title: Notre-Dame de Paris

text: Since 1449, the Parisian goldsmith guild had made regular donations to the cathedral chapter. In 1630, it was decided that the guild would donate a large altarpiece every year on the first of May. These works came to be known as the "grands mays". The subject matter was restricted to episodes from the Acts of the Apostles. The prestigious commission was awarded to the most prominent painters and, after 1648, members of the Académie Royale.


title: Notre-Dame de Paris

text: Seventy-six paintings had been donated by 1708, when the custom was discontinued for financial reasons. Those works were confiscated in 1793 and the majority were subsequently dispersed among regional museums in France. Those that remained in the cathedral were removed or relocated within the building by the 19th-century restorers.


title: Notre-Dame de Paris

text: An altarpiece depicting the "Visitation," painted by Jean Jouvenet in 1707, was also located in the cathedral.


title: Notre-Dame de Paris

text: The canon Antoine de La Porte commissioned for Louis XIV six paintings depicting the life of the Virgin Mary for the choir. At this same time, Charles de La Fosse painted his "Adoration of the Magi", now in the Louvre. Louis Antoine de Noailles, archbishop of Paris, extensively modified the roof of Notre-Dame in 1726, renovating its framing and removing the gargoyles with lead gutters. Noailles also strengthened the buttresses, galleries, terraces, and vaults. In 1756, the cathedral's canons decided that its interior was too dark. The medieval stained glass windows, except the rosettes, were removed and replaced with plain, white glass panes. Finally, Jacques-Germain Soufflot was tasked with the modification of the portals at the front of the cathedral to allow processions to more easily enter it.


title: Notre-Dame de Paris

text: After the French Revolution in 1789, Notre-Dame and the rest of the church's property in France was seized and made public property. The cathedral was rededicated in 1793 to the Cult of Reason, and then to the Cult of the Supreme Being in 1794. During this time, many of the treasures of the cathedral were either destroyed or plundered. The twenty-eight statues of biblical kings located at the west façade, mistaken for statues of French kings, were beheaded. Many of the heads were found during a 1977 excavation nearby, and are on display at the Musée de Cluny. For a time the Goddess of Liberty replaced the Virgin Mary on several altars. The cathedral's great bells escaped being melted down. All of the other large statues on the façade, with the exception of the statue of the Virgin Mary on the portal of the cloister, were destroyed. The cathedral came to be used as a warehouse for the storage of food and other non-religious purposes.


title: Notre-Dame de Paris

text: With the Concordat of 1801, Napoleon Bonaparte restored Notre-Dame to the Catholic Church, though this was only finalized on 18 April 1802. Napoleon also named Paris's new bishop, Jean-Baptiste de Belloy, who restored the cathedral's interior. Charles Percier and Pierre-François-Léonard Fontaine made quasi-Gothic modifications to Notre-Dame for the coronation of Napoleon as Emperor of the French within the cathedral. The building's exterior was whitewashed and the interior decorated in Neoclassical, then in vogue.


title: Notre-Dame de Paris

text: In the decades after the Napoleonic Wars, Notre-Dame fell into such a state of disrepair that Paris officials considered its demolition. Victor Hugo, who admired the cathedral, wrote the novel "Notre-Dame de Paris" (published in English as "The Hunchback of Notre-Dame") in 1831 to save Notre-Dame. The book was an enormous success, raising awareness of the cathedral's decaying state. The same year as Hugo's novel was published, however, anti-Legitimists plundered Notre-Dame's sacristy. In 1844 King Louis Philippe ordered that the church be restored.


title: Notre-Dame de Paris

text: The architect who had hitherto been in charge of Notre-Dame's maintenance, Étienne-Hippolyte Godde, was dismissed. In his stead, Jean-Baptiste Lassus and Eugène Viollet-le-Duc, who had distinguished themselves with the restoration of the nearby Sainte-Chapelle, were appointed in 1844. The next year, Viollet-le-Duc submitted a budget of 3,888,500 francs, which was reduced to 2,650,000 francs, for the restoration of Notre-Dame and the construction of a new sacristy building. This budget was exhausted in 1850, and work stopped as Viollet-le-Duc made proposals for more money. In totality, the restoration cost over 12 million francs. When Lassus died in 1857, Viollet-le-Duc was left sole architect of the project until its completion on 31 May 1864. Supervising a large team of sculptors, glass makers and other craftsmen, and working from drawings or engravings, Viollet-le-Duc remade or added decorations if he felt they were in the spirit of the original style. One of the latter items was a taller and more ornate spire, to replace the original 13th century spire, which had been removed in 1786. The decoration of the restoration included a statue of Saint Thomas that resembles Viollet-le-Duc, as well as the sculpture of mythical creatures on the "Galerie des Chimères".


title: Notre-Dame de Paris

text: The construction of the sacristy was especially financially costly. To secure a firm foundation, it was necessary for Viollet-le-Duc's labourers to dig . Master glassworkers meticulously copied styles of the 13th century, as written about by art historians Antoine Lusson and Adolphe Napoléon Didron.


title: Notre-Dame de Paris

text: During the Paris Commune of March-May 1871, the Cathedral and other churches were closed down, and some two hundred priests and the Archbishop of Paris were taken as hostages. In May, during the Semaine sanglante of "Bloody Week", as the army recaptured the city, the Communards targeted the cathedral, along with the Tuileries Palace and other landmarks, for destruction; the Communards piled the furniture together in order to burn the cathedral. The arson was halted when the Communard government realised that the fire would also destroy the neighbouring Hôtel-Dieu hospital, filled with hundreds of patients.


title: Notre-Dame de Paris

text: During the liberation of Paris in August 1944, the cathedral suffered some minor damage from stray bullets. Some of the medieval glass was damaged, and was replaced by glass with modern abstract designs. On 26 August, a special mass was held in the cathedral to celebrate the liberation of Paris from the Germans; it was attended by General Charles De Gaulle and General Philippe Leclerc.


title: Notre-Dame de Paris

text: In 1963, on the initiative of culture minister André Malraux and to mark the 800th anniversary of the cathedral, the façade was cleaned of the centuries of soot and grime, restoring it to its original off-white colour.


title: Notre-Dame de Paris

text: On 19 January 1969, vandals placed a North Vietnamese flag atop a spire of the Notre Dame, and sabotaged the stairway leading to it. The flag was cut from the spire by Paris Fire Brigade Sergeant Raymond Belle in a daring helicopter mission, the first of its kind in France.


title: Notre-Dame de Paris

text: The Requiem Mass of Charles de Gaulle was held in Notre-Dame on 12 November 1970. The next year, on 26 June 1971, Philippe Petit walked across a tight-rope strung up between Notre-Dame's two bell towers and entertained spectators.


title: Notre-Dame de Paris

text: After the Magnificat of 30 May 1980, Pope John Paul II celebrated Mass on the parvis of the cathedral.


title: Notre-Dame de Paris

text: The Requiem Mass of François Mitterrand was held at the cathedral, as with past French heads of state, on 11 January 1996.


title: Notre-Dame de Paris

text: The stone masonry of the cathedral's exterior had deteriorated in the 19th and 20th century due to increased air pollution in Paris, which accelerated erosion of decorations and discoloured the stone. By the late 1980s, several gargoyles and turrets had also fallen off or become too loose to remain in place. A decade-long renovation programme began in 1991 and replaced much of the exterior, with care given to retain the authentic architectural elements of the cathedral, including rigorous inspection of new limestone blocks. A discreet system of electrical wires, not visible from below, was also installed on the roof to deter pigeons. The cathedral's pipe organ was upgraded with a computerized system to control the mechanical connections to the pipes. The west face was cleaned and restored in time for millennium celebrations in December 1999.


title: Notre-Dame de Paris

text: The Requiem Mass of Cardinal Jean-Marie Lustiger, former archbishop of Paris and Jewish convert to Catholicism, was held in Notre-Dame on 10 August 2007.


title: Notre-Dame de Paris

text: The set of four 19th-century bells atop the northern towers at Notre-Dame were melted down and recast into new bronze bells in 2013, to celebrate the building's 850th anniversary. They were designed to recreate the sound of the cathedral's original bells from the 17th century. Despite the 1990s renovation, the cathedral had continued to show signs of deterioration that prompted the national government to propose a new renovation program in the late 2010s. The entire renovation was estimated to cost €100 million, which the archbishop of Paris planned to raise through funds from the national government and private donations. A €6 million renovation of the cathedral's spire began in late 2018 and continued into the following year, requiring the temporary removal of copper statues on the roof and other decorative elements days before the April 2019 fire.


title: Notre-Dame de Paris

text: Notre-Dame began a year-long celebration of the 850th anniversary of the laying of the first building block for the cathedral on 12 December 2012. During that anniversary year, on 21 May 2013, Dominique Venner, a historian and white nationalist, placed a letter on the church altar and shot himself, dying instantly. Around 1,500 visitors were evacuated from the cathedral.


title: Notre-Dame de Paris

text: French police arrested two people on 8 September 2016 after a car containing seven gas canisters was found near Notre-Dame.


title: Notre-Dame de Paris

text: On 10 February 2017, French police arrested four persons in Montpellier already known by authorities to have ties to radical Islamist organizations on charges of plotting to travel to Paris and attack the cathedral. Later that year, on 6 June, visitors were shut inside Notre-Dame cathedral in Paris after a man with a hammer attacked a police officer outside.


title: Notre-Dame de Paris

text: On 15 April 2019 the cathedral caught fire, destroying the spire and the "forest" of oak roof beams supporting the lead roof. It was speculated that the fire was linked to ongoing renovation work.


title: Notre-Dame de Paris

text: According to later studies, the fire broke out in the attic of the cathedral at 18:18. The smoke detectors immediately signaled the fire to a cathedral employee, who did not summon the fire brigade but instead sent a cathedral guard to investigate. Instead of going to the correct attic, the guard was sent to the wrong location, to the attic of the adjoining sacristy, and reported there was no fire. The guard telephoned his supervisor, who did not immediately answer. About fifteen minutes later the error was discovered, whereupon the guard's supervisor told him to go to the correct location. The fire brigade was still not notified. By the time the guard had climbed the three hundred steps to the cathedral attic the fire was well advanced. The alarm system was not designed to automatically notify the fire brigade, which was finally summoned at 18:51 after the guard had returned from the attic and reported a now-raging fire, and more than half an hour after the fire alarm had begun sounding.


title: Notre-Dame de Paris

text: The spire of the cathedral collapsed at 19:50, bringing down some 750 tonnes of stone and lead. The firefighters inside were ordered back down. By this time the fire had spread to the north tower, where the eight bells were located. The firefighters concentrated their efforts in the tower. They feared that, if the bells fell, they could wreck the tower, and endanger the structure of the other tower and the whole cathedral. They had to ascend a stairway threatened by fire, and to contend with low water pressure for their hoses. As other firefighters watered the stairway and the roof, a team of twenty climbed up the narrow stairway of the south tower, crossed to the north tower, lowered hoses to be connected to fire engines outside the cathedral, and sprayed water on the fire beneath the bells. By 21:45, they were finally able to bring the fire under control.


title: Notre-Dame de Paris

text: The main structure was intact; firefighters saved the façade, towers, walls, buttresses, and stained glass windows. The Great Organ, which has over 8,000 pipes and was built by François Thierry in the 18th century was also saved but sustained water damage. Because of the ongoing renovation, the copper statues on the spire had been removed before the fire. The stone vaulting that forms the ceiling of the cathedral had several holes but was otherwise intact.


title: Notre-Dame de Paris

text: Since 1905, France's cathedrals (including Notre-Dame) have been owned by the state, which is self-insured. Some costs might be recovered through insurance coverage if the fire is found to have been caused by contractors working on the site. The French insurer AXA provided insurance coverage for two of the contracting firms working on Notre-Dame's restoration before the blaze. AXA also provided insurance coverage for some of the relics and artworks in the cathedral.


title: Notre-Dame de Paris

text: President Emmanuel Macron said approximately 500 firefighters helped to battle the fire. One firefighter was seriously injured and two police officers were hurt during the blaze.


title: Notre-Dame de Paris

text: An ornate tapestry woven in the early 1800s is going on public display for only the third time in recent decades. The decoration was rescued from Notre-Dame de Paris cathedral after the fire.


title: Notre-Dame de Paris

text: For the first time in more than 200 years, the Christmas mass was not hosted at the cathedral on 25 December 2019, due to the ongoing restoration work after the fire.


title: Notre-Dame de Paris

text: Eight members of the cathedral choir, a number limited by COVID-19 pandemic restrictions, performed inside the building for the first time since the fire in December 2020. A video of the event aired later, just before midnight on 24 December 2020.


title: Notre-Dame de Paris

text: Immediately after the fire, President Macron promised that Notre-Dame would be restored, and called for the work to be completed within five years. An international architectural competition was also announced to redesign the spire and roof. The hasty spire competition announcement drew immediate criticism in the international press from heritage academics and professionals who faulted the French government for being too narrowly focused on quickly building a new spire, and neglecting to frame its response more holistically as an inclusive social process encompassing the whole building and its long-term users. A new law was immediately drafted to make Notre Dame exempt from existing heritage laws and procedures, which prompted an open letter to President Macron signed by over 1,170 heritage experts urging respect for existing regulations. The law, which passed on 11 May 2019, was hotly debated in the French National Assembly, with opponents accusing Macron's administration of using Notre-Dame self-servingly for political grandstanding, and defenders arguing the need for expediency and tax breaks to encourage philanthropic giving.


title: Notre-Dame de Paris

text: President Macron suggested he was open to a "contemporary architectural gesture". Even before the competition rules were announced, architects around the world offered suggestions: the proposals included a 100-meter (300') spire made of carbon fibre, covered with gold leaf; a roof built of stained glass; a greenhouse; a garden with trees, open to the sky; and a column of light pointed upwards. A poll published in the French newspaper "Le Figaro" on 8 May 2019 showed that 55% of French respondents wanted a spire identical to the original. French culture minister Franck Riester promised that the restoration "will not be hasty." On 29 July 2019, the French National Assembly enacted a law requiring that the restoration must "preserve the historic, artistic and architectural interest of the monument".


title: Notre-Dame de Paris

text: In October 2019, the French government announced that the first stage of reconstruction, the stabilising of the structure against collapse, would take until the end of 2020. Reconstruction could not begin before early 2021. President Macron announced that he hoped the reconstructed Cathedral could be finished by Spring 2024, in time for the opening of the 2024 Summer Olympics. In December 2019, Monseigneur Patrick Chauvet, the rector of the cathedral, said there was still a 50% chance that Notre-Dame cannot be saved due to the risk of the remaining scaffolding falling onto the three damaged vaults.


title: Notre-Dame de Paris

text: The first task of the restoration was the removal of 250–300 tonnes of melted metal tubes, the remains of the scaffolding, which remained on the top after the fire and could have fallen onto the vaults and caused further structural damage. This stage began in February 2020 and continued through April 2020. A large crane, eighty-four metres (275') high, was put in place next to the cathedral to help remove the scaffolding. Later, wooden support beams were added to stabilise the flying buttresses and other structures.


title: Notre-Dame de Paris

text: On 10 April 2020, the archbishop of Paris, Michel Aupetit, and a handful of participants, all in protective clothing to prevent exposure to lead dust, performed a Good Friday service inside the cathedral. Music was provided by the violinist Renaud Capuçon; the lectors were the actors Philippe Torreton and Judith Chemla. Chemla gave an a cappella rendition of "Ave Maria".


title: Notre-Dame de Paris

text: A new phase of the restoration commenced on 8 June 2020. Two teams of workers began descending into the roof to remove the tangle of tubes of the old scaffolding melted by the fire. The workers used saws to cut up the forty thousand pieces of scaffolding, weighing altogether two hundred tons, which was carefully lifted out of the roof by an eighty-meter (262') tall crane. The phase was completed in November 2020.


title: Notre-Dame de Paris

text: In February 2021, the selection of oak trees to replace the spire and roof timbers destroyed by the fire began. As many as a thousand mature trees will be chosen from the forests of France, each of a diameter of 50 to 90 centimetres (20" to 36") and a height of eight to fourteen meters (26' to 45'), and an age of several hundred years. Once cut, the trees must dry for twelve to eighteen months. The trees will be replaced by new plantings.


title: Notre-Dame de Paris

text: Two years after the fire, a great deal of work had been completed but a news report stated that: "there is still a hole on top of the church. They’re also building a replica of the church’s spire". More oak trees needed to be shipped to Paris, where they would need to be dried before use; they will be essential in completing the restoration.


title: Notre-Dame de Paris

text: On September 18, 2021, the public agency overseeing the Cathedral stated that the safety work was completed and the cathedral was now fully secured, and that reconstruction would begin within a few months.


title: Notre-Dame de Paris

text: In 2022, a preventive dig carried out between February and April before the construction of a scaffold for reconstructing the cathedral's spire unearthed several statues and tombs under the cathedral. One of the discoveries included a 14th-century lead


title: Notre-Dame de Paris

text: sarcophagus that was found 65 feet below where the transept crosses the church’s 12th-century nave. On April 14, 2022, France's National Archaeological Research Institute (INRAP) announced that the sarcophagus was extracted from the cathedral and that scientists have already peeked into the casket using an endoscopic camera, revealing the upper part of a skeleton. Another significant discovery was an opening below the cathedral floor, likely made around 1230 when the Gothic cathedral was first under construction; inside were fragments of a choir screen dating from the 13th century that had been destroyed in the early 18th century.


title: Notre-Dame de Paris

text: The two towers are high, and were the tallest structures in Paris until the completion of the Eiffel Tower in 1889. The towers were the last major element of the cathedral to be constructed. The south tower was built first, between 1220 and 1240, and the north tower between 1235 and 1250. The newer north tower is slightly larger, as can be seen when they are viewed from directly in front of the church. The "contrefort" or buttress of the north tower is also larger.


title: Notre-Dame de Paris

text: The south tower was accessible to visitors by a stairway, whose entrance was on the south side of the tower. The stairway has 387 steps, and has a stop at the Gothic hall at the level of the rose window, where visitors could look over the parvis and see a collection of paintings and sculpture from earlier periods of the cathedral's history.


title: Notre-Dame de Paris

text: A lead-roofed water reservoir between the two towers – behind the colonnade and the gallery and before the nave and the "pignon" (gable) – provides water for firefighting.


title: Notre-Dame de Paris

text: The cathedral's flèche (or spire) was located over the transept. The original spire was constructed in the 13th century, probably between 1220 and 1230. It was battered, weakened and bent by the wind over five centuries, and finally was removed in 1786. During the 19th-century restoration, Eugène Viollet-le-Duc decided to recreate it, making a new version of oak covered with lead. The entire spire weighed 750 tonnes.


title: Notre-Dame de Paris

text: Following Viollet-le-Duc's plans, the spire was surrounded by copper statues of the twelve Apostlesa group of three at each point of the compass. In front of each group is a symbol representing one of the four evangelists: a winged ox for Saint Luke, a lion for Saint Mark, an eagle for Saint John and an angel for Saint Matthew. Just days prior to the fire, the statues were removed for restoration. While in place, they had faced outwards towards Paris, except one: the statue of Saint Thomas, the patron saint of architects, faced the spire, and had the features of Viollet-le-Duc.


title: Notre-Dame de Paris

text: The rooster weathervane atop the spire contained three relics: a tiny piece from the Crown of Thorns in the cathedral treasury, and relics of Saint Denis and Saint Genevieve, patron saints of Paris. They were placed there in 1935 by Archbishop Jean Verdier, to protect the congregation from lightning or other harm. The rooster with relics intact was recovered in the rubble shortly after the fire.


title: Notre-Dame de Paris

text: The Gothic cathedral was a "liber pauperum", a "poor people's book", covered with sculptures vividly illustrating biblical stories, for the vast majority of parishioners who were illiterate. To add to the effect, all of the sculpture on the façades was originally painted and gilded.


title: Notre-Dame de Paris

text: The tympanum over the central portal on the west façade, facing the square, vividly illustrates the Last Judgment, with figures of sinners being led off to hell, and good Christians taken to heaven. The sculpture of the right portal shows the coronation of the Virgin Mary, and the left portal shows the lives of saints who were important to Parisians, particularly Saint Anne, the mother of the Virgin Mary.


title: Notre-Dame de Paris

text: The exteriors of cathedrals and other Gothic churches were also decorated with sculptures of a variety of fabulous and frightening grotesques or monsters. These included the gargoyle, the chimera, a mythical hybrid creature which usually had the body of a lion and the head of a goat, and the Strix or stryge, a creature resembling an owl or bat, which was said to eat human flesh. The "strix" appeared in classical Roman literature; it was described by the Roman poet Ovid, who was widely read in the Middle Ages, as a large-headed bird with transfixed eyes, rapacious beak, and greyish white wings. They were part of the visual message for the illiterate worshipers, symbols of the evil and danger that threatened those who did not follow the teachings of the church.


title: Notre-Dame de Paris

text: The gargoyles, which were added in about 1240, had a more practical purpose. They were the rain spouts of the cathedral, designed to divide the torrent of water which poured from the roof after rain, and to project it outwards as far as possible from the buttresses and the walls and windows where it might erode the mortar binding the stone. To produce many thin streams rather than a torrent of water, a large number of gargoyles were used, so they were also designed to be a decorative element of the architecture. The rainwater ran from the roof into lead gutters, then down channels on the flying buttresses, then along a channel cut in the back of the gargoyle and out of the mouth away from the cathedral.


title: Notre-Dame de Paris

text: Amid all the religious figures, some of the sculptural decoration was devoted to illustrating medieval science and philosophy. The central portal of the west façade is decorated with carved figures holding circular plaques with symbols of transformation taken from alchemy. The central pillar of the central door of Notre-Dame features a statue of a woman on a throne holding a sceptre in her left hand, and in her right hand, two books, one open (symbol of public knowledge), and the other closed (esoteric knowledge), along with a ladder with seven steps, symbolizing the seven steps alchemists followed in their scientific quest of trying to transform ordinary metals into gold.


title: Notre-Dame de Paris

text: Many of the statues, particularly the grotesques, were removed from the façade in the 17th and 18th centuries, or were destroyed during the French Revolution. They were replaced with figures in the Gothic style, designed by Eugène Viollet-le-Duc, during the 19th-century restoration.


title: Notre-Dame de Paris

text: The stained glass windows of Notre-Dame, particularly the three rose windows, are among the most famous features of the cathedral. The west rose window, over the portals, was the first and smallest of the roses in Notre-Dame. It is 9.6 metres (32') in diameter, and was made in about 1225, with the pieces of glass set in a thick circular stone frame. None of the original glass remains in this window; it was recreated in the 19th century.


title: Notre-Dame de Paris

text: The two transept windows are larger and contain a greater proportion of glass than the rose on the west façade, because the new system of buttresses made the nave walls thinner and stronger. The north rose was created in about 1250, and the south rose in about 1260. The south rose in the transept is particularly notable for its size and artistry. It is 12.9 metres (42') in diameter; with the "claire-voie" surrounding it, a total of 19 metres (62'). It was given to the cathedral by King Louis IX of France, known as Saint Louis.


title: Notre-Dame de Paris

text: The south rose has 94 medallions, arranged in four circles, depicting scenes from the life of Christ and those who witnessed his time on earth. The inner circle has twelve medallions showing the twelve apostles. (During later restorations, some of these original medallions were moved to circles farther out). The next two circles depict celebrated martyrs and virgins. The fourth circle shows twenty angels, as well as saints important to Paris, notably Saint Denis, Margaret the Virgin with a dragon, and Saint Eustace. The third and fourth circles also have some depictions of Old Testament subjects. The third circle has some medallions with scenes from the New Testament Gospel of Matthew which date from the last quarter of the 12th century. These are the oldest glass in the window.


title: Notre-Dame de Paris

text: Additional scenes in the corners around the rose window include Jesus' Descent into Hell, Adam and Eve, the Resurrection of Christ. Saint Peter and Saint Paul are at the bottom of the window, and Mary Magdalene and John the Apostle at the top.


title: Notre-Dame de Paris

text: Above the rose was a window depicting Christ triumphant seated in the sky, surrounded by his Apostles. Below are sixteen windows with painted images of Prophets. These were not part of the original window; they were painted during the restoration in the 19th century by Alfred Gérenthe, under the direction of Eugène Viollet-le-Duc, based upon a similar window at Chartres Cathedral.


title: Notre-Dame de Paris

text: The south rose had a difficult history. In 1543 it was damaged by the settling of the masonry walls, and not restored until 1725–1727. It was seriously damaged in the French Revolution of 1830. Rioters burned the residence of the archbishop, next to the cathedral, and many of the panes were destroyed. The window was entirely rebuilt by Viollet-le-Duc in 1861. He rotated the window by fifteen degrees to give it a clear vertical and horizontal axis, and replaced the destroyed pieces of glass with new glass in the same style. The window today contains both medieval and 19th century glass.


title: Notre-Dame de Paris

text: In the 1960s, after three decades of debate, it was decided to replace many of the 19th-century grisaille windows in the nave designed by Viollet-le-Duc with new windows. The new windows, made by Jacques Le Chevallier, are without human figures and use abstract "grisaille" designs and colour to try to recreate the luminosity of the cathedral's interior in the 13th century.


title: Notre-Dame de Paris

text: The massive fire left the three great medieval rose windows essentially intact, but with some damage. The rector of the Cathedral noted that one rose window would have to be dismantled, as it was unstable and at risk. Most of the other damaged windows were of much less historical value.


title: Notre-Dame de Paris

text: Unlike some other French cathedrals, Notre-Dame was originally constructed without a crypt. In the medieval period, burials were made directly into the floor of the church, or in above-ground sarcophagi, some with tomb effigies (French: "gisant"). High-ranking clergy and some royals were buried in the choir and apse, while many others, including lower-ranking clergy and lay people, were buried in the nave or chapels. There is no surviving complete record of all of the burials made at this time.


title: Notre-Dame de Paris

text: In 1699, many of the choir tombs were disturbed or covered over during a major renovation project. Remains which were exhumed were reburied in a common tomb beside the high altar. In 1711, a small crypt measuring about six meters by six meters (20' x 20') was dug out in the middle of the choir which was used as a burial vault for the archbishops, if they had not requested to be buried elsewhere. It was during this excavation that the 1st century Pillar of the Boatmen was discovered. In 1758, three more crypts were dug in the Chapel of Saint-Georges to be used for burials of canons of Notre-Dame. In 1765, a larger crypt was built under the nave to be used for burials of canons, beneficiaries, chaplains, cantors, and choirboys. Between 1771 and 1773, the cathedral floor was repaved with black and white marble tiles, which covered over most of the remaining tombs. This prevented many of these tombs from being disturbed during the Revolution.


title: Notre-Dame de Paris

text: In 1858, the choir crypt was expanded to stretch most of the length of the choir. During this project, many medieval tombs were rediscovered. Likewise the nave crypt was also rediscovered in 1863 when a larger vault was dug out to install a vault heater. Many other tombs are also located in the chapels.


title: Notre-Dame de Paris

text: One of the earliest organs at Notre-Dame, built in 1403 by Frédéric Schambantz, was rebuilt many times over the course of 300 years, however 12 pipes and some wood survive from this ancient instrument. It was replaced between 1730 and 1738 by François Thierry, and later rebuilt by François-Henri Clicquot. During the restoration of the cathedral by Eugène Viollet-le-Duc, Aristide Cavaillé-Coll built a new organ, using pipework from the former instruments. The organ was dedicated in 1868.


title: Notre-Dame de Paris

text: In 1904, Charles Mutin modified and added several stops upon the suggestions of titular organist Louis Vierne; in 1924, an electric blower was installed, which was financed by Rolls-Royce CEO, Claude Johnson. An extensive restoration and cleaning was carried out by Joseph Beuchet in 1932 which mostly included changes to the Récit. Between 1959 and 1963, the mechanical action with Barker levers was replaced with an electric action by Jean Hermann, and a new organ console was installed.


title: Notre-Dame de Paris

text: During the following years, the stoplist was gradually modified by Robert Boisseau (who added three chamade stops: 8′, 4′, and 2′/16′ - now 8' in 1968) and Jean-Loup Boisseau after 1975, respectively - all upon the orders of Pierre Cochereau. In autumn 1983, the electric combination system was disconnected due to short-circuit risk.


title: Notre-Dame de Paris

text: Between 1990 and 1992, Jean-Loup Boisseau, Bertrand Cattiaux, Philippe Émeriau, Michel Giroud, and the Société Synaptel revised and augmented the instrument throughout. A new frame for the Jean Hermann console was created. Between 2012 and 2014, Bertrand Cattiaux and Pascal Quoirin restored, cleaned, and modified the organ. The stop and key action was upgraded, a new frame for selected components of the Hermann-Boisseau-Cattiaux console was created, a new enclosed division ("Résonnance expressive", using pipework from the former "Petite Pédale" by Boisseau, which can now be used as a floating division), the organ case and the façade pipes were restored, and a general tuning was carried out. The current organ has 115 stops (156 ranks) on five manuals and pedal, and more than 8,000 pipes.


title: Notre-Dame de Paris

text: In addition to the great organ in the west end, the quire of the cathedral carries a medium-sized choir organ of 2 manuals, 30 stops and 37 ranks in a 19th-century case from the 1960s. It was heavily damaged by waterlogging, but is at least partially reusable. It also had a 5-stop single-manual continuo organ, which was completely destroyed by water from firefighters.


title: Notre-Dame de Paris

text: It was reported that the great organ itself suffered very little damage (mostly to one Principal 32' pipe and loads of dust) in the fire of April 2019, but will need cleaning.


title: Notre-Dame de Paris

text: Couplers: II/I, III/I, IV/I, V/I; III/II, IV/II, V/II; IV/III, V/III; V/IV, Octave grave général, inversion Positif/Grand-orgue, Tirasses (Grand-orgue, Positif, Récit, Solo, Grand-Chœur en 8; Grand-Orgue en 4, Positif en 4, Récit en 4, Solo en 4, Grand-Chœur en 4), Sub and Super octave couplers and Unison Off for all manuals (Octaves graves, octaves aiguës, annulation 8′). Octaves aiguës Pédalier.


title: Notre-Dame de Paris

text: Additional features: Coupure Pédalier. Coupure Chamade. Appel Résonnance. Sostenuto for all manuals and the pedal. Cancel buttons for each division. 50,000 combinations (5,000 groups each). Replay system.


title: Notre-Dame de Paris

text: The position of titular organist ("head" or "chief" organist; French: "titulaires des grandes orgues") of the great organ of Notre-Dame is considered one of the most prestigious organist posts in France, along with the post of titular organist of Saint Sulpice in Paris, Cavaillé-Coll's largest instrument.


title: Notre-Dame de Paris

text: After the death of Pierre Cochereau, the cathedral authorities controversially decided to go back to the Clicquot practice of having several titulaires, and also to guarantee that no one organist would have so much influence over the organ.


title: Notre-Dame de Paris

text: Notre-Dame currently has ten bells. The two largest bells, Emmanuel and Marie, are mounted in the south tower. The eight others; Gabriel, Anne Geneviève, Denis, Marcel, Étienne, Benoît-Joseph, Maurice, and Jean-Marie; are mounted in the north tower. In addition to accompanying regular activities at the cathedral, the bells have also rung to commemorate events of national and international significance, such as the armistice of 11 November 1918, the liberation of Paris, the fall of the Berlin Wall, and the September 11 attacks.


title: Notre-Dame de Paris

text: The bells are made with bronze for its resonance and resistance to corrosion. During the medieval period, they were often founded on the grounds of the cathedral so they would not need to be transported long distances. According to tradition, the bishop of Paris held a ceremony in which he blessed and baptized the bells, and a godparent formally bestowed a name on the bell. Most of the cathedral's early bells were named after the person who donated them, but they were also named after biblical figures, saints, bishops, and others.


title: Notre-Dame de Paris

text: After the baptism, the bells were hoisted into the towers through circular openings in the vaulted ceilings and mounted to headstocks to allow the bells to swing. Notre-Dame's bells swing on a straight swinging axis, meaning the axis of rotation is just above the crown of the bell. This style of ringing produces a clearer tone, as the clapper strikes the bell on the upswing, called a flying clapper. However, it also causes great horizontal forces, which can be up to one and a half times the weight of the bell. For this reason the bells are mounted within wooden belfries which are recessed from the towers' stone walls. These absorb the horizontal forces and prevent the bells from damaging the relatively brittle stonework. The current belfries date to the 19th century restoration.


title: Notre-Dame de Paris

text: Before the Revolution, it was common for the bells to break, and they were often removed for repairs or to be entirely recast, and sometimes renamed. The bell Guillaume, for example, was renamed three times and recast no less than five times between 1230 and 1770.


title: Notre-Dame de Paris

text: The practice of bell-ringing at Notre-Dame is recorded as early as 1198. By the end of the 14th century the bells were marking the civil hours, and in 1472 they began to call to prayer for the Angelus three times a day, both practices which continue today. During the Revolution, most of the cathedral's bells were removed and melted down. While many of them bore the names of the medieval bells, most were relatively recent recastings made from most of the same metal. During the 19th century restoration, four new bells were made for the north tower. These were replaced in 2012 with nine as part of the cathedral's 850th anniversary celebration.


title: Notre-Dame de Paris

text: In addition to the main bells, the cathedral has also had smaller secondary bells. These included a carillon in the medieval spire, three clock bells on the north transept in the 18th century, and six bells added in the 19th century – three in the reconstructed spire and three within the roof to be heard in the sanctuary. These were destroyed during the 2019 fire.


title: Notre-Dame de Paris

text: The first clocks used at Notre-Dame were clepsydras. These were used to tell the hours, which were marked by striking bells. In the 14th century Notre-Dame had two clepsydras running simultaneously, one in the cloister and one in the church itself. A lay chamberlain was responsible to keep the clocks filled with water and to notify a churchwarden when it was time to strike the bells for the hour.


title: Notre-Dame de Paris

text: In 1766, Guillot de Montjoye and Jean-Bernard de Vienne, canons and stewards of the church fabric, donated a mechanical clock to the cathedral. The movement was installed in a glass cabinet in the gallery beneath the north rose window and rang three bells placed outside above the north portal. Between 1812 and 1813, the clock and bells were moved to the north tower. A clock face was installed inside the church below the organ platform.


title: Notre-Dame de Paris

text: During Viollet-le-Duc's restoration in the 19th century, a new clock was made. The 1867 Collin-Wagner movement, measuring two metres (6.5 feet) across, was located in the forest underneath the central spire within a glass-enclosed room. This controlled four dormer clock faces visible on the transept roofs, two on each side. This clock was destroyed by the fire. Shortly after the fire, French clockmaker Jean-Baptiste Vior discovered an almost identical 1867 Collin-Wagner movement in storage at Sainte-Trinité Church in northern Paris. Olivier Chandez, who had been responsible for the upkeep of Notre-Dame's clock, described the find as "almost a miracle." While the clock cannot simply be installed in Notre-Dame itself, it is hoped that the clock can be used to create a new clock for Notre-Dame to the same specifications as the one which was destroyed.


title: Notre-Dame de Paris

text: Until the French Revolution, Notre-Dame was the property of the archbishop of Paris and therefore the Roman Catholic Church. It was nationalized on 2 November 1789 and since then has been the property of the French state. Under the Concordat of 1801, use of the cathedral was returned to the Church, but not ownership. Legislation from 1833 and 1838 clarified that cathedrals were maintained at the expense of the French government. This was reaffirmed in the 1905 law on the separation of Church and State, designating the Catholic Church as having the exclusive right to use it for religious purposes in perpetuity. Notre-Dame is one of seventy historic churches in France with this status. The archdiocese is responsible for paying the employees, for security, heating and cleaning, and for ensuring that the cathedral is open free to visitors. The archdiocese does not receive subsidies from the French state.


title: Sci-Hub

text: Sci-Hub is a shadow library website that provides free access to millions of research papers and books, without regard to copyright, by bypassing publishers' paywalls in various ways. Sci-Hub was founded in Kazakhstan by Alexandra Elbakyan in 2011, in response to the high cost of research papers behind paywalls (see Serials crisis). The site is extensively used worldwide. In September 2019, the site's owners said that it served approximately 400,000 requests per day. Sci-Hub has been estimated to contain 95% of all scholarly publications with issued DOI numbers. Sci-Hub reported on July 15, 2022, that its collection comprises 88,343,822 files.


title: Sci-Hub

text: Sci-Hub and Elbakyan were sued twice for copyright infringement in the United States, in 2015 and 2017, and lost both cases by default, leading to loss of some of its Internet domain names. The site has cycled through different domain names since then.


title: Sci-Hub

text: Sci-Hub has been lauded by some in the scientific, academic, and publishing communities for providing access to knowledge generated by the scientific community, which is usually funded by taxpayers (government grants) and with zero royalties paid to the authors. Publishers have criticized it for violating copyright, reducing the revenue of publishers, and potentially being linked to activities compromising universities' network security, though the cybersecurity threat posed by Sci-Hub may have been exaggerated by publishers.


title: Sci-Hub

text: Elbakyan responded by questioning the morality of the publishers' business and the legality of their methods in regards to the right to science and culture under of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, while maintaining that Sci-Hub should be "perfectly legal".


title: Sci-Hub

text: Since 2021, regular new content uploads to the site have been frozen and some new articles are not available except for some batch releases of content. Elbakyan made the decision to freeze new uploads as a requirement of the court case Sci-Hub is defending against Elsevier in India.


title: Sci-Hub

text: Sci-Hub was created by Alexandra Elbakyan, who was born in Kazakhstan in 1988. Elbakyan earned her undergraduate degree at Kazakh National Technical University studying information technology, then worked for a year for a computer security firm in Moscow, then joined a research team at the University of Freiburg in Germany in 2010 that was working on a brain–computer interface. She then became interested in transhumanism and after attending a transhumanism conference in the United States, Elbakyan spent her remaining time in the country doing a research internship at Georgia Institute of Technology.


title: Sci-Hub

text: She later returned to Kazakhstan, where she started research in a Kazakh university. According to Elbakyan, she experienced difficulty accessing scientific papers relevant to her research project. She began contributing to online forums dedicated to sharing research papers. In 2011, she developed Sci-Hub to automatically share papers. The site was launched on September 5, 2011.


title: Sci-Hub

text: In May 2021, Sci-Hub users collaborated to preserve the website's data, anticipating that the site may go offline. In September 2021, the site celebrated the tenth anniversary of its launch date by uploading on that single day over 2.3 million articles to its database.


title: Sci-Hub

text: Sci-Hub has cycled through domain names, some of which have been blocked by domain registry operators. Sci-Hub remained reachable via alternative domains such as .io, then .cc, and .bz. Sci-Hub has also been accessible at times by directly entering the IP address, or through a .onion Tor Hidden Service.


title: Sci-Hub

text: In 2015, Elsevier filed a lawsuit against Sci-Hub, in "Elsevier et al. v. Sci-Hub et al.", at the United States District Court for the Southern District of New York. Library Genesis (LibGen) was also a defendant in the case which may be based in either the Netherlands or also in Russia. It was the largest copyright infringement case that had been filed in the US, or in the world, at the time. Elsevier alleged that Sci-Hub violated copyright law and induced others to do so, and it alleged violations of the Computer Fraud and Abuse Act as well as inducements to violate that law. Elsevier asked for monetary damages and an injunction to stop the sharing of the papers. Elsevier has used accusations over the alleged security threat that Sci-Hub poses to institutions to encourage educational institutions to block its use.


title: Sci-Hub

text: Elbakyan responded to the case in an interview by accusing Elsevier of violating the right to science and culture under of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. She later wrote a letter to the court about the case describing her reasons for creating Sci-Hub, in which she stated, "Payment of 32 dollars [for each download] is just insane when you need to skim or read tens or hundreds of these papers to do research."


title: Sci-Hub

text: At the time the website was hosted in St. Petersburg, Russia, where judgments made by American courts were not enforceable, and Sci-Hub did not defend the lawsuit. In June 2017, the court awarded Elsevier US$15 million in damages for copyright infringement by Sci-Hub and others in a default judgment. The judgment found that Sci-Hub used accounts of students and academic institutions to access articles through Elsevier's platform ScienceDirect. The judgment also granted the injunction, which led to the loss of the original sci-hub.org domain.


title: Sci-Hub

text: In June 2017, the American Chemical Society (ACS) filed a lawsuit against Sci-Hub in the United States District Court for the Eastern District of Virginia, alleging copyright and trademark infringement; it sought judgment US$4.8 million from Sci-Hub in damages, and Internet service provider blocking of the Sci-Hub website. On 6 November 2017, the ACS was granted a default judgment, and a permanent injunction was granted against all parties in active concert or participation with Sci-Hub that has notice of the injunction, "including any Internet search engines, web hosting and Internet service providers, domain name registrars, and domain name registries", to cease facilitating access to the service. On 23 November 2017, four Sci-Hub domains had been rendered inactive by the court order and its CloudFlare account was terminated.


title: Sci-Hub

text: Since 2018, the White House Office of the US Trade Representative has cited Sci-Hub as one of the most flagrant "notorious market" sites in the world.


title: Sci-Hub

text: In October 2018, Swedish ISPs were forced to block access to Sci-Hub after a court case brought by Elsevier; Bahnhof, a large Swedish ISP, in return soft-blocked the Elsevier website.


title: Sci-Hub

text: In November 2018, Russia's Federal Service for Supervision of Communications, Information Technology and Mass Media blocked Sci-Hub and its mirror websites after a Moscow City Court ruling to comply with Elsevier's and Springer Nature's complaints regarding intellectual property infringement. The site moved to another domain and is still available online as of the 22nd of January 2022.


title: Sci-Hub

text: On 7 March 2019, following a complaint by Elsevier and Springer Nature, a French court ordered French ISPs to block access to Sci-Hub and Library Genesis. However, the court order did not affect the academic network Renater, through which most French academic access to Sci-Hub presumably goes.


title: Sci-Hub

text: Following the lawsuit by Elsevier in March 2019 in France, Elsevier, Springer, John Wiley, and Cambridge University Press filed a complaint against Proximus, VOO, Brutélé and Telenet to block access to Sci-Hub and LibGen. The publishers claimed to represent more than half of the scientific publishing sector, and indicated that over 90% of the contents on the sites infringed copyright laws; they won the lawsuit. Since then, the two sites are blocked by those ISPs; visitors are redirected to a stop page by Belgian Federal Police instead, citing illegality of the site's content under Belgian legislation.


title: Sci-Hub

text: In December 2020, Elsevier, Wiley and the American Chemical Society filed a copyright infringement lawsuit against Sci-Hub and Library Genesis in the Delhi High Court. The plaintiffs seek a dynamic injunction which means that any future domain, IP or name-change by the respondents will not require the plaintiffs to return to court for an additional injunction. The court restricted the sites from uploading, publishing or making any article available until 6 January 2021. In response to the lawsuit, as well as to Elbakyan's claim that the FBI had requested data from her Apple account, Reddit users on the subreddit "r/DataHoarder" organized to download and seed backups of the articles on Sci-Hub, with the intention of creating a decentralized and uncensorable version of the site.


title: Sci-Hub

text: The High Court agreed on 6 January 2021 to wait before passing any interim order in the case until they hear representations from scientists, researchers and students. A hearing was scheduled for 16 December 2021. A key component of Sci-Hub's legal defence is that it provides educational resources to researchers, and thus falls under a fair dealing exception in India's copyright law. This defence has previously been used by educational institutions to justify the reproduction of copyrighted materials for use by low-income students. A number of Indian academics have offered support to Sci-Hub after the lawsuit was filed. Multiple petitions were filed by scholars in India supporting Sci-Hub in the lawsuit.


title: Sci-Hub

text: In February 2021 Elsevier and Springer Nature obtained an injunction on TalkTalk to block the sci-hub.se domain as a result of a ruling handed down by a UK court. In March 2021 City of London police's Intellectual Property Crime Unit issued a warning to students and universities against accessing the website and to have the website blocked by universities with allegations that the website could steal credentials, mainly to download content from publishers and cause users to "inadvertently download potentially dangerous content" when visited. However, the allegation was denied by Elbakyan.


title: Sci-Hub

text: The site's operation is financed by user donations. The PHP code, the setup of the Linux web servers and the maintenance of it are all done by Elbakyan herself to avoid risk of moles or a broken team compromising the service. Over the years, various URL addresses and direct IP addresses have been used for Sci-Hub, as dozens of domain names have been confiscated by various legal authorities.


title: Sci-Hub

text: Sci-Hub obtains paywalled articles using leaked credentials. The source of the credentials used by Sci-Hub is unclear. Some appear to have been donated, some were apparently sold before going to Sci-Hub, and some appear to have been obtained via phishing and were then used by Sci-Hub. Elbakyan denied personally sending any phishing emails and said, "The exact source of the passwords was never personally important to me."


title: Sci-Hub

text: According to The Scholarly Kitchen, a blog established by the Society for Scholarly Publishing whose members are involved in legal action against Sci-Hub, credentials used by Sci-Hub to access paywalled articles are correlated to access of other information on university networks (such as cyber spying on universities) and credential sales in black markets. Several articles have reported that Sci-Hub has penetrated the computer networks of more than 370 universities in 39 countries. These include more than 150 institutions in the US, more than 30 in Canada, 39 in the UK and more than 10 in Sweden. The universities in the UK include Cambridge, Oxford, Imperial and King's College, London.


title: Sci-Hub

text: The Sci-Hub website provides access to articles from almost all academic publishers, including Elsevier, Springer/Nature, Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, American Chemical Society, Wiley Blackwell, and the Royal Society of Chemistry, as well as open-access works, and distributes them without regard to publishers' copyrights. It requires neither payments, nor subscriptions, nor registrations.


title: Sci-Hub

text: Users can access works from all sources with a unified interface, by entering the DOI in the search bar on the main page or in the Sci-Hub URL (like some academic link resolvers), or by appending the Sci-Hub domain to the domain of a publisher's URL (like some academic proxies). Sci-Hub redirects requests for some gold open access works, identified as such beyond the metadata available in CrossRef and Unpaywall. Some requests require the user to enter a CAPTCHA. Papers can also be accessed using a bot in the instant messaging service Telegram.


title: Sci-Hub

text: If the paper is in the repository already, the request is served immediately. If the paper is not already in the repository, a wait screen appears while the site presents someone else's credentials on behalf of the user to a series of proxies until it finds one that has access to the paper, which is then presented to the user and stored in the repository.


title: Sci-Hub

text: Until the end of 2014, Sci-Hub relied on LibGen as storage: papers requested by users were requested from LibGen and served from there if available, otherwise they were fetched by other means and then stored on LibGen. The permanent storage made it possible to serve more users than the previous system of deleting the cached content after 6 hours.


title: Sci-Hub

text: Since 2015, Sci-Hub uses its own storage for the same purpose. As of 2017, Sci-Hub was continuing to redirect requests for electronic books to Libgen.


title: Sci-Hub

text: After the site faced increased legal pressure in 2021, archivists initiated a rescue mission to secure enduring access to the website and its contents. They organized on a Reddit website to coordinate decentralized storage and delivery of Sci-Hub contents using BitTorrent technology.


title: Sci-Hub

text: Elbakyan has released download request logs from Sci-Hub servers covering periods from 2011-2013, 2015-2016, and 2017. Studies of the 2017 Sci-Hub download logs indicated that:


title: Sci-Hub

text: In February 2016, the website claimed to serve over 200,000 requests per day—an increase from an average of 80,000 per day before the "sci-hub.org" domain was blocked in 2015.


title: Sci-Hub

text: Server log data gathered from September 2015 to February 2016 and released by Elbakyan in 2016 revealed some usage information. A large amount of Sci-Hub's user activity came from American and European university campuses, and when adjusted for population, usage of Sci-Hub was high for developed countries. However, a large proportion of download requests came from developing countries such as Iran, China, India, Russia, Brazil, and Egypt. User activity covered all branches of science, engineering, medicine and humanities.


title: Sci-Hub

text: In March 2017, the website had 62 million papers in its collection, which were found to include 85% of the articles published in paywalled scholarly journals. Although only 69% of all published articles were in the database in March 2017, it has been estimated, based on scholarly citations from articles published between 2015 and July 2017, that at least 96% of requests for paywalled articles are successful.


title: Sci-Hub

text: On 27 July 2020, the Sci-Hub website reported that the cumulative number of downloads from the database exceeded one billion, that the average number of downloads per day was 300–600 thousand, and that the database continued its expansion into the pre-digital age, particularly into journal articles published prior to 1980. Among achievements in 2019, Sci-Hub reported the publication of about 15,000 letters by Charles Darwin, most of which were not available free of charge, although their copyrights had expired over 100 years ago. In 2019 Elbakyan also reported plans to allow access to Supplemental Information of journal articles in addition to the main texts, which are already available.


title: Sci-Hub

text: In the context of the big deal cancellations by several library systems in the world, in 2019, the wide usage of Sci-Hub was credited as one of the factors which reduced the apparent value of the subscriptions to toll access resources.


title: Sci-Hub

text: A 2016 analysis of 28 million requests to Sci-Hub published in Science with the title "Who's downloading pirated papers? Everyone" shows a map of Sci-Hub users with dots all over the world.


title: Sci-Hub

text: A 2020 a study by researchers from 4 countries on 3 continents found that articles downloaded from Sci-Hub were cited 1.72 times more than papers not downloaded from Sci-Hub; the study's methods and conclusions were disputed by Phil Davis in a Scholarly Kitchen article.


title: Sci-Hub

text: In a 2021 study conducted by the National Institute of Science, Technology and Development Studies and Banaras Hindu University on the use of Sci-Hub in India, 13,144,241 out of 150,575,861 download requests in 2017 were found to have come from Indian IP addresses. Of the research papers downloaded in India, 1,050,62 or 18.46% of these are already available in some form of open access. Indian users requested an average of 39,952 downloads per day from Sci-Hub in 2017.


title: Sci-Hub

text: A 2018 study found a relatively low use of Sci-Hub in China. This was attributed to blocking of many Sci-Hub hosting sites by Cyberspace Administration of China and the existence of a Chinese twin of Sci-Hub, which is not accessible outside of China, and is unknown to Western publishers. However, the situation in PR China changed in the next 3 years, since the data released by Elbakyan in February 2022, that show China having the largest number of downloads of any country


title: Sci-Hub

text: An analysis of locational data from January 2022 indicated that researchers worldwide are accessing papers using Sci-Hub. China which topped the chart had more than 25 million downloads in a month. US was the second largest (ca. 38% of PRC downloads), and France the 3rd largest (24% of the USA). India had the second highest number of individual users but only ranked fifth in downloads. This study only assessed downloads from the original Sci-Hub websites, and excluded replica or 'mirror' sites, therefore did not count downloads from places where the original domain is banned (e.g. the UK). Furthermore the use of VPN can skew some results (e.g. possibly India).


title: Sci-Hub

text: Sci-Hub effectively does academic archiving outside the bounds of contemporary copyright law, and, unlike Web archiving initiatives such as the Internet Archive, also provides access to academic works that do not have an open access license. There are data dumps of papers available on Sci-Hub.


title: Sci-Hub

text: In response to the COVID-19 pandemic, a group of online archivists have used Sci-Hub to create an archive of over 5000 articles about coronaviruses. They admit that making the archive openly accessible is illegal, but consider it a moral imperative.


title: Sci-Hub

text: Sci-Hub's interface is perceived by users as providing a superior user experience and convenience compared to the typical interfaces available to users who have access to a paid subscription.


title: Sci-Hub

text: Sci-Hub has been lauded as having "changed how we access knowledge". It raised awareness about the scientific publishing business models and its ethics of making researchers' institutions pay for their articles to be published, while providing and reviewing them without payment.


title: Sci-Hub

text: Support for open-access science publishing extends beyond Sci-Hub; Plan S is an initiative launched by Science Europe on 4 September 2018. It is an initiative of "cOAlition S", a consortium launched by major national research agencies and funders from twelve European countries. The plan requires scientists and researchers who benefit from state-funded research organisations and institutions to publish their work in open repositories or in journals that are available to all by 2021. The initiative is not a law.


title: Sci-Hub

text: Scientists in some European countries began negotiations with Elsevier and other academic publishers on introducing national open access.


title: Sci-Hub

text: Publishers have been very critical of Sci-Hub, going so far as to claim that it is undermining more widely accepted open-access initiatives, and that it ignores how publishers "work hard" to make access for third-world nations easier. It has also been criticized by librarians for compromising universities' network security and jeopardizing legitimate access to papers by university staff. The cybersecurity threat posed by Sci-Hub has been questioned, and the suggestion made that the threat has been exaggerated by large publishers keen to protect their business model by discrediting Sci-Hub or pushing Universities to block students access to Sci-Hub. Moreover, even prominent Western institutions such as Harvard and Cornell have had to cut down their access to publications due to ever-increasing subscription costs, potentially causing some of the highest use of Sci-Hub to be in American cities with well-known universities (this may however be due to the convenience of the site rather than a lack of access). Sci-Hub can be seen as one venue in a general trend in which research is becoming more accessible. Many academics, university librarians and longtime advocates for open scholarly research believe Elbakyan is "giving academic publishers their Napster moment", referring to the illegal music-sharing service that "disrupted and permanently altered the industry".


title: Sci-Hub

text: For her actions in creating Sci-Hub, Elbakyan has been called a hero and "spiritual successor to Aaron Swartz" who in 2010 downloaded millions of academic articles from JSTOR. She has also been compared to Edward Snowden. She has also been called a "Robin Hood of science".


title: Sci-Hub

text: Elbakyan responded by attacking "a double-dipping model, that benefits only to publishers, whilst creating an illusion of conformance with the Open Access goals", in a reference to hybrid open-access journals run by legacy publishers (like Elsevier and ACS), which charge APCs for some articles to make them gratis open access, while still selling subscriptions and other licenses to access the same journals.


title: Sci-Hub

text: In August 2016, the Association of American Publishers sent a letter to Gabriel J. Gardner, a researcher at California State University who has written papers on Sci-Hub and similar sites. The letter asked Gardner to stop promoting the site, which he had discussed at a session of a meeting of the American Library Association. In response, the publishing institution was highly criticized for trying to silence legitimate research into the topic, and the letter has since been published in full, and responded to by the dean of library services at Cal State Long Beach, who supported Gardner's work.


title: Sci-Hub

text: In December 2016, Nature Publishing Group named Elbakyan as one of the ten people who most mattered in science in 2016.


title: Sci-Hub

text: During the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, TorrentFreak said that Sci-Hub is the only option for academics in Russia to access to research articles, as fifteen major publishers suspended services in Russia.


title: Michael Cera

text: Michael Austin Cera (; ; born June 7, 1988) is a Canadian actor and musician. He started his career as a child actor, voicing the character of Brother Bear on the children's television show "The Berenstain Bears" and portraying a young Chuck Barris in "Confessions of a Dangerous Mind" (2002).


title: Michael Cera

text: He has had numerous roles in United States television and film productions, including character George Michael Bluth on the sitcom "Arrested Development" (2003–2006, 2013, 2018–2019) and for his film roles as Evan in "Superbad" (2007), Paulie Bleeker in "Juno" (2007), Scott Pilgrim in "Scott Pilgrim vs. the World" (2010), and a fictional version of himself in "This Is the End" (2013). He voiced Dick Grayson/Robin in "The Lego Batman Movie" (2017), Barry in "Sausage Party" (2016), and Sal Viscuso, the voice behind the announcements in "Childrens Hospital".


title: Michael Cera

text: Cera made his Broadway debut in the 2014 production of Kenneth Lonergan's "This Is Our Youth". For his performance in the 2018 production of Lonergan's "Lobby Hero", Cera was nominated for the Tony Award for Best Performance by a Featured Actor in a Play. Cera starred in the revival of Lonergan's "The Waverly Gallery".


title: Michael Cera

text: In addition to acting, Cera is a musician, having released his debut album "True That" in 2014. Cera has also performed as the touring bassist for indie rock supergroup Mister Heavenly.


title: Michael Cera

text: Cera was born in 1988 in Brampton, Ontario. He is the son of Linda (née Cockman) and Luigi Cera, a technician. His father is Sicilian (Italian), and his mother has Irish, Dutch, Scottish, and English ancestry. His parents both worked for Xerox. Cera has an older sister, Jordan, and a younger sister, Molly. He became interested in acting after viewing "Ghostbusters" repeatedly when sick with the chicken pox at the age of three. Cera memorized all the dialogue and idolized Bill Murray. He enrolled in The Second City, Toronto, and took improvisation classes.


title: Michael Cera

text: Cera attended Conestoga Public School, Robert H. Lagerquist Senior Public School, and Heart Lake Secondary School until grade nine. After starting acting, he completed school online through grade 12.


title: Michael Cera

text: His first role was an unpaid appearance in a Tim Hortons summer camp commercial. That appearance eventually landed him a position in a Pillsbury commercial, in which he poked the Pillsbury Doughboy and had his first role with lines.


title: Michael Cera

text: But in 1999, Cera moved beyond that: he was cast as Larrabe Hicks in the Canadian children's show "I Was a Sixth Grade Alien", which ran for two seasons. That year, he also appeared in the television films "What Katy Did" and "Switching Goals", starring the Olsen twins.


title: Michael Cera

text: The next year Cera made his theatrical film debut in the science fiction film "Frequency" (2000) as the son of Noah Emmerich's character. Cera also appeared in the films "Steal This Movie!" and "Ultimate G's: Zac's Flying Dream" in 2000. He had his first leading role in the latter film, which was presented in IMAX theaters. Cera appeared in several television films in 2001, including "My Louisiana Sky" and "The Familiar Stranger". He also began voicing Josh Spitz in the animated series "Braceface", which he continued until 2004.


title: Michael Cera

text: In 2002, Cera played the young Chuck Barris (played by Sam Rockwell) in the George Clooney-directed film "Confessions of a Dangerous Mind". He provided the voice for Brother Bear – an anthropomorphic bear – in the 2003 "The Berenstain Bears" animated series, which aired for three seasons.


title: Michael Cera

text: He had a role in the critically panned Fox pilot "The Grubbs" in 2002, which was never aired. But Cera successfully auditioned for a part in another Fox sitcom, "Arrested Development". This began airing in November 2003 and ran for three seasons. The show follows the formerly wealthy and dysfunctional Bluth family, with Cera playing George Michael Bluth, the teenage son of character Michael Bluth, played by Jason Bateman. After three seasons, Fox canceled the series in 2006 due to low viewership, although it had received critical acclaim. In 2006, Cera created and starred in a parody of "Impossible is Nothing", a video résumé created by Aleksey Vayner. Cera and his "Arrested Development" co-star Alia Shawkat guest-starred as a pair of college students in the teen noir drama "Veronica Mars", in the episode "The Rapes of Graff" in 2006.


title: Michael Cera

text: Along with best friend Clark Duke, Cera wrote and starred in a series of short videos released on their website. Duke originated the idea, as he was enrolled at Loyola Marymount University and used their videos for his film school studies. In 2007, the pair signed a deal with CBS Television to write, produce, direct, and act in a short-form comedy series entitled "Clark and Michael". The show featured guest stars such as David Cross, Andy Richter and Patton Oswalt, and was distributed via CBS's internet channel, CBS Innertube.


title: Michael Cera

text: In May 2007, Cera appeared in a staged comedy video that shows him being fired from the lead role of the film "Knocked Up", after belittling and arguing with its director Judd Apatow, in a scene that mocks the David O. Russell blow up on the set of "I Heart Huckabees". Cera starred in the Apatow-produced teen comedy "Superbad" alongside Jonah Hill. Their characters in the film – two virgin teenagers about to graduate from high school whose party plans go awry – were based on the comedy's writers Seth Rogen and Evan Goldberg. "Superbad" was released in cinemas in August 2007, topping the US box office for two weeks in a row.


title: Michael Cera

text: Cera's performance was critically acclaimed: "The Atlantic" reviewer said that the film "belongs to Michael Cera" for capturing "teenage sexual abashment as indelibly as he did in the role of George Michael [on "Arrested Development"]." "The New York Times" said that he was "excellent" and CNN praised Cera and Hill for playing "off each other beautifully".


title: Michael Cera

text: In November 2007, Cera hosted a live, staged version of "Saturday Night Live"; it was not broadcast due to the ongoing 2007 Writers Guild of America Strike. In his second film of 2007, Cera co-starred in "Juno" as Paulie Bleeker, a teenager who has impregnated his long-time school friend Juno (played by Elliot Page). For "Superbad" and "Juno", Cera won Breakthrough Artist in the Austin Film Critics Association Awards 2007, and was included in "Entertainment Weekly's" "30 Under 30" list in February 2008.


title: Michael Cera

text: Cera starred alongside Kat Dennings in the romantic comedy-drama "Nick & Norah's Infinite Playlist" (2008), in which they played two strangers who bond over their shared love of a band and try to find their secret show. He starred in the comedy "Extreme Movie" (2008), which was composed of vignettes focusing on teen sex. Cera held a recurring role on the comedy series "Childrens Hospital" from 2008 to 2016 as Sal Viscuso, a hospital staffer who is known only by his voice through an intercom.


title: Michael Cera

text: Cera played a fictionalized version of himself in the independent romantic comedy "Paper Heart" (2009). It explored the fictional relationship between Cera and the film's writer Charlyne Yi, also playing herself. Cera and Yi composed the film's score together. That year Cera starred opposite Jack Black in the comedy "Year One", set during the Stone Age. The film, directed by Harold Ramis, was poorly received, although "Time" magazine critic Mary Pols said that Cera's performance saved the film from being a "catastrophe". In his final film of 2009, Cera starred in "Youth in Revolt", an adaptation of the eponymous novel. He played a shy teenager named Nick Twisp who creates a destructive alter ego, François Dillinger, after becoming smitten with a girl, played by Portia Doubleday.


title: Michael Cera

text: Cera had also begun to write. His first published short story, "Pinecone", appeared in "McSweeney's Quarterly" thirtieth issue in 2009.


title: Michael Cera

text: Cera was cast as Scott Pilgrim in the film adaptation of the graphic novel series by Bryan Lee O'Malley. The film's director Edgar Wright had seen his work in "Arrested Development" and believed that Cera was an actor "audiences will still follow even when the character is being a bit of an ass". The film, "Scott Pilgrim vs. the World", follows Pilgrim, a musician who must battle the seven evil exes of his girlfriend Ramona (played by Mary Elizabeth Winstead). It was released in cinemas in August 2010. It did poorly at the box office, grossing $47.7 million against a production budget of $85–90 million.


title: Michael Cera

text: Cera made a guest appearance in "The Daughter Also Rises", a 2012 episode of the animated sitcom "The Simpsons", as the voice of Nick, a love interest to Lisa Simpson.


title: Michael Cera

text: Cera made his theater debut in a production of Kenneth Lonergan's play "This Is Our Youth" in a two-week run during March 2012 at the Sydney Opera House. The play also featured his "Scott Pilgrim" co-stars Kieran Culkin and Tavi Gevinson. A Broadway production at the Cort Theater opened in September 2014 and closed in January 2015. "The New York Times" theater critic Ben Brantley praised Cera for achieving "something remarkable": "the sense of an amorphous being assuming and losing shape in the course of roughly 12 hours". Also in 2012, Cera played a supporting role in the drama "The End of Love" and appeared in the short film "The Immigrant".


title: Michael Cera

text: "Arrested Development" was revived for a fourth season in 2012 by Netflix, with Cera reprising his role as George Michael Bluth. Cera also worked in the writers' room and served as a consulting producer during its production. The season was released in May 2013.


title: Michael Cera

text: Cera collaborated with Chilean filmmaker Sebastián Silva on two films in 2013 – "Magic Magic" and "Crystal Fairy & the Magical Cactus" – both of which were filmed in Chile and premiered at the 2013 Sundance Film Festival. He spent "five hours a day learning Spanish" for "Magic Magic". Cera was featured most prominently in "Crystal Fairy", in which he starred as a self-absorbed man travelling Chile with a woman named "Crystal Fairy" (played by Gaby Hoffmann) while bearing a cactus. Along with Reggie Watts, Tim & Eric, and Sarah Silverman, Cera created the web-based comedy YouTube channel Jash in March 2013, where he has posted short films which he directs and/or stars in. These films include the comedy-drama "Gregory Go Boom" (2013), in which Cera played a paraplegic man, and his directorial debut "Brazzaville Teen-Ager" (2013), co-starring Charles Grodin as his sick father. He played an exaggerated version of himself in the apocalyptic comedy film "This Is the End", which was released in summer of 2013 and featured his "Superbad" co-stars Jonah Hill and Seth Rogen. Throughout 2013, Cera also appeared on "Burning Love", a web spoof of reality dating competition shows, and on an episode of "Drunk History" as John Endecott. Cera had previously played Alexander Hamilton in a comedic retelling of Hamilton's duel with Aaron Burr on the show's first episode as a web series in 2008 before it was adapted into a television show.


title: Michael Cera

text: Cera appeared with his "Arrested Development" co-star David Cross' 2014 film "Hits", playing a marijuana dealer. He also co-starred alongside John Hawkes and Sally Hawkins in Charlie Kaufman's television pilot "How & Why", which was rejected by FX. After a brief, "menacing" appearance in the drama "Entertainment" (2015), Cera appeared in the prequel to the 2001 comedy film "Wet Hot American Summer", the comedy series "" and in the Christmas musical comedy film "A Very Murray Christmas" as Bill Murray's fictional talent agent. Cera then voiced a hot dog trying to escape his fate in a supermarket in the animated comedy "Sausage Party" (2016).


title: Michael Cera

text: In 2015, Cera made a cameo on Louis C.K.'s "Louie" on FX, in the season five episode "Sleepover" alongside Glenn Close, John Lithgow, and Matthew Broderick.


title: Michael Cera

text: Cera had five film releases in 2017, the first of which was the animated superhero comedy "The Lego Batman Movie", in which he voiced the Batman's sidekick Robin. He played a supporting role as a sleazy car salesman in the comedy "How to Be a Latin Lover" and co-starred in Janicza Bravo's first full-length feature, the comedy-drama "Lemon". He played an actor described as having a "wedge of hair that makes him look like Frédéric Chopin crossed with "Eraserhead"", by "Variety" critic Owen Gleiberman. Cera starred opposite Abbi Jacobson in the drama "Person to Person", focusing on the struggles of different people over the course of one day in New York City. Cera and Jacobson are featured as a pair of crime reporters investigating a possible murder. In his final film of the year, Aaron Sorkin's crime drama "Molly's Game", Cera played a celebrity known only as Player X who participates in a high-stakes, underground poker empire run by Molly Bloom (played by Jessica Chastain). Cera's fictional character in the film was said to be a composite character of celebrity poker players and actors Leonardo DiCaprio, Tobey Maguire and Ben Affleck.


title: Michael Cera

text: A "giant fan" of director David Lynch, Cera made a guest appearance in the 2017 revival of Lynch and Mark Frost's television show "Twin Peaks" in the show's fourth episode, as Wally "Brando" Brennan, the son of Deputy Sheriff Andy Brennan and his wife Lucy Brennan. The appearance contained several references to the work of actor Marlon Brando: Wally shares the same birthday and is nicknamed after Brando.


title: Michael Cera

text: Cera returned to the stage in March 2018, starring in a second Kenneth Lonergan production, "Lobby Hero", at the Helen Hayes Theatre on Broadway. The play also stars Chris Evans, Brian Tyree Henry and Bel Powley. Cera and Henry were both nominated for Best Featured Actor in a Play at the 72nd Tony Awards.


title: Michael Cera

text: Cera appeared onstage again in October 2018, starring in a third Kenneth Lonergan production, a revival of "The Waverly Gallery" at the John Golden Theatre on Broadway. The play also starred Elaine May, Lucas Hedges, and Joan Allen.


title: Michael Cera

text: Cera co-starred in the 2018 film drama "Gloria Bell", with Julianne Moore as the title character. Cera's upcoming projects include the animated comedy "" about a dog who wishes to become a samurai. Cera returned to his role as George Michael Bluth in the fifth season of "Arrested Development" in 2018.


title: Michael Cera

text: In 2010, Cera contributed mandolin and backing vocals to the Weezer song "Hang On" from their album "Hurley".


title: Michael Cera

text: Cera has also established himself as the touring bass player in Mister Heavenly, an indie rock band originating in the American northwest, and is a member of the band The Long Goodbye, along with Clark Duke. Cera also played bass and sang back up during songs in both "Scott Pilgrim vs. the World" and "Nick and Norah's Infinite Playlist". He released his full-length debut album "True That" on August 8, 2014, through his official Bandcamp page. The album features 19 original tracks, a cover of Roderick Falconer's "Play It Again" as well as a cover of Blaze Foley's "Clay Pigeons."


title: Michael Cera

text: In early 2015, Canadian musician Alden Penner released "Meditate", a track from his upcoming EP "Canada in Space", which features Cera. Penner subsequently announced that the EP would be released on June 29, 2015, on City Slang records, as well as a European tour of the UK, Netherlands, France, and Germany, which featured Cera as both co-headliner and member of Penner's backing band. The song "Best I Can" from the film "Dina", written and performed by Cera and featuring Sharon Van Etten, was nominated for 'Best Song in a Documentary' at the 2017 Critics' Choice Documentary Awards.


title: Michael Cera

text: Cera has been very private about his personal life. In 2016, Aubrey Plaza made public that the pair had dated for about 18 months after filming "Scott Pilgrim vs. the World" in 2010 and considered getting married. The two remain friends.


title: Michael Cera

text: In March 2022, Amy Schumer accidentally revealed that Cera was a father, though the child's name, date of birth, and mother were not disclosed. Later that month he revealed to "Extra" that the baby was a six-month-old boy.


title: Michelle Rodriguez

text: Rodriguez began her career in 2000, playing a troubled boxer in the independent sports drama film "Girlfight" (2000), where she won the Independent Spirit Award and Gotham Award for Best Debut Performance. Rodriguez then began starring as Letty Ortiz in the "Fast & Furious" franchise, and portrayed Rain Ocampo in the "Resident Evil" franchise. She appeared in the crime thriller "S.W.A.T." (2003), and later starred in James Cameron's science fiction epic "Avatar" (2009) and in the action film "" (2011).


title: Michelle Rodriguez

text: After portraying Minerva Mirabal in the biopic "Trópico de Sangre" (2010), Rodriguez headlined the exploitation films "Machete" (2010) and "Machete Kills" (2013), and starred in the computer animated comedy films "Turbo" (2013) and "" (2017), while her performance in the heist film "Widows" (2018) was critically praised.


title: Michelle Rodriguez

text: Outside of film, Rodriguez played Ana Lucia Cortez in the drama television series "Lost" (2005–2006; 2009–2010), and voiced Liz Ricarro in the English-language translation of the anime "Immortal Grand Prix" (2005–2006). She reprised her roles in video game spin-offs of "Avatar" and "Fast & Furious", and also appeared in "" (2003), "Driver 3" (2004), and "Halo 2" (2004) and "".


title: Michelle Rodriguez

text: Mayte Michelle Rodriguez was born on July 12, 1978, in San Antonio, Texas. Her mother, Carmen Milady Rodriguez (née Pared Espinal), is Dominican, while her father, Rafael Rodriguez, was Puerto Rican and served in the U.S. Army. Rodriguez moved to the Dominican Republic with her mother when she was eight years old, and lived there until age 11. Later, she moved to Puerto Rico until the age of 17, and finally settled in Jersey City, New Jersey. She dropped out of William L. Dickinson High School, but later earned her GED. In total, she was expelled from five schools. She briefly attended business school before quitting to pursue a career in acting, with the ultimate goal of becoming a screenwriter and director. Rodriguez has 10 siblings and half-siblings. She was partly raised by her devoutly religious maternal grandmother, and was brought up as a Jehovah's Witness (her mother's religion), although she has since abandoned the faith. A DNA test of Rodriguez, performed by the television program "Finding Your Roots", found that her ancestry is 72.4% European, 21.3% African, and 6.3% Native American. She also stated on the show that there was some racial conflict between her families, since her Puerto Rican father had a light complexion, and her Dominican mother had a dark complexion.


title: Michelle Rodriguez

text: Having run across an ad for an open casting call and attending her first audition, Rodriguez beat 350 other applicants to win her first role in the low-budget 2000 independent film "Girlfight". With her performance as Diana Guzman, a troubled teen who decides to channel her aggression by training to become a boxer, Rodriguez accumulated several awards and nominations for the role in independent circles, including major acting accolades from the National Board of Review, Deauville Film Festival, Independent Spirit Awards, Gotham Awards, Las Vegas Film Critics Sierra Awards, and many others. The film itself took home a top prize at the Sundance and won Award of the Youth at the Cannes Film Festival.


title: Michelle Rodriguez

text: Rodriguez has had notable roles in other successful movies, including Letty in "The Fast and the Furious" (2001) and Rain Ocampo in "Resident Evil" (2002). She appeared in "Blue Crush" and "S.W.A.T." In 2004, Rodriguez lent her voice to the video game "Halo 2", playing a Marine. She provided the voice of Liz Ricarro in the Cartoon Network series "IGPX". From 2005 to 2006, she played tough cop Ana Lucia Cortez on the television series "Lost" during the show's second season (the character's first appearance was a flashback during the first season's finale, "Exodus: Part 1"), and returned for a cameo in the second episode of the show's fifth season, "The Lie", in 2009. She returned again in the penultimate episode of the series, "What They Died For", in 2010. In 2006, Rodriguez was featured in her own episode of G4's show "Icons."


title: Michelle Rodriguez

text: In 2008, Rodriguez appeared in the political drama "Battle in Seattle" opposite Charlize Theron and Woody Harrelson. In 2009, she appeared in "Fast & Furious", the fourth installment of "The Fast and the Furious" film series. Later that year, Rodriguez starred in James Cameron's science fiction adventure epic "Avatar", which became the highest-grossing film in history and Rodriguez's most successful film to date. In 2009, Rodriguez starred in "Trópico de Sangre", an independent film based on the Dominican Republic's historic Mirabal sisters.


title: Michelle Rodriguez

text: In 2010, Rodriguez appeared in Robert Rodriguez's "Machete". In 2011, she appeared with Aaron Eckhart in the science fiction film "". In 2012, she returned to play the good clone and bad clone of Rain Ocampo in "". In 2013, she reprised her roles as Letty in "Fast & Furious 6" and Luz / Shé in the Robert Rodriguez sequel "Machete Kills". She also voiced a character in DreamWorks Animation's "Turbo".


title: Michelle Rodriguez

text: In 2015, she appeared in "Furious 7". In 2016 she starred in "The Assignment" alongside Sigourney Weaver. In 2017, she lent her voice to "". She starred in "The Fate of the Furious", which broke records for the largest global box office opening of all-time. In 2018, she starred opposite Viola Davis in "Widows" from director Steve McQueen, and in 2019 reunited with director James Cameron on the film "". Rodriguez started Cheshire Kat Productions, a production company that produced the documentary Stuntwomen: The Untold Hollywood Story (2019).


title: Michelle Rodriguez

text: As of 2013, Rodriguez stated she was working on several projects, including a family adventure film, a drug drama, and a female-oriented period piece.


title: Michelle Rodriguez

text: In early 2000, Rodriguez broke off an engagement to a Muslim boyfriend, citing opposition to religious requests he made of her. In 2001, she reportedly dated her "Fast & Furious" co-star Vin Diesel.


title: Michelle Rodriguez

text: In 2013, "Entertainment Weekly" quoted her as saying: "I've gone both ways. I do as I please. I am too curious to sit here and not try when I can. Men are intriguing. So are chicks." As she explained to "Latina" magazine: "I'm getting older. Eventually it's going to wrinkle up and I'm not going to be able to use it. I wanted to be honest about who I am and see what happens." The following year, she said in an interview that she hoped her actions would help others in a similar situation: "Maybe by me opening my big fat mouth like I usually do and stepping up and owning who I am, maybe it might inspire somebody else to do the same." She described herself as bisexual in another interview later that month: "Bi, yeah, I fall under the B-category of LGBT." Regarding the lack of unconventional female roles available in films, she said: "What's wrong with being bi? I mean, we're getting flak everywhere we go."


title: Michelle Rodriguez

text: In March 2002, Rodriguez was arrested for assault after getting into a fight with her roommate. The charges were later dropped after the roommate declined to press the allegations in court.


title: Michelle Rodriguez

text: In November 2003, Rodriguez went to court to face eight misdemeanor-charges based on two driving-incidents, including a hit and run and driving under the influence (DUI). In June 2004, Rodriguez pleaded no contest in Los Angeles to three of the charges: Hit and run; drunken driving; and driving with a suspended license. She went to jail for 48 hours, performed community service at the morgues of two New York hospitals, completed a three-month alcohol program, and was placed on probation for three years.


title: Michelle Rodriguez

text: In 2005, while filming "Lost" in Hawaii, Rodriguez was pulled over by Honolulu police multiple times for speeding-violations, and on December 1 was arrested for DUI. In April 2006, she pleaded guilty to one charge of driving under the influence, and chose to pay a fine () and spend five days in jail.


title: Michelle Rodriguez

text: Rodriguez cited her high doses of allergy-relieving steroids one of the reasons for her erratic behavior. Because the incident was a violation of her Los Angeles probation, she was sentenced to 60days in jail, a 30-day alcohol rehabilitation program, and another 30days of community service, including work for Mothers Against Drunk Driving. Because of overcrowding, she was released from jail on the same day she entered.


title: Michelle Rodriguez

text: In September 2007, Rodriguez allegedly violated her probation by neither completing her community service nor following an alcohol education program. On October 10, 2007, following a hearing, she was sentenced to 180days jail time after agreeing to admit to violating her probation. She was expected to spend the full 180-day term in jail but was released 18 days later due to overcrowding. In January 2009, Rodriguez completed her community service.


title: Tom Sturridge

text: Thomas Sidney Jerome Sturridge (born 05 December 1985) is an English actor. His early films include "Being Julia" (2004), "Like Minds" (2006), and "The Boat That Rocked" (2009). In 2013, he was nominated for a Tony Award for Best Actor in a Play for his performance in "Orphans," and in 2020, was nominated again for his role in "Sea Wall/A Life". As of 2022, he stars as the lead character Dream of The Endless / Lord Morpheus in the Netflix fantasy series "The Sandman".


title: Tom Sturridge

text: Sturridge was born in Lambeth, London, one of three children of director Charles Sturridge and actress Phoebe Nicholls. His sister, Matilda Sturridge, is also an actress.


title: Tom Sturridge

text: Sturridge was educated at The Harrodian School, an independent school in Barnes in South West London, whose pupils included future actors Robert Pattinson, Will Poulter and George MacKay. Between the years 1999 ('Short Half') and 2001, Sturridge attended Winchester College, an independent school for boys in Winchester, Hampshire. He boarded at the College's House E (Morshead's).


title: Tom Sturridge

text: Sturridge began his career working as a child actor and he was in the 1996 television adaptation of "Gulliver's Travels," directed by his father and co-starring his mother. He reemerged in 2004 with "Vanity Fair" and "Being Julia." In 2005 he played William Herbert, 3rd Earl of Pembroke in BBC4's "A Waste of Shame".


title: Tom Sturridge

text: In 2006, he played the role of Nigel in the psychological thriller "Like Minds," also known by the title of "Murderous Intent." It tells the story of two boys, Alex (played by Eddie Redmayne) and Nigel, placed together as room-mates, much to Alex's objections. Alex is horrified and yet fascinated with the ritual-influenced deaths that begin to occur around them, and when Nigel himself is murdered, Alex is blamed.


title: Tom Sturridge

text: He was originally cast as the lead in the sci-fi trilogy "Jumper." However, two months into production, New Regency and 20th Century Fox, fearing the gamble of spending over $100 million on a film starring an unknown actor, replaced him with the "more prominent" Hayden Christensen.


title: Tom Sturridge

text: In 2009, he appeared as Carl, one of the lead roles in the Richard Curtis comedy "The Boat That Rocked" (known as "Pirate Radio" in the United States), alongside Bill Nighy, Rhys Ifans and Philip Seymour Hoffman. In September, 2009, he made his stage debut in "Punk Rock," a then newly dramatised play by Simon Stephens at the Lyric Hammersmith Theatre, appearing as a character loosely modelled after the teenage killers at Columbine High School. For that performance, he was nominated for Most Outstanding Newcomer in the 2009 Evening Standard Awards, and won the 2009 Critics' Circle Theatre Award in that same category.


title: Tom Sturridge

text: He appeared alongside Rachel Bilson in the 2011 indie-romance "Waiting for Forever". He also played a role loosely based on poet Allen Ginsberg in Walter Salles's 2012 film adaptation of Jack Kerouac's "On the Road." In the spring of 2013, he starred in the Broadway play "Orphans" as Phillip, who is developmentally disabled, for which he was nominated for the Tony Award, Best Performance by an Actor in a Leading Role in a Play for his performance. In 2017, he starred as Winston Smith in the Broadway production of "1984". In 2019, Sturridge starred opposite Jake Gyllenhaal in the Broadway play "Sea Wall/A Life", for which he received a nomination for the Tony Award for Best Leading Actor in a Play.


title: Tom Sturridge

text: In January 2021, Sturridge was confirmed to be playing Dream of The Endless / Lord Morpheus in the Netflix adaptation of "The Sandman". In a May 2022 interview, "The Sandman" author Neil Gaiman estimated he had personally seen "about fifteen hundred" actors' auditions for the lead character of Morpheus, but stated that Sturridge had been among the likeliest to be chosen for the role from the time of "the first ten auditions."


title: Tom Sturridge

text: Sturridge's maternal grandparents are actors Anthony Nicholls and Faith Kent, and his great-grandfather is photojournalist Horace Nicholls.


title: Anna Paquin

text: Anna Hélène Paquin ( ; born 24 July 1982) is a New Zealand actress. Born in Winnipeg and raised in Wellington, Paquin made her acting debut portraying Flora McGrath in the romantic drama film "The Piano" (1993), for which she won the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress at age 11, making her the second-youngest winner in Oscar history. As a child actress, she received multiple Young Artist Award nominations for her roles in "Fly Away Home" (1996), "The Member of the Wedding" (1997), and "A Walk on the Moon" (1999), and a Screen Actors Guild Award nomination for appearing in Cameron Crowe's comedy-drama film "Almost Famous" (2000). She also appeared in the films "Jane Eyre" (1996) and "Amistad" (1997).


title: Anna Paquin

text: Paquin continued to perform prominent roles into adulthood, portraying mutant superheroine Rogue in the 20th Century Fox "X-Men" franchise (2000–2014), for which she was nominated for a Saturn Award for her performance in the first installment. Her other film credits include "25th Hour" (2002), "Trick 'r Treat" (2007), "Margaret" (2011), "The Good Dinosaur" (2015), and "The Irishman" (2019). She played the lead role of Sookie Stackhouse in the HBO vampire drama television series "True Blood" (2008–2014). For her performance in the series, Paquin won the Golden Globe Award for Best Actress in 2009, and was nominated for an additional Golden Globe Award, as well as three Saturn Awards and a Screen Actors Guild Award, in 2010. Among other accolades, Paquin was nominated for a Primetime Emmy Award, a Golden Globe Award, and a Screen Actors Guild Award for her work on the television film "Bury My Heart at Wounded Knee" (2007). She received an additional Golden Globe Award nomination for her work on the television film "The Courageous Heart of Irena Sendler" (2009).


title: Anna Paquin

text: Anna Hélène Paquin was born on 24 July 1982 in Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada. Her mother, Mary (), a New Zealander from Wellington, worked as an English teacher, and her Canadian father, Brian Paquin, worked as a physical education teacher. She is the youngest of three children, with a brother, Andrew, who is a filmmaker, and a sister, Katya, whose partner is the Green Party of New Zealand's former co-leader Russel Norman. All her maternal great-grandparents emigrated from Ireland because of the Great Famine. Her father is of Dutch Mennonite and French descent. The family moved to Wellington when she was four.