title: Ashoka

text: Based on Sri Lankan tradition, some scholars, such as Eggermont, believe Ashoka converted to Buddhism "before" the Kalinga war. Critics of this theory argue that if Ashoka were already a Buddhist, he would not have waged the violent Kalinga War. Eggermont explains this anomaly by theorising that Ashoka had his own interpretation of the "Middle Way".


title: Ashoka

text: Some earlier writers believed that Ashoka "dramatically" converted to Buddhism after seeing the suffering caused by the war since his Major Rock Edict 13 states that he became closer to the dhamma after the annexation of Kalinga. However, even if Ashoka converted to Buddhism "after" the war, epigraphic evidence suggests that his conversion was a "gradual" process rather than a dramatic event. For example, in a Minor Rock Edict issued during his 13th regnal year (five years after the Kalinga campaign), he states that he had been an "upasaka" (lay Buddhist) for more than two and a half years, but did not make much progress; in the past year, he was drawn closer to the sangha and became a more ardent follower.


title: Ashoka

text: According to Ashoka's Major Rock Edict 13, he conquered Kalinga 8 years after ascending to the throne. The edict states that during his conquest of Kalinga, 100,000 men and animals were killed in action; many times that number "perished"; and 150,000 men and animals were carried away from Kalinga as captives. Ashoka states that the repentance of these sufferings caused him to devote himself to the practice and propagation of dharma. He proclaims that he now considered the slaughter, death and deportation caused during the conquest of a country painful and deplorable; and that he considered the suffering caused to the religious people and householders even more deplorable.


title: Ashoka

text: This edict has been inscribed at several places, including Erragudi, Girnar, Kalsi, Maneshra, Shahbazgarhi and Kandahar. However, it is omitted in Ashoka's inscriptions found in the Kalinga region, where the Rock Edicts 13 and 14 have been replaced by two separate edicts that make no mention of Ashoka's remorse. It is possible that Ashoka did not consider it politically appropriate to make such a confession to the people of Kalinga. Another possibility is the Kalinga war and its consequences, as described in Ashoka's rock edicts, are "more imaginary than real". This description is meant to impress those far removed from the scene, thus unable to verify its accuracy.


title: Ashoka

text: Ancient sources do not mention any other military activity of Ashoka, although the 16th-century writer Taranatha claims that Ashoka conquered the entire Jambudvipa.


title: Ashoka

text: According to Sri Lankan tradition, Ashoka's father, Bindusara, was a devotee of Brahmanism, and his mother Dharma was a devotee of Ajivikas. The "Samantapasadika" states that Ashoka followed non-Buddhist sects during the first three years of his reign. The Sri Lankan texts add that Ashoka was not happy with the behaviour of the Brahmins who received his alms daily. His courtiers produced some Ajivika and Nigantha teachers before him, but these also failed to impress him.


title: Ashoka

text: The "Dipavamsa" states that Ashoka invited several non-Buddhist religious leaders to his palace and bestowed great gifts upon them in the hope that they would answer a question posed by the king. The text does not state what the question was but mentions that none of the invitees were able to answer it. One day, Ashoka saw a young Buddhist monk called Nigrodha (or Nyagrodha), who was looking for alms on a road in Pataliputra. He was the king's nephew, although the king was not aware of this: he was a posthumous son of Ashoka's eldest brother Sumana, whom Ashoka had killed during the conflict for the throne. Ashoka was impressed by Nigrodha's tranquil and fearless appearance, and asked him to teach him his faith. In response, Nigrodha offered him a sermon on appamada (earnestness). Impressed by the sermon, Ashoka offered Nigrodha 400,000 silver coins and 8 daily portions of rice. The king became a Buddhist upasaka, and started visiting the Kukkutarama shrine at Pataliputra. At the temple, he met the Buddhist monk Moggaliputta Tissa, and became more devoted to the Buddhist faith. The veracity of this story is not certain. This legend about Ashoka's search for a worthy teacher may be aimed at explaining why Ashoka did not adopt Jainism, another major contemporary faith that advocates non-violence and compassion. The legend suggests that Ashoka was not attracted to Buddhism because he was looking for such a faith, rather, for a competent spiritual teacher. The Sri Lankan tradition adds that during his sixth regnal year, Ashoka's son Mahinda became a Buddhist monk, and his daughter became a Buddhist nun.


title: Ashoka

text: A story in "Divyavadana" attributes Ashoka's conversion to the Buddhist monk Samudra, who was an ex-merchant from Shravasti. According to this account, Samudra was imprisoned in Ashoka's "Hell", but saved himself using his miraculous powers. When Ashoka heard about this, he visited the monk, and was further impressed by a series of miracles performed by the monk. He then became a Buddhist. A story in the "Ashokavadana" states that Samudra was a merchant's son, and was a 12-year-old boy when he met Ashoka; this account seems to be influenced by the Nigrodha story.


title: Ashoka

text: The A-yu-wang-chuan states that a 7-year-old Buddhist converted Ashoka. Another story claims that the young boy ate 500 Brahmanas who were harassing Ashoka for being interested in Buddhism; these Brahmanas later miraculously turned into Buddhist bhikkus at the Kukkutarama monastery, which Ashoka visited.


title: Ashoka

text: Several Buddhist establishments existed in various parts of India by the time of Ashoka's ascension. It is not clear which branch of the Buddhist sangha influenced him, but the one at his capital Pataliputra is a good candidate. Another good candidate is the one at Mahabodhi: the Major Rock Edict 8 records his visit to the Bodhi Tree – the place of Buddha's enlightenment at Mahabodhi – after his tenth regnal year, and the minor rock edict issued during his 13th regnal year suggests that he had become a Buddhist around the same time.


title: Ashoka

text: Both "Mahavamsa" and "Ashokavadana" state that Ashoka constructed 84,000 stupas or viharas. According to the "Mahavamsa", this activity took place during his fifth–seventh regnal years.


title: Ashoka

text: The "Ashokavadana" states that Ashoka collected seven out of the eight relics of Gautama Buddha, and had their portions kept in 84,000 boxes made of gold, silver, cat's eye, and crystal. He ordered the construction of 84,000 stupas throughout the earth, in towns that had a population of 100,000 or more. He told Elder Yashas, a monk at the Kukkutarama monastery, that he wanted these stupas to be completed on the same day. Yashas stated that he would signal the completion time by eclipsing the sun with his hand. When he did so, the 84,000 stupas were completed at once.


title: Ashoka

text: The "Mahavamsa" states that Ashoka ordered construction of 84,000 viharas (monasteries) rather than the stupas to house the relics. Like "Ashokavadana", the "Mahavamsa" describes Ashoka's collection of the relics, but does not mention this episode in the context of the construction activities. It states that Ashoka decided to construct the 84,000 viharas when Moggaliputta Tissa told him that there were 84,000 sections of the Buddha's Dhamma. Ashoka himself began the construction of the Ashokarama vihara, and ordered subordinate kings to build the other viharas. Ashokarama was completed by the miraculous power of Thera Indagutta, and the news about the completion of the 84,000 viharas arrived from various cities on the same day.


title: Ashoka

text: Ashoka's rock edicts suggest that during his eighth–ninth regnal years, he made a pilgrimage to the Bodhi Tree, started propagating dhamma, and performed social welfare activities. The welfare activities included establishment of medical treatment facilities for humans and animals; plantation of medicinal herbs; and digging of wells and plantation of trees along the roads. These activities were conducted in the neighbouring kingdoms, including those of the Cholas, the Pandyas, the Satiyaputras, Tamraparni, the Greek kingdom of Antiyoka.


title: Ashoka

text: The edicts also state that during his tenth–eleventh regnal years, Ashoka became closer to the Buddhist sangha, and went on a tour of the empire that lasted for at least 256 days.


title: Ashoka

text: By his 12th regnal year, Ashoka had started inscribing edicts to propagate dhamma, having ordered his officers ("rajjukas" and "pradesikas") to tour their jurisdictions every five years for inspection and for preaching "dhamma". By the next year, he had set up the post of the "dharma-mahamatra".


title: Ashoka

text: The Sri Lankan tradition presents a greater role for Ashoka in the Buddhist community. In this tradition, Ashoka starts feeding monks on a large scale. His lavish patronage to the state patronage leads to many fake monks joining the sangha. The true Buddhist monks refuse to co-operate with these fake monks, and therefore, no uposatha ceremony is held for seven years. The king attempts to eradicate the fake monks, but during this attempt, an over-zealous minister ends up killing some real monks. The king then invites the elder monk Moggaliputta-Tissa, to help him expel non-Buddhists from the monastery founded by him at Pataliputra. 60,000 monks (bhikkhus) convicted of being heretical are de-frocked in the ensuing process. The uposatha ceremony is then held, and Tissa subsequently organises the Third Buddhist council, during the 17th regnal year of Ashoka. Tissa compiles "Kathavatthu", a text that reaffirms Theravadin orthodoxy on several points.


title: Ashoka

text: The North Indian tradition makes no mention of these events, which has led to doubts about the historicity of the Third Buddhist council.


title: Ashoka

text: Richard Gombrich argues that the non-corroboration of this story by inscriptional evidence cannot be used to dismiss it as completely unhistorical, as several of Ashoka's inscriptions may have been lost. Gombrich also argues that Asohka's inscriptions prove that he was interested in maintaining the "unanimity and purity" of the Sangha. For example, in his Minor Rock Edict 3, Ashoka recommends the members of the Sangha to study certain texts (most of which remain unidentified). Similarly, in an inscription found at Sanchi, Sarnath, and Kosam, Ashoka mandates that the dissident members of the sangha should be expelled, and expresses his desire to the Sangha remain united and flourish.


title: Ashoka

text: The 8th century Buddhist pilgrim Yijing records another story about Ashoka's involvement in the Buddhist sangha. According to this story, the earlier king Bimbisara, who was a contemporary of the Gautama Buddha, once saw 18 fragments of a cloth and a stick in a dream. The Buddha interpreted the dream to mean that his philosophy would be divided into 18 schools after his death, and predicted that a king called Ashoka would unite these schools over a hundred years later.


title: Ashoka

text: In the Sri Lankan tradition, Moggaliputta-Tissa – who is patronised by Ashoka – sends out nine Buddhist missions to spread Buddhism in the "border areas" in . This tradition does not credit Ashoka directly with sending these missions. Each mission comprises five monks, and is headed by an elder. To Sri Lanka, he sent his own son Mahinda, accompanied by four other Theras – Itthiya, Uttiya, Sambala and Bhaddasala. Next, with Moggaliputta-Tissa's help, Ashoka sent Buddhist missionaries to distant regions such as Kashmir, Gandhara, Himalayas, the land of the Yonas (Greeks), Maharashtra, Suvannabhumi, and Sri Lanka.


title: Ashoka

text: The Sri Lankan tradition dates these missions to Ashoka's 18th regnal year, naming the following missionaries:


title: Ashoka

text: The tradition adds that during his 19th regnal year, Ashoka's daughter Sanghamitta went to Sri Lanka to establish an order of nuns, taking a sapling of the sacred Bodhi Tree with her.


title: Ashoka

text: The North Indian tradition makes no mention of these events. Ashoka's own inscriptions also appear to omit any mention of these events, recording only one of his activities during this period: in his 19th regnal year, he donated the Khalatika Cave to ascetics to provide them a shelter during the rainy season. Ashoka's Pillar Edicts suggest that during the next year, he made pilgrimage to Lumbini – the place of Buddha's birth, and to the stupa of the Buddha Kanakamuni.


title: Ashoka

text: The Rock Edict XIII states that Ashoka's won a "dhamma victory" by sending messengers to five kings and several other kingdoms. Whether these missions correspond to the Buddhist missions recorded in the Buddhist chronicles is debated. Indologist Etienne Lamotte argues that the "dhamma" missionaries mentioned in Ashoka's inscriptions were probably not Buddhist monks, as this "dhamma" was not same as "Buddhism". Moreover, the lists of destinations of the missions and the dates of the missions mentioned in the inscriptions do not tally the ones mentioned in the Buddhist legends.


title: Ashoka

text: Other scholars, such as Erich Frauwallner and Richard Gombrich, believe that the missions mentioned in the Sri Lankan tradition are historical. According to these scholars, a part of this story is corroborated by archaeological evidence: the "Vinaya Nidana" mentions names of five monks, who are said to have gone to the Himalayan region; three of these names have been found inscribed on relic caskets found at Bhilsa (near Vidisha). These caskets have been dated to the early 2nd century BCE, and the inscription states that the monks are of the Himalayan school. The missions may have set out from Vidisha in central India, as the caskets were discovered there, and as Mahinda is said to have stayed there for a month before setting out for Sri Lanka.


title: Ashoka

text: According to Gombrich, the mission may have included representatives of other religions, and thus, Lamotte's objection about "dhamma" is not valid. The Buddhist chroniclers may have decided not to mention these non-Buddhists, so as not to sideline Buddhism. Frauwallner and Gombrich also believe that Ashoka was directly responsible for the missions, since only a resourceful ruler could have sponsored such activities. The Sri Lankan chronicles, which belong to the Theravada school, exaggerate the role of the Theravadin monk Moggaliputta-Tissa in order to glorify their sect.


title: Ashoka

text: Some historians argue that Buddhism became a major religion because of Ashoka's royal patronage. However, epigraphic evidence suggests that the spread of Buddhism in north-western India and Deccan region was less because of Ashoka's missions, and more because of merchants, traders, landowners and the artisan guilds who supported Buddhist establishments.


title: Ashoka

text: According to the "Ashokavadana", Ashoka resorted to violence even after converting to Buddhism. For example:


title: Ashoka

text: According to the "Ashokavadana", a non-Buddhist in Pundravardhana drew a picture showing the Buddha bowing at the feet of the Nirgrantha leader Jnatiputra. The term nirgrantha ("free from bonds") was originally used for a pre-Jaina ascetic order, but later came to be used for Jaina monks. "Jnatiputra" is identified with Mahavira, 24th Tirthankara of Jainism. The legend states that on complaint from a Buddhist devotee, Ashoka issued an order to arrest the non-Buddhist artist, and subsequently, another order to kill all the Ajivikas in Pundravardhana. Around 18,000 followers of the Ajivika sect were executed as a result of this order. Sometime later, another Nirgrantha follower in Pataliputra drew a similar picture. Ashoka burnt him and his entire family alive in their house. He also announced an award of one dinara (gold coin) to anyone who brought him the head of a Nirgrantha heretic. According to "Ashokavadana", as a result of this order, his own brother was mistaken for a heretic and killed by a cowherd. Ashoka realised his mistake, and withdrew the order.


title: Ashoka

text: For several reasons, scholars say, these stories of persecutions of rival sects by Ashoka appear to be clear fabrications arising out of sectarian propaganda.


title: Ashoka

text: Ashoka's last dated inscription - the Pillar Edict 4 is from his 26th regnal year. The only source of information about Ashoka's later years are the Buddhist legends. The Sri Lankan tradition states that Ashoka's queen Asandhamitta died during his 29th regnal year, and in his 32nd regnal year, his wife Tissarakkha was given the title of queen.


title: Ashoka

text: Both "Mahavamsa" and "Ashokavadana" state that Ashoka extended favours and attention to the Bodhi Tree, and a jealous Tissarakkha mistook "Bodhi" to be a mistress of Ashoka. She then used black magic to make the tree wither. According to the "Ashokavadana", she hired a sorceress to do the job, and when Ashoka explained that "Bodhi" was the name of a tree, she had the sorceress heal the tree. According to the "Mahavamsa", she completely destroyed the tree, during Ashoka's 34th regnal year.


title: Ashoka

text: The "Ashokavadana" states that Tissarakkha (called "Tishyarakshita" here) made sexual advances towards Ashoka's son Kunala, but Kunala rejected her. Subsequently, Ashoka granted Tissarakkha kingship for seven days, and during this period, she tortured and blinded Kunala. Ashoka then threatened to "tear out her eyes, rip open her body with sharp rakes, impale her alive on a spit, cut off her nose with a saw, cut out her tongue with a razor." Kunala regained his eyesight miraculously, and pleaded for mercy for the queen, but Ashoka had her executed anyway. Kshemendra's "Avadana-kalpa-lata" also narrates this legend, but seeks to improve Ashoka's image by stating that he forgave the queen after Kunala regained his eyesight.


title: Ashoka

text: According to the Sri Lankan tradition, Ashoka died during his 37th regnal year, which suggests that he died around 232 BCE.


title: Ashoka

text: According to the "Ashokavadana", the emperor fell severely ill during his last days. He started using state funds to make donations to the Buddhist sangha, prompting his ministers to deny him access to the state treasury. Ashoka then started donating his personal possessions, but was similarly restricted from doing so. On his deathbed, his only possession was the half of a myrobalan fruit, which he offered to the sangha as his final donation. Such legends encourage generous donations to the "sangha" and highlight the role of the kingship in supporting the Buddhist faith.


title: Ashoka

text: Various sources mention five consorts of Ashoka: Devi (or Vedisa-Mahadevi-Shakyakumari), Karuvaki, Asandhimitra (Pali: Asandhimitta), Padmavati, and Tishyarakshita (Pali: Tissarakkha).


title: Ashoka

text: Karuvaki is the only queen of Ashoka known from his own inscriptions: she is mentioned in an edict inscribed on a pillar at Allahabad. The inscription names her as the mother of prince Tivara, and orders the royal officers (mahamattas) to record her religious and charitable donations. According to one theory, Tishyarakshita was the regnal name of Kaurvaki.


title: Ashoka

text: According to the "Mahavamsa", Ashoka's chief queen was Asandhimitta, who died four years before him. It states that she was born as Ashoka's queen because in a previous life, she directed a pratyekabuddha to a honey merchant (who was later reborn as Ashoka). Some later texts also state that she additionally gave the pratyekabuddha a piece of cloth made by her. These texts include the "Dasavatthuppakarana", the so-called Cambodian or Extended "Mahavamsa" (possibly from 9th–10th centuries), and the "Trai Bhumi Katha" (15th century). These texts narrate another story: one day, Ashoka mocked Asandhamitta was enjoying a tasty piece of sugarcane without having earned it through her karma. Asandhamitta replied that all her enjoyments resulted from merit resulting from her own karma. Ashoka then challenged her to prove this by procuring 60,000 robes as an offering for monks. At night, the guardian gods informed her about her past gift to the pratyekabuddha, and next day, she was able to miraculously procure the 60,000 robes. An impressed Ashoka makes her his favourite queen, and even offers to make her a sovereign ruler. Asandhamitta refuses the offer, but still invokes the jealousy of Ashoka's 16,000 other women. Ashoka proves her superiority by having 16,000 identical cakes baked with his royal seal hidden in only one of them. Each wife is asked to choose a cake, and only Asandhamitta gets the one with the royal seal. The "Trai Bhumi Katha" claims that it was Asandhamitta who encouraged her husband to become a Buddhist, and to construct 84,000 stupas and 84,000 viharas.


title: Ashoka

text: According to "Mahavamsa", after Asandhamitta's death, Tissarakkha became the chief queen. The Ashokavadana does not mention Asandhamitta at all, but does mention Tissarakkha as Tishyarakshita. The "Divyavadana" mentions another queen called Padmavati, who was the mother of the crown-prince Kunala.


title: Ashoka

text: As mentioned above, according to the Sri Lankan tradition, Ashoka fell in love with Devi (or Vidisha-Mahadevi), as a prince in central India. After Ashoka's ascension to the throne, Devi chose to remain at Vidisha than move to the royal capital Pataliputra. According to the "Mahavmsa", Ashoka's chief queen was Asandhamitta, not Devi: the text does not talk of any connection between the two women, so it is unlikely that Asandhamitta was another name for Devi. The Sri Lankan tradition uses the word "samvasa" to describe the relationship between Ashoka and Devi, which modern scholars variously interpret as sexual relations outside marriage, or co-habitation as a married couple. Those who argue that Ashoka did not marry Devi argue that their theory is corroborated by the fact that Devi did not become Ashoka's chief queen in Pataliputra after his ascension. The "Dipavamsa" refers to two children of Ashoka and Devi – Mahinda and Sanghamitta.


title: Ashoka

text: Tivara, the son of Ashoka and Karuvaki, is the only of Ashoka's sons to be mentioned by name in the inscriptions.


title: Ashoka

text: The Sri Lankan tradition mentions a son called Mahinda, who was sent to Sri Lanka as a Buddhist missionary; this son is not mentioned at all in the North Indian tradition. The Chinese pilgrim Xuanzang states that Mahinda was Ashoka's younger brother (Vitashoka or Vigatashoka) rather than his illgetimate son.


title: Ashoka

text: The "Divyavadana" mentions the crown-prince Kunala alias Dharmavivardhana, who was a son of queen Padmavati. According to Faxian, Dharmavivardhana was appointed as the governor of Gandhara.


title: Ashoka

text: According to Sri Lankan tradition, Ashoka had a daughter named Sanghamitta, who became a Buddhist nun. A section of historians, such as Romila Thapar, doubt the historicity of Sanghamitta, based on the following points:


title: Ashoka

text: Another source mentions that Ashoka had a daughter named Charumati, who married a kshatriya named Devapala.


title: Ashoka

text: Various sources mention that one of Ashoka's brothers survived his ascension, and narrate stories about his role in the Buddhist community.


title: Ashoka

text: The extent of the territory controlled by Ashoka's predecessors is not certain, but it is possible that the empire of his grandfather Chandragupta extended across northern India from the western coast (Arabian Sea) to the eastern coast (Bay of Bengal), covering nearly two-thirds of the Indian subcontinent. Bindusara and Ashoka seem to have extended the empire southwards. The distribution of Ashoka's inscriptions suggests that his empire included almost the entire Indian subcontinent, except its southernmost parts. The Rock Edicts 2 and 13 suggest that these southernmost parts were controlled by the Cholas, the Pandyas, the Keralaputras, and the Satiyaputras. In the north-west, Ashoka's kingdom extended up to Kandahar, to the east of the Seleucid Empire ruled by Antiochus II. The capital of Ashoka's empire was Pataliputra in the Magadha region.


title: Ashoka

text: The Buddhist legends state that Ashoka converted to Buddhism, although this has been debated by a section of scholars. The Minor Rock Edict 1 leaves no doubt that Ashoka was a follower of Buddhism. In this edict, he calls himself an upasaka (a lay follower of Buddhism) and a "sakya" (i.e. Buddhist, after Gautama Buddha's title "Shakya-Muni"). This and several other edicts are evidence of his Buddhist affiliation:


title: Ashoka

text: A legend in the Buddhist text "Vamsatthapakasini" states that an Ajivika ascetic invited to interpret a dream of Ashoka's mother had predicted that he would patronise Buddhism and destroy 96 heretical sects. However, such assertions are directly contradicted by Ashoka's own inscriptions. Ashoka's edicts, such as the Rock Edicts 6, 7, and 12, emphasise tolerance of all sects. Similarly, in his Rock Edict 12, Ashoka honours people of all faiths. In his inscriptions, Ashoka dedicates caves to non-Buddhist ascetics, and repeatedly states that both Brahmins and shramanas deserved respect. He also tells people "not to denigrate other sects, but to inform themselves about them".


title: Ashoka

text: In fact, there is no evidence that Buddhism was a state religion under Ashoka. None of Ashoka's extant edicts record his direct donations to the Buddhists. One inscription records donations by his queen Karuvaki, while the emperor is known to have donated the Barabar Caves to the Ajivikas. There are some indirect references to his donations to Buddhists. For example, the Nigalisagar Pillar inscription records his enlargement of the Konakamana stupa. Similarly, the Lumbini (Rumminidei) inscription states that he exempted the village of Buddha's birth from the land tax, and reduced the revenue tax to one-eighth.


title: Ashoka

text: Ashoka appointed the "dhamma-mahamatta" officers, whose duties included the welfare of various religious sects, including the Buddhist sangha, Brahmins, Ajivikas, and Nirgranthas. The Rock Edicts 8 and 12, and the Pillar Edict 7, mandate donations to all religious sects.


title: Ashoka

text: Ashoka's Minor Rock Edict 1 contains the phrase ""amissā devā"". According to one interpretation, the term ""amissā"" derives from the word ""amṛṣa"" ("false"), and thus, the phrase is a reference to Ashoka's belief in "true" and "false" gods. However, it is more likely that the term derives from the word ""amiśra"" ("not mingled"), and the phrase refers to celestial beings who did not mingle with humans. The inscription claims that the righteousness generated by adoption of dhamma by the humans attracted even the celestial gods who did not mingle with humans.


title: Ashoka

text: Ashoka's various inscriptions suggest that he devoted himself to the propagation of "Dharma" (Pali: Dhamma), a term that refers to the teachings of Gautama Buddha in the Buddhist circles. However, Ashoka's own inscriptions do not mention Buddhist doctrines such as the Four Noble Truths or Nirvana. The word "Dharma" has various connotations in the Indian religions, and can be generally translated as "law, duty, or righteousness". In the Kandahar inscriptions of Ashoka, the word "Dharma" has been translated as eusebeia (Greek) and qsyt (Aramaic), which further suggests that his "Dharma" meant something more generic than Buddhism.


title: Ashoka

text: The inscriptions suggest that for Ashoka, Dharma meant "a moral polity of active social concern, religious tolerance, ecological awareness, the observance of common ethical precepts, and the renunciation of war." For example:


title: Ashoka

text: Modern scholars have variously understood this "dhamma" as a Buddhist lay ethic, a set of politico-moral ideas, a "sort of universal religion", or as an Ashokan innovation. On the other hand, it has also been interpreted as an "essentially political" ideology that sought to knit together a vast and diverse empire.


title: Ashoka

text: Ashoka instituted a new category of officers called the "dhamma-mahamattas", who were tasked with the welfare of the aged, the infirm, the women and children, and various religious sects. They were also sent on diplomatic missions to the Hellenistic kingdoms of west Asia, in order to propagate the dhamma.


title: Ashoka

text: Historically, the image of Ashoka in the global Buddhist circles was based on legends (such as those mentioned in the "Ashokavadana") rather than his rock edicts. This was because the Brahmi script in which these edicts were written was forgotten soon and remained undeciphered until its study by James Prinsep in the 19th century. The writings of the Chinese Buddhist pilgrims such as Faxian and Xuanzang suggest that Ashoka's inscriptions mark the important sites associated with Gautama Buddha. These writers attribute Buddhism-related content to Ashoka's edicts, but this content does not match with the actual text of the inscriptions as determined by modern scholars after the decipherment of the Brahmi script. It is likely that the script was forgotten by the time of Faxian, who probably relied on local guides; these guides may have made up some Buddhism-related interpretations to gratify him, or may have themselves relied on faulty translations based on oral traditions. Xuanzang may have encountered a similar situation, or may have taken the supposed content of the inscriptions from Faxian's writings. This theory is corroborated by the fact that some Brahmin scholars are known to have similarly come up with a fanciful interpretation of Ashoka pillar inscriptions, when requested to decipher them by the 14th century Muslim king Firuz Shah Tughlaq. According to Shams-i Siraj's "Tarikh-i Firoz Shahi", after the king had these pillar transported from Topra and Mirat to Delhi as war trophies, these Brahmins told him that the inscriptions prophesied that nobody would be able to remove the pillars except a king named Firuz. Moreover, by this time, there were local traditions that attributed the erection of these pillars to the legendary hero Bhima.


title: Ashoka

text: According to scholars such as Richard Gombrich, Ashoka's dharma shows Buddhist influence. For example, the Kalinga Separate Edict I seems to be inspired by Buddha's "Advice to Sigala" and his other sermons.


title: Ashoka

text: Ashoka's rock edicts declare that injuring living things is not good, and no animal should be slaughtered for sacrifice. However, he did not prohibit common cattle slaughter or beef eating.


title: Ashoka

text: He imposed a ban on killing of "all four-footed creatures that are neither useful nor edible", and of specific animal species including several birds, certain types of fish and bulls among others. He also banned killing of female goats, sheep and pigs that were nursing their young; as well as their young up to the age of six months. He also banned killing of all fish and castration of animals during certain periods such as Chaturmasa and Uposatha.


title: Ashoka

text: Ashoka also abolished the royal hunting of animals and restricted the slaying of animals for food in the royal residence. Because he banned hunting, created many veterinary clinics and eliminated meat eating on many holidays, the Mauryan Empire under Ashoka has been described as "one of the very few instances in world history of a government treating its animals as citizens who are as deserving of its protection as the human residents".


title: Ashoka

text: It is well known that Ashoka sent "dütas" or emissaries to convey messages or letters, written or oral (rather both), to various people. The VIth Rock Edict about "oral orders" reveals this. It was later confirmed that it was not unusual to add oral messages to written ones, and the content of Ashoka's messages can be inferred likewise from the XIIIth Rock Edict: They were meant to spread his "dhammavijaya," which he considered the highest victory and which he wished to propagate everywhere (including far beyond India). There is obvious and undeniable trace of cultural contact through the adoption of the Kharosthi script, and the idea of installing inscriptions might have travelled with this script, as Achaemenid influence is seen in some of the formulations used by Ashoka in his inscriptions. This indicates to us that Ashoka was indeed in contact with other cultures, and was an active part in mingling and spreading new cultural ideas beyond his own immediate walls.


title: Ashoka

text: In his rock edicts, Ashoka states that he had encouraged the transmission of Buddhism to the Hellenistic kingdoms to the west and that the Greeks in his dominion were converts to Buddhism and recipients of his envoys:


title: Ashoka

text: It is possible, but not certain, that Ashoka received letters from Greek rulers and was acquainted with the Hellenistic royal orders in the same way as he perhaps knew of the inscriptions of the Achaemenid kings, given the presence of ambassadors of Hellenistic kings in India (as well as the "dütas" sent by Ashoka himself). Dionysius is reported to have been such a Greek ambassador at the court of Ashoka, sent by Ptolemy II Philadelphus, who himself is mentioned in the Edicts of Ashoka as a recipient of the Buddhist proselytism of Ashoka. Some Hellenistic philosophers, such as Hegesias of Cyrene, who probably lived under the rule of King Magas, one of the supposed recipients of Buddhist emissaries from Asoka, are sometimes thought to have been influenced by Buddhist teachings.


title: Ashoka

text: The Greeks in India even seem to have played an active role in the propagation of Buddhism, as some of the emissaries of Ashoka, such as Dharmaraksita, are described in Pali sources as leading Greek (Yona) Buddhist monks, active in spreading Buddhism (the "Mahavamsa", XII).


title: Ashoka

text: Some Greeks (Yavana) may have played an administrative role in the territories ruled by Ashoka. The Girnar inscription of Rudradaman records that during the rule of Ashoka, a Yavana Governor was in charge in the area of Girnar, Gujarat, mentioning his role in the construction of a water reservoir.


title: Ashoka

text: Buddhist legends mention stories about Ashoka's past lives. According to a "Mahavamsa" story, Ashoka, Nigrodha and Devnampiya Tissa were brothers in a previous life. In that life, a pratyekabuddha was looking for honey to cure another, sick pratyekabuddha. A woman directed him to a honey shop owned by the three brothers. Ashoka generously donated honey to the pratyekabuddha, and wished to become the sovereign ruler of Jambudvipa for this act of merit. The woman wished to become his queen, and was reborn as Ashoka's wife Asandhamitta. Later Pali texts credit her with an additional act of merit: she gifted the pratyekabuddha a piece of cloth made by her. These texts include the "Dasavatthuppakarana", the so-called Cambodian or Extended "Mahavamsa" (possibly from 9th–10th centuries), and the "Trai Bhumi Katha" (15th century).


title: Ashoka

text: According to an "Ashokavadana" story, Ashoka was born as Jaya in a prominent family of Rajagriha. When he was a little boy, he gave the Gautama Buddha dirt imagining it to be food. The Buddha approved of the donation, and Jaya declared that he would become a king by this act of merit. The text also state that Jaya's companion Vijaya was reborn as Ashoka's prime-minister Radhagupta. In the later life, the Buddhist monk Upagupta tells Ashoka that his rough skin was caused by the impure gift of dirt in the previous life. Some later texts repeat this story, without mentioning the negative implications of gifting dirt; these texts include Kumaralata's "Kalpana-manditika", Aryashura's "Jataka-mala", and the "Maha-karma-vibhaga". The Chinese writer Pao Ch'eng's "Shih chia ju lai ying hua lu" asserts that an insignificant act like gifting dirt could not have been meritorious enough to cause Ashoka's future greatness. Instead, the text claims that in another past life, Ashoka commissioned a large number of Buddha statues as a king, and this act of merit caused him to become a great emperor in the next life.


title: Ashoka

text: The 14th century Pali-language fairy tale "Dasavatthuppakarana" (possibly from c. 14th century) combines the stories about the merchant's gift of honey, and the boy's gift of dirt. It narrates a slightly different version of the "Mahavamsa" story, stating that it took place before the birth of the Gautama Buddha. It then states that the merchant was reborn as the boy who gifted dirt to the Buddha; however, in this case, the Buddha his attendant to Ānanda to create plaster from the dirt, which is used repair cracks in the monastery walls.


title: Ashoka

text: In "The Outline of History" (1920), H. G. Wells wrote, "Amidst the tens of thousands of names of monarchs that crowd the columns of history, their majesties and graciousnesses and serenities and royal highnesses and the like, the name of Ashoka shines, and shines, almost alone, a star."


title: Ashoka

text: Besides the various stupas attributed to Ashoka, the pillars erected by him survive at various places in the Indian subcontinent.


title: Ashoka

text: Ashoka is often credited with the beginning of stone architecture in India, possibly following the introduction of stone-building techniques by the Greeks after Alexander the Great. Before Ashoka's time, buildings were probably built in non-permanent material, such as wood, bamboo or thatch. Ashoka may have rebuilt his palace in Pataliputra by replacing wooden material by stone, and may also have used the help of foreign craftmen. Ashoka also innovated by using the permanent qualities of stone for his written edicts, as well as his pillars with Buddhist symbolism.


title: Ashoka

text: Ashokan capitals were highly realistic and used a characteristic polished finish, Mauryan polish, giving a shiny appearance to the stone surface. Lion Capital of Ashoka, the capital of one of the pillars erected by Ashoka features a carving of a spoked wheel, known as the Ashoka Chakra. This wheel represents the wheel of Dhamma set in motion by the Gautama Buddha, and appears on the flag of modern India. This capital also features sculptures of lions, which appear on the seal of India.


title: Ashoka

text: The edicts of Ashoka are a collection of 33 inscriptions on the Pillars of Ashoka, as well as boulders and cave walls, issued during his reign. These inscriptions are dispersed throughout modern-day Pakistan and India, and represent the first tangible evidence of Buddhism. The edicts describe in detail the first wide expansion of Buddhism through the sponsorship of one of the most powerful kings of Indian history, offering more information about Ashoka's proselytism, moral precepts, religious precepts, and his notions of social and animal welfare.


title: Ashoka

text: Before Ashoka, the royal communications appear to have been written on perishable materials such as palm leaves, birch barks, cotton cloth, and possibly wooden boards. While Ashoka's administration would have continued to use these materials, Ashoka also had his messages inscribed on rock edicts. Ashoka probably got the idea of putting up these inscriptions from the neighbouring Achaemenid empire. It is likely that Ashoka's messages were also inscribed on more perishable materials, such as wood, and sent to various parts of the empire. None of these records survive now.


title: Ashoka

text: Scholars are still attempting to analyse both the expressed and implied political ideas of the Edicts (particularly in regard to imperial vision), and make inferences pertaining to how that vision was grappling with problems and political realities of a "virtually subcontinental, and culturally and economically highly variegated, 3rd century BCE Indian empire. Nonetheless, it remains clear that Ashoka's Inscriptions represent the earliest corpus of royal inscriptions in the Indian subcontinent, and therefore prove to be a very important innovation in royal practices."


title: Ashoka

text: Most of Ashoka's inscriptions are written in a mixture of various Prakrit dialects, in the Brahmi script.


title: Ashoka

text: Several of Ashoka's inscriptions appear to have been set up near towns, on important routes, and at places of religious significance. Many of the inscriptions have been discovered in hills, rock shelters, and places of local significance. Various theories have been put forward about why Ashoka or his officials chose such places, including that they were centres of megalithic cultures, were regarded as sacred spots in Ashoka's time, or that their physical grandeur may be symbolic of spiritual dominance. Ashoka's inscriptions have not been found at major cities of the Maurya empire, such as Pataliputra, Vidisha, Ujjayini, and Taxila.


title: Ashoka

text: It appears that Ashoka dispatched every message to his provincial governors, who in turn, relayed it to various officials in their territory. For example, the Minor Rock Edict 1 appears in several versions at multiple places: all the versions state that Ashoka issued the proclamation while on a tour, having spent 256 days on tour. The number 256 indicates that the message was dispatched simultaneously to various places. Three versions of a message, found at edicts in the neighbouring places in Karnataka (Brahmagiri, Siddapura, and Jatinga-Rameshwara), were sent from the southern province's capital Suvarnagiri to various places. All three versions contain the same message, preceded by an initial greeting from the "arya-putra" (presumably Ashoka's son and the provincial governor) and the "mahamatras" (officials) in Suvarnagiri.


title: Ashoka

text: The caduceus appears as a symbol of the punch-marked coins of the Maurya Empire in India, in the 3rd–2nd century BCE. Numismatic research suggests that this symbol was the symbol of king Ashoka, his personal "Mudra". This symbol was not used on the pre-Mauryan punch-marked coins, but only on coins of the Maurya period, together with the three arched-hill symbol, the "peacock on the hill", the triskelis and the Taxila mark.


title: Ashoka

text: Ashoka had almost been forgotten, but in the 19th century James Prinsep contributed in the revelation of historical sources. After deciphering the Brahmi script, Prinsep had originally identified the "Priyadasi" of the inscriptions he found with the King of Ceylon Devanampiya Tissa. However, in 1837, George Turnour discovered an important Sri Lankan manuscript (Dipavamsa, or "Island Chronicle" ) associating Piyadasi with Ashoka:


title: Ashoka

text: Since then, the association of "Devanampriya Priyadarsin" with Ashoka was confirmed through various inscriptions, and especially confirmed in the Minor Rock Edict inscription discovered in Maski, directly associating Ashoka with his regnal title Devanampriya ("Beloved-of-the-Gods"):


title: Ashoka

text: Another important historian was British archaeologist John Hubert Marshall, who was director-General of the Archaeological Survey of India. His main interests were Sanchi and Sarnath, in addition to Harappa and Mohenjodaro. Sir Alexander Cunningham, a British archaeologist and army engineer, and often known as the father of the Archaeological Survey of India, unveiled heritage sites like the Bharhut Stupa, Sarnath, Sanchi, and the Mahabodhi Temple. Mortimer Wheeler, a British archaeologist, also exposed Ashokan historical sources, especially the Taxila.


title: Ashoka

text: The use of Buddhist sources in reconstructing the life of Ashoka has had a strong influence on perceptions of Ashoka, as well as the interpretations of his Edicts. Building on traditional accounts, early scholars regarded Ashoka as a primarily Buddhist monarch who underwent a conversion from the Vedic religion to Buddhism and was actively engaged in sponsoring and supporting the Buddhist monastic institution. Some scholars have tended to question this assessment. Romila Thappar writes about Ashoka that "We need to see him both as a statesman in the context of inheriting and sustaining an empire in a particular historical period, and as a person with a strong commitment to changing society through what might be called the propagation of social ethics." The only source of information not attributable to Buddhist sources are the Ashokan Edicts, and these do not explicitly state that Ashoka was a Buddhist. In his edicts, Ashoka expresses support for all the major religions of his time: Buddhism, Brahmanism, Jainism, and Ajivikaism, and his edicts addressed to the population at large (there are some addressed specifically to Buddhists; this is not the case for the other religions) generally focus on moral themes members of all the religions would accept. For example, Amartya Sen writes, "The Indian Emperor Ashoka in the third century BCE presented many political inscriptions in favor of tolerance and individual freedom, both as a part of state policy and in the relation of different people to each other".


title: Ashoka

text: However, the edicts alone strongly "indicate" that he was a Buddhist. In one edict he belittles rituals, and he banned Vedic animal sacrifices; these strongly suggest that he at least did not look to the Vedic tradition for guidance. Furthermore, many edicts are expressed to Buddhists alone; in one, Ashoka declares himself to be an "upasaka", and in another he demonstrates a close familiarity with Buddhist texts. He erected rock pillars at Buddhist holy sites, but did not do so for the sites of other religions. He also used the word "dhamma" to refer to qualities of the heart that underlie moral action; this was an exclusively Buddhist use of the word. However, he used the word more in the spirit than as a strict code of conduct. Romila Thappar writes, "His dhamma did not derive from divine inspiration, even if its observance promised heaven. It was more in keeping with the ethic conditioned by the logic of given situations. His logic of Dhamma was intended to influence the conduct of categories of people, in relation to each other. Especially where they involved unequal relationships." Finally, he promotes ideals that correspond to the first three steps of the Buddha's graduated discourse.


title: Ashoka

text: Much of the knowledge about Ashoka comes from the several inscriptions that he had carved on pillars and rocks throughout the empire. All his inscriptions present him as compassionate and loving. In the Kalinga rock edits, he addresses his people as his "children" and mentions that as a father he desires their good.


title: Ashoka

text: After Ashoka's death, the Maurya dynasty declined rapidly. The various Puranas provide different details about Ashoka's successors, but all agree that they had relatively short reigns. The empire seems to have weakened, fragmented, and suffered an invasion from the Bactrian Greeks.


title: Ashoka

text: Some historians, such as H. C. Raychaudhuri, have argued that Ashoka's pacifism undermined the "military backbone" of the Maurya empire. Others, such as Romila Thapar, have suggested that the extent and impact of his pacifism have been "grossly exaggerated".


title: Mr. Bean

text: Mr. Bean is a British sitcom created by Rowan Atkinson and Richard Curtis, produced by Tiger Aspect and starring Atkinson as the title character. The sitcom consists of 15 episodes that were co-written by Atkinson alongside Curtis and Robin Driscoll; for the pilot, it was co-written by Ben Elton. The series was originally broadcast on ITV, beginning with the pilot on 1 January 1990 and ending with "The Best Bits of Mr. Bean" on 15 December 1995.


title: Mr. Bean

text: Based on a character originally developed by Atkinson while he was studying for his master's degree at the University of Oxford, the series centres on Mr. Bean, described by Atkinson as "a child in a grown man's body", as he solves various problems presented by everyday tasks and often causes disruption in the process. The series has been influenced by physical comedy actors such as Jacques Tati and those from early silent films.


title: Mr. Bean

text: During its original five-year run, "Mr. Bean" met with widespread acclaim and attracted large television audiences. The series was viewed by 18.74 million viewers for the episode "The Trouble with Mr. Bean" and has received a number of international awards, including the Rose d'Or. The series has since been sold in 245 territories worldwide. It has inspired an animated spin-off and two theatrical feature-length films along with Atkinson reprising his role as Mr. Bean for a performance at the London 2012 Summer Olympics opening ceremony, television commercials and several sketches for Comic Relief. The programme carries strong appeal in hundreds of territories worldwide because, in addition to the acclaim from its original run, it uses very little intelligible dialogue, making it accessible to people who know little or no English.


title: Mr. Bean

text: The character of Mr. Bean was developed while Rowan Atkinson was studying for his master's degree in electrical engineering at The Queen's College, Oxford. A sketch featuring Bean was shown at the Edinburgh Fringe in the early 1980s. A similar character called Robert Box, also played by Atkinson, appeared in the one-off 1979 ITV sitcom "Canned Laughter" which also featured routines used in the motion picture in 1997.


title: Mr. Bean

text: One of Bean's earliest appearances occurred at the "Just for Laughs" comedy festival in Montreal, Quebec, Canada, in 1987. When programme coordinators were scheduling him into the festival programme, Atkinson insisted that he perform on the French-speaking bill rather than the English-speaking programme. Having no French dialogue in his act at all, programme coordinators could not understand why Atkinson wanted to perform on the French bill instead. As it turned out, Atkinson's act at the festival was a test platform for his character and he wanted to see how his character's physical comedy would fare on an international stage with a non-English speaking audience.


title: Mr. Bean

text: The character's name was not decided until after the first episode had been produced; a number of other vegetable-influenced names such as "Mr. Cauliflower" were explored. Atkinson cited the earlier comedy character Monsieur Hulot, created by French comedian and director Jacques Tati, as an influence on the character. Atkinson also cited the influence of Peter Sellers, who had previously played similar "fumbling fool" characters, notably Hrundi Bakshi in "The Party" (1968) and Inspector Clouseau in "The Pink Panther" films. Stylistically, "Mr. Bean" is also similar to early silent films, relying purely upon physical comedy with Mr. Bean speaking very little dialogue (although like other live-action sitcoms during this period, it featured a laugh track). This has allowed the series to be sold worldwide without any significant changes to dialogue. In November 2012, Atkinson told "The Daily Telegraph" of his intentions to retire the character, stating that "someone in their fifties being childlike becomes a little sad." In 2016, however, Atkinson changed his mind by saying that he would never retire playing Mr. Bean.


title: Mr. Bean

text: The title character and main protagonist, played by Rowan Atkinson, is a childish buffoon who brings various unusual schemes and contrivances to everyday tasks. He lives alone at the address of Flat 2, 12 Arbour Road, Highbury, and is almost always seen in his trademark tweed jacket and a skinny red tie. He also usually wears a digital calculator watch. Mr Bean rarely speaks, and when he does, it is generally only a few mumbled words which are in a comically low-pitched voice. His first name (he names himself "Bean" to others) and profession, if any, are never mentioned. In the first film adaptation, "Mr" appears on his passport in the "first name" field and he is shown employed as a guard at London's National Gallery.


title: Mr. Bean

text: Mr Bean often seems unaware of basic aspects of the way the world works, and the programme usually features his attempts at what would normally be considered simple activities, such as going swimming, using a television set, interior decorating or going to church. The humour largely comes from his original (and often absurd) solutions to problems and his total disregard for others when solving them, and his pettiness and occasional malevolence.


title: Mr. Bean

text: In the title sequence of episode two, Mr Bean falls from the sky in a beam of light accompanied by a choir singing "Ecce homo qui est faba" ("Behold the man who is a bean") which was sung by the Southwark Cathedral choir in 1990. The opening sequence was initially in black and white in episodes two and three, which was intended by the producers to show his status as an "ordinary man cast into the spotlight". However, later episodes showed Mr Bean dropping from the night sky in a deserted London street against the backdrop of St Paul's Cathedral. At the end of episodes three and six, he is also shown being sucked right back up into the sky in the respective background scenes (the black scene in episode 3 and street scene in episode 6). Regarding the opening credits, Atkinson has acknowledged that Bean "has a slightly alien aspect to him". In the "Mr. Bean: The Animated Series" episode "Double Trouble", the alien aspect of him was used in a storyline in which he is taken inside a spacecraft with aliens who look exactly like him and even have their own plushy toys. In an obvious homage towards the end, the aliens send him back home in a beam of light and music similar to the opening of the original "Mr Bean" series. Whether Bean is an extraterrestrial is not made clear.


title: Mr. Bean

text: Mr. Bean's long-suffering girlfriend, Irma Gobb (played by Matilda Ziegler), appears in three episodes. In "The Curse of Mr. Bean" and "Mr. Bean Goes to Town", the character is simply credited as "the girlfriend". She is treated relatively inconsiderately by Bean, who appears to regard her more as a friend and companion rather than as a love interest. However, he does become jealous when she dances with another man at a disco in "Mr. Bean Goes to Town", and she certainly expects him to propose to her on Christmas Day in "Merry Christmas, Mr. Bean"; his failure to do so results in her leaving him for good. Despite this, she later reappears in "Mr. Bean: The Animated Series". It is revealed in the book "Mr. Bean's Diary" that Bean met Irma Gobb at a local library. Ziegler has also played a waitress, a mother and a policewoman.


title: Mr. Bean

text: In the Comic Relief sketch "Torvill & Bean", Bean is accompanied by a female companion portrayed by Sophie Thompson whose overall appearance resembles Gobb's.


title: Mr. Bean

text: Teddy is Mr. Bean's teddy bear and, apparently, best friend. This little brown bear is a knitted oddity with button eyes and sausage-shaped limbs which invariably end up broken in half or in various other states of destruction and disfiguration. Although Teddy is inanimate, Mr. Bean often pretends it is alive: he always buys it a Christmas present or tries not to wake it up in the morning. For example, when Mr. Bean hypnotizes Teddy, he snaps his fingers and the bear's head falls backwards as if it had fallen asleep instantly. (Bean used his finger to prop Teddy's head up.) Teddy is often privy to Mr. Bean's various schemes and doubles as a tool or other items in emergencies; it has been decapitated ("Mr. Bean in Room 426"), used as his paint brush ("Do-It-Yourself Mr. Bean") and shrunk in the wash ("Tee Off, Mr. Bean"). Teddy is also Mr. Bean's "pet" in "Hair by Mr. Bean of London" where he is used to win a pet show.


title: Mr. Bean

text: Over the years, Teddy has undergone several changes. When it debuted on "The Trouble with Mr. Bean", it had a smaller head. Two episodes later, its head reached its current size but its "eyes" were not present until Bean placed gold thumb tacks on its face. The "eyes" have since been replaced with two small white buttons sewn over Teddy's face, giving it a distinctive image.


title: Mr. Bean

text: After filming ended, Teddy was donated by Atkinson to Gyles Brandreth's Teddy bear museum in Stratford-upon-Avon. In 2008 upon the museum's closing, Teddy was sold at auction for £180.


title: Mr. Bean

text: Mr Bean's vehicle, a citron-green 1977 British Leyland Mini 1000 Mark 4 with a matte black bonnet, was central to several antics such as Bean getting dressed in it, driving while sitting in an armchair strapped to the roof or attempting to avoid a car park fee by driving out through the entrance. In the pilot episode, Bean's vehicle was originally an orange 1969 BMC Morris Mini 1000 Mark 2 (registration RNT 996H) but was accidentally destroyed in an off-screen crash at the end. Throughout the sitcom, Bean keeps it locked with a bolt-latch and padlock rather than the lock fitted to the car, which formed a running gag in several episodes; in two episodes, he demonstrated an additional and innovative security measure in that he removes the steering wheel instead of the key which in one episode deterred a car thief. In "Back to School Mr. Bean", Bean's Mini is crushed by a tank as part of a demonstration after he replaced an identical Mini (registration ACW 497V) meant for the demonstration with his own to secure a parking space. After losing it, he removes his padlock and bolt-latch from the remains. Although the Mini has been crushed, it nonetheless reappears in subsequent episodes with the same colours and registration number (SLW 287R) as the car that has been crushed.


title: Mr. Bean

text: There were three Minis painted green and black used in the series, as well as two others painted with the same colour scheme but with no engine that got crushed by the tank. One of the main cars was also crushed by the tank. During filming many parts were swapped from car to car throughout production, including bonnets, wheel trims, grilles, steering wheels, rear lights, occasionally the driver's door, and the seat covers.


title: Mr. Bean

text: After filming ended, one of the original Minis was sold to Kariker Kars to be hired for various events whereupon it was temporarily displayed as a major attraction at the Rover Group's museum. In 1997, it was purchased by the Cars of the Stars Motor Museum and displayed for a number of years, later being sold on to a museum in the United States. The main Mini is privately owned and nearing the end of restoration in the south of England.


title: Mr. Bean

text: To promote "Mr. Bean: The Animated Series", a replica of the Mini with the registration number DRW 221T was used. This Mini is currently on display at the National Motor Museum, Beaulieu. The London Motor Museum also has a replica on display.


title: Mr. Bean

text: The Mini was going to appear in the first film adaptation of the series under the registration C607 EUW. In the film, Mr. Bean drives his Mini through Harrods in order to avoid a traffic jam. Although the sequence was filmed, it was not included in the final cut. In June 2018, the Mini from the first film was sold for US$70,000. The Mini eventually had its debut on the big screen when it was featured in the film "Mr. Bean's Holiday" under the registration YGL 572T. Unlike the previous Minis before (which were Austin Citron green), the Mini in the film is 'Nissan Amarillo Yellow'. The film also featured a second version of the Mini with the same colour scheme but with left-hand drive, driven by the female character Sabine befriended by Bean (played by Emma de Caunes).


title: Mr. Bean

text: The Mini reappeared in "Mr. Bean: The Animated Series" under the registration STE 952R. In 2015, Mr. Bean returned in a sketch for Comic Relief in which he drives his Mini to attend a funeral. This Mini bore the same registration as the one in the animated spin-off.


title: Mr. Bean

text: Since the pilot episode, Mr. Bean has had a long-running feud with the unseen driver of a three-wheeled, light-blue 1972 Reliant Regal Supervan III (registration GRA 26K), which would usually get turned over, crashed out of its parking space and so forth by Bean in his Mini, who is usually oblivious to the results. These mishaps also became a running gag throughout the series. In "Tee Off, Mr. Bean", Bean is hitchhiking and the Reliant pulls over for him but Bean, who recognizes the car, pretends to not see it until it leaves.


title: Mr. Bean

text: The Reliant reappears in "Mr. Bean: The Animated Series" under the registration 'DUW 742', again victimized by Mr. Bean in his Mini. In the episode "Young Bean", the identity of the Reliant driver is revealed for the first time. In the episode "Car Wars", after being abused by Mr. Bean for many years, the driver becomes angry and fed up, and decides to get his revenge by giving him a taste of his own medicine.


title: Mr. Bean

text: Although Mr. Bean is the only significant character in the programme, others appear usually as foils for his various antics. Other than his girlfriend Irma Gobb (Matilda Ziegler), there are more characters in each episode. However several notable British actors and comedians appear alongside Atkinson in the series as various one-off supporting characters, including Owen Brenman, Richard Briers, Roger Sloman, Angus Deayton, Stephen Frost, Nick Hancock, Christopher Ryan, Paul Bown, Caroline Quentin, Danny La Rue, Roger Brierley, Roger Lloyd-Pack, Rupert Vansittart, David Battley, David Schneider, Richard Wilson and Rudolph Walker. Vansittart and Walker later appeared alongside Atkinson in "The Thin Blue Line".


title: Mr. Bean

text: All 15 episodes of "Mr. Bean" were produced by Tiger Aspect Productions. Additionally, the character has been used in one-off sketches, guest appearances and television commercials in the United Kingdom.


title: Mr. Bean

text: The fourteenth episode, "Hair by Mr. Bean of London", was originally released as a direct-to-video VHS exclusive in 1995, and was not broadcast on television until 25 August 2006 on Nickelodeon.


title: Mr. Bean

text: "Mr. Bean" originally aired in the United Kingdom on ITV from 1990 to 1995, with reruns later shown on Comedy Central Extra, ITV3 and ITV4. Due to its widespread popularity, the series aired in many other countries; in the United States, it aired on HBO starting on 2 April 1992, and also ran on PBS television stations across the United States. Mr. Bean was aired on the Philippine television network ABS-CBN in 1992–1996 and 2006–2014. It was sometime later moved to the network's sister station Studio 23 from its launch in 1996 and it lasted a year. In Indonesia, Mr. Bean aired on SCTV in the mid-1990s, Trans TV in 2002, Trans7 in 2010, and MNCTV in 2016, next in 2018 and at the time Eid al-Fitr in 2020, SCTV returned to air the series. The series was aired on Malaysian TV channel, TV3 in 1995 and is still broadcast as of 2019. Reruns of the series were also shown on Fox Family during the late 1990s, both as segments in the variety series "Ohh Nooo! Mr. Bill Presents" and as stand-alone episodes. Episodes of the series have also been broadcast on TCN's Sketch Comedy lineup broadcast by NHK GTV from 1990 and Tokyo Metropolitan Television (TOKYO MX) from November 2016 and Chiba Television Broadcasting (Ciba-Tele) from December of the same year.


title: Mr. Bean

text: "Mr. Bean" features a choral theme tune in the key of C major written by Howard Goodall (adapted from a passage of "Locus iste" by Anton Bruckner) and performed by the Choir of Southwark Cathedral (episodes 2–11 and 14; opening of episode 15) and Christ Church Cathedral, Oxford (episodes 12 and 13; closing of episode 15). The words sung during the title sequences are in Latin:


title: Mr. Bean

text: The theme was later released on Goodall's album "Choral Works". Goodall also wrote an accompanying music track for many episodes. The first episode of "Mr. Bean" did not feature the choral theme tune, but instead an up-beat instrumental piece also composed by Goodall, which was more an incidental tune than a theme. It was used while Bean drove between locations intimidating the blue Reliant, and as such, was sometimes heard in later episodes whenever Bean's nemesis is seen. The instrumental of the theme tune was used in the original series finale of "Mr. Bean: The Animated Series" titled "Double Trouble".


title: Mr. Bean

text: In the episode "Tee Off, Mr. Bean", Goodall's choral theme tune for another Richard Curtis comedy, "The Vicar of Dibley", is heard playing on a car stereo. In "Merry Christmas, Mr. Bean", while playing with Queen's Royal Guards figurines and the nativity set, he hums "The British Grenadiers", which was quoted in the theme to "Blackadder Goes Forth".


title: Mr. Bean

text: Mr. Bean appeared in the music video of a 1991 fundraising single for Comic Relief, fronted by Hale and Pace, entitled "The Stonk". Mr. Bean also appeared in the music video for the Boyzone single "Picture of You", which was the main theme song for the first film adaptation.


title: Mr. Bean

text: Mr. Bean also made a Comic Relief record in 1992, entitled "(I Want To Be) Elected" and which was credited to 'Mr. Bean and Smear Campaign featuring Bruce Dickinson'. It was a cover of the Alice Cooper song of the same name, and reached number 9 in the UK singles chart.


title: Mr. Bean

text: The first episode won the Golden Rose, as well as two other major prizes at the 1991 Rose d'Or Light Entertainment Festival in Montreux. In the UK, the episode "The Curse of Mr. Bean" was nominated for a number of BAFTA awards; "Best Light Entertainment Programme" in 1991, "Best Comedy" (Programme or Series) in 1991, and Atkinson was nominated three times for "Best Light Entertainment Performance" in 1991 and 1994.


title: Mr. Bean

text: Seven years following the end of the original live-action series, Mr. Bean reappeared in an animated television series with Rowan Atkinson reprising his role as the title character as well as providing references for all of Bean's animated actions. Much like the original live-action series, the animated spin-off contains little dialogue; although some words are spoken most is either little soundbites or mumbling. The series introduced a list of new characters alongside regulars in the original series (such as Teddy and Irma Gobb), including an unpleasant landlady of Mr. Bean named Mrs. Wicket and her evil one-eyed cat Scrapper. Other characters' voices are provided by Jon Glover, Rupert Degas, Gary Martin and Lorelei King.


title: Mr. Bean

text: From 2002 to 2004, 52 episodes were originally broadcast on ITV1 each consisting of two 11-minute segments. In 2015, CITV commissioned a brand new series of episodes. The new series amended the format in which it featured episodes that had much more dialogue than normal. 78 new episodes began broadcasting from 6 February 2015.


title: Mr. Bean

text: Two theatrical feature-length films featuring Mr. Bean have been released, with Atkinson reprising his role as the character in each. The first film, "Bean", was directed by Mel Smith, released in 1997 and followed the misadventures of Mr. Bean as he oversaw the transfer of "Whistler's Mother" to a Los Angeles art gallery. The film broke from the programme's traditional narrative by using a subplot with more developed characters, whereby Bean was not the sole centre of attention but interacted with a suburban Californian family that he stays with during the film. The film was commercially successful, grossing more than US$250 million globally ($45 million in the USA) on a budget estimated at $18 million, despite receiving mixed reviews from critics and holding a 41% approval rating on Rotten Tomatoes.


title: Mr. Bean

text: The second film, "Mr. Bean's Holiday", was directed by Steve Bendelack, released in 2007 and followed Bean on an eventful journey across France for a holiday in the French Riviera to which, after a number of mishaps, culminates in an unscheduled screening of his video diary at the 2006 Cannes Film Festival, despite an earlier rumour in February 2001 stating that an unused script by Richard Curtis would see him on an Australian misadventure. Production on the film occurred during 2006 and was first released in the United Kingdom on 30 March 2007; it premiered in North America on 17 July that year at the Just for Laughs festival in Canada where the character had been launched 20 years earlier before being released nationwide over a month later on 24 August. The film is notable for featuring a mixture of traditional film photography and home-shot video camera photography. The film garnered improved critical reception (with a 52% rating on Rotten Tomatoes) and was also commercially successful, grossing nearly US$230 million globally ($33 million in the United States) against a $25 million budget. "Mr. Bean's Holiday" was originally the last live-action appearance of the character, before reappearing at the 2012 London Olympics opening ceremony five years later.


title: Mr. Bean

text: In 2012, Atkinson reprised his character for a live performance as part of the London 2012 Summer Olympics opening ceremony. In the scene, Mr. Bean works within the London Symphony Orchestra in its performance of "Chariots of Fire", conducted by Simon Rattle. For this scene, Bean does not wear his usual brown tweed sports jacket but the traditional clothing of the musician – white tie and tails. As they perform the piece, Bean is mostly bored with playing the same note repeatedly on the synthesiser and gets jealous of the more interesting part being played on the grand piano. Still bored, he takes out his mobile phone and takes a picture of himself, looking proud. He then sneezes in a comical fashion and tries to retrieve his handkerchief from his bag behind him, finding he cannot reach it while at the synthesizer until he uses an umbrella to maintain his performance. When he finally blows his nose with his serviette, he throws it into the grand piano.


title: Mr. Bean

text: He then falls asleep continuing to play the note. A dream sequence of the opening scene of the film "Chariots of Fire" shows the characters running across a beach, though Mr. Bean dreams he is running with them. He begins to fall behind, until he hails a car to overtake all the others. Now running in front, Bean ensures he wins the race on the beach by tripping one of the runners trying to overtake him, whereupon he crosses the line with elation, and then wakes up. Finding that the rest of the orchestra have stopped playing while he continued his one recurring note, Bean, with encouragement from Rattle, plays an extended flourish and lastly touches a note that makes a flatulent sound then stops.


title: Mr. Bean

text: Director Danny Boyle later explained: "It wasn't actually Mr. Bean. Strictly speaking, the name of his character was Derek"


title: Mr. Bean

text: In 2021's "Happy Birthday Mr Bean" documentary, Atkinson and Curtis also stated that the performance wasn't actually intended to be the character Mr. Bean. Although the official Olympic YouTube channel and the live commentary promoted it as Mr. Bean.


title: Mr. Bean

text: Two books tied-in to the original live-action series were released: "Mr. Bean's Diary" in 1992 and "Mr. Bean's Pocket Diary" in 1994. The two books have identical content and differ only in the format in which they are printed. The content of both is a template diary with handwritten content scrawled in by Mr. Bean. They provide some additional information on the setting: for example, they establish that Mr. Bean lives in Highbury and rents his flat from a landlady named Mrs. Wicket.


title: Mr. Bean

text: They confirm the name of Mr. Bean's girlfriend as "Irma Gobb" and also give the name of the other man she actually dances with in "Mr. Bean Goes to Town" (Giles Gummer). An additional book also called "Mr. Bean's Diary" was released in 2002 to accompany "Mr. Bean: The Animated Series"; this book was also graded as a children's reader.


title: Mr. Bean

text: Two further books, "Mr. Bean's Scrapbook: All About Me in America" (1997) and "Mr. Bean's Definitive and Extremely Marvelous Guide to France" (2007), were released to tie-in with the feature films "Bean" and "Mr. Bean's Holiday" respectively.


title: Mr. Bean

text: Rowan Atkinson has appeared in character a Mr. Bean in many television broadcasts, sometimes as a publicity stunt to promote a new episode, DVD or film. A number of short sketches for the Comic Relief telethon have also been produced and Bean also starred in various commercials, music videos and in YouTube videos such as Handy Bean. In 2017 Atkinson appeared in the Chinese film "Top Funny Comedian: The Movie" a spin-off film of a variety show of the same name; the plot involves a number of Chinese people getting involved in a series of misadventures during a visit to Macau at the same time as Mr. Bean. One of the film's stars, comedian Guo Degang, informed media outlet "The Beijinger" that due to Atkinson being unable to speak Mandarin, the cast used mainly body language to speak to each other saying that "with facial expressions and gestures we seemed to understand each other, [it] was really an interesting experience, which proves that comedy can cross boundaries." Currently released in Chinese territories, the film has yet to receive an American or European release.


title: Mr. Bean

text: The series was available on a number of Thames Television VHS compilations. In the United Kingdom (Region 2), episodes of "Mr. Bean" were released on a yearly basis by Universal Pictures UK from 2004. The complete collection is now available, including the two feature films and other extras. The episodes were released on VHS by A&E Home Video in the United States in the 2000s. These releases are unique in that they contain the original opening credits for the first three episodes, as seen when originally broadcast on television. In addition, they contain extra scenes which were edited into certain episodes at the request of PBS, in order to extend the run-time for a commercial-free airing. In Canada and the United States, "Mr. Bean" was released on VHS by Polygram Home Video in the 1990s. In the United States (Region 1), the complete series has been available since 2003 on A&E Home Video as "The Whole Bean". The documentary "The Story of Mr. Bean" is edited on both the UK and USA DVD sets: it was originally 52 minutes when broadcast on television. However, it is 48 minutes on the UK DVD while only 40 on the American DVD. Most notably, in the UK version, the section detailing "The Tall Guy" has humorous clips from the film removed. The American DVD features the same edits as the British DVD but is also missing comments by Burt Reynolds on the set of "Bean", comments by Jeff Goldblum, some clips from the show "Mr. Bean" and many others. The record-selling UK videos were withdrawn shortly before the release of "Bean", and the DVDs were released on an annual basis since 2004.


title: Mr. Bean

text: In August 2009, an official YouTube channel of the series was launched featuring content from both the original live-action and animated series.


title: Mr. Bean

text: The series was re-released by Shout Factory in North America on 24 March 2015 on DVD to coincide with its 25th anniversary. This set contains digitally remastered episodes (similar to the 2010 British release), the 40-minute "The Story of Mr. Bean", additional scenes: "Turkey Weight," "Armchair Sale," "Marching" and "Playing With Matches", "Bus Stop" and "Library" sketches, a trailer for "Mr. Bean: The Animated Series" and "The Best Bits of Mr. Bean", a 72-minute clip show.


title: Mr. Bean

text: "Mr. Bean: The Whole Bean" was re-released on 24 March 2015 on DVD digitally remastered to coincide with the series' 25th anniversary.


title: Mr. Bean

text: Various politicians have been mocked for a supposed facial resemblance to Mr. Bean, including Tony Blair, Gordon Brown, José Luis Rodríguez Zapatero and Ed Miliband.


title: Mr. Bean

text: In "MythBusters" episode 52 – "Mind Control", the idea of painting a room with explosives placed in a tin of paint, as seen in "Do-It-Yourself Mr. Bean", was tested and deemed impossible as adequate coverage was not achieved. An image of Mr. Bean grinning mischievously has been used as an internet meme for highlighting sexual double entendres, usually accompanied by the statement "If you know what I mean." In Tetsuo Hara and Buronson's manga "Souten no Ken", a parody of Mr. Bean can be found. An image of Mr. Bean is employed on the cybercrime website "Mr. Bin".


title: Colin Hanks

text: Colin Lewes Hanks (born November 24, 1977) is an American actor. He has starred in films including "Orange County", "King Kong", "The House Bunny", "The Great Buck Howard", and the "Jumanji" film series. His television credits include "Roswell", "Band of Brothers", "Dexter", "Fargo", "The Good Guys", "Life in Pieces", "", "The Offer", and "A Friend of the Family". He is the eldest son of actor Tom Hanks.


title: Colin Hanks

text: Hanks was born in Sacramento, California to actor Tom Hanks and producer and actress Samantha Lewes (born Susan Jane Dillingham). He has a sister, Elizabeth, and through his father's marriage to his stepmother, actress Rita Wilson, he has two younger half-brothers, Chester "Chet" and Truman.


title: Colin Hanks

text: Hanks attended Sacramento Country Day School, and then Chapman University, before transferring to Loyola Marymount University. He left without earning a degree.


title: Colin Hanks

text: In 1999, Hanks won the role of Alex Whitmann in the science-fiction series "Roswell", where he appeared for the first two seasons (making a brief appearance in the third). During that time, he acted in the teen comedies "Whatever It Takes" with Shane West and "Get Over It" with Ben Foster. Hanks also made an appearance in an episode of "The OC". He appeared in part eight of HBO mini-series "Band of Brothers" as Lt. Hank Jones. In 2002, he starred in his first film as Shaun Brumder in "Orange County", alongside Jack Black and Schuyler Fisk. The comedy features Hanks' character trying to get into Stanford University after his guidance counselor mistakenly sends out the wrong transcript. In 2005, he appeared in the remake of "King Kong", playing the assistant to Jack Black's character. In 2006, Hanks had a cameo role in Black's "Tenacious D in The Pick of Destiny", playing a drunken fraternity brother. He starred in the romantic comedy "The House Bunny" in 2008, playing Oliver, a charming manager of a nursing home and the love interest of Anna Faris' character.


title: Colin Hanks

text: In 2008, Hanks began work as director on "", a documentary about Tower Records which ultimately premiered on March 17, 2015, at South by Southwest in Austin, Texas. The film received funding of nearly $100,000 through a Kickstarter campaign.


title: Colin Hanks

text: In 2009, Hanks appeared in "The Great Buck Howard", which was produced by his father and also starred John Malkovich. He also played Father Gill, a young Roman Catholic priest, in season 2 of the TV show "Mad Men". In 2012, he made his Broadway debut, acting alongside Jane Fonda in the Moisés Kaufman play "33 Variations". Hanks starred in the 2010 Fox TV series "The Good Guys" as young detective Jack Bailey, alongside Bradley Whitford who played an old-school detective (Dan Stark). In 2013


title: Colin Hanks

text: , he starred in the indie film "Lucky", alongside Ari Graynor, Ann-Margret and Jeffrey Tambor. He also joined the cast of "Dexter" for season six opposite Edward James Olmos, where he portrays an art historian Travis Marshall who is involved in a murderous apocalyptic cult.


title: Colin Hanks

text: In 2014, he starred as Allison in the second season of the web series "Burning Love". The same year, he also portrayed Dr. Malcolm Perry in the historical film "Parkland". In 2015, he played Officer Gus Grimly in the FX television series "Fargo", for which he received Critics' Choice Television Award and Primetime Emmy Award nominations.


title: Colin Hanks

text: In 2017, Hanks began a voice role in the show "Talking Tom & Friends". He voices Talking Tom, the main character.


title: Colin Hanks

text: In 2018, Hanks appears as the Adult Alex Vreeke in the film "", a role he would later reprise in the film's 2019 sequel, "".


title: Colin Hanks

text: In 2019, Hanks portrays a young Mr. Rogers on the Comedy Central show "Drunk History". The same year, Hanks appears as a guest judge on Netflix's baking competition "Sugar Rush" in season 1, episode 7; this episode was titled "Sweet Geeks" and Hanks presided over three rounds of cupcakes, deserts and ultimate cakes.


title: Colin Hanks

text: Hanks dated Busy Philipps in the 1990s while in college. In June 2009, Hanks became engaged to former New York publicist Samantha Bryant. The couple married on May 8, 2010, in Los Angeles. Together, they have two daughters, one born in 2011, and the other born in 2013.


title: Colin Hanks

text: Hanks is a San Francisco Giants baseball fan and attended their World Series-clinching victory in Texas in November 2010. He also directed a "30 for 30" short about their disastrous Crazy Crab stint in the 1980s. He is also a fan of Liverpool FC, the San Francisco 49ers, Sacramento Kings, and Los Angeles Kings. He was the official "Kevin and Bean" LA Kings playoff correspondent for the 2012 and 2013 seasons.


title: Archangel

text: Archangels () are the second lowest rank of angel in the hierarchy of angels. The word "archangel" itself is usually associated with the Abrahamic religions, but beings that are very similar to archangels are found in a number of other religious traditions. Archangels also appear in the religious texts of Gnosticism.


title: Archangel

text: The English word "archangel" is derived from Greek ἀρχάγγελος (arkhángelos), the Greek prefix "arch-" meaning "chief". A common misconception is that archangels are the highest rank of angel, this misconception stems from John Milton's "Paradise Lost" and likely confusion over the "arch-" prefix.


title: Archangel

text: Michael and Gabriel are recognized as archangels in Judaism, Islam, and by most Christians. Some Protestants consider Michael to be the only archangel. Raphael—mentioned in the deuterocanonical Book of Tobit—is also recognized as a chief angel in the Catholic and Eastern Orthodox churches. Gabriel, Michael, and Raphael are venerated in the Roman Catholic Church with a feast on September 29 (between 1921 and 1969, March 24 for Gabriel and October 24 for Raphael), and in the Eastern Orthodox Church on November 8 (if the Julian calendar is used, this corresponds to November 21 in the Gregorian). The named archangels in Islam are Jibrael, Mikael, Israfil, and Azrael. Jewish literature, such as the Book of Enoch, also mentions Metatron as an archangel, called the "highest of the angels", though the acceptance of this angel is not canonical in all branches of the faith.


title: Archangel

text: Some branches of the faiths mentioned have identified a group of seven Archangels, but the named angels vary, depending on the source. Gabriel, Michael, and Raphael are always mentioned; the other archangels vary, but most commonly include Uriel, who is mentioned in 2 Esdras.


title: Archangel

text: In Zoroastrianism, sacred texts allude to the six great Amesha Spenta (literally "Bounteous/Holy Immortals") of Ahura Mazda.


title: Archangel

text: An increasing number of experts in anthropology, theology and philosophy believe that Zoroastrianism contains the earliest distillation of prehistoric belief in angels.


title: Archangel

text: The Amesha Spentas (Avestan: Aməša Spəṇta, meaning "immortal holiness") of Zoroastrianism are likened to archangels. They individually inhabit immortal bodies that operate in the physical world to protect, guide, and inspire humanity and the spirit world. The Avesta explains the origin and nature of archangels or Amesha Spentas.


title: Archangel

text: To maintain equilibrium, Ahura Mazda engaged in the first act of creation, distinguishing his Holy Spirit Spenta Mainyu, the Archangel of righteousness. Ahura Mazda also distinguished from himself six more Amesha Spentas, who, along with Spenta Mainyu, aided in the creation of the physical universe. Then he oversaw the development of sixteen lands, each imbued with a unique cultural catalyst calculated to encourage the formation of distinct human populations. The Amesha Spentas were charged with protecting these holy lands and through their emanation, also believed to align each respective population in service to God.


title: Archangel

text: The Hebrew Bible uses the term מלאכי אלהים ("malakhey Elohim"; Angels of God), The Hebrew word for angel is "malakh," which means messenger, for the angels מלאכי יי ("malakhey Adonai"; Angels of the Lord) are God's messengers to perform various missions - e.g. 'angel of death'; בני אלהים ("b'nei elohim"; sons of God) and הקדושים ("ha-q'doshim"; the holy ones) to refer to beings traditionally interpreted as "angelic messengers". Other terms are used in later texts, such as העליונים (ha-elyonim, "the upper ones", or "the supreme ones"). References to angels are uncommon in Jewish literature except in later works such as the Book of Daniel, though they are mentioned briefly in the stories of Jacob (who according to one interpretation wrestled with an angel) and Lot (who was warned by angels of the impending destruction of the cities of Sodom and Gomorrah). Daniel is the first biblical figure to refer to individual angels by name. It is therefore widely speculated that Jewish interest in angels developed during the Babylonian captivity. According to Rabbi Simeon ben Lakish of Tiberias (230–270 A.D.), specific names for the angels were brought back by the Jews from Babylon.


title: Archangel

text: There are no explicit references to archangels in the canonical texts of the Hebrew Bible. In post-Biblical Judaism, certain angels came to take on a particular significance and developed unique personalities and roles. Though these archangels were believed to have ranked amongst the heavenly host, no systematic hierarchy ever developed. Metatron is considered one of the highest of the angels in Merkavah and Kabbalist mysticism and often serves as a scribe. He is briefly mentioned in the Talmud, and figures prominently in Merkavah mystical texts. Michael, who serves as a warrior and advocate for Israel, is looked upon particularly fondly. Gabriel is mentioned in the Book of Daniel and briefly in the Talmud, as well as many Merkavah mystical texts. The earliest references to archangels are in the literature of the intertestamental periods (e.g., 4 Esdras 4:36).


title: Archangel

text: In the Kabbalah there are twelve archangels, each assigned to a certain sephira: Metatron, Raziel, Cassiel, Zadkiel, Samael, Michael, Uriel & Haniel, Raphael & Jophiel, Gabriel, and Sandalphon. Chapter 20 of the Book of Enoch mentions seven holy angels who watch, that often are considered the seven archangels: Michael, Raphael, Gabriel, Uriel, Sariel, Raguel, and Remiel. The Life of Adam and Eve lists the archangels as well: Michael, Gabriel, Uriel, Raphael and Joel.


title: Archangel

text: The New Testament makes over a hundred references to angels, but uses the word "archangel" only twice, in ("For the Lord himself shall descend from heaven with a shout, with the voice of the archangel, and with the trumpet of God: and the dead in Christ shall rise first", KJV) and ("Yet Michael the archangel, when contending with the devil he disputed about the body of Moses, durst not bring against him a railing accusation, but said, The Lord rebuke thee", KJV).


title: Archangel

text: The latter of these identifies himself in Tobit 12:15 thus: "I am Raphael, one of the seven angels who stand and serve before the Glory of the Lord."


title: Archangel

text: The Fourth Book of Esdras, which mentions the angel Uriel (and also the "archangel" Jeremiel), was popular in the West and was frequently quoted by Church Fathers, especially Ambrose, but was never considered part of the Catholic biblical canon.


title: Archangel

text: The Catholic Church gives no official recognition to the names given in some apocryphal sources, such as Raguel, Saraqael and Remiel (in the Book of Enoch) or Izidkiel, Hanael, and Kepharel (in other such sources).


title: Archangel

text: Eastern Orthodox Tradition mentions "thousands of archangels"; however, only seven archangels are venerated by name. Uriel is included, and the other three are most often named Selaphiel, Jegudiel, and Barachiel (an eighth, Jeremiel, is sometimes included as archangel). The Orthodox Church celebrates the Synaxis of the Archangel Michael and the Other Bodiless Powers on November 8 of the Eastern Orthodox liturgical calendar (for those churches which follow the Julian Calendar, November 8 falls on November 21 of the modern Gregorian Calendar). Other feast days of the Archangels include the Synaxis of the Archangel Gabriel on March 26 (April 8), and the Miracle of the Archangel Michael at Colossae on September 6 (September 19). In addition, every Monday throughout the year is dedicated to the Angels, with special mention being made in the church hymns of Michael and Gabriel. In Orthodox iconography, each angel has a symbolic representation:


title: Archangel

text: In addition to Michael, Gabriel and Raphael, the Coptic Orthodox Church recognises four more archangels by name:


title: Archangel

text: The Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church venerates the four archangels Michael, Gabriel, Raphael, and Uriel, as well as:


title: Archangel

text: In the canon of the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church, 1 Enoch describes Saraqael as one of the angels who watch over "the spirits that sin in the spirit" (Enoch 20:7–8).


title: Archangel

text: The standard Protestant Bible provides names for three angels: "Michael the archangel", the angel Gabriel, who is called "the man Gabriel" in Daniel 9:21 and third "Abaddon"/"Apollyon" in Revelation 9:11. Among Protestant communities, the Anglican and many Methodist traditions recognize four angels as archangels: Michael the Archangel, Raphael the Archangel, Gabriel the Archangel, and Uriel the Archangel. But a depiction of seven archangels in stained-glass windows can be found in some Anglican churches. In this case, in addition to the aforementioned angels, Chamuel, Jophiel and Zadkiel are also depicted. They are commemorated on 29 September, “Michaelmas”, in the church calendar. The evangelist Billy Graham wrote that in Sacred Scripture, there is only one individual explicitly described as an archangel—Michael—in Jude 1:9.


title: Archangel

text: Seventh-day Adventists hold that the titles "Michael" and "archangel" are in reference to Jesus. However, in the Adventist view, they only signify his role as the chief of angels and make no reference to the nature of Jesus, who is fully divine. Adventists credit nonconformist minister Matthew Henry as supporting this view.


title: Archangel

text: Jehovah's Witnesses, citing a reference to "the voice of the archangel" at 1 Thessalonians 4:16, also believe that "Michael" is another name for Jesus in heaven. They believe Jesus is an archangel in the true sense of the word—the supreme leader of angels.


title: Archangel

text: The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church) interprets the term "archangel" as meaning "Chief Angel", Michael is the only individual so designated in the Latter Day Saints canon. It is believed that he is the head of all of the angels. LDS Church doctrine also states that the archangel Michael was the first man, Adam. Though no other being is identified as an "archangel", Joseph Smith taught that the angel Gabriel was known in mortality as Noah and the angel Raphael is a being of significant standing, even though he has never been identified with any mortal prophet.


title: Archangel

text: In the Gnostic codex "On the Origin of the World", the aeon named Sophia sends seven archangels from her light to save the Archon Sabaoth, the son of Yaldabaoth, after the authorities of Chaos make war in the Seven Heavens. He is then placed in a divine kingdom above the twelve gods of Chaos and becomes the consort of Zoe (the primordial Eve), who gives him knowledge of the eighth heaven, while the seven archangels stand before them. In The Sophia of Jesus Christ and Eugnostos the Blessed, the primordial Adam creates myriads of gods and archangels without number.


title: Archangel

text: Occultists sometimes associate archangels in Kabbalistic fashion with various seasons or elements, or even colours. In some Kabbalah-based systems of ceremonial magic, all four of the main archangels (Gabriel, Michael, Raphael and Uriel) are invoked as guarding the four quarters, or directions, and their corresponding colours are associated with magical properties. Lucifer or Satan in Christian traditions, or Iblis in Islam, is considered an archangel by Satanists and many non-Satanists, but most non-Satanists consider him evil and fallen from God's grace.


title: Archangel

text: In art, archangels are sometimes depicted with larger wings. Some of the more commonly represented archangels are Gabriel, Michael, Raphael, and Uriel.


title: Archangel

text: In the lesser ritual of the pentagram, the invocation includes the words "Before me Raphael; Behind me Gabriel; On my right hand Michael; On my left hand Auriel [Uriel]..."


title: Killing of Gabby Petito

text: In August 2021, Gabby Petito, an American woman, was killed by her fiancé, Brian Laundrie, while they were traveling together on a van life journey across the United States. The trip began on July 2, 2021, and was planned to last four months; however, Petito disappeared in late August.


title: Killing of Gabby Petito

text: After Petito went missing, Laundrie raised suspicion when he drove Petito's van from Wyoming back to his parents' house in North Port, Florida, and refused to talk about her whereabouts. He was deemed a person of interest in the case, and an arrest warrant was issued on charges of making withdrawals using Petito's debit card. Laundrie departed his home in Florida on September 13 and was reported missing on September 17.


title: Killing of Gabby Petito

text: On September 19, Petito's remains were found in Bridger–Teton National Forest in Wyoming. An autopsy found she was killed by manual strangulation. After a month of speculation around Laundrie's whereabouts, and an extended search of the area around his Florida home, his skeletal remains were discovered in the Myakkahatchee Creek Environmental Park on October 20. On November 23, it was announced that Laundrie died due to a self-inflicted gunshot wound to the head. The FBI later announced that Laundrie admitted to killing Petito in his notebook, which was found near his remains.


title: Killing of Gabby Petito

text: The Petito case gained national attention due to the couple's social media activity, police body camera video footage, 9-1-1 emergency dispatch call recordings, and eyewitness accounts.


title: Killing of Gabby Petito

text: Gabrielle Venora Petito (March 19, 1999 – late August 2021) was born and raised in Blue Point, New York. She was the eldest of six siblings and half-siblings. In 2013, Petito and her step-brothers appeared in a music video to raise awareness about gun violence, in response to the Sandy Hook Elementary School shooting. She graduated in 2017 from Bayport-Blue Point High School in Bayport, New York, where she had met Brian Christopher Laundrie. From September 2017 to January 2019, she lived in Carolina Beach, North Carolina, and worked as a hostess and in the kitchen of a restaurant in Wilmington. She applied to Cape Fear Community College, but did not attend.


title: Killing of Gabby Petito

text: In March 2019, Petito began dating Laundrie and moved in with him and his parents in North Port, Florida. Petito and Laundrie worked at a Publix location in North Port, she as a pharmacy technician, and he in the grocery department. Both Petito and Laundrie quit their jobs at the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic.


title: Killing of Gabby Petito

text: In late 2019 and early 2020, the couple embarked on a cross-country drive from New York State to California, and along the journey visited Las Vegas, Yosemite National Park, Pismo Beach and other points of interest. In March 2020, Petito celebrated her 21st birthday in Nokomis, Florida. She and Laundrie visited Sope Creek, Georgia, in June 2020, and the two were engaged the following month.


title: Killing of Gabby Petito

text: In December 2020, Petito purchased a 2012 Ford Transit Connect van converted into a camper, in which to take their next cross-country trip. She then worked 50 hours per week at Taco Bell and as a nutritionist, while Laundrie worked at an organic juice bar. Petito documented her life and travels on social media sites, including YouTube and Instagram, where she described her interests as "art, yoga, and veggies".


title: Killing of Gabby Petito

text: On June 17, 2021, Petito and Laundrie visited Blue Point, New York, for her brother's graduation ceremony. From there, on July 2, 2021, they departed in the Ford Transit Connect van for their trip. That month, they visited Monument Rocks, Great Sand Dunes National Park and Preserve, Zion National Park, Bryce Canyon National Park, Mystic Hot Springs, and Canyonlands National Park.


title: Killing of Gabby Petito

text: On August 12, 2021, a witness called 9-1-1 claiming that a couple, later identified as Laundrie and Petito, was fighting in front of the Moonflower Community Cooperative in Moab, Utah. The caller told the dispatcher they saw a man slap a woman, and after the two ran up and down the sidewalk, the man hit the woman again, and then drove off. Another witness described the incident to police, saying that Petito and Laundrie were talking "aggressively", and that Petito "was punching him in the arm." The witness said it looked like Laundrie was trying to leave Petito and take her phone with him, before she eventually climbed into the driver's seat, moved over into the passenger's seat, and asked, "Why do you have to be so mean?" before they drove off.


title: Killing of Gabby Petito

text: Officers from the Moab City Police Department (MCPD) identified the van driving erratically near the entrance to Arches National Park, and conducted a traffic stop. They found Petito crying heavily in the passenger seat, where she told officers, captured on police body camera footage: