title: Guy Fawkes

text: James Sharpe, professor of history at the University of York, has described how Guy Fawkes came to be toasted as "the last man to enter Parliament with honest intentions". William Harrison Ainsworth's 1841 historical romance "Guy Fawkes; or, The Gunpowder Treason" portrays Fawkes in a generally sympathetic light, and his novel transformed Fawkes in the public perception into an "acceptable fictional character". Fawkes subsequently appeared as "essentially an action hero" in children's books and penny dreadfuls such as "The Boyhood Days of Guy Fawkes; or, The Conspirators of Old London", published around 1905. According to historian Lewis Call, Fawkes is now "a major icon in modern political culture" whose face has become "a potentially powerful instrument for the articulation of postmodern anarchism" in the late 20th century.


title: Charles Lindbergh

text: Charles Augustus Lindbergh (February 4, 1902 – August 26, 1974) was an American aviator, military officer, author, inventor, and activist. On May 20–21, 1927, Lindbergh made the first nonstop flight from [[New York City]] to [[Paris]], a distance of , flying alone for 33.5 hours. His aircraft, the "[[Spirit of St. Louis]]", was designed and built by the [[Ryan Airline Company]] specifically to compete for the [[Raymond Orteig#Orteig Prize|Orteig Prize]] for the first flight between the two cities. Although not the [[Transatlantic flight of Alcock and Brown|first transatlantic flight]], it was the first solo transatlantic flight, the first nonstop transatlantic flight between two major city hubs, and the longest by over . It is known as one of the most consequential flights in history and ushered in a new era of air transportation between parts of the globe.


title: Charles Lindbergh

text: Lindbergh was raised mostly in [[Little Falls, Minnesota]] and Washington, D.C., the son of prominent U.S. Congressman from Minnesota, [[Charles August Lindbergh]]. He became a [[United States Army Air Service|U.S. Army Air Service]] cadet in 1924, earning the rank of [[Second Lieutenant (United States)|second lieutenant]] in 1925. Later that year, he was hired as a [[U.S. Air Mail]] pilot in the [[Greater St. Louis]] area, where he started to prepare for his historic 1927 [[transatlantic flight]]. Lindbergh received the highest U.S. military decoration from President [[Calvin Coolidge]], the [[Medal of Honor]], as well as the [[Distinguished Flying Cross (United States)|Distinguished Flying Cross]] for his transatlantic flight. In July 1927, he was promoted to the rank of [[Colonel (United States)|colonel]] in the [[U.S. Army Air Corps Reserve]]. The flight also earned him the highest French [[order of merit]], civil or military, the [[Legion of Honor]]. His achievement spurred significant global interest in both [[commercial aviation]] and [[air mail]], which revolutionized the aviation industry worldwide (a phenomenon dubbed the "[[Lindbergh Boom|Lindbergh boom]]"), and he devoted much time and effort to promoting such activity. He was honored as "[[Time (magazine)|Time]]" first [[Time Person of the Year|Man of the Year]] in 1928, was appointed to the [[National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics]] in 1929 by President [[Herbert Hoover]], and was awarded a [[Congressional Gold Medal]] in 1930. In 1931, he and French surgeon [[Alexis Carrel]] began work on inventing the first [[Perfusion|perfusion pump]], which is credited with making future [[Cardiac surgery|heart surgeries]] and [[organ transplantation]] possible.


title: Charles Lindbergh

text: On March 1, 1932, Lindbergh's first-born infant child, Charles Jr., [[Lindbergh kidnapping|was kidnapped and murdered]] in what the American media called the "[[Crime of the century|Crime of the Century]]". The case prompted the United States Congress to establish [[Federal Kidnapping Act|kidnapping as a federal crime]] if a kidnapper crosses state lines with a victim. By late 1935, the press and hysteria surrounding the case had driven the Lindbergh family into exile in Europe, from where they returned in 1939.


title: Charles Lindbergh

text: In the months before the United States entered [[World War II]], Lindbergh's [[non-interventionism|non-interventionist]] stance and statements about Jews and race led some to believe he was a [[Nazi Germany|Nazi]] sympathizer, although Lindbergh never publicly stated support for the Nazis and condemned them several times in both his public speeches and personal diary. However, like many Americans before the attack on Pearl Harbor, he opposed not only the military intervention of the U.S. but also the provision of military supplies to the British. He supported the [[isolationist]] [[America First Committee]] and resigned from the U.S. Army Air Corps in April 1941 after President [[Franklin Roosevelt]] publicly rebuked him for his views. In September 1941, Lindbergh gave a significant address, titled "Speech on Neutrality", outlining his position and arguments against greater American involvement in the war.


title: Charles Lindbergh

text: Following the [[Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor]] and [[German declaration of war against the United States|German declaration of war against the U.S.]], Lindbergh avidly supported the American war effort but was rejected for active duty, as Roosevelt refused to restore his Air Corps colonel's commission. Instead he flew 50 combat missions in the [[Pacific Theater of World War II|Pacific Theater]] as a civilian consultant and was unofficially credited with shooting down an enemy aircraft. In 1954, President [[Dwight Eisenhower]] restored his commission and promoted him to [[brigadier general]] in the [[Air Force Reserve Command|U.S. Air Force Reserve]]. In his later years, he became a [[Pulitzer Prize for Biography or Autobiography|Pulitzer Prize]]–winning author, international explorer and environmentalist, helping to establish [[national parks]] in the U.S. and protect certain [[endangered species]] and tribal people in the [[Tasaday|Philippines]] and [[Maasai people|east Africa]]. In 1974, Lindbergh died of [[lymphoma]] at age 72.


title: Charles Lindbergh

text: Lindbergh was born in [[Detroit|Detroit, Michigan]], on , 1902, and spent most of his childhood in [[Little Falls, Minnesota]], and Washington, D.C. He was the only child of [[Charles August Lindbergh]] ([[Name at birth|birth name]] Carl Månsson; 1859–1924), who had [[Swedish Americans|emigrated from Sweden]] to [[Melrose, Minnesota]], as an infant, and [[Evangeline Lodge Land Lindbergh]] (1876–1954) of Detroit. Lindbergh had three elder paternal half-sisters: Lillian, Edith, and Eva. The couple separated in 1909 when Lindbergh was seven years old. His father, a [[United States Congress|U.S. Congressman]] ([[Republican Party (United States)|R]]-[[Minnesota|MN]]-6) from 1907 to 1917, was one of the few congressmen to oppose the [[American entry into World War I|entry of the U.S. into World War I]] (although his congressional term ended one month before the [[United States House of Representatives|House of Representatives]] voted to [[United States declaration of war on Germany (1917)|declare war on Germany]]). His father's book "Why Is Your Country at War?", which criticized the nation's entry into the war, was seized by federal agents under the [[Comstock Act]]. It was later posthumously reprinted and issued in 1934 under the title "Your Country at War, and What Happens to You After a War".


title: Charles Lindbergh

text: Lindbergh's mother was a chemistry teacher at [[Cass Technical High School]] in Detroit and later at [[Little Falls, Minnesota|Little Falls High School]], from which her son graduated on , 1918. Lindbergh attended more than a dozen other schools from [[Washington, D.C.]], to [[California]] during his childhood and teenage years (none for more than a year or two), including the Force School and [[Sidwell Friends School]] while living in Washington with his father, and [[Redondo Union High School]] in [[Redondo Beach, California]], while living there with his mother. Although he enrolled in the College of Engineering at the [[University of Wisconsin–Madison]] in late 1920, Lindbergh dropped out in the middle of his sophomore year and then went to [[Lincoln, Nebraska]], in March 1922 to begin flight training.


title: Charles Lindbergh

text: From an early age, Lindbergh had exhibited an interest in the mechanics of motorized transportation, including his family's [[Saxon (automobile)|Saxon Six]] automobile, and later his [[Excelsior Motor Manufacturing & Supply Company|Excelsior]] motorbike. By the time that he started college as a [[mechanical engineering]] student, he had also become fascinated with flying, though he "had never been close enough to a plane to touch it". After quitting college in February 1922, Lindbergh enrolled at the Nebraska Aircraft Corporation's flying school in Lincoln and flew for the first time on as a passenger in a two-seat [[Standard J|Lincoln Standard "Tourabout"]] biplane trainer piloted by [[Otto Timm]].


title: Charles Lindbergh

text: A few days later, Lindbergh took his first formal flying lesson in that same aircraft, though he was never permitted to solo because he could not afford to post the requisite damage bond. To gain flight experience and earn money for further instruction, Lindbergh left Lincoln in June to spend the next few months [[barnstorming]] across [[Nebraska]], [[Kansas]], [[Colorado]], [[Wyoming]], and [[Montana]] as a [[wing walking|wing walker]] and [[Parachuting|parachutist]]. He also briefly worked as an airplane mechanic at the [[Billings Logan International Airport|Billings, Montana, municipal airport]].


title: Charles Lindbergh

text: Lindbergh left flying with the onset of winter and returned to his father's home in Minnesota. His return to the air and his first solo flight did not come until half a year later in May 1923 at [[Jimmy Carter Regional Airport|Souther Field]] in [[Americus, Georgia]], a former Army flight-training field, where he bought a World War I surplus [[Curtiss JN-4|Curtiss JN-4 "Jenny"]] biplane. Though Lindbergh had not touched an airplane in more than six months, he had already secretly decided that he was ready to take to the air by himself. After a half-hour of dual time with a pilot who was visiting the field to pick up another surplus JN-4, Lindbergh flew solo for the first time in the Jenny that he had just purchased for $500. After spending another week or so at the field to "practice" (thereby acquiring five hours of "pilot in command" time), Lindbergh took off from Americus for [[Montgomery, Alabama]], some to the west, for his first solo cross-country flight. He went on to spend much of the remainder of 1923 engaged in almost nonstop barnstorming under the name of "Daredevil Lindbergh". Unlike in the previous year, this time Lindbergh flew in his "own ship" as the pilot. A few weeks after leaving Americus, he achieved another key aviation milestone when he made his first night flight near [[Lake Village, Arkansas]].


title: Charles Lindbergh

text: While Lindbergh was barnstorming in [[Lone Rock, Wisconsin]], on two occasions he flew a local physician across the [[Wisconsin River]] to emergency calls that were otherwise unreachable because of flooding. He broke his propeller several times while landing, and on , 1923 he was grounded for a week when he ran into a ditch in [[Glencoe, Minnesota]], while flying his father—then running for the U.S. Senate—to a campaign stop. In October, Lindbergh flew his Jenny to [[Iowa]], where he sold it to a flying student. After selling the Jenny, Lindbergh returned to Lincoln by train. There, he joined Leon Klink and continued to barnstorm through the South for the next few months in Klink's Curtiss JN-4C "Canuck" (the Canadian version of the Jenny). Lindbergh also "cracked up" this aircraft once when his engine failed shortly after takeoff in [[Pensacola, Florida]], but again he managed to repair the damage himself.


title: Charles Lindbergh

text: Following a few months of barnstorming through [[Southern United States|the South]], the two pilots parted company in [[San Antonio]], Texas, where Lindbergh reported to [[Brooks City-Base|Brooks Field]] on , 1924 to begin a year of military flight training with the [[United States Army Air Service]] there (and later at nearby [[Kelly Field Annex|Kelly Field]]). Lindbergh had his most serious flying accident on , 1925, eight days before graduation, when a mid-air collision with another Army [[Royal Aircraft Factory S.E.5|S.E.5]] during aerial combat maneuvers forced him to bail out. Only 18 of the 104 cadets who started flight training a year earlier remained when Lindbergh graduated first overall in his class in March 1925, thereby earning his Army pilot's wings and a commission as a [[Second lieutenant#United States|second lieutenant]] in the [[Military reserve force|Air Service Reserve Corps]].


title: Charles Lindbergh

text: Lindbergh later said that this year was critical to his development as both a focused, goal-oriented individual and as an aviator. The Army did not need additional active-duty pilots, however, so immediately following graduation, Lindbergh returned to civilian aviation as a barnstormer and [[flight instructor]], although as a reserve officer he also continued to do some part-time military flying by joining the [[110th Bomb Squadron|110th Observation Squadron]], 35th Division, Missouri [[National Guard of the United States|National Guard]], in St. Louis. He was promoted to [[First Lieutenant#United States|first lieutenant]] on December 7, 1925, and to captain in July 1926.


title: Charles Lindbergh

text: In October 1925, Lindbergh was hired by the [[Robertson Aircraft Corporation]] (RAC) at the [[Lambert-St. Louis International Airport|Lambert-St. Louis Flying Field]] in Anglum, Missouri, (where he had been working as a flight instructor) to first lay out and then serve as chief pilot for the newly designated [[Airmails of the United States#Contract Air Mail (CAM) service|Contract Air Mail]] Route #2 (CAM-2) to provide service between [[St. Louis, Missouri|St. Louis]] and [[Chicago]] (Maywood Field) with two intermediate stops in [[Springfield, Illinois|Springfield]] and [[Peoria, Illinois]]. Lindbergh and three other RAC pilots, Philip R. Love, Thomas P. Nelson, and [[Harlan Gurney|Harlan A. "Bud" Gurney]], flew the mail over CAM-2 in a fleet of four modified war-surplus [[Airco DH.4|de Havilland DH-4]] [[biplane]]s.


title: Charles Lindbergh

text: Just before signing on to fly with CAM, Lindbergh had applied to serve as a pilot on [[Richard E. Byrd]]'s [[Richard E. Byrd#1926 North Pole flight|North Pole expedition]], but apparently his bid came too late.


title: Charles Lindbergh

text: On , 1926, Lindbergh executed the [[United States Post Office Department]]'s Oath of Mail Messengers, and two days later he opened service on the new route. On two occasions, combinations of bad weather, equipment failure, and [[Fuel starvation|fuel exhaustion]] forced him to bail out on night approach to [[Chicago]]; both times he reached the ground without serious injury and immediately set about ensuring that his cargo was located and sent on with minimum delay. In mid-February 1927 he left for [[San Diego]], California, to oversee design and construction of the "Spirit of St. Louis".


title: Charles Lindbergh

text: In 1919, British aviators [[John Alcock (RAF officer)|John Alcock]] and [[Arthur Whitten Brown|Arthur Brown]] won the [[Daily Mail aviation prizes|Daily Mail prize]] for the [[Transatlantic flight of Alcock and Brown|first nonstop transatlantic flight]]. Their aircraft was a [[Vickers Vimy]] IV biplane designed for service in WW1. Alcock and Brown left [[St. John's, Newfoundland and Labrador|St. John's, Newfoundland]], on , 1919, and arrived in [[Clifden, County Galway]], Ireland the following day.


title: Charles Lindbergh

text: Around the same time, French-born New York hotelier [[Raymond Orteig]] was approached by [[Augustus Post]], secretary of the Aero Club of America, and prompted to put up a $25,000 award for the first successful nonstop transatlantic flight specifically between New York City and Paris (in either direction) within five years after its establishment. When that time limit lapsed in 1924 without a serious attempt, Orteig renewed the offer for another five years, this time attracting a number of well-known, highly experienced, and well-financed contendersnone of whom was successful. On , 1926, World WarI French [[flying ace]] [[René Fonck]]'s [[Sikorsky S-35]] crashed on takeoff from [[Roosevelt Field]] in New York. U.S. Naval aviators [[Wooster and Davis|Noel Davis]] and [[Wooster and Davis|Stanton H. Wooster]] were killed at [[Langley Air Force Base|Langley Field]], Virginia, on , 1927, while testing their [[Keystone Pathfinder]]. On French war heroes [[Charles Nungesser]] and [[François Coli]] departed [[Paris – Le Bourget Airport]] in the [[Levasseur PL.2|Levasseur PL 8]] seaplane "[[The White Bird|L'Oiseau Blanc]]"; they disappeared somewhere in the Atlantic after last being seen crossing the west coast of [[Ireland]].


title: Charles Lindbergh

text: American air racer [[Clarence Duncan Chamberlin|Clarence D. Chamberlin]] and [[Arctic]] explorer [[Richard E. Byrd]] were also in the race.


title: Charles Lindbergh

text: Financing the operation of the historic flight was a challenge due to Lindbergh's obscurity, but two St. Louis businessmen eventually obtained a $15,000 bank loan. Lindbergh contributed $2,000 ($29,036.61 in 2020) of his own money from his salary as an air mail pilot and another $1,000 was donated by RAC. The total of $18,000 was far less than what was available to Lindbergh's rivals.


title: Charles Lindbergh

text: The group tried to buy an "off-the-peg" single or multiengine monoplane from [[Wright Aeronautical]], then [[Travel Air]], and finally the newly formed [[Columbia Aircraft Corporation]], but all insisted on selecting the pilot as a condition of sale. Finally the much smaller [[Ryan Aeronautical|Ryan Aircraft Company]] of [[San Diego]] agreed to design and build a custom monoplane for $10,580, and on a deal was formally closed. Dubbed the "Spirit of St. Louis", the fabric-covered, single-seat, single-engine "Ryan NYP" (for "New York-Paris") high-wing monoplane ([[Civil Aeronautics Authority|CAB]] registration: N-X-211) was designed jointly by Lindbergh and Ryan's chief engineer [[Donald A. Hall]]. The "Spirit" flew for the first time just two months later, and after a series of test flights Lindbergh took off from San Diego on . He went first to St. Louis, then on to [[Roosevelt Field]] on New York's [[Long Island]].


title: Charles Lindbergh

text: In the early morning of Friday, , 1927, Lindbergh took off from [[Roosevelt Field (airport)|Roosevelt Field]], [[Long Island]]. His destination, [[Paris – Le Bourget Airport|Le Bourget Aerodrome]], was about seven miles outside of [[Paris]], [[France]], and 3,610 miles away from his starting point. He was "too busy the night before to lie down for more than a couple of hours," and "had been unable [to] sleep." It rained the morning of his takeoff, but as the plane "was wheeled into position on the runway," the rain ceased and light began to break through "the low-hanging clouds." A crowd of "several thousand" assembled to see Lindbergh off, and he "walked around the plane on a final tour of inspection" after stepping from a "closed car where he had waited." For its transatlantic flight, the "Spirit" bore a fuel load heavier by "a thousand pounds" than it had lifted in any test flight, and the plane was "helped by men pushing at the wing struts," with the last man leaving the wings only a hundred yards down the runway. The plane was loaded with of [[Aviation fuel|fuel]] that was strained repeatedly to avoid fuel line blockage. The fully loaded aircraft weighed , with takeoff hampered by a muddy, rain-soaked runway. Lindbergh's monoplane was powered by a [[Wright R-790 Whirlwind|J-5C]] [[Wright Whirlwind]] radial engine and gained speed very slowly during its 7:52AM takeoff, but cleared telephone lines at the far end of the field "by about twenty feet [six meters] with a fair reserve of flying speed".


title: Charles Lindbergh

text: At 8:52 AM, an hour after takeoff, Lindbergh was flying at an altitude of over [[Rhode Island]], following an uneventful passageaside from some turbulenceover [[Long Island Sound]] and [[Connecticut]]. By 9:52 AM, he had passed [[Boston]] and was flying with [[Cape Cod]] to his right, with an [[airspeed]] of 107 mph and altitude of 150 ft; about an hour later he began to feel tired, even though only a few hours had elapsed since takeoff. To keep his mind clear, Lindbergh descended and flew at only 10 feet above the water's surface. By around 11:52 AM, he had climbed to an altitude of 200 feet, and at this point was 400 miles distant from New York. [[Nova Scotia]] appeared ahead and, after flying over the [[Gulf of Maine]], he was only "six miles, or 2 degrees, off course." At 3:52 PM, the eastern coast of [[Cape Breton Island]] was below; he struggled to stay awake, even though it was "only the afternoon of the first day." At 5:52 PM, he was flying along the [[Newfoundland (island)|Newfoundland]] coast, and passed [[St. John's, Newfoundland and Labrador|St. John's]] at 7:15 PM.


title: Charles Lindbergh

text: Stars appeared as night fell around 8 PM. The sea became totally obscured by fog, prompting Lindbergh to climb "from an altitude of 800 ft to 7500 ft to stay above the quickly-rising cloud." An hour later, he was flying at 10,000 feet. A towering [[Cumulonimbus|thunderhead]] stood in front of him, and he flew into the cloud, but turned back after he noticed ice forming on the plane. While inside the cloud, Lindbergh "thrust a bare hand through the cockpit window," and felt the "sting of ice particles." After returning to open sky, he "curved back to his course." At 11:52 PM, Lindbergh was in warmer air, and no ice remained on the "Spirit"; he was flying 90 mph at 10,000 ft, and was 500 miles from Newfoundland. Eighteen hours into the flight, he was halfway to Paris, and although he had planned to celebrate at this point, he instead felt "only dread." Because Lindbergh flew through several time zones, dawn came earlier, at around 2:52 AM. He began to hallucinate about two hours later. At this point in the flight, he "continually" fell asleep, awakening "seconds, possibly minutes, later." But after "flying for hours in or above the fog," the weather finally began to clear. 7:52 AM marked twenty-four hours in the air for Lindbergh and, fortunately, he did not feel as tired by this point.


title: Charles Lindbergh

text: Finally, at around 9:52 AM New York time, or twenty-seven hours after he left Roosevelt Field, Lindbergh saw "porpoises and fishing boats," a sign he had reached the other side of the Atlantic. He circled and flew closely, but no fishermen appeared on the boat decks, although he did see a face watching from a porthole. [[Dingle Bay]], in [[County Kerry]] of western [[Ireland]], was the first European land that Lindbergh encountered; he veered to get a better look and consulted his charts, identifying it as the southern tip of Ireland. The local time in Ireland was 3 PM. Flying over Dingle Bay, the "Spirit" was "2.5 hours ahead of schedule and less than three miles off course." Lindbergh had navigated "almost precisely to the coastal point he had marked on his chart." He wanted to reach the French coast in daylight, so increased his speed to 110 mph. The English coast appeared ahead of him, and he was "now wide awake." A report came from [[Plymouth]], on the English coast, that Lindbergh's plane had started across the [[English Channel]]. News soon spread across both "Europe and the United States that Lindbergh had been spotted over England," and a crowd started to form at Le Bourget Aerodrome as he neared Paris. At sunset, he flew over [[Cherbourg]], on the French coast 200 miles from Paris; it was around 2:52 PM New York time.


title: Charles Lindbergh

text: Over the hours of his flight, Lindberg faced many challenges, which included skimming over [[Cumulonimbus cloud|storm clouds]] at and wave tops at as low as . The aircraft fought [[Icing conditions|icing]], flew blind through fog for several hours, and Lindbergh navigated only by [[Dead reckoning#Air|dead reckoning]] (he was not proficient at navigating [[Celestial navigation|by the sun and stars]] and he rejected [[radio navigation]] gear as heavy and unreliable). He was fortunate that the winds over the Atlantic cancelled each other out, giving him zero wind drift—and thus accurate navigation during the long flight over featureless ocean.


title: Charles Lindbergh

text: On arriving at Paris, Lindbergh "circled the Eiffel Tower" before flying to the airfield. He flew over the crowd at [[Paris – Le Bourget Airport|Le Bourget Aerodrome]] at 10:16 and landed at 10:22 PM on Saturday, , on the far side of the field and "nearly half a mile from the crowd," as reported by "The New York Times". The airfield was not marked on his map and Lindbergh knew only that it was some seven miles northeast of the city; he initially mistook it for some large industrial complex because of the bright lights spreading out in all directionsin fact the headlights of tens of thousands of spectators' cars caught in "the largest traffic jam in Paris history" in their attempt to be present for Lindbergh's landing.


title: Charles Lindbergh

text: A crowd estimated at 150,000 stormed the field, dragged Lindbergh out of the cockpit, and carried him around above their heads for "nearly half an hour." Among the crowd were two future Indian prime ministers, [[Jawaharlal Nehru]] and his daughter, [[Indira Gandhi]]. Some damage was done to the "Spirit" (especially to the fine linen, silver-painted fabric covering on the [[fuselage]]) by souvenir hunters before pilot and plane reached the safety of a nearby hangar with the aid of French military fliers, soldiers, and police. The "Times" reported that before the police could intervene the "souvenir mad" spectators "stripped the plane of everything which could be taken off," and were cutting off pieces of linen when "a squad of soldiers with fixed bayonets quickly surrounded" the plane, providing guard as it was "wheeled into a shed." Lindbergh met the [[List of ambassadors of the United States to France|U.S. Ambassador to France]], [[Myron T. Herrick]], across Le Bourget field in a "little room with a few chairs and an army cot." The lights in the room were put out to conceal his presence from the crowd, which "surged madly" trying to find him. Lindbergh shook hands with Herrick and handed him several letters he had carried across the Atlantic, three of which were from [[Colonel (United States)|Col.]] [[Theodore Roosevelt Jr.]], son of former President [[Theodore Roosevelt]], who had written letters of introduction at Lindbergh's request. Lindbergh was taken from the field around midnight and driven through Paris to the ambassador's residence, stopping to visit the French Tomb of the Unknown Soldier at the [[Arc de Triomphe]]; he finally arrived at the residence, where he rested for the first time in about 60 hours.


title: Charles Lindbergh

text: Lindbergh's flight was certified by the [[National Aeronautic Association]] of the United States based on the readings from a sealed [[barograph]] placed in the "Spirit".


title: Charles Lindbergh

text: Lindbergh received unprecedented acclaim after his historic flight. In the words of biographer [[A. Scott Berg]], people were "behaving as though Lindbergh had walked on water, not flown over it". "[[The New York Times]]" printed an [[above the fold]], page-wide headline: "Lindbergh Does It!" His mother's house in Detroit was surrounded by a crowd estimated at 1,000. Countless newspapers, magazines, and radio shows wanted to interview him, and he was flooded with job offers from companies, think tanks, and universities.


title: Charles Lindbergh

text: The morning after landing, Lindbergh appeared in the balcony of the [[Embassy of the United States, Paris|U.S. embassy]], responding "briefly and modestly" to the calls of the crowd. The [[Ministry for Europe and Foreign Affairs (France)|French Foreign Office]] flew the American flag, the first time it had saluted someone who was not a head of state. At the [[Élysée Palace]], French [[List of presidents of France|President]] [[Gaston Doumergue]] bestowed the [[Légion d'honneur]] on Lindbergh, pinning the award on his lapel, with Ambassador [[Myron T. Herrick|Herrick]] present for the occasion. Lindbergh also made flights to Belgium and Great Britain in the "Spirit" before returning to the United States. On May 28, Lindbergh flew to [[Haren Airport|Evere Areodrome]] in [[Brussels]], [[Belgium]], circling the field three times for the cheering crowd and taxiing to a halt just after 3 PM, as a group of a thousand children waved American flags. On his way to Evere, Lindbergh had met an escort of ten planes from the airport, who found him on course near [[Mons]] but had trouble keeping up as the "Spirit" was averaging "about 100 miles an hour." On landing, Lindbergh was welcomed by military officers and prominent officials, including Belgian [[Prime Minister of Belgium|Prime Minister]] [[Henri Jaspar]], who led the procession of Lindbergh's plane to a "platform where it was raised to the view of cheering thousands." "It was a splendid flight," Lindbergh declared after landing, stating: "I enjoyed every minute of it. The motor is in fine shape and I could circle Europe without touching it." Belgian troops with fixed bayonets protected the "Spirit" to avoid a repeat of the damage incident at Le Bourget. From Evere, Lindbergh motored to the U.S. embassy, and then went to place a wreath on the [[Congress Column|Belgian tomb of the unknown soldier]]. He then visited the [[Royal Palace of Brussels|Belgian royal palace]] at the invitation of [[Albert I of Belgium|King Albert I]], where the king made Lindbergh a chevalier of the [[Order of Leopold (Belgium)|Order of Leopold]]; as Lindbergh shook the king's hand, he said: "I have heard much of the famous soldier-king of the Belgians." The [[United Press International|United Press]] reported that "One million persons are in Brussels today to greet Lindbergh," constituting "the greatest welcome ever accorded a private citizen in Belgium."


title: Charles Lindbergh

text: After Belgium, Lindbergh traveled to the [[United Kingdom]]. He arrived at [[Croydon Airport|Croydon Air Field]] in the "Spirit" on May 29, where a crowd of 100,000 "mobbed" him. Accompanied by two [[Royal Air Force]] fighter planes, he then flew 90 miles from Croydon to [[Gosport]], where he left the "Spirit" to be dismantled for shipment back to New York. On May 31, accompanied by an attache of the [[Embassy of the United States, London|U.S. Embassy]], Lindbergh visited British Prime Minister [[Stanley Baldwin]] at [[10 Downing Street]] and then motored to [[Buckingham Palace]], where [[George V|King George V]] received him as a guest and awarded him the British [[Air Force Cross (United Kingdom)|Air Force Cross]]. In anticipation of Lindbergh's visit to the palace, a crowd massed "hoping to get a glimpse" of him. The crowd became so great that police had to call in reserves from [[Scotland Yard]]. Upon his arrival back in the United States aboard the U.S. Navy [[cruiser]] on , 1927, a fleet of warships and multiple flights of military aircraft escorted him up the [[Potomac River]] to the [[Washington Navy Yard]], where President [[Calvin Coolidge]] awarded him the [[Distinguished Flying Cross (United States)|Distinguished Flying Cross]]. Lindbergh received the first award of this medal, but it violated the authorizing regulation. Coolidge's own executive order, published in March 1927, required recipients to perform their feats of airmanship "while participating in an aerial flight as part of the duties incident to such membership [in the Organized Reserves]", which Lindbergh very clearly failed to satisfy. The [[United States Postal Service#History|U.S. Post Office Department]] issued a 10-cent [[Airmails of the United States|air mail]] stamp (Scott C-10) depicting the "Spirit" and a map of the flight.


title: Charles Lindbergh

text: Lindbergh flew from Washington, D.C., to New York City on , arriving in [[Lower Manhattan]]. He traveled up the [[Broadway (Manhattan)#Canyon of Heroes|Canyon of Heroes]] to City Hall, where he was received by Mayor [[Jimmy Walker]]. A [[ticker-tape parade]] followed to [[Central Park Mall]], where he was honored at another ceremony hosted by New York Governor [[Al Smith]] and attended by a crowd of 200,000. Some 4,000,000 people saw Lindbergh that day. At Central Park, Governor Smith awarded him the New York Medal for Valor. That evening, Lindbergh was accompanied by his mother and Mayor Walker when he was the guest of honor at a 500-guest banquet and dance held at [[Clarence Mackay|Clarence MacKay]]'s Long Island estate, [[Harbor Hill]].


title: Charles Lindbergh

text: The following night, Lindbergh was honored with a grand banquet at the [[Commodore Hotel New York|Hotel Commodore]] given by the Mayor's Committee on Receptions of the City of New York and attended by some 3,700 people. He was officially awarded the check for the prize on .


title: Charles Lindbergh

text: On July 18, 1927, Lindbergh was promoted to the rank of colonel in the Air Corps of the [[United States Army Reserve|Officers Reserve Corps]] of the [[United States Army|U.S. Army]].


title: Charles Lindbergh

text: On , 1927, a Special [[Act of Congress]] awarded Lindbergh the [[Medal of Honor]], despite the fact that it was almost always awarded for heroism in combat. It was presented to Lindbergh by President Coolidge at the White House on , 1928. Curiously, the medal contradicted Coolidge's earlier executive order directing that "not more than one of the several decorations authorized by Federal law will be awarded for the same act of heroism or extraordinary achievement" (Lindbergh was recognized for the same act with both the Medal of Honor and the Distinguished Flying Cross). The statute authorizing the award was also criticized for apparently violating procedure; House legislators reportedly neglected to have their votes counted. Similar noncombat awards of the Medal of Honor were also authorized by special statutes and awarded to naval aviators [[Richard E. Byrd]] and [[Floyd Bennett]], as well as arctic explorer [[Adolphus W. Greely]]. In addition, the Medal of Honor awarded to General [[Douglas MacArthur]] was reportedly based on the Lindbergh precedent, although MacArthur notably lacked implementing legislation, which probably rendered his award unlawful.


title: Charles Lindbergh

text: Lindbergh was honored as the first "[[Time (magazine)|Time]]" magazine [[Time Person of the Year|Man of the Year]] (now called "Person of the Year") when he appeared on that magazine's cover at age 25 on , 1928; he remained the youngest "Time" Person of the Year until [[Greta Thunberg]] surpassed his record in 2019. The winner of the 1930 Best Woman Aviator of the Year Award, [[Elinor Smith|Elinor Smith Sullivan]], said that before Lindbergh's flight:


title: Charles Lindbergh

text: Barely two months after Lindbergh arrived in Paris, G. P. Putnam's Sons published his 318-page autobiography ""WE"", which was the first of 15 books he eventually wrote or to which he made significant contributions. The company was run by aviation enthusiast [[George P. Putnam]].


title: Charles Lindbergh

text: The dustjacket notes said that Lindbergh wanted to share the "story of his life and his transatlantic flight together with his views on the future of aviation", and that ""WE"" referred to the "spiritual partnership" that had developed "between himself and his airplane during the dark hours of his flight". But Putnam's had selected the title without Lindbergh's knowledge, and he complained, "we" actually referred to himself and his St. Louis financial backers, though his frequent unconscious use of the phrase seemed to suggest otherwise.


title: Charles Lindbergh

text: ""WE"" was soon translated into most major languages and sold more than 650,000 copies in the first year, earning Lindbergh more than $250,000. Its success was considerably aided by Lindbergh's three-month, tour of the United States in the "Spirit" on behalf of the [[Daniel Guggenheim Fund for the Promotion of Aeronautics]]. Between and , 1927, Lindbergh visited 82 cities in all 48 states, delivered 147 speeches, rode in parades, and was seen by more than 30 million Americans, one quarter of the nation's population.


title: Charles Lindbergh

text: Lindbergh then toured 16 Latin American countries between , 1927, and , 1928. Dubbed the "Good Will Tour", it included stops in [[Mexico]] (where he also met his future wife, Anne, the daughter of U.S. Ambassador [[Dwight Morrow]]), [[Guatemala]], [[British Honduras]], [[El Salvador]], [[Honduras]], [[Nicaragua]], [[First Costa Rican Republic|Costa Rica]], [[Panama]], the [[Panama Canal Zone|Canal Zone]], [[Colombia]], [[United States of Venezuela|Venezuela]], [[Saint Thomas, U.S. Virgin Islands|St. Thomas]], [[Puerto Rico]], the [[Third Dominican Republic|Dominican Republic]], [[Republic of Haiti (1859–1957)|Haiti]], and [[Republic of Cuba (1902–1959)|Cuba]], covering in just over 116 hours of flight time. A year and two days after it had made its first flight, Lindbergh flew the "Spirit" from St. Louis to Washington, D.C., where it has been on public display at the [[Smithsonian Institution]] ever since. Over the previous 367 days, Lindbergh and the "Spirit" had logged 489 hours 28 minutes of flight time together.


title: Charles Lindbergh

text: A "[[Lindbergh Boom|Lindbergh boom]]" in aviation had begun. The volume of mail moving by air increased 50 percent within six months, applications for pilots' licenses tripled, and the number of planes quadrupled.


title: Charles Lindbergh

text: President [[Herbert Hoover]] appointed Lindbergh to the [[National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics]].


title: Charles Lindbergh

text: Lindbergh and [[Pan American World Airways]] head [[Juan Trippe]] were interested in developing an air route across Alaska and Siberia to China and Japan. In the summer of 1931, with Trippe's support, Lindbergh and his wife flew from Long Island to [[Nome, Alaska]], and from there to Siberia, Japan and China. The flight was carried out with a [[Lockheed Model 8 Sirius]] named [[Tingmissartoq]]. The route was not available for commercial service until after World WarII, as prewar aircraft lacked the range to fly [[Territory of Alaska|Alaska]] to Japan nonstop, and the United States had not officially recognized the Soviet government. In China they volunteered to help in disaster investigation and relief efforts for the [[Central China flood of 1931]]. This was later documented in Anne's book "[[North to the Orient]]".


title: Charles Lindbergh

text: Lindbergh used his world fame to promote air mail service. For example, at the request of Basil L. Rowe, the owner of West Indian Aerial Express (and later [[Pan Am]]'s chief pilot), in February, 1928, he carried some 3,000 pieces of special souvenir mail between [[Santo Domingo]], [[Dominican Republic|R.D.]]; [[Port-au-Prince]], [[Haiti]]; and [[Havana]], [[Cuba]]the last three stops he and the "Spirit" made during their "Good Will Tour" of Latin America and the Caribbean between , 1927, and , 1928, and the only franked mail pieces that he ever flew in the his iconic plane.


title: Charles Lindbergh

text: Two weeks after his Latin American tour, Lindbergh piloted a series of special flights over his old CAM-2 route on and . Tens of thousands of self-addressed souvenir covers were sent in from all over the world, so at each stop Lindbergh switched to another of the three planes he and his fellow CAM-2 pilots had used, so it could be said that each cover had been flown by him. The covers were then backstamped and returned to their senders as promotion of the air mail service.


title: Charles Lindbergh

text: In 1929–1931, Lindbergh carried much smaller numbers of souvenir covers on the first flights over routes in [[Latin America]] and the [[Caribbean]], which he had earlier laid out as a consultant to [[Pan American World Airways|Pan American Airways]] to be then flown under contract to the Post Office as Foreign Air Mail (FAM) routes 5 and 6.


title: Charles Lindbergh

text: In his autobiography, Lindbergh derided pilots he met as womanizing "barnstormers"; he also criticized Army cadets for their "facile" approach to relationships. He wrote that the ideal romance was stable and long-term, with a woman with keen intellect, good health, and strong genes, his "experience in breeding animals on our farm [having taught him] the importance of good heredity".


title: Charles Lindbergh

text: [[Anne Morrow Lindbergh]] (1906–2001) was the daughter of [[Dwight Morrow]], who, as a partner at [[J.P. Morgan & Co.]], had acted as financial adviser to Lindbergh. He was also the U.S. Ambassador to Mexico in 1927. Invited by Morrow on a goodwill tour to Mexico along with humorist and actor [[Will Rogers]], Lindbergh met Anne in Mexico City in December 1927.


title: Charles Lindbergh

text: The couple was married on , 1929, at the Morrow estate in [[Englewood, New Jersey]], where they resided after their marriage before moving to their home in the western part of the state. They had six children: [[Charles Augustus Lindbergh Jr.]] (1930–1932); [[Jon Morrow Lindbergh]] (1932–2021); Land Morrow Lindbergh (b. 1937), who studied anthropology at [[Stanford University]] and married Susan Miller in San Diego; [[Anne Lindbergh]] (1940–1993); Scott Lindbergh (b. 1942); and [[Reeve Lindbergh]] (b. 1945), a writer. Lindbergh taught Anne how to fly, and she accompanied and assisted him in much of his exploring and charting of air routes.


title: Charles Lindbergh

text: Lindbergh saw his children for only a few months a year. He kept track of each child's infractions (including such things as gum-chewing) and insisted that Anne track every penny of household expenses in account books.


title: Charles Lindbergh

text: Lindbergh's grandson, aviator [[Erik Lindbergh]] (one of 8 children of Jon Lindbergh), has had notable involvement in both the [[private spaceflight]] and [[electric aircraft]] industries.


title: Charles Lindbergh

text: On the evening of , 1932, twenty-month-old Charles Augustus Lindbergh Jr. was abducted from his crib in the Lindberghs' rural home, [[Highfields (Amwell and Hopewell, New Jersey)|Highfields]], in [[East Amwell Township, New Jersey|East Amwell, New Jersey]], near the town of [[Hopewell, New Jersey|Hopewell]]. A man who claimed to be the kidnapper picked up a cash ransom of $50,000 on , part of which was in [[gold certificate]]s, which were soon to be withdrawn from circulation and would therefore attract attention; the bills' serial numbers were also recorded. On , the child's remains were found in woods not far from the Lindbergh home.


title: Charles Lindbergh

text: The case was widely called the "[[Crime of the century|Crime of the Century]]" and was described by [[H. L. Mencken]] as "the biggest story since the [[Resurrection of Jesus|Resurrection]]". In response, Congress passed the so-called [[Federal Kidnapping Act|"Lindbergh Law"]], which made kidnapping a [[Federal crime|federal offense]] if the victim is taken across state lines or (as in the Lindbergh case) the kidnapper uses "the mail or... interstate or foreign commerce in committing or in furtherance of the commission of the offense", such as in demanding ransom.


title: Charles Lindbergh

text: [[Richard Hauptmann]], a 34-year-old German immigrant carpenter, was arrested near his home in [[the Bronx]], New York, on , 1934, after paying for gasoline with one of the ransom bills. $13,760 of the ransom money and other evidence was found in his home. Hauptmann went on trial for kidnapping, murder and extortion on , 1935, in a circus-like atmosphere in [[Flemington, New Jersey]]. He was convicted on , sentenced to death, and electrocuted at [[New Jersey State Prison|Trenton State Prison]] on , 1936.


title: Charles Lindbergh

text: An intensely private man, Lindbergh became exasperated by the unrelenting public attention in the wake of the kidnapping and Hauptmann trial, and was concerned for the safety of his three-year-old second son, Jon. Consequently, in the predawn hours of Sunday, , 1935, the family "sailed furtively" from [[Manhattan]] for [[Liverpool]], the only three passengers aboard the [[United States Lines]] freighter SS "American Importer". They traveled under assumed names and with diplomatic passports issued through the personal intervention of former U.S. Treasury Secretary [[Ogden L. Mills]].


title: Charles Lindbergh

text: News of the Lindberghs' "flight to Europe" did not become public until a full day later, and even after the identity of their ship became known [[Radiogram (message)|radiograms]] addressed to Lindbergh on it were returned as "Addressee not aboard".


title: Charles Lindbergh

text: The family eventually rented "[[Long Barn]]" in [[Sevenoaks Weald]], Kent. In 1938, the family (including a third son, Land, born May 1937 in London) moved to [[Île Illiec]], a small island Lindbergh purchased off the [[Brittany|Breton]] coast of France.


title: Charles Lindbergh

text: Except for a brief visit to the U.S. in December 1937, the Lindberghs lived and traveled extensively around Europe in their personal [[Miles M.12 Mohawk]], before returning to the U.S. in April 1939 and settling in a rented seaside estate at [[Lloyd Harbor, New York|Lloyd Neck]], Long Island, New York. The return was prompted by a personal request by [[Henry H. Arnold|General H. H. ("Hap") Arnold]], the chief of the [[United States Army Air Corps]] in which Lindbergh was a reserve colonel, for him to accept a temporary return to active duty to help evaluate the Air Corps's readiness for war. His duties included evaluating new aircraft types in development, recruitment procedures, and finding a site for a new air force research institute and other potential air bases. Assigned a [[Curtiss P-36 Hawk|Curtiss P-36]] fighter, he toured various facilities, reporting back to [[Wright Field]]. Lindbergh's brief four-month tour was also his first period of active military service since his graduation from the Army's Flight School fourteen years earlier in 1925.


title: Charles Lindbergh

text: Lindbergh wrote to the [[Longines]] watch company and described a watch that would make navigation easier for pilots. First produced in 1931, it is still produced today.


title: Charles Lindbergh

text: In 1929, Lindbergh became interested in the work of rocket pioneer [[Robert H. Goddard]]. By helping Goddard secure an [[Financial endowment|endowment]] from [[Daniel Guggenheim]] in 1930, Lindbergh allowed Goddard to expand his research and development. Throughout his life, Lindbergh remained a key advocate of Goddard's work.


title: Charles Lindbergh

text: In 1930, Lindbergh's sister-in-law developed a fatal heart condition. Lindbergh began to wonder why hearts could not be repaired with surgery. Starting in early 1931 at the [[Rockefeller University|Rockefeller Institute]] and continuing during his time living in France, Lindbergh studied the [[perfusion]] of organs outside the body with [[Nobel Prize]]-winning French surgeon [[Alexis Carrel]]. Although perfused organs were said to have survived surprisingly well, all showed progressive [[Degenerative disease|degenerative]] changes within a few days. Lindbergh's invention, a glass perfusion pump, named the "Model T" pump, is credited with making future [[Cardiac surgery|heart surgeries]] possible. In this early stage, the pump was far from perfected. In 1938, Lindbergh and Carrel described an [[artificial heart]] in the book in which they summarized their work, "The Culture of Organs", but it was decades before one was built. In later years, Lindbergh's pump was further developed by others, eventually leading to the construction of the first [[Cardiopulmonary bypass|heart-lung machine]].


title: Charles Lindbergh

text: At the request of the United States military, Lindbergh traveled to Germany several times between 1936 and 1938 to evaluate German aviation. [[Hanna Reitsch]] demonstrated the [[Focke-Wulf Fw 61]] helicopter to Lindbergh in 1937, and he was the first American to examine Germany's newest bomber, the [[Junkers Ju 88]], and Germany's front-line [[fighter aircraft]], the [[Messerschmitt Bf 109]], which he was allowed to pilot. He said of the Bf 109 that he knew of "no other pursuit plane which combines simplicity of construction with such excellent performance characteristics".


title: Charles Lindbergh

text: There is disagreement on how accurate Lindbergh's reports were, but Cole asserts that the consensus among British and American officials was that they were slightly exaggerated but badly needed. [[Arthur Krock]], the chief of "[[The New York Times]]" Washington Bureau, wrote in 1939, "When the new flying fleet of the United States begins to take air, among those who will have been responsible for its size, its modernness, and its efficiency is Colonel Charles A. Lindbergh. Informed officials here, in touch with what Colonel Lindbergh has been doing for his country abroad, are authority for this statement, and for the further observation that criticism of any of his activities – in Germany or elsewhere – is as ignorant as it is unfair." [[General Henry H. Arnold]], the only U.S. Air Force general to hold five-star rank, wrote in his autobiography, "Nobody gave us much useful information about Hitler's air force until Lindbergh came home in 1939." Lindbergh also undertook a survey of aviation in the [[Soviet Union]] in 1938.


title: Charles Lindbergh

text: In 1938, [[Hugh R. Wilson|Hugh Wilson]], the American ambassador to Germany, hosted a dinner for Lindbergh with Germany's air chief, "[[Generalfeldmarschall]]" [[Hermann Göring]], and three central figures in German aviation: [[Ernst Heinkel]], [[Adolf Baeumker]], and [[Willy Messerschmitt]]. At this dinner, Göring presented Lindbergh with the Commander Cross of the [[Order of the German Eagle]]. Lindbergh's acceptance proved controversial after "[[Kristallnacht]]", an anti-Jewish pogrom in Germany a few weeks later. Lindbergh declined to return the medal, later writing, "It seems to me that the returning of decorations, which were given in times of peace and as a gesture of friendship, can have no constructive effect. If I were to return the German medal, it seems to me that it would be an unnecessary insult. Even if war develops between us, I can see no gain in indulging in a spitting contest before that war begins." Regarding this, Ambassador Wilson later wrote to Lindbergh, "Neither you, nor I, nor any other American present had any previous hint that the presentation would be made. I have always felt that if you refused the decoration, presented under those circumstances, you would have been guilty of a breach of good taste. It would have been an act offensive to a guest of the Ambassador of your country, in the house of the Ambassador."


title: Charles Lindbergh

text: In 1938, the U.S. [[Air Attaché]] in Berlin invited Lindbergh to inspect the rising power of [[Luftwaffe|Nazi Germany's Air Force]]. Impressed by German technology and the apparently-large number of aircraft at their disposal and influenced by the staggering number of deaths from [[World War I]], he opposed U.S. entry into the impending European conflict. In September 1938, he stated to the French cabinet that the Luftwaffe possessed 8,000 aircraft and could produce 1,500 per month. Although this was seven times the actual number determined by the [[Deuxième Bureau]], it influenced France into trying to avoid conflict with Nazi Germany through the [[Munich Agreement]]. At the urging of U.S. Ambassador [[Joseph P. Kennedy, Sr.|Joseph Kennedy]], Lindbergh wrote a secret memo to the British warning that a military response by Britain and France to Hitler's violation of the [[Munich Agreement]] would be disastrous; he claimed that France was militarily weak and Britain over-reliant on its navy. He urgently recommended that they strengthen their air power to force Hitler to redirect his aggression against "Asiatic [[Communism]]".


title: Charles Lindbergh

text: Following Hitler's invasion of Czechoslovakia and Poland, Lindbergh opposed sending aid to countries under threat, writing "I do not believe that repealing the [[arms embargo]] would assist democracy in Europe" and "If we repeal the arms embargo with the idea of assisting one of the warring sides to overcome the other, then why mislead ourselves by talk of neutrality?" He equated assistance with war profiteering: "To those who argue that we could make a profit and build up our own industry by selling munitions abroad, I reply that we in America have not yet reached a point where we wish to capitalize on the destruction and death of war."


title: Charles Lindbergh

text: In August 1939, Lindbergh was the first choice of [[Einstein|Albert Einstein]], whom he met years earlier in New York, to deliver the [[Einstein–Szilárd letter]] alerting President Roosevelt about the vast potential of [[nuclear fission]]. However, Lindbergh did not respond to Einstein's letter or to [[Leo Szilard|Szilard]]'s later letter of September 13. Two days later, Lindbergh gave a nationwide radio address, in which he called for [[isolationism]] and indicated some pro-German sympathies and antisemitic insinuations about Jewish ownership of the media, saying "We must ask who owns and influences the newspaper, the news picture, and the radio station, ... If our people know the truth, our country is not likely to enter the war". After that, Szilard stated to Einstein: "Lindbergh is not our man."


title: Charles Lindbergh

text: In October 1939, following the outbreak of hostilities between Britain and Germany, and a month after the [[Canadian declaration of war on Germany]], Lindbergh made another nationwide radio address criticizing [[Canada]] for drawing the [[Western Hemisphere]] "into a European war simply because they prefer the Crown of England" to the independence of the [[Americas]]. Lindbergh went on to further state his opinion that the entire continent and its surrounding islands needed to be free from the "dictates of European powers".


title: Charles Lindbergh

text: In November 1939, Lindbergh authored a controversial "[[Reader's Digest]]" article in which he deplored the war, but asserted the need for a German assault on the [[Soviet Union]]. Lindbergh wrote: "Our civilization depends on peace among Western nations ... and therefore on united strength, for Peace is a virgin who dare not show her face without Strength, her father, for protection."


title: Charles Lindbergh

text: In late 1940, Lindbergh became the spokesman of the isolationist [[America First Committee]], soon speaking to overflow crowds at [[Madison Square Garden (1925)|Madison Square Garden]] and Chicago's [[Soldier Field]], with millions listening by radio. He argued emphatically that America had no business attacking Germany. Lindbergh justified this stance in writings that were only published posthumously:


title: Charles Lindbergh

text: In April 1941, he argued before 30,000 members of the America First Committee that "the British government has one last desperate plan ... to persuade us to send another [[American Expeditionary Forces|American Expeditionary Force]] to Europe and to share with England militarily, as well as financially, the fiasco of this war."


title: Charles Lindbergh

text: In his 1941 testimony before the [[United States House Committee on Foreign Affairs|House Committee on Foreign Affairs]] opposing the [[Lend-Lease|Lend-Lease bill]], Lindbergh proposed that the United States negotiate a neutrality pact with Germany. President [[Franklin Roosevelt]] publicly decried Lindbergh's views as those of a "defeatist and appeaser", comparing him to [[Clement Laird Vallandigham|U.S. Rep. Clement L. Vallandigham]], who had led the [[Copperheads (politics)|"Copperhead"]] movement opposed to the [[American Civil War]]. Following this, Lindbergh resigned his colonel’s commission in the U.S. Army Air Corps Reserve on April 28, 1941, writing that he saw "no honorable alternative" given that Roosevelt had publicly questioned his loyalty; the next day, "The New York Times" ran an above the fold, front page article about his resignation.


title: Charles Lindbergh

text: At an America First rally in September, Lindbergh accused three groups of "pressing this country toward war; the British, the Jewish, and the Roosevelt Administration":


title: Charles Lindbergh

text: His message was popular throughout many [[Northern United States|Northern]] communities and especially well received in the [[Midwestern United States|Midwest]], while the [[Southern United States|American South]] was [[Anglophilia|anglophilic]] and supported a pro-British foreign policy. The South was the most pro-British and interventionist part of the country. Responding to criticism of his speech, Anne Lindbergh felt that the speech might tarnish Lindbergh's reputation unjustly; she wrote in her diary:


title: Charles Lindbergh

text: In his diaries, he wrote, "We must limit to a reasonable amount the Jewish influence ... Whenever the Jewish percentage of total population becomes too high, a reaction seems to invariably occur. It is too bad because a few Jews of the right type are, I believe, an asset to any country."


title: Charles Lindbergh

text: Lindbergh's [[anticommunism]] resonated deeply with many Americans, while his pro-[[eugenics]] views and [[Nordic race|Nordicism]] enjoyed social acceptance. His speeches and writings reflected his adoption of views on race, religion, and eugenics, similar to those of the German [[Nazi Party|Nazis]], and he was suspected of being a Nazi sympathizer. However, during a speech in September 1941, Lindbergh stated "no person with a sense of the dignity of mankind can condone the persecution of the Jewish race in Germany." [[Interventionism (politics)|Interventionist]] pamphlets pointed out that his efforts were praised in [[Nazi Germany]] and included quotations such as "Racial strength is vital; politics, a luxury".


title: Charles Lindbergh

text: Roosevelt disliked Lindbergh's outspoken opposition to his administration's interventionist policies, telling Treasury Secretary [[Henry Morgenthau Jr.|Henry Morgenthau]], "If I should die tomorrow, I want you to know this, I am absolutely convinced Lindbergh is a Nazi." In 1941 he wrote to Secretary of War [[Henry Stimson]]: "When I read Lindbergh's speech I felt that it could not have been better put if it had been written by [[Joseph Goebbels|Goebbels]] himself. What a pity that this youngster has completely abandoned his belief in our form of government and has accepted Nazi methods because apparently they are efficient." Shortly after the war ended, Lindbergh toured a [[Nazi concentration camp]], and wrote in his diary, "Here was a place where men and life and death had reached the lowest form of degradation. How could any reward in national progress even faintly justify the establishment and operation of such a place?"


title: Charles Lindbergh

text: Lindbergh seemed to state that he believed the survival of the [[white race]] was more important than the survival of democracy in Europe: "Our bond with Europe is one of race and not of political ideology", he declared. Critics have noticed an apparent influence on Lindbergh of German philosopher [[Oswald Spengler]]. Spengler was a conservative [[Authoritarianism|authoritarian]] popular during the [[interwar period]], though he had fallen out of favor with the Nazis because he had not wholly subscribed to [[Nazi eugenics|their theories]] of [[racial purity]].


title: Charles Lindbergh

text: Lindbergh developed a long-term friendship with the automobile pioneer [[Henry Ford]], who was well known for his antisemitic newspaper "[[The Dearborn Independent]]". In a famous comment about Lindbergh to [[Detroit]]'s former FBI field office special agent in charge in July 1940, Ford said: "When Charles comes out here, we only talk about the Jews."


title: Charles Lindbergh

text: Lindbergh considered Russia a "semi-Asiatic" country compared to Germany, and he believed [[Communism]] was an ideology that would destroy the West's "racial strength" and replace everyone of European descent with "a pressing sea of Yellow, Black, and Brown". He stated that if he had to choose, he would rather see America allied with Nazi Germany than [[Soviet Russia]]. He preferred [[Nordic race|Nordics]], but he believed, after [[Marxism–Leninism|Soviet Communism]] was defeated, Russia would be a valuable ally against potential aggression from [[East Asia]].


title: Charles Lindbergh

text: Lindbergh elucidated his beliefs regarding the [[White people|white race]] in a 1939 article in "Reader's Digest":


title: Charles Lindbergh

text: Lindbergh said certain races have "demonstrated superior ability in the design, manufacture, and operation of machines", and that "The growth of our [[Western world|western civilization]] has been closely related to this superiority." Lindbergh admired "the German genius for science and organization, the English genius for government and commerce, the French genius for living and the understanding of life". He believed, "in America they can be blended to form the greatest genius of all".


title: Charles Lindbergh

text: In his book "The American Axis", [[Holocaust]] researcher and investigative journalist [[Max Wallace]] agreed with Franklin Roosevelt's assessment that Lindbergh was "pro-Nazi". However, he found that the Roosevelt Administration's accusations of [[dual loyalty]] or [[treason]] were unsubstantiated. Wallace considered Lindbergh to be a well-intentioned but bigoted and misguided Nazi sympathizer whose career as the leader of the isolationist movement had a destructive impact on [[Jews|Jewish people]].


title: Charles Lindbergh

text: Lindbergh's [[Pulitzer Prize]]-winning biographer, [[A. Scott Berg]], contended that Lindbergh was not so much a supporter of the Nazi regime as someone so stubborn in his convictions and relatively inexperienced in political maneuvering that he easily allowed rivals to portray him as one. Lindbergh's receipt of the [[Order of the German Eagle]], presented in October 1938 by "[[Generalfeldmarschall]]" [[Hermann Göring]] on behalf of "[[Führer]]" [[Adolf Hitler]], was approved without objection by the [[Embassy of the United States, Berlin|American embassy]]. Lindbergh returned to the United States in early 1939 to spread his message of [[nonintervention]]. Berg contended Lindbergh's views were commonplace in the United States in the [[Interwar period|interwar era]]. Lindbergh's support for the [[America First Committee]] was representative of the sentiments of a number of American people.


title: Charles Lindbergh

text: Berg also noted: "As late as April 1939after Germany overtook [[Czechoslovakia]]Lindbergh was willing to make excuses for [[Adolf Hitler]]. 'Much as I disapprove of many things Hitler had done', he wrote in his diary on , 1939, 'I believe she [Germany] has pursued the only consistent policy in Europe in recent years. I cannot support her broken promises, but she has only moved a little faster than other nations ... in breaking promises. The question of right and wrong is one thing by law and another thing by history. Berg also explained that leading up to the war, Lindbergh believed the great battle would be between the Soviet Union and Germany, not fascism and democracy.


title: Charles Lindbergh

text: Wallace noted that it was difficult to find social scientists among Lindbergh's contemporaries in the 1930s who found validity in racial explanations for human behavior. Wallace went on to observe, "throughout his life, eugenics would remain one of Lindbergh's enduring passions".


title: Charles Lindbergh

text: Lindbergh always championed military strength and alertness. He believed that a strong defensive war machine would make America an impenetrable fortress and defend the Western Hemisphere from an attack by foreign powers, and that this was the U.S. military's sole purpose.


title: Charles Lindbergh

text: Berg writes that while the [[attack on Pearl Harbor]] came as a shock to Lindbergh, he did predict that America's "wavering policy in the [[Commonwealth of the Philippines|Philippines]]" would invite a brutal war there, and in one speech warned, "we should either fortify these islands adequately, or get out of them entirely."


title: Charles Lindbergh

text: In January 1942, Lindbergh met with Secretary of War, [[Henry L. Stimson]], seeking to be recommissioned in the Army Air Forces. Stimson was strongly opposed because of the long record of public comments. Blocked from active military service, Lindbergh approached a number of aviation companies and offered his services as a consultant. As a technical adviser with Ford in 1942, he was heavily involved in troubleshooting early problems at the [[Willow Run]] [[Consolidated B-24 Liberator]] bomber production line. As B-24 production smoothed out, he joined [[United Aircraft]] in 1943 as an engineering consultant, devoting most of his time to its [[Chance-Vought|Chance-Vought Division]].


title: Charles Lindbergh

text: In 1944 Lindbergh persuaded United Aircraft to send him as a technical representative to the [[Pacific War|Pacific Theater]] to study aircraft performance under combat conditions. In preparation for his deployment to the Pacific, Lindbergh went to [[Brooks Brothers]] to buy a naval officer's uniform without insignia and visited [[Brentano's|Brentano's bookstore]] at [[Rockefeller Center]] in New York to buy a [[New Testament]], writing in his wartime journal entry for April 3, 1944: "Purchased a small New Testament at Brentano's. Since I can only carry one book—and a very small one—that is my choice. It would not have been a decade ago; but the more I learn and the more I read, the less competition it has." He demonstrated how [[United States Marine Corps Aviation]] pilots could take off safely with a bomb load double the [[Vought F4U Corsair]] fighter-bomber's rated capacity. At the time, several Marine squadrons were flying bomber escorts to destroy the Japanese stronghold of [[Rabaul]], [[New Britain]], in the Australian [[Territory of New Guinea]]. On , 1944, Lindbergh flew his first combat mission: a strafing run with [[VMF-222]] near the Japanese garrison of Rabaul. He also flew with [[VMF-216]], from the Marine Air Base at [[Torokina]], [[Bougainville Island|Bougainville]]. Lindbergh was escorted on one of these missions by Lt. Robert E. (Lefty) McDonough, who refused to fly with Lindbergh again, as he did not want to be known as "the guy who killed Lindbergh".


title: Charles Lindbergh

text: In his six months in the Pacific in 1944, Lindbergh took part in fighter bomber raids on Japanese positions, flying 50 combat missions (again as a civilian). His innovations in the use of [[Lockheed P-38 Lightning]] fighters impressed a supportive Gen. [[Douglas MacArthur]]. Lindbergh introduced [[Air–fuel ratio|engine-leaning techniques]] to P-38 pilots, greatly improving fuel consumption at cruise speeds, enabling the long-range fighter aircraft to fly longer-range missions. P-38 pilot Warren Lewis quoted Lindbergh's fuel-saving settings, "He said, '... we can cut the RPM down to 1400RPMs and use 30 inches of mercury (manifold pressure), and save 50–100 gallons of fuel on a mission. The U.S. Marine and Army Air Force pilots who served with Lindbergh praised his courage and defended his patriotism.


title: Charles Lindbergh

text: On , 1944, during a P-38 bomber escort mission with the [[433d Weapons Squadron|433rd Fighter Squadron]] in the [[Seram Island|Ceram]] area, Lindbergh shot down a [[Mitsubishi Ki-51]] "Sonia" observation plane, piloted by Captain Saburo Shimada, commanding officer of the 73rd Independent Chutai.


title: Charles Lindbergh

text: Lindbergh's participation in combat was revealed in a story in the "[[Herald News|Passaic Herald-News]]" on October 22, 1944.


title: Charles Lindbergh

text: In mid-October 1944, Lindbergh participated in a joint Army-Navy conference on fighter planes at [[NAS Patuxent River]], Maryland.


title: Charles Lindbergh

text: After the war, Lindbergh toured the Nazi [[concentration camp]]s and wrote in his autobiography that he was disgusted and angered.


title: Charles Lindbergh

text: After World War II, Lindbergh lived in [[Darien, Connecticut|Darien]], [[Connecticut]], and served as a consultant to the [[Chief of Staff of the United States Air Force]] and to [[Pan American World Airways]]. With most of eastern Europe under communist control, Lindbergh believed that his prewar assessments of the Soviet threat were correct. Lindbergh witnessed firsthand the defeat of Germany and the Holocaust, and Berg reported, "he knew the American public no longer gave a hoot about his opinions". On April 7, 1954, on the recommendation of President [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]], Lindbergh was commissioned a [[Brigadier general (United States)|brigadier general]] in the [[U.S. Air Force Reserve]]; Eisenhower had nominated Lindbergh for promotion on February 15. Also in that year, he served on a Congressional advisory panel that recommended the site of the [[United States Air Force Academy]]. He also won the Pulitzer Prize for biography in 1954 with his book, "[[The Spirit of St. Louis (book)|The Spirit of St. Louis]]", which focuses on his 1927 flight and the events leading up to it.


title: Charles Lindbergh

text: In December 1968, he visited the crew of [[Apollo 8]] (the first manned mission to orbit the Moon) the day before their launch, and in 1969 he watched the launch of [[Apollo 11]]. In conjunction with the first lunar landing, he shared his thoughts as part of [[Walter Cronkite]]'s live television coverage. He later wrote the foreword to Apollo astronaut [[Michael Collins (astronaut)|Michael Collins]]'s autobiography.


title: Charles Lindbergh

text: Beginning in 1957, General Lindbergh engaged in lengthy sexual relationships with three women while remaining married to Anne Morrow. He fathered three children with hatmaker Brigitte Hesshaimer (1926–2001), who had lived in the small Bavarian town of [[Geretsried]]. He had two children with her sister Mariette, a painter, living in [[Grimisuat]]. Lindbergh also had a son and daughter (born in 1959 and 1961) with Valeska, an [[East Prussia]]n [[Junker|aristocrat]] who was his private secretary in Europe and lived in [[Baden-Baden]]. All seven children were born between 1958 and 1967.


title: Charles Lindbergh

text: Ten days before he died, Lindbergh wrote to each of his European mistresses, imploring them to maintain the utmost secrecy about his illicit activities with them even after his death. The three women (none of whom ever married) all managed to keep their affairs secret even from their children, who during his lifetime (and for almost a decade after his death) did not know the true identity of their father, whom they had only known by the alias Careu Kent and seen only when he briefly visited them once or twice a year. However, after reading a magazine article about Lindbergh in the mid-1980s, Brigitte's daughter Astrid deduced the truth; she later discovered snapshots and more than 150 love letters from Lindbergh to her mother. After Brigitte and Anne Lindbergh had both died, she made her findings public; in 2003 [[DNA test]]s confirmed that Lindbergh had fathered Astrid and her two siblings. [[Reeve Lindbergh]], Lindbergh's youngest child with Anne, wrote in her personal journal in 2003, "This story reflects absolutely Byzantine layers of deception on the part of our shared father. These children did not even know who he was! He used a pseudonym with them (To protect them, perhaps? To protect himself, absolutely!)"


title: Charles Lindbergh

text: In later life Lindbergh was heavily involved in [[conservation movement]]s, and was deeply concerned about the negative impacts of new technologies on the natural world and [[Indigenous peoples|native peoples]], in particular on [[Hawaii]]. He campaigned to protect [[endangered species]] such as the [[humpback whale]], [[blue whale]], [[Philippine eagle]], the [[tamaraw]] (a rare dwarf Philippine buffalo), and was instrumental in establishing protections for the [[Tasaday]] and [[Agta]] people, and various African tribes such as the [[Maasai people|Maasai]]. Alongside [[Laurance S. Rockefeller]], Lindbergh helped establish the [[Haleakalā National Park]] in Hawaii. He also worked to protect [[Arctic wolf|Arctic wolves]] in Alaska, and helped establish [[Voyageurs National Park]] in northern Minnesota.


title: Charles Lindbergh

text: On May 14, 1971, Lindbergh received the Philippine [[Order of the Golden Heart (Philippines)|Order of the Golden Heart]] at a formal dinner at [[Malacañang Palace]] in [[Manila]]. He was described as an aviation pioneer who had symbolized the advance of technology, and who now was a symbol of the drive to protect natural life from technology. Lindbergh actively participated in both conservation and advocacy for tribal minorities in the Philippines, frequently visiting the country and working to protect species including the tamaraw and Philippine eagle, which he described as a "magnificent bird," lending his name to a law against killing or trapping the animal. In August 1971, in [[Davao City]], he ceremonially received a young Philippine eagle kept in captivity after its mother was killed by a hunter, delaying his return to the United States so he could take part in the presentation. Arturo Garcia, a movie theater manager in Davao, had bought the bird for $40 in March 1970 after the hunting incident, and built a large cage for it behind his house. Lindbergh entered the cage with Jesus Alvarez, director of the Philippines park and wildlife commission, received the eagle, and then turned it over to Alvarez, remarking: "Now we have to see if the bird can go back to its natural place." The [[Associated Press]] reported on both Lindbergh's reception of the Order of the Golden Heart and the presentation of the eagle.


title: Charles Lindbergh

text: Lindbergh's speeches and writings in later life emphasized technology and nature, and his lifelong belief that "all the achievements of mankind have value only to the extent that they preserve and improve the quality of life". In 1972, Lindbergh undertook an expedition with a television news crew to [[Mindanao]], in the Philippines, to investigate reports of a lost tribe. The [[Tasaday]], a [[Philippine]] [[Ethnic groups in the Philippines|indigenous people]] of the [[Lake Sebu]] area, were attracting much media attention at the time; both "[[NBC Evening News]]" and "[[National Geographic]]" ran stories about the supposed discovery of this tribe, although a long-running controversy emerged as to whether the Tasaday were truly [[Uncontacted peoples|uncontacted]], or had just been portrayed that way for media attention—particularly by [[Manuel Elizalde]], a Philippine politician who publicized the tribe—and were in reality "not completely isolated." For the 70-year-old Lindbergh, however, interest in the Tasaday was soon supplanted by a more immediate concern when his team's support helicopter had mechanical trouble, creating the prospect of a three-day return trek through difficult jungle terrain. On April 2, "The New York Times" reported that Lindbergh's party "sent a radio message from the rain forests of the southern Philippines saying their food was nearly gone and they needed help." [[Henry A. Byroade]], [[List of ambassadors of the United States to the Philippines|U.S. Ambassador to the Philippines]], called upon the [[31st Rescue Squadron|31st Aerospace Rescue and Recovery Squadron]] at [[Clark Air Base]] on the island of [[Luzon]] to undertake a rescue. U.S. Air Force [[Major (United States)|Maj.]] Bruce Ware and his crew—co-pilot [[Lieutenant colonel|Lt. Col.]] Dick Smith, flight engineer [[Staff sergeant|SSgt]] Bob Baldwin, and pararescueman [[Airman first class|Airman 1st Class]] Kim Robinson—flew their [[Sikorsky HH-3E Jolly Green Giant]] over 600 mi (965 kilometers) to rescue Lindbergh and his news crew on April 12, 1972. Lindbergh and the news team were stranded on a 3,000-foot (915 meter) high jungle ridge line, and because of this terrain the Sikorsky "had to hover with the nose wheel on one side of the ridge, and the main wheels on the other, with the boarding steps a few feet over the ridge top." During the operation, the helicopter had to refuel twice, causing Lindbergh to comment that although he had helped develop [[in-flight refueling]], he had never been aboard a helicopter during the procedure, nor on the receiving end of it. After more than twelve hours, and a total of eight trips to a nearby drop point, the mission was finally complete, and all 46 individuals stranded on the ridge were extracted. With Lindbergh aboard, the helicopter then flew to [[Mactan Air Base]], on the island of Cebu, where photographers were waiting for him. Ware rested in the pilot's seat for several minutes after landing, and Lindbergh was hesitant to disembark before him. He told Ware he was certain he could not have made the "hard" three day journey back. Lindbergh, with other passengers, was then loaded on a [[Lockheed HC-130|HC-130]] and flown to Manila.


title: Charles Lindbergh

text: Maj. Ware received the Distinguished Flying Cross for his actions, and the other Sikorsky crew members received the [[Air Medal]]. In 2021, Ware described how he received his medal "in less than a week," remarking that it normally "takes several months. But when you’ve got an international hero, it kind of gains some momentum.” The helicopter involved in the rescue, Sikorsky HH-3E 66-13289 (c/n 61-588), was itself lost in the South China Sea later in 1972, following a rescue from a freighter west of [[Luzon]], when its main transmission cracked and began leaking oil.


title: Charles Lindbergh

text: Lindbergh also joined with early aviation industrialist, former Pan Am executive vice president, and longtime friend, Samuel F. Pryor Jr., in "efforts by the Nature Conservancy to preserve plants and wildlife in Kipahulu Valley" on the [[Hawaiian Islands|Hawaiian island]] of [[Maui]]. Lindbergh chose the [[Kipahulu, Hawaii|Kipahulu]] Valley for retirement, building an A‐frame cottage there in 1971; Pryor moved there in 1965 with his wife, Mary, after retiring from Pan Am. Lindbergh's choice of Maui as a retirement home "represented his love of natural places" and his "lifelong commitment to the ideal of simplicity." Commenting on Lindbergh's profound concern with the impact of technology on humanity, Richard Hallion wrote: "He recognized the narrow margin on which society trod in the unstable nuclear era, and his work after World War II confirmed his fear that humanity now had the ability to destroy in minutes what previous generations had taken centuries to create. And so Lindbergh the technologist changed to Lindbergh the philosopher, protector of the Tasaday, preaching a turn from the materialistic, mechanistic society toward a society based on 'simplicity, humiliation, contemplation, prayer.'" In her 1988 book, "Charles A. Lindbergh and the American Dilemma", Susan M. Gray wrote that Lindbergh "established his 'middle ground' between technology and human values, embracing both, rejecting neither."


title: Charles Lindbergh

text: Lindbergh spent his last years on Maui in his small, rustic seaside home. In 1972, he became sick with cancer and ultimately died of [[lymphoma]] on the morning of , 1974, at age 72. After his cancer diagnosis, Lindbergh had "sketched a simple design for his grave and coffin," helping to design his grave in the "traditional Hawaiian style." Following “a series of radiation treatments, he spent several months in Maui recuperating,” and also made a 26‐day stay in the Columbia‐Presbyterian Medical Center in New York, but with little improvement. After he realized the treatment would not save him, he decided to leave Columbia hospital and make a final return to Kipahulu with his wife Anne, flying to [[Honolulu]] on August 17 and then traveling to Maui by small plane, dying a week later. He was buried on the grounds of the Palapala Ho'omau Church in Kipahulu, Maui, a Congregational church first established in 1864, which fell into disuse in the 1940s and was restored beginning in 1964 by Samuel F. Pryor Jr., whose family cooperated with the Lindbergh family to set up an endowment for the upkeep of the property. Lindbergh took part in the church restoration with his old friend Pryor, and both men agreed to make their final resting place in the small cemetery they cleared. Lindbergh was buried eight hours after he died in a eucalyptus casket, and was laid to rest in "simple work clothes." For his funeral service he chose readings from the Bible and Native American poetry, among other selections. On the evening of August 26, President [[Gerald Ford]] made a tribute to Lindbergh, saying that the courage and daring of his Atlantic flight would never be forgotten, describing him as a selfless, sincere man, and stating: "For a generation of Americans, and for millions of other people around the world, the 'Lone Eagle' represented all that was best in our country." His [[epitaph]], on a simple stone following the words "Charles A. Lindbergh Born Michigan 1902 Died Maui 1974", quotes : "If I take the wings of the morning, and dwell in the uttermost parts of the sea ... C.A.L."


title: Charles Lindbergh

text: Lindbergh received many awards, medals and decorations, most of which were later donated to the [[Missouri Historical Society]] and are on display at the Jefferson Memorial, now part of the [[Missouri History Museum]] in [[Forest Park (St. Louis, Missouri)|Forest Park]] in [[St. Louis|St. Louis, Missouri]].


title: Charles Lindbergh

text: Rank and organization: Captain, U.S. Army Air Corps Reserve. Place and date: From New York City to Paris, France, , 1927. Entered service at: Little Falls, Minn. Born: , 1902, Detroit, Mich. G.O. No.: 5, W.D., 1928; Act of Congress , 1927.


title: Charles Lindbergh

text: In addition to ""[["WE" (1927 book)|WE]]"" and "[[The Spirit of St. Louis (book)|The Spirit of St. Louis]]", Lindbergh wrote prolifically over the years on other topics, including science, technology, nationalism, war, materialism, and values. Included among those writings were five other books: "The Culture of Organs" (with [[Alexis Carrel|Dr. Alexis Carrel]]) (1938), "Of Flight and Life" (1948), "The Wartime Journals of Charles A. Lindbergh" (1970), "Boyhood on the Upper Mississippi" (1972), and his unfinished "Autobiography of Values" (posthumous, 1978).


title: Charles Lindbergh

text: In addition to many biographies, such as A. Scott Berg's 1998 award-winning bestseller "[[Lindbergh (book)|Lindbergh]]", Lindbergh also influenced or was the model for characters in a variety of works of fiction. Shortly after he made his famous flight, the [[Stratemeyer Syndicate]] began publishing a series of books for juvenile readers called the "[[Ted Scott Flying Stories]]" (1927–1943), which were written by a number of authors all using the "[[pen name|nom de plume]]" "[[Franklin W. Dixon]]", in which the pilot hero was closely modeled after Lindbergh. Ted Scott duplicated the solo flight to Paris in the series' first volume, entitled "Over the Ocean to Paris" published in 1927. Another reference to Lindbergh appears in the [[Agatha Christie]] novel (1934) and movie "[[Murder on the Orient Express (1974 film)|Murder on the Orient Express]]" (1974) which begins with a fictionalized depiction of the [[Lindbergh kidnapping]].


title: Charles Lindbergh

text: There have been several [[alternate history]] novels depicting Lindbergh's alleged Nazi-sympathies and non-interventionist views during the first half of [[World War II]]. In [[Denis MacEoin|Daniel Easterman]]'s "K is for Killing" (1997), a fictional Lindbergh becomes president of a fascist [[United States]]. The [[Philip Roth]] novel "[[The Plot Against America]]" (2004) explores an alternate history where [[Franklin Delano Roosevelt]] is defeated in the [[1940 United States presidential election|1940]] presidential election by Lindbergh, who allies the United States with [[Nazi Germany]]. The novel draws heavily on Lindbergh's comments concerning Jews as a catalyst for its plot. The [[Robert Harris (novelist)|Robert Harris]] novel [[Fatherland (novel)|Fatherland]] (1992) explores an alternate history where the Nazis won the war, the United States still defeats [[Japan]], [[Adolf Hitler]] and President [[Joseph Kennedy]] negotiate peace terms, and Lindbergh is the [[US Ambassador to Germany]]. The [[Jo Walton]] novel "[[Farthing (novel)|Farthing]]" (2006) explores an alternate history where the [[United Kingdom]] made peace with Nazi Germany in 1941, Japan never attacked [[Pearl Harbor]], thus the United States never got involved with the war, and Lindbergh is president and is seeking closer economic ties with the [[Greater East Asian Co-Prosperity Sphere]].


title: Charles Lindbergh

text: Within days of the flight, dozens of [[Tin Pan Alley]] publishers rushed a variety of popular songs into print celebrating Lindbergh and the "Spirit of St. Louis" including "[[Lindbergh (The Eagle of the U.S.A.)]]" by Howard Johnson and [[Al Sherman]], and "[[Lucky Lindy!]]" by [[L. Wolfe Gilbert]] and Abel Baer. In the two-year period following Lindbergh's flight, the U.S. Copyright Office recorded three hundred applications for Lindbergh songs. [[Tony Randall]] revived "Lucky Lindy" in an album of [[Jazz Age]] and [[Great Depression|Depression]]-era songs that he recorded titled "Vo Vo De Oh Doe" (1967).


title: Charles Lindbergh

text: While the exact origin of the name of the [[Lindy Hop]] is disputed, it is widely acknowledged that Lindbergh's 1927 flight helped to popularize the dance: soon after "Lucky Lindy" "hopped" the Atlantic, it would become a trendy, fashionable dance, and songs referring to the "Lindbergh Hop" were soon released.


title: Charles Lindbergh

text: In 1929, [[Bertolt Brecht]] wrote a cantata called "Der Lindberghflug" ("Lindbergh's Flight") with music by [[Kurt Weill]] and [[Paul Hindemith]]. Because of Lindbergh's apparent Nazi sympathies, in 1950 Brecht removed all direct references to Lindbergh and renamed the piece "[[The Flight across the Ocean|Der Ozeanflug]]" ("The Flight Across the Ocean").


title: Charles Lindbergh

text: In the early 1940s [[Woody Guthrie]] wrote "Lindbergh" or "Mister Charlie Lindbergh" which criticizes Lindbergh's involvement with the [[America First Committee]] and his suspected sympathy for Nazi Germany.


title: Charles Lindbergh

text: Lindbergh and the "Spirit" have been honored by a variety of world postage stamps over the last eight decades, including three issued by the United States. Less than three weeks after the flight the [[United States Post Office Department|U.S. Post Office Department]] issued a 10-cent "Lindbergh Air Mail" stamp (Scott C-10) on , 1927, with engraved illustrations of both the "Spirit of St. Louis" and a map of its route from New York to Paris. This was also the first U.S. stamp to bear the name of a living person. A half-century later, a 13-cent commemorative stamp (Scott #1710) depicting the "Spirit" flying low over the Atlantic Ocean was issued on , 1977, the 50th anniversary of the flight from [[Roosevelt Field]]. On , 1998, a 32¢ stamp with the legend "Lindbergh Flies Atlantic" (Scott #3184m) depicting Lindbergh and the "Spirit" was issued as part of the [[Celebrate the Century]] stamp sheet series.


title: Charles Lindbergh

text: During World War II, Lindbergh was a frequent target of [[Dr. Seuss]]'s first political cartoons, published in the New York magazine "[[PM (newspaper)|PM]]", in which Geisel criticized Lindbergh's antisemitism and supposed Nazi sympathies.


title: Charles Lindbergh

text: Lindbergh's "[[Spirit of St. Louis]]" is featured in the opening sequence of "[[Star Trek: Enterprise#Opening sequence and theme song|Star Trek: Enterprise]]" (2001–2005), which aimed to follow the "evolution of exploration" by featuring significant designs throughout history, starting with the [[HMS Enterprise (1705)|HMS "Enterprise" frigate]] and [[Montgolfier brothers|"Montgolfière" baloon]], to the [[Wright Flyer III|"Wright Flyer" III]], "Spirit of St. Louis" and [[Bell X-1]], up through the [[Lunar Module Eagle|Lunar Module "Eagle"]], [[Space Shuttle Enterprise|Space Shuttle "Enterprise"]], [[Sojourner (rover)|Mars rover "Sojourner"]], and [[International Space Station]].


title: Gwendoline Christie

text: Gwendoline Tracey Philippa Christie (born 28 October 1978) is an English actress. She is best known for portraying Brienne of Tarth in the HBO fantasy-drama series "Game of Thrones" (2012–2019), and the First Order stormtrooper Captain Phasma in the films "" (2015) and "" (2017). For the former, she received a nomination for the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Drama Series in 2019. Christie has since appeared in the Netflix fantasy series "The Sandman" and "Wednesday" (both 2022).


title: Gwendoline Christie

text: Gwendoline Tracey Philippa Christie was born in Worthing, West Sussex. She has two older half-brothers. Her mother was a housewife, and her father worked in sales and marketing. She grew up in a hamlet near the South Downs. As a child she trained as a gymnast but took up acting after a spinal injury. Around 2002, she worked in a boutique in Brighton.


title: Gwendoline Christie

text: She graduated from Drama Centre London in 2005. She was told she "would probably never work because [she] didn't look the same as most actors", due to her unconventionally tall physique, and was even told "well, good luck with that" by her agent after stating she would like to work on screen. She was inspired to continue pursuing this goal by Tilda Swinton's performance in "Orlando". In a 2017 interview, she recalled thinking "Well, she is in a film, she is otherworldly, and is definitely outside the room. ... I realised that maybe there is a place for me too."


title: Gwendoline Christie

text: In 2002, Christie's height attracted the attention of photographer Polly Borland, who made Christie the subject of a noted series of photographs, entitled "Bunny", between 2002 and 2008. According to Christie, she felt then that the photographs—in which she appears mostly nude—could help her come to terms with her body, and challenge notions of femininity. However, she later said that she was shocked in retrospect that she had agreed to them.


title: Gwendoline Christie

text: Christie's mentor since drama school has been actor and author Simon Callow. Her theatrical career includes a performance as the Queen in Shakespeare's "Cymbeline" opposite Tom Hiddleston, portraying Mag Wildwood in "Breakfast at Tiffany's", and "standing out" as Lucifer in Marlowe's "Doctor Faustus" (2010).


title: Gwendoline Christie

text: On screen, Christie debuted with a 2007 short film titled "The Time Surgeon", written and directed by Nathaniel Mellors. In the following years, she continued to appear in his works, such as "Seven Ages of Britain Teaser", a short TV film acting as an introduction to the final episode of the documentary series "Seven Ages of Britain", and the first four films of his "Ourhouse" series of experimental short films, released between 2010 and 2011 as parts of art exhibitions or in selected public screenings. She was also involved in "Ourhouse" behind the scenes, acting as associate producer and being credited for casting, costumes, props, and make-up. Meanwhile, she made her feature film debut with a minor role in the Terry Gilliam film "The Imaginarium of Doctor Parnassus" in 2009. In 2009 she joined Patrick Wolf in the music video for "Damaris".


title: Gwendoline Christie

text: In July 2011, Christie was cast as the warrior Brienne of Tarth in the second season of HBO's fantasy TV series "Game of Thrones". Her character – an unusually tall, muscular, and plain-looking woman – is a favourite among many readers of the novels, and Christie had been proposed for the role by fans long before auditions took place. Christie said that she could draw on her own experiences of having been bullied for her height and androgynous looks to play the part of Brienne, a role that she was passionate to play after reading the "A Song of Ice and Fire" novels which the show adapts. To prepare even for the auditions, she started wearing unisex clothing to help her get into her character's more masculine mindset, and took up an intensive training regime, gaining over a stone (6.4 kg, 14 lb) of muscle mass. According to series co-writer, producer, and author of the novels, George R. R. Martin, she obtained the role practically without debate after an arresting audition at which she appeared already made up and costumed as Brienne. After being cast in the role, she prepared for it by working out extensively, taking horsemanship, sword-fighting, and stagefighting lessons.


title: Gwendoline Christie

text: Her debut was in the second season's third episode, "What Is Dead May Never Die", which aired on 15 April 2012. Her debut performance was well received by critics; Nina Shen Rastogi praised her "eloquent and economical physical performance", noting that her walk, stance, and mien effectively conveyed Brienne's single-minded devotion to her self-given quest to become a knight. For her performance as Brienne in the show's third season, Christie was nominated for the Saturn Award for Best Supporting Actress on Television in 2014. As a part of the cast, she was also nominated for a total of four Screen Actors Guild Awards for Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Drama Series (she was not a part of the nominated cast in certain years depending on her number of appearances each season).


title: Gwendoline Christie

text: In addition to her role in "Game of Thrones", Christie appeared in the British science fantasy series "Wizards vs Aliens" by "Doctor Who" writers Russell T Davies and Phil Ford from 2012 to 2013, in the main role of Lexi, the 17-year-old Princess of the Nekross, the alien species invading earth. For the role, she wore heavy make-up, although she also appeared with her usual physique as Lucy, the human form of Lexi. She also had a minor role in another Terry Gilliam movie, "The Zero Theorem", released in 2013.


title: Gwendoline Christie

text: In 2015, Christie played Commander Lyme in the fourth installment in "The Hunger Games" film series, "". Actress Lily Rabe had signed on for the part previously, but had to back out due to scheduling conflicts. The same year, she joined the cast of "Swallows and Amazons" as Mrs. Blackett, but later dropped out.


title: Gwendoline Christie

text: Also in 2015, Christie co-starred in "", as Captain Phasma, one of the film's supporting antagonists. Her performance, and the character's design, were both praised; however, the character received criticism for her minimal role in the film, particularly after she was prominently featured in promotional material.


title: Gwendoline Christie

text: In 2017, Christie had a main role in "China Girl", the second season of "Top of the Lake", as Miranda Hilmarson, a Constable in the Sydney Police Force, and the new partner of the show's main character played by Elisabeth Moss; the character was written especially for Christie by series co-creator Jane Campion, after Christie asked her to be a part of the series. The same year, she reprised her role of Captain Phasma in "", a sequel to "The Force Awakens". She would later reprise the role for three episodes of the animated series "Star Wars Resistance" in 2018.


title: Gwendoline Christie

text: In 2018, she appeared as the bounty hunter Lady Jane in "The Darkest Minds", an adaptation of the book trilogy "The Darkest Minds" by Alexandra Bracken, as Gwen in the Peter Strickland film "In Fabric", and as the Russian caretaker Anna in the Robert Zemeckis film "Welcome to Marwen".


title: Gwendoline Christie

text: "Game of Thrones" concluded in 2019 with its eighth season; for her performance in the final season, Christie received her first Primetime Emmy Award nomination for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Drama Series; she also received a second Saturn Award for Best Supporting Actress on Television nomination for her performance in the final two seasons.


title: Gwendoline Christie

text: In November 2022, Christie played Principal Larissa Weems in the Netflix comedy horror series "Wednesday".


title: Gwendoline Christie

text: She also appeared in the music video for Goldfrapp's "Strict Machine" in 2003 as well as the music video for "Damaris" by Patrick Wolf in 2009.


title: Maize

text: Maize ( ; "Zea mays" subsp. "mays", from after ), also known as corn (North American and Australian English), is a cereal grain first domesticated by indigenous peoples in southern Mexico about 10,000 years ago. The leafy stalk of the plant produces pollen inflorescences (or "tassels") and separate ovuliferous inflorescences called ears that when fertilized yield kernels or seeds, which are fruits. The term "maize" is preferred in formal, scientific, and international usage as a common name because it refers specifically to this one grain, unlike "corn", which has a complex variety of meanings that vary by context and geographic region.


title: Maize

text: Maize has become a staple food in many parts of the world, with the total production of maize surpassing that of wheat or rice. In addition to being consumed directly by humans (often in the form of masa), maize is also used for corn ethanol, animal feed and other , such as corn starch and corn syrup. The six major types of maize are dent corn, flint corn, pod corn, popcorn, flour corn, and sweet corn. Sugar-rich varieties called sweet corn are usually grown for human consumption as kernels, while field corn varieties are used for animal feed, various corn-based human food uses (including grinding into cornmeal or masa, pressing into corn oil, fermentation and distillation into alcoholic beverages like bourbon whiskey), and as feedstocks for the chemical industry. Maize is also used in making ethanol and other biofuels.