title: Joseph Smith

text: In late 1837, a series of internal disputes led to the collapse of the Kirtland Mormon community. Smith was blamed for having promoted a church-sponsored bank that failed. He was also being accused by Assistant President of the Church Oliver Cowdery of engaging in a sexual relationship with a teenage servant in his home, Fanny Alger. Building the temple had left the church deeply in debt, and Smith was hounded by creditors. Having heard of a large sum of money supposedly hidden in Salem, Massachusetts, Smith traveled there and announced a revelation that God had "much treasure in this city". After a month, however, he returned to Kirtland empty-handed.


title: Joseph Smith

text: In January 1837, Smith and other church leaders created a joint stock company, called the Kirtland Safety Society Anti-Banking Company, to act as a quasi-bank; the company issued bank notes capitalized in part by real estate. Smith encouraged the Latter Day Saints to buy the notes, and he invested heavily in them himself, but the bank failed within a month. As a result, the Latter Day Saints in Kirtland suffered intense pressure from debt collectors and severe price volatility. Smith was held responsible for the failure, and there were widespread defections from the church, including many of Smith's closest advisers. After a warrant was issued for Smith's arrest on a charge of banking fraud, Smith and Rigdon fled Kirtland for Missouri in January 1838.


title: Joseph Smith

text: By 1838, Smith had abandoned plans to redeem Zion in Jackson County, and after Smith and Rigdon arrived in Missouri, the town of Far West became the new "Zion". In Missouri, the church also took the name "Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints", and construction began on a new temple. In the weeks and months after Smith and Rigdon arrived at Far West, thousands of Latter Day Saints followed them from Kirtland. Smith encouraged the settlement of land outside Caldwell County, instituting a settlement in Adam-ondi-Ahman, in Daviess County.


title: Joseph Smith

text: During this time, a church council expelled many of the oldest and most prominent leaders of the church, including John Whitmer, David Whitmer, W. W. Phelps, and Oliver Cowdery. Smith explicitly approved of the expulsion of these men, who were known collectively as the "dissenters".


title: Joseph Smith

text: Political and religious differences between old Missourians and newly arriving Mormon settlers provoked tensions between the two groups, much as they had years earlier in Jackson County. By this time, Smith's experiences with mob violence led him to believe that his faith's survival required greater militancy against anti-Mormons. Around June 1838, "ultra-loyal" Sampson Avard formed a covert organization called the Danites to intimidate Mormon dissenters and oppose anti-Mormon militia units. Though it is unclear how much Smith knew of the Danites' activities, he clearly approved of those of which he did know. After Rigdon delivered a sermon that implied dissenters had no place in the Mormon community, the Danites forcibly expelled them from the county.


title: Joseph Smith

text: In a speech given at the town's Fourth of July celebration, Rigdon declared that Mormons would no longer tolerate persecution by the Missourians and spoke of a "war of extermination" if Mormons were attacked. Smith implicitly endorsed this speech, and many non-Mormons understood it to be a thinly veiled threat. They unleashed a flood of anti-Mormon rhetoric in newspapers and in stump speeches given during the 1838 election campaign.


title: Joseph Smith

text: On August 6, 1838, non-Mormons in Gallatin tried to prevent Mormons from voting, and the election-day scuffles initiated the 1838 Mormon War. Non-Mormon vigilantes raided and burned Mormon farms, while Danites and other Mormons pillaged non-Mormon towns. In the Battle of Crooked River, a group of Mormons attacked the Missouri state militia, mistakenly believing them to be anti-Mormon vigilantes. Governor Lilburn Boggs then ordered that the Mormons be "exterminated or driven from the state". On October 30, a party of Missourians surprised and killed seventeen Mormons in the Haun's Mill massacre.


title: Joseph Smith

text: The following day, the Latter Day Saints surrendered to 2,500 state troops and agreed to forfeit their property and leave the state. Smith was immediately brought before a military court, accused of treason, and sentenced to be executed the next morning; Alexander Doniphan, who was Smith's former attorney and a brigadier general in the Missouri militia, refused to carry out the order. Smith was then sent to a state court for a preliminary hearing, where several of his former allies testified against him.


title: Joseph Smith

text: Smith and five others, including Rigdon, were charged with treason, and transferred to the jail at Liberty, Missouri, to await trial.


title: Joseph Smith

text: Smith's months in prison with an ill and whining Rigdon strained their relationship. Meanwhile, Brigham Young - as president of the church's Quorum of the Twelve Apostles, one of the church's governing bodies - rose to prominence when he organized the move of about 14,000 Mormon refugees to Illinois and eastern Iowa.


title: Joseph Smith

text: Smith bore his imprisonment stoically. Understanding that he was effectively on trial before his own people, many of whom considered him a fallen prophet, he wrote a personal defense and an apology for the activities of the Danites. "The keys of the kingdom," he wrote, "have not been taken away from us". Though he directed his followers to collect and publish their stories of persecution, he also urged them to moderate their antagonism toward non-Mormons. On April 6, 1839, after a grand jury hearing in Davis County, Smith and his companions escaped custody, almost certainly with the connivance of the sheriff and guards.


title: Joseph Smith

text: Many American newspapers criticized Missouri for the Haun's Mill massacre and the state's expulsion of the Latter Day Saints. Illinois accepted Mormon refugees who gathered along the banks of the Mississippi River, where Smith purchased high-priced, swampy woodland in the hamlet of Commerce. Smith also attempted to portray the Latter Day Saints as an oppressed minority, and unsuccessfully petitioned the federal government for help in obtaining reparations. During the summer of 1839, while Latter Day Saints in Nauvoo suffered from a malaria epidemic, Smith sent Brigham Young and other apostles to missions in Europe, where they made numerous converts, many of them poor factory workers.


title: Joseph Smith

text: Smith also attracted a few wealthy and influential converts, including John C. Bennett, the Illinois quartermaster general. Bennett used his connections in the Illinois legislature to obtain an unusually liberal charter for the new city, which Smith renamed "Nauvoo" (Hebrew נָאווּ, meaning "to be beautiful"). The charter granted the city virtual autonomy, authorized a university, and granted Nauvoo "habeas corpus" power—which allowed Smith to fend off extradition to Missouri. Though Mormon authorities controlled Nauvoo's civil government, the city guaranteed religious freedom for its residents. The charter also authorized the Nauvoo Legion, a militia whose actions were limited only by state and federal constitutions. Smith and Bennett became its commanders, and were styled Lieutenant General and Major General respectively. As such, they controlled by far the largest body of armed men in Illinois. Smith made Bennett Assistant President of the church, and Bennett was elected Nauvoo's first mayor.


title: Joseph Smith

text: In 1841, Smith began revealing the doctrine of plural marriage to a few of his closest male associates, including Bennett, who used it as an excuse to seduce numerous women wed and unwed. When embarrassing rumors of polygamy's practice (called "spiritual wifery" by Bennett) got abroad, Smith forced Bennett's resignation as Nauvoo mayor. In retaliation, Bennett left Smith's following and published sensational accusations against Smith and his followers in Nauvoo.


title: Joseph Smith

text: The early Nauvoo years were a period of doctrinal innovation. Smith introduced baptism for the dead in 1840, and in 1841, construction began on the Nauvoo Temple as a place for recovering lost ancient knowledge. An 1841 revelation promised the restoration of the "fulness of the priesthood"; and in May 1842, Smith inaugurated a revised endowment or "first anointing". The endowment resembled rites of freemasonry that Smith had observed two months earlier when he had been initiated "at sight" into the Nauvoo Masonic lodge. At first, the endowment was open only to men, who were initiated into a special group called the Anointed Quorum. For women, Smith introduced the Relief Society, a service club and sorority within which Smith predicted women would receive "the keys of the kingdom". Smith also elaborated on his plan for a millennial kingdom. No longer envisioning the building of Zion in Nauvoo, Smith viewed Zion as encompassing all of North and South America, with Mormon settlements being "stakes" of Zion's metaphorical tent. Zion also became less a refuge from an impending tribulation than a great building project. In the summer of 1842, Smith revealed a plan to establish the millennial Kingdom of God, which would eventually establish theocratic rule over the whole Earth.


title: Joseph Smith

text: By mid-1842, popular opinion had turned against the Mormons. After an unknown assailant shot and wounded Missouri governor Lilburn Boggs in May 1842, anti-Mormons circulated rumors that Smith's bodyguard, Porter Rockwell, was the shooter. Though the evidence was circumstantial, Boggs ordered Smith's extradition. Certain he would be killed if he ever returned to Missouri, Smith went into hiding twice during the next five months, before the U.S. district attorney for Illinois argued that Smith's extradition to Missouri would be unconstitutional. (Rockwell was later tried and acquitted.) In June 1843, enemies of Smith convinced a reluctant Illinois Governor Thomas Ford to extradite Smith to Missouri on an old charge of treason. Two law officers arrested Smith, but were intercepted by a party of Mormons before they could reach Missouri. Smith was then released on a writ of habeas corpus from the Nauvoo municipal court. While this ended the Missourians' attempts at extradition, it caused significant political fallout in Illinois.


title: Joseph Smith

text: In December 1843, Smith petitioned Congress to make Nauvoo an independent territory with the right to call out federal troops in its defense. Smith then wrote to the leading presidential candidates and asked them what they would do to protect the Mormons. After receiving noncommittal or negative responses, Smith announced his own independent candidacy for President of the United States, suspended regular proselytizing, and sent out the Quorum of the Twelve and hundreds of other political missionaries. In March 1844 – following a dispute with a federal bureaucrat – Smith organized the secret Council of Fifty. Smith said the Council had authority to decide which national or state laws Mormons should obey. The Council was also to select a site for a large Mormon settlement in Texas, California, or Oregon, where Mormons could live under theocratic law beyond other governmental control.


title: Joseph Smith

text: According to researchers Ronald Romig and Lachlan Mackay, Smith posed for a daguerreotype by Lucian R. Foster sometime in 1844; the photograph was published in 2022 in the "John Whitmer Historical Association Journal".


title: Joseph Smith

text: By early 1844, a rift developed between Smith and a half dozen of his closest associates. Most notably, William Law, Smith's trusted counselor, and Robert Foster, a general of the Nauvoo Legion, disagreed with Smith about how to manage Nauvoo's economy. Both also said that Smith had proposed marriage to their wives. Believing the dissidents were plotting against his life, Smith excommunicated them on April 18, 1844. These dissidents formed a competing church and the following month, at Carthage, the county seat, they procured indictments against Smith for perjury (as Smith denied having more than one wife) and polygamy.


title: Joseph Smith

text: On June 7, the dissidents published the first (and only) issue of the "Nauvoo Expositor", calling for reform within the church and appealing to the political views of the county's other faiths as well as those of former Mormons. The paper decried Smith's new "doctrines of many Gods", alluded to Smith's theocratic aspirations, and called for a repeal of the Nauvoo city charter. It also attacked Smith's practice of polygamy, implying that Smith was using religion as a pretext to draw unassuming women to Nauvoo to seduce and marry them.


title: Joseph Smith

text: Fearing the newspaper would provoke a new round of violence against the Mormons, the Nauvoo city council declared the "Expositor" a public nuisance and ordered the Nauvoo Legion to destroy the press. Smith, who feared another mob attack, supported the action, not realizing that destroying a newspaper was more likely to incite an attack than any of the "Expositor" accusations.


title: Joseph Smith

text: Destruction of the newspaper provoked a strident call to arms from Thomas C. Sharp, editor of the "Warsaw Signal" and longtime critic of Smith. Fearing an uprising, Smith mobilized the Nauvoo Legion on June 18 and declared martial law. Officials in Carthage responded by mobilizing their small detachment of the state militia, and Governor Thomas Ford appeared, threatening to raise a larger militia unless Smith and the Nauvoo city council surrendered themselves. Smith initially fled across the Mississippi River, but shortly returned and surrendered to Ford. On June 23, Smith and his brother Hyrum rode to Carthage to stand trial for inciting a riot. Once the Smiths were in custody, the charges were increased to treason, preventing them from posting bail.


title: Joseph Smith

text: On June 27, 1844, an armed mob with blackened faces stormed Carthage Jail where Joseph and Hyrum were being held. Hyrum, who was trying to secure the door, was killed instantly with a shot to the face. Smith fired three shots from a pepper-box pistol that his friend, Cyrus Wheelock, had lent him, wounding three men, before he sprang for the window. He was shot multiple times before falling out the window, crying, "Oh Lord my God!" He died shortly after hitting the ground, but was shot several more times before the mob dispersed. Five men were later tried for Smith's murder, but were all acquitted. Smith was buried in Nauvoo, and is interred there at the Smith Family Cemetery.


title: Joseph Smith

text: After his death, non-Mormon newspapers were almost unanimous in portraying Smith as a religious fanatic. Conversely, within Mormonism, Smith was remembered first and foremost as a prophet, martyred to seal the testimony of his faith.


title: Joseph Smith

text: Smith attracted thousands of devoted followers before his death in 1844, and millions in the century that followed. Among Mormons, he is regarded as a prophet on par with Moses and Elijah. In a 2015 compilation of the "100 Most Significant Americans of All Time", "Smithsonian" magazine ranked Smith first in the category of religious figures.


title: Joseph Smith

text: Mormons and non-Mormons have produced a large body of scholarly work about Smith. In it, two conflicting characterizations of Smith have emerged: a man of God on the one hand, and on the other, a fraud preying on the ignorance and credulity of his followers. Believers tend to focus on Smith's achievements and religious teachings, and minimize his personal defects; detractors and critics, meanwhile, focus on his mistakes, legal troubles, and controversial doctrines. During the first half of the 20th century, some writers suggested that Smith might have suffered from epileptic seizures or from psychological disorders, such as paranoid delusions or bipolar disorder (manic-depressive) illness that might explain his visions and revelations. Many modern biographers disagree with these ideas. More nuanced interpretations include viewing Smith as: a prophet who had normal human weaknesses; a "pious fraud" who believed he was called by God to preach repentance and felt justified inventing visions in order to convert people; or a gifted "mythmaker" whose teachings were inspired by his nineteenth-century environment. Biographers – Mormon and non-Mormon alike – agree that Smith was one of the most influential, charismatic, and innovative figures in American religious history.


title: Joseph Smith

text: Memorials to Smith include the Joseph Smith Memorial Building in Salt Lake City, Utah, the Joseph Smith Building on the campus of Brigham Young University, and a granite obelisk marking his birthplace.


title: Joseph Smith

text: Smith's death resulted in a succession crisis. Smith had proposed several ways to choose his successor, but never clarified his preference. Smith's brother Hyrum, had he survived, would have had the strongest claim, followed by Smith's brother Samuel, who died mysteriously a month after Joseph and Hyrum. Another brother, William, was unable to attract a sufficient following. Smith's sons Joseph III and David would also have had claims, but Joseph III was too young and David was born after Smith's death. The Council of Fifty had a theoretical claim to succession, but it was a secret organization. Some of Smith's chosen successors, such as Oliver Cowdery and David Whitmer, had already left the church.


title: Joseph Smith

text: The two strongest succession candidates were Brigham Young, senior member and president of the Quorum of the Twelve Apostles, and Sidney Rigdon, the senior member of the First Presidency. In a church-wide conference on August 8, most of the Latter Day Saints elected Young; they eventually left Nauvoo and settled the Salt Lake Valley. Membership in Young's denomination surpassed 16 million members in 2018. Smaller groups followed Sidney Rigdon and James J. Strang, who had based his claim on a letter of appointment ostensibly written by Smith (but which some scholars believe was forged). Others followed Lyman Wight and Alpheus Cutler. Many members of these smaller groups, including most of Smith's family, eventually coalesced in 1860 under the leadership of Joseph Smith III and formed what was then called the Reorganized Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints (now the Community of Christ), which now has about 250,000 members.


title: Joseph Smith

text: The first of Smith's wives, Emma Hale, gave birth to nine children during their marriage, five of whom died before the age of two. The eldest, Alvin (born in 1828), died within hours of birth, as did twins Thaddeus and Louisa (born in 1831). When the twins died, the Smiths adopted another set of twins, Julia and Joseph, whose mother had recently died in childbirth; Joseph died of measles in 1832. In 1841, Don Carlos, who had been born a year earlier, died of malaria. In 1842, Emma gave birth to a stillborn son. Joseph and Emma had four sons who lived to maturity: Joseph Smith III, Frederick Granger Williams Smith, Alexander Hale Smith, and David Hyrum Smith.


title: Joseph Smith

text: Some historians have speculated—based on journal entries and family stories—that Smith fathered children with his plural wives. However, all DNA testing of potential Smith descendants from wives other than Emma has been negative.


title: Joseph Smith

text: After Smith's death, Emma Smith quickly became alienated from Brigham Young and the church leadership. Young, whom Emma feared and despised, was suspicious of her desire to preserve the family's assets from inclusion with those of the church, and thought she would be even more troublesome because she openly opposed plural marriage. When most Latter Day Saints moved west, she stayed in Nauvoo, married a non-Mormon, Major Lewis C. Bidamon, and withdrew from religion until 1860, when she affiliated with the Reorganized Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints, first headed by her son, Joseph Smith III. Emma never denied Smith's prophetic gift or repudiated her belief in the authenticity of the Book of Mormon.


title: Joseph Smith

text: By some accounts, Smith had been teaching a polygamy doctrine as early as 1831, and there is unconfirmed evidence that Smith was a polygamist by 1835. Although the church had publicly repudiated polygamy, in 1837 there was a rift between Smith and Oliver Cowdery over the issue. Cowdery suspected Smith had engaged in a relationship with his serving girl, Fanny Alger. Smith never denied a relationship, but insisted it was not adulterous, presumably because he had taken Alger as an additional wife.


title: Joseph Smith

text: In April 1841, Smith wed Louisa Beaman. During the next two-and-a-half years he married or was sealed to about 30 additional women, ten of whom were already married to other men. Some of these polyandrous marriages were done with the consent of the first husbands. Also, some polygamous marriages may have been considered special religious marriages that would not take effect until after death. Ten of Smith's plural wives were between the ages of fourteen and twenty; others were over fifty. The practice of polygamy was kept secret from both non-Mormons and most members of the church during Smith's lifetime.


title: Joseph Smith

text: Polygamy caused a breach between Smith and his first wife, Emma. Although Emma knew of some of her husband's marriages, she almost certainly did not know the extent of his polygamous activities. In 1843, Emma temporarily accepted Smith's marriage to four women boarded in the Smith household, but soon regretted her decision and demanded the other wives leave. In July 1843, Smith dictated a revelation directing Emma to accept plural marriage, but the two were not reconciled until September 1843, after Emma began participating in temple ceremonies.


title: Joseph Smith

text: Despite this, Emma denied publicly that her husband had ever taken additional wives. She said that the first time she became aware of the polygamy revelation was when she read about it in Orson Pratt's periodical "The Seer" in 1853. Emma campaigned publicly against polygamy, and was the main signatory of a petition in 1842, with a thousand female signatures, denying that Smith was connected with polygamy. As president of the Ladies' Relief Society, Emma authorized publishing a certificate in the same year denouncing polygamy, and denying her husband as its creator or participant. Even on her deathbed, Emma denied Joseph's involvement with polygamy, stating, "No such thing as polygamy, or spiritual wifery, was taught, publicly or privately, before my husband's death, that I have now, or ever had any knowledge of ... He had no other wife but me; nor did he to my knowledge ever have".


title: Joseph Smith

text: According to historian and Mormonism expert Richard Bushman, the "signal feature" of Smith's life was "his sense of being guided by revelation". Instead of presenting his ideas with logical arguments, Smith dictated authoritative scripture-like "revelations" and let people decide whether to believe. Smith and his followers treated his revelations as being above teachings or opinions, and Smith acted as though he believed in his revelations as much as his followers. In fact Smith's first recorded revelation was a rebuke chastising Smith for having let Martin Harris lose 116 pages of Book of Mormon manuscript. The revelation was written as if God were talking rather than as a declaration mediated through Smith; subsequent revelations assumed a similar authoritative style, often opening with words such as "Hearken O ye people which profess my name, saith the Lord your God."


title: Joseph Smith

text: The Book of Mormon has been called the longest and most complex of Smith's revelations. It is organized as a compilation of smaller books, each named after its main named narrator or a prominent leader. It tells the story of the rise and fall of a religious civilization beginning about 600 BC and ending in 421 AD. The story begins with a family that leaves Jerusalem, just before the Babylonian captivity. They eventually construct a ship and sail to a "promised land" in the Western Hemisphere. There, they are divided into two factions: Nephites and Lamanites. The Nephites become a righteous people who build a temple and live the law of Moses, though their prophets teach a Christian gospel. The book explains itself to be largely the work of Mormon, a Nephite prophet and military figure. The book closes when Mormon's son, Moroni, finishes engraving and buries the records written on the golden plates.


title: Joseph Smith

text: Christian themes permeate the work; for instance, Nephite prophets in the Book of Mormon teach of Christ's coming, and talk of the star that will appear at his birth. After the crucifixion and resurrection in Jerusalem, Jesus appears in the Americas, repeats the Sermon on the Mount, blesses children, and appoints twelve disciples. The book ends with Moroni's exhortation to "come unto Christ".


title: Joseph Smith

text: Early Mormons accepted the Book of Mormon as a religious history of the indigenous peoples of the Americas. Smith's followers view it as a companion to the Bible. Modern historian Fawn Brodie has called the Book of Mormon a response to pressing cultural and environmental issues of Smith's times; she argued that Smith composed the Book of Mormon, drawing from sources of information available to him, notably the 1823 book "View of the Hebrews". Dan Vogel, another historian, says that the work is autobiographical in nature.


title: Joseph Smith

text: Smith never said how he produced the Book of Mormon, saying only that he translated by the power of God and implying that he had transcribed the words. The Book of Mormon itself states only that its text will "come forth by the gift and power of God unto the interpretation thereof". Accordingly, there is considerable disagreement about the actual method used. For at least some of the earliest dictation, Smith is said to have used the "Urim and Thummim", a pair of seer stones he said were buried with the plates. Later, however, he is said to have used a chocolate-colored stone he had found in 1822 that he had used previously for treasure hunting. Joseph Knight said that Smith saw the words of the translation while he gazed at the stone or stones in the bottom of his hat, excluding all light, a process similar to divining the location of treasure. Sometimes, Smith concealed the process by raising a curtain or dictating from another room, while at other times he dictated in full view of witnesses while the plates lay covered on the table. After completing the translation, Smith gave the brown stone to Cowdery, but continued to receive revelations using another stone until about 1833 when he said he no longer needed it.


title: Joseph Smith

text: Although the Book of Mormon drew many converts to the church, Fawn Brodie argued that the "book lives today because of the prophet, not he because of the book." Smith had assumed a role as prophet, seer, and apostle of Jesus Christ, and by early 1831, he was introducing himself as "Joseph the Prophet". The language of authority in Smith's revelations was appealing to converts, and the revelations were given with the confidence of an Old Testament prophet.


title: Joseph Smith

text: Smith said that in June 1830, he received a "revelation of Moses" in which Moses saw "the world and the ends thereof" and asked God questions about the purpose of creation and man's relationship to God. This revelation initiated a revision of the Bible on which Smith worked sporadically until 1833 and which remained unpublished at his death. Smith said that the Bible had been corrupted through the ages, and that his revision worked to restore the original intent; it added long passages rewritten "according to his inspiration". While many changes involved straightening out seeming contradictions or making small clarifications, other changes added large "lost" portions to the text. For instance, Smith's revision nearly tripled the length of the first five chapters of Genesis in what would become the Book of Moses.


title: Joseph Smith

text: The Book of Moses begins with Moses' asking God about the purpose of creation. Moses is told in this account that God made the Earth and heavens to bring humans to eternal life. The book also provides an enlarged account of the Genesis creation narrative and expands the story of Enoch, the ancestor of Noah. In the narrative, Enoch speaks with God, receives a prophetic calling, and eventually builds a city of Zion so righteous that it was taken to heaven. The book also elaborates and expands upon passages that foreshadow the coming of Christ, in effect Christianizing the Old Testament.


title: Joseph Smith

text: In 1835, Smith encouraged some Latter Day Saints in Kirtland to purchase rolls of ancient Egyptian papyri from a traveling exhibitor. Smith said they contained the writings of the ancient patriarchs Abraham and Joseph. Over the next several years, Smith worked to produce what he reported was a translation of one of these rolls, which was published in 1842 as the Book of Abraham. The Book of Abraham speaks of the founding of the Abrahamic nation, astronomy, cosmology, lineage and priesthood, and gives another account of the creation story. The papyri from which Smith dictated the Book of Abraham were thought to have been lost in the Great Chicago Fire. However, several fragments were rediscovered in the 1960s, were translated by Egyptologists, and were determined to be part of the Book of Breathing with no connection to Abraham. The LDS Church has proposed that Smith might have been inspired by the papyri rather than have been translating them literally, but prominent Egyptologists note that Smith copied characters from the scrolls and was specific about their meaning.


title: Joseph Smith

text: According to Parley P. Pratt, Smith dictated revelations orally, and they were recorded by a scribe without revisions or corrections. Revelations were immediately copied, and then circulated among church members. Smith's revelations often came in response to specific questions. He described the revelatory process as having "pure Intelligence" flowing into him. Smith, however, never viewed the wording to be infallible. The revelations were not God's words verbatim, but "couched in language suitable to Joseph's time". In 1833, Smith edited and expanded many of the previous revelations, publishing them as the Book of Commandments, which later became part of the Doctrine and Covenants.


title: Joseph Smith

text: Smith gave varying types of revelations. Some were temporal, while others were spiritual or doctrinal. Some were received for a specific individual, while others were directed at the whole church. An 1831 revelation called "The Law" contained: directions for missionary work; rules for organizing society in Zion; a reiteration of the Ten Commandments; an injunction to "administer to the poor and needy"; and an outline for the law of consecration. An 1832 revelation called "The Vision" added to the fundamentals of sin and atonement, and introduced doctrines of life after salvation, exaltation, and a heaven with degrees of glory. Another 1832 revelation "on Priesthood" was the first to explain priesthood doctrine. Three months later, Smith gave a lengthy revelation called the "Olive Leaf" containing themes of cosmology and eschatology, and discussing subjects such as light, truth, intelligence, and sanctification; a related revelation given in 1833 put Christ at the center of salvation.


title: Joseph Smith

text: Also in 1833, at a time of temperance agitation, Smith delivered a revelation called the "Word of Wisdom", which counseled a diet of wholesome herbs, fruits, grains, a sparing use of meat. It also recommended that Latter Day Saints avoid "strong" alcoholic drinks, tobacco, and "hot drinks" (later interpreted to mean tea and coffee). The Word of Wisdom was not originally framed as a commandment, but a recommendation. As such, it was not strictly followed by Smith and other Latter Day Saints, though it later became a requirement in the LDS Church. In 1835, Smith gave the "great revelation" that organized the priesthood into quorums and councils, and functioned as a complex blueprint for church structure. Smith's last revelation, on the "New and Everlasting Covenant", was recorded in 1843, and dealt with the theology of family, the doctrine of sealing, and plural marriage.


title: Joseph Smith

text: Before 1832, most of Smith's revelations dealt with establishing the church, gathering his followers, and building the City of Zion. Later revelations dealt primarily with the priesthood, endowment, and exaltation. The pace of formal revelations slowed during the autumn of 1833, and again after the dedication of the Kirtland Temple. Smith moved away from formal written revelations spoken in God's voice, and instead taught more in sermons, conversations, and letters. For instance, the doctrines of baptism for the dead and the nature of God were introduced in sermons, and one of Smith's most famed statements about there being "no such thing as immaterial matter" was recorded from a casual conversation with a Methodist preacher.


title: Joseph Smith

text: Smith taught that all existence was material, including a world of "spirit matter" so fine that it was invisible to all but the purest mortal eyes. Matter, in Smith's view, could be neither created nor destroyed; the creation involved only the reorganization of existing matter. Like matter, Smith saw "intelligence" as co-eternal with God, and taught that human spirits had been drawn from a pre-existent pool of eternal intelligences. Nevertheless, spirits could not experience a "fullness of joy" unless joined with corporeal bodies, according to Smith. The work and glory of God, then, was to create worlds across the cosmos where inferior intelligences could be embodied.


title: Joseph Smith

text: Though Smith initially viewed God the Father as a spirit, he eventually began teaching that God was an advanced and glorified man, embodied within time and space. By the end of his life, Smith was teaching that both God the Father and Jesus were distinct beings with physical bodies, but the Holy Spirit was a "personage of Spirit". Through the gradual acquisition of knowledge, according to Smith, those who received exaltation could eventually become like God. These teachings implied a vast hierarchy of gods, with God himself having a father. In Smith's cosmology, those who became gods would reign, unified in purpose and will, leading spirits of lesser capacity to share immortality and eternal life.


title: Joseph Smith

text: In Smith's view, the opportunity to achieve exaltation extended to all humanity; those who died with no opportunity to accept saving ordinances could achieve exaltation by accepting them in the afterlife through proxy ordinances performed on their behalf. Smith said that children who died in their innocence would be guaranteed to rise at the resurrection and receive exaltation. Apart from those who committed the eternal sin, Smith taught that even the wicked and disbelieving would achieve a degree of glory in the afterlife.


title: Joseph Smith

text: Smith's teachings were rooted in dispensational restorationism. He taught that the Church of Christ restored through him was a latter-day restoration of the early Christian faith, which had been lost in the Great Apostasy. At first, Smith's church had little sense of hierarchy and his religious authority was derived from his reported visions and revelations. Though Smith did not claim exclusive prophethood, an early claimed revelation designated him as the only prophet allowed to issue commandments "as Moses". This religious authority encompassed economic and political as well as spiritual matters. For instance, in the early 1830s, he temporarily instituted a form of religious communism, called the United Order, that required Latter Day Saints to give to the church all their property, to be divided among the faithful. He also envisioned that the theocratic institutions he established would have a role in the worldwide political organization of the Millennium.


title: Joseph Smith

text: By the mid-1830s, Smith began teaching a hierarchy of three priesthoods—the Melchizedek, the Aaronic, and the Patriarchal. Each priesthood was a continuation of biblical priesthoods through patrilineal succession or ordination by biblical figures appearing in visions. Upon introducing the Melchizedek or "High" Priesthood in 1831, Smith taught that its recipients would be "endowed with power from on high", thus fulfilling a need for a greater holiness and an authority commensurate with the New Testament apostles. This doctrine of endowment evolved through the 1830s, until in 1842, the Nauvoo endowment included an elaborate ceremony containing elements similar to Freemasonry and the Jewish tradition of Kabbalah. The endowment was extended to women in 1843, though Smith never clarified whether women could be ordained to priesthood offices.


title: Joseph Smith

text: Smith taught that the High Priesthood's endowment of heavenly power included the sealing powers of Elijah, allowing High Priests to perform ceremonies with effects that continue after death. For example, this power would enable proxy baptisms for the dead and marriages to last into eternity. Elijah's sealing powers also enabled the second anointing, or "fulness of the priesthood", which, according to Smith, sealed married couples to their exaltation.


title: Joseph Smith

text: During the early 1840s, Smith unfolded a theology of family relations called the "New and Everlasting Covenant" that superseded all earthly bonds. He taught that outside the Covenant, marriages were simply matters of contract, and that in the afterlife, individuals married outside the Covenant or not married would be limited in their progression to Godhood. To fully enter the Covenant, a man and woman must participate in a "first anointing", a "sealing" ceremony, and a "second anointing" (also called "sealing by the Holy Spirit of Promise"). When fully sealed into the Covenant, Smith said that no sin nor blasphemy (other than the eternal sin) could keep them from their exaltation in the afterlife. According to Smith, only one person on Earth at a time—in this case, Smith—could possess this power of sealing.


title: Joseph Smith

text: Smith taught that the highest level of exaltation could be achieved through "plural marriage" (polygamy), which was the ultimate manifestation of this New and Everlasting Covenant. Plural marriage, according to Smith, allowed an individual to transcend the angelic state and become a god, accelerating the expansion of one's heavenly kingdom.


title: Joseph Smith

text: While campaigning for President of the United States in 1844, Smith had opportunity to take political positions on issues of the day. Smith considered the U.S. Constitution, and especially the Bill of Rights, to be inspired by God and "the [Latter Day] Saints' best and perhaps only defense." He believed a strong central government was crucial to the nation's well-being, and thought democracy better than tyranny—although he also taught that a theocratic monarchy was the ideal form of government. In foreign affairs, Smith was an expansionist, though he viewed "expansionism as brotherhood".


title: Joseph Smith

text: Smith favored a strong central bank and high tariffs to protect American business and agriculture. He disfavored imprisonment of convicts except for murder, preferring efforts to reform criminals through labor; he also opposed courts-martial for military deserters. He supported capital punishment but opposed hanging, preferring execution by firing squad or beheading.


title: Joseph Smith

text: On the issue of slavery, Smith took different positions. Initially he opposed it, but during the mid-1830s when the Mormons were settling in Missouri (a slave state), Smith justified slavery in an anti-abolitionist essay. Then in the early 1840s, after Mormons had been expelled from Missouri, he once again opposed slavery. During his presidential campaign of 1844, he proposed ending slavery by 1850 and compensating slaveholders. Smith said that black people were not inherently inferior to white people, and he welcomed enslaved people into church membership. However, he opposed baptizing them without permission of their masters, and he opposed interracial marriage.


title: Joseph Smith

text: Smith declared that he would be one of the instruments in fulfilling Nebuchadnezzar's statue vision in the Book of Daniel: that secular government would be destroyed without bloodshed, and would be replaced with a "theodemocratic" Kingdom of God. Smith taught that this kingdom would be governed by theocratic principles, but that it would also be multidenominational and democratic, so long as the people chose wisely.


title: Dustin Poirier

text: Dustin Poirier (born January 19, 1989) is an American professional mixed martial artist. He is a former Interim UFC Lightweight Champion. As of May 9, 2022, he is #2 in the UFC lightweight rankings and as of October 24, 2022, he is #11 in the UFC men's pound-for-pound rankings.


title: Dustin Poirier

text: Poirier was born in Lafayette, Louisiana, and is of Acadian French descent, specifically of Cajun heritage. He attended Northside High School for a short time, as he dropped out in the ninth grade because of repeatedly getting into trouble and street fights.


title: Dustin Poirier

text: Poirier turned professional in 2009, quickly compiled a record of 7–0, competing mostly in regional promotions across his native Louisiana and the Southern United States. Glimpses of Poirier's early MMA career in Louisiana is depicted in the documentary Fightville.


title: Dustin Poirier

text: In October 2010, World Extreme Cagefighting merged with the Ultimate Fighting Championship. As part of the merger, all WEC fighters were transferred to the UFC.


title: Dustin Poirier

text: After the UFC/WEC merger, newly crowned UFC Featherweight Champion José Aldo was set to make his first defense against No. 1 contender Josh Grispi at UFC 125. Aldo then had to withdraw from the bout due to a back injury on November 23, 2010. Poirier agreed to step in and face Grispi at the event on January 1, 2011. Poirier won the fight by unanimous decision.


title: Dustin Poirier

text: Poirier was expected to face Rani Yahya on June 11, 2011, at UFC 131. However, Yahya was forced from the bout with an injury, and he was replaced by promotional newcomer, Jason Young. Poirier defeated Young via unanimous decision after three rounds.


title: Dustin Poirier

text: Poirier faced Pablo Garza on November 12, 2011, at UFC on Fox 1. Poirier defeated Garza via second round D'arce choke.


title: Dustin Poirier

text: Poirier was expected to face Erik Koch on February 4, 2012, at UFC 143. However, Koch pulled out of the bout, citing an injury, and he was replaced by Ricardo Lamas. Then, just two weeks later, Lamas had to withdraw from the fight with an injury, leaving Poirier again without an opponent. A week later, Max Holloway agreed to step in to fight Poirier. Poirier defeated Holloway in the first round, with a triangle-armbar from the mount position, earning a Submission of the Night bonus.


title: Dustin Poirier

text: Poirier faced Chan Sung Jung on May 15, 2012, in the main event at . This was the first time Poirier has been put on the main event. Jung defeated Poirier via submission (D'arce Choke) in the fourth round. The performance earned both participants "Fight of the Night" honors. The bout was honored as Fight of the Year by several publications at the conclusion of 2012.


title: Dustin Poirier

text: Poirier defeated Jonathan Brookins on December 15, 2012, at The Ultimate Fighter 16 Finale via D'arce Choke.


title: Dustin Poirier

text: Poirier quickly returned to action, taking his second fight within 63 days as he stepped in as a replacement for an injured Dennis Siver. Poirier faced Cub Swanson in the co-main event on February 16, 2013, at . During the fight, both fighters landed punches which appeared to hurt the other. Poirier scored leg kicks and double leg takedowns. Swanson retaliated with head kicks and submission attempts. Poirier lost the fight via unanimous decision (29-28, 30–27, 30–27).


title: Dustin Poirier

text: Poirier faced Erik Koch on August 31, 2013, at UFC 164. Poirier hurt Koch with punches throughout the fight, knocking him down with a punch near the end of round 1 and nearly finishing the fight, he ended up winning the bout via unanimous decision. After the win, Poirier wanted a rematch with Cub Swanson. He told reporter Ariel Helwani that Swanson must "be a man".


title: Dustin Poirier

text: Poirier faced Diego Brandão on December 28, 2013, at UFC 168. He won the fight via knockout in the first round.


title: Dustin Poirier

text: Poirier faced Akira Corassani at . He won the fight via TKO in the second round. The win also earned Poirier his second "Fight of the Night" bonus award.


title: Dustin Poirier

text: Poirier faced Conor McGregor on September 27, 2014, at UFC 178. He lost the fight by TKO in the first round. This was the first time Poirier was stopped by strikes. After the match, Poirier said "I always saw it as a plus but the Conor McGregor fight was the turning point. I remember I was backstage getting ready to walk out and I saw him and he threw this smile and pointed at me. I don’t know why but it really got to me, man. It really messed with my head."


title: Dustin Poirier

text: After the loss, Poirier transferred up a weight class to the Lightweight division. Poirier said that it was because weight cuts are distracting him from training. He also claimed that he would never go back to featherweight nor move up to welterweight. "This is the division (lightweight) I'm going to win the belt at," said Poirier in an interview.


title: Dustin Poirier

text: Poirier faced Carlos Diego Ferreira in a lightweight bout on April 4, 2015, at UFC Fight Night 63. He won the fight via knockout in the first round. The win also earned Poirier his first "Performance of the Night" bonus award and a disclosed pay of $118,000, the highest disclosed pay received by Poirier at the time.


title: Dustin Poirier

text: Poirier faced Yancy Medeiros on June 6, 2015, at UFC Fight Night 68. He won the fight via TKO in the first round, after dropping Medeiros twice with punches. The win also earned Poirier his second "Performance of the Night" bonus award.


title: Dustin Poirier

text: Poirier was expected to face Joseph Duffy on October 24, 2015, at UFC Fight Night 76. However, Duffy pulled out of the fight on October 21, three days prior to the event, after sustaining a concussion during a sparring session. In turn, the pairing was rescheduled and took place on January 2, 2016, at UFC 195. Poirier won the fight by unanimous decision. After the bout, Poirier was hospitalized for a broken nose. He had a lay off for six weeks due to the injury.


title: Dustin Poirier

text: Poirier next faced Bobby Green on June 4, 2016, at UFC 199. He won the fight via knockout in the first round. Poirier received a disclosed pay of $110,000, the second highest disclosed pay received by Poirier in his career at that point.


title: Dustin Poirier

text: Poirier faced Michael Johnson in his second main-event bout on September 17, 2016, at UFC Fight Night 94. Poirier lost the fight via first-round knockout.


title: Dustin Poirier

text: Poirier challenged Jim Miller on February 11, 2017, at UFC 208. Poirier punched Miller against the fence, which appeared to hurt Miller. In return, Miller repeatedly kicked Poirier's legs. Later on, Miller swept Poirier onto the mat and failed a kimura attempt. Poirier won the back-and-forth fight via majority decision. The win also earned Poirier $50,000 and his third "Fight of the Night" bonus award. Due to injuries sustained during the fight, Poirier was suspended indefinitely.


title: Dustin Poirier

text: After the suspension, Poirier fought Eddie Alvarez on May 13, 2017, at UFC 211. Poirier rocked Alvarez in the second round but was subsequently dropped when Alvarez landed two illegal knees while Poirier was against the fence. With the Texas commission not operating under the new unified rules, referee Herb Dean declared the fight a No Contest as he did not believe Alvarez knew Poirier was a grounded opponent at the time.


title: Dustin Poirier

text: Poirier faced Anthony Pettis on November 11, 2017, at UFC Fight Night 120. He won the fight via TKO after Pettis tapped out due to a broken rib when Poirier applied a body triangle in the third round. This fight also won him the Fight of the Night bonus award.


title: Dustin Poirier

text: After the Pettis fight, Poirier signed a new contract with UFC although he had three fights remaining in his previous contract. Poirier faced Justin Gaethje on April 14, 2018, at UFC on Fox 29. He won the fight via TKO in the fourth round. This fight earned him the Fight of the Night bonus award.


title: Dustin Poirier

text: Poirier faced Eddie Alvarez in a rematch on July 28, 2018, in the main event at UFC on Fox 30. He won the fight via TKO in the second round. This win earned him the Performance of the Night award.


title: Dustin Poirier

text: On August 3, 2018, it was announced that Poirier had agreed to fight Nate Diaz on November 3, 2018, in Madison Square Garden. The bout was expected to be the co-headliner of UFC 230. However, on October 10, 2018, it was announced that Poirier pulled out due to a hip injury and as a result the bout was cancelled.


title: Dustin Poirier

text: Poirier faced UFC Featherweight Champion Max Holloway for the Interim UFC Lightweight Championship on April 13, 2019, at UFC 236. He won the back-and-forth fight by unanimous decision to earn the title and breaking Holloway's thirteen fight win-streak. This fight earned him the Fight of the Night award, his fourth consecutive performance bonus.


title: Dustin Poirier

text: Poirier faced the undefeated and undisputed UFC Lightweight Champion Khabib Nurmagomedov on September 7, 2019, in a title unification bout at UFC 242. He lost the bout via rear-naked choke submission in the third round.


title: Dustin Poirier

text: Poirier faced Dan Hooker on June 27, 2020, at . He won the exciting back-and-forth fight by unanimous decision. This fight earned him his seventh Fight of the Night award. The bout was widely considered one of the greatest fights of the year and was a contender for multiple awards.


title: Dustin Poirier

text: As the first bout of his new contract, Poirier faced Conor McGregor in a rematch of their 2014 bout at UFC 257 on January 24, 2021. He won the fight via technical knockout in the second round, becoming the first person to defeat McGregor by knockout in an MMA bout. This win earned him the "Performance of the Night " award.


title: Dustin Poirier

text: Poirier faced McGregor for the third time on July 10, 2021, at UFC 264. Poirier won the fight in round one via technical knockout after the ringside doctor stopped the bout due to McGregor suffering a broken tibia, rendering him unable to continue.


title: Dustin Poirier

text: Poirier faced Charles Oliveira for the UFC Lightweight Championship on December 11, 2021 at UFC 269. He lost the fight via a standing rear-naked choke submission in the third round.


title: Dustin Poirier

text: Poirier faced Michael Chandler on November 12, 2022, at UFC 281. He won the fight via a rear-naked choke submission in the third round. This fight earned him the "Fight of the Night" award.


title: Dustin Poirier

text: Poirier used to train at Gladiators Academy under retired MMA fighter Tim Credeur. After his loss to Chan Sung Jung, Poirier moved to American Top Team. His coach is Phil Daru.


title: Dustin Poirier

text: Poirier holds a black belt in Brazilian Jiu-jitsu under Tim Credeur, but mostly finished his opponents through his proficiency in the striking arts since the early days of his career in the UFC. His boxing skills are lauded, and he has showcased them in significant victories over elite-level strikers such as Justin Gaethje, Eddie Alvarez, Dan Hooker, Max Holloway, and Conor McGregor. He is noted for his shifting punching style and extensive use of the shoulder roll.


title: Dustin Poirier

text: Poirier auctioned his UFC 211 kit on eBay to raise money for Second Harvest Food Bank. The highest bidder paid $5,100 for Poirier's shirt, gloves, cap, hand wraps and shorts.


title: Dustin Poirier

text: In April 2018, Poirier and his wife founded the Good Fight Foundation. Poirier proceeded to auction his and fight kits as well. The money raised went to the family of a deceased Lafayette police officer and the Acadiana Outreach Center, respectively. Poirier also auctioned his UFC on FOX fight kit and used the money raised to buy 500 backpacks for school children in his hometown of Lafayette.


title: Dustin Poirier

text: After his bout with Nurmagomedov at UFC 242, the two swapped shirts after the fight. In his post-fight interview, Nurmagomedov said that he would be selling the shirt Poirier gave him and donating the proceeds to Poirier's charity. Likewise, Poirier announced that he would be auctioning off his UFC 242 fighting equipment to raise funds for the foundation. After the event, Poirier auctioned his fight kit with Nurmagomedov's walkout shirt for $60,200. Simultaneously, Nurmagomedov sold Poirier's walkout shirt for $100,000 which was matched by Dana White for a combined total of a $200,000 donation to Poirier's foundation. According to Poirier, his foundation is working with Justin Wren's Fight for the Forgotten to help provide clean drinking water to the Echuya Batwa people in Uganda.


title: Dustin Poirier

text: Poirier was set to face Garry Tonon in a grappling match at SubStars event on February 21, 2020, from which Poirier was supposed to be donating his ticket and PPV sales and part of his purse to his foundation. However, Tonon suffered an injury a week before the match and the bout was canceled.


title: Dustin Poirier

text: During the COVID-19 pandemic, Poirier's foundation donated 1,000 meals to the employees of three major hospitals in his native Lafayette area.


title: Dustin Poirier

text: On June 26, 2020, Poirier was awarded the Forrest Griffin Community Award by UFC for his charity work.


title: Dustin Poirier

text: After UFC 257, McGregor was scheduled to donate $500,000 to the Good Fight Foundation as he had pledged before their scheduled bout. As of April 12, 2021, Dustin Poirier states the donation had not been made. The dispute has been a source of controversy in sports media.


title: Dustin Poirier

text: On December 8, 2020, Poirier announced on Twitter the release of his brand new Cajun hot sauce brand 'Poirier's Louisiana Style' in collaboration with a Canadian company, Heartbeat Hot Sauce Co. It is available for purchase on Poirier's official website for $12. In July 2021 a special 'Heatonist K.O.' edition was also released.


title: Dustin Poirier

text: Poirier still spends most of his time in Lafayette with his wife and their daughter, but trains at American Top Team in South Florida, where he relocates before fights. The couple had their first child in 2016.


title: Dustin Poirier

text: Poirier got his first tattoo at the age of 14. Currently, his chest and arms are covered in tattoos, including one on his chest that reads 武士道 ("bushidō"), which means "the way of warriors" in Japanese.


title: Rupert Grint

text: Rupert Alexander Lloyd Grint (; born 24 August 1988) is an English actor. Grint rose to fame for his role as Ron Weasley in the "Harry Potter" film series, for which he was cast at age eleven, having previously acted only in school plays and his local theatre group. Since then, he continued his work on film, television, and theatre.


title: Rupert Grint

text: Beginning in 2002, he began to work outside of the "Harry Potter" franchise, with a co-leading role in "Thunderpants". He has had starring roles in "Driving Lessons", a dramedy released in 2006, and "Cherrybomb", a limited-release drama film in 2010. He co-starred with Bill Nighy and Emily Blunt in the comedy "Wild Target". His first film project after the "Harry Potter" series was a supporting role in the 2012 anti-war film "Into the White." In 2013, his film "CBGB" was released, and he was cast in CBS's new show "Super Clyde". He made his stage debut in Jez Butterworth's "Mojo" in October 2013 at the Harold Pinter Theatre in London. In 2014, he voiced the character of Josh in ";" and from 2017 to 2018, he executive-produced and starred in the television series "Snatch", based on the film of the same name. Since 2019, he stars in the Apple TV+ psychological horror series "Servant".


title: Rupert Grint

text: Grint was born on 24 August 1988 in Harlow, Essex, to Nigel Grint, a dealer in racing memorabilia, and Joanne Grint (née Parsons). He is the eldest of five siblings. He has said that his earliest goal in life was to become an ice cream man. He grew up in Watton-at-Stone, Hertfordshire, and was educated at Richard Hale School, in Hertford.


title: Rupert Grint

text: While in school, he took an avid interest in theatre. He began performing in school productions and joined the Top Hat Stage and Screen School, a local theatre group that cast him as a fish in "Noah's Ark" and a donkey in a nativity play. He continued participating in school plays as he moved into secondary school. Nonetheless, he had never acted professionally prior to the "Harry Potter" series. He left school at sixteen to focus on his acting career, saying he "didn't really like school that much".


title: Rupert Grint

text: Starting in 1999, casting began for the film adaptation of "Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone", the best-selling novel by J. K. Rowling. Rowling insisted the cast be British, and assisted Susie Figgis and director Chris Columbus in casting the roles. Grint, a fan of the book series, chose to audition for the role of Ron Weasley, one of Harry Potter's best friends at Hogwarts. Having seen a "Newsround" report about the open casting, he sent in a video of himself rapping about how he wished to receive the role, and the casting team asked for a meeting with him. On 8 August 2000, Daniel Radcliffe, Emma Watson, and an 11-year-old Grint were selected to play Harry, Hermione Granger, and Ron. Grint is the oldest member of the trio. The release of "Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone" in 2001 was Grint's debut screen performance. Breaking records for opening-day sales and opening-weekend takings, it was the year's highest-grossing film. With a total of US$974 million in its theatrical run, it stands as the series' second most commercially successful entry. It was critically well-received, scoring mainly positive reviews. However, a number of critics found the adaption's faithfulness to the book both its best and worst quality. Grint won a Satellite Award in the category of Outstanding New Talent, and a Young Artist Award for Most Promising Young Newcomer.


title: Rupert Grint

text: A year later, Grint again starred as Ron in "Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets" (2002). It opened to positive reviews and critics generally enjoyed the lead actors' performances. Both "Los Angeles Times" and "New York Magazine" observed that Grint and his peers had matured between films, with the latter pointing out that Grint had become "more proficient" and said they missed "the amateurish ardour" the actor and Watson carried in "Philosopher's Stone". "Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban" (2004) was released on 31 May in the UK. The film sees all three of its lead characters hover on the brink of adolescence, "and while they look braver and more capable than before, the dangers they face seem far more grave and their own vulnerability more intense." Alfonso Cuarón took over direction for "Prisoner of Azkaban," which remains the lowest-grossing "Harry Potter" film with US$795 million in revenue. Nonetheless, it was the second highest-grossing movie of 2004, behind "Shrek 2".


title: Rupert Grint

text: In 2005, Grint reprised his role for the fourth film in the series "Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire". The adaptation, unlike previous films, explored romantic elements and included more humour. In a 2005 interview with IGN, all three lead actors singled out humour as a reason for the film's success. It was directed by Mike Newell, whom Grint characterised as "really loud and not afraid to swear at you, but he was really cool." "Goblet of Fire" is one of the series' best-reviewed instalments, and is noted for its characters' maturity and sophistication, darker and more complex plotline, and the quality of the screenplay and lead actors' performances.


title: Rupert Grint

text: "Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix", the fifth film in the "Harry Potter" franchise, was released to cinemas in 2007. A huge financial success, it set a record worldwide opening-weekend gross of US$394 million, superseding "Spider-Man 3". It was directed by a new filmmaker, David Yates, who directed all of the subsequent "Potter" films. Grint said the laid-back director was "really good" and helped keep the material fresh. Grint and his "Harry Potter" co-stars left imprints of their hands, feet and wands in front of Grauman's Chinese Theater in Hollywood.


title: Rupert Grint

text: On 15 July 2009, the series' sixth instalment, "Harry Potter and the Half-Blood Prince", was released and again set box office records. In its theatrical run, it earned US$933 million ticket sales. It is also one of the most positively reviewed Harry Potter films, with critics praising its "emotionally satisfying" story, direction, cinematography, visual design and music. Grint observed a change in Ron in this entry, pointing out that his once insecure, often overshadowed character started to become more secure and even began to show a dark side. He found it fun to personify a more emotional Ron. Between 2009 and 2010, Grint's work received three award nominations, including one win—an Otto Award from the German magazine "Bravo".


title: Rupert Grint

text: Despite the previous films' successes, the franchise's future was put into question when the three lead actors had reservations about signing on for the final two films. However, by March 2007, Grint agreed to return for the last installments. For financial and scripting reasons, the final book was divided into two films, shot back-to-back, with filming concluding in June 2010. After completing the final film, Grint said: "I mean it literally has been my childhood, and suddenly it all came down to really just one random scene, with us jumping through a fireplace, and then it was over. ...it's very odd. Because suddenly it was all over, just like that. It was really emotional for all of us, realising that we're never going to be doing this again."


title: Rupert Grint

text: "Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows – Part 1" (2010) was released in November and grossed over US$950 million. It set several box office records and received mostly favourable reviews. Grint's portrayal of Ron again earned him critical praise. Reviewing the adaption for "Slate", Dana Stevens called all three of the leads "terrific". Although he disliked the film, Joe Morgenstern of "The Wall Street Journal" wrote that "Grint has grown up to be a skilful actor who knows the value of a slow burn". "New York Post" writer Lou Lumenick, however, felt that both Grint and Radcliffe had grown weary of playing the characters and expressed it in their performances. Grint's performance brought him nominations from the MTV Movie Awards and National Movie Awards for Best Fight and Performance of the Year in 2011. He reprised his role for the seventh time in "Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows – Part 2", the final "Harry Potter" instalment. It resumed from where the previous film left off, and included a lot of action, whereas "Part 1" had focused more on character development. Grint, along with the film, was critically acclaimed: Ann Hornaday of "The Washington Post" wrote, "Who could have predicted that Radcliffe, Grint and Watson would turn out to be good actors?". The film broke several box office records, including biggest midnight release, biggest first-day opening, and biggest opening-weekend. "Deathly Hallows – Part 2" became the fourth highest-grossing film of all time.


title: Rupert Grint

text: "Harry Potter" author J. K. Rowling gave a speech at the world premiere of "Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows – Part 2" on 7 July 2011 in London. She said that there were seven "Harry Potter" film series cast members whom she called "The Big Seven"; Grint was one of them, with Daniel Radcliffe, Emma Watson, Tom Felton, Matthew Lewis, Evanna Lynch and Bonnie Wright.


title: Rupert Grint

text: In 2002, Grint starred in his first non-"Harry Potter" film, "Thunderpants", which revolves around Patrick (played by Bruce Cook) whose remarkable capacity for flatulence scores him a job as an astronaut. In this film, Grint played the co-lead role of Alan, an anosmic boy who is Patrick's only friend. It was generally ignored by critics and audiences. Most critics that did take notice of it did not respond well to it, with one writing: "This film should be shown in prisons so that inmates have a good reason to never return." Grint also appeared in "Driving Lessons", a comedy drama released in 2006, starring opposite Julie Walters. It met with a mixed reception by critics, but his portrayal of an oppressed teenage boy was generally praised. "Alt Film Guide"'s Andre Soares wrote: "Grint, on the other hand, is a revelation . . . [He] displays an innate naturalness mixed with personal charisma that turn a potentially pathetic Christian freak into a humorous, thoroughly likable – if more than a little awkward – young man".


title: Rupert Grint

text: In July 2008, it was announced that Grint would star in the drama film "Cherrybomb" with Robert Sheehan and Kimberley Nixon. Grint found shooting this film very different from the "Harry Potter" films, as he had to adjust to doing a dozen scenes per day. Grint's character—Malachy, a worker at Belfast—goes to great lengths to impress his boss's daughter, with whom he is infatuated. This film, like his next project, involved him playing violent roles. Despite premiering at the 2009 Berlin International Film Festival, the film was initially unable to find a distributor. An online campaign by Grint's fans was credited with helping to secure a distribution deal in the UK in 2010.


title: Rupert Grint

text: Jonathan Lynn directed Grint in "Wild Target", a 2010 comedy thriller, where he starred with Emily Blunt and Bill Nighy. A remake of the 1993 French film "Cible Emouvante", it was made on a relatively small budget of US$8 million. It was a commercial failure, earning only US$3.4 million, and garnered mostly negative reviews in the media, which criticised it for dishonouring the original film and wasting the comedic potential of its cast. However, Grint also attracted some positive notice: "It’s nice to see Rupert Grint perform well in a role other than that of Ron Weasley, and it’s clear that he’s got a career ahead of him."


title: Rupert Grint

text: In January 2011, Grint made a cameo appearance on the BBC popular comedy show "Come Fly with Me," starring comedy duo Matt Lucas and David Walliams (Little Britain). In March 2011, he was cast as the lead character in the small-budget anti-war Norwegian film "Into the White", directed by Petter Næss. Principal photography started in April, and the film, which was shot on location, was released in 2012. It is based on a real incident that took place on 27 April 1940, when German Luftwaffe pilot Horst Schopis's bomber was shot down at Grotli by a Royal Navy Fleet Air Arm Blackburn Skua, which then crash-landed. The several German and British crew members found shelter by chance during a harsh winter there.


title: Rupert Grint

text: In August 2011, Grint did a photo shoot with his friend and "Harry Potter" co-star Tom Felton in Los Angeles for the autumn/winter collection of the fashion label Band of Outsiders. In September 2011, it was announced that Grint would voice a character in the along with David Tennant, Stephen Mangan and Jim Broadbent; it was released in May 2014. Grint also appears in the music video for Ed Sheeran's song "Lego House", released on 20 October 2011.


title: Rupert Grint

text: In March 2012, the "Visit Britain" TV ad was released, featuring Grint alongside Julie Walters, Michelle Dockery and Stephen Fry, promoting holidaying at home in the UK. Later that month,"Variety" reported that Grint had been cast alongside Chloë Grace Moretz in "The Drummer", a biopic film about drummer Dennis Wilson of the Beach Boys. That day, "The Hollywood Reporter" confirmed it and announced that filming would begin 15 June 2012 in California and Savannah, Georgia.


title: Rupert Grint

text: On 25 July 2012, Grint carried the 2012 London Olympic torch during the Olympic Torch Relay, part of the London 2012 Summer Olympics. He told the BBC News that it was an "overwhelming" experience that he "hoped to remember forever", and told "The Daily Telegraph," "It was amazing, it was really overwhelming. It's just such an honour to be a part of this. I'm really proud". In October 2012, he narrated "We Are Aliens", a 25-minute 3D Planetarium Fulldome film about the possibility of other intelligent life in the universe.


title: Rupert Grint

text: On 13 February 2013, "The Hollywood Reporter"'s Live Feed announced that Grint would star in a television pilot for CBS called "Super Clyde". It did not become a series. In July 2013, it was confirmed that Grint would make his stage debut in the second run of Jez Butterworth's black comedy "Mojo", with Grint playing Sweets, a hood who "pops amphetamines like Smarties" and "does a sort of double act, full of comic menace". The play, which also starred Brendan Coyle, Ben Whishaw and Daniel Mays, was based on real-life events, and ran from 26 October 2013 to 8 February 2014 at the Harold Pinter Theatre in London. Grint won the WhatsOnStage Award for Best London Newcomer for his role.


title: Rupert Grint

text: In September 2013, "The Hollywood Reporter" confirmed that Grint would star in an adaptation of Macbeth called "Enemy of Man", also featuring Sean Bean, Charles Dance, Jason Flemyng, James D’Arcy, Neil Maskell and Joe Gilgun, and directed by Vincent Regan. Filming began in January 2014 in the United Kingdom. In June 2014, it was announced that Grint would make his Broadway debut as Frank Finger in the play "It's Only a Play" at the Gerald Schoenfeld Theatre, appearing with Matthew Broderick, Nathan Lane, Stockard Channing, and Megan Mullally. It ran from 28 August 2014 to 4 January 2015.


title: Rupert Grint

text: Since 2019, Grint has starred as Julian Pearce in the Apple TV+ psychological horror series "Servant". The series has been critically praised. In December 2021, the show was renewed for its fourth and final season.


title: Rupert Grint

text: Grint will star in the Netflix anthology series "Guillermo del Toro's Cabinet of Curiosities" and in M. Night Shyamalan's thriller film "Knock at the Cabin". He also reunited with multiple cast members of the "Harry Potter" film series for an HBO Max special, "", which premiered on 1 January 2022.


title: Rupert Grint

text: Grint has been in a relationship with actress Georgia Groome since 2011. They have a daughter, born in May 2020.


title: Rupert Grint

text: Amidst the 2009–10 influenza pandemic, Grint contracted H1N1 swine flu and suffered mild illness. He took part in the 2012 Summer Olympics torch relay, carrying the flame through Hendon in northwest London to outside Middlesex University.


title: Rupert Grint

text: He joined Instagram in November 2020, posting a photo of himself holding his newborn daughter. He reached one million followers within four hours and one minute of creating his account, breaking the previous Guinness World Records title for the fastest time to reach one million followers on the platform.


title: Rupert Grint

text: Grint has supported various charitable organisations, including donating personal items to charity auctions. He participated in the Wacky Rally in 2010 with James and Oliver Phelps, which raised money for Britain's Royal National Lifeboat Institution. He was one of more than 40 people to produce designs for the Chrysalis Collection for Keech Hospice Care in Luton. His piece, a painted butterfly, was auctioned on eBay in March 2010. In May 2011, with other celebrities, he took part in the "Make Mine Milk" ad campaign to promote daily milk drinking. His ads were seen on posters and the sides of thousands of buses across the United Kingdom. Since 2011, he has supported the Little Star Award for Cancer Research UK. "I think that it's wonderful that Cancer Research UK is helping to bring a little bit of magic to the children's lives in this way," he said.


title: Rabbit

text: Rabbits, also known as bunnies or bunny rabbits, are small mammals in the family Leporidae (which also contains the hares) of the order Lagomorpha (which also contains the pikas). "Oryctolagus cuniculus" includes the European rabbit species and its descendants, the world's 305 breeds of domestic rabbit. "Sylvilagus" includes 13 wild rabbit species, among them the seven types of cottontail. The European rabbit, which has been introduced on every continent except Antarctica, is familiar throughout the world as a wild prey animal and as a domesticated form of livestock and pet. With its widespread effect on ecologies and cultures, the rabbit is, in many areas of the world, a part of daily life—as food, clothing, a companion, and a source of artistic inspiration.


title: Rabbit

text: Although once considered rodents, lagomorphs like rabbits have been discovered to have diverged separately and earlier than their rodent cousins and have a number of traits rodents lack, like two extra incisors.


title: Rabbit

text: A male rabbit is called a "buck"; a female is called a "doe". An older term for an adult rabbit used until the 18th century is "coney" (derived ultimately from the Latin ), while "rabbit" once referred only to the young animals. Another term for a young rabbit is "bunny", though this term is often applied informally (particularly by children) to rabbits generally, especially domestic ones. More recently, the term "kit" or "kitten" has been used to refer to a young rabbit.


title: Rabbit

text: A group of rabbits is known as a "colony" or "nest" (or, occasionally, a "warren", though this more commonly refers to where the rabbits live). A group of baby rabbits produced from a single mating is referred to as a "litter" and a group of domestic rabbits living together is sometimes called a "herd".


title: Rabbit

text: The word rabbit itself derives from the Middle English , a borrowing from the Walloon , which was a diminutive of the French or Middle Dutch .


title: Rabbit

text: Rabbits and hares were formerly classified in the order Rodentia (rodent) until 1912, when they were moved into a new order, Lagomorpha (which also includes pikas). Below are some of the genera and species of the rabbit.


title: Rabbit

text: The term "rabbit" is typically used for all Leporidae species excluding the genus "Lepus". Members of that genus are instead known as hares or jackrabbits.


title: Rabbit

text: "Lepus" species are typically precocial, born relatively mature and mobile with hair and good vision, while rabbit species are altricial, born hairless and blind, and requiring closer care. Hares live a relatively solitary life in a simple nest above the ground, while most rabbits live in social groups in burrows or warrens. Hares are generally larger than rabbits, with ears that are more elongated, and with hind legs that are larger and longer. Descendants of the European rabbit are commonly bred as livestock and kept as pets, whereas no hares have been domesticated - the breed called the Belgian hare is actually a domestic rabbit which has been selectively bred to resemble a hare.


title: Rabbit

text: Rabbits have long been domesticated. Beginning in the Middle Ages, the European rabbit has been widely kept as livestock, starting in ancient Rome. Selective breeding has generated a wide variety of rabbit breeds, of which many (since the early 19th century) are also kept as pets. Some strains of rabbit have been bred specifically as research subjects.


title: Rabbit

text: As livestock, rabbits are bred for their meat and fur. The earliest breeds were important sources of meat, and so became larger than wild rabbits, but domestic rabbits in modern times range in size from dwarf to giant. Rabbit fur, prized for its softness, can be found in a broad range of coat colors and patterns, as well as lengths. The Angora rabbit breed, for example, was developed for its long, silky fur, which is often hand-spun into yarn. Other domestic rabbit breeds have been developed primarily for the commercial fur trade, including the Rex, which has a short plush coat.


title: Rabbit

text: Because the rabbit's epiglottis is engaged over the soft palate except when swallowing, the rabbit is an obligate nasal breather. Rabbits have two sets of incisor teeth, one behind the other. This way they can be distinguished from rodents, with which they are often confused. Carl Linnaeus originally grouped rabbits and rodents under the class Glires; later, they were separated as the scientific consensus is that many of their similarities were a result of convergent evolution. Recent DNA analysis and the discovery of a common ancestor has supported the view that they share a common lineage, so rabbits and rodents are now often grouped together in the superorder Glires.


title: Rabbit

text: Since speed and agility are a rabbit's main defenses against predators (including the swift fox), rabbits have large hind leg bones and well developed musculature. Though plantigrade at rest, rabbits are on their toes while running, assuming a more digitigrade posture. Rabbits use their strong claws for digging and (along with their teeth) for defense. Each front foot has four toes plus a dewclaw. Each hind foot has four toes (but no dewclaw).


title: Rabbit

text: Most wild rabbits (especially compared to hares) have relatively full, egg-shaped bodies. The soft coat of the wild rabbit is agouti in coloration (or, rarely, melanistic), which aids in camouflage. The tail of the rabbit (with the exception of the cottontail species) is dark on top and white below. Cottontails have white on the top of their tails.


title: Rabbit

text: As a result of the position of the eyes in its skull, the rabbit has a field of vision that encompasses nearly 360 degrees, with just a small blind spot at the bridge of the nose.


title: Rabbit

text: The anatomy of rabbits' hind limbs are structurally similar to that of other land mammals and contribute to their specialized form of locomotion. The bones of the hind limbs consist of long bones (the femur, tibia, fibula, and phalanges) as well as short bones (the tarsals). These bones are created through endochondral ossification during development. Like most land mammals, the round head of the femur articulates with the acetabulum of the os coxae. The femur articulates with the tibia, but not the fibula, which is fused to the tibia. The tibia and fibula articulate with the tarsals of the pes, commonly called the foot. The hind limbs of the rabbit are longer than the front limbs. This allows them to produce their hopping form of locomotion. Longer hind limbs are more capable of producing faster speeds. Hares, which have longer legs than cottontail rabbits, are able to move considerably faster. Rabbits stay just on their toes when moving; this is called Digitigrade locomotion. The hind feet have four long toes that allow for this and are webbed to prevent them from spreading when hopping. Rabbits do not have paw pads on their feet like most other animals that use digitigrade locomotion. Instead, they have coarse compressed hair that offers protection.


title: Rabbit

text: Rabbits have muscled hind legs that allow for maximum force, maneuverability, and acceleration that is divided into three main parts; foot, thigh, and leg. The hind limbs of a rabbit are an exaggerated feature. They are much longer than the forelimbs, providing more force. Rabbits run on their toes to gain the optimal stride during locomotion. The force put out by the hind limbs is contributed to both the structural anatomy of the fusion tibia and fibula, and muscular features. Bone formation and removal, from a cellular standpoint, is directly correlated to hind limb muscles. Action pressure from muscles creates force that is then distributed through the skeletal structures. Rabbits that generate less force, putting less stress on bones are more prone to osteoporosis due to bone rarefaction. In rabbits, the more fibers in a muscle, the more resistant to fatigue. For example, hares have a greater resistance to fatigue than cottontails. The muscles of rabbit's hind limbs can be classified into four main categories: hamstrings, quadriceps, dorsiflexors, or plantar flexors. The quadriceps muscles are in charge of force production when jumping. Complementing these muscles are the hamstrings, which aid in short bursts of action. These muscles play off of one another in the same way as the plantar flexors and dorsiflexors, contributing to the generation and actions associated with force.


title: Rabbit

text: Within the order lagomorphs, the ears are utilized to detect and avoid predators. In the family Leporidae, the ears are typically longer than they are wide. For example, in black tailed jack rabbits, their long ears cover a greater surface area relative to their body size that allow them to detect predators from far away. Contrasted to cotton tailed rabbits, their ears are smaller and shorter, requiring predators to be closer to detect them before they can flee. Evolution has favored rabbits having shorter ears so the larger surface area does not cause them to lose heat in more temperate regions. The opposite can be seen in rabbits that live in hotter climates, mainly because they possess longer ears that have a larger surface area that help with dispersion of heat as well as the theory that sound does not travel well in more arid air, opposed to cooler air. Therefore, longer ears are meant to aid the organism in detecting predators sooner rather than later in warmer temperatures. The rabbit is characterized by its shorter ears while hares are characterized by their longer ears. Rabbits' ears are an important structure to aid thermoregulation and detect predators due to how the outer, middle, and inner ear muscles coordinate with one another. The ear muscles also aid in maintaining balance and movement when fleeing predators.


title: Rabbit

text: The auricle, also known as the pinna, is a rabbit's outer ear. The rabbit's pinnae represent a fair part of the body surface area. It is theorized that the ears aid in dispersion of heat at temperatures above 30 °C with rabbits in warmer climates having longer pinnae due to this. Another theory is that the ears function as shock absorbers that could aid and stabilize rabbit's vision when fleeing predators, but this has typically only been seen in hares. The rest of the outer ear has bent canals that lead to the eardrum or tympanic membrane.


title: Rabbit

text: The middle ear is filled with three bones called ossicles and is separated by the outer eardrum in the back of the rabbit's skull. The three ossicles are called hammer, anvil, and stirrup and act to decrease sound before it hits the inner ear. In general, the ossicles act as a barrier to the inner ear for sound energy.


title: Rabbit

text: Inner ear fluid called endolymph receives the sound energy. After receiving the energy, later within the inner ear there are two parts: the cochlea that utilizes sound waves from the ossicles and the vestibular apparatus that manages the rabbit's position in regards to movement. Within the cochlea there is a basilar membrane that contains sensory hair structures utilized to send nerve signals to the brain so it can recognize different sound frequencies. Within the vestibular apparatus the rabbit possesses three semicircular canals to help detect angular motion.


title: Rabbit

text: Thermoregulation is the process that an organism utilizes to maintain an optimal body temperature independent of external conditions. This process is carried out by the pinnae, which takes up most of the rabbit's body surface and contain a vascular network and arteriovenous shunts. In a rabbit, the optimal body temperature is around 38.5–40℃. If their body temperature exceeds or does not meet this optimal temperature, the rabbit must return to homeostasis. Homeostasis of body temperature is maintained by the use of their large, highly vascularized ears that are able to change the amount of blood flow that passes through the ears.


title: Rabbit

text: Constriction and dilation of blood vessels in the ears are used to control the core body temperature of a rabbit. If the core temperature exceeds its optimal temperature greatly, blood flow is constricted to limit the amount of blood going through the vessels. With this constriction, there is only a limited amount of blood that is passing through the ears where ambient heat would be able to heat the blood that is flowing through the ears and therefore, increasing the body temperature. Constriction is also used when the ambient temperature is much lower than that of the rabbit's core body temperature. When the ears are constricted it again limits blood flow through the ears to conserve the optimal body temperature of the rabbit. If the ambient temperature is either 15 degrees above or below the optimal body temperature, the blood vessels will dilate. With the blood vessels being enlarged, the blood is able to pass through the large surface area, causing it to either heat or cool down.


title: Rabbit

text: During hot summers, the rabbit has the capability to stretch its pinnae, which allows for greater surface area and increase heat dissipation. In cold winters, the rabbit does the opposite and folds its ears in order to decrease its surface area to the ambient air, which would decrease their body temperature.


title: Rabbit

text: The jackrabbit has the largest ears within the "Oryctolagus cuniculus" group. Their ears contribute to 17% of their total body surface area. Their large pinna were evolved to maintain homeostasis while in the extreme temperatures of the desert.


title: Rabbit

text: The rabbit's nasal cavity lies dorsal to the oral cavity, and the two compartments are separated by the hard and soft palate. The nasal cavity itself is separated into a left and right side by a cartilage barrier, and it is covered in fine hairs that trap dust before it can enter the respiratory tract. As the rabbit breathes, air flows in through the nostrils along the alar folds. From there, the air moves into the nasal cavity, also known as the nasopharynx, down through the trachea, through the larynx, and into the lungs. The larynx functions as the rabbit's voice box, which enables it to produce a wide variety of sounds. The trachea is a long tube embedded with cartilaginous rings that prevent the tube from collapsing as air moves in and out of the lungs. The trachea then splits into a left and right bronchus, which meet the lungs at a structure called the hilum. From there, the bronchi split into progressively more narrow and numerous branches. The bronchi branch into bronchioles, into respiratory bronchioles, and ultimately terminate at the alveolar ducts. The branching that is typically found in rabbit lungs is a clear example of monopodial branching, in which smaller branches divide out laterally from a larger central branch.


title: Rabbit

text: The structure of the rabbit's nasal and oral cavities, necessitates breathing through the nose. This is due to the fact that the epiglottis is fixed to the backmost portion of the soft palate. Within the oral cavity, a layer of tissue sits over the opening of the glottis, which blocks airflow from the oral cavity to the trachea. The epiglottis functions to prevent the rabbit from aspirating on its food. Further, the presence of a soft and hard palate allow the rabbit to breathe through its nose while it feeds.


title: Rabbit

text: Rabbits lungs are divided into four lobes: the cranial, middle, caudal, and accessory lobes. The right lung is made up of all four lobes, while the left lung only has two: the cranial and caudal lobes. In order to provide space for the heart, the left cranial lobe of the lungs is significantly smaller than that of the right. The diaphragm is a muscular structure that lies caudal to the lungs and contracts to facilitate respiration.


title: Rabbit

text: Rabbits are herbivores that feed by grazing on grass and other leafy plants. Consequently, their diet contains large amounts of cellulose, which is hard to digest. Rabbits solve this problem via a form of hindgut fermentation. They pass two distinct types of feces: hard droppings and soft black viscous pellets, the latter of which are known as caecotrophs or "night droppings" and are immediately eaten (a behaviour known as "coprophagy"). Rabbits reingest their own droppings (rather than chewing the cud as do cows and numerous other herbivores) to digest their food further and extract sufficient nutrients.


title: Rabbit

text: Rabbits graze heavily and rapidly for roughly the first half-hour of a grazing period (usually in the late afternoon), followed by about half an hour of more selective feeding. In this time, the rabbit will also excrete many hard fecal pellets, being waste pellets that will not be reingested. If the environment is relatively non-threatening, the rabbit will remain outdoors for many hours, grazing at intervals. While out of the burrow, the rabbit will occasionally reingest its soft, partially digested pellets; this is rarely observed, since the pellets are reingested as they are produced.


title: Rabbit

text: Hard pellets are made up of hay-like fragments of plant cuticle and stalk, being the final waste product after redigestion of soft pellets. These are only released outside the burrow and are not reingested. Soft pellets are usually produced several hours after grazing, after the hard pellets have all been excreted. They are made up of micro-organisms and undigested plant cell walls.


title: Rabbit

text: Rabbits are hindgut digesters. This means that most of their digestion takes place in their large intestine and cecum. In rabbits, the cecum is about 10 times bigger than the stomach and it along with the large intestine makes up roughly 40% of the rabbit's digestive tract. The unique musculature of the cecum allows the intestinal tract of the rabbit to separate fibrous material from more digestible material; the fibrous material is passed as feces, while the more nutritious material is encased in a mucous lining as a cecotrope. Cecotropes, sometimes called "night feces", are high in minerals, vitamins and proteins that are necessary to the rabbit's health. Rabbits eat these to meet their nutritional requirements; the mucous coating allows the nutrients to pass through the acidic stomach for digestion in the intestines. This process allows rabbits to extract the necessary nutrients from their food.


title: Rabbit

text: The chewed plant material collects in the large cecum, a secondary chamber between the large and small intestine containing large quantities of symbiotic bacteria that help with the digestion of cellulose and also produce certain B vitamins. The pellets are about 56% bacteria by dry weight, largely accounting for the pellets being 24.4% protein on average. The soft feces form here and contain up to five times the vitamins of hard feces. After being excreted, they are eaten whole by the rabbit and redigested in a special part of the stomach. The pellets remain intact for up to six hours in the stomach; the bacteria within continue to digest the plant carbohydrates. This double-digestion process enables rabbits to use nutrients that they may have missed during the first passage through the gut, as well as the nutrients formed by the microbial activity and thus ensures that maximum nutrition is derived from the food they eat. This process serves the same purpose in the rabbit as rumination does in cattle and sheep.


title: Rabbit

text: Because rabbits cannot vomit, if buildup occurs within the intestines (due often to a diet with insufficient fibre), intestinal blockage can occur.


title: Rabbit

text: The adult male reproductive system forms the same as most mammals with the seminiferous tubular compartment containing the Sertoli cells and an adluminal compartment that contains the Leydig cells. The Leydig cells produce testosterone, which maintains libido and creates secondary sex characteristics such as the genital tubercle and penis. The Sertoli cells triggers the production of Anti-Müllerian duct hormone, which absorbs the Müllerian duct. In an adult male rabbit, the sheath of the penis is cylinder-like and can be extruded as early as two months of age. The scrotal sacs lay lateral to the penis and contain epididymal fat pads which protect the testes. Between 10 and 14 weeks, the testes descend and are able to retract into the pelvic cavity in order to thermoregulate. Furthermore, the secondary sex characteristics, such as the testes, are complex and secrete many compounds. These compounds includes fructose, citric acid, minerals, and a uniquely high amount of catalase.


title: Rabbit

text: The adult female reproductive tract is bipartite, which prevents an embryo from translocating between uteri. The two uterine horns communicate to two cervixes and forms one vaginal canal. Along with being bipartite, the female rabbit does not go through an estrus cycle, which causes mating induced ovulation.


title: Rabbit

text: The average female rabbit becomes sexually mature at three to eight months of age and can conceive at any time of the year for the duration of her life. Egg and sperm production can begin to decline after three years. During mating, the male rabbit will mount the female rabbit from behind and insert his penis into the female and make rapid pelvic hip thrusts. The encounter lasts only 20–40 seconds and after, the male will throw himself backwards off the female.


title: Rabbit

text: The rabbit gestation period is short and ranges from 28 to 36 days with an average period of 31 days. A longer gestation period will generally yield a smaller litter while shorter gestation periods will give birth to a larger litter. The size of a single litter can range from four to 12 kits allowing a female to deliver up to 60 new kits a year. After birth, the female can become pregnant again as early as the next day.


title: Rabbit

text: The mortality rates of embryos are high in rabbits and can be due to infection, trauma, poor nutrition and environmental stress so a high fertility rate is necessary to counter this.


title: Rabbit

text: Rabbits may appear to be crepuscular, but their natural inclination is toward nocturnal activity. In 2011, the average sleep time of a rabbit in captivity was calculated at 8.4 hours per day. As with other prey animals, rabbits often sleep with their eyes open, so that sudden movements will awaken the rabbit to respond to potential danger.


title: Rabbit

text: In addition to being at risk of disease from common pathogens such as "Bordetella bronchiseptica" and "Escherichia coli", rabbits can contract the virulent, species-specific viruses RHD ("rabbit hemorrhagic disease", a form of calicivirus) or myxomatosis. Among the parasites that infect rabbits are tapeworms (such as "Taenia serialis)", external parasites (including fleas and mites), coccidia species, and "Toxoplasma gondii". Domesticated rabbits with a diet lacking in high fiber sources, such as hay and grass, are susceptible to potentially lethal gastrointestinal stasis. Rabbits and hares are almost never found to be infected with rabies and have not been known to transmit rabies to humans.


title: Rabbit

text: "Encephalitozoon cuniculi", an obligate intracellular parasite is also capable of infecting many mammals including rabbits.


title: Rabbit

text: Rabbit immunity has significantly diverged from other tetrapods in the manner it employs immunoglobulin light chains. In one case McCartney-Francis "et al.", 1984 discover a unique additional disulfide bond between Cys 80 in Vκ and Cys 171 in Cκ. They suggest that this may serve to stabilise rabbit antibodies. Meanwhile "" shows high amino acid divergence between domesticated types and ferals derived from them. This can be as high as 40%.


title: Rabbit

text: Rabbit hemorrhagic disease is caused by strains of rabbit hemorrhagic disease virus (RHDV) including type 2 (RHDV2). RHDV2 was detected for the first time in Washington state, USA in May 2022 and then in August once in Washington and twice in Oregon.


title: Rabbit

text: Rabbits are prey animals and are therefore constantly aware of their surroundings. For instance, in Mediterranean Europe, rabbits are the main prey of red foxes, badgers, and Iberian lynxes. If confronted by a potential threat, a rabbit may freeze and observe then warn others in the warren with powerful thumps on the ground. Rabbits have a remarkably wide field of vision, and a good deal of it is devoted to overhead scanning. The doe (mother) is aware that she gives off scent which can attract predators, so she will stay away from the nest to avoid putting the kits (babies) in danger, returning the nest only a few times a day to feed the kits.


title: Rabbit

text: Rabbits survive predation by burrowing, hopping away in a zig-zag motion, and, if captured, delivering powerful kicks with their hind legs. Their strong teeth allow them to eat and to bite in order to escape a struggle. The longest-lived rabbit on record, a domesticated European rabbit living in Tasmania, died at age 18. The lifespan of wild rabbits is much shorter; the average longevity of an eastern cottontail, for instance, is less than one year.


title: Rabbit

text: Rabbit habitats include meadows, woods, forests, grasslands, deserts and wetlands. Rabbits live in groups, and the best known species, the European rabbit, lives in burrows, or rabbit holes. A group of burrows is called a "warren".