling for the race dramatically reversed, with Giuliani now pulling nine points ahead of Clinton, in part because his campaign was able to take advantage of several campaign stumbles by Clinton. Nevertheless, the Giuliani campaign was showing some structural weaknesses: closely identified with New York City, he had somewhat limited appeal to normally Republican voters in upstate New York. The New York Police Department's fatal shooting of Patrick Dorismond in March 2000 inflamed Giuliani's already strained relations with the city's minority communities, and Clinton seized on it as a major campaign issue. By April 2000, reports showed Clinton gaining upstate and generally outworking Giuliani, who said his duties as mayor prevented him from campaigning more. Clinton was now eight to ten points ahead of Giuliani in the polls.


title: Rudy Giuliani

text: Then followed four tumultuous weeks in which Giuliani learned he had prostate cancer and needed treatment; his extramarital relationship with Judith Nathan became public and the subject of a media frenzy; and he announced a separation from his wife Donna Hanover. After much indecision, on May 19, Giuliani announced his withdrawal from the Senate race.


title: Rudy Giuliani

text: Giuliani received nationwide attention in the aftermath of the September11 attacks. He made frequent appearances on radio and television on September11 and afterwardsfor example, to indicate that tunnels would be closed as a precautionary measure, and that there was no reason to believe the dispersion of chemical or biological weaponry into the air was a factor in the attack. In his public statements, Giuliani said:


title: Rudy Giuliani

text: The 9/11 attacks occurred on the scheduled date of the mayoral primary to select the Democratic and Republican candidates to succeed Giuliani. The primary was immediately delayed two weeks to September 25. During this period, Giuliani sought an unprecedented three-month emergency extension of his term from January1 to April1 under the New York State Constitution (Article3 Section 25). In October 2000, he had considered supporting city council efforts to remove their own term limits, though was not in favor of ending consecutive mayoral term limits. In the end, leaders in the State Assembly and Senate indicated that they did not believe the extension was necessary. The election proceeded as scheduled, and the winning candidate, the Giuliani-endorsed Republican convert Michael Bloomberg, took office on January 1, 2002, per normal custom.


title: Rudy Giuliani

text: Giuliani said he had been at the Ground Zero site "as often, if not more, than most workers... I was there working with them. I was exposed to exactly the same things they were exposed to. So in that sense, I'm one of them." Some 9/11 workers have objected to those claims. While his appointment logs were unavailable for the six days immediately following the attacks, Giuliani logged 29 hours at the site over three months beginning September 17. This contrasted with recovery workers at the site who spent this much time at the site in two to three days.


title: Rudy Giuliani

text: When Saudi Prince Alwaleed bin Talal suggested the attacks were an indication that the United States "should re-examine its policies in the Middle East and adopt a more balanced stand toward the Palestinian cause," Giuliani asserted, "There is no moral equivalent for this act. There is no justification for it... And one of the reasons I think this happened is because people were engaged in moral equivalency in not understanding the difference between liberal democracies like the United States, like Israel, and terrorist states and those who condone terrorism. So I think not only are those statements wrong, they're part of the problem." Giuliani subsequently rejected the prince's $10million donation to disaster relief in the aftermath of the attack.


title: Rudy Giuliani

text: Giuliani has been widely criticized for his decision to locate the Office of Emergency Management headquarters on the 23rd floor inside the 7 World Trade Center building. Those opposing the decision perceived the office as a target for a terrorist attack in light of the previous terrorist attack against the World Trade Center in 1993. The office was unable to coordinate efforts between police and firefighters properly while evacuating its headquarters. Large tanks of diesel fuel were placed in 7World Trade to power the command center. In May 1997, Giuliani put responsibility for selecting the location on Jerome M. Hauer, who had served under Giuliani from 1996 to 2000 before being appointed by him as New York City's first director of emergency management. Hauer has taken exception to that account in interviews and provided Fox News and "New York Magazine" with a memo demonstrating that he recommended a location in Brooklyn but was overruled by Giuliani. Television journalist Chris Wallace interviewed Giuliani on May 13, 2007, about his 1997 decision to locate the command center at the World Trade Center. Giuliani laughed during Wallace's questions and said that Hauer recommended the World Trade Center site and that Hauer said the WTC site was the best location. Wallace presented Giuliani a photocopy of Hauer's directive letter. The letter urged Giuliani to locate the command center in Brooklyn, instead of lower Manhattan. The February 1996 memo read, "The [Brooklyn] building is secure and not as visible a target as buildings in Lower Manhattan."


title: Rudy Giuliani

text: In January 2008, an eight-page memo was revealed which detailed the New York City Police Department's opposition in 1998 to location of the city's emergency command center at the Trade Center site. The Giuliani administration overrode these concerns.


title: Rudy Giuliani

text: The 9/11 Commission Report noted that lack of preparedness could have led to the deaths of first responders at the scene of the attacks. The commission noted that the radios in use by the fire department were the same radios which had been criticized for their ineffectiveness following the 1993 World Trade Center bombings. Family members of 9/11 victims have said these radios were a complaint of emergency services responders for years. The radios were not working when Fire Department chiefs ordered the 343 firefighters inside the towers to evacuate, and they remained in the towers as the towers collapsed. However, when Giuliani testified before the 9/11 Commission he said the firefighters ignored the evacuation order out of an effort to save lives. Giuliani testified to the commission, where some family members of responders who had died in the attacks appeared to protest his statements. A 1994 mayoral office study of the radios indicated that they were faulty. Replacement radios were purchased in a $33million no-bid contract with Motorola, and implemented in early 2001. However, the radios were recalled in March 2001 after a probationary firefighter's calls for help at a house fire could not be picked up by others at the scene, leaving firemen with the old analog radios from 1993. A book later published by Commission members Thomas Kean and Lee H. Hamilton, "Without Precedent: The Inside Story of the 9/11 Commission", argued that the commission had not pursued a tough enough line of questioning with Giuliani.


title: Rudy Giuliani

text: An October 2001 study by the National Institute of Environmental Safety and Health said cleanup workers lacked adequate protective gear.


title: Rudy Giuliani

text: Giuliani gained international attention in the wake of the attacks and was widely hailed for his leadership role during the crisis. Polls taken just six weeks after the attack showed a 79 percent approval rating among New York City voters. This was a dramatic increase over the 36 percent rating he had received a year earlier, which was an average at the end of a two-term mayorship. Oprah Winfrey called him "America's Mayor" at a 9/11 memorial service held at Yankee Stadium on September 23, 2001. Other voices denied it was the mayor who had pulled the city together. "You didn't bring us together, our pain brought us together and our decency brought us together. We would have come together if Bozo was the mayor," said civil rights activist Al Sharpton, in a statement largely supported by Fernando Ferrer, one of three main candidates for the mayoralty at the end of 2001. "He was a power-hungry person," Sharpton also said.