title: Johann Sebastian Bach

text: Bach was best known during his lifetime as an organist, organ consultant, and composer of organ works in both the traditional German free genres (such as preludes, fantasias, and toccatas) and stricter forms (such as chorale preludes and fugues). At a young age, he established a reputation for creativity and ability to integrate foreign styles into his organ works. A decidedly North German influence was exerted by Georg Böhm, with whom Bach came into contact in Lüneburg, and Dieterich Buxtehude, whom the young organist visited in Lübeck in 1704 on an extended leave of absence from his job in Arnstadt. Around this time, Bach copied the works of numerous French and Italian composers to gain insights into their compositional languages, and later arranged violin concertos by Vivaldi and others for organ and harpsichord. During his most productive period (1708–1714) he composed about a dozen pairs of preludes and fugues, five toccatas and fugues, and the "Orgelbüchlein" or "Little Organ Book", an unfinished collection of 46 short chorale preludes that demonstrate compositional techniques in the setting of chorale tunes. After leaving Weimar, Bach wrote less for organ, although some of his best-known works (the six Organ Sonatas, the German Organ Mass in "Clavier-Übung" III from 1739, and the Great Eighteen Chorale Preludes, revised late in his life) were composed after leaving Weimar. Bach was extensively engaged later in his life in consulting on organ projects, testing new organs and dedicating organs in afternoon recitals. The Canonic Variations on "Vom Himmel hoch da komm' ich her" and the "Schübler Chorales" are organ works Bach published in the last years of his life.


title: Johann Sebastian Bach

text: Bach wrote many works for harpsichord, some of which may also have been played on the clavichord or lute-harpsichord. Some of his larger works, such as "Clavier-Übung" II and IV, are intended for a harpsichord with two manuals: performing them on a keyboard instrument with a single manual (like a piano) may present technical difficulties for the crossing of hands.


title: Johann Sebastian Bach

text: Among Bach's lesser known keyboard works are seven toccatas (BWV 910–916), four duets (BWV 802–805), sonatas for keyboard (BWV 963–967), the Six Little Preludes (BWV 933–938), and the (BWV 989).


title: Johann Sebastian Bach

text: Bach wrote for single instruments, duets, and small ensembles. Many of his solo works, such as the six sonatas and partitas for violin (BWV 1001–1006) and the six cello suites (BWV 1007–1012), are widely considered to be among the most profound in the repertoire. He wrote sonatas for a solo instrument such as the viola de gamba accompanied by harpsichord or continuo, as well as trio sonatas (two instruments and continuo).


title: Johann Sebastian Bach

text: "The Musical Offering" and "The Art of Fugue" are late contrapuntal works containing pieces for unspecified instruments or combinations of instruments.


title: Johann Sebastian Bach

text: Surviving works in the concerto form include two violin concertos (BWV 1041 in A minor and BWV 1042 in E major) and a concerto for two violins in D minor, BWV 1043, often referred to as Bach's "double concerto".


title: Johann Sebastian Bach

text: Bach's best-known orchestral works are the "Brandenburg Concertos", so named because he submitted them in the hope of gaining employment from Margrave Christian Ludwig of Brandenburg-Schwedt in 1721; his application was unsuccessful. These works are examples of the concerto grosso genre.


title: Johann Sebastian Bach

text: Bach composed and transcribed concertos for one to four harpsichords. Many of the harpsichord concertos were not original works but arrangements of his concertos for other instruments, now lost. A number of violin, oboe, and flute concertos have been reconstructed from these.


title: Johann Sebastian Bach

text: In addition to concertos, Bach wrote four orchestral suites, each suite being a series of stylised dances for orchestra, preceded by a French overture.


title: Johann Sebastian Bach

text: In his early youth, Bach copied pieces by other composers to learn from them. Later, he copied and arranged music for performance or as study material for his pupils. Some of these pieces, like "Bist du bei mir" (copied not by Bach but by Anna Magdalena), became famous before being dissociated with Bach. Bach copied and arranged Italian masters such as Vivaldi (e.g. BWV 1065), Pergolesi (BWV 1083) and Palestrina (), French masters such as François Couperin (BWV Anh. 183), and, closer to home, various German masters including Telemann (e.g. BWV 824=) and Handel (arias from "Brockes Passion"), and music from members of his own family. He also often copied and arranged his own music (e.g. movements from cantatas for his short masses BWV 233–236), as his music was likewise copied and arranged by others. Some of these arrangements, like the late 19th-century "Air on the G String", helped to popularise Bach's music.


title: Johann Sebastian Bach

text: Sometimes "who copied whom" is not clear. For instance, Forkel mentions a Mass for double chorus among the works composed by Bach. The work was published and performed in the early 19th century, and although a score partially in Bach's handwriting exists, the work was later considered spurious. In 1950, the design of the Bach-Werke-Verzeichnis was to keep such works out of the main catalogue: if there was a strong association with Bach they could be listed in its appendix (German: "Anhang", abbreviated as Anh.). Thus, for instance, the aforementioned Mass for double chorus became BWV Anh. 167. But this was far from the end of the attribution issues. For instance, "Schlage doch, gewünschte Stunde", BWV 53, was later attributed to Melchior Hoffmann. For other works, Bach's authorship was put in doubt without a generally accepted answer to the question of whether or not he composed it: the best known organ composition in the BWV catalogue, the Toccata and Fugue in D minor, BWV 565, was indicated as one of these uncertain works in the late 20th century.


title: Johann Sebastian Bach

text: Throughout the 18th century, the appreciation of Bach's music was mostly limited to distinguished connoisseurs. The 19th century started with publication of the first biography of the composer and ended with the completion of the publication of all of Bach's known works by the Bach Gesellschaft. A Bach Revival had started from Mendelssohn's performance of the "St Matthew Passion" in 1829. Soon after that performance, Bach started to become regarded as one of the greatest composers of all time, if not the greatest, a reputation he has retained ever since. A new extensive Bach biography was published in the second half of the 19th century.


title: Johann Sebastian Bach

text: In the 20th century Bach's music was widely performed and recorded, while the Neue Bachgesellschaft, among others, published research on the composer. Modern adaptations of Bach's music contributed greatly to his popularisation in the second half of the 20th century. Among these were the Swingle Singers' versions of Bach pieces (for instance, the from Orchestral Suite No. 3, and the chorale prelude) and Wendy Carlos' 1968 "Switched-On Bach", which used the Moog electronic synthesiser.


title: Johann Sebastian Bach

text: By the end of the 20th century, more classical performers were gradually moving away from the performance style and instrumentation that were established in the romantic era: they started to perform Bach's music on period instruments of the baroque era, studied and practised playing techniques and tempi as established in his time, and reduced the size of instrumental ensembles and choirs to what he would have employed. The BACH motif, used by the composer in his own compositions, was used in dozens of tributes to the composer from the 19th century to the 21st. In the 21st century the complete extant output of the composer became available online, with several websites exclusively dedicated to him.


title: Johann Sebastian Bach

text: The liturgical calendar of the Episcopal Church remembers Bach annually with a feast day on 28 July on the same day, the Calendar of Saints of some Lutheran churches, such as the ELCA, remembers Bach and Handel with Heinrich Schütz.


title: Johann Sebastian Bach

text: In his own time, Bach was highly regarded amongst his colleagues, although his reputation outside of this small circle of connoisseurs was due not to his compositions (which had an extremely narrow circulation), but due to his virtuosic abilities. Nevertheless, during his life, Bach received public recognition, such as the title of court composer by Augustus III of Poland and the appreciation he was shown by Frederick the Great and Hermann Karl von Keyserling. Such highly placed appreciation contrasted with the humiliations he had to cope with, for instance in Leipzig. Also in the contemporary press, Bach had his detractors, such as Johann Adolf Scheibe, suggesting he write less complex music, and his supporters, such as Johann Mattheson and Lorenz Christoph Mizler.


title: Johann Sebastian Bach

text: After his death, Bach's reputation as a composer at first declined: his work was regarded as old-fashioned compared to the emerging galant style. Initially, he was remembered more as a virtuoso player of the organ and as a teacher. The bulk of the music that had been printed during the composer's lifetime, at least the part that was remembered, was for the organ and the harpsichord. Thus, his reputation as a composer was initially mostly limited to his keyboard music, and that even fairly limited to its value in music education.


title: Johann Sebastian Bach

text: Bach's surviving family members, who inherited a large part of his manuscripts, were not all equally concerned with preserving them, leading to considerable losses. Carl Philipp Emanuel, his second eldest son, was most active in safeguarding his father's legacy: he co-authored his father's obituary, contributed to the publication of his four-part chorales, staged some of his works, and the bulk of previously unpublished works of his father were preserved with his help. Wilhelm Friedemann, the eldest son, performed several of his father's cantatas in Halle but after becoming unemployed sold part of the large collection of his father's works he owned. Several students of the old master, such as his son-in-law Johann Christoph Altnickol, Johann Friedrich Agricola, Johann Kirnberger, and Johann Ludwig Krebs, contributed to the dissemination of his legacy. The early devotees were not all musicians; for example, in Berlin, Daniel Itzig, a high official of Frederick the Great's court, venerated Bach. His eldest daughters took lessons from Kirnberger and their sister Sara from Wilhelm Friedemann Bach, who was in Berlin from 1774 to 1784. Sara Itzig Levy became an avid collector of works by Johann Sebastian Bach and his sons and was a "patron" of CPE Bach.


title: Johann Sebastian Bach

text: While in Leipzig, performances of Bach's church music were limited to some of his motets, and under cantor Doles some of his Passions. A new generation of Bach aficionados emerged: they studiously collected and copied his music, including some of his large-scale works such as the Mass in B minor and performed it privately. One such connoisseur was Gottfried van Swieten, a high-ranking Austrian official who was instrumental in passing Bach's legacy on to the composers of the Viennese school. Haydn owned manuscript copies of the "Well-Tempered Clavier" and the Mass in B minor and was influenced by Bach's music. Mozart owned a copy of one of Bach's motets, transcribed some of his instrumental works (K. 404a, 405), and wrote contrapuntal music influenced by his style. Beethoven played the entire "Well-Tempered Clavier" by the time he was 11 and described Bach as (progenitor of harmony).


title: Johann Sebastian Bach

text: In 1802, Johann Nikolaus Forkel published "Ueber Johann Sebastian Bachs Leben, Kunst und Kunstwerke", the first biography of the composer, which contributed to his becoming known to a wider public. In 1805, Abraham Mendelssohn, who had married one of Itzig's granddaughters, bought a substantial collection of Bach manuscripts that had come down from C. P. E. Bach, and donated it to the Berlin Sing-Akademie. The Sing-Akademie occasionally performed Bach's works in public concerts, for instance his first keyboard concerto, with Sara Itzig Levy at the piano.


title: Johann Sebastian Bach

text: The first decades of the 19th century saw an increasing number of first publications of Bach's music: Breitkopf started publishing chorale preludes, Hoffmeister harpsichord music, and the "Well-Tempered Clavier" was printed concurrently by Simrock (Germany), Nägeli (Switzerland) and Hoffmeister (Germany and Austria) in 1801. Vocal music was also published: motets in 1802 and 1803, followed by the E major version of the "Magnificat", the Kyrie-Gloria Mass in A major, and the cantata "Ein feste Burg ist unser Gott" (BWV 80). In 1818, Hans Georg Nägeli called the "Mass in B minor" the greatest composition ever. Bach's influence was felt in the next generation of early Romantic composers. When Felix Mendelssohn, Abraham's son, aged 13, produced his first "Magnificat" setting in 1822, it is clear that he had been inspired by the then unpublished D major version of Bach's "Magnificat".


title: Johann Sebastian Bach

text: Felix Mendelssohn significantly contributed to the renewed interest in Bach's work with his 1829 Berlin performance of the "St Matthew Passion", which was instrumental in setting off what has been called the Bach Revival. The "St John Passion" saw its 19th-century premiere in 1833, and the first performance of the "Mass in B minor" followed in 1844. Besides these and other public performances and an increased coverage on the composer and his compositions in printed media, the 1830s and 1840s also saw the first publication of more vocal works by Bach: six cantatas, the "St Matthew Passion", and the "Mass in B minor". A series of organ compositions saw their first publication in 1833. Chopin started composing his 24 Preludes, Op. 28, inspired by the "Well-Tempered Clavier", in 1835, and Schumann published his "Sechs Fugen über den Namen B-A-C-H" in 1845. Bach's music was transcribed and arranged to suit contemporary tastes and performance practice by composers such as Carl Friedrich Zelter, Robert Franz, and Franz Liszt, or combined with new music such as the melody line of Charles Gounod's "Ave Maria". Brahms, Bruckner, and Wagner were among the composers who promoted Bach's music or wrote glowingly about it.


title: Johann Sebastian Bach

text: In 1850, the (Bach Society) was founded to promote Bach's music. In the second half of the 19th century, the Society published a comprehensive edition of the composer's works. Also in the second half of the 19th century, Philipp Spitta published "Johann Sebastian Bach", the standard work on Bach's life and music. By that time, Bach was known as the first of the three Bs in music. Throughout the 19th century, 200 books were published on Bach. By the end of the century, local Bach societies were established in several cities, and his music had been performed in all major musical centres.


title: Johann Sebastian Bach

text: In Germany all throughout the century, Bach was coupled to nationalist feelings, and the composer was inscribed in a religious revival. In England, Bach was coupled to an existing revival of religious and baroque music. By the end of the century, Bach was firmly established as one of the greatest composers, recognised for both his instrumental and his vocal music.


title: Johann Sebastian Bach

text: During the 20th century, the process of recognising the musical as well as the pedagogic value of some of the works continued, as in the promotion of the cello suites by Pablo Casals, the first major performer to record these suites. Leading performers of classical music such as Willem Mengelberg, Edwin Fischer, Georges Enescu, Leopold Stokowski, Herbert von Karajan, Arthur Grumiaux, Helmut Walcha, Wanda Landowska, Karl Richter, I Musici, Dietrich Fischer-Dieskau, and Glenn Gould recorded his music.


title: Johann Sebastian Bach

text: A significant development in the later part of the 20th century was the momentum gained by the historically informed performance practice, with forerunners such as Nikolaus Harnoncourt acquiring prominence by their performances of Bach's music. His keyboard music was again performed more on the instruments Bach was familiar with, rather than on modern pianos and 19th-century romantic organs. Ensembles playing and singing Bach's music not only kept to the instruments and the performance style of his day but were also reduced to the size of the groups Bach used for his performances. But that was far from the only way Bach's music came to the forefront in the 20th century: his music was heard in versions ranging from Ferruccio Busoni's late romantic piano transcriptions to jazzy interpretations such as those by The Swingle Singers, orchestrations like the one opening Walt Disney's "Fantasia" movie, and synthesiser performances such as Wendy Carlos' "Switched-On Bach" recordings.


title: Johann Sebastian Bach

text: Bach's music has influenced other genres. For instance, jazz musicians have adopted Bach's music, with Jacques Loussier, Ian Anderson, Uri Caine, and the Modern Jazz Quartet among those creating jazz versions of his works. Several 20th-century composers referred to Bach or his music, for example Eugène Ysaÿe in Six Sonatas for solo violin, Dmitri Shostakovich in 24 Preludes and Fugues and Heitor Villa-Lobos in "Bachianas Brasileiras". All kinds of publications involved Bach: not only were there the "Bach Jahrbuch" publications of the Neue Bachgesellschaft, various other biographies and studies by among others Albert Schweitzer, Charles Sanford Terry, Alfred Dürr, Christoph Wolff. Peter Williams, John Butt, and the 1950 first edition of the Bach-Werke-Verzeichnis; but also books such as "Gödel, Escher, Bach" put the composer's art in a wider perspective. Bach's music was extensively listened to, performed, broadcast, arranged, adapted, and commented upon in the 1990s. Around 2000, the 250th anniversary of Bach's death, three record companies issued box sets with complete recordings of Bach's music.


title: Johann Sebastian Bach

text: Bach's music features three timesmore than that of any other composeron the Voyager Golden Record, a gramophone record containing a broad sample of the images, common sounds, languages, and music of Earth, sent into outer space with the two Voyager probes. Tributes to Bach in the 20th century include statues erected in his honour and a variety of things such as streets and space objects being named after him. Also, a multitude of musical ensembles such as the Bach Aria Group, Deutsche Bachsolisten, Bachchor Stuttgart, and Bach Collegium Japan adopted the composer's name. Bach festivals were held on several continents, and competitions and prizes such as the International Johann Sebastian Bach Competition and the Royal Academy of Music Bach Prize were named after the composer. While by the end of the 19th century Bach had been inscribed in nationalism and religious revival, the late 20th century saw Bach as the subject of a secularised art-as-religion ().


title: Johann Sebastian Bach

text: In the 21st century, Bach's compositions have become available online, for instance at the International Music Score Library Project. High-resolution facsimiles of Bach's autographs became available at the Bach Digital website. 21st-century biographers include Christoph Wolff, Peter Williams and John Eliot Gardiner.


title: Johann Sebastian Bach

text: In 2015, Bach's handwritten personal copy of his Mass in B minor, held by the Berlin State Library, was added to UNESCO's Memory of the World Register, a program intended to protect culturally significant manuscripts.


title: Johann Sebastian Bach

text: In 2019, Bach was named the greatest composer of all time in a poll conducted among 174 living composers.


title: Johann Sebastian Bach

text: Bach was originally buried at Old St. John's Cemetery in Leipzig. His grave went unmarked for nearly 150 years, but in 1894 his remains were located and moved to a vault in St. John's Church. This building was destroyed by Allied bombing during World War II, so in 1950 Bach's remains were taken to their present grave in St. Thomas Church. Later research has called into question whether the remains in the grave are actually those of Bach.


title: Crazy Rich Asians (film)

text: Crazy Rich Asians is a 2018 American romantic comedy-drama film directed by Jon M. Chu, from a screenplay by Peter Chiarelli and Adele Lim, based on the 2013 novel of the same title by Kevin Kwan. The film stars Constance Wu, Henry Golding, Gemma Chan, Lisa Lu, Awkwafina, Ken Jeong, and Michelle Yeoh. It follows a Chinese-American professor who travels to meet her boyfriend's family and is surprised to discover they are among the richest in Singapore.


title: Crazy Rich Asians (film)

text: The film was announced in August 2013 after the rights to the book were purchased. Many of the cast members signed on in the spring of 2017, and filming took place from April to June of that year in parts of Singapore, Malaysia and New York City. It is the first film by a major Hollywood studio to feature a majority cast of Chinese descent in a modern setting since "The Joy Luck Club" in 1993. Despite such praises, the film received some criticism for casting biracial actors over fully ethnically Chinese ones in certain roles. Additional criticism was also directed at the film for failing to acknowledge Singapore's multiracial demographic by including other Singaporean ethnic groups—such as Malay and Indian actors—as characters, as well as perpetuating cliche stereotypes of East and Southeast Asians.


title: Crazy Rich Asians (film)

text: "Crazy Rich Asians" premiered on August 7, 2018, at the TCL Chinese Theatre in Los Angeles and was released theatrically in the United States on August 15, 2018, by Warner Bros. Pictures. A major critical and commercial success, the film grossed over $238 million on a budget of $30 million, making it the highest-grossing romantic comedy of the 2010s, and received high praise for the performances of its cast, the screenplay, and production design. The film received numerous accolades, including the 76th Golden Globe Awards nominations for Best Motion Picture – Musical or Comedy and Best Actress – Motion Picture Comedy or Musical for Wu. It received a nomination at the 50th NAACP Image Awards for Outstanding Motion Picture. It also received four nominations at the 24th Critics' Choice Awards, winning one for Best Comedy, and a Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Cast in a Motion Picture at the 25th Screen Actors Guild Awards. Two sequels, based on the novel's follow-ups "China Rich Girlfriend" and "Rich People Problems", are in development.


title: Crazy Rich Asians (film)

text: Rachel Chu, an economics professor at New York University and New York native, and her boyfriend Nick Young travel to Singapore for the wedding of Nick’s best friend Colin Khoo. On the airplane, Rachel asks her boyfriend why they are staying at a hotel and not with his family. Nick lies and says he wants to keep her to himself a little while longer. In fact, his mother had made it clear his mysterious new girlfriend was unwelcome in her home.


title: Crazy Rich Asians (film)

text: When the two arrive at Changi Airport, Nick’s best friend Colin and his bubbly fiancée Araminta Lee are waiting for them. The four then venture to Newton Food Centre for dinner where Rachel is in awe of the vibrant food culture of Singapore. The following day, Rachel visits her college roommate Goh Peik Lin and her wealthy family, who are shocked when Rachel tells them whom she is dating. Peik Lin reveals that Nick's family are 'old money' and extremely wealthy (the eponymous "crazy rich Asians") and thus akin to royalty in Singapore.


title: Crazy Rich Asians (film)

text: Later that evening, Rachel and Peik Lin arrive at the dinner party at the sprawling Young family estate. Nick introduces Rachel to his mother Eleanor, while his cousin Astrid Leong-Teo discovers that her husband Michael, who comes from a more humble background than the Youngs, has been having an affair. Rachel immediately senses that Eleanor dislikes her. Nick then introduces Rachel to his grandmother, Shang Su Yi, the Young family matriarch. Su Yi takes an immediate liking to Rachel, and offers to teach her how to make jiaozi dumplings.


title: Crazy Rich Asians (film)

text: At the bachelorette party for Araminta, the bride, Rachel meets Amanda Ling, who reveals she is Nick's former girlfriend and confirms that Rachel may face rejection by the Youngs due to her modest background. Rachel finds her hotel room vandalized by the other girls, who deem her a gold-digger, but is comforted by Astrid. In parallel, Nick attends Colin's bachelor party and reveals to Colin his plan to propose to Rachel. Colin expresses his concern about the potential conflicts this could cause: in addition to their class difference, Nick is expected to stay in Singapore and run his family's corporation, whereas Rachel loves her job in New York.


title: Crazy Rich Asians (film)

text: After the parties, Nick apologizes to Rachel for not telling her who he really was and takes her to make jiaozi dumplings with his family. Eleanor recounts the sacrifices she made to become a part of the Young family and makes jabs at Rachel for her American background, specifically highlighting the American unwillingness to place family over self, even after Rachel compliments Eleanor's emerald engagement ring. Su Yi arrives and then criticizes Eleanor’s dumplings, making everyone present visibly uncomfortable. Later, Eleanor privately recounts how Nick's father had to obtain her ring because Su Yi disapproved of Eleanor and refused to give him the family ring, and she tells Rachel that she will never be enough for Nick or his family. Peik Lin convinces Rachel to stand up to Eleanor and earn her respect.


title: Crazy Rich Asians (film)

text: On the day of the wedding, Peik Lin, with the help of Oliver T’sien (Nick’s second cousin and the self-described “rainbow sheep” of the Young family) gives Rachel a glamorous and elegant makeover that visibly stuns everyone in attendance, especially Nick. Meanwhile, en route to the wedding, Astrid confronts Michael about his affair only to learn that he blames his unhappiness and his infidelity on the financial disparity between them. During the wedding reception, Eleanor and Su Yi privately confront Rachel and Nick. Using the findings of a private investigator, Eleanor reveals that Rachel's father is alive, and Rachel was conceived through an extramarital affair, after which her mother, Kerry, left her husband and fled to the United States. They demand that Nick stop seeing Rachel for fear of being linked to such a scandal. This shocks Rachel, as her mother had told her that her father was dead. Heartbroken, she flees to Peik Lin's home, remaining in bed in a depressed stupor for days.


title: Crazy Rich Asians (film)

text: Kerry later arrives, explaining that her husband was abusive and that the comfort of an old classmate turned into love, and a surprise pregnancy. She fled with baby Rachel in fear that her husband would kill them. Kerry then reveals that Nick was the one who called her to Singapore, and urges Rachel to talk to him before they go home. When they meet, Nick sincerely apologizes for all that he and his family have put her through. He then proposes to Rachel, promising that he is willing to abandon his family, position, and wealth to be with her.


title: Crazy Rich Asians (film)

text: Rachel arranges to meet Eleanor at a mahjong parlor. As they play, she reveals that she declined Nick's proposal. She points out that Eleanor has placed the three of them in an unwinnable position: Nick can forsake Rachel and remain dutiful but resentful to his family, or he can forsake his family for love. She then clarifies that she declined his proposal so that he wouldn't have to make a lose-lose decision. Simultaneously, she hands Eleanor the mahjong tile that lets the older woman win, before revealing that she could have kept the tile for herself and claimed victory. Having thus demonstrated her willingness to place family over self, she leaves with Kerry. Meanwhile, Astrid takes her son Cassian and moves out, but not before telling Michael that it was his ego and insecurities that caused their marriage to fail, not her family’s wealth.


title: Crazy Rich Asians (film)

text: Eleanor meets with Nick, emotionally affected by her exchange with Rachel. Meanwhile, at Changi Airport, Rachel and Kerry are boarding a flight back to New York. They are suddenly interrupted by Nick, who proposes again—this time with Eleanor's emerald ring, symbolizing her blessing. In tears, Rachel accepts and they stay in Singapore for an engagement party, where Eleanor nods to Rachel in acknowledgment, Rachel having finally earned her respect. In a mid-credits scene, Astrid and her ex-boyfriend Charlie Wu spot each other at the party; she discreetly smiles.


title: Crazy Rich Asians (film)

text: Other cast members include Carmen Soo as Francesca Shaw, Nick's snobby ex-girlfriend;Pierre Png as Michael Teo, Astrid's husband;Fiona Xie as Kitty Pong, Alistair's girlfriend and Taiwanese soap opera star; Victoria Loke as Fiona Tung-Cheng, Eddie's wife from Hong Kong and Nick's cousin-in-law; Janice Koh as Felicity Young, Astrid's mother and Su Yi's eldest child; Amy Cheng as Jacqueline Ling, Mandy's heiress mother and Eleanor's friend; Koh Chieng Mun as Neena Goh, Peik Lin's mother; Calvin Wong as P.T. Goh, Peik Lin's brother; Tan Kheng Hua as Kerry Chu, Rachel's mother;Constance Lau as Celine "Radio One Asia" Lim, gossiper and member of "Radio One Asia"; Selena Tan as Alexandra 'Alix' Young-Cheng, Su Yi's youngest child; Daniel Jenkins as Reginald Ormsby, manager of the London Calthorpe Hotel; Peter Carroll as Lord Calthorpe, owner of the London Calthorpe Hotel; Kris Aquino as Princess Intan, a wealthy royal; Tumurbaatar Enkhtungalag as Nadine Shao, one of Eleanor's best friends.


title: Crazy Rich Asians (film)

text: "Crazy Rich Asians" author Kevin Kwan has a cameo appearance during the "Radio One Asia" sequence. Singer Kina Grannis cameos as Colin and Araminta's wedding singer during the marriage sequence.


title: Crazy Rich Asians (film)

text: Kevin Kwan published his comedic novel "Crazy Rich Asians" on June 11, 2013. One of the first producers to contact Kwan was Wendi Deng Murdoch, who had read an advance copy of the novel provided by Graydon Carter. Another of the producers who was initially interested in the project proposed whitewashing the role of heroine Rachel Chu by casting a Caucasian actress, prompting Kwan to option the rights to the film for just $1 in exchange for a continuing role for creative and development decisions. In August 2013, producer Nina Jacobson acquired rights to adapt the novel into a film. Jacobson and her partner Brad Simpson intended to produce under their production banner Color Force, with Bryan Unkeless developing the project. Their initial plan was to produce the film adaptation outside the studio system and to structure financing for development and production from Asia and other territories outside the United States. The freedom created by eschewing the typical funding structure would enable an all-Asian cast. Jacobson stated "Getting something in development and even getting some upfront money is an easy way to not ever see your movie get made."


title: Crazy Rich Asians (film)

text: In 2014, the US-based Asian film investment group Ivanhoe Pictures partnered with Jacobson to finance and produce "Crazy Rich Asians". John Penotti, president of Ivanhoe, stated "For us, the book fell in our lap kind of like, 'This is why we're doing the company.' Unlike the Hollywood second-guessing, 'Oh my God, will this work? We don't know. It's all Asian,' it was exactly the opposite for us: 'That's exactly why it will work.


title: Crazy Rich Asians (film)

text: Screenwriter Peter Chiarelli was hired to write the screenplay before a director was brought on board. Director Jon M. Chu entered negotiations with Color Force and Ivanhoe Pictures in May 2016 to direct the film adaptation. He was hired after giving executives a visual presentation about his experience as a first-generation Asian-American. Chu was actually mentioned obliquely in the source novel as Kwan was friends with Chu's cousin Vivian. Upon joining the project, Chu insisted on bringing in a screenwriter of Asian descent, Adele Lim, to review and revise Chiarelli's script. Chiarelli was credited with focusing the plot on the dynamic between Eleanor, Rachel, and Nick. Lim also added specific cultural details and developed Eleanor's character.


title: Crazy Rich Asians (film)

text: In October 2016, Warner Bros. Pictures acquired the distribution rights to the project after what "Variety" called a "heated" bidding war. Netflix reportedly fervently sought worldwide rights to the project, offering "artistic freedom, a greenlighted trilogy and huge, seven-figure-minimum paydays for each stakeholder, upfront". However, Kwan and Chu selected Warner Bros. for the cultural impact of a wide theatrical release.


title: Crazy Rich Asians (film)

text: Although she had initially auditioned for the role of Rachel in mid-2016, Constance Wu could not accept due to a conflict with her work on the television series "Fresh Off the Boat". However, Wu wrote to Chu explaining her connection with Rachel's character, and convinced him to push back the production schedule by four months. Production was slated to begin in April 2017 in Singapore and Malaysia.


title: Crazy Rich Asians (film)

text: After Wu was chosen to play the lead Rachel Chu, newcomer Henry Golding was cast to play the male lead Nick Young. Michelle Yeoh joined the cast as Eleanor Young, Nick's mother, in March 2017. Rounding out the supporting cast was Gemma Chan as Nick's cousin Astrid Young and Sonoya Mizuno as Araminta Lee. Wu, Yeoh, and Chan were part of director Chu's "dream casting sheet" before casting was confirmed, along with Ronny Chieng and Jimmy O. Yang. On April 18, 2017, Filipino actress Kris Aquino was cast in a cameo role. On May 12, it was announced that Ken Jeong had joined the cast. Although Jeong had a minor role involving less than a week of filming, he stated "It's just something I wanted to be part of. It's about wanting to be part of something monumental. Something that's bigger than me. I'm so giddy I'm part of this, I can't even tell you."


title: Crazy Rich Asians (film)

text: The casting of Nick Young, Golding's eventual role, initially had been challenging for the filmmakers, as director Jon M. Chu reportedly was unsatisfied with the preliminary finalists from Los Angeles and China, as he felt that none of the actors could properly replicate the British accent Nick was described as having from the original book. After receiving a tip from his accountant Lisa-Kim Kuan, Chu began actively pursuing Golding for the role of Nick, who he felt had the proper accent and look for the character.


title: Crazy Rich Asians (film)

text: Biscuit Films, a production company based in Petaling Jaya that provided support for the film, commissioned casting director Jerrica Lai to provide local talent which included Carmen Soo (as Francesca Shaw, a socialite) and Calvin Wong (Peik Lin's awkward brother).


title: Crazy Rich Asians (film)

text: The film's casting prior to release was met with both praise—in the U.S. for its all-Asian cast—and criticism for its lack of Asian ethnic diversity, based on issues ranging from non-Chinese actors (Golding and Mizuno) playing Chinese roles; the film's ethnic Chinese and East Asian predominance as being poorly representative of Singapore; and as being a perpetuation of existing Chinese dominance in its media and pop culture.


title: Crazy Rich Asians (film)

text: Principal photography began on April 24, 2017, and completed on June 23. The film was shot in various locations around Malaysia as well as in Singapore. The film was shot by Vanja Černjul using Panasonic VariCam PURE cameras equipped with anamorphic lenses. Production design is credited to Nelson Coates.


title: Crazy Rich Asians (film)

text: Producer Tim Coddington contacted Biscuit Films for potential locations in Southeast Asia similar to photographs he had of mansions in Thailand. With Malaysia being a cheap filming location, Biscuit convinced him of the country, which is also culturally more similar to Singapore, where the source novel is set. The ancestral Young family home, set at Tyersall Park in Singapore, was filmed at two abandoned mansions that make up Carcosa Seri Negara within the Perdana Botanical Gardens. Interior scenes were filmed at one building, and the exterior scenes were filmed at another; they had originally been built as residences for the British High Commissioner to Malaya in the early 20th century, and were recently used as a boutique hotel until it closed in 2015. The Carcosa Seri Negara buildings, owned by the Malaysian government, were then abandoned and dilapidated; as found in 2017, they were in disrepair and "filled with monkey feces". The set designers were inspired to decorate the interior set in the Peranakan style. Kevin Kwan, who was born in Singapore and lived with his paternal grandparents before moving to the United States, contributed vintage family photographs for the set. The set designers removed carpets, painted the floors to look like tiles, and commissioned local artists to create murals. The stuffed tiger in the foyer was a simulacrum created from foam and fur in Thailand; customs inspectors delayed the shipment because they thought it was an actual taxidermied animal.


title: Crazy Rich Asians (film)

text: The opening urban scenes set in London and the West Village were actually shot in Kuala Lumpur and Penang: the Calthorpe Hotel purchased by the Youngs is the E&O Hotel in Penang; the lecture auditorium set at NYU was filmed in Putrajaya; and the restaurant where Nick asks Rachel to travel was filmed at BLVD House, Naza Towers at Platinum Park in Kuala Lumpur. The taxi drop-off scene set at John F. Kennedy International Airport also was filmed at Kuala Lumpur International Airport. Singapore Airlines was asked to participate in exchange for product placement, but declined as "they were not sure the movie would represent the airline and their customer[s] in a good light", according to producer Brad Simpson, leading to the creation of the fictional Pacific Asean Airlines for the film. After Nick asks Rachel to travel with him to Araminta and Colin's wedding, rumors about his mystery girlfriend soon reach Eleanor at a Bible study session, filmed in the private residence Be-landa House in Kuala Lumpur. The luxurious first-class suite on the Pacific Asean flight was a set built at the MINES International Exhibition & Convention Centre (MIECC) in Serdang. The scenes where Rachel and Nick arrive at Changi Airport and are then whisked away to Newton Food Centre by Colin and Araminta were shot on location. After settling in, Rachel and Nick stay at a luxury hotel (scenes were shot at the Raffles Hotel) instead of the ancestral Young estate at Tyersall. Astrid's character is introduced by showing her shopping for jewelry at an exclusive designer; the shop was created by redecorating the Astor Bar at the St. Regis Hotel in Kuala Lumpur. The Goh family's home is an actual residence off Cluny Park in Singapore, although the set decorators were responsible for the excessive gilding and pillars.


title: Crazy Rich Asians (film)

text: Colin and Nick escape the party barge (the set was built in a parking lot at MIECC, and a container ship was rented for exterior shots) to relax on Rawa Island (scenes filmed on Langkawi Island), and the bachelorette party takes place at the Four Seasons on Langkawi. After Eleanor intimidates Rachel at the dumpling party, she is cheered up by Peik Lin at the restaurant Humpback on Bukit Pasoh Road. The wedding of Araminta and Colin was shot at the CHIJMES, a former convent in Singapore built in the 19th century. After the wedding, the reception is held in the Supertree Grove at Gardens by the Bay. Rachel agrees to meet Nick at Merlion Park (this scene also featured locations filmed at Esplanade Park) before she returns to New York. Eleanor strides through archways in Ann Siang Hill near Singapore's Chinatown before arriving for the mahjong showdown with Rachel, which was filmed at the Cheong Fatt Tze Mansion in Penang, redecorated for the film as a mahjong parlor. Chu wanted that mahjong scene to be "very specifically choreographed", and had hired a mahjong expert to advise on the choreography. Nick's second proposal to Rachel with Eleanor's ring was filmed inside a twin-aisle jet parked at Kuala Lumpur International Airport. After that scene had been fully scripted, storyboarded, and planned to be filmed as a static side-by-side conversation with simple over the shoulder shots, Chu realized the day before that the energy level was all wrong and changed it to a walk and talk improvised on the spot. The film's closing scenes are set at the Marina Bay Sands.


title: Crazy Rich Asians (film)

text: Costume design was handled by Mary Vogt, with Andrea Wong serving as a consultant and senior costume buyer. They used dresses and suits from fashion designers such as Ralph Lauren, Elie Saab, Dolce & Gabbana, Valentino, and Christian Dior; many of the brands were eager to have their clothes shown off in the film. Looks were influenced by other movies cited by director Jon Chu, including "The Wizard of Oz", "Cinderella", and "In the Mood for Love". 30 makeup artists were on set to help the actors, who were filming scenes in conditions of high heat and humidity while wearing formal clothing.


title: Crazy Rich Asians (film)

text: Before traveling to Southeast Asia, Vogt received help from Kwan, who shared vintage family photographs to explain how the old money society in Singapore "was very classy, very elegant", contrasting with the new money Goh family, who are "just flinging it around, wanting to show it [off]". Andrea Wong pointed Vogt to designers around Kuala Lumpur, who contributed not only clothes but also insight into local high-society fashions. Kwan, who had worked as a design consultant before writing the novel, relied on people he knew working in the fashion industry to bring in clothes for the film.


title: Crazy Rich Asians (film)

text: In an early scene, Astrid gives a watch to her husband Michael; it is a "Paul Newman" Rolex Daytona loaned following a request from Kwan for the filming. Yeoh used her friendships with wealthy Singaporean and Hong Kong tai tais to help shape final wardrobe choices, and loaned pieces from her personal jewelry collection, including the distinctive emerald engagement ring. Kwan and director Chu insisted that all the pieces worn by the Young family must be real; the orchid brooch worn by Su Yi (Ah Ma) at the wedding and a belt buckle for Eleanor (also originally a brooch, but used to make the dress fit Yeoh) were designed by Michelle Ong and loaned from Carnet. Some of the other jewelry pieces, including Astrid's pearl earrings, were loaned from Mouawad, and guards were employed to protect the jewelry, which sometimes dictated the filming. The extras who attended the wedding reception were drawn from the Peranakan Association, a historical society, and were asked to wear their own vintage formal clothing to add local flavor to the party.


title: Crazy Rich Asians (film)

text: During the production process, Chu and music supervisor Gabe Hilfer assembled a list of hundreds of songs about money, including songs by Kanye West ("Gold Digger"), Hall & Oates ("Rich Girl"), the Notorious B.I.G. ("Mo Money Mo Problems"), Lady Gaga ("Money Honey"), and Barrett Strong ("Money (That's What I Want)"). Seeking to create a multilingual soundtrack, Chu and Hilfer compiled Chinese songs from the 1950s and 1960s by Ge Lan (Grace Chang) and Yao Lee, as well as contemporary songs, then searched through YouTube videos for singers fluent in Mandarin Chinese to provide cover versions of songs. The film's soundtrack album and score album, by Brian Tyler, were both released on August 10, 2018, through WaterTower Music.


title: Crazy Rich Asians (film)

text: "Crazy Rich Asians" was released in the United States on August 15, 2018, after previously having been scheduled for August 17. An early screening was held in April 2018 at the Theatre at Ace Hotel in Los Angeles, garnering strong emotional reactions from the audience; other advance screenings were held in San Francisco, Washington D.C., and New York City. The film premiered on August 7, 2018 at the TCL Chinese Theatre in Los Angeles. The social media hashtag #GoldOpen was used to bring attention to the film. The studio spent an estimated $72.18 million on prints and advertisements for the film.


title: Crazy Rich Asians (film)

text: Internationally, "Crazy Rich Asians" was released in Singapore on August 22, 2018, and was scheduled for a later release in parts of Europe, although the planned November 2018 U.K. release date was moved forward to September 14, 2018. Later that month, on September 28, 2018, "Crazy Rich Asians" released to 75 theaters in Japan. In October 2018, it was announced the film would be released in China on November 30, 2018. "Crazy Rich Asians" was originally planned to premiere in every Nordic country in September. However, it was delayed and eventually cancelled in Sweden and Denmark without any particular reason. The Swedish distributor Fox told they do not know why the film did not have a Swedish or Danish premiere, and that the decision was made by Warner Bros. Los Angeles office. has on several occasions tried to get Warner Bros. Los Angeles to comment, but to no avail.


title: Crazy Rich Asians (film)

text: The film was well received by Singaporean audiences, though some felt it overrepresented and dramatized the wealthy families living there. Writers and producers in the British film and television industry expressed a hope that "Crazy Rich Asians"' positive financial reception would lead to more East Asian representation following the film's release in the United Kingdom as the film contained multiple British actors of East Asian descent acting in the picture.


title: Crazy Rich Asians (film)

text: In China, "Crazy Rich Asians" was met a tepid reception among viewers despite initial high expectations from Warner Bros. Pictures. Multiple possible reasons were cited for its failure to resonate with Chinese moviegoers. The film's discussion of excessive wealth felt off-putting to audiences due to the start of an economic slowdown, and the film has been compared to the Chinese film "Tiny Times" by some media in China, and the themes of ethnic and cultural identity were unrelatable and possibly bothersome to viewers. Unlike in the film's country of origin, the United States, an all-Asian cast was not considered novel in China, and the film lacked Chinese stars, other than Michelle Yeoh and Lisa Lu. The delayed release of about three-and-a-half months was also said to have hurt ticket sales, as much of the film's potential audience had pirated it or viewed it overseas. Even with its lackluster reception, a Chinese theatrical release was deemed important by producers, as "China Rich Girlfriend", the second film in the series, was planned to be partially filmed in Shanghai, potentially as a Chinese co-production.


title: Crazy Rich Asians (film)

text: Tourism to Singapore increased following the release of "Crazy Rich Asians", attributed in part to the numerous attractions showcased in the film, such as the Marina Bay Sands and Raffles Hotel. The Singapore Tourism Board partnered with Warner Bros. Pictures during the picture's premiere and contributed to talent and location scouting during production. The 2018 North Korea–United States summit held in Singapore, however, was also said to have increased tourist numbers. Sales of the original novel saw an increase of about 1.5 million copies after the film's theatrical release.


title: Crazy Rich Asians (film)

text: "Crazy Rich Asians" was released on digital on November 6, 2018 and on DVD, Blu-ray and Ultra HD Blu-ray on November 20, 2018. The Blu-ray Combo Pack special features include commentary by director Jon M. Chu and novelist Kwan, a gag reel, and deleted scenes. As of January 27, 2019, roughly twelve weeks after the film's home video release, "Crazy Rich Asians" grossed an estimated $16 million domestically from 782,390 collective DVD and Blu-ray sales.


title: Crazy Rich Asians (film)

text: "Crazy Rich Asians" grossed $174.5 million in the United States and Canada, and $64 million elsewhere, for a worldwide gross of $239 million, against a production budget of $30 million. In October 2018, it became the highest-grossing romantic comedy of the last 10 years, and the 6th-highest-grossing ever. "Deadline Hollywood" calculated the net profit of the film to be $120.8 million, when factoring together all expenses and revenues.


title: Crazy Rich Asians (film)

text: Three weeks before its North American release, "Crazy Rich Asians" was projected to gross $18–20 million during its five-day opening weekend. By the week of its release, estimates had reached $26–30 million, with Fandango reporting pre-sale tickets were outpacing "Girls Trip" (which debuted to $31.2 million in July 2017). The film held special advance screenings on August 8, 2018, and made an estimated $450,000–500,000, selling out most of its 354 theaters. It then took in $5 million on its first day and $3.8 million on its second. It went on to gross $26.5 million in its opening weekend, for a five-day total of $35.2 million, finishing first at the box office. 38% of its audience was of Asian descent, which was the highest Asian makeup for a film in U.S. in the previous three years (besting "The Foreigner"s 18.4% in 2017). In its second weekend the film made $24.8 million, a box office drop of just 6%, which "Deadline Hollywood" called "unbelievable." The film continued to play well in its third weekend, making $22 million (a drop of just 11% from the previous week) and remaining in first. The film was finally dethroned in its fourth weekend, finishing third behind newcomers "The Nun" and "Peppermint" with $13.1 million.


title: Crazy Rich Asians (film)

text: In Singapore, where the film takes place, "Crazy Rich Asians" grossed over $5 million. The first-week ticket sales for the film, $2.5 million, were considered unusually high. Large numbers of organizations and individuals buying out theaters to host screenings, as well as general interest in seeing how Hollywood portrayed the city-state, were noted as major contributors to the film's high Singaporean box office totals.


title: Crazy Rich Asians (film)

text: The film's theatrical release in China was considered unsuccessful, finishing eighth at the box office opening weekend and losing half of its screens from Saturday to Sunday. Initial reports stated that the film failed to pass $1 million opening weekend following a combined $810,000 on Friday and Saturday, but the figure was later updated to a total of $1.2 million.


title: Crazy Rich Asians (film)

text: In South Korea, the film failed at the box office, finishing sixth on its opening weekend and by its second week the film fell to fourteenth place. In total, the film only made a little over $1.1 million there.


title: Crazy Rich Asians (film)

text: On review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds an approval rating of based on reviews, with an average rating of . The website's critical consensus reads, "With a terrific cast and a surfeit of visual razzle dazzle, "Crazy Rich Asians" takes a satisfying step forward for screen representation while deftly drawing inspiration from the classic—and still effective—rom-com formula." On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 74 out of 100, based on 50 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews." Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A" on an A+ to F scale, while PostTrak reported filmgoers gave it an 85% positive score and a 65% "definite recommend". On the Chinese social networking website Douban, the film scored 6.2 out of 10, which "Variety" called a "middling" rating.


title: Crazy Rich Asians (film)

text: Joe Morgenstern, writing for "The Wall Street Journal", found the film to be "Bright, buoyant, and hilarious," making special note of the large number of quality performances from the cast members: "And anyone with a sense of movie history will be moved by the marvelous Ms. Yeoh, who was so memorable as the love-starved fighter in "Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon," and by 91-year-old Lisa Lu, who plays Nick's grandmother and the matriarch of his family. Anyone, in this case, means anyone. "Crazy Rich Asians" includes us all". Ann Hornaday, writing for "The Washington Post", deemed the film an "escapist rom-com delight" and remarked that "It will more than satisfy the sweet tooth of romantic comedy fans everywhere who have lately despaired that the frothy, frolicsome genre they adore has been subsumed by raunch and various shades of gray"; she also compared the film's rom-com themes to "Four Weddings and a Funeral" (1994).


title: Crazy Rich Asians (film)

text: "Time" magazine published an extended cultural review of the film by Karen Ho, which compared the high fashion appeal of the film to rival the best of previous films such as "The Devil Wears Prada". Ho summarizes the film's success as an uphill battle against the season's predominantly superhero oriented audiences: "To many in Hollywood, "Crazy Rich Asians" might look like a risky bet. It's the first modern story with an all-Asian cast and an Asian-American lead in 25 years; the last "Joy Luck Club", was in 1993. It's an earnest romantic comedy in a sea of action and superhero films...In fact, it seems destined to be a hit." In the same magazine, Stephanie Zacharek called the film as "simply great fun, a winsome romantic comedy and an occasionally over-the-top luxury fantasy that never flags," while at the same time hailing the film as a breakthrough in representation and lauded the performances and chemistry of Wu and Golding as well as the supporting performances (particularly Yeoh, Ken Jeong, Nico Santos and Awkwafina).


title: Crazy Rich Asians (film)

text: Peter Travers of "Rolling Stone" gave the film four stars out of five; he called it "frothy fun" and a "hilarious, heartfelt blast" while hailing the film as "making history" in its cultural representation in mainstream cinema and highlighting the performances (particularly Yeoh, whose performance he called "layered"). Writing for "Chicago Sun-Times", Richard Roeper described the film as a "pure escapist fantasy fun" and "24-karat entertainment" while praising Wu's and Golding's performances and chemistry, and complimented Golding's natural onscreen presence and his good sense of comedic timing. David Sims of "The Atlantic" lauded the film as a "breath of fresh air" and a "charming throwback" to the classic romantic comedy films while commending Chu's direction, the "hyperactive" screenplay, and the performances of Wu and Yeoh.


title: Crazy Rich Asians (film)

text: Justin Chang in a review for the "Los Angeles Times" found the film worthy of comparison to other films using an Asian ensemble cast including "Memoirs of a Geisha", "Letters from Iwo Jima", and "The Joy Luck Club". Chang found the supporting cast performance of Michelle Yeoh to be exceptional, stating "you can't help but hang on Eleanor's (Michelle Yeoh's) every word. In a crisp, authoritative, sometimes startlingly vulnerable performance that never lapses into dragon-lady stereotype, Yeoh brilliantly articulates the unique relationship between Asian parents and their children, the intricate chain of love, guilt, devotion and sacrifice that binds them for eternity".


title: Crazy Rich Asians (film)

text: In his review for "The New York Times", A. O. Scott indicates that the film's appeal surpasses contemporary social mores dealing with wealth and touches on themes examined in the literature of "endless luxury" over the centuries stating that this is "...part of the film's sly and appealing old-fashionedness. Without betraying any overt nostalgia, "Crazy Rich Asians" casts a fond eye backward as well as Eastward, conjuring a world defined by hierarchies and prescribed roles in a way that evokes classic novels and films. Its keenest romantic impulse has less to do with Nick and Rachel's rather pedestrian love story than with the allure of endless luxury and dynastic authority. Which I guess is pretty modern after all". Peter Debruge of "Variety" wrote that the movie "expertly manages to balance the opulence of incalculable wealth with the pragmatic, well-grounded sensibility" of its protagonist; he also drew comparisons of the film's visual style and tone to Baz Luhrmann's "The Great Gatsby" (2013) as well to the wedding sequence in "Mamma Mia!" (2008). Robbie Collin of "The Daily Telegraph" gave the film four stars out of five, and wrote that the film was "a mouthwatering slice of deluxe romcom escapism" and "plays like a Jane Austen novel crossed with a "Mr. & Mrs. Smith" brochure" while lending his praise on the performances of Wu, Golding, Yeoh, and Awkwafina.


title: Crazy Rich Asians (film)

text: Scott Mendelson, writing for "Forbes", found the film to be below average and to have an uneven plot line with contrived humor similar to his opinion of the 2002 film "My Big Fat Greek Wedding" stating: "Without having read the book, I might argue that the core flaw of "Crazy Rich Asians" is that it's so determined to be the Asian-American version of the conventional Hollywood romantic comedy that it becomes a deeply conventional romantic comedy, complete with the bad, the good and the generic tropes. It's well-acted and offers plenty of cultural specificity, but the supporting characters are thin and the need to be universal hobbles its drama".


title: Crazy Rich Asians (film)

text: He was joined in his criticism by Kate Taylor of "The Globe and Mail", who wrote: "As the obscenities of wealth accumulate while a large cast of Asian and Eurasian actors render their many silly characters, the source of the laughter becomes troubling." David Rooney of "The Hollywood Reporter" gave a mixed review, in which he criticized the film's pacing as "uneven" but nevertheless similarly praised the performances and chemistry of Wu and Golding, and singled out Wu's performance as the film's real heart. Tony Wong of "Toronto Star" argued the film "doesn't blow away stereotypes. It reinforces them. There is little room for subtlety here—the title underlines the mission statement. Asians are rich, vulgar and clueless."


title: Crazy Rich Asians (film)

text: Al Jazeera's Katrina Yu described the film as "Panda Express of Chinese culture" pointing out that this film can only attract Westerners who have little knowledge of Asian culture or Asian Americans who are happy to see their own culture presented in a Hollywood movie. He also pointed out that there are sharp criticisms from the China's side about this film. They criticize that "Crazy Rich Asians wasn’t a celebration of Asian culture – it was a demonisation of it.", arguing that the film only shows Chinese culture in the eyes of Westerners and reinforced the cliche stereotypes. The commentary also criticized the orientalism in the film, pointing out that the character Eleanor, who represented the Chinese tradition in the film, was portrayed as "villainous and backward" and Rachel, who represented the West, won in the end, implying ”thanks to the wind from the West, the old and unprogressive East is given a new life.”


title: Crazy Rich Asians (film)

text: Although the film has been lauded in the United States for featuring a predominantly Asian cast, it was criticized elsewhere for casting biracial and non-Chinese actors as ethnically Chinese characters. The film was also criticized by Singaporeans for having characters speak only British English and American English and omitting Singaporean English entirely. In addition, the film has received criticism for poorly representing the actual ethnic makeup of Singapore by not portraying non-ethnically Chinese citizens.


title: Crazy Rich Asians (film)

text: The casting of lead actor Henry Golding, who is of Iban and English descent, as the Chinese Singaporean character Nick Young was controversial; several detractors negatively compared the casting to whitewashing and criticized it for perpetuating the idea that Asian actors cannot be Hollywood leading men without Eurocentric features, while supporters highlighted Golding's own Malaysian background and upbringing, noting that the criticisms reflected struggles that multiracial Asians face within the Asian community.


title: Crazy Rich Asians (film)

text: Korean American actress Jamie Chung, who had auditioned for a role but was turned down allegedly for not being "ethnically Chinese", responded to Golding's casting with "That is some bullshit. Where do you draw the line to be ethnically conscious?" Chung's remarks were met with both praise and criticism on social media, with some accusing her of being biased against Eurasians and noting that she had previously played ethnic Chinese characters in other works. Chung clarified her comments on social media, denying that she was bigoted against multiracial Asians as she would "one day have [her] own hapa babies", prompting further backlash. Chung subsequently apologized to Golding for her comments, which he accepted. She later expressed her support for "Crazy Rich Asians", Golding and his castmates, stating that because of them "there will be other projects [...] that will be full Asian casts."


title: Crazy Rich Asians (film)

text: Golding initially called the criticism towards his casting "quite hurtful", but was later more open towards criticism as he felt that there "should be a conversation about it". Awkwafina jokingly stated it would have been bad only if the producers had cast Emma Stone as Nick, referring to the 2015 film "Aloha".


title: Crazy Rich Asians (film)

text: The casting of Sonoya Mizuno, who is of Japanese, English and Argentine descent, as the Chinese Singaporean character Araminta Lee, attracted similar criticisms as Golding's, which Mizuno said "pissed [her] off". Mizuno called out the double standard of white actors being allowed to play different European ethnicities and nationalities without receiving criticism, noting the scarcity of multiracial roles for multiracial actors.


title: Crazy Rich Asians (film)

text: Sociologist Nancy Wang Yuen defended Golding's casting, surmising that the criticism towards him was fueled out of racial purity from full-blooded Asians. By deeming Golding "not Asian enough", detractors were choosing to ignore his Asian heritage. Yuen contrasted Golding's situation to the public perception of former U.S. President Barack Obama, who is also biracial. She noted how "the world sees President Obama as black, but his mother is white" and called out the double standard in "[erasing] Golding's Asian ancestry while obliterating Obama's white ancestry."


title: Crazy Rich Asians (film)

text: Director Jon M. Chu defended his decision to cast Golding, stating that questions about the cast and particularly Golding made him uneasy, later acknowledging:


title: Crazy Rich Asians (film)

text: John Lui, a Singaporean reporter for "The Straits Times", criticized the casting, opining that a single drop of Asian blood was enough for Hollywood, who was motivated to cast Golding (an "ethnically ambiguous face") because of his appeal to a wide variety of audiences. Lui disclaimed that his comments were not concerning Golding's identity but rather the objectivity of his looks, stating "it is wrong to sort actors into 'Asian' and 'not Asian enough' piles". Nick Chen of "The Independent" also spoke negatively about the casting, denouncing Golding's casting as whitewashing gone unnoticed by critics and moviegoers.


title: Crazy Rich Asians (film)

text: In an interview with "Teen Vogue" in November 2019, actress Brenda Song, who is of Hmong and Thai descent, stated that she was not permitted to audition for "Crazy Rich Asians" as, according to Song, her "image was basically not Asian enough, in not so many words". Song stated she felt disappointed by the response, questioning why the filmmakers were "fault[ing] [her] for having worked [her] whole life." This alleged response to Song was met with backlash from Asian Americans online, due to Song having portrayed the "original crazy rich Asian" London Tipton in the 2005 Disney Channel series "The Suite Life of Zack and Cody". Rachel Chang, writing for "Forbes," stated that Song "single-handedly represented Asian Americans to a new generation of a impressionable television viewers." Director Jon M. Chu responded to the comments on Twitter, stating that "it sucks if anything of that nature was ever communicated. It's gross actually". He added that he was a fan of Song's work, and would have cast her in the film without an audition if he knew. He later followed up the tweet with an article about the open casting call held for the film, citing it as one of his favorite memories during production.


title: Crazy Rich Asians (film)

text: While promoting his memoir "We Were Dreamers: An Immigrant Superhero Origin Story" in a May 2022 episode of the podcast "How To Fail With Elizabeth Day", Chinese Canadian actor Simu Liu revealed that he auditioned four times for the film but was rejected for allegedly lacking an "'it'" factor", which he said left him "devastated". The podcast renewed the controversy surrounding Golding's casting, with Liu's supporters arguing that he was more appropriate as Nick than Golding as he was fully Chinese like the character, alleging that he was denied a role for lacking the Eurocentric features Golding had. Golding's supporters, many of them of Southeast Asian descent, pointed out that Golding's Iban ancestry of Borneo and Malaysian background made him a better representative of Singapore than Liu, while reiterating the lack of Southeast Asians and overabundance of East Asians and Chinese in the cast. In an apparent response to the controversy, Liu posted excerpts from his book on Twitter that discussed the incident but provided context. Liu confirmed that the "'it' factor" comments did not come from Chu, whom he befriended after the film's release, but from "a studio exec or a casting director" that got muddled when passed down through a number of people involved in production before reaching Liu's agent. Liu noted that Golding had already been cast as Nick when he auditioned and that he auditioned for the roles of Colin Khoo and Michael Teo, which ultimately went to Chris Pang and Pierre Png, respectively, with both actors also being fully Chinese. While admitting that the rejection hurt, Liu tweeted that the experience "led to some really meaningful feedback being shared about [his] work and craft". Liu defended Golding's casting, describing him as "perfectly cast" for Nick and praised the film for paving the way for Asian representation.


title: Crazy Rich Asians (film)

text: In contrast to those calling for Chinese actors to fill its roles, others, particularly those in Asian countries, expressed disappointment in the film's lack of ethnic Malays and Indians, who have a prominent presence in Singapore. Kirsten Han, a Singaporean journalist, said that the film "obscur[ed] the Malay, Indian, and Eurasian (and more) populations who make the country the culturally rich and unique place that it is." Some were critical towards the omission of the country's Malays and Indians—the second and third largest ethnic groups in Singapore, respectively—thus not representing its multiracial population wholly.


title: Crazy Rich Asians (film)

text: Ian Chong, a political scientist at the National University of Singapore, commented that the film "represents the worst of Singapore. Erases minorities. Erases the poor and marginalized. All you get are rich, privileged ethnic Chinese." Alfian Sa'at, a Malay Singaporean poet and playwright, commented on the film's title, referring to it as "Crazy Rich EAST Asians", and adding "Does a win for representation mean replacing white people with white people wannabes[?]" Multiple critics also criticized the comedic scene in which the characters Rachel Chu and Peik Lin were frightened by Sikh guards, noting that "the presentation of brown men as scary predators is played for laughs", is "blind to racial politics in Singapore", and presented a "buffoonish performance [that is] as excruciating as Mickey Rooney's as the Japanese photographer living above Audrey Hepburn in "Breakfast at Tiffany's"." However, one commenter noted that the book which the film is based on "is aware of its lack of minority representation [and] actually alludes to the closed minded attitude of some social circles in Singapore. One of the family members got disowned for marrying a Malay."


title: Crazy Rich Asians (film)

text: Other critics defended the film's portrayal of ethnic representation. Ilyas Sholihyn, a Malay Singaporean writing for "Coconuts", stated that "it's hard to imagine the story is even relatable to most Chinese Singaporeans" due to the film's focus on the extremely wealthy, noting that "Crazy Rich Asians" was highly Americanised and not made for native Singaporeans, but rather "a high-fantasy Hollywood film made for maximum appeal to East Asian-Americans." He also criticized certain decisions regarding representation, such as how the scene at the Newton Food Centre lacked accurate cultural diversity, and that the roles for the limited number of non-Chinese Singaporeans, such as guards and valets, was tokenism. Surekha A. Yadav of the "Malay Mail" defended the film's lack of non-ethnic Chinese Singaporeans, describing it as an accurate portrayal of Chinese Singaporeans, particularly wealthy ones, who, per statistics from the Institute of Policy Studies, have minimal and even discriminatory interactions with Singaporean minority ethnic groups. Regarding the film specifically, Yadav explained that "it is the extremely privileged edge of this upper segment of Singapore society that "Crazy Rich Asians" depicts. In reality, this is a world where minorities play a very small role."


title: Crazy Rich Asians (film)

text: In an 2021 interview with Insider, Chu had said he regretted casting non-Chinese people in subservient roles and "totally gets" the criticism.


title: Crazy Rich Asians (film)

text: Prior to the film's release, Jon M. Chu said he would be eager to direct a sequel if the first film was a success, stating, "We have other stories outside of the "Crazy Rich Asians" world that are ready to be told too, from filmmakers and storytellers who haven't had their stories told yet." On August 22, 2018, following the film's strong opening, Warner Bros. Pictures confirmed a sequel was in development, with Chiarelli and Lim returning to write the script, based on the book's sequel, "China Rich Girlfriend". Chu and actors Wu, Golding, and Yeoh all have options for a sequel, although several of the key actors were committed to other projects until 2020. Producer Nina Jacobson later announced that "China Rich Girlfriend" and an adaptation of the final installment in Kwan's trilogy, "Rich People Problems", would be filmed back-to-back in 2020 to reduce the wait time between those two films.


title: Crazy Rich Asians (film)

text: In September 2019, screenwriter Adele Lim, who had co-written "Crazy Rich Asians" with Peter Chiarelli, left production on the film's sequels following a pay dispute. Lim had reportedly been offered US$110,000 to pen the sequels, while Chiarelli had been offered US$800,000-$1,000,000 for the same role. Lim stated, "that the pay difference represented a greater issue of sexism and racism in Hollywood, as the industry views women and people of color as "soy sauce"—or simply a means to add minor cultural details to screenplays, rather than to provide a substantial writing role". Director Jon M. Chu voiced support for Lim in a statement, explaining that, while he was disappointed she wouldn't return for the sequels, he would continue to work with Lim elsewhere and that "the conversation this has started is MUCH more important than ourselves... so who am I to get in the way of that." He added that he agreed with Lim's criticisms of the film industry, and requested that people refrain from criticizing Chiarelli, as "he is a good man, a creative force and has been a pro in the business for many many years". Warner Bros.' business affairs department issued a response as well, stating that Chiarelli had more experience working on films as Lim's résumé had only consisted of television credits prior to "Crazy Rich Asians", and that "making an exception would set a troubling precedent in the business". They also noted that an alternative offer for Lim had been drafted, which she did not take. Lim later voiced thanks for the public support she had received, writing on Twitter: "To people going through their own fight - you are not alone. Also, I have only love for Jon M. Chu and the cast & crew of "Crazy Rich Asians"." On March 21, 2022, it was reported that Amy Wang is set to pen the sequel, replacing Chiarelli and Lim.


title: Crazy Rich Asians (film)

text: In May 2022, it was reported that a spin-off film centered around Gemma Chan's character and her love story with Harry Shum Jr.'s character, as teased in the film's mid-credits scene, was in early development, with the script set to be penned by Jason Kim.


title: House of Habsburg

text: The House of Habsburg (), alternatively spelled Hapsburg in English and also known as the House of Austria is one of the most prominent and important dynasties in European history.


title: House of Habsburg

text: The house takes its name from Habsburg Castle, a fortress built in the 1020s in present-day Switzerland by Radbot of Klettgau, who named his fortress Habsburg. His grandson Otto II was the first to take the fortress name as his own, adding "Count of Habsburg" to his title. In 1273, Count Radbot's seventh-generation descendant Rudolph of Habsburg was elected King of the Romans. Taking advantage of the extinction of the Babenbergs and of his victory over Ottokar II of Bohemia at the battle on the Marchfeld in 1278, he appointed his sons as Dukes of Austria and moved the family's power base to Vienna, where the Habsburg dynasty gained the name of "House of Austria" and ruled until 1918.


title: House of Habsburg

text: The throne of the Holy Roman Empire was continuously occupied by the Habsburgs from 1440 until their extinction in the male line in 1740 and, after the death of Francis I, from 1765 until its dissolution in 1806. The house also produced kings of Bohemia, Hungary, Croatia, Spain, Portugal and Galicia-Lodomeria, with their respective colonies; rulers of several principalities in the Low Countries and Italy; and in the 19th century, emperors of Austria and of Austria-Hungary as well as one emperor of Mexico. The family split several times into parallel branches, most consequentially in the mid-16th century between its Spanish and Austrian branches following the abdication of Charles V. Although they ruled distinct territories, the different branches nevertheless maintained close relations and frequently intermarried.


title: House of Habsburg

text: Members of the Habsburg family oversee the Austrian branch of the Order of the Golden Fleece and the Imperial and Royal Order of Saint George. The current head of the family is Karl von Habsburg.


title: House of Habsburg

text: The origins of Habsburg Castle's name are uncertain. There is disagreement on whether the name is derived from the High German "Habichtsburg" (hawk castle), or from the Middle High German word "hab/hap" meaning "ford", as there is a river with a ford nearby. The first documented use of the name by the dynasty itself has been traced to the year 1108.


title: House of Habsburg

text: The Habsburg name was not continuously used by the family members, since they often emphasized their more prestigious princely titles. The dynasty was thus long known as the "House of Austria". Complementarily, in some circumstances the family members were identified by their place of birth. Charles V was known in his youth after his birthplace as Charles of Ghent. When he became king of Spain he was known as Charles of Spain, and after he was elected emperor, as Charles V (in French, "Charles Quint").


title: House of Habsburg

text: In Spain, the dynasty was known as the "Casa de Austria", including illegitimate sons such as John of Austria and John Joseph of Austria. The arms displayed in their simplest form were those of Austria, which the Habsburgs had made their own, at times impaled with the arms of the Duchy of Burgundy (ancient).


title: House of Habsburg

text: After Maria Theresa married Duke Francis Stephen of Lorraine, the idea of "Habsburg" as associated with ancestral Austrian rulership was used to show that the old dynasty continued as did all its inherited rights. When Francis I became Emperor of Austria, he adopted the old shield of Habsburg in his personal arms, together with Austria and Lorraine. This also reinforced the "Germanness" of the (French-speaking) Austrian Emperor and his claim to rule in Germany, not least against the Prussian Kings. Some younger sons who had no prospects of the throne were given the personal title of "count of Habsburg".


title: House of Habsburg

text: The surname of more recent members of the family such as Otto von Habsburg and Karl von Habsburg is taken to be "von Habsburg" or more completely "von Habsburg-Lothringen". Princes and members of the house use the tripartite arms adopted in the 18th century by Francis Stephen.


title: House of Habsburg

text: The progenitor of the House of Habsburg may have been Guntram the Rich, a count in the Breisgau who lived in the 10th century, and forthwith farther back as the medieval Adalrich, Duke of Alsace, from the Etichonids from which Habsburg derives. His grandson Radbot of Klettgau founded the Habsburg Castle. That castle was the family seat during most of the 11th, 12th and 13th centuries.


title: House of Habsburg

text: In the 12th century, the Habsburgs became increasingly associated with the Staufer Emperors, participating in the imperial court and the Emperor's military expeditions; Werner II, Count of Habsburg died fighting for Emperor Frederick I Barbarossa in Italy. This association helped them to inherit many domains as the Staufers caused the extinction of many dynasties, some of which the Habsburgs were heirs to. In 1198, Rudolf II, Count of Habsburg fully dedicated the dynasty to the Staufer cause by joining the Ghibellines and funded the Staufer emperor Frederick II's war for the throne in 1211. The emperor was made godfather to his newly born grandson, the future king Rudolf.


title: House of Habsburg

text: The Habsburgs expanded their influence through arranged marriages and by gaining political privileges, especially countship rights in Zürichgau, Aargau and Thurgau. In the 13th century, the house aimed its marriage policy at families in Upper Alsace and Swabia. They were also able to gain high positions in the church hierarchy for their members. Territorially, they often profited from the extinction of other noble families such as the House of Kyburg.


title: House of Habsburg

text: By the second half of the 13th century, count Rudolph IV (1218–1291) had become an influential territorial lord in the area between the Vosges Mountains and Lake Constance. On 1 October 1273, he was elected as a compromise candidate as King of the Romans and received the name Rudolph I of Germany. He then led a coalition against king Ottokar II of Bohemia who had taken advantage of the Great Interregnum in order to expand southwards, taking over the respective inheritances of the Babenberg (Austria, Styria, Savinja) and of the Spanheim (Carinthia and Carniola). In 1278, Rudolph and his allies defeated and killed Ottokar at the Battle of Marchfeld, and the lands he had acquired reverted to the German crown. With the Georgenberg Pact of 1286, Rudolph secured for his family the duchies of Austria and Styria. The southern portions of Ottokar's former realm, Carinthia, Carniola, and Savinja, went to Rudolph's allies from the House of Gorizia.


title: House of Habsburg

text: Following Rudolph's death in 1291, Albert I's assassination in 1308, and Frederick the Fair's failure to secure the German/Imperial crown for himself, the Habsburgs temporarily lost their supremacy in the Empire. In the early 14th century, they also focused on the Kingdom of Bohemia. After Václav III’s death on 4 August 1306, there were no male heirs remaining in the Přemyslid dynasty. Habsburg scion Rudolph I was then elected but only lasted a year. The Bohemian kingship was an elected position, and the Habsburgs were only able to secure it on a hereditary basis much later in 1626, following their submission of the Czech lands during the Thirty Years' War. After 1307, subsequent Habsburg attempts to gain the Bohemian crown were frustrated first by Henry of Bohemia (a member of the House of Gorizia) and then by the House of Luxembourg.


title: House of Habsburg

text: Instead, they were able to expand southwards: in 1311, they took over Savinja; after the death of Henry in 1335, they assumed power in Carniola and Carinthia; and in 1369, they succeeded his daughter Margaret in Tyrol. After the death of Albert III of Gorizia in 1374, they gained a foothold at Pazin in central Istria, followed by Trieste in 1382. Meanwhile, the original home territories of the Habsburgs in what is now Switzerland, including the Aargau with Habsburg Castle, were lost in the 14th century to the expanding Swiss Confederacy after the battles of Morgarten (1315) and Sempach (1386). Habsburg Castle itself was finally lost to the Swiss in 1415.


title: House of Habsburg

text: Rudolf IV's brothers Albert III and Leopold III ignored his efforts to preserve the integrity of the family domains, and enacted the separation of the so-called Albertinian and Leopoldian family lines on 25 September 1379 by the Treaty of Neuberg. The former would maintain Austria proper (then called "Niederösterreich" but comprising modern Lower Austria and most of Upper Austria), while the latter would rule over lands then labeled "Oberösterreich", namely Inner Austria ("Innerösterreich") comprising Styria, Carinthia and Carniola, and Further Austria ("Vorderösterreich") consisting of Tyrol and the western Habsburg lands in Alsace and Swabia.


title: House of Habsburg

text: By marrying Elisabeth of Luxembourg, the daughter of Emperor Sigismund in 1437, Duke Albert V of the Albertine line (1397–1439) became the ruler of Bohemia and Hungary, again expanding the family's political horizons. The next year, Albert was crowned as King of the Romans, known as such as Albert II. Following his early death in a battle against the Ottomans in 1439 and that of his son Ladislaus Postumus in 1457, the Habsburgs lost Bohemia once more as well as Hungary, for several decades. However, with the extinction of the House of Celje in 1456 and the House of Wallsee-Enns in 1466/1483, they managed to absorb significant secular enclaves within their territories, and create a contiguous domain stretching from the border with Bohemia to the Adriatic sea.


title: House of Habsburg

text: After the death of Leopold's eldest son William in 1406, the Leopoldian line was further split among his brothers into the Inner Austrian territory under Ernest the Iron and a Tyrolean/Further Austrian line under Frederick of the Empty Pockets. In 1440, Ernest's son Frederick III was chosen by the electoral college to succeed Albert II as the king. Several Habsburg kings had attempted to gain the imperial dignity over the years, but success finally arrived on 19 March 1452, when Pope Nicholas V crowned Frederick III as the Holy Roman Emperor in a grand ceremony held in Rome. In Frederick III, the Pope found an important political ally with whose help he was able to counter the conciliar movement.


title: House of Habsburg

text: While in Rome, Frederick III married Eleanor of Portugal, enabling him to build a network of connections with dynasties in the west and southeast of Europe. Frederick was rather distant to his family; Eleanor, by contrast, had a great influence on the raising and education of Frederick's children and therefore played an important role in the family's rise to prominence. After Frederick III's coronation, the Habsburgs were able to hold the imperial throne almost continuously until 1806.


title: House of Habsburg

text: Through the forged document called "privilegium maius" (1358/59), Duke Rudolf IV (1339–1365) introduced the title of Archduke to place the Habsburgs on a par with the Prince-electors of the Empire, since Emperor Charles IV had omitted to give them the electoral dignity in his Golden Bull of 1356. Charles, however, refused to recognize the title, as did his immediate successors.


title: House of Habsburg

text: Duke Ernest the Iron and his descendants unilaterally assumed the title "archduke". That title was only officially recognized in 1453 by Emperor Frederick III, himself a Habsburg. Frederick himself used just "Duke of Austria", never "Archduke", until his death in 1493. The title was first granted to Frederick's younger brother, Albert VI of Austria (died 1463), who used it at least from 1458. In 1477, Frederick granted the title "archduke" to his first cousin Sigismund of Austria, ruler of Further Austria. Frederick's son and heir, the future Emperor Maximilian I, apparently only started to use the title after the death of his wife Mary of Burgundy in 1482, as "Archduke" never appears in documents issued jointly by Maximilian and Mary as rulers in the Low Countries (where Maximilian is still titled "Duke of Austria"). The title appears first in documents issued under the joint rule of Maximilian and Philip (his under-age son) in the Low Countries.


title: House of Habsburg

text: "Archduke" was initially borne by those dynasts who ruled a Habsburg territory, i.e., only by males and their consorts, appanages being commonly distributed to cadets. These "junior" "archdukes" did not thereby become independent hereditary rulers, since all territories remained vested in the Austrian crown. Occasionally a territory might be combined with a separate gubernatorial mandate ruled by an archducal cadet. From the 16th century onward, "archduke" and its female form, "archduchess", came to be used by all the members of the House of Habsburg (e.g., Queen Marie Antoinette of France was born "Archduchess Maria Antonia of Austria").


title: House of Habsburg

text: In 1457 Duke Frederick V of Inner Austria also gained the Austrian archduchy after his Albertine cousin Ladislaus the Posthumous had died without issue. 1490 saw the reunification of all Habsburg lines when Archduke Sigismund of Further Austria and Tyrol resigned in favor of Frederick's son Maximilian I.


title: House of Habsburg

text: As emperor, Frederick III took a leading role inside the family and positioned himself as the judge over the family's internal conflicts, often making use of the "privilegium maius". He was able to restore the unity of the house's Austrian lands, as the Albertinian line was now extinct. Territorial integrity was also strengthened by the extinction of the Tyrolean branch of the Leopoldian line. Frederick's aim was to make Austria a united country, stretching from the Rhine to the Mur and Leitha.


title: House of Habsburg

text: On the external front, one of Frederick's main achievements was the Siege of Neuss (1474–75), in which he coerced Charles the Bold of Burgundy to give his daughter Mary of Burgundy as wife to Frederick's son Maximilian. The wedding took place on the evening of 16 August 1477 and ultimately resulted in the Habsburgs acquiring control of the Low Countries. After Mary's early death in 1482, Maximilian attempted to secure the Burgundian heritance to one of his and Mary's children Philip the Handsome. Charles VIII of France contested this, using both military and dynastic means, but the Burgundian succession was finally ruled in favor of Philip in the Treaty of Senlis in 1493.


title: House of Habsburg

text: After the death of his father in 1493, Maximilian was proclaimed the new King of the Romans, receiving the name Maximilian I. Maximilian was initially unable to travel to Rome to receive the Imperial title from the Pope, due to opposition from Venice and from the French who were occupying Milan, as well a refusal from the Pope due to enemy forces being present on his territory. In 1508, Maximilian proclaimed himself as the "chosen Emperor," and this was also recognized by the Pope due to changes in political alliances. This had a historical consequence in that, in the future, the Roman King would also automatically become Emperor, without needing the Pope's consent. Emperor Charles V would be the last to be crowned by the Pope himself, at Bologna in 1530.


title: House of Habsburg

text: Maximilian's rule (1493–1519) was a time of dramatic expansion for the Habsburgs. In 1497, Maximilian's son Philip, known as the Handsome or the Fair, married Joanna of Castile, also known as Joan the Mad, heiress of the Castile. Phillip and Joan had six children, the eldest of whom became Emperor Charles V and ruled the kingdoms of Castile and Aragon (including their colonies in the New World), Southern Italy, Austria, and the Low Countries in 1516, with his mother and nominal co-ruler Joanna, who was kept under confinement.


title: House of Habsburg

text: The foundations for the later empire of Austria-Hungary were laid in 1515 by the means of a double wedding between Louis, only son of Vladislaus II, King of Bohemia and Hungary, and Maximilian's granddaughter Mary; and between her brother Archduke Ferdinand and Louis's sister Anna. The wedding was celebrated in grand style on 22 July 1515. All these children were still minors, so the wedding was formally completed in 1521. Vladislaus died on 13 March 1516, and Maximilian died on 12 January 1519, but the latter's designs were ultimately successful: upon Louis's death in battle in 1526, Ferdinand became king of Bohemia and Hungary.


title: House of Habsburg

text: The Habsburg dynasty achieved its highest position when Charles V was elected Holy Roman Emperor. Much of Charles's reign was dedicated to the fight against Protestantism, which led to its eradication throughout vast areas under Habsburg control.


title: House of Habsburg

text: Charles formally became the sole monarch of Spain upon the death of his imprisoned mother Queen Joan in 1555.


title: House of Habsburg

text: After the abdication of Charles V in 1556, the Habsburg dynasty split into the branch of the Austrian (or German) Habsburgs, led by Ferdinand, and the branch of the Spanish Habsburgs, initially led by Charles's son Philip. Ferdinand I, King of Bohemia, Hungary, and archduke of Austria in the name of his brother Charles V became suo jure monarch as well as the Habsburg Holy Roman Emperor (designated as successor already in 1531). Philip became King of Spain and its colonial empire as Philip II, and ruler of the Habsburg domains in Italy and the Low Countries. The Spanish Habsburgs also ruled Portugal for a time, known there as the Philippine dynasty (1580–1640).


title: House of Habsburg

text: The Seventeen Provinces and the Duchy of Milan were in personal union under the King of Spain, but remained part of the Holy Roman Empire. Furthermore, the Spanish king had claims on Hungary and Bohemia. In the secret Oñate treaty of 29 July 1617, the Spanish and Austrian Habsburgs settled their mutual claims.


title: House of Habsburg

text: The Habsburgs sought to consolidate their power by frequent consanguineous marriages, resulting in a cumulatively deleterious effect on their gene pool. Health impairments due to inbreeding included epilepsy, insanity, and early death. A study of 3,000 family members over 16 generations by the University of Santiago de Compostela suggests inbreeding may have played a role in their extinction. Numerous members of the family showed specific facial deformities: an enlarged lower jaw with an extended chin known as mandibular prognathism or "Habsburg jaw", a large nose with hump and hanging tip ("Habsburg nose"), and an everted lower lip ("Habsburg lip"). The latter two are signs of maxillary deficiency. A 2019 study found that the degree of mandibular prognathism in the Habsburg family shows a statistically significant correlation with the degree of inbreeding. A correlation between maxillary deficiency and degree of inbreeding was also present but was not statistically significant. Other scientific studies, however, dispute the ideas of any linkage between fertility and consanguinity.


title: House of Habsburg

text: The gene pool eventually became so small that the last of the Spanish line, Charles II, who was severely disabled from birth (perhaps by genetic disorders) possessed a genome comparable to that of a child born to a brother and sister, as did his father, probably because of "remote inbreeding".


title: House of Habsburg

text: The death of Charles II of Spain in 1700 led to the War of the Spanish Succession, and that of Emperor Charles VI in 1740 led to the War of the Austrian Succession. In the former, the House of Bourbon won the conflict and put a final end to the Habsburg rule in Spain. The latter, however, was won by Maria Theresa and led to the succession of the House of Habsburg-Lorraine (German: "Haus Habsburg-Lothringen") becoming the new main branch of the dynasty, in the person of Maria Theresa's son, Joseph II. This new House was created by the marriage between Maria Theresa of Habsburg and Francis Stephan, Duke of Lorraine (both of them were great-grandchildren of Habsburg emperor Ferdinand III, but from different empresses) this new House being a cadet branch of the female line of the House of Habsburg and the male line of the House of Lorraine. It is thought that extensive intra-family marriages within Spanish and Austrian lines contributed to the extinction of the main line.


title: House of Habsburg

text: On 6 August 1806, Emperor Francis I dissolved the Holy Roman Empire under pressure from Napoleon's reorganization of Germany. In anticipation of the loss of his title of Holy Roman Emperor, Francis had declared himself hereditary Emperor of Austria (as Francis I) on 11 August 1804, three months after Napoleon had declared himself Emperor of the French on 18 May 1804.


title: House of Habsburg

text: Emperor Francis I of Austria used the official full list of titles: "We, Francis the First, by the grace of God, Emperor of Austria; King of Jerusalem, Hungary, Bohemia, Dalmatia, Croatia, Slavonia, Galicia and Lodomeria; Archduke of Austria; Duke of Lorraine, Salzburg, Würzburg, Franconia, Styria, Carinthia, and Carniola; Grand Duke of Cracow; Grand Prince of Transylvania; Margrave of Moravia; Duke of Sandomir, Masovia, Lublin, Upper and Lower Silesia, Auschwitz and Zator, Teschen, and Friule; Prince of Berchtesgaden and Mergentheim; Princely Count of Habsburg, Gorizia, and Gradisca and of the Tyrol; and Margrave of Upper and Lower Lusatia and Istria".


title: House of Habsburg

text: The Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867 created a real union, whereby the Kingdom of Hungary was granted co-equality with the Empire of Austria, that henceforth didn't include the Kingdom of Hungary as a crownland anymore. The Austrian and the Hungarian lands became independent entities enjoying equal status. Under this arrangement, the Hungarians referred to their ruler as king and never emperor (see k. u. k.). This prevailed until the Habsburgs' deposition from both Austria and Hungary in 1918 following defeat in World War I.


title: House of Habsburg

text: On 11 November 1918, with his empire collapsing around him, the last Habsburg ruler, Charles I of Austria (who also reigned as Charles IV of Hungary) issued a proclamation recognizing Austria's right to determine the future of the state and renouncing any role in state affairs. Two days later, he issued a separate proclamation for Hungary. Even though he did not officially abdicate, this is considered the end of the Habsburg dynasty.


title: House of Habsburg

text: In 1919, the new republican Austrian government subsequently passed a law banishing the Habsburgs from Austrian territory until they renounced all intentions of regaining the throne and accepted the status of private citizens. Charles made several attempts to regain the throne of Hungary, and in 1921 the Hungarian government passed a law that revoked Charles' rights and dethroned the Habsburgs. The Habsburgs did not formally abandon all hope of returning to power until Otto von Habsburg, the eldest son of Charles I, on 31 May 1961 renounced all claims to the throne.


title: House of Habsburg

text: In the interwar period, the House of Habsburg was a vehement opponent of National Socialism and Communism. In Germany, Adolf Hitler diametrically opposed the centuries-old Habsburg principles of largely allowing local communities under their rule to maintain traditional ethnic, religious and language practices, and he bristled with hatred against the Habsburg family. During the Second World War there was a strong Habsburg resistance movement in Central Europe, which was radically persecuted by the Nazis and the Gestapo. The unofficial leader of these groups was Otto von Habsburg, who campaigned against the Nazis and for a free Central Europe in France and the United States. Most of the resistance fighters, such as Heinrich Maier, who successfully passed on production sites and plans for V-2 rockets, Tiger tanks and aircraft to the Allies, were executed. The Habsburg family played a leading role in the fall of the Iron Curtain and the collapse of the Communist Eastern Bloc.