title: Jack Reacher (film)

text: Upon its opening five-day international start, making $5.5 million in the UK and $4.4 million in France, the film grossed a total of $18.1 million from 32 international markets. Throughout the following weeks, the film expanded to additional international markets and grossed an international total of $136,497,530.


title: Jack Reacher (film)

text: On "Rotten Tomatoes" the film has an approval rating of 63%, based on 185 reviews, with a rating average of 6.27/10. The website's critical consensus states, ""Jack Reacher" is an above-average crime thriller with a smoothly charismatic performance from Tom Cruise." On "Metacritic" the film has a weighted score of 50 out of 100, based on reviews from 36 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews". CinemaScore polls reported that the average grade filmgoers gave the film was an "A−" on an A+ to F scale.


title: Jack Reacher (film)

text: Todd McCarthy of "The Hollywood Reporter" wrote: "Tom Cruise is in fine form as mysterious tough guy Jack Reacher finally reaches the big screen." Peter Travers of "Rolling Stone" wrote: "This is Cruise's show. And he nails it. The patented smile is gone, replaced by a glower that makes Jack Reacher a dark and dazzling ride into a new kind of hell."


title: Jack Reacher (film)

text: Many of the negative reviews still referred to the film as entertaining, including "The Guardian", which called it "outrageous but entertaining".


title: Jack Reacher (film)

text: Peter Debruge of "Variety" was critical of the casting of Cruise as Reacher: "Reacher is a brawny action figure whose exploits would have been a good fit for the likes of Arnold Schwarzenegger or Sylvester Stallone back in the day, but feel less fun when delegated to a leading man like Tom Cruise. The star is too charismatic to play someone so cold-blooded, and his fans likely won't appreciate the stretch."


title: Jack Reacher (film)

text: Lisa Schwarzbaum of "Entertainment Weekly" wrote: "That Cruise fails to make a case for Reacher's allure, though, has less to do with physical dissonance than it does with the film's inability - stupefying inability, really - to otherwise make a case for the character's originality in a movie so choked with visual clichés and dreadfully moldy dialogue."


title: Jack Reacher (film)

text: While "Jack Reacher" was intended to be a tent-pole for a film series, it was initially reported that a sequel would be unlikely due to its lackluster run at the North American box office. However, in February 2013, the possibility of a sequel became more likely after the film surpassed a gross of $200 million worldwide. On December 9, 2013, it was announced that Paramount Pictures and Skydance Productions were moving forward with the development of a sequel, reportedly based on the 2013 Jack Reacher novel "Never Go Back".


title: Jack Reacher (film)

text: Principal photography on the sequel, "", began on October 20, 2015, in New Orleans. The sequel was directed by Edward Zwick, produced by Tom Cruise, Don Granger, and Christopher McQuarrie and was written by Zwick, Richard Wenk, and Marshall Herskovitz. It stars Tom Cruise, Cobie Smulders, Patrick Heusinger, Aldis Hodge, Danika Yarosh, and Holt McCallany. The plot follows Reacher going on-the-run with an army major who has been framed for espionage, and it reveals a dark conspiracy. "Jack Reacher: Never Go Back" was released on October 21, 2016, in IMAX and conventional formats. It grossed $161 million worldwide and received mixed reviews from critics.


title: Aliens (film)

text: Aliens is a 1986 science fiction action film written and directed by James Cameron. It is the sequel to the 1979 science fiction horror film "Alien", and the second film in the "Alien" franchise. The film is set in the far future; Sigourney Weaver stars as Ellen Ripley, the sole survivor of an alien attack on her ship. When communications are lost with a human colony on the moon where her crew first saw the alien creatures, Ripley agrees to return to the site with a unit of Colonial Marines to investigate. Michael Biehn, Paul Reiser, Lance Henriksen, and Carrie Henn feature in supporting roles.


title: Aliens (film)

text: Despite the success of "Alien", its sequel took years to develop due to lawsuits, a lack of enthusiasm from 20th Century Fox, and repeated changes in management. Although relatively inexperienced, Cameron was hired to write a story for "Aliens" in 1983 on the strength of his scripts for "The Terminator" (1984) and "" (1985). The project stalled again until new Fox executive Lawrence Gordon pursued a sequel. On an approximately $18.5million budget, "Aliens" began principal photography in September 1985. Like its development, filming was tumultuous and rife with conflicts between Cameron and the British crew at Pinewood Studios. The difficult shoot affected the composer, James Horner, who was given little time to record the music.


title: Aliens (film)

text: "Aliens" was released on July 18, 1986, to critical acclaim. Reviewers praised its action, but some criticized the intensity of some scenes. Weaver's performance garnered consistent praise along with those of Bill Paxton and Jenette Goldstein. The film received several awards and nominations, including an Academy Award nomination for Best Actress for Weaver at a time when the science-fiction genre was generally overlooked. "Aliens" earned $131.1–183.3million during its theatrical run, one of the highest-grossing films of 1986 worldwide.


title: Aliens (film)

text: "Aliens" is now considered among the greatest films of the 1980s, and among the best science fiction, action, and sequel films ever made, arguably equal to (or better than) "Alien". The film is credited with expanding the franchise's scope with additions to the series' backstory and factions such as the Colonial Marines. "Aliens" inspired a variety of merchandise, including video games, comic books, and toys. The film was followed by two sequels"Alien 3" (1992) and "Alien Resurrection" (1997), neither of which were as successful, and the prequels "Prometheus" (2012) and "" (2017).


title: Aliens (film)

text: Ellen Ripley has been in stasis for 57 years aboard an escape shuttle after destroying her ship, the "Nostromo", to escape an alien creature that slaughtered her crew. She is rescued and debriefed by her employers at the Weyland-Yutani Corporation, who are skeptical about her claim of alien eggs in a derelict ship on the exomoon LV-426, since it is now the site of a terraforming colony. After contact is lost with the colony, Weyland-Yutani representative Carter Burke and Colonial Marine Lieutenant Gorman ask Ripley to accompany them to investigate. Still traumatized by her alien encounter, she agrees on the condition that they exterminate the creatures. Ripley is introduced to the Colonial Marines on the spaceship "Sulaco" but is distrustful of their android, Bishop, due to the android aboard the "Nostromo" having betrayed its crew to protect the alien on company orders.


title: Aliens (film)

text: A dropship delivers the expedition to the surface of LV-426, where they find the battle-ravaged colony and two live alien facehuggers in containment tanks, but no bodies or colonists except for a traumatized young girl, nicknamed Newt. The team locates the colonists beneath the fusion-powered atmosphere processing station and heads to their location, descending into corridors covered in alien secretions. At the station center, the Marines find opened eggs and dead facehuggers alongside the cocooned colonists now serving as incubators for the creatures' offspring. The Marines kill an infant alien after it bursts from a colonist's chest, rousing several adult aliens who ambush the Marines and kill or capture many of them. When the inexperienced Gorman panics, Ripley assumes command, takes control of their armored personnel carrier, and rams the nest to rescue Corporal Dwayne Hicks and Privates Hudson and Vasquez. Hicks orders the dropship to recover the survivors, but a stowaway alien kills the pilots, and it crashes into the station. Almost out of ammunition and resources, the survivors barricade themselves inside the colony.


title: Aliens (film)

text: Ripley discovers that Burke ordered the colonists to investigate the derelict spaceship containing the alien eggs, intending to profit by recovering them for biological weapon research. Before she can expose him, Bishop informs the group that the dropship crash damaged the power-plant cooling system and the plant will soon overheat and explode, destroying the colony. He volunteers to travel to the colony transmitter and remotely pilot the "Sulaco"s remaining dropship to the surface.


title: Aliens (film)

text: After falling asleep in the medical laboratory, Ripley and Newt awaken to find themselves trapped with the two released facehuggers. Ripley triggers a fire alarm to alert the Marines, who rescue them and kill the creatures. She accuses Burke of releasing the facehuggers to implant her and Newt with alien embryos, allowing him to smuggle them through Earth's quarantine. The power is suddenly cut, and aliens attack through the ceiling. In the ensuing firefight, the aliens kill Burke, subdue Hudson and injure Hicks; the cornered Gorman and Vasquez sacrifice themselves to avoid capture. Newt is separated from Ripley and taken by the creatures. Ripley brings Hicks to Bishop in the second dropship, but she refuses to abandon Newt and arms herself before descending into the processing station hive alone to rescue her. During their escape, they encounter the alien queen surrounded by dozens of eggs, and when one begins to open, Ripley uses her weapons to destroy them all and the queen's ovipositor. Pursued by the enraged queen, Ripley and Newt join Bishop and Hicks on the dropship and escape moments before the station explodes, consuming the colony in a nuclear blast.


title: Aliens (film)

text: Aboard the "Sulaco", the group is ambushed by the queen, who stowed away in the dropship's landing gear. The queen tears Bishop in half and advances on Newt, but Ripley fights the creature with an exosuit cargo loader and expels it through an airlock into space while the damaged Bishop keeps Newt safe. Ripley, Newt, Hicks, and Bishop enter hypersleep for their return trip to Earth.


title: Aliens (film)

text: The Colonial Marine cast includes privates Vasquez (Jenette Goldstein), Drake (Mark Rolston), Spunkmeyer (Daniel Kash), Crowe (Tip Tipping), and Wierzbowski (Trevor Steedman), and corporals Dietrich (Cynthia Dale Scott) and Ferro (Colette Hiller). In addition to the main cast, "Aliens" features Paul Maxwell as Van Leuwen (a member of the board reviewing Ripley's competence) and Barbara Coles as the cocooned colonist killed when an alien bursts from her chest. Carl Toop and Eddie Powell portray alien warriors.


title: Aliens (film)

text: Some scenes removed from "Aliens"s theatrical version were restored in subsequent releases. Additional credits for these scenes include Newt's father, Russ Jorden (Jay Benedict), and her mother Anne (Holly de Jong). Henn's brother, Christopher, plays her brother Timmy, Mac McDonald portrays colony administrator Al Simpson, and Weaver's mother, Elizabeth Inglis, makes a cameo appearance as Ripley's daughter Amanda.


title: Aliens (film)

text: The success of "Alien" (1979) led to immediate discussions of a sequel, but the production company Brandywine Productions struggled to convince 20th Century Fox to make it. Studio president Alan Ladd Jr. was supportive of the project but left Fox to found the Ladd Company, and his replacement, Norman Levy, was concerned about the cost of producing an "AlienII". Brandywine co-founder David Giler said Levy believed a sequel would be a "disaster". Fox executives believed "Alien"s success was a fluke, and that it had not generated enough profit or audience interest to warrant a sequel. Box-office returns for horror films were also declining. Progress was further slowed when Giler and Brandywine co-founders Walter Hill and Gordon Carroll sued Fox for unpaid profits from "Alien". Using Hollywood accounting methods, Fox had declared "Alien" a financial loss despite its earnings of over $100million against a $9–$11million budget. Brandywine's lawsuit was settled by early 1983, the result being that Fox would finance the development of "AlienII", but was not required to distribute the film.


title: Aliens (film)

text: Levy's eventual replacement, Joe Wizan, was receptive to a sequel, and although other executives remained noncommittal, Giler's development executive, Larry Wilson, began looking for a scriptwriter by mid-1983. Wilson came across the script for the in-development science fiction film, "The Terminator" (1984), written by James Cameron. With Cameron's collaborative scriptwriting efforts alongside Sylvester Stallone on "" (1985), Wilson was convinced to show the script for "The Terminator" to Giler, Hill, and Carroll. In November 1983, Cameron submitted a 42-page film treatment for "AlienII"—written in three days—based on Giler and Hill's suggestion of "Ripley and soldiers". The studio had a mixed reaction, one executive calling it a constant stream of horror without character development. Negotiations to sell the sequel rights to "Rambo" developers Mario Kassar and Andrew G. Vajna failed and the project stalled again.


title: Aliens (film)

text: By July 1984, Lawrence Gordon had replaced Wizan. With few projects in development, Gordon looked at sequels to Fox's existing properties and came across the "AlienII" treatment; he said he was surprised no one had pursued it. Production of "The Terminator" was delayed for nine months because Arnold Schwarzenegger was contractually obligated to film "Conan the Destroyer" (1984). Cameron used the time to develop his treatment, expanding it to ninety pages. He drew ideas from "Mother", one of his story concepts about an alien on a space station involving a power-loader suit. Because of his low expectations for "The Terminator", Cameron had spent much of his free time during its production developing and trying out ideas for "AlienII".


title: Aliens (film)

text: This script was better received by Fox executives and Gordon, but Cameron also wanted to direct the project. Cameron was a relatively new director, his only directing credit being "" (1982), a low-budget, independent horror film, and the studio was reluctant to grant his request. His credibility was elevated following the surprise financial and critical success of "The Terminator" in late 1984, and Gordon gave him the job. Cameron's associates tried to persuade him to reject the offer, believing anything good about the film would be attributed to "Alien" director Ridley Scott and anything negative to Cameron. Scott said he was never offered the chance to direct the sequel, possibly because he was difficult to work with on the original. The title "Aliens" reportedly came from Cameron writing "Alien" on a whiteboard during a pitch meeting and adding a "$" suffix. Cameron also wanted his collaborative partner and girlfriend, Gale Anne Hurd, to serve as the producer, but Fox did not take the request seriously, believing she could not stand up to Cameron, who believed she was the only person who would. Hurd had several industry associates contact Fox executives to convince them she was a legitimate producer.


title: Aliens (film)

text: Cameron turned in the finished script in February 1985, hours before a Hollywood writer's strike. Cameron recalled the audience reactions while seeing "Alien" in the theater and believed it would be difficult to recreate the emotion and novelty of the original. He and Hurd agreed to combine the horror of "Alien" with the action of "The Terminator". According to Hill, Cameron said if the first film could be compared to a haunted attraction, "Aliens" should be like a roller coaster. Cameron believed in having a strong female heroine to distinguish his films from typical Hollywood action fare and wrote the script with a picture of Weaver on his desk. He referred to "The Terminator", and how he removed the normal protective forces from Sarah Connor so she had to fend for herself. Cameron had also always wanted to make a film about space infantry.


title: Aliens (film)

text: The final script was well received, but Fox executives (including chairman Barry Diller) were concerned about the budget. Fox estimated the cost as close to $35million, but Hurd said it would be closer to $15.5million. Diller offered $12million, prompting Cameron and Hurd to quit. Gordon negotiated with Diller until he relented, and Cameron and Hurd returned. In April 1985, conflict turned to the cast; Fox did not want Weaver to return because they expected her to demand a high salary. Cameron and Hurd were insistent Weaver return as the solo star; Fox refused, saying they would damage the studio's negotiating power with Weaver's agent. Cameron and Hurd again left the project, marrying and going on a honeymoon. When they returned, the "Aliens" project was ready to move forward. Cameron credited Gordon with "Aliens" being greenlit.


title: Aliens (film)

text: Weaver rejected initial offers to return and despite being interested after reading Cameron's script, she had to be convinced "Aliens" was not being made exclusively for financial reasons. Weaver received a $1million (equivalent to $ in ) salary and a percentage of the box-office profits, the highest salary of her career at the time. Negotiations were so lengthy that Cameron and Hurd told Schwarzenegger's agent they intended to write Ripley out of the movie (knowing Weaver's agent would be told); terms were reached shortly afterward.


title: Aliens (film)

text: Cameron wanted an unknown actor to portray Newt. Agents scouted Henn while she was at school in Lakenheath, England, and though she lacked acting experience, Cameron said she had a "great face and expressive eyes". Stephen Lang auditioned for the role of Hicks, but James Remar secured the role on the recommendation of Hill, his close friend. Remar left shortly into filming, ostensibly due to urgent family matters or creative differences with Cameron, but he later admitted he was fired after being arrested for drug possession. Hurd hired Michael Biehn the following Friday. Paxton credited his casting as Hudson to a chance encounter with Cameron at Los Angeles International Airport, during which he mentioned he would be interested in a role. Fox supported Paxton's casting because of positive feedback for his performance in "Weird Science" (1985). Paxton was worried the character would annoy audiences until he realized he was comic relief for the tense scenes. Henriksen was concerned about portraying Bishop after other recent successful portrayals of android characters, such as Ian Holm in "Alien" and Rutger Hauer in "Blade Runner" (1982). He played Bishop as an innocent child who pities the short-lived humans. He suggested wearing distinctive contact lenses to convey when Bishop was alerted to danger, but Cameron believed they would make the character appear more frightening than the aliens. Biehn, Paxton, and Henriksen had worked with Cameron on "The Terminator".


title: Aliens (film)

text: "Aliens" was Reiser's first major theatrical role, following small parts in films like "Beverly Hills Cop" (1984). The Colonial Marines cast features a mix of British and American actors who underwent three weeks of intensive training with the British Special Air Service (SAS). Vietnam War veteran Al Matthews (Apone) helped to train the actors, teaching them not to point their weapons at people because their blanks were still hazardous. Before he left, Remar accidentally shot a hole through the set of Frank Oz's "Little Shop of Horrors" on an adjacent stage. The training was intended to help the marine cast develop camaraderie and treat the other actors (Weaver, Reiser, and Hope) as outsiders. Biehn's late casting caused him to miss the training, and he said he regretted being unable to customize his armor like the other actors (since he inherited Remar's). Cameron created a backstory for each marine and instructed the actors to read "Starship Troopers".


title: Aliens (film)

text: Vasquez was Goldstein's first feature-film role. She credited her physique to being out of work and going to the gym, gaining at Cameron's request. Goldstein wore dark contact lenses and underwent an hour of makeup to cover her freckles and darken her white skin to portray a "Chicano" character; she studied Mexican-American gang interviews to develop her demeanor and accent. Ricco Ross (Frost) was committed to "Full Metal Jacket" (1987), whose filming schedule overlapped for a week with "Aliens". Although Cameron offered to let Ross join the filming later, Ross was concerned that Stanley Kubrick's projects often overran, and opted for "Aliens" instead. Rolston misled the filmmakers to get his part; he had finished filming "Revolution" (1985), and implied he was its most prominent actor after Al Pacino. William Hope (Gorman) was cast as Hudson before Cameron and Hurd decided to take the character in a different direction.


title: Aliens (film)

text: Cynthia Dale Scott (Dietrich) was an aspiring singer when she was cast. Colette Hiller (Ferro) was upset she had to cut her hair short for the role because she was getting married shortly afterward, and made the filmmakers buy her a long, blonde wig. Trevor Steedman (Wierzbowski) was a stuntman rather than an actor, and "Aliens" was Daniel Kash's (Spunkmeyer) debut film role. He offered Cameron his coat if he got the part and also auditioned for Hudson. The actors stayed at the Holiday Inn in Langley, Berkshire, during filming. Paxton described the actors' time outside work positively: "God, we had the best time... We all hung very hard together. That's where I first met [Henriksen], who I fell in love with. [Matthews]... was a really good spirit to have around, with a great voice. And all these hilarious British characters, like [Steedman], the stuntman, who used to grab my bicep and go, 'Blimey, more meat on a cat's cock!


title: Aliens (film)

text: Principal photography began in September 1985, on a 75-day schedule, and an $18.5million budget, not including film prints and marketing. Filming took place mainly at Pinewood Studios in Buckinghamshire near London, because of its large sets and the relatively lower cost of filming in England. Filming was tumultuous as Cameron, a Canadian, was unfamiliar with British film-industry traditions such as tea breaks, which interrupted production for up to an hour each weekday, and was frustrated at losing hours of filming every week. In his book "The Making of Aliens", J. W. Rinzler described Cameron as aggressive and certain of what he wanted, which irked the crew. The situation was exacerbated by Cameron's hands-on approach, often modifying setups such as lighting himself to fit his vision without involving the unionized crew.


title: Aliens (film)

text: The crew was dismissive of Cameron for his relative inexperience, thinking he had not done enough to earn such a prominent position, and that Hurd had her job only because she was his partner. Cinematographer Dick Bush insisted on lighting the alien hive brightly (counter to Cameron's request), and was eventually replaced with Adrian Biddle. First assistant director Derek Cracknell also ignored Cameron's requests. Gale described the situation: "[Cameron] would ask him to set up a shot one way and [Cracknell] would say, 'Oh no no no, I know what you want,'... Then he'd do it wrong and the whole set would have to be broken down." The situation deteriorated until Cameron and Hurd fired Cracknell and the Pinewood crew walked out in the middle of the day.


title: Aliens (film)

text: Cameron called Fox for advice and was determined to move the production out of England until Hurd convinced him otherwise. The situation was difficult because the number of films simultaneously in production meant the crew could not be easily replaced. Cameron and Hurd gathered the crew to discuss their grievances; Cameron explained the importance of the production, and that any member of the crew who could not support it should volunteer to be replaced. The crew agreed to support Cameron if he supported their scheduled working hours. The relationship between filmmakers and crew remained cool; when filming concluded at Pinewood, Cameron told the crew: "This has been a long and difficult shoot, fraught by many problems... but the one thing that kept me going, through it all, was the certain knowledge that one day I would drive out the gate of Pinewood and never come back, and that you sorry bastards would still be here". He described most of the crew as "lazy, insolent, and arrogant". Paxton called the crew's work impeccable, but their attitude more relaxed than the American crews to which he was accustomed.


title: Aliens (film)

text: The alien nest was filmed in the decommissioned Acton Lane Power Station in London, and the set was left in place until the filming of the 1989 film "Batman". While filming the dropship descent from the "Sulaco", shaking collapsed the set roof onto the cast and crew. Most of the cast were unharmed, but a large piece of debris cut Cameron's head. Because of the tight budget, Hurd made Cameron pay for an early scene of a laser cutting Ripley free from her hyposleep chamber. According to Henriksen, Paxton was unaware he would be involved in the knife-trick scene until it was filmed; Henriksen nicked Paxton's finger during the reshoot. Some of the early establishing scenes were filmed near the end of principal photography to capture the bond that had developed between cast and characters.


title: Aliens (film)

text: Some improvisation was encouraged. Weaver discussed tweaks to her character with Cameron on set, believing she understood how Ripley would act. Her line "Get away from her, you bitch!" had to be filmed in one take due to the tight schedule remaining, and the actress thought she had messed it up. Paxton believed he was not good at improvisation and discussed ideas with Cameron before filming. One of his signature lines, "Game over man, game over", originated from Paxton developing a backstory for Hudson in which he was trained on simulators. Henn found it hard to act afraid of the aliens (since she was fond of the actors in the suits) and imagined a dog was chasing her. Other cast members spent time with Henn between scenes, including Weaver and Paxton (who would color or craft things with her). Biehn said he and Paxton spent much of their free time together. Despite the difficulties, Fox was satisfied with the daily footage, and principal photography concluded in January 1986, on time and on budget.


title: Aliens (film)

text: Post-production began in late April 1986. Several scenes were removed from "Aliens" theatrical release, including Ripley learning about her daughter's death and a cocooned Burke begging her for death. Fox and Hurd suggested removing a long opening scene detailing the lives of the colonists, Newt's family discovering the derelict alien ship, and her father being attacked by a facehugger, because it ruined the pacing and sense of mystery. Two scenes with James Remar as Hicks (shown from the back) were used in the film.


title: Aliens (film)

text: Ray Lovejoy was responsible for editing the final two hours, 17 minutes cut of "Aliens". Fox wanted the film to be under two hours so it could be shown more times per day in theaters, increasing its revenue potential. Fox production president Scott Rudin flew to England to ask Cameron and Hurd if they could cut another 12 minutes, but Cameron was concerned further cuts would make it nonsensical, and Rudin relented.


title: Aliens (film)

text: James Horner met Cameron early in their careers, when they worked for director Roger Corman. "Aliens" was Horner and Cameron's first collaboration; Horner called it a "nightmare". He arrived in London to compose the score, expecting a six-week schedule. There was no film for him to score, as Cameron was still filming and editing, and Horner had only three weeks to come up with a score. The producers were unwilling to give him any more time, and he was booked to begin scoring "The Name of the Rose" (1986) shortly afterwards.


title: Aliens (film)

text: Horner recorded the score at Abbey Road Studios with the London Symphony Orchestra. His schedule was so tight that the score for the climactic battle between Ripley and the queen was written overnight. Cameron first heard the score while it was being recorded by the orchestra and did not like it, but it was too late to make changes. Brad Fiedel's synth-inspired tracks for "The Terminator" had allowed changes to be made quickly based on feedback, but Cameron had no experience managing orchestral music. Cameron cut the score up, using pieces where he believed they fit best, and inserted pieces of Jerry Goldsmith's "Alien" score and hired unknown composers to fill gaps. The director said in a later interview he thought the score was good, but did not fit the scenes he had filmed. Horner's "alien sting" sound was initially only used once, during the scene with the cocooned woman, as Cameron disliked it, but he eventually used it throughout the film. Unused portions of Horner's "Aliens" score were repurposed for "Die Hard" (1988).


title: Aliens (film)

text: Development of the special effects for "Aliens" began in May 1985, with John Richardson supervising a 40-person team at Stan Winston Studio. L.A. Effects Group created miniatures and optical effects. Cameron lacked contacts at the more established special effects studios and avoided using them because he believed his hands-on approach would not be welcomed. He also did not rehire many "Alien" crew members because he did not want to be restricted by their loyalties to the first film. Those who returned were often given a higher status (such as Crispian Sallis, "Alien" focus puller and "Aliens" set decorator). Cameron had enjoyed returning artist Ron Cobb's work on "Alien", and conceptual artist Syd Mead was recruited because Cameron was a fan of his work on films such as "" (1984).


title: Aliens (film)

text: Mead designed the "Sulaco", the marines' spaceship. He conceived it as a large sphere with antennae, but Cameron wanted it to be flatter; the full craft had to pass the camera, and a sphere would not work with the aspect ratio. Mead designed the craft as a commercial freighter carrying a military unit. Its exterior was designed with a row of loading doors, a crane, and large gun fixtures to defend against threats. Mirrors were used as a cost-cutting measure to increase the number of sleeping pods and add a power loader. Cobb designed the dropship, the armored personnel carrier (APC), and exteriors of the colony and its vehicles. The "Sulaco"s dropship was designed to be life-size, for use on the "Sulaco" set, but a smaller replica was used for some shots. The APC was a disguised pushback tug for a Boeing 747. The derelict alien spacecraft used in "Aliens" had been in historian Bob Burns III's driveway since its appearance in "Alien".


title: Aliens (film)

text: Most of the colony, apart from the main entrance used by the marines, was constructed in scale miniature form. The set was about long to accommodate the sixth-scale APC replica. The set was so large it had to be laid out diagonally across the stage, and forced perspective was used to add in buildings that would otherwise not fit. Cobb used a stylized design for the colony, resembling a western frontier town. It featured a makeshift construction from cargo containers, broken filming equipment, and beer crates. The alien nest scene was one of the earliest filmed; Weaver's participation was delayed by three weeks because of production issues on her previous film "Half Moon Street" (1986), and the scene was one of the few not involving her. The Acton Power Station location was filled with decaying asbestos and three weeks were spent having it professionally cleaned, during which time the alien hive was fabricated in clay spawning hundreds of fiberglass and vacuum-formed castings that were installed at the station over a further three weeks. Cameron wanted to vertically pan as the marines enter the hive, but disguising the area above the marines would be time-intensive. A hanging miniature was made about square from plywood and styrofoam hung just above the actors' heads and carefully blended into the larger set. After Remar was replaced, Cameron wanted to reshoot the scene but the miniature had been destroyed; Cameron was able to edit the scene to conceal Remar.


title: Aliens (film)

text: The marines' smart guns weighed , and were constructed from German MG 42 machine guns attached to a steadicam and augmented with motorcycle parts. Since getting in and out of the smart-gun rig was difficult, the actors kept them on when not filming. The pulse rifle was made from a Thompson submachine gun and a Franchi SPAS-12 pump-action shotgun in a futuristic shell. Weaver was opposed to weapons in general, but Cameron explained weapons were secondary to the core narrative of Ripley bonding with and protecting Newt. Weaver found using the weapons strange and difficult, due to their weight and her concern about pulling the wrong trigger. Automated sentry guns were also constructed for "Aliens", although they do not appear in the theatrical cut. Real machine guns were positioned atop remote-controlled hydraulic tripods that allowed them to pivot horizontally or vertically. The guns were capable of firing up to 600 wooden-blank rounds per minute that would be shattered into small splinters by baffles in the muzzle and incinerated by the heat generated in the barrel.


title: Aliens (film)

text: A cast was made of Henn's upper body and her stunt double's legs to construct a lightweight dummy for Weaver to hold when carrying a gun; Henn's weight plus a gun would have been too heavy. Goldstein had never handled a gun, and held her weapon incorrectly in closeups, so Hurd stood in for her. The flamethrowers were functional. The art department had covered the sets in an unspecified substance to artificially age them; the flamethrowers vaporized it, causing fire and heavy smoke. Goldstein struggled to breathe and, since improvisation was encouraged, Paxton thought she was acting until he also became breathless.


title: Aliens (film)

text: The nuclear explosion of the colony in the finale was created by shining a light bulb through cotton. Reebok designer Taun Le was commissioned to design custom sneakers for Weaver to wear in the film. The only mandate was that the sneakers be laceless so that one could easily slide off Weaver's foot during the finale.


title: Aliens (film)

text: H. R. Giger, who designed the "Alien" creature, was reportedly disappointed that he could not be involved in "Aliens". According to Hurd, Giger was contractually obligated to "" (1986) and Fox was not allowed to negotiate with him. Giger was replaced by special-effects creator Stan Winston. Cameron also contributed to designs, but was not as concerned with the warrior aliens because they were on screen only briefly. In redesigning the alien warriors, Cameron remained faithful to Giger's work while building on it. Conscious that the creatures would be seen by audiences as people in costumes, he enhanced the designs by extending their arms and often filmed them hung from wires or from atypical positions to make them appear more inhuman. The aliens were played by dancers and stuntmen in lightweight costumes that allowed them to move quickly. Several mannequins were used for aliens that were contorted into inhuman poses. Although it appears hordes of alien creatures are in the film, there were only 12 alien suits: simple, black leotards covered in molded foam for faster-moving shots, and detailed models with articulated upper bodies and mouths for closeups. When the aliens were shot and destroyed, puppets were hung up and detonated. The aliens' acidic blood was a combination of titanium tetrachloride, cyclohexylamine, acetic acid, and yellow dye.


title: Aliens (film)

text: The facehugger design remained faithful to the original "Alien" design, but the overall appearance was made to appear more organic, and its eight legs were made more finger-like, enhancing the detail on the knuckles and adding fingernails. Unlike in "Alien", which only involved one substantial jumping scene, the facehugger models used in "Aliens" featured full articulation for their tongue, legs, and tail, allowing for more action set pieces. The tail was also lengthened about to give it more functions such as a whip-like action. Nine operators were required to operate the fully articulated facehugger, and other less-detailed variants were used for simple actions such as scurrying across the floor. The design team struggled with making it believably scuttle while moving the appendages, eventually developing a control wire along the floor that activated a gear inside the facehugger, causing the appendages to move as it was pulled along. Several rubber facehuggers were made to be thrown or blown up. Manipulating the facehugger inside a water tank was also difficult as the tank had to be watertight and limited the use of control cables. A method was developed that used fewer cables to move the facehugger around the tank; the tail was fitted with a spring that caused it to snap back and forth. Winston added arms to the chestburster alien form (since the adult form had arms), explaining how it could drag itself out of a host's chest. Two chestburster puppets were used: a reinforced one, and an articulated one for movement. A puppeteer punched the former through a fabricated latex-foam chest; the scene took several takes to film because it could not pierce the clothing.


title: Aliens (film)

text: A deleted scene in "Alien" established a life cycle for the alien creatures in which a lifeform would be cocooned and transformed into an egg that would birth a facehugger. Inspired by a beehive-like hierarchy, Cameron believed the vast field of eggs on the derelict alien craft would come from a much larger creature, the queen, with the other alien creatures serving as her drones. Winston described Cameron's initial queen design as a combination of a praying mantis and "Tyrannosaurus rex" influenced by the alien warrior design. Cameron said dinosaur influences were unintentional as he considered them "boring," and his goal was to extrapolate on Giger's warrior designs to create a large and powerful creature that was also swift and overtly female, describing it as "hideous and beautiful at the same time, like a black widow spider". The queen has elongated, large forelimbs, with smaller secondary ones underneath, but Winston redesigned the legs by adding a double joint to make it more inhuman. Cameron and Winston worked on several concepts to vivify the queen, including large puppets, miniatures, and costumes with several people inside. A frame was built large enough to hold two people, covered in black polythene bags, and hung on a crane. The prototype was a success, and Cameron wrote the alien-queen scene. The final alien queen was a puppet made of lightweight polyurethane foam. Two people sat inside to control the arms; the legs were controlled by rods connected at the ankles, and a separate person whipped the tail around with fishing line. The head was manipulated with a combination of servomotors and hydraulics controlled by up to four people. The effect was hidden by lighting, steam, slime, and smoke. The Stan Winston Studio had not used hydraulics before and considered them a learning experience. They were essential for moving larger parts of the queen puppet, including the head, and a foot press in the body could hydraulically move the tail up and down. Shane Mahan took several weeks to sculpt the head by sight based on a maquette; computer technology to scale up the model's design did not yet exist. Two heads were built: a lightweight, fragile one, and another that could survive some damage. Each was articulated with hydraulics and cables to control the queen's mouth and lips.


title: Aliens (film)

text: To create the effect of the queen piercing Bishop's chest with her tail, Tom Woodruff Jr. and Alec Gillis constructed a chestplate for Henriksen with a rubber segment of the queen's tail flattened against it. The tail was pulled forward by wire, apparently exploding through Bishop's torso. A rigid piece of tail (attached to a body harness) was used to show more of the tail moving through Bishop, and Henriksen was levered upward as if he was being lifted by the tail. To complete the effect, a dummy of Bishop was constructed with a spring-loaded mechanism that would forcibly separate his upper and lower body, as if the queen had ripped him in half. Once separated, Henriksen's upper body was below the set and a fake torso attached up to his shoulders. The android blood was milk, and after several days of filming, it was sour and foul-smelling.


title: Aliens (film)

text: John Richardson designed the mechanical power loader exosuit, with input from Mead. As with the queen, a prototype was built out of wood and polythene bags stuffed with newspaper to see how the movement would work. The finished design was so cumbersome that stuntman John Lees, in a black skinsuit, operated it from behind. The battle between the queen and power loader was extensively choreographed, as Weaver risked serious injury battling a large, unwieldy animatronic. The camera was sometimes moved to simulate subjects moving faster. The scene of the queen running at Ripley was one of the more difficult shots; the wires and rods had to be concealed, since they could not be removed in post-production. Miniatures were used for parts of the scene with go motion, a version of stop motion with motion blur added.


title: Aliens (film)

text: The 1986 summer film season began in mid-May. The season had been starting earlier each year as studios attempted to beat each other with their biggest films. Fifty-five films were scheduled for release between May and September, including the action drama "Top Gun" and the comedic "Sweet Liberty", but the season was not expected to break financial records due to fewer sequels, anticipated blockbusters, and films by Steven Spielberg or starring popular comedians that had dominated the earlier half of the decade. Some industry experts also blamed the burgeoning home-video market, which had grown from 7million rentals in 1983 to 58million by 1985. Films expected to do well were aimed at younger audiences and featured comedy or horror, such as "Back to School", "Ferris Bueller's Day Off", and "SpaceCamp". Some films targeted at adults were also seen as potential successes, including "Legal Eagles", "Ruthless People", and "Cobra".


title: Aliens (film)

text: "Aliens" was seen by industry professionals as a potential sleeper hit based on positive industry word-of-mouth during filming, enthusiastic industry screenings, and favorable pre-release reviews. The film's success was considered dependent on its ability to attract audiences outside the young males and blue-collar workers typical for the genre. The tagline was, "This time, it's war".


title: Aliens (film)

text: "Aliens" began a wide release in the United States (U.S.) and Canada on July18, 1986. During its opening weekend, the film earned $10.1million from 1,437 theaters—an average of $6,995 per theater. It was the weekend's number-one film, ahead of the martial-arts drama "The Karate Kid Part II" ($5.6million in its fifth weekend) and the black comedy "Ruthless People" ($4.5million in its fourth weekend). Based on its opening-five-day total ($13.4million), "Aliens" exceeded Fox's expectations and was anticipated to become the summer's top film, surpassing "The Karate Kid Part II", "Back to School", and "Top Gun". The "Los Angeles Times" reported long lines to see "Aliens", even on weekday afternoons.


title: Aliens (film)

text: The film retained the number-one position in its second weekend with an additional gross of $8.6million, ahead of the debuting comedy-drama "Heartburn" ($5.8million) and "The Karate Kid Part II" ($5million). "Aliens" remained the number-one film of its third weekend with a gross of $7.1million, ahead of the debuts of "" ($6.8million) and the comedy "Howard the Duck" ($5.1million). The film fell to third place in its fifth weekend with a gross of $4.30million, behind the debuts of the science-fiction horror film "The Fly" ($7million) and the comedy "Armed and Dangerous" ($4.33million). "Aliens" was one of the top ten highest-grossing films for 11 weeks.


title: Aliens (film)

text: By the end of its theatrical run, "Aliens" had grossed about $85.1million. This figure made it the year's seventh highest-grossing film, behind "Back to School" ($91.3million), science-fiction film "" ($109.6million), "The Karate Kid Part II" ($115.1million), war film "Platoon" (138.5million), action comedy "Crocodile Dundee" ($174.8million) and "Top Gun" ($176.8million). "Aliens" box-office returns to the studio, minus the theaters' share, was $42.5million.


title: Aliens (film)

text: Box office figures outside the U.S. and Canada are inconsistent and not available for all 1986 films. According to the box-office tracking websites Box Office Mojo and the Numbers, "Aliens" earned from $45.9million to $98.1million. This gives "Aliens" a worldwide gross of $131.1million to $183.3million, making it the year's fourth-highest-grossing film, behind "Platoon" ($138million), "Crocodile Dundee" ($328.2million), and "Top Gun" ($356.8million), or the third-highest-grossing film behind "Crocodile Dundee" and "Top Gun". According to Fox's 1992 estimate, "Aliens" had earned $157million worldwide. "The New York Times" described the film as "extremely successful."


title: Aliens (film)

text: "Aliens" opened to generally positive reviews. It appeared on the cover of the July 28, 1986, edition of "Time" magazine, which called it "The Summer's Scariest Movie". Audience polls by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A" on an scale.


title: Aliens (film)

text: Most reviewers agreed "Aliens" was a worthy successor to "Alien". "Variety" and Walter Goodman said it could not replicate the novelty of the first film, but "Aliens" compensated with special effects, technique, and a constant stream of set-piece thrills and scary scenes. "Variety" added "Aliens" was made by an expert craftsman, suggesting its predecessor was a more artistic endeavor. Sheila Benson said "Aliens" was clever and ironically funny, but lacked "Alien" pure horror. Benson attributed this to an overabundance of creature effects in the intervening years, particularly the 1982 science-fiction horror film "The Thing" (which, Benson said, took alien monstrosities to an extreme).


title: Aliens (film)

text: According to Rick Kogan, "Aliens" demonstrated that science-fiction horror could still be entertaining after many poorly received "Alien"-derived films. Dave Kehr and Richard Schickel called it a rare sequel which surpassed the original, and Kehr appreciated the action used to develop the characters. Schickel wrote that the film had evolved from "Alien", giving Weaver new emotional depths. Jay Scott said Cameron had redefined the war film, combining "Rambo" with "Star Wars". Kogan agreed Cameron possessed a knack for action pacing and excitement, but Kehr believed Cameron pushed some elements beyond believability.


title: Aliens (film)

text: Roger Ebert called the last hour "painfully, unremittingly intense" in horror and action, leaving him emotionally drained and unhappy. Ebert believed it could not be defined as entertainment, despite his admiration of the filmmaking craft on display. Dennis Fischer wrote for "The Hollywood Reporter" that the unrelenting scenes of action and suspense worked for "Aliens" as they had in "The Terminator"; tension was created by placing the characters in successive, increasingly difficult situations. Gene Siskel described the film as "one extremely violent, protracted attack on the senses". In the "Orlando Sentinel", Jay Boyar called it the "Jaws" of the 1980s: the most "intensely shocking" film in years.


title: Aliens (film)

text: Reviewers consistently praised Weaver's performance. Benson called her the "white-hot core" around whose "defiant intelligence" and "sensual athleticism" "Aliens" was built, and Ripley returned not for vengeance but out of compassion. Ebert credited Weaver's sympathetic performance with holding "Aliens" together. Kogan compared her to a more attractive John Rambo (Sylvester Stallone's action character). Scott agreed, saying Weaver made action stars like Stallone and Schwarzenegger look like male pin-up models. He described her as the ultimate adventure heroine, balancing action with femininity and maternal instincts. Pauline Kael was critical of the film overall as too "mechanical", but praised Weaver's physical presence and performance, writing that, without her, "Aliens" was a subpar B picture.


title: Aliens (film)

text: Most of the cast was also praised, particularly Biehn, Goldstein, Henriksen, Henn and Reiser but Benson noted that less time was spent exploring the new characters than in "Alien". Schickel said Henn played her character as endearingly brave and clever, without self-pity. Benson praised Horner's "ruminative, intelligent" music, but Fischer criticized it for borrowing too much from Goldsmith's score and Horner's work on "" (1984).


title: Aliens (film)

text: "Aliens" received two awards at the 1987 Academy Awards: Best Sound Effects Editing (Don Sharpe) and Best Visual Effects (Robert Skotak, Stan Winston, John Richardson, Suzanne Benson). Weaver was nominated for Best Actress, losing to Marlee Matlin for the romantic drama "Children of a Lesser God". Weaver's was the first Best Actress nomination given for a science-fiction film, at a time when the genre was given little respect, and it remained a rarity for the action or science-fiction genres. The film garnered four other nominations: Best Original Score for Horner; Best Art Director for Peter Lamont and Crispian Sallis; Best Editing for Ray Lovejoy, and Best Sound for Graham V. Hartstone, Nicolas Le Messurier, Michael A. Carter, and Roy Charman. At the 44th Golden Globe Awards, Weaver was nominated for Best Actress in a Drama.


title: Aliens (film)

text: At the 40th British Academy Film Awards, "Aliens" won the award for Best Special Visual Effects and three other nominations: Best Production Design, Best Makeup and Hair for Peter Robb King, and Best Sound. At the 14th Saturn Awards, "Aliens" received eight awards: Best Science Fiction Film, Best Actress (Weaver), Best Performance by a Young Actor (Henn), Best Supporting Actress (Goldstein), Best Supporting Actor (Paxton), Best Special Effects (Winston and the L.A. Effects Group) and Best Director and Best Writing (both for Cameron). It received a Hugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation.


title: Aliens (film)

text: "Aliens" was released on VHS in February 1987. A modified cut, including scenes deleted from the theatrical release, was broadcast on CBS in 1989, and a further extended edition with more deleted scenes, including the opening scene of Newt's family investigating the derelict spacecraft, was released on LaserDisc in 1991. The extended cut is 157minutes long, 20 minutes longer than the theatrical cut, and Cameron has stated it is his preferred version.


title: Aliens (film)

text: The extended edition was released on VHS and DVD in 1999 as part of the "Alien Legacy" box set with the other three available "Alien" films: "Alien", "Alien 3" (1992) and "Alien Resurrection" (1997). The DVD version was also sold separately, and both versions included additional behind-the-scenes footage. The 2003 "Alien Quadrilogy" nine-DVD box set included all four films and an additional disc for each film with behind-the-scenes footage and featurettes (including a three-hour documentary, "Superior Firepower: The Making of Aliens"), and theatrical and extended cuts of each film. The "Aliens" disc included commentary by cast and crew members, including Cameron; Weaver did not participate. Each film was sold separately (including its bonus disc) in 2004.


title: Aliens (film)

text: "Aliens" was released on Blu-ray in 2010 as part of the "Alien Anthology" box set with remastered footage, theatrical and extended versions, and featurettes found in earlier releases. The film was released separately on Blu-ray in 2011. For its 30th anniversary in 2016, "Aliens" was released on Blu-ray and digital download, featuring a new interview with Cameron about his inspirations for the film. In addition to the theatrical and extended versions, the release contained a limited-edition lithograph of Ripley in battle with the alien queen, an art book focused on the "Aliens" comic books by Dark Horse Comics, and collectible cards with concept art by Cameron. A limited-edition, 75-copy vinyl soundtrack was also released that year.


title: Aliens (film)

text: Toy company Kenner Products attempted to release figures based on "Alien" in 1979, but only an alien action figure was released, which was quickly withdrawn when it was deemed too frightening for children. "Aliens" was considered a different prospect (despite its adult-oriented content), since it focused on action and featured marines (instead of ordinary workers) fighting a large number of aliens. The toys were intended to tie into "Operation Aliens" (a children's cartoon scheduled for release in 1992, alongside "Alien 3") and a series of mini-comics by Dark Horse Comics. Since its release, "Aliens" has appeared across a variety of merchandise, including action figures, punching bags, clothing, and board games. McFarlane Toys released figures for Hicks, the alien, and the alien queen in the early 2000s. In the late 2010s, National Entertainment Collectibles Association (NECA) released figures based on the film, including Newt, Burke, and Cameron dressed as a Colonial Marine. NECA also revived the original Kenner designs in 2019, releasing better-quality models.


title: Aliens (film)

text: "Aliens" has had several video-game adaptations, beginning with" " (1986), which was followed by a separate game, also called "", in 1987. A side-scroller, "Aliens" (1987), was released in Japan for the MSX, and a 1990 arcade game, "Aliens", allowed players to play as Ripley or Hicks against alien variants; some levels required the player to control Newt. "", an adventure game focusing on puzzles, was released in 1995. A first-person shooter, "Alien Trilogy" (1996), is based on "Alien", "Aliens", and "Alien 3". "Aliens Online" (1998) was an online game which allowed players to play as Colonial Marines or aliens. "" (2013) is a first-person shooter and a canonical sequel of "Aliens", focusing on the marines sent to search for Ripley's expedition. Several other games have the "Aliens" brand or are side stories or sequels to the film's events, and the "Aliens vs. Predator" game series.


title: Aliens (film)

text: A novelization by Alan Dean Foster was released alongside the film. Comic books based on (and continuing) the story of "Aliens" have been published (primarily by Dark Horse Comics) since 1988, including crossovers of the titular aliens with popular franchises, such as "Predator" (creating a derivative "Alien vs. Predator" franchise), "Terminator", and "Superman". Reebok's boots designed for Ripley became available to the public in 2016; other versions included boots based on the power loader, Bishop, the Colonial Marines and the alien queen. Rinzler published "The Making of Aliens", a 300-page behind-the-scenes book with cast and crew interviews and previously unseen photographs, in 2020. "Operation Aliens", a board game, was released in 1992. Players are cast as a Colonial Marine or Ripley and tasked with finding a self-destruct code to destroy an infested spaceship.


title: Aliens (film)

text: A central theme of "Aliens" is motherhood. "Alien" can be seen as a metaphor for childbirth, but "Aliens" focuses on Ripley's maternal feelings for Newt. A scene cut from the theatrical release depicts Ripley learning her child died while she was in stasis, helping explain Ripley's motherly attention for Newt. Newt has also lost everything of value, and they form a new family from the remnants of their old ones. This relationship is mirrored by the alien queen, mother of the alien creatures. There are no paternal figures; both are single mothers, defending their young. The alien queen seeks revenge against Ripley, who destroyed her brood and her means of reproduction. According to Richard Schickel, "Alien" is about survival; "Aliens" is about fighting to ensure someone else's survival.


title: Aliens (film)

text: Authors Tammy Ostrander and Susan Yunis believed Newt's capture by the aliens forces Ripley to realize she is willing to die to save her, demonstrating a selfless motherhood, unlike the queen's selfish motherhood. Writing for the "Los Angeles Times", Nancy Weber wrote that as a mother, she saw in "Aliens" the constant vigilance required to protect her child from predators, sexism, and threats to childhood innocence. Leilani Nishime believed despite the focus on motherhood, the nuclear family is represented in "Aliens" with a mother (Ripley), father (Hicks), daughter (Newt), and a loyal, self-sacrificing dog (Bishop).


title: Aliens (film)

text: According to Charles Berg, the depictions of aliens in science fiction that became more popular during the 1980s represented American fears of immigrants (the "other"). In "Aliens", this can be seen in the white-skinned single mother (Ripley) confronting the dark-skinned alien queen with an endless brood. Ostrander and Yunis also identified fears of overcrowding, dwindling resources, and pollution, suggesting the alien queen demonizes motherhood and makes it less attractive. She represents mindless, unchecked maternal instinct spawning armies of children, regardless of the lives which must be sacrificed to ensure their survival. Despite imminent destruction by the colony exploding, the queen continues to reproduce. The aliens' life cycle taints the reproductive cycle. Creation involves rape, and birth involves a violent death. In destroying the aliens and their queen, Ripley rejects the unchecked proliferation of their species and sets an example for her own.


title: Aliens (film)

text: Ripley has been compared to John Rambo and dubbed Ramboette, Rambette, Fembo, Ramboline; Weaver called herself Rambolina. Mary Lee Settle said females in television and film had evolved from escapist fantasy to more accurately reflect their audiences. A gun, which can be seen as a phallic symbol, has a different meaning when wielded by Weaver. Schickel described Ripley as transcending the customary boundaries imposed on her gender, where females serve the male hero. In "Aliens", the male characters are neutralized by the climax and Ripley faces the queen alone. Cameron said he does not like cowardly female characters and removes their expected protectors to force them to fend for themselves. He called the overuse of male heroes "commercially shortsighted" in an industry whose audience is 50-percent female, and where "80 percent of the time, it's women who decide which film to see".


title: Aliens (film)

text: The growth of female-led action films after the success of "Aliens" reflects the change in women's roles and the divide between professional critics (who perceive a masculinization of the heroine) and audiences that—regardless of gender—embrace, emulate, and quote Ripley. The hyper-masculine heroes played by Schwarzenegger, Stallone, and Jean-Claude Van Damme were replaced by independent women capable of defending themselves and defeating villains in films such as "The Silence of the Lambs" (1991) and Cameron's "" (1991). These female characters often perform stereotypical male actions, and have muscular physiques rather than feminine "soft" bodies. When Ripley has seized command of the marines and is no longer a passive outsider in "Aliens", the traditional male hero (Hicks) instructs her in the use of their weapons. The comparison of Ripley to Rambo conflates her with the male, musclebound, gun-wielding action hero. To balance her masculine traits, Cameron gives Ripley maternal instincts; this counters homophobic audiences, who might see a masculinized female as lesbian or butch. These traits are further offset by the more openly masculine Vasquez, a minor character. Vasquez (who has short hair and bigger muscles) is introduced to the audience by working out, and is asked if she has ever been mistaken for a man. Weber appreciated the change in female characters between the films, contrasting "Alien" hysterical Lambert with the tough Vasquez (who sacrifices herself for her team, not only for the protagonist).


title: Aliens (film)

text: "Aliens" has been described as an allegory for the Vietnam War; the marines (like the United States) have superior weaponry and technology that proves largely ineffective against an unseen, local enemy. Like some Vietnam veterans, Ripley developed post-traumatic stress disorder after the events of "Alien". Writer Joe Abbott contrasted the depiction of the military in "Aliens" to the 1954 science-fiction film "Them!" In both films, humans are beset by a monstrous invasion; in "Them!", the military is the hero despite its responsibility for the infestation. Abbott said its post-World War II American setting depicts a competent military and a state authority that demands (and receives) the compliance of its citizens. The image of the post-Vietnam military is tarnished and scrutinized; in "Aliens", it is ill-equipped, bumbling, and incapable of combating the threat posed by the alien creatures. Citizen cooperation can no longer be demanded or expected, and it is Ripley, an independent contractor from outside the state and military infrastructures, who saves the day. Unlike "Them!", the military is not at fault for creating the problem in "Aliens"; it is the Weyland-Yutani corporation. The power of the state has been superseded by the corporation, which also demands conformity for rewards and advancement and reflects a growing mistrust of corporatism; the company is represented by Burke, a self-interested opportunist. Ripley is elevated throughout "Aliens" as she benefits the community, and Burke works to undermine it for the company.


title: Aliens (film)

text: According to Weaver, "Aliens" is about confronting trauma to obtain closure. This may be seen as a reflection of Ronald Reagan's United States presidency and a conservatism that believed the hero must return to confront their fears with ethics and morality on their side. Comparing "Alien" with "Aliens", Roger Luckhurst said: "Even if "Alien" was a piece of leftist science fiction, the core of [its] myth could be inflected the other way. [Cameron's] "Aliens" would be a defiantly Reaganite version of the story—pumped, militarized, libertarian driven by a staunch defense of the nuclear family." Abbott said "Aliens" adheres to a radical ideology and condemns centrism; similar films were popular because they represented audience dissatisfaction with the social "status quo". The film places power in the individual (Ripley), instead of institutions like the military, corporations, or the government. The Bishop character also allows Ripley to confront her distrust of androids that resulted from the deception of Ash (portrayed by Ian Holm) in "Alien". Unlike Ash, Bishop is openly an android and conveys both a similarly unassuming personality and a fascination with the alien creatures. "Aliens" imbues Bishop with a degree of humanity as he volunteers for a potentially suicidal mission. Although the other characters assume he is artificial and thus unafraid, Bishop affirms, "Believe me, I'd prefer not to, I may be synthetic, but I'm not stupid."


title: Aliens (film)

text: A cinematic touchstone, "Aliens" has had an enduring influence on filmmaking. Elements such as a team of soldiers being dismantled by a villain have been repeated to the point of cliché. The same is true of Horner's oft-imitated score, which regularly appeared in action-film trailers for the following decade. The film's influence can also be seen in video games' (particularly science-fiction games') ships, armor, and weapons, as well as the 1989 Italian film "Shocking Dark", a remake of "Aliens" that relocates much of the plot and scenes to a Venetian setting and incorporates elements of "The Terminator"; outside Italy, it was released as "Terminator II".


title: Aliens (film)

text: Although "The Terminator" was a success for Cameron, the critical and commercial success of "Aliens" made him a blockbuster director. It also expanded the "Alien" series into a franchise, spanning video games, comic books, and toys; although Ripley and the alien creature originated in "Alien", Cameron elaborated on the creature's life cycle, added new characters and factions (such as the Colonial Marines), and extended the films' universe. Ripley became a post-feminist icon, a proactive hero who retained feminine traits. "Aliens" features popular quotes, including Paxton's "Game over, man, game over", and Weaver's "Get away from her, you bitch," which is considered one of "Aliens" most memorable lines and has often been repeated in other media. "Aliens" was named by director Roland Emmerich as one of his top ten science-fiction films, alongside "Alien".


title: Aliens (film)

text: Many cast and crew members reunited at the 2016 San Diego Comic-Con to celebrate the film's 30th anniversary, including Weaver, Biehn, Paxton, Henriksen, Reiser, Henn, Cameron and Hurd. Cameron said he normally would not participate (and did not do so for "The Terminator"s anniversary) but he considered "Aliens" special because of its impact on his career. Asked why he thought "Aliens" popularity had endured, Cameron said:


title: Aliens (film)

text: The ensemble cast's popularity led to many members appearing together in later films, including Henriksen, Goldstein, and Paxton in "Near Dark" (1987) as well as Goldstein and Rolston in "Lethal Weapon 2" (1989). Biehn lost a role in Cameron's "Avatar" (2009) because Weaver had been cast, and the director did not want to create an obvious association with "Aliens". Paxton is also remembered as one of only two actors, along with Lance Henriksen, to play characters killed by an alien, a Terminator (in "The Terminator"), and a Predator (in 1990's "Predator 2"). Despite her sudden fame, Henn decided not to pursue acting, so that she could remain close to her family. She said some people resented her fame and was uncertain whether people liked her for being in "Aliens" or for herself. Henn became a teacher; she maintains a relationship with Weaver and kept a framed picture of her and Weaver that the actress had given her after filming was complete.


title: Aliens (film)

text: "Aliens" is considered one of the greatest science-fiction films ever made, as well as being among the best films of the 1980s, and one of the greatest action films of all time. The British Film Institute called "Aliens" one of the 10 greatest action films, saying: "A matriarchal masterpiece of God-bothering structural engineering, there's really little that "Aliens" doesn't get right; from its slow-burn exemplification of character and world-building through to its jab-jab-hook-pause-uppercut series of sustained climaxes, Cameron delivers a masterclass in action direction."


title: Aliens (film)

text: The film is also considered one of the best sequels of all time, and equal to (or better than) "Alien". According to "Slant Magazine", it exceeded "Alien" in every way. In 2009, "Den of Geek" called it the best blockbuster sequel ever made, and remarkable even as a standalone film. In 2017, the website ranked it the second-best film in the series (behind "Alien"). In 2011, "Empire" called it the greatest movie sequel ever. "Empire" also listed "Aliens" as the 30th-best film ever made on the magazine's "500 Greatest Movies Of All Time" list; its readers ranked it the 17th-best. The film is listed in the book "1001 Movies You Must See Before You Die". "Aliens" has a approval rating on the review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes from reviews, with an average rating of . Its critical consensus reads, "While "Alien" was a marvel of slow-building, atmospheric tension, "Aliens" packs a much more visceral punch, and features a typically strong performance from Sigourney Weaver." The film has a score of 84 out of 100 on Metacritic based on 22 critics, indicating "universal acclaim".


title: Aliens (film)

text: The Ellen Ripley character has also been recognized; the American Film Institute ranked her the eighth-most-heroic character on its 2003 100 Years ... 100 Heroes and Villains list, and she was ninth on "Empire"s 2006 "100 Greatest Movie Characters" list. Despite her character's popularity, the casting of Jenette Goldstein (a Jewish actress of Russian, Moroccan, and Brazilian descent) as the Hispanic Vasquez has been considered odd. Goldstein has said she considers herself unrecognizable as Vasquez on film, but a muscular actress was required, and the filmmakers could not find anyone else with her physique.


title: Aliens (film)

text: "Aliens" success resulted in immediate discussion of a sequel. "Alien 3" was released in 1992, after a tumultuous development involving several writers and directors; Cameron did not return. The film was financially successful, but "generally panned" by critics, and its director, David Fincher, disowned it after the release, citing studio interference. The film was also derided by fans because it killed the Hicks and Newt characters off-screen. Biehn called it one of his greatest disappointments and refused permission for the use of his likeness in "Alien 3". Regarding the treatment of his characters, Cameron said:


title: Aliens (film)

text: An early script for "Alien 3", by William Gibson, was adapted as a 2019 audio drama, focusing on Hicks as the protagonist, with Biehn and Henriksen voicing their respective roles. A five-hour 2017 audio drama, "River of Pain", takes place between "Alien" and "Aliens" and covers the early days of the LV-426 colony and its downfall to the aliens. Actors returning to voice their characters included William Hope, Mac MacDonald, Stuart Milligan, and Alibe Parsons. A third sequel, "Alien Resurrection", was released in 1997. Instead of a fourth sequel, Fox began development of a crossover film pitting the series' aliens against the titular alien race of its science-fiction property, "Predator"; the film was poorly received. It was followed by a sequel, "" (2007), the least financially-successful and worst-reviewed film in either franchise.


title: Aliens (film)

text: Ridley Scott returned to the series for "Prometheus" (2012) (a prequel to "Alien") and its sequel, "" (2017). A fifth sequel in the main "Alien" series was in development in 2020, but was canceled by the Walt Disney Company following its acquisition of 20th Century Fox. An original, stand-alone film in the "Alien" franchise was announced in 2022, to be written and directed by Fede Álvarez.


title: Google Forms

text: Google Forms is a survey administration software included as part of the free, web-based Google Docs Editors suite offered by Google. The service also includes Google Docs, Google Sheets, Google Slides, Google Drawings, Google Sites, and Google Keep. Google Forms is only available as a web application. The app allows users to create and edit surveys online while collaborating with other users in real-time. The collected information can be automatically entered into a spreadsheet.


title: Google Forms

text: The Google Forms service has undergone several updates over the years. Features include, but are not limited to, menu search, shuffle of questions for randomized order, limiting responses to once per person, shorter URLs, custom themes, automatically generating answer suggestions when creating forms, and an "Upload file" option for users answering questions that require them to share content or files from their computer or Google Drive.


title: Google Forms

text: In October 2014, Google introduced add-ons for Google Forms that enable third-party developers to add new features to surveys, while in July 2017, Google updated Forms to add several new features. "Intelligent response validation" is capable of detecting text input in form fields to identify what is written and ask the user to correct the information if wrongly input. Depending on file-sharing settings in Google Drive, users can request file uploads from individuals outside multi-option answers in a table. In Settings, users can make changes that affect all new forms, such as always collecting email addresses.


title: Google Forms

text: Users can analyze responses to their form using either the built-in analysis tools or export them to a new or existing Google Sheets spreadsheet that updates as new responses are received. The built-in analysis tools allow for responses to be viewed individually or in summary. Alternatively, responses can be downloaded as a comma-separated values file.


title: Google Forms

text: Google Forms features all of the collaboration and sharing features found in Docs, Sheets, Slides, Drawings, and Sites.


title: Johnny Sins

text: Steven Wolfe (born December 31, 1978), known professionally as Johnny Sins, is an American pornographic actor, director, and YouTuber. Sins is known for his shaved head and muscular physique. He is consistently among the most popular male talent pornography searches. He has received many accolades for his work, including three AVN Awards for Male Performer of the Year as well as multiple nominations. Sins has also been the subject of many memes across social media.


title: Johnny Sins

text: Sins was born Steven Wolfe in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, on December 31, 1978. He has described himself as "very shy" while growing up. After graduating from the Indiana University of Pennsylvania, he got a job working six days a week in construction. He noticed the early signs of male pattern baldness when he was around 24 years old, and has kept his head shaved ever since. In 2006, at the age of 28, he quit his job and moved to Los Angeles to pursue the pornographic film industry full time.


title: Johnny Sins

text: Sins' first pornographic endeavors were through Craigslist ads. Brazzers has described him as a "go-to guy" for the studio, having performed in 1,054 scenes as of April 1, 2019. He performed in about 2,300 videos in his career as a pornographic actor.


title: Johnny Sins

text: On June 10, 2015, Pornhub launched a crowdfunding campaign through Indiegogo to produce the first adult film in space. Sins and fellow actress Eva Lovia were slated to perform in the film. If the project were successfully funded, the two would have received six months of rigorous preparation for the launch, including zero gravity, velocity, and temperature training. When asked about the opportunity, Sins said, "It's beyond just doing it for the money, or the money shot for that matter. It's about making history." The campaign raised $236,086 over 60 days, failing to reach its goal of $3.4 million.


title: Johnny Sins

text: In early 2017, Sins and pornographic actress Kissa Sins (his then-wife) launched their YouTube channel SinsTV, which chronicles their day-to-day lives and features sex advice. As of May 2021, the channel has accrued 1.73 million subscribers. A video of Sins trying out various Turkish snacks briefly became the top YouTube video in Turkey.


title: Johnny Sins

text: In July 2018, images of Sins alongside several other porn stars were painted on the side of a bus that traveled around Kerala in India.<ref name="https://web.archive.org/web/20130329112839/http://avnawards.avn.com/2011_nominations2.pdfTheWeek"></ref> The mural was part of a marketing campaign aimed to boost college tour rides. Later that year, Sins received the award for Most Popular Male Performer by Women at the annual Pornhub Awards, for which winners were determined by users' streaming data.


title: Johnny Sins

text: As of mid-2020, Sins has stopped making porn videos for large scale studios but continues to produce content under his own production company. He has stated that he may return to working for the large studios in the future.


title: Johnny Sins

text: Sins currently resides in Las Vegas. He was previously married to pornographic actress Kissa Sins. They separated in 2019, but remain close friends.


title: Johnny Sins

text: In October 2017, a picture of Sins was tweeted by a user claiming he was missing after the Las Vegas shooting. The tweet was one of many viral hoaxes that emerged related to the shooting.


title: Sparta

text: Sparta (Doric Greek: Σπάρτα, "Spártā"; Attic Greek: Σπάρτη, "Spártē") was a prominent city-state in Laconia, in ancient Greece. In antiquity, the city-state was known as Lacedaemon (, ), while the name Sparta referred to its main settlement on the banks of the Eurotas River in Laconia, in south-eastern Peloponnese. Around 650 BC, it rose to become the dominant military land-power in ancient Greece.


title: Sparta

text: Given its military pre-eminence, Sparta was recognized as the leading force of the unified Greek military during the Greco-Persian Wars, in rivalry with the rising naval power of Athens. Sparta was the principal enemy of Athens during the Peloponnesian War (431–404 BC), from which it emerged victorious after the Battle of Aegospotami. The decisive Battle of Leuctra in 371 BC ended the Spartan hegemony, although the city-state maintained its political independence until its forced integration into the Achaean League in 192 BC. The city nevertheless recovered much autonomy after the Roman conquest of Greece in 146 BC and prospered during the Roman Empire, as its antiquarian customs attracted many Roman tourists. However, Sparta was sacked in 396 AD by the Visigothic king Alaric, and underwent a long period of decline, especially in the Middle Ages, when many of its citizens moved to Mystras. Modern Sparta is the capital of the southern Greek region of Laconia and a center for processing citrus and olives.


title: Sparta

text: Sparta was unique in ancient Greece for its social system and constitution, which were supposedly introduced by the semi-mythical legislator Lycurgus. His laws configured the Spartan society to maximize military proficiency at all costs, focusing all social institutions on military training and physical development. The inhabitants of Sparta were stratified as Spartiates (citizens with full rights), mothakes (free non-Spartiate people descended from Spartans), perioikoi (free non-Spartiates), and helots (state-owned enslaved non-Spartan locals). Spartiate men underwent the rigorous "agoge" training regimen, and Spartan phalanx brigades were widely considered to be among the best in battle. Spartan women enjoyed considerably more rights than elsewhere in classical antiquity.


title: Sparta

text: Sparta was frequently a subject of fascination in its own day, as well as in Western culture following the revival of classical learning. The admiration of Sparta is known as Laconophilia. Bertrand Russell wrote:Sparta had a double effect on Greek thought: through the reality, and through the myth... The reality enabled the Spartans to defeat Athens in war; the myth influenced Plato's political theory, and that of countless subsequent writers... [The] ideals that it favors had a great part in framing the doctrines of Rousseau, Nietzsche, and National Socialism.


title: Sparta

text: The earliest attested term referring to Lacedaemon is the Mycenaean Greek , "ra-ke-da-mi-ni-jo", "Lakedaimonian", written in Linear B syllabic script, the equivalent of the later Greek , "Lakedaimonios" (Latin: "Lacedaemonius").


title: Sparta

text: The ancient Greeks used one of three words to refer to the Spartan city-state and its location. First, "Sparta" refers primarily to the main cluster of settlements in the valley of the Eurotas River. The second word, "Lacedaemon" (), was often used as an adjective and is the name referenced in the works of Homer and the historians Herodotus and Thucydides. The third term, "Laconice" (), referred to the immediate area around the town of Sparta, the plateau east of the Taygetos mountains, and sometimes to all the regions under direct Spartan control, including Messenia.


title: Sparta

text: Herodotus seems to use "Lacedaemon" for the Mycenaean Greek citadel at Therapne, in contrast to the lower town of Sparta. This term could be used synonymously with Sparta, but typically it denoted the terrain in which the city was located. In Homer it is typically combined with epithets of the countryside: wide, lovely, shining and most often hollow and broken (full of ravines), suggesting the Eurotas Valley. "Sparta" on the other hand is described as "the country of lovely women", an epithet for people.


title: Sparta

text: The residents of Sparta were often called Lacedaemonians. This epithet utilized the plural of the adjective Lacedaemonius (Greek: ; Latin: "Lacedaemonii", but also "Lacedaemones"). The ancients sometimes used a back-formation, referring to the land of Lacedaemon as "Lacedaemonian country". As most words for "country" were feminine, the adjective was in the feminine: "Lacedaemonia" (, "Lakedaimonia"). Eventually, the adjective came to be used alone.


title: Sparta

text: "Lacedaemonia" was not in general use during the classical period and before. It does occur in Greek as an equivalent of Laconia and Messenia during the Roman and early Byzantine periods, mostly in ethnographers and lexica of place names. For example, Hesychius of Alexandria's "Lexicon" (5th century AD) defines Agiadae as a "place in Lacedaemonia" named after Agis. The actual transition may be captured by Isidore of Seville's "Etymologiae" (7th century AD), an etymological dictionary. Isidore relied heavily on Orosius' "Historiarum Adversum Paganos" (5th century AD) and Eusebius of Caesarea's "Chronicon" (early 5th century AD), as did Orosius. The latter defines Sparta to be "Lacedaemonia Civitas", but Isidore defines Lacedaemonia as founded by Lacedaemon, son of Semele, which is consistent with Eusebius' explanation. There is a rare use, perhaps the earliest of "Lacedaemonia", in Diodorus Siculus' The Library of History, but probably with (‘’chōra’’, "country") suppressed.


title: Sparta

text: Sparta is located in the region of Laconia, in the south-eastern Peloponnese. Ancient Sparta was built on the banks of the Eurotas River, the largest river of Laconia, which provided it with a source of fresh water. The valley of the Eurotas is a natural fortress, bounded to the west by Mt. Taygetus (2,407 m) and to the east by Mt. Parnon (1,935 m). To the north, Laconia is separated from Arcadia by hilly uplands reaching 1000 m in altitude. These natural defenses worked to Sparta's advantage and protected it from sacking and invasion. Though landlocked, Sparta had a vassal harbor, Gytheio, on the Laconian Gulf.


title: Sparta

text: Lacedaemon (Greek: ) was a mythical king of Laconia. The son of Zeus by the nymph Taygete, he married Sparta, the daughter of Eurotas, by whom he became the father of Amyclas, Eurydice, and Asine. As king, he named his country after himself and the city after his wife. He was believed to have built the sanctuary of the Charites, which stood between Sparta and Amyclae, and to have given to those divinities the names of Cleta and Phaenna. A shrine was erected to him in the neighborhood of Therapne.


title: Sparta

text: Tyrtaeus, an archaic era Spartan writer, is the earliest source to connect the origin myth of the Spartans to the lineage of the hero Heracles; later authors, such as Diodorus Siculus, Herodotus, and Apollodorus, also made mention of Spartans understanding themselves to be descendants of Heracles.


title: Sparta

text: Suppose the city of Sparta to be deserted, and nothing left but the temples and the ground-plan, distant ages would be very unwilling to believe that the power of the Lacedaemonians was at all equal to their fame. Their city is not built continuously, and has no splendid temples or other edifices; it rather resembles a group of villages, like the ancient towns of Hellas, and would therefore make a poor show.


title: Sparta

text: Until the early 20th century, the chief ancient buildings at Sparta were the theatre, of which, however, little showed above ground except portions of the retaining walls; the so-called Tomb of Leonidas, a quadrangular building, perhaps a temple, constructed of immense blocks of stone and containing two chambers; the foundation of an ancient bridge over the Eurotas; the ruins of a circular structure; some remains of late Roman fortifications; several brick buildings and mosaic pavements.


title: Sparta

text: The remaining archaeological wealth consisted of inscriptions, sculptures, and other objects collected in the local museum, founded by Stamatakis in 1872 and enlarged in 1907. Partial excavation of the round building was undertaken in 1892 and 1893 by the American School at Athens. The structure has been since found to be a semicircular retaining wall of Hellenic origin that was partly restored during the Roman period.


title: Sparta

text: In 1904, the British School at Athens began a thorough exploration of Laconia, and in the following year excavations were made at Thalamae, Geronthrae, and Angelona near Monemvasia. In 1906, excavations began in Sparta itself.


title: Sparta

text: A "small circus" (as described by Leake) proved to be a theatre-like building constructed soon after 200 AD around the altar and in front of the Temple of Artemis Orthia. It is believed that musical and gymnastic contests took place here, as well as the famous flogging ordeal administered to Spartan boys ("diamastigosis"). The temple, which can be dated to the 2nd century BC, rests on the foundation of an older temple of the 6th century, and close beside it were found the remains of a yet earlier temple, dating from the 9th or even the 10th century. The votive offerings in clay, amber, bronze, ivory and lead dating from the 9th to the 4th centuries BC, which were found in great profusion within the precinct range, supply invaluable information about early Spartan art.


title: Sparta

text: In 1907, the location of the sanctuary of Athena "of the Brazen House" (Χαλκίοικος, Chalkioikos) was determined to be on the acropolis immediately above the theatre. Though the actual temple is almost completely destroyed, the site has produced the longest extant archaic inscription in Laconia, numerous bronze nails and plates, and a considerable number of votive offerings. The city-wall, built in successive stages from the 4th to the 2nd century, was traced for a great part of its circuit, which measured 48 stades or nearly (Polyb. 1X. 21). The late Roman wall enclosing the acropolis, part of which probably dates from the years following the Gothic raid of 262 AD, was also investigated. Besides the actual buildings discovered, a number of points were situated and mapped in a general study of Spartan topography, based upon the description of Pausanias.


title: Sparta

text: In terms of domestic archaeology, little is known about Spartan houses and villages before the Archaic period, but the best evidence comes from excavations at Nichoria in Messenia where postholes have been found. These villages were open and consisted of small and simple houses built with stone foundations and clay walls.


title: Sparta

text: The Menelaion is a shrine associated with Menelaus, located east of Sparta, by the river Eurotas, on the hill Profitis Ilias (Coordinates: ). Built around the early 8th century BC, the Spartans believed it had been the former residence of Menelaus. In 1970, the British School in Athens started excavations around the Menelaion in an attempt to locate Mycenaean remains in the area. Among other findings, they uncovered the remains of two Mycenaean mansions and found the first offerings dedicated to Helen and Menelaus. These mansions were destroyed by earthquake and fire, and archaeologists consider them the possible palace of Menelaus himself.


title: Sparta

text: Excavations made from the early 1990s to the present suggest that the area around the Menelaion in the southern part of the Eurotas valley seems to have been the center of Mycenaean Laconia. The Mycenaean settlement was roughly triangular in shape, with its apex pointed towards the north. Its area was approximately equal to that of the "newer" Sparta, but denudation has wreaked havoc with its buildings and nothing is left of its original structures save for ruined foundations and broken potsherds.


title: Sparta

text: The prehistory of Sparta is difficult to reconstruct because the literary evidence was written far later than the events it describes and is distorted by oral tradition. The earliest certain evidence of human settlement in the region of Sparta consists of pottery dating from the Middle Neolithic period, found in the vicinity of Kouphovouno some two kilometres () south-southwest of Sparta.


title: Sparta

text: This civilization seems to have fallen into decline by the late Bronze Age, when, according to Herodotus, Macedonian tribes from the north (called Dorians by those they conquered) marched into the Peloponnese and, subjugating the local tribes, settled there. The Dorians seem to have set about expanding the frontiers of Spartan territory almost before they had established their own state. They fought against the Argive Dorians to the east and southeast, and also the Arcadian Achaeans to the northwest. The evidence suggests that Sparta, relatively inaccessible because of the topography of the Taygetan plain, was secure from early on: it was never fortified.


title: Sparta

text: Nothing distinctive in the archaeology of the Eurotas River Valley identifies the Dorians or the Dorian Spartan state. The prehistory of the Neolithic, the Bronze Age and the Dark Age (the Early Iron Age) at this moment must be treated apart from the stream of Dorian Spartan history.


title: Sparta

text: The legendary period of Spartan history is believed to fall into the Dark Age. It treats the mythic heroes such as the Heraclids and the Perseids, offering a view of the occupation of the Peloponnesus that contains both fantastic and possibly historical elements. The subsequent proto-historic period, combining both legend and historical fragments, offers the first credible history.


title: Sparta

text: Between the 8th and 7th centuries BC the Spartans experienced a period of lawlessness and civil strife, later attested by both Herodotus and Thucydides. As a result, they carried out a series of political and social reforms of their own society which they later attributed to a semi-mythical lawgiver, Lycurgus. Several writers throughout antiquity, including Herodotus, Xenophon, and Plutarch have attempted to explain Spartan exceptionalism as a result of the so-called Lycurgan Reforms.Xenophon, Constitution of the Lacedaimonians, chapter 1


title: Sparta

text: In the Second Messenian War, Sparta established itself as a local power in the Peloponnesus and the rest of Greece. During the following centuries, Sparta's reputation as a land-fighting force was unequalled. At its peak around 500 BC, Sparta had some 20,000–35,000 citizens, plus numerous helots and perioikoi. The likely total of 40,000–50,000 made Sparta one of the larger Greek city-states; however, according to Thucydides, the population of Athens in 431 BC was 360,000–610,000, making it much larger.


title: Sparta

text: In 480 BC, a small force led by King Leonidas (about 300 full Spartiates, 700 Thespians, and 400 Thebans, although these numbers were lessened by earlier casualties) made a legendary last stand at the Battle of Thermopylae against the massive Persian army, led by Xerxes. The Spartans received advance warning of the Persian invasion from their deposed king Demaratus, which prompted them to consult the Delphic oracle. According to Herodotus, the Pythia proclaimed that either one of the kings of Sparta had to die or Sparta would be destroyed. This prophecy was fulfilled after king Leonidas died in the battle. The superior weaponry, strategy, and bronze armour of the Greek hoplites and their phalanx fighting formation again proved their worth one year later when Sparta assembled its full strength and led a Greek alliance against the Persians at the Battle of Plataea.


title: Sparta

text: The decisive Greek victory at Plataea put an end to the Greco-Persian War along with Persian ambitions to expand into Europe. Even though this war was won by a pan-Greek army, credit was given to Sparta, who besides providing the leading forces at Thermopylae and Plataea, had been the de facto leader of the entire Greek expedition.


title: Sparta

text: In later Classical times, Sparta along with Athens, Thebes, and Persia were the main powers fighting for supremacy in the northeastern Mediterranean. In the course of the Peloponnesian War, Sparta, a traditional land power, acquired a navy which managed to overpower the previously dominant flotilla of Athens, ending the Athenian Empire. At the peak of its power in the early 4th century BC, Sparta had subdued many of the main Greek states and even invaded the Persian provinces in Anatolia (modern day Turkey), a period known as the Spartan hegemony.


title: Sparta

text: During the Corinthian War, Sparta faced a coalition of the leading Greek states: Thebes, Athens, Corinth, and Argos. The alliance was initially backed by Persia, which feared further Spartan expansion into Asia. Sparta achieved a series of land victories, but many of her ships were destroyed at the Battle of Cnidus by a Greek-Phoenician mercenary fleet that Persia had provided to Athens. The event severely damaged Sparta's naval power but did not end its aspirations of invading further into Persia, until Conon the Athenian ravaged the Spartan coastline and provoked the old Spartan fear of a helot revolt.


title: Sparta

text: After a few more years of fighting, in 387 BC the Peace of Antalcidas was established, according to which all Greek cities of Ionia would return to Persian control, and Persia's Asian border would be free of the Spartan threat. The effects of the war were to reaffirm Persia's ability to interfere successfully in Greek politics and to affirm Sparta's weakened hegemonic position in the Greek political system. Sparta entered its long-term decline after a severe military defeat to Epaminondas of Thebes at the Battle of Leuctra. This was the first time that a full strength Spartan army lost a land battle.


title: Sparta

text: As Spartan citizenship was inherited by blood, Sparta increasingly faced a helot population that vastly outnumbered its citizens. The alarming decline of Spartan citizens was commented on by Aristotle.


title: Sparta

text: Sparta never fully recovered from its losses at Leuctra in 371 BC and the subsequent helot revolts. In 338, Philip II invaded and devastated much of Laconia, turning the Spartans out, though he did not seize Sparta itself. Even during its decline, Sparta never forgot its claim to be the "defender of Hellenism" and its Laconic wit. An anecdote has it that when Philip II sent a message to Sparta saying "If I invade Laconia, I shall turn you out.", the Spartans responded with the single, terse reply: , "if". When Philip created the League of Corinth on the pretext of unifying Greece against Persia, the Spartans chose not to join, since they had no interest in joining a pan-Greek expedition unless it were under Spartan leadership. Thus, upon defeating the Persians at the Battle of the Granicus, Alexander the Great sent to Athens 300 suits of Persian armour with the following inscription: "Alexander, son of Philip, and all the Greeks except the Spartans, give these offerings taken from the foreigners who live in Asia".


title: Sparta

text: Sparta continued to be one of the Peloponesian powers until its eventual loss of independence in 192 BC. During Alexander's campaigns in the east, the Spartan king Agis III sent a force to Crete in 333 BC to secure the island for the Persian interest. Agis next took command of allied Greek forces against Macedon, gaining early successes, before laying siege to Megalopolis in 331 BC. A large Macedonian army under general Antipater marched to its relief and defeated the Spartan-led force in a pitched battle. More than 5,300 of the Spartans and their allies were killed in battle, and 3,500 of Antipater's troops. Agis, now wounded and unable to stand, ordered his men to leave him behind to face the advancing Macedonian army so that he could buy them time to retreat. On his knees, the Spartan king slew several enemy soldiers before being finally killed by a javelin. Alexander was merciful, and he only forced the Spartans to join the League of Corinth, which they had previously refused.


title: Sparta

text: During the Punic Wars, Sparta was an ally of the Roman Republic. Spartan political independence was put to an end when it was eventually forced into the Achaean League after its defeat in the decisive Laconian War by a coalition of other Greek city-states and Rome, and the resultant overthrow of its final king Nabis, in 192 BC. Sparta played no active part in the Achaean War in 146 BC when the Achaean League was defeated by the Roman general Lucius Mummius. Subsequently, Sparta became a free city under Roman rule, some of the institutions of Lycurgus were restored, and the city became a tourist attraction for the Roman elite who came to observe exotic Spartan customs.


title: Sparta

text: In 214 AD, Roman emperor Caracalla, in his preparation for his campaign against Parthia, recruited a 500-man Spartan cohort ("lokhos"). Herodian described this unit as a "phalanx", implying it fought like the old Spartans as hoplites, or even as a Macedonian phalanx. Despite this, a gravestone of a fallen legionary named Marcus Aurelius Alexys shows him lightly armed, with a pilos-like cap and a wooden club. The unit was presumably discharged in 217 after Caracalla was assassinated.


title: Sparta

text: An exchange of letters in the deutero-canonical First Book of Maccabees expresses a Jewish claim to kinship with the Spartans:


title: Sparta

text: The letters are reproduced in a variant form by Josephus. Jewish historian Uriel Rappaport notes that the relationship between the Jews and the Spartans expressed in this correspondence has "intrigued many scholars, and various explanations have been suggested for the problems raised ... including the historicity of the Jewish leader and high priest Jonathan's letter to the Spartans, the authenticity of the letter of Arius to Onias, cited in Jonathan's letter, and the supposed 'brotherhood' of the Jews and the Spartans." Rappaport is clear that "the authenticity of [the reply] letter of Arius is based on even less firm foundations than the letter of Jonathan".