title: Raiders of the Lost Ark

text: In 2003, the film was released on DVD as a bundle with its then-two sequels. Like the VHS, it was a success, selling over one million units and becoming the fastest-selling DVD box set. This set introduced additional materials including "Making the Films", a two-hour documentary about the making of the films including deleted scenes, and "Behind the Scenes", a series of archival featurettes. The film and its sequels were released as a collection on Blu-ray disc in 2012, as "Indiana Jones: The Complete Adventures". Spielberg worked on the films' restoration for the higher-quality format. This release included the additional content of previous releases. For its 40th anniversary in 2021, the film was released in a remastered 4K resolution Ultra HD Blu-ray based on the original film negative, as part of a boxset including the series' other films.


title: Raiders of the Lost Ark

text: "Raiders of the Lost Ark" has been represented across a wide variety of merchandise, including comic books, video games, novels, Lego sets, action figures and vehicles, playsets, candles, and board games.


title: Raiders of the Lost Ark

text: It has received several game adaptations. "Raiders of the Lost Ark" was released in 1982 for the Atari 2600 console. A pinball game, "", was released in 1993, and a platform game, "Indiana Jones' Greatest Adventures", was released for the Super Nintendo Entertainment System the following year. "Indiana Jones and the Infernal Machine" (1999) includes a bonus level that returns players to the Peruvian temple. The Lego-themed adventure game "" (2008) and its 2009 sequel "" represent the film and its sequels. A 1984 boardgame, "The Adventures of Indiana Jones role playing game", was poorly received, and when the manufacturer lost the license later that decade, all remaining copies had to be burned. All that remained from the destruction were encased in plastic and turned into the Diana Jones Award—"...diana Jones" being the only legible part of the burnt remains.


title: Raiders of the Lost Ark

text: A novelization of the film, written by Campbell Black, was released in 1981. The book was a worldwide sales success and included details not present in the film. Among them is Marion was aged 15 when she and Jones began their relationship, the staff of Ra headpiece has explicit instructions not to look at the opened Ark, and Brody finds Jones at home after having just entertained one of his students. Black, who was paid $35,000 plus royalties, sued Lucasfilm in 2005 for not paying him his percentage of the book sales profits. Marvel Comics produced a comic book adaptation of the film shortly after its release.


title: Raiders of the Lost Ark

text: The Indiana Jones Epic Stunt Spectacular! is a live amusement show at Walt Disney World Resort, Florida, that has been in operation since 1989. It features several live stunts based on set pieces from the film. "Raiders of the Lost Ark" was also one of several films that made up the Great Movie Ride (1989–2017).


title: Raiders of the Lost Ark

text: "Raiders" can be interpreted as a Jewish fantasy about punishing the Nazis for the Holocaust. Spielberg is Jewish, and the Ark is a Jewish artifact described as holding the Ten Commandments passed down to the Jewish people by God. In biblical descriptions, the Ark is a gold-plated wooden box that must be carried with poles because it is too holy to be touched. Although the Nazi regime persecuted the Jewish people, in the film, they needed to use a Jewish artifact to subjugate the world; however, the artifact was too pure and holy for them to touch and actively rejected them by destroying their symbol emblazoned on the Ark's transportation crate while leaving the crate itself unharmed. Eventually, it also destroys the Nazi forces that open it. The Nazis are stopped by the literal intervention of Godly power that leaves the perceived protagonists unharmed.


title: Raiders of the Lost Ark

text: In another scene, Jones falls underneath a moving truck when its hood-ornament, a Mercedes logo, snaps, mocking Mercedes' involvement in aiding the Nazis. Elizabeth Hirschman identified elements of the metaphysical, believing the standard heroic quest was offset by the religious importance of the Ark, an item of Judeo-Christian belief. The image of God is one that is inherently on the side of the good, and the destruction of the Nazi villains draws parallels to Yahweh visiting plagues on Egypt for enslaving the Israelites.


title: Raiders of the Lost Ark

text: "Raiders of the Lost Ark" is a pastiche of cinematic history, inspired by and referencing many films. Spielberg stated explicitly the film is about movies and designed as a tribute to filmmaking. Alongside directly referenced inspirations like early 20th-century serials, the film contains references to "Citizen Kane" (1941), the film noir "Kiss Me Deadly" (1955), the samurai film "Yojimbo" (1961), and the epic "Lawrence of Arabia" (1962), among others. "Citizen Kane" is referenced directly in "Raiders"s last scene where the Ark is secured in a vast warehouse, a fate similar to that of the beloved childhood sled belonging to "Citizen Kane"s principal character. "Raiders" also references several of Lucas' own films: the translation of the German U-boat announcement is "1138", a reference to science fiction film "THX 1138" (1971); and numerous nods to "Star Wars" including the characters of R2-D2 and C-3PO appearing as hieroglyphics inside the Well of Souls. Richard Crinkley recounted audience members of "King David" (1985) associated its use of the Ark explicitly with "Raiders" instead of its biblical origins. He deemed this an example of "cinemate visual literacy", an increasing number of people educated by visual media rather than text.


title: Raiders of the Lost Ark

text: A common theme shared by "Raiders" and another 1981 film, "Superman II", is American security is at risk. These films are emblematic of their time and the contemporary fears of American citizens. The Nazi characters are based on a former threat to America, and like "Superman II", "Raiders" requires the intervention of a superhuman character to prevent destruction at the hands of enemy forces—a character audiences can admire, but never possibly emulate. Janet Maslin argues the fantasy of these films and the larger-than-life characters are designed to satisfy audiences who do not want to reflect on the world around them. Jones is striving to recover the Ark both to stop the Nazis but also for personal glory, but the film never dwells on the regular people around the world who would be affected by an invincible Nazi army.


title: Raiders of the Lost Ark

text: "Raiders" offers a counter to the American national embarrassments of its defeat in the Vietnam War (1955–1975), the political scandal of Watergate (1972), a recession, and the growing influence of foreign nations. The period setting of the film also presents audiences with a time tinged in romantic nostalgia and filled with the possibility for adventure. Robin Wood wrote that "Raiders", "Superman", and "Star Wars" provide a familiar, comforting content using the nostalgic memories of the older serial films of which they are derivative, presenting an idealized vision of older traditional values. Wood opined the purpose of this was to subdue contemporary radical social movements eager for change. Jennifer Barker suggested "Raiders" offers audiences what they want, and does not challenge their values or beliefs as anything but correct.


title: Raiders of the Lost Ark

text: The macho male action hero archetype of the era, conveyed by Jones, can also be seen as reinforcing traditional masculinity in the face of growing feminism. Describing the typical interpretation of this archetype, Latham Hunter said films such as "Raiders", "Lethal Weapon" (1987), and "Die Hard" (1988) evolve the everyman character into someone who can overcome impossible odds and promote American might. Jones is an American hero who steps in reluctantly to save the world by overcoming almost exclusively foreign enemies. Barker argued Jones is an individualist placed in opposition to a fascist or totalitarian regime, making "Raiders" a "conservative serial fantasy" film. Hunter believed this focus on masculinity was short-sighted, and these films succeeded because they offered escapism from reality, and presented an outclassed hero who reflected the audiences' own feelings of powerlessness.


title: Raiders of the Lost Ark

text: Jones has been criticized as a poor portrayal of an archaeologist and that his actions amount to theft. Archaeologist Winifred Creamer described Jones as the "worst thing to happen to archaeology" as he "walks a fine line between what's an archaeologist and what's a professional looter." Kevin McGeough wrote that the archetypal film archaeologist in older films was never the hero, but often a subject to be saved or conquered by the actual hero. Jones is imbued with the self-reliance and physical competence of the traditional hero, but with an intelligence that is recognized and celebrated, setting him apart from older heroes. Even so, Jones is hunting the Ark, in part, for personal glory attached to its recovery. When given the opportunity to destroy it to prevent its misuse, Belloq calls his bluff and Jones backs down. Belloq suggests he is a skewed reflection of Jones, and only a small change would turn Jones into Belloq.


title: Raiders of the Lost Ark

text: "Raiders of the Lost Ark" has had a lasting impact on popular culture. It is considered a touchstone of modern cinema, creating a film framework still emulated by other films. Spielberg has said he considers it the most perfect film of the series because he never wanted to modify it or change anything about it.


title: Raiders of the Lost Ark

text: Ford's performance led to his casting in the 1982 science fiction cult classic film "Blade Runner". Kasdan became one of the most in-demand writers in Hollywood, and helped write Lucas' "Star Wars" sequel, "The Empire Strikes Back" (1980). Despite opening new opportunities for Allen, she expressed disappointment with the film because her character was motivated more by her relationship with Jones and financial gain than with her father and his obsession with the Ark. She unsuccessfully lobbied for rewrites to address this and explore her character further. Even so, Allen affirmed that many women and girls had appreciated and been inspired by her character. Forty years after the film's release, Allen affirmed she still received positive feedback from young women. Shortly after the film's release, Stanley Rader and Robert Kuhn filed a lawsuit against the filmmakers for $210million alleging the film was based on "Ark", a screenplay and unpublished novel by Kuhn. The outcome of this lawsuit is unknown.


title: Raiders of the Lost Ark

text: The film led to an increase in students studying archaeology, and many modern archaeologists have cited the film as an inspiration. Rhys-Davies said he had met over 150 lecturers, professors, and archaeologists who told him their interest in the field began with the film. The original Indiana Jones costume hat and jacket were stored indiscriminately after filming, at Lucas' Skywalker Ranch, until 2012. Nadoolman Landis recovered the items to be exhibited as part of a Hollywood costume display at the Victoria and Albert Museum in London.


title: Raiders of the Lost Ark

text: In 1999, the United States Library of Congress selected the film to be preserved in the National Film Registry for being culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant. Assessing the film's legacy in 1997, Bernard Weinraub, opined "the decline in the traditional family G-rated film, for 'general' audiences, probably began..." with "Raiders of the Lost Ark". He continued, "whether by accident or design... the filmmakers made a comic nonstop action film intended mostly for adults but also for children". Lucas' frequent collaborator Gary Kurtz said that "Raiders of the Lost Ark" marked the turning point where Lucas became convinced that audiences cared more about "the roller-coaster ride" than the story.


title: Raiders of the Lost Ark

text: Several filmmakers have spoken of their appreciation for "Raiders of the Lost Ark" or cited it as an inspiration in their own careers, including Chris Carter, Simon Kinberg, Jon Turteltaub, Dan Brown, and Joe Johnston. The experience had an explicit influence on Johnston's directorial effort "" (2011), including character designs. Director Steven Soderbergh released a black-and-white edit of the film in 2014, removing all the original sounds, intending for viewers to focus on Spielberg's staging and editing. During the 2020 COVID-19 pandemic, it was among the action films director James Gunn recommended people watch, and one of the 35 films recommended by "The Independent".


title: Raiders of the Lost Ark

text: The film has inspired or been referenced in other media including film, television shows, and video games. Between 1982 and 1989, in Ocean Springs, Mississippi, children Chris Strompolos, Eric Zala, and Jayson Lamb made an amateur remake of the film, "". Spielberg congratulated the trio on their accomplishment.


title: Raiders of the Lost Ark

text: "Raiders of the Lost Ark" is considered one of the greatest films ever made. As part of his "The Great Movies" series, Ebert said while the special effects had not aged well, they were perfect for this type of film. He concluded it was a "whiz-bang slamarama" made with "heedless joy". The British Film Institute called it one of the 10 greatest action films of all time, saying "for all its barnstorming staging and boy's-own-adventure larks, it's refreshing Indy's greatest foil comes in three dimensions... the hard-drinking, wise-cracking, upstagingly brilliant Karen Allen". A 2014 poll of 2,120 entertainment-industry members by "The Hollywood Reporter" ranked it the thirteenth best film ever made. It is also listed in the film reference book "1001 Movies You Must See Before You Die".


title: Raiders of the Lost Ark

text: On Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds a approval rating from the aggregated reviews of critics, with an average rating of . The consensus reads, "Featuring bravura set pieces, sly humor, and white-knuckle action, "Raiders of the Lost Ark" is one of the most consummately entertaining adventure pictures of all time." The film has a score of 85 out of 100 on Metacritic based on 15 critics, indicating "universal acclaim". In 2005, the Writers Guild of America's (WGA) listed the film's screenplay as the forty-second greatest screenplay of the preceding 75 years on their 101 Greatest Screenplays list. "Empire" listed the film at number two on its 2008 list of the 500 Greatest Movies of All Time, behind the 1972 crime film "The Godfather". They said, "no adventure movie is quite so efficiently entertaining". In 1997, the American Film Institute (AFI) ranked "Raiders" number60 on its 100 Years...100 Movies list recognizing the best American films. They reassessed to number66 in the 2007 anniversary edition. On the AFI's list of the 100 Best Thrills, the film was ranked number10, and the 2003 list of the 100 Best Heroes & Villains ranked the Indiana Jones character as the number two hero, behind Atticus Finch from "To Kill a Mockingbird" (1962).


title: Raiders of the Lost Ark

text: Several publications have ranked it as one of the greatest films of all time, including number two by "Empire", number five by "Time Out", and number19 by MSN. It has also appeared on lists of the best action films, including number two by "IGN", number nine by "Time Out" (down from number two in an earlier ranking) and number11 by "The Guardian" and "The Telegraph". "IGN" also named it the best action film of the 1980s. Rotten Tomatoes and "Esquire" have labeled it one of the greatest adventure films.


title: Raiders of the Lost Ark

text: Channel 4 viewers in the United Kingdom ranked "Raiders" as the 20th best family film of all time in 2005. In the 2010s, "Empire" magazine readers named it the seventh-best film of all time, and it was ranked the sixteenth best film of all time, based on IMDb and Rotten Tomatoes user votes and critical ratings. Readers of the "Los Angeles Times" voted it the number one summer film, ahead of competition including "Jaws" and "Alien" (1979).


title: Raiders of the Lost Ark

text: A 2013 episode of the sitcom "The Big Bang Theory" ("The Raiders Minimization") argues that Jones accomplishes nothing in "Raiders", as the Nazis would have eventually found the Ark, opened it, and died regardless of Jones' actions. An essay by "Esquire"s Matt Pomroy agreed, with the caveat that Marion would have almost certainly died at Toht's hands, and the Ark would have been flown successfully to Germany on the Flying Wing and opened for Hitler, likely killing him. However, Jones' involvement ensures the Americans secure the Ark, preventing the Germans from using it.


title: Raiders of the Lost Ark

text: The success of "Raiders of the Lost Ark" has spawned three sequel films thus far. "Indiana Jones and the Temple of Doom" was in development by 1982, while the original was still in theaters. A narrative prequel to "Raiders", "Temple of Doom" follows Jones's quest to recover sacred stones and liberate the slaves of a Thuggee cult leader. The film became one of the highest-grossing films of 1984 and broke box office records, but fared less well with critics who accused it of racism, sexism, and containing content inappropriate for child audiences.


title: Raiders of the Lost Ark

text: A narrative sequel to "Raiders", "Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade", was released in 1989. It serves as the final film of the original trilogy and follows Jones and his father, portrayed by Sean Connery, on a quest to recover the Holy Grail. Like its predecessor, "The Last Crusade" broke box office records, becoming one of the year's highest-grossing films. It was also well received by critics. Spielberg has said the film was, in part, an "apology" for the reception to "Temple of Doom". Following the conclusion of the film series, Lucas developed a television series, "The Young Indiana Jones Chronicles" (1992–1993), featuring Ford and other actors as Jones at different ages.


title: Raiders of the Lost Ark

text: A fourth film was released in 2008, titled "Indiana Jones and the Kingdom of the Crystal Skull". It features the return of Allen as Marion Ravenwood and introduces Shia LaBeouf as her and Jones' son. The setting moved from the 1930s to the 1950s, pitting Jones against Russians to recover a crystal skull. The film was a financial success but polarized critics and fans. As with "Temple of Doom", Lucas and Spielberg have defended the film and apologized for its reception. A fifth film, "Indiana Jones and the Dial of Destiny", is scheduled for release in July 2023.


title: Raiders of the Lost Ark

text: Novels, comic books, and video games have also been released detailing the further adventures of Indiana Jones and his supporting cast from the films. Often set before and after the events of the films, these globe-spanning tales depict Jones' first marriage, and his adventures to discover the Spear of Destiny, Merlin, an Infernal Machine in the Tower of Babel, the Covenant of Buddha, the staff of Moses, the Philosopher's Stone, dinosaurs, a Unicorn horn, the Oracle of Delphi, the secrets of the Sphinx, Noah's Ark, and the fate of Atlantis. Jones is sometimes aided by Sallah in his conflicts against Belloq and Lao Che (from "Temple of Doom"), among others.


title: Iliad

text: The Iliad (; , ; "a poem about Ilium") is one of two major ancient Greek epic poems attributed to Homer. It is one of the oldest extant works of literature still widely read by modern audiences. As with the "Odyssey", the poem is divided into 24 books and contains 15,693 lines in its most widely accepted version, and was written in dactylic hexameter. Set towards the end of the Trojan War, a ten-year siege of the city of Troy by a coalition of Mycenaean Greek states, the poem depicts significant events in the siege's final weeks. In particular, it depicts a fierce quarrel between King Agamemnon and a celebrated warrior, Achilles. It is a central part of the Epic Cycle. The "Iliad" is often regarded as the first substantial piece of European literature.


title: Iliad

text: The "Iliad", and the "Odyssey", were likely written down in Homeric Greek, a literary amalgam of Ionic Greek and other dialects, probably around the late 8th or early 7th century BC. Homer's authorship was infrequently questioned in antiquity, but contemporary scholarship predominantly assumes that the "Iliad" and the "Odyssey" were composed independently and that the stories formed as part of a long oral tradition. Given widespread illiteracy, audiences were more likely to have heard the poem than read it; it was performed by professional reciters of Homer known as rhapsodes.


title: Iliad

text: Critical themes in the poem include "kleos" (glory), pride, fate and wrath. The poem is frequently described as a masculine or heroic epic, especially compared with the "Odyssey". It contains detailed descriptions of ancient war instruments and battle tactics, and fewer female characters. The Olympian gods also play a major role in the poem, aiding their favoured warriors on the battlefield and intervening in personal disputes. Their characterisation in the poem humanised them for Ancient Greek audiences, giving a concrete sense of their cultural and religious tradition. In terms of formal style, the poem's repetitions, use of similes and epithets, are often explored by scholars.


title: Iliad

text: () The story begins with an invocation to the Muse. The events begin "in medias res" towards the end of the Trojan War, fought between the Trojans and the besieging Achaeans. The Achaean forces consist of armies from many different Greek kingdoms, led by their respective kings or princes. Agamemnon, king of Mycenae, acts as commander for these united armies.


title: Iliad

text: Chryses, a Trojan priest of Apollo, offers the Achaeans wealth for the return of his daughter Chryseis, held captive by Agamemnon. Although most of the Achaean kings are in favor of the offer, Agamemnon refuses. prays for Apollo's help, and Apollo sends a plague to afflict the Achaean army. After nine days of plague, Achilles, the leader of the Myrmidon forces and "aristos achaion" ("best of the Greeks"), calls an assembly to deal with the problem. Under pressure, Agamemnon agrees to return Chryseis to her father, but decides to take Achilles' captive, Briseis, as compensation. Because war prizes were correlated with honor, Agamemnon's decision dishonors Achilles in front of the assembled Achaean forces. Achilles furiously declares that he and his men will no longer fight for Agamemnon. Odysseus returns Chryseis to her father, causing Apollo to end the plague.


title: Iliad

text: In the meantime, Agamemnon's messengers take Briseis away. Achilles becomes very upset and prays to his mother, Thetis, a minor goddess and sea nymph. Achilles asks his mother to ask Zeus to allow the Achaeans to be beaten back by the Trojans, until their ships are at risk of burning. Only then will Agamemnon realize how much the Achaeans need Achilles, and restore his honor. Thetis does so, and Zeus agrees.() Zeus then sends a dream to Agamemnon, urging him to attack Troy. Agamemnon heeds the dream, but first decides to test the Achaean army's morale by telling them to go home. But nine years into the war, the soldiers' morale has worn thin. The plan backfires, and only the intervention of Odysseus, inspired by Athena, stops a rout. Odysseus confronts and beats Thersites, a common soldier who voices discontent about fighting Agamemnon's war.


title: Iliad

text: The Achaeans deploy in companies upon the Trojan plain. When news of the Achaean deployment reaches King Priam, the Trojans respond in a sortie upon the plain. () The armies approach each other, but before they meet, Paris offers to end the war by fighting a duel with Menelaus, urged by Hector, his brother and hero of Troy. Here, the initial cause of the entire war is explained: Helen, wife of Menelaus, and the most beautiful woman in the world. Paris, either through seduction or by force, stole Helen away from Menelaus' home in Sparta. Menelaus and Paris agree to duel; Helen will marry the victor. However, when Paris is beaten, Aphrodite rescues him and leads him to bed with Helen before Menelaus can kill him.


title: Iliad

text: () The gods deliberate over whether the war should end here, but Hera convinces Zeus to wait for the utter destruction of Troy. Athena prompts the Trojan archer Pandaros to shoot Menelaus. Menelaus is wounded, and the truce is broken. Fighting breaks out, and many minor Trojans are killed.


title: Iliad

text: () In the fighting, Diomedes kills many Trojans, including Pandaros, and defeats Aeneas. Aphrodite rescues him before he can be killed, but Diomedes attacks her and wounds the goddess's wrist. Apollo faces Diomedes and warns him against warring with gods, which Diomedes ignores. Apollo sends Ares to defeat Diomedes. Many heroes and commanders join in, including Hector, and the gods supporting each side try to influence the battle. Emboldened by Athena, Diomedes wounds Ares and puts him out of action.


title: Iliad

text: () Hector rallies the Trojans and prevents a rout. Diomedes and the Trojan Glaukos find common ground after a duel and exchange unequal gifts, while Glaukos tells Diomedes the story of Bellerophon. Hector enters the city, urges prayers and sacrifices, incites Paris to battle, and bids his wife Andromache and son Astyanax farewell on the city walls. He then rejoins the battle. () Hector duels with Ajax, but nightfall interrupts the fight, and both sides retire. The Trojans quarrel about returning Helen. Paris offers to return the treasure he took and give further wealth as compensation, but not Helen, and the offer is refused. Both sides agree to a day's truce to burn the dead. The Achaeans also build a wall and trench to protect their camp and ships.


title: Iliad

text: () The next morning, Zeus prohibits the gods from interfering, and fighting begins anew. The Trojans prevail and force the Achaeans back to their wall. Hera and Athena are forbidden to help. Night falls before the Trojans can assail the Achaean wall. They camp in the field to attack at first light, and their watchfires light the plain like stars.


title: Iliad

text: () Meanwhile, the Achaeans are desperate. Agamemnon admits his error, and sends an embassy composed of Odysseus, Ajax, Phoenix, and two heralds to offer Briseis and extensive gifts to Achilles, if only he will return to the fighting. Achilles and his companion Patroclus receive the embassy well. However, considering the slight to his honor too great, Achilles angrily refuses Agamemnon's offer and declares that he would only return to battle if the Trojans reached his ships and threatened them with fire. The embassy returns empty-handed.


title: Iliad

text: () Later that night, Odysseus and Diomedes venture out to the Trojan lines, kill the Trojan Dolon, and wreak havoc in the camps of some Thracian allies of Troy's.() In the morning, the fighting is fierce, and Agamemnon, Diomedes, and Odysseus are all wounded. Achilles sends Patroclus from his camp to inquire about the Achaean casualties, and while there, Patroclus is moved to pity by a speech of Nestor's. Nestor asks Patroclus to beg Achilles to rejoin the fighting, or if he will not, to lead the army wearing Achilles' armor.


title: Iliad

text: () The Trojans attack the Achaean wall on foot. Hector leads the terrible fighting, despite an omen that their charge will fail. The Achaeans are overwhelmed and routed, the wall's gate is broken, and Hector charges in. The Achaeans fall back to their ships.


title: Iliad

text: () Poseidon pities the Achaeans, and decides to disobey Zeus and help them. He rallies the Achaean's spirits, and they begin to push the Trojans back. Poseidon's nephew Amphimachus is killed in the battle; Poseidon imbues Idomeneus with godly power. Many fall on both sides. The Trojan seer Polydamas urges Hector to fall back because of a bad omen, but is ignored.


title: Iliad

text: () Hera seduces Zeus and lulls him to sleep, allowing Poseidon to help the Greeks. The Trojans are driven back onto the plain. Ajax wounds Hector, who is then carried back to Troy. () Zeus awakes and is enraged by Poseidon's intervention. However, he reassures Hera that Troy is still fated to fall once Hector kills Patroclus. Poseidon is recalled from the battlefield, and Zeus sends Apollo to aid the Trojans. The Trojans once again breach the wall, and the battle reaches the ships.


title: Iliad

text: () Patroclus cannot stand to watch any longer, and goes to Achilles, weeping. He briefly admonishes him for his stubbornness, then asks Achilles to allow him to fight in his place, wearing his armor so that he will be mistaken for Achilles. Achilles relents and lends Patroclus his armor, but sends him off with a stern admonition to come back to him, and not to pursue the Trojans. Achilles says that after all has been made right, he and Patroclus will take Troy together.


title: Iliad

text: Patroclus leads the Myrmidons into battle and arrives as the Trojans set fire to the first ships. The Trojans are routed by the sudden onslaught, and Patroclus begins his assault by killing Zeus's son Sarpedon, a leading ally of the Trojans. Patroclus, ignoring Achilles' command, pursues and reaches the gates of Troy, where Apollo himself stops him. Patroclus is set upon by Apollo and Euphorbos, and is finally killed by Hector.


title: Iliad

text: () Hector takes Achilles' armor from the fallen Patroclus. The Achaeans fight to retrieve Patroclus' body from the Trojans, who attempt to carry it back to Troy at Hector's command. Antilochus is sent to tell Achilles the news, and ask him to help retrieve the body.


title: Iliad

text: () When Achilles hears of Patroclus' death, he screams so loudly in his grief that his mother, Thetis, hears him from the bottom of the ocean. Thetis grieves, too, knowing that Achilles is fated to die young if he kills Hector. Though he knows it will seal his own fate, Achilles vows to kill Hector in order to avenge Patroclus.


title: Iliad

text: Achilles is urged to help retrieve Patroclus' body, but has no armor to wear. Bathed in a brilliant radiance by Athena, Achilles stands next to the Achaean wall and roars in rage. The Trojans are terrified by his appearance, and the Achaeans manage to bear Patroclus' body away. Polydamas urges Hector again to withdraw into the city; again Hector refuses, and the Trojans camp on the plain at nightfall.


title: Iliad

text: Achilles mourns Patroclus, brokenhearted. Meanwhile, at Thetis' request, Hephaestus fashions a new set of armor for Achilles, including a magnificently wrought shield.


title: Iliad

text: () In the morning, Thetis brings Achilles his new set of armor, only to find him weeping over Patroclus' body. Achilles arms for battle and rallies the Achaean warriors. Agamemnon gives Achilles all the promised gifts, including Briseis, but Achilles is indifferent to them. The Achaeans take their meal; Achilles refuses to eat. His horse, Xanthos, prophesies Achilles' death; Achilles is indifferent. Achilles goes into battle, Automedon drives his chariot.


title: Iliad

text: () Zeus lifts the ban on the gods' interference, and the gods freely help both sides. Achilles, burning with rage and grief, slays many. () Achilles cuts off half the Trojans' number in the river and slaughters them, clogging the river with bodies. The river god, Scamander, confronts Achilles and commands him to stop killing Trojans, but Achilles refuses. They fight, until Scamander is beaten back by Hephaestus' firestorm. The gods fight amongst themselves. The great gates of the city are opened to receive the fleeing Trojans, and Apollo leads Achilles away from the city by pretending to be a Trojan. () When Apollo reveals himself to Achilles, the Trojans have retreated into the city, all except for Hector.


title: Iliad

text: Despite the counsel of Polydamas and the pleas of his parents, Priam and Hecuba, Hector resolves to face Achilles. When Achilles approaches, however, Hector's will fails him. He flees, and is chased by Achilles around the city. Finally, Athena tricks him into stopping, and he turns to face his opponent. After a brief duel, Achilles stabs Hector through the neck. Before dying, Hector reminds Achilles that he, too, is fated to die. Achilles strips Hector of his own armor, gloating over his death. Achilles then dishonors Hector's body by lashing it to the back of his chariot and dragging it around the city. The Trojans grieve.


title: Iliad

text: () The ghost of Patroclus comes to Achilles in a dream, urging him to carry out the burial rites so that Patroclus' spirit can move on to the underworld. Patroclus asks Achilles to arrange for their bones to be entombed together in a single urn; Achilles agrees. Patroclus' body is burned. The Achaeans hold a day of funeral games, and Achilles gives out the prizes.


title: Iliad

text: () Achilles is lost in his grief, and spends his days mourning Patroclus and dragging Hector's body behind his chariot. Dismayed by Achilles' continued abuse of Hector's body, Zeus decides that it must be returned to Priam. Led by Hermes, Priam takes a wagon filled with gifts out of Troy, across the plains, and into the Achaean camp unnoticed. He clasps Achilles by the knees and begs for his son's body. Achilles is moved to tears, and finally relents in his anger. The two lament their losses in the war. Achilles agrees to give Hector's body back, and to give the Trojans twelve days to properly mourn and bury Hector. Achilles apologizes to Patroclus, fearing he has dishonored him by returning Hector's body. After a meal, Priam carries Hector's body back into Troy. Hector is buried, and the city mourns.


title: Iliad

text: The religion had no founder, and was not the creation of an inspired teacher, which were popular origins of existing religions in the world. The individuals were free to believe what they wanted, as the Greek religion was created out of a consensus of the people. These beliefs coincide to the thoughts about the gods in polytheistic Greek religion. Adkins and Pollard (2020/1998), agree with this by saying, "the early Greeks personalized every aspect of their world, natural and cultural, and their experiences in it. The earth, the sea, the mountains, the rivers, custom-law (themis), and one's share in society and its goods were all seen in personal as well as naturalistic terms."


title: Iliad

text: As a result of this thinking, each god or goddess in Polytheistic Greek religion is attributed to an aspect of the human world. For example, Poseidon is the god of the sea, Aphrodite is the goddess of beauty, Ares is the god of war, and so on and so forth for many other gods. This is how Greek culture was defined as many Athenians felt the presence of their gods through divine intervention in significant events in their lives. Oftentimes they found these events to be mysterious and inexplicable.


title: Iliad

text: In the literary Trojan War of the "Iliad", the Olympian gods, goddesses, and minor deities fight among themselves and participate in human warfare, often by interfering with humans to counter other gods. Unlike their portrayals in Greek religion, Homer's portrayal of gods suited his narrative purpose. The gods in traditional thought of 4th-century Athenians were not spoken of in terms familiar to the works of Homer. The Classical-era historian Herodotus says that Homer and Hesiod, his contemporary, were the first writers to name and describe the gods' appearance and character.


title: Iliad

text: Mary Lefkowitz (2003) discusses the relevance of divine action in the "Iliad", attempting to answer the question of whether or not divine intervention is a discrete occurrence (for its own sake), or if such godly behaviors are mere human character metaphors. The intellectual interest of Classic-era authors, such as Thucydides and Plato, was limited to their utility as "a way of talking about human life rather than a description or a truth", because, if the gods remain religious figures, rather than human metaphors, their "existence"—without the foundation of either dogma or a bible of faiths—then allowed Greek culture the intellectual breadth and freedom to conjure gods fitting any religious function they required as a people.


title: Iliad

text: Psychologist Julian Jaynes (1976) uses the "Iliad" as a major piece of evidence for his theory of the Bicameral Mind, which posits that until about the time described in the "Iliad", humans had a far different mentality from present-day humans. He says that humans during that time were lacking what is today called consciousness. He suggests that humans heard and obeyed commands from what they identified as gods, until the change in human mentality that incorporated the motivating force into the conscious self. He points out that almost every action in the "Iliad" is directed, caused, or influenced by a god, and that earlier translations show an astonishing lack of words suggesting thought, planning, or introspection. Those that do appear, he argues, are misinterpretations made by translators imposing a modern mentality on the characters.


title: Iliad

text: Some scholars believe that the gods may have intervened in the mortal world because of quarrels they may have had among each other. Homer interprets the world at this time by using the passion and emotion of the gods to be determining factors of what happens on the human level. An example of one of these relationships in the "Iliad" occurs between Athena, Hera, and Aphrodite. In the final book of the poem Homer writes, "He offended Athena and Hera—both goddesses." Athena and Hera are envious of Aphrodite because of a beauty pageant on Mount Olympus in which Paris chose Aphrodite to be the most beautiful goddess over both Hera and Athena. Wolfgang Kullmann further goes on to say, "Hera's and Athena's disappointment over the victory of Aphrodite in the Judgement of Paris determines the whole conduct of both goddesses in "The Iliad" and is the cause of their hatred for Paris, the Judge, and his town Troy."


title: Iliad

text: Hera and Athena then continue to support the Achaean forces throughout the poem because Paris is part of the Trojans, while Aphrodite aids Paris and the Trojans. The emotions between the goddesses often translate to actions they take in the mortal world. For example, in Book 3 of the "Iliad", Paris challenges any of the Achaeans to a single combat and Menelaus steps forward. Menelaus was dominating the battle and was on the verge of killing Paris. "Now he'd have hauled him off and won undying glory but Aphrodite, Zeus's daughter, was quick to the mark, snapped the rawhide strap." Aphrodite intervened out of her own self-interest to save Paris from the wrath of Menelaus because Paris had helped her to win the beauty pageant. The partisanship of Aphrodite towards Paris induces constant intervention by all of the gods, especially to give motivational speeches to their respective proteges, while often appearing in the shape of a human being they are familiar with. This connection of emotions to actions is just one example out of many that occur throughout the poem.


title: Iliad

text: Fate () propels most of the events of the "Iliad". Once set, gods and men abide it, neither truly able nor willing to contest it. How fate is set is unknown, but it is told by the Fates and by Zeus through sending omens to seers such as Calchas. Men and their gods continually speak of heroic acceptance and cowardly avoidance of one's slated fate. Fate does not determine every action, incident, and occurrence, but it does determine the outcome of life—before killing him, Hector calls Patroclus a fool Patroclus retorts:


title: Iliad

text: Here, Patroclus alludes to fated death by Hector's hand, and Hector's fated death by Achilles's hand. Each accepts the outcome of his life, yet, no one knows if the gods can alter fate. The first instance of this doubt occurs in Book XVI. Seeing Patroclus about to kill Sarpedon, his mortal son, Zeus says:


title: Iliad

text: In deciding between losing a son or abiding fate, Zeus, King of the Gods, allows it. This motif recurs when he considers sparing Hector, whom he loves and respects. This time, it is Athene who challenges him:


title: Iliad

text: Again, Zeus appears capable of altering fate, but does not, deciding instead to abide set outcomes; similarly, fate spares Aeneas, after Apollo convinces the over-matched Trojan to fight Achilles. Poseidon cautiously speaks:


title: Iliad

text: Divinely aided, Aeneas escapes the wrath of Achilles and survives the Trojan War. Whether or not the gods can alter fate, they do abide it, despite its countering their human allegiances; thus, the mysterious origin of fate is a power beyond the gods. Fate implies the primeval, tripartite division of the world that Zeus, Poseidon, and Hades effected in deposing their father, Cronus, for its dominion. Zeus took the Air and the Sky, Poseidon the Waters, and Hades the Underworld, the land of the dead—yet they share dominion of the Earth. Despite the earthly powers of the Olympic gods, only the Three Fates set the destiny of Man.


title: Iliad

text: In forgoing his , he will earn the greater reward of (, "fame imperishable"). In the poem, (, "imperishable") occurs five other times, each occurrence denotes an object: Agamemnon's sceptre, the wheel of Hebe's chariot, the house of Poseidon, the throne of Zeus, the house of Hephaestus. Translator Lattimore renders as 'forever immortal' and as 'forever imperishable'—connoting Achilles's mortality by underscoring his greater reward in returning to battle Troy.


title: Iliad

text: Achilles' shield, crafted by Hephaestus and given to him by his mother Thetis, bears an image of stars in the centre. The stars conjure profound images of the place of a single man, no matter how heroic, in the perspective of the entire cosmos.


title: Iliad

text: "Pride" drives the plot of the "Iliad". The Achaeans gather on the plain of Troy to wrest Helen from the Trojans. Though the majority of the Trojans would gladly return Helen to the Achaeans, they defer to the pride of their prince, Alexandros, also known as Paris. Within this frame, Homer's work begins. At the start of the Iliad, Agamemnon's pride sets forth a chain of events that leads him to take from Achilles, Briseis, the girl that he had originally given Achilles in return for his martial prowess. Due to this slight, Achilles refuses to fight and asks his mother, Thetis, to make sure that Zeus causes the Achaeans to suffer on the battlefield until Agamemnon comes to realize the harm he has done to Achilles.


title: Iliad

text: Achilles' pride allows him to beg Thetis for the deaths of his Achaean friends. When in Book 9 his friends urge him to return, offering him loot and his girl, Briseis, he refuses, stuck in his vengeful pride. Achilles remains stuck until the very end, when his anger at himself for Patroclus' death overcomes his pride at Agamemnon's slight and he returns to kill Hector. He overcomes his pride again when he keeps his anger in check and returns Hector to Priam at epic's close. From epic start to epic finish, pride drives the plot.


title: Iliad

text: "The Iliad" portrays the theme of "heroism" in a variety of different ways through different characters, mainly Achilles, Hector, Patroclus, etc. Though the traditional concept of heroism is often tied directly to the protagonist, who is meant to be written in a heroic light, the Iliad plays with this idea of heroism and does not make it explicitly clear who the true hero of the story is. The story of the Iliad follows the great Greek warrior Achilles, as well as his rage and the destruction it causes. Parallel to this, the story also follows the Trojan warrior Hector and his efforts to fight to protect his family and his people. It is generally assumed that, because he is the protagonist, Achilles is the hero of this story. Examining his actions throughout the Iliad and comparing them to those of other characters, however, some may come to the conclusion that Achilles is not really the hero, and perhaps even an antihero. It can also be argued that Hector is the true hero of the Iliad due to his inherently heroic qualities, such as a loyalty to his family as well as his strength and determination to defend his people, as well as the focus at the end of the story on burying Hector with honor. The true hero of the Iliad is never shown explicitly and is purposefully left up to interpretation by the author Homer, who aimed to show the complexity and flaws of both characters, regardless of who is considered the “true” hero.


title: Iliad

text: Akin to is (, "respect, honor"), the concept denoting the respectability an honorable man accrues with accomplishment (cultural, political, martial), per his station in life. In Book I, the Achaean troubles begin with King Agamemnon's dishonorable, unkingly behavior—first, by threatening the priest Chryses (1.11), then, by aggravating them in disrespecting Achilles, by confiscating Briseis from him (1.171). The warrior's consequent rancor against the dishonorable king ruins the Achaean military cause.


title: Iliad

text: () plays a part similar to . The epic takes as its thesis the anger of Achilles and the destruction it brings. Anger disturbs the distance between human beings and the gods. Uncontrolled anger destroys orderly social relationships and upsets the balance of correct actions necessary to keep the gods away from human beings. Despite the epic's focus on Achilles' rage, also plays a prominent role, serving as both kindling and fuel for many destructive events.


title: Iliad

text: Agamemnon refuses to ransom Chriseis up out of and harms Achilles' pride when he demands Briseis. Hubris forces Paris to fight against Menelaus. Agamemnon spurs the Achaean to fight, by calling into question Odysseus, Diomedes, and Nestor's pride, asking why they were cowering and waiting for help when they should be the ones leading the charge. While the events of the "Iliad" focus on the Achilles' rage and the destruction it brings on, fuels and stokes them both.


title: Iliad

text: The poem's initial word, (; acc. , , "wrath," "rage," "fury"), establishes the "Iliad"s principal theme: the "Wrath of Achilles". His personal rage and wounded soldier's pride propel the story: the Achaeans' faltering in battle, the slayings of Patroclus and Hector, and the fall of Troy. In Book I, the Wrath of Achilles first emerges in the Achilles-convoked meeting, between the Greek kings and the seer Calchas. King Agamemnon dishonours Chryses, the Trojan priest of Apollo, by refusing with a threat the restitution of his daughter, Chryseis—despite the proffered ransom of "gifts beyond count." The insulted priest prays to Apollo for help, and a nine-day rain of divine plague arrows falls upon the Achaeans. Moreover, in that meeting, Achilles accuses Agamemnon of being "greediest for gain of all men." To that, Agamemnon replies:


title: Iliad

text: After that, only Athena stays Achilles's wrath. He vows to never again obey orders from Agamemnon. Furious, Achilles cries to his mother, Thetis, who persuades Zeus's divine intervention—favouring the Trojans—until Achilles's rights are restored. Meanwhile, Hector leads the Trojans to almost pushing the Achaeans back to the sea (Book XII). Later, Agamemnon contemplates defeat and retreat to Greece (Book XIV). Again, the Wrath of Achilles turns the war's tide in seeking vengeance when Hector kills Patroclus. Aggrieved, Achilles tears his hair and dirties his face. Thetis comforts her mourning son, who tells her:


title: Iliad

text: Accepting the prospect of death as fair price for avenging Patroclus, he returns to battle, dooming Hector and Troy, thrice chasing him around the Trojan walls, before slaying him, then dragging the corpse behind his chariot, back to camp.


title: Iliad

text: The poem dates to the archaic period of Classical Antiquity. Scholarly consensus mostly places it in the 8th century BC, although some favour a 7th-century date. In any case, the for the dating of the "Iliad" is 630 BC, as evidenced by reflection in art and literature.


title: Iliad

text: Herodotus, having consulted the Oracle at Dodona, placed Homer and Hesiod at approximately 400 years before his own time, which would place them at .


title: Iliad

text: The historical backdrop of the poem is the time of the Late Bronze Age collapse, in the early 12th century BC. Homer is thus separated from his subject matter by about 400 years, the period known as the Greek Dark Ages. Intense scholarly debate has surrounded the question of which portions of the poem preserve genuine traditions from the Mycenaean period. The "Catalogue of Ships" in particular has the striking feature that its geography does not portray Greece in the Iron Age, the time of Homer, but as it was before the Dorian invasion.


title: Iliad

text: The title (; gen. ) is an ellipsis of , meaning "the Trojan poem". , is the specifically feminine adjective form from . The masculine adjective form would be or . It is used by Herodotus.


title: Iliad

text: The first edition of the "Iliad", , was edited by Demetrius Chalcondyles and published by Bernardus Nerlius and Demetrius Damilas in Florence in 1489.


title: Iliad

text: In antiquity, the Greeks applied the "Iliad" and the "Odyssey" as the bases of pedagogy. Literature was central to the educational-cultural function of the itinerant rhapsode, who composed consistent epic poems from memory and improvisation, and disseminated them, via song and chant, in his travels and at the Panathenaic Festival of athletics, music, poetics, and sacrifice, celebrating Athena's birthday.


title: Iliad

text: Originally, Classical scholars treated the "Iliad" and the "Odyssey" as written poetry, and Homer as a writer. Yet, by the 1920s, Milman Parry (1902–1935) had launched a movement claiming otherwise. His investigation of the oral Homeric style—"stock epithets" and "reiteration" (words, phrases, stanzas)—established that these "formulae" were artifacts of oral tradition easily applied to a hexametric line. A two-word stock epithet (e.g. "resourceful Odysseus") reiteration may complement a character name by filling a half-line, thus, freeing the poet to compose a half-line of "original" formulaic text to complete his meaning. In Yugoslavia, Parry and his assistant, Albert Lord (1912–1991), studied the oral-formulaic composition of Serbian oral poetry, yielding the Parry/Lord thesis that established oral tradition studies, later developed by Eric Havelock, Marshall McLuhan, Walter Ong, and Gregory Nagy.


title: Iliad

text: In "The Singer of Tales" (1960), Lord presents likenesses between the tragedies of the Achaean Patroclus, in the "Iliad", and of the Sumerian Enkidu, in the "Epic of Gilgamesh", and claims to refute, with "careful analysis of the repetition of thematic patterns", that the Patroclus storyline upsets Homer's established compositional formulae of "wrath, bride-stealing, and rescue"; thus, stock-phrase "reiteration" does not restrict his originality in fitting story to rhyme. Likewise, James Armstrong (1958) reports that the poem's "formulae" yield richer meaning because the "arming motif" "diction"—describing Achilles, Agamemnon, Paris, and Patroclus—serves to "heighten the importance of…an impressive moment," thus, "[reiteration] creates an atmosphere of smoothness," wherein, Homer distinguishes Patroclus from Achilles, and foreshadows the former's death with positive and negative turns of phrase.


title: Iliad

text: In the "Iliad", occasional syntactic inconsistency may be an oral tradition effect—for example, Aphrodite is "laughter-loving", despite being painfully wounded by Diomedes (Book V, 375); and the divine representations may mix Mycenaean and Greek Dark Age () mythologies, parallelling the hereditary nobles (lower social rank rulers) with minor deities, such as Scamander, et al.


title: Iliad

text: Despite Mycenae and Troy being maritime powers, the "Iliad" features no sea battles. The Trojan shipwright (of the ship that transported Helen to Troy), Phereclus, instead fights afoot, as an infantryman. The battle dress and armour of hero and soldier are well-described. They enter battle in chariots, launching javelins into the enemy formations, then dismount—for hand-to-hand combat with yet more javelin throwing, rock throwing, and if necessary hand to hand sword and shoulder-borne (shield) fighting. Ajax the Greater, son of Telamon, sports a large, rectangular shield () with which he protects himself and Teucer, his brother:


title: Iliad

text: Ajax's cumbersome shield is more suitable for defence than for offence, while his cousin Achilles sports a large, rounded, octagonal shield that he successfully deploys along with his spear against the Trojans:


title: Iliad

text: In describing infantry combat, Homer names the phalanx formation, but most scholars do not believe the historical Trojan War was so fought. In the Bronze Age, the chariot was the main battle transport-weapon (e.g. the Battle of Kadesh). The available evidence, from the Dendra armour and the Pylos Palace paintings, indicate the Mycenaeans used two-man chariots, with a long-spear-armed principal rider, unlike the three-man Hittite chariots with short-spear-armed riders, and unlike the arrow-armed Egyptian and Assyrian two-man chariots. Nestor spearheads his troops with chariots; he advises them:


title: Iliad

text: Although Homer's depictions are graphic, it can be seen in the very end that victory in war is a far more somber occasion, where all that is lost becomes apparent. On the other hand, the funeral games are lively, for the dead man's life is celebrated. This overall depiction of war runs contrary to many other ancient Greek depictions, where war is an aspiration for greater glory.


title: Iliad

text: Few modern (archeologically, historically and Homerically accurate) reconstructions of arms, armor and motifs as described by Homer exist. Some historical reconstructions have been done by Salimbeti et al.


title: Iliad

text: While the Homeric poems (particularly, the "Iliad") were not necessarily revered scripture of the ancient Greeks, they were most certainly seen as guides that were important to the intellectual understanding of any educated Greek citizen. This is evidenced by the fact that in the late 5th century BC, "it was the sign of a man of standing to be able to recite the "Iliad" and "Odyssey" by heart." Moreover, it can be argued that the warfare shown in the "Iliad", and the way in which it was depicted, had a profound and very traceable effect on Greek warfare in general. In particular, the effect of epic literature can be broken down into three categories: tactics, ideology, and the mindset of commanders. In order to discern these effects, it is necessary to take a look at a few examples from each of these categories.


title: Iliad

text: Much of the detailed fighting in the "Iliad" is done by the heroes in an orderly, one-on-one fashion. Much like the "Odyssey", there is even a set ritual which must be observed in each of these conflicts. For example, a major hero may encounter a lesser hero from the opposing side, in which case the minor hero is introduced, threats may be exchanged, and then the minor hero is slain. The victor often strips the body of its armor and military accoutrements. Here is an example of this ritual and this type of one-on-one combat in the "Iliad":


title: Iliad

text: The biggest issue in reconciling the connection between the epic fighting of the "Iliad" and later Greek warfare is the phalanx, or hoplite, warfare seen in Greek history well after Homer's "Iliad". While there are discussions of soldiers arrayed in semblances of the phalanx throughout the "Iliad", the focus of the poem on the heroic fighting, as mentioned above, would seem to contradict the tactics of the phalanx. However, the phalanx did have its heroic aspects. The masculine one-on-one fighting of epic is manifested in phalanx fighting on the emphasis of holding one's position in formation. This replaces the singular heroic competition found in the "Iliad".


title: Iliad

text: One example of this is the Spartan tale of 300 picked men fighting against 300 picked Argives. In this battle of champions, only two men are left standing for the Argives and one for the Spartans. Othryades, the remaining Spartan, goes back to stand in his formation with mortal wounds while the remaining two Argives go back to Argos to report their victory. Thus, the Spartans claimed this as a victory, as their last man displayed the ultimate feat of bravery by maintaining his position in the phalanx.


title: Iliad

text: In terms of the ideology of commanders in later Greek history, the "Iliad" has an interesting effect. The "Iliad" expresses a definite disdain for tactical trickery, when Hector says, before he challenges the great Ajax:


title: Iliad

text: However, despite examples of disdain for this tactical trickery, there is reason to believe that the "Iliad", as well as later Greek warfare, endorsed tactical genius on the part of their commanders. For example, there are multiple passages in the "Iliad" with commanders such as Agamemnon or Nestor discussing the arraying of troops so as to gain an advantage. Indeed, the Trojan War is won by a notorious example of Achaean guile in the Trojan Horse. This is even later referred to by Homer in the "Odyssey". The connection, in this case, between guileful tactics of the Achaeans and the Trojans in the "Iliad" and those of the later Greeks is not a difficult one to find. Spartan commanders, often seen as the pinnacle of Greek military prowess, were known for their tactical trickery, and, for them, this was a feat to be desired in a commander. Indeed, this type of leadership was the standard advice of Greek tactical writers.


title: Iliad

text: Ultimately, while Homeric (or epic) fighting is certainly not completely replicated in later Greek warfare, many of its ideals, tactics, and instruction are.


title: Iliad

text: Hans van Wees argues that the period that the descriptions of warfare relate can be pinned down fairly specifically—to the first half of the 7th century BC.


title: Iliad

text: The "Iliad" was a standard work of great importance already in Classical Greece and remained so throughout the Hellenistic and Byzantine periods. Subjects from the Trojan War were a favourite among ancient Greek dramatists. Aeschylus' trilogy, the "Oresteia", comprising "Agamemnon", "The Libation Bearers", and "The Eumenides", follows the story of Agamemnon after his return from the war. Homer also came to be of great influence in European culture with the resurgence of interest in Greek antiquity during the Renaissance, and it remains the first and most influential work of the Western canon. In its full form the text made its return to Italy and Western Europe beginning in the 15th century, primarily through translations into Latin and the vernacular languages.


title: Iliad

text: Prior to this reintroduction, however, a shortened Latin version of the poem, known as the , was very widely studied and read as a basic school text. The West tended to view Homer as unreliable as they believed they possessed much more down to earth and realistic eyewitness accounts of the Trojan War written by Dares and Dictys Cretensis, who were supposedly present at the events. These late antique forged accounts formed the basis of several eminently popular medieval chivalric romances, most notably those of Benoît de Sainte-Maure and Guido delle Colonne.


title: Iliad

text: These in turn spawned many others in various European languages, such as the first printed English book, the 1473 "Recuyell of the Historyes of Troye". Other accounts read in the Middle Ages were antique Latin retellings such as the and works in the vernaculars such as the Icelandic Troy Saga. Even without Homer, the Trojan War story had remained central to Western European medieval literary culture and its sense of identity. Most nations and several royal houses traced their origins to heroes at the Trojan War; Britain was supposedly settled by the Trojan Brutus, for instance.


title: Iliad

text: William Shakespeare used the plot of the "Iliad" as source material for his play "Troilus and Cressida", but focused on a medieval legend, the love story of Troilus, son of King Priam of Troy, and Cressida, daughter of the Trojan soothsayer Calchas. The play, often considered to be a comedy, reverses traditional views on events of the Trojan War and depicts Achilles as a coward, Ajax as a dull, unthinking mercenary, etc.


title: Iliad

text: William Theed the elder made an impressive bronze statue of Thetis as she brought Achilles his new armor forged by Hephaesthus. It has been on display in the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York City since 2013.


title: Iliad

text: Robert Browning's poem "Development" discusses his childhood introduction to the matter of the "Iliad" and his delight in the epic, as well as contemporary debates about its authorship.


title: Iliad

text: According to Suleyman al-Boustani, a 19th-century poet who made the first Arabic translation of the Iliad to Arabic, the epic may have been widely circulated in Syriac and Pahlavi translations during the early Middle Ages. Al-Boustani credits Theophilus of Edessa with the Syriac translation, which was supposedly (along with the Greek original) widely read or heard by the scholars of Baghdad in the prime of the Abbasid Caliphate, although those scholars never took the effort to translate it to the official language of the empire; Arabic. The Iliad was also the first full epic poem to be translated to Arabic from a foreign language, upon the publication of Al-Boustani's complete work in 1904.


title: Iliad

text: George Chapman published his translation of the "Iliad", in installments, beginning in 1598, published in "fourteeners", a long-line ballad metre that "has room for all of Homer's figures of speech and plenty of new ones, as well as explanations in parentheses. At its best, as in Achilles' rejection of the embassy in "Iliad" Nine; it has great rhetorical power." It quickly established itself as a classic in English poetry. In the preface to his own translation, Pope praises "the daring fiery spirit" of Chapman's rendering, which is "something like what one might imagine Homer, himself, would have writ before he arrived at years of discretion."


title: Iliad

text: John Keats praised Chapman in the sonnet "On First Looking into Chapman's Homer" (1816). John Ogilby's mid-17th-century translation is among the early annotated editions; Alexander Pope's 1715 translation, in heroic couplet, is "The classic translation that was built on all the preceding versions," and, like Chapman's, it is a major poetic work in its own right. William Cowper's Miltonic, blank verse 1791 edition is highly regarded for its greater fidelity to the Greek than either the Chapman or the Pope versions: "I have omitted nothing; I have invented nothing," Cowper says in prefacing his translation.


title: Iliad

text: In the lectures "On Translating Homer" (1861), Matthew Arnold addresses the matters of translation and interpretation in rendering the "Iliad" to English; commenting upon the versions contemporarily available in 1861, he identifies the four essential poetic qualities of Homer to which the translator must do justice:


title: Iliad

text: [i] that he is eminently rapid; [ii] that he is eminently plain and direct, both in the evolution of his thought and in the expression of it, that is, both in his syntax and in his words; [iii] that he is eminently plain and direct in the substance of his thought, that is, in his matter and ideas; and, finally, [iv] that he is eminently noble.


title: Iliad

text: After a discussion of the metres employed by previous translators, Arnold argues for a poetical dialect hexameter translation of the "Iliad", like the original. "Laborious as this meter was, there were at least half a dozen attempts to translate the entire "Iliad" or "Odyssey" in hexameters; the last in 1945. Perhaps the most fluent of them was by J. Henry Dart [1862] in response to Arnold." In 1870, the American poet William Cullen Bryant published a blank verse version, that Van Wyck Brooks describes as "simple, faithful."


title: Iliad

text: An 1898 translation by Samuel Butler was published by Longmans. Butler had read Classics at Cambridge University, graduating in 1859.


title: Iliad

text: Since 1950, there have been several English translations. Richmond Lattimore's version (1951) is "a free six-beat" line-for-line rendering that explicitly eschews "poetical dialect" for "the plain English of today." It is literal, unlike older verse renderings. Robert Fitzgerald's version (Oxford World's Classics, 1974) strives to situate the "Iliad" in the musical forms of English poetry. His forceful version is freer, with shorter lines that increase the sense of swiftness and energy.


title: Iliad

text: Robert Fagles (Penguin Classics, 1990) and Stanley Lombardo (1997) are bolder than Lattimore in adding dramatic significance to Homer's conventional and formulaic language. Rodney Merrill's translation (University of Michigan Press, 2007) not only renders the work in English verse like the dactylic hexameter of the original, but also conveys the oral-formulaic nature of the epic song, to which that musical meter gives full value. Barry B. Powell's translation (Oxford University Press, 2014) renders the Homeric Greek with a simplicity and dignity reminiscent of the original.


title: Google Docs

text: Google Docs is an online word processor included as part of the free, web-based Google Docs Editors suite offered by Google, which also includes: Google Sheets, Google Slides, Google Drawings, Google Forms, Google Sites and Google Keep. Google Docs is accessible via an internet browser as a web-based application and is also available as a mobile app on Android and iOS and as a desktop application on Google's ChromeOS.


title: Google Docs

text: Google Docs allows users to create and edit documents online while collaborating with other users in real time. Edits are tracked by the user making the edit, with a revision history presenting changes. An editor's position is highlighted with an editor-specific color and cursor, and a permissions system regulates what users can do. Updates have introduced features using machine learning, including "Explore", offering search results based on the contents of a document, and "Action items", allowing users to assign tasks to other users.


title: Google Docs

text: Google Docs supports opening and saving documents in the standard OpenDocument format as well as in Rich text format, plain Unicode text, zipped HTML, and Microsoft Word. Exporting to PDF and EPUB formats are implemented.


title: Google Docs

text: Google Docs originated from two separate products: Writely and XL2Web. Writely was a web-based word processor created by the software company Upstartle and launched in August 2005. It began as an experiment by programmers Sam Schillace, Steve Newman and Claudia Carpenter, trying out the then-new Ajax technology and the "content editable" function in browsers. On March 9, 2006, Google announced that it had acquired Upstartle. In July 2009, Google dropped the beta testing status from Google Docs. In March 2010, Google acquired DocVerse, an online document collaboration company. DocVerse allowed multiple user online collaboration on Microsoft Word documents, as well as other Microsoft Office formats, such as Excel and PowerPoint. Improvements based on DocVerse were announced and deployed in April 2010. In June 2012, Google acquired Quickoffice, a freeware proprietary productivity suite for mobile devices. In October 2012, Google renamed the Google Drive products and Google Documents became Google Docs. At the same time, Google Chrome App versions of Google Docs, Google Sheets, and Google Slides were released, which provided shortcuts to the service on Chrome's new tab page. In February 2019, Google announced grammar suggestions in Docs, expanding their spell check by using machine translation techniques to help catch tricky grammatical errors.


title: Google Docs

text: Google Docs is available as a web application supported on: Google Chrome, Firefox, Internet Explorer, Microsoft Edge and Safari web browsers. Users can access all Docs, as well as other files, collectively through the Google Drive website. In June 2014, Google rolled out a dedicated website homepage for Docs, that contains only files created with the service. In 2014, Google launched a dedicated mobile app for Docs on the Android and iOS mobile operating systems. The mobile website for Docs was updated in 2015 with a "simpler, more uniform" interface, and while users can read files through the mobile websites, users trying to edit will be redirected towards the dedicated mobile app, thus preventing editing on the mobile web.


title: Google Docs

text: Google Docs and the other apps in the Google Drive suite serve as a collaborative tool for cooperative editing of documents in real time. Documents can be shared, opened, and edited by multiple users simultaneously and users can see character-by-character changes as other collaborators make edits. Changes are automatically saved to Google's servers, and a revision history is automatically kept so past edits may be viewed and reverted to. An editor's current position is represented with an editor-specific color/cursor, so if another editor happens to be viewing that part of the document they can see edits as they occur. A sidebar chat functionality allows collaborators to discuss edits. The revision history allows users to see the additions made to a document, with each author distinguished by color. Only adjacent revisions can be compared, and users cannot control how frequently revisions are saved. Files can be exported to a user's local computer in a variety of formats (ODF, HTML, PDF, RTF, Text, Office Open XML). Files can be tagged and archived for organizational purposes.


title: Google Docs

text: In March 2014, Google introduced add-ons, new tools from third-party developers that add more features to Google Docs. To view and edit documents offline on a computer, users need to be using the Google Chrome web browser. A Chrome extension, Google Docs Offline, allows users to enable offline support for Docs files on the Google Drive website. The Android and iOS apps natively support offline editing."


title: Google Docs

text: In June 2014, Google introduced "Suggested edits" in Google Docs; as part of the "commenting access" permission, participants can come up with suggestions for edits that the author can accept or reject, in contrast to full editing ability. In October 2016, Google announced "Action items" for Docs. If a user writes phrases such as "Ryan to follow up on the keynote script", the service will intelligently assign that action to "Ryan". Google states this will make it easier for other collaborators to see which person is responsible for what task. When a user visits Google Drive, Docs, Sheets, or Slides, any files with tasks assigned to them will be highlighted with a badge.


title: Google Docs

text: A basic research tool was introduced in 2012. This was expanded into "Explore" in September 2016, which has additional functionality through machine learning. In Google Docs, Explore shows relevant Google search results based on information in the document, simplifying information gathering. Users can also mark specific document text, press Explore and see search results based on the marked text only.


title: Google Docs

text: In December 2016, Google introduced a quick citations feature to Google Docs. The quick citation tool allows users to "insert citations as footnotes with the click of a button" on the web through the Explore feature introduced in September. The citation feature also marked the launch of the Explore functionalities in G Suite for Education accounts.


title: Google Docs

text: Google Docs and the Google Docs Editors suite are free of charge for use by individuals, but are also available as part of Google's business-centered Google Workspace, enabling additional business-focused functionality on payment of a monthly subscription.


title: Google Docs

text: A simple find and replace tool is available. Google offers an extension for the Google Chrome web browser called "Office editing for Docs, Sheets and Slides" that enables users to view and edit Microsoft Word documents on Google Chrome via the Docs app. The extension can be used for opening Office files stored on the computer using Chrome, as well as for opening Office files encountered on the web (in the form of email attachments, web search results, etc.) without having to download them. The extension is installed on ChromeOS by default. Google Cloud Connect was a plug-in for Microsoft Office 2003, 2007 and 2010 that could automatically store and synchronize any Word document to Google Docs (before the introduction of Drive) in Google Docs or Microsoft Office formats. The online copy was automatically updated each time the Microsoft Word document was saved. Microsoft Word documents could be edited offline and synchronized later when online. Google Cloud Connect maintained previous Microsoft Word document versions and allowed multiple users to collaborate by working on the same document at the same time. Google Cloud Connect was discontinued in April 2013 as, according to Google, Google Drive achieves all of the above tasks, "with better results". In January 2022, Google announced the text watermark feature to the word processor, allowing users to create or import watermarks to a document. In addition to text watermarks, image watermarks can also be added to the document.


title: Google Docs

text: In a December 2016 review of Google Docs and the Drive software suite, Edward Mendelsohn of "PC Magazine" wrote that the suite was "visually elegant" with "effortless collaboration", but that Docs, as paired with Sheets and Slides, was "less powerful than desktop-based suites". Comparing Google's office suite with Microsoft Office and Apple's iWork, he stated that "Docs exists "only" in your Web browser", meaning that users have a "more limited feature set" than "the spacious, high-powered setting of a desktop app". He wrote that offline support required a plug-in, describing it as "less convenient than a desktop app, and you have to remember to install it before you need it". Mendelsohn praised the user interface, describing it as "elegant, highly usable" with "fast performance", and that the revision history "alerts you to recent changes, and stores fine-grained records of revisions". Regarding the Explore functionality, he credited it for being the "niftiest new feature" in the suite and that it surpassed comparable features in Microsoft Office. He described the quality of imports of Word files as "impressive fidelity". He summarized by praising Docs and the Drive suite for having "the best balance of speed and power, and the best collaboration features, too", while noting that "it lacks a few features offered by Microsoft Office 365, but it was also faster to load and save in our testing".


title: Google Docs

text: In May 2017, a phishing attack impersonated a Google Docs sharing email spread on the Internet. The attack sent emails pretending to be someone the target knew, requesting to share a document with them. Once the link in the email was pressed, users were directed to a real Google account permissions page where the phishing software, a third-party app named "Google Docs", requested access to the user's Google account. Once granted, the software received access to the user's Gmail messages and address book and sent new fraudulent document invitations to their contacts. The phishing attack was described by media outlets as "massive" and "widespread", and "The Next Web"s Napier Lopez wrote that it's "very easy to fall for". One of the reasons the attack was so effective was that its email messages passed through spam and security software, and used a real Google address. Within hours, the attack was stopped and fixed by Google, with a spokesperson stating that "We have taken action to protect users against an email impersonating Google Docs and have disabled offending accounts. We've removed the fake pages, pushed updates through Safe Browsing, and our abuse team is working to prevent this kind of spoofing from happening again".


title: Google Docs

text: On the same day, Google updated Gmail on Android to feature protection from phishing attacks. Media outlets noticed that, while the added protection was announced on the same day as the attack, it "may not have prevented this week's attack, however, as that attack involved a malicious and fake "Google Docs" app that was hosted on Google's own domain". In early May 2017, "Ars Technica" reported that "at least three security researchers" had raised issues about the threat, one of them in October 2011, and that the attacker or attackers behind the actual incident "may have copied the technique from a proof of concept posted by one security researcher to GitHub in February". Furthermore, the report noted that Google had been repeatedly warned by researchers about the potential threat, with security researcher Greg Carson telling "Ars Technica" that "I don't think Google fully understood how severely this could be abused, but certainly, hackers did".


title: Google Docs

text: In October 2017, Google released a server-side update to its codebase, which started incorrectly flagging random documents as unspecified violations of its "Terms of Service" policies. A fix was released shortly afterwards, though the issue became noteworthy for the extent of Google's control over users' content, including its analysis of the contents of documents, as well as for its ability to shut users out at any time, including during critical moments of work.


title: Odell Beckham Jr.

text: Odell Cornelious Beckham Jr. (born November 5, 1992), commonly known by his initials OBJ, is an American football wide receiver who is a free agent. Born in Baton Rouge, Louisiana, Beckham played college football at LSU and was drafted by the New York Giants in the first round of the 2014 NFL Draft. Since entering the NFL, Beckham has been one of the most popular players among fans.


title: Odell Beckham Jr.

text: Beckham started the 2012 BCS National Championship Game in his first year playing at LSU, and won the Paul Hornung Award following his junior season in 2013. In his first season with the New York Giants, Beckham broke numerous NFL rookie receiving records, despite missing the first four games of the season due to injury. Beckham became the first player to record more than 75 receptions, 1,100 yards, and ten touchdowns in a rookie season, and broke the rookie record for the most average receiving yards per game. During Week 12 of his first season, Beckham came to national attention when he made a one-handed touchdown catch while falling backwards in a "Sunday Night Football" game against the Dallas Cowboys, which numerous pundits and athletes called the greatest catch ever made. Beckham won the 2014 Offensive Rookie of the Year award.


title: Odell Beckham Jr.

text: In 2016, he became the fastest player in NFL history to reach both 200 career receptions and 4,000 career receiving yards. In 2016, he recorded his first 100-reception season and reached the NFL playoffs for the first time in his career, after helping the Giants to an 11–5 season record. Beckham was named to the Pro Bowl in each of his first three seasons and has been named a second-team All-Pro twice. After a stint with the Cleveland Browns, Beckham was signed by the Los Angeles Rams midway through the 2021 season. Beckham and the Rams went on to win Super Bowl LVI.


title: Odell Beckham Jr.

text: Beckham was born in Baton Rouge, Louisiana. He attended Isidore Newman School in New Orleans, Louisiana, where he was a letterman in football, basketball, and track. In football, he played wide receiver, quarterback, running back, and cornerback for the Greenies football team. As a junior, he caught 45 passes for 743 yards and 10 touchdowns, while also adding three more scores on the ground. As a senior, he hauled in 50 catches for 1,010 yards and 19 touchdowns, joining Cooper Manning as the only two players in school history to record 1,000 receiving yards in a season. In addition, he rushed for 331 yards and six touchdowns, passed for 90 yards and a score and also averaged 30.0 yards per punt return. He was named to the Times Picayune 2011 Blue-Chip list and to the Louisiana 2A All-State first-team as a wide receiver, while he also earned District 9-2A Offensive MVP honors and a spot on The Advocate's Super Dozen.


title: Odell Beckham Jr.

text: In basketball, Beckham lettered all four years and was an all-district selection his junior and senior years. As a standout track & field athlete, Beckham followed in his mother's footsteps to excel in the sprinting and jumping events while at Newman High. He took silver in the long jump event at the 2010 Newman Invitational, with a career-best leap of 6.83 meters. At the 2010 LA 2A State Meet, he earned sixth-place finishes in both the 200-meter dash, with a PR time of 22.31 seconds, and in the long jump, with a leap of 6.71 meters (21 ft 11 in). He was also a member of the Newman 4 × 100 m and 4 × 200 m relay teams.


title: Odell Beckham Jr.

text: Beckham also played soccer growing up and considers English player David Beckham his childhood idol. His soccer club coaches offered Beckham a chance to try out for a junior national team program, but he did not want to spend the required time overseas considering his talents in other sports at home.


title: Odell Beckham Jr.

text: Regarded as a four-star recruit by both "Rivals.com" and "Scout.com", Beckham was rated as the No. 6 wide receiver and as the No. 40 player in the nation. He chose Louisiana State University (LSU) over scholarship offers from Ole Miss, Nebraska, Tulane, and Tulsa, among others. He also played in the 2011 U.S. Army All-American Bowl.


title: Odell Beckham Jr.

text: As a true freshman at LSU in 2011, Beckham started nine of 14 games. He made his collegiate debut on September 3, 2011, against the #3 Oregon Ducks. Against the Ducks, he had two receptions for 10 yards in the 40–27 victory. Against the #16 West Virginia Mountaineers on September 24, Beckham scored his first career collegiate touchdown, a 52-yard reception from Jarrett Lee, in the 47–21 victory. In the SEC Championship against the #12 Georgia Bulldogs, Beckham was held without a catch but did have two punt returns in the 42–10 victory. The Tigers finished with a 13–0 record and made the BCS National Championship game in Beckham's freshman season. In the game, which was a rematch against the Alabama Crimson Tide, Beckham had five receptions for 38 yards in the 21–0 defeat. Overall, in his freshman season, Beckham finished second on the team with 41 receptions for 475 yards and tied for third with two receiving touchdowns. He was named a freshman All-SEC selection.


title: Odell Beckham Jr.

text: As a sophomore in 2012, Beckham started 12 of 13 games for the Tigers. In the season opener against the North Texas Mean Green, he had his first collegiate career punt return touchdown, a 70-yard return in the first quarter of the 41–14 victory. On September 29, he had his first career collegiate game with over 100 yards against the Towson Tigers. He had five receptions for 128 yards and two touchdowns in the 38–22 victory over the Tigers. On November 17, against SEC West rival Ole Miss, he was held to only two receptions for 13 yards, but he had an 89-yard punt return touchdown in the fourth quarter help tie the game late. The Tigers would end up beating the Rebels by a score of 41–35. In the regular season finale against the Arkansas Razorbacks, he had four receptions for 112 receiving yards in the 20–13 victory. LSU finished with a 10–2 record and qualified for the Chick-fil-A Bowl against Clemson. Beckham had three receptions for 40 receiving yards as LSU lost 25–24 on a game-winning field goal by Clemson as time expired. He finished first on the team in receiving yards with 713, second in receptions with 43, only behind Jarvis Landry's 56 receptions, and third on the team with two receiving touchdowns.


title: Odell Beckham Jr.

text: As a junior in 2013, he combined with Jarvis Landry to form one of the most productive wide receiver duos in college football. On August 31, in the Tigers' regular season opener, he had five receptions for 118 receiving yards in the 37–27 victory over #20 TCU at AT&T Stadium in Arlington, Texas. On September 7, in the game against UAB, Beckham had five receptions for 136 yards and three touchdowns in the 56–17 victory. In the same game, he returned a failed field goal attempt for a record-long 109 yards and a touchdown, and this record would be tied by Auburn's Chris Davis later that year against the Alabama Crimson Tide. On October 5, against SEC West rival Mississippi State, Beckham had nine receptions for a then-career high 179 receiving yards with two touchdowns in the 59–26 victory. Against the Furman Paladins on October 26, Beckham had six receptions for a collegiate career-high 204 yards and two touchdowns in the 48–16 victory. He was a first and second-team All-Southeastern Conference (SEC) selection. In his role as a wide receiver and return specialist, Beckham was named the winner of the 2013 Paul Hornung Award, presented annually to the most versatile player in major college football. He finished the 2013 season with 57 receptions for 1,117 yards and eight touchdowns. He led the SEC with 32 kickoff returns for 845 net yards in the 2013 season.


title: Odell Beckham Jr.

text: Beckham was selected by the New York Giants with the 12th overall pick in the first round of the 2014 NFL Draft. He was the third wide receiver to be selected that year. He signed a four-year contract with the Giants on May 19, 2014. The deal was for $10.4 million with a $5.88 million signing bonus.


title: Odell Beckham Jr.

text: After missing a majority of the training camp, preseason, and the first four games of the season because of a hamstring injury, Beckham made his debut on October 5, 2014, in Week 5 against the Atlanta Falcons recording four receptions for 44 yards and a touchdown in the 30–20 victory. In his first "Monday Night Football" game against the Indianapolis Colts, Beckham caught eight passes for 156 yards in the 40–24 loss. Against the Seattle Seahawks in Week 10, he caught seven passes for 108 yards in the 38–17 loss. On November 23, 2014, during a game against the Dallas Cowboys on "Sunday Night Football", Beckham had 10 catches for 146 yards and two touchdowns, including a one-handed touchdown reception hailed as the "catch of the year", with Cris Collinsworth, Tony Dungy, Victor Cruz and LeBron James all saying that it was one of the best catches ever. Beckham made this catch despite a pass interference penalty called on Dallas cornerback Brandon Carr while diving backwards with full extension of his right hand using only three fingers. The Giants still lost by a score of 31–28 due to a late fourth quarter touchdown throw from Tony Romo to Dez Bryant. On December 8, 2014, the Pro Football Hall of Fame put Beckham's game-worn jersey from his famous one-handed catch game against Dallas on display.


title: Odell Beckham Jr.

text: Beckham finished November with 38 receptions, 593 receiving yards and two touchdowns. He had at least 90 yards receiving in all five games in November, setting an NFL rookie record for a calendar month. He also broke Bill Groman's and Randy Moss's rookie record for consecutive games with 90 or more receiving yards in a season. In Week 14, Beckham extended his 90 receiving yard streak to 6 games, recording 11 receptions for 131 yards and a touchdown in a 36–7 victory over the Tennessee Titans. He also joined Bill Groman as the only rookies to have over 700 receiving yards in a six-game span.


title: Odell Beckham Jr.

text: On December 14, 2014, Beckham became the first NFL rookie with at least 12 catches, 140 yards, and three scores in a game racking up 143 receiving yards, 12 catches and three touchdowns. With his 12 receptions, Beckham tied former Giants tight end Mark Bavaro for the most in a game by a Giants rookie; Bavaro had 12 catches against the Cincinnati Bengals on October 13, 1985. Beckham's 143 receiving yards marked the fifth time he topped 100 receiving yards during the 2014 season, extending his own Giants record and setting an NFL rookie record of over 90 receiving yards in seven straight games. With 61 catches over seven games, Beckham also set the record for most ever receptions by an NFL rookie in a seven-game span. On December 21, 2014, Beckham extended his streak of 90 or more receiving yards in game to 8 when he racked up 148 receiving yards on 8 receptions and also hauled in 2 touchdowns vs. St. Louis Rams, including an 80-yard score, the longest touchdown reception by a Giants rookie in franchise history. He also extended his streak of games with 130+ receiving yards and at least one receiving touchdown to three.


title: Odell Beckham Jr.

text: In the regular season finale against the Philadelphia Eagles, Beckham had a career-high 185 receiving yards, which was the most in a game by a rookie in franchise history. Mark Bavaro previously held the record when he had 176 receiving yards against the Cincinnati Bengals on October 13, 1985. Beckham also had 12 receptions and a receiving touchdown against the Eagles, which tied Torry Holt for most games with at least ten receptions, 100 receiving yards, and one receiving touchdown in a season with four. Beckham finished his impressive rookie campaign with 91 receptions, 1,305 yards and 12 touchdowns in just 12 games. He's the fourth rookie in NFL history to have at least 1,300 receiving yards in a season, and the only rookie to have at least 90 receptions and 10 receiving touchdowns in a season. Beckham was named a first-alternate for the 2015 Pro Bowl. On January 7, 2015, Beckham replaced Calvin Johnson in Pro Bowl due to injury. He was the first Giants rookie wide receiver in franchise history and the first Giants rookie since Jeremy Shockey in 2002 to make the Pro Bowl.


title: Odell Beckham Jr.

text: Beckham revealed after the Pro Bowl game that during the 2014 season he suffered from two hamstring injuries before the season, one occurring in an early-offseason workout and another in a preseason game. Beckham stated, "I was never fully healthy, I was just trying to manage it and maintain it, It's still not right. [I'm] still working on it."


title: Odell Beckham Jr.

text: Beckham earned numerous accolades after the season, which sportswriters hailed as one of the greatest ever by a rookie. On January 31, 2015, Beckham was named Offensive Rookie of the Year by the Associated Press. He was also awarded the 2014 Pro Football Writers Association Offensive Rookie of the Year Award. On May 13, 2015, Beckham was voted to the cover of Madden NFL 16, beating out Rob Gronkowski of the New England Patriots. Beckham is the youngest player ever to grace the cover of Madden.


title: Odell Beckham Jr.

text: Early in the season, Beckham had a strong game against the Atlanta Falcons with seven receptions for 146 yards and one touchdown in the 24–20 defeat. On October 11, against the San Francisco 49ers, he had seven receptions for 121 yards and a touchdown in the 30–27 victory. In a 52–49 shootout with the New Orleans Saints in Week 8, Beckham had eight receptions for 130 yards and three touchdowns. His performance against the Saints was the first of six consecutive games for him with at least 100 receiving yards. After recording 105 receiving yards against the Tampa Bay Buccaneers in the following game, he had 104 yards, which included an 87-yard receiving touchdown, in a 27–26 loss to the then-undefeated New England Patriots. In the next game, against the Washington Redskins, he had nine receptions for 142 yards and a touchdown. In the next game, a 23–20 loss to the New York Jets, he had six receptions for 149 yards and a touchdown. Against the Miami Dolphins in Week 14, Beckham had a season-high 166 yards receiving and two touchdowns in the 31–24 victory. During the Week 15 game against the Carolina Panthers, Beckham was involved in multiple confrontations with cornerback Josh Norman. During the matchup, Beckham was flagged for four penalties, including three personal foul penalties. Beckham was held to no receptions in the first half, but he finished the game with six receptions for 76 receiving yards, which included a game-tying touchdown as the Giants lost to the Panthers by a score of 38-35. On December 21, 2015, the NFL Disciplinary Committee suspended Beckham one game without pay for multiple violations of safety-related playing rules. He appealed the decision, but the suspension was upheld. In 15 games, Beckham finished the season with career highs of 1,450 receiving yards and 13 touchdowns. The Giants finished with a 6–10 record and missed the playoffs. He was a Pro Bowl selection for a second year in a row and was ranked 10th by his fellow players on the NFL Top 100 Players of 2016.


title: Odell Beckham Jr.

text: Beckham entered the 2016 season with a new head coach, Ben McAdoo, after Tom Coughlin resigned from his position as the Giants' head coach. On September 17, Beckham was fined $12,154 for a dance-celebration during Week 1 against the Cowboys. On September 25, he was fined $36,000 for a blindside hit on safety Kenny Vaccaro in Week 2 against the New Orleans Saints. During Week 3 against the Washington Redskins, featuring Josh Norman, Beckham became the fastest player to reach 200 receptions by doing so in only 30 games. He finished the game with seven receptions for 121 receiving yards as the Giants lost a close game 27–29. In Week 6, Beckham caught eight passes for a career-high 222 yards with two touchdowns against the Baltimore Ravens, leading the Giants to a 27–23 victory. In Week 13 against the Pittsburgh Steelers, he had ten receptions for 100 receiving yards in the 24–14 loss. In Week 16, against the Philadelphia Eagles, he had 11 receptions for 150 receiving yards in the 24–19 loss. In 2016, Beckham started all 16 games for the first time in his career and finished with 101 receptions, which was a career-high, 1,367 receiving yards, and ten touchdowns. He was a Pro Bowl selection for a third year in a row. The Giants finished 11–5 in 2016, clinching a Wild Card spot, and returned to the playoffs for the first time since 2011, but lost 13–38 to the Green Bay Packers. Beckham had four receptions for 28 yards in the loss. After the game, a frustrated Beckham punched a hole in the wall in the visiting teams' locker room. The Giants agreed to pay for damages and repairs were done ten days later. He was ranked eighth by his fellow players on the NFL Top 100 Players of 2017.


title: Odell Beckham Jr.

text: In the preseason, Beckham suffered an ankle sprain against the Cleveland Browns. Due to the injury, Beckham missed the regular season opener, but returned in Week 2 against the Detroit Lions, finishing with 36 receiving yards as the Giants lost 10–24. In the next game against the Philadelphia Eagles, he had 79 receiving yards and two receiving touchdowns, and was fined $12,154 for a celebration. During Week 5 against the Los Angeles Chargers, Beckham finished with 97 receiving yards and a touchdown until leaving the game with an apparent leg injury. It was later revealed that he suffered a fractured left ankle. The next day, the Giants announced that Beckham would undergo surgery to repair the fracture, keeping him out the remainder of the 2017 season after being placed on injured reserve. In four games, Beckham finished the 2017 season with 25 receptions for 302 yards and three touchdowns. Despite only playing four games, he was still ranked 77th by his peers on the NFL Top 100 Players of 2018.


title: Odell Beckham Jr.

text: On August 27, 2018, Beckham signed a five-year, $95 million contract extension with the Giants with $41 million fully guaranteed with a total of $65 million in guarantees. In his first game back from injury, he recorded 11 receptions for 111 yards in the season-opening 20–15 loss to the Jacksonville Jaguars. After the Week 3 27–22 win over the Houston Texans, Beckham surpassed Lionel Taylor (319) for the most receptions by a player through his first 50 career games with 337 catches (he would be passed by Michael Thomas in 2019). During Week 5 against the Carolina Panthers, Beckham threw a pass to rookie Saquon Barkley that went for a 57-yard touchdown. In addition, Beckham finished with eight receptions for 131 receiving yards as the Giants lost 31-33. He became the first player since David Patten in 2001 and only the fourth since 1950 to record a passing touchdown of at least 50 yards while having at least 100 receiving yards in the same game. In Week 7, on "Monday Night Football", he had eight receptions for 143 yards and a touchdown in the 23–20 loss to the Atlanta Falcons. He followed that up with eight receptions for 136 yards in a 20–13 loss to the Washington Redskins. In Week 10 against the San Francisco 49ers, Beckham had four catches for 73 yards and two touchdowns in the 27–23 win. In Week 13 against the Chicago Bears, Beckham had three catches for 35 yards and a touchdown. He also threw a 49-yard touchdown pass to Russell Shepard in the 30–27 win. He became the first non-quarterback with multiple passing touchdowns in a season since Antwaan Randle El in 2010. In addition, he became the first player to record multiple games with a touchdown pass and a receiving touchdown in a single season since Eddie Kaw and Benny Boynton accomplished the feat for the 1924 Buffalo Bisons. Beckham was inactive for the final four games of the season due to a quad injury. He finished the season with 77 receptions, 1,052 yards, six touchdowns, and threw two passes for touchdowns. He was ranked 23rd by his fellow players on the NFL Top 100 Players of 2019.


title: Odell Beckham Jr.

text: On March 13, 2019, Beckham was acquired by the Cleveland Browns, along with Olivier Vernon, in exchange for Jabrill Peppers, Kevin Zeitler, and the Browns' first- and third-round picks in the 2019 NFL Draft.